YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE LIBRARY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL THE MINISTRY OF GRACE THE MINISTRY OF GRACE STUDIES IN EARLY CHURCH HISTORY WITH BEFEBENCE TO PRESENT PROBLEMS BY JOHN WORDSWORTH BISHOP OF SALISBURY D.D. OXFORD, HON.D.D.BEBNE, HON. LL.D. DUBLIN, AND PRESIDENT OF THE CHURCH HISTORICAL SOCIETY AND OP THE ANOLO-CONTINENTAL SOCIETY LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 89 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1901 AU rights reserved * TO ALL WHO LOVE THE GLORIOUS CHURCH OF GOD AND WHO STUDY ITS PAST IN THE HOPE THAT IT MAY GROW MORE GLORIOUS IN THE DAYS THAT ARE TO COME I DEDICATE THIS BOOK PREFACE A preface to a book should be, I suppose, a friendly letter from the author to his readers, telling them any facts about it which may help them to understand its origin and object and to master its contents more readily, and introducing them to those of his friends who have been most helpful to himself in its production. Those, at any rate, who read this book may like to know that the ' Studies ' of which it is composed were for the most part delivered as addresses to Clergy and Churchwardens of the Diocese of Salisbury at the author's fifth triennial Visitation in the summer of 1900. Since then they have all been entirely re written, revised and enlarged, especially the Intro duction and the chapters on ' Christian Asceticism and the Celibacy of the Clergy,' and on the Christian Day, Week, and Year. That on ' Women's Work ' is wholly new. In this work of correction I have, on the whole, thought it well to retain something of the livelier personal element suitable to the first form of the different chapters, while attempting to correct the sketchiness and rapidity of treatment vi THE MINISTRY OF GRACE incidental to such addresses. I hope that my readers will forgive the mixture of styles which is in some degree the result. The book has not only cost me some labour in its composition, but its conclusions are the result of rather long prehminary study. It is difficult to summarise them in few words, but it will be found that they all tend generally in the same direction. As a whole, it is an attempt to give a reasonable account of the institutions and customs of which it treats, i.e. to show how they arose, and with what prin ciples their origin and development were connected. Such an explanation tends generally to dispel the force of unreasoning conservatism, and its influence is not merely confined to the questions actually brought under review. It removes the prejudice that all parts of Church order are equally important. At the same time it brings out into greater relief the impor tance of the fundamental institutions of the Church which (as I have stated on p. 148) may be traced to the old general charismatic Ministry. These are the ' one Bible everywhere received in the Church, one Creed, one weekly holy day, one Baptism, and one Eucharist.' As regards the Ministry, as we know it in practice, the conclusions reached are rather tentative than absolute. They point to a primitive origin for the regular ministry of the word and sacraments, but to an uneven rate of develop- PREFACE vii ment in its component orders, and to a longer duration of the charismatic ministry in some regions than in others, as well as to the persistence of the latter as a 'reserve force' latent in the Episcopate. As regards the Episcopate, the facts here stated indicate a general tendency to a monarchical regi men, while they show that it was not everywhere set up in exactly the same form or at the same date. The practical conclusions must surely be : (1) that while some form of regular ministry is always necessary, it need not exclude a charismatic ministry ; and (2) that while Episcopacy must be a marked feature of the Church of the future, it need not everywhere have exactly the same relation to the Presbyterate. Episcopacy is perhaps the highest instance of a Church institution in regard to which history teaches us that variation is tolerable. But there are many other instances. We find striking variations also in regard to Confirmation and the forms of Eucharistic service. We find changes in the position of other ministers than Bishops, both men and women. We find the scheme of festivals and of the Christian day and week depending very much on external circum stances, and resulting in much that is very experi mental and even unimportant as regards the permanent form of Christian life. We find, again, great mischief arising from premature or enthusiastic regulation, viii THE MINISTRY OF GRACE and from the supersession of broad Scriptural teaching by single-text expositions or appeals to secular motives or to sentiment. The last topics are specially illustrated by the fourth and fifth chapters, on ' Christian Asceticism and the Celibacy of the Clergy ' and ' Women's Work.' The whole tendency of the book, then, is towards creating a sober sense of freedom, such as is gene rally characteristic of Anglicanism — sober in its respect for antiquity, but free in feeling perfectly satisfied that identity of faith with that of the primitive Church is far more important than identity of custom, except in regard to the fundamental insti tutions already referred to. I should have been glad to add several chapters to the volume besides that on 'Women's Work.' Not only have I been obhged to postpone the sections on the different rites, but to defer for a season of greater leisure and opportunity those on the higher and lower modes of organisation— the developments, on the one hand, of Patriarchates and Provinces, of Councils and Church Courts, and, on the other, of the Parochial system. But I felt that I was in debt to our own clergy, many of whom were asking to read the book of which they had heard part at the Visitation. As regards those who have helped me, my PREFACE ix obligations to Duchesne, among hving writers, and to Martene, among those who are gone from us, will be very evident. I have tried, as opportunity arose, to make due acknowledgement to the many other labourers in the field of Christian antiquities to whom I am indebted. I should like here also to men tion a debt of another kind. The book would have lost much of its fulness but for the generous gift of a large part of my valued friend Canon T. L. Kings bury's books which was made by his daughter1 to the Cathedral and Palace Libraries. A similar gift to the Cathedral of Migne's Greek and Latin Patrologia, by the family of another learned theologian, Canon H. C. Powell, also deserves to be recorded. Such gifts may help students in country dioceses to make better use of their leisure for the benefit of the whole Church. I have also to record the kind act of the late Sir Walter Farquhar, who, in the autumn of 1899, expressed a wish to enable me to circulate some of my writings, and gave me the means to do so. He was soon afterwards called to his rest : and I have only this means of expressing my thanks to him. 1 His only child, Miss Helen Mary Kingsbury, whose Memoir of her father, prefixed to the reprint of his Spiritual Sacrifice and Holy Communion (Macmillan, 1900), shows her possession of some thing of his literary taste and power. x THE MINISTRY OF GRACE Those clergy of the Diocese who receive this book as a present will receive it in reality from him. Lastly, I have to thank those friends who have helped me directly with criticism or information. Three to whom I have owed much for many years, Bishops B. F. Westcott of Durham, and Wm. Stubbs of Oxford, and Dr. Wm. Bright of Christ Church, Oxford, have passed away, to our great loss, during the present year. Among those who remain on earth I may mention the Bishop (Randall T. Davidson) of Winchester, Revs. Dr. G. Salmon, F. E. Brightman, H. A. Wilson, George Horner, R. B. Rackham, and my brother, Chistopher Wordsworth, and Mr. Alexis Larpent, whose friendship is a valuable legacy from the late Archbishop Benson. The Index is the kind contribution of one of the Diocesan Missioners of St. Andrew, Rev. T. B. Waitt. But no one but myself is responsible for the correction of the press, though I have to thank a diligent unknown friend, the Reader employed by Messrs. Spottiswoode, for pointing out a number of slips which might otherwise have escaped my notice. To God, the giver of the great gift of human friendship, be thanks and praise ! JOHN SARUM. St. Bartholomew's Day : 24 August, 1901. XI CONTENTS PAGE Dedication .......... iv Preface v INTRODUCTION (1-108) Interest of Church History ....... 1 Disappointments to be expected in the study ... 2 Different views. S. Berger (personal), E. Hatch (philosophic) 3 Traditional view — a mine of precedents .... 4 Fuller view. Need of outlook into future. Length and im portance of past not to be over-estimated ... 5 Title of the book why chosen. Predecessors ... 7 Hooker, Bingham, Pelliccia 8-9 Duchesne. Merits of his book 10 Importance of the Anglican ideal 11 SURVEY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE 1. CHURCH ORDERS II. KALENDARS OF FESTIVALS III. LITURGICAL BOOKS Later than N.T., apocryphal character and general feebleness 13-5 In origin mostly Syrian (or Palestinian) and Asian . . 16 16-7 18-21 2222 23 24-6 26-7 2930 1. The 'Didache.' Its date circa a.d. 100-150 2. The 'Lost Church Order.' Its Western Creed (a) ' Canons of Hippolytus.' Not his work Apparently received in Rome circa 200 Morin's conjecture about Dionysius improbable (6) and (c) ' Egyptian Church Order.' — Ludolf, &c. (d) ' Verona Fragments.' Early form of anaphora (e) ' Testament of our Lord.' Asian and Montanist Worked up in Syria c. 400 (Apollinarian) Contact with 'Arabic Didascalia.' Mystagogia. Plan of Church 31-2 (f) ' Constitutiones per Hippolytum ' c. 375 ... 33 3. ' Apostolic Church Order.' Asian in origin . . . 34 4. ' Didascalia.' Lagarde's work on. Funk 35 Its rambling character and inconsistency. Contents . . 36 Opposed to Jewish and Judaeo-Christian traditions . . 38 basis xn THE MINISTRY OF GRACE Antiochene c. a.d 300 Date c. 200-250 ' Arabic Didascalia.' Use of incense. Mystagogia 5. ' Apostolic Canons ' c. 400 .... 6. 'Edessene Canons' c. 300-350 . Compilations (7) ' Apostolic Constitutions. 375 Its component parts and authorship .... 8. ' Syrian Octateuch ' c. 400 .... 9- ' Egyptian Heptateuch ' . . . ¦ . - . Table of separate works and compilations Other books. Egyptian ; 10 ' Summary of Doctrine ' 11. Sarapion's Prayer-book c. 350 . Its anaphora and ordination of Presbyters 12. ' Maxims of Nicene Synod ' c. 400 . Syrian books : 13 ' On Virginity ' c. 400 . 14. ' Pilgrimage of Silvia' to the holy places 15. 'Gallican Statutes,' influence on Roman Ordinal 16. ' On Ecclesiastical Hierarchy ' (Ps. -Dionysius) Perhaps from Edessa, c. 470-500. Its artificial character II. Kalendars of Festivals. Rudiments in Hippolytus 1. Philocalian. 2. Syrian. 3. Gallican 4. Carthaginian. 5. Gothic ...... 6. ' Hieronymian ' Martyrology. 7. Celtic . III. Liturgical Books ....... Eastern Liturgies. Brightman's division Western Liturgies. 1. Roman books (1) Leonine c. 540-590 (2) Gelasian c. 630-715. (3) ' Missale Francorum' c. 700 (4) Gregorian or ' Sacramentary of Hadrian ' c. 785 . Its Alcuinian supplements ...... (5) The Ordines, p. 76. (6) Ordines of St. Amand (7) Amalarius, Agobard, Florus 2. Gallican books (l) 'Missale Gothicum' c. 678-700 (2) M. Gallicanum vetus. (3) Mone's Masses. (4) Lection ary of Luxeuil. (5) Letters of S. Germanus. (6) Ps.-Ambrosian ' De Sacramentis.' Baptism in . Unction, feet-washing, sealing ..... Early form of Eucharistic ' Canon ' .... (7) Mozarabic Liturgy ....... 3. Milanese books. Duchesne's theory of influence of the Cappadocian Auxentius. Views of F. E. Brightman and W. H. Frere. Milanese writers . . . . . PAGE 39 39-41 42 42-5 45 46-747-8 4950 51 52 53-4 55 55-6 57 5859 60-3 636465 66-7 67 68-71 72-3 74 75 75-6 77 7878 79 79 80-81 82-4 84 4. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon books . 85-8 89-100 CONTENTS xni A. Celtic esp. Irish characteristics . Three successive uses in Ireland .... (1) Stowe Missal c. 628 : its Roman basis (2) Bangor Antiphoner ...... (3) Book of Hymns ...... (4) Book of Mulling (5) Service for the sick : Stowe and Dimma, Mulling and Deer (6) ' Cursus Scottorum ' : Columban's rule for chanting the Psalter ......... B. Anglo-Saxon books : (1) Pontifical of Egbert (2) Leofric Missal Conclusion. Portion of the projected book postponed Observations. Parallel activity as to rites and doctrines Character of Roman interposition. Roman reluctance to admit embellishments : occasional absence of tact Good and bad influence of Rome .... Connection of Rome and Alexandria Africa Roman yet independent. Montanism Gallican rite. Roman influence in Gaul and England Connection of Antioch and Constantinople . Peculiar position of Palestine . . . , Relations of England with Eastern Churches Note on Funk's book on the ' Testament of our Lord ' PAGE 89-90 91 91-292-4 9495 95-7 99- 9799 -100 100 101 102103 103-4 104105 105-6 106 107-8 108 CHAPTER I (109-142) THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MONARCHICAL EPISCOPATE MORE RAPID IN THE EAST SLOWER IN ROME AND ALEXANDRIA ' Grace and Truth ' or ' Life and Knowledge ' brought by our Lord 109 His teaching on organisation in His second commission of the Apostles. Miracles replaced by Sacraments . . . 110-2 Ministry of the word and Sacraments primitive . . . 113 Three points : (1) organisation centres in the cities ; (2) association with it a duty ; (3) wider provincial fellow ship 113-4 Officers of the community : Jewish and heathen influences . 115 Jewish Synagogue worship and Temple worship . . . H6 Heathen clubs and secret societies . . . . . 117 Jewish officers : Elders, Chief of Synagogue, Ch&zan, Servant 117-8 xiv THE MINISTRY OF GRACE PAGE 119 120 121 The ' Ordo ' of a Christian Church. Origin of ' Bishop ' Dr. Hatch's suggestion. The Bishop as Treasurer . The Episcopate necessary to unity in three ways . Hilary the Deacon on the rise of heresy. Relation to the State 122-3 Relation of the Bishop to worship. Naturally called High- Priest 123 Early growth of Episcopate in Palestine, Asia Minor, Syria . 124 Slow growth at Rome. Evidence of Clement's Epistle . . 125 Evidence of Ignatius 'to the Romans ' and Hermas . . 126 Change during Episcopate of Pius c. 140, but still slow . . 127 Evidence of Hippolytus and ' Canons of Hippolytus . . 128 Similar ordination of Bishops and Presbyters at Rome . . 129 Ordination per saltum lasts longer in West . . . .130 Presiding Presbytery at Rome an Episcopal College . . 130-1 Progress of Episcopal Monarchy in Cyprianic age in conse quence of Novatian schism . . . . . .131 ' One Bishop and one Church ' but all Bishops equal . . 132 Priesthood of Bishops a natural development . . .133 Development at Alexandria parallel to that at Rome . . 134 Language of Clement Alex. ; statement of Jerome as to ap pointment of Bishop by city- Presbyters . . .135 High position of Presbyters at Alexandria . . . . 136 Early growth of parochial system . . . . . 1 37 Case of Colluthus and the Ancyran Canon . . . . 138-9 City-presbyters above Country-bishops ..... 140-1 Other evidence for alleged presbyteral ordination breaks down 141 Summary of the chapter ....... 142 CHAPTER II (143-177) BISHOPS, PRESBYTERS AND DEACONS Church organisation administered by fallible men . Importance of the period a.d. 200-250 . Parochia= Diocese, the unit of Church life All Bishops successors of the Apostles . Bishops succeed also to the charismatic ministry Character, importance and benefits of this ministry Its passing away part of the divine order. Bishops depositaries of a reserve of charismatic power Equal authority of all Bishops ... 143144 145 145 146 147-8 149150 150 CONTENTS xv Essential Roman primacy a fancy. .... Bishops have fellowship with their presbyters . Deacons their deputies, number of Deacons . Number of Presbyters 12, or a multiple of 12 . The seating of the Christian ' Ordo .... Duties of Presbyters : conciliar, judicial, pastoral Duty of admonition and in connection with Sacraments Ignatius a witness to the delegation of episcopal powers . Practice of concelebration and of ' stations ' . Duties of Deacons. Proclamations in Church . Have charge of offerings. Special connection with 'chalice Deacon or Archdeacon practically consecrated it . Other duties afterwards given to Subdeacons and Ostiarii Higher duties in regard to Baptism and Penitence . Rise of Archdeacons ....... Preaching especially a Bishop's duty .... Greater freedom of preaching in second than in third century Restored to Presbyters in fourth century. Preaching rare at Rome ......... Preaching by Deacons rare ...... Ordination a Bishop's prerogative, but not exercised alone except in case of a Deacon ..... Exceptional privilege of the Pope in ordaining Bishops Martene on the efficacy of co-operating Bishops. Abp, Parker's consecration to Canterbury Co-operating Presbyters. Ius Liturgkum of Bishops Recent recovery of early prayers and rites . Recent action of Bishops in our own Church . Issue of confessions of Faith. Hahn's book . The Cyprianic maxim : unity and joint tenure of the Episco pate .......... Bishops acting in other Dioceses ..... Conditions to be observed in our own day PAGE 151 151 151-2 153154 155156157 157-8 158 159160 161162 162-3 163164165166 166-7 167168169170171 172 173 174-6 176-7 CHAPTER III (178-205) THE MINOR ORDERS : SUBDEACONS ACOLYTES EXORCISTS READERS DOORKEEPERS INTERPRETERS COPIATAE PSALMISTS I ORGANS PSALMODY 1. Summary of preceding chapters. 2. Cornelius's list of Church officers 178-9 3. Subdiaconate, a subdivision of diaconal duties . . . 179 xvi THE MINISTRY OF GRACE PAGE Date of its origin 236-250, duties and ordination . . . 180 4. Reference to clerical celibacy in ordination of Subdeacons 181 How far the implied promise is binding ... . . 182-3 5. The Subdiaconate of Roman origin (not Milanese) . . 183-4 6. Acolytes also of Western origin . . . . . . 1 84 Their duty and ordination . . . . . . .185 7. Exorcists and Readers originally charismatic . . . 185 8. Position of Readers originally a high one. Early descrip tion of it . . . .186 Honourable duty of Readers. 9- Glosses introduced by them 187 Connection with interpreters. Office gradually falls . . 188 10. Readers in Africa. Notice in Diocletian persecution . 189 11. Dignity of the office should be revived. The Gospel . 190-1 12. Doorkeeper (Ostiarius). 13. Interpreters. . . . 192 Necessary in bilingual churches. 14. Ancient notices . . 193-4 15. Copiatae and grave-diggers : skilled workmen . . . 195 16. Parabolani attendants of the sick . . . . .196 17. Psaltae; not distinctly mentioned till 350-400 . . . 197 18. Late use of instrumental music in Church . . .198 19- The organ at first a secular instrument . . . . 199 Vitalian, Pipin, Charles the Great, Aldhelm etc. . . . 200 Organs at the Reformation and Restoration . . . . 201 20. Congregational Psalmody : natural choice of Psalms . 201-2 Part of Eucharistic worship ....... 203 21. Antiphonal singing, middle of fourth century . . 203 22. Singing by Minister and people . . . . . 204 23. Psalmody in Greek Church now . . . 205 CHAPTER IV (206-256) CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM AND THE CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY Scriptural basis of asceticism as an aim at perfection Does not involve the whole of Christianity . Dangers of the attempt to attain a limited perfection Ministry of asceticism, lay and charismatic . Not to be confused with the life of the clergy Attempted fusion by special laws and institutions. Augustine Eusebius of Vercellae, Chrodegang and others Chrodegang's attempt issues in Cathedral life . Dom Butler's sketch. Simple promises of Benedictines 206 207208 209 210 211 212 213 CONTENTS xvn PAGE 213 213 214-5 . 215-6 Monotony of the struggle for and against clerical celibacy . Its connection with Roman hierarchical pretence . Clerical marriage in the N.T. St. Paul desired all clergy in Ephesus and Crete to be married . . - . . . Prejudice against marriage of clergy, and second marriage for men, generally unknown in first century . Prejudice connected with Essenism. Natural reaction from heathen laxity ......... 217 Growth of feeling within and outside the Church . . 218 Earliest trace of definite claim on clergy ' Ap. Church Order' 219 The ' Agapetarum pestis' immediate result of the claim . . 220-1 Protests especially in Greek Church. Dionysius of Corinth against Pinytus, Paphnutius, Council of Gangra, Synesius Law of Honorius and Theodosius II. in favour of wives of clergy Sensible line of Apost. Constitutions and Canons . Augustine on original sin — Justinian — Trullan Council Present law of Greek Church : distinction between Bishops and other clergy ...... Constitutions of Leo the Philosopher. Is marriage best before or after ordination ? . Disastrous legislation in the West. Council of Elvira, Siricius and Jerome, Innocent, Leo, Gregory Ninth century tends to separate clergy wives from their homes ........ Exceptions in Lombardy, Hungary, Sweden, Switzerland Vigorous and violent action of Gregory VII. Object to prevent enrichment of clerical families Celibacy in England : William, Lanfranc ; Anselm, Henry I Langton content to avoid public scandal, 1222 Clerical families, especially that of Roger of Salisbury . Marriage often connived at in England .... Very common in Wales — Giraldus — Peckham . . Warham's visitation. Cases of Warham and Wolsey Cranmer's marriages. Dispensing power given him Old law abolished, revived, and again abolished Efforts at Council of Trent frustrated by Pius IV. The Canon of Trent might be dispensed with . The law of celibacy due partly to sentiment partly to sense of expediency Appeal to Scripture : texts referred to . Papal ambition favoured by an unmarried clergy . 222 223 223224 225226 227-8 229 229-30 230-1 232 232-3 234235 236 237238 239240240 241 242243 244-5 xviii THE MINISTRY OF GRACE PAGE Advantages and disadvantages of celibacy . . . ¦ 245-6 Fear in middle ages of benefices becoming family property . 246-7 Prepossession of laity in favour of celibate clergy . . . 247-8 Scandals of concubinage and illegitimacy more readily tole rated in the West than in the East .... 248-50 Summary of the causes contributing to the general result . 250 Nature of the error : (1) ' forbidding to marry ' . . 251 Marriage a general duty ...... . 252 Entrance into the priesthood should be open to all good men 253 (2) Presumptuous promise of a special ' gift ' by Council of Trent .254 What the charisma of ordination really is . . . . 254 Counsels to unsettled Roman priests ..... 255-6 Note on the dispensation of illegitimate persons desiring ordination in the Church of England . . 256 CHAPTER V (257-303) WOMEN S WORK : WIDOWS — PRESBYTERESSES DEACONESSES VIRGINS Revolution in the position of women brought by Christianity Our Lord offers a new life and work to all classes of women, married, unmarried and penitents . Notices of prominent women in the Apostolic age . Deacons' wives or Deaconesses and widows . St. Paul's careful treatment of the position of women The ascetic life more helpful to women than to men Ministry of women : I. Widows .... In old days they were aged recipients of alms Fourth century sees a second and higher class rise . Friends of Jerome and Chrysostom Their dedication — Roman objection to making them nuns Widowhood as an estate continues in England More like an order of Ministry in the East . Common-sense view of the ' Ap. Constitutions ' Assistance to clergy not a prominent feature ' Apostolic Ch. Order ' shows a higher estimate ' Testament of our Lord ' places them among clergy . Prayer at their admission— Presbyteresses or 'Widows with precedence '— - Montanist and heretical tendency Various meanings of ' Presbytera ' . . . . General experience against making an order of Widows 257 258-9 260261 262 263-4 264 265 266 266 267 268 268-9 270 271 271-2 272 273-4 275 276 CONTENTS xix II. Deaconesses practically confined to the East . Probable reasons for rejection in the West Ordination of Deaconesses ...... Age and duties ....... Modern history — Miss Robinson's book — Suggestions . III. Virgins — early history of their estate Pseudo-Clementine (Syriac) ' Letters to Virgins ' c. 200 Other writers : Cyprian, Methodius, Athanasius &c. . Age of self-dedication not fixed Uncertainty as to laying-on of hands on Virgins Obligations of Virgins. Fourth century public profession Spanish councils deal severely with breach of profession But Council of Saragossa fix age of admission at forty Age of twenty-five also fixed. Basil puts it earlier Councils which permit Bishops to remit penance on breach of profession, especially Chalcedon Various opinions on the marriage of lapsed Virgins : Ambrose Nicetas, Augustine, Epiphanius, Jerome Council of Valence (374) leaves penance to Bishops . Evidence generally against severe treatment of lapse . Roman Church distinguishes veiled and unveiled Virgins Leo forbids veiling before age of forty .... The Virgin's veil ....... Time of veiling, rites and prayers .... The ' Deus castorum corporum ' . . . . Modern Roman ceremonies imitating marriage (13th cent Gallican rite : rather an imitation of baptism . Striking reform in Supplements of Alcuin to Roman Sacra- mentary which omit all references to spiritual marriage 300-1 Some practical words . . . . . . . . 301 Stability of Sisterhoods cannot be guaranteed except on cer tain conditions required by prudence .... 302 A Bishop's relation to Sisterhoods . . . . . . 302-3 The form of profession should not imitate the marriage service 303 PAGE 276-7 278 279-80 280-1281-2 282283 284285286287 287-8 288 289290291292293294 295295 296-7 298 298-9 300 CHAPTER VI (304-352) THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND THE CHRISTIAN WEEK : SUNDAY WEDNESDAY, FRIDAY AND SATURDAY DAILY EUCHARIST AND DAILY OFFICES The Christian day at first began like the Jewish at sunset . Varying usage in N.T. Earliest observances . . . . 304 305 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE Daily public worship, of a simple liturgical character, at Jerusalem ......... 306 The ' prayers ' probably chiefly Psalms ..... 307 Psalms obviously appropriate at different hours . . . 308 Bickell's theory connecting Hallel Psalms with Last Supper . 308 Also with the Apostolic Liturgy ...... 309 Prayers at Jerusalem probably at evening, morning, and noon-day ....... . . 310 Hours of Temple prayer, sunrise and sunset . . . 311 Natural extension of these hours ... . 311 I. The Sunday Eucharist — the weekly commemoration of the Resurrection . . . . . . . .312 Simultaneous expectation of the Second Coming . . . 313 Our Lord's hint as to the ' second or third watch ' . .314 Natural change in attitude after destruction of Jerusalem . 315 Adoption of Roman civil day beginning at midnight . . 315 St. Paul at Troas celebrates after midnight . . . . 316 Custom described by Pliny in his letter to Trajan . . 316 Communion in the night preceding the Sunday remains in parts of Egypt and on Maundy Thursday in Africa . . 317 No trace of evening Communion on Sunday . . . 318 Suggestion of return to the canonical hour (9 a.m.) . . . 319 Origin of the fast before Communion. Eucharist an antidote or amulet 320 At first no hardship in it except at Easter . . . . 320 Cautions as to modern application of the rule . . .321 On the use of Incense ........ 321 Connection with funeral chapels and processions . . . 322 First used at early matins at Jerusalem . . . . . 323 Eucharistic use at beginning of service : ' Arabic Didascalia,' Coptic Liturgy, Dionysian Hierarchy . . . 324 Primitive and modern objections to incense . . . 325 Every branch of the Church free to regulate it . . 326 II. Observance of Wednesdays and Fridays . . . . 326 As early as second century in West and Alexandria . . 327 Revived in the East in fourth century . . . . 327 Observed as half-fasts and liturgically in Africa . . .328 Differently at Rome and Alexandria ... . . 329 Observance of Saturday unequal : perhaps not primitive . 329 Difference between East and West . . . . . 330 III. Other services : 1, History of the daily Eucharist . 331 Custom of Jerusalem dropped. First afterwards in Africa . 332 CONTENTS xxi \T • p PAGE Variety of customs mentioned by Fathers . . 333 Decay of Communion in the West .... 333-4 Different customs as to frequency of celebrations . . . 335 Modern Roman usage : payments for saying Mass . . . 336 Our own duty : suggestions as to week-day celebrations . 337-8 2. Daily public prayers. Began at Jerusalem and revived there 339 Fourth century sunset and early morning prayers . . 340 Lessons as well as Psalms in Egypt 34 1 Syrian daily services have hymns and canticles as well as Psalms but no Lessons ....... 342-3 Hour services begin about 375 ; but not obligatory . . . 343 Passage from the ' Ap. Const.' VIII. Set prayers introduced 344-6 Partial addition of day hours at Jerusalem and Bethlehem . 347 Pilgrimage of ' Silvia ' : services at the Anastasis . . 348-50 Daily services adopted later in the West 350-1 Our own rule as to Mattins and Vespers .... 352 CHAPTER VII (353-391) THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHURCH FESTIVALS. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST 1. The Christian Pascha. No primitive tradition as to Easter ......... Traceable perhaps up to 120 Originally a commemorative fast. Pascha=Good Friday Pentecost from Pascha (Good Friday) to Whit Sunday . Anniversary of the Passion immovable in proconsular Asia on same day of the month ...... Rome declares for a movable Friday commemoration Victor's roughness : Irenaeus' good sense Mismanagement of the struggle : its ill results Hippolytus tries to construct a perpetual Kalendar c. 216 Nature of his sixteen years cycle : its defects . His early reputation soon tarnished by experience Importance of further rightly determining the vernal equinox : blunders made Origin and nature of the British divergence . Gallican divergence. Julian year set right 1582 and 1752 353 354-5 355356 356357 357 358 353 360 361 362 363364 XXII THE MINISTRY OF GRACE 2. Lent and Pentecost. Pentecost older. A perpetual feast Lent at first a season of preparation for Catechumens Athanasius' rapid change of view as to Lent Not at first all kept as a season of fasting Gradual advance to six weeks ..... Then to nine or ten weeks. Extension not accepted at Milan Liturgical observance of Lent .... 3. Holy Week. Palm Sunday. Maundy Thursday. Palm Sunday from Jerusalem. Theodulfs hymn Maundy Thursday celebration in Africa : the bath . ' Silvia ' and the ' Testament of our Lord ' . Preparation of catechumens and penitents Feet-washing apparently rather late (7th cent.) . Consecration of holy oils ...... 4. Good Friday. At first had no liturgy Adoration of the Cross comes from the exhibition of the ' true cross ' at Jerusalem (4th cent.) Introduced into the West seventh or eighth cent. An actual relic presupposed. Growth of veneration Becomes very nearly idolatrous ..... Communion with the Presanctified Sacrament . Very simple service — Chalice consecrated by intinction Possible survival of most primitive usage . Question as to reservation .... 5. Easter Eve. Baptism, Confirmation, first Communion Blessing of new fire and paschal taper . New fire a Jerusalem service ..... Letter of Zacharias to Boniface c. 750 . Ceremony at Florence. Symbolism Suggestion of a spring festival Blessing of paschal taper Spanish and Gallican ' Exultet' rolls read by Deacon .... Use of the taper to bless the font .... 6. Easter Day. Ancient simplicity of service retained Blessing of flesh of paschal lamb .... Communion in both kinds in papal chapel . Sudden change introduced by Council of Constance PAGE 365 366 366-7 367 368 369 370 370-1 371 372373 373-4 374375 376 377 378 379380 381382382 383 383384384 385 386 386-7 387 388-9 389390390 391 CONTENTS xxiii CHAPTER VIII (392-425) LATER CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS 1. Christmastide and Epiphany (392-403) Slow progress of the Kalendar in first three centuries . Further, changes in consequence of influx of heathens Christmas Day ........ Hippolytus fixes it to December 25 ... . Changes his mind as to length of our Lord's Ministry Christmas not connected at first with the winter solstice Kalendar of Philocalus ...... ' Depositiones ' contained in it . Eastern Christmas (January 6) why chosen Observed from c. 300 ..... Broader character given to it as ' the Epiphanies ' . Blessing of water in Greek Church comes from Jerusalem PAGE 392393 394 395 397398399400 401 402 2. Festivals of Saints following Christmas (403-407) St. Stephen, SS. James and John, SS. Peter and Paul . . 403 Other days following Christmas. SS. Peter and Paul put on June 29 404 Innocents Day. Feast of children of the choir . . 405 The Circumcision (January 1) 406 3. Festivals of the Blessed Virgin and of St. John the Baptist (407-410) Four festivals of B.V.M. adopted from Constantinople in 7th cent. ... . ... 407 Presentation of Christ in the Temple (2 Feb.) . . . 407 Annunciation (25 March) ; Nativity (8 Sept.) . . .408 Dormitio or Assumption (15 August) 409 Birth of the Forerunner (24 June) why not 25 June . 409 Ceremonies connected with Midsummer . . . 410 4. Festivals of the Cross (410-412) Holy Cross Day (14 Sept.), a fourth century Palestinian festival .410 Interferes with St. Cyprian's Day 411 Invention of the Cross (3 May) 412 xxiv THE MINISTRY OF GRACE 5. Festivals of St. Michael and the Maccabees. St. Peter's Chains (412-416) PAGE Appearances of Angels commemorated 8 May and 29 September , . ...... 413 Maccabees commemorated 1 August ... . . 413-4 Interfered with by St. Peter's Chains ..... 414 This festival of St. Peter a dedication of the Church on the Esquiline .......... 415 His rivalry with Augustus Caesar . . . . . .415 6. Festivals of Apostles (416-419) Mostly dedications of Churches or translations of relics . . 416 'Natale Petri de Cathedra' (22 Feb.) commemorates the beginning of his Apostolate . . . . . .416 Also kept 18 Jan., but with less authority . . . . 417 Its rivalry with the Caristia (22 Feb.) and fete-day of Augustus 417-8 Other festivals. St. Andrew almost alone a death day (30 Nov.) 419 7. Festivals of Martyrs, Confessors, Bishops, §c. (419-421) Polycarp's commemoration dates from 155 or 156 . . 420 Cyprian. Roman Saints. All Saints ... . . 420 Roman Kalendar adopted in England in 747 . . . 420 Final adoption of Roman mode of canonisation 11 61 . . 421 8. Future Reform of the Kalendar (421-425) Four guiding considerations proposed .... The Transfiguration. Representative national Saints Suggestions of some national names .... Commemoration of our own blessings . . . . The following Kalendar : my brother's help in it 421422423 424 424-5 Kalendar 426-437 Notes to Kalendar ...... 43a APPENDIX : List of a few of the Books illustrating the ' Introduction ' and the subject of this book generally . 439 INDEX by Rev. T. B. Waitt, S.S.A. . . . 445_486 WORKS by the same Author .... 4,00- THE MINISTRY OF GRACE INTRODUCTION The study of Church History — Object of the book to give a sketch of Church organisation and rites as the system of a divine society — • Different views to be combined — Predecessors in the field — The present work to bear on our own needs — Description of the most important ancient documents : I. Church Orders and similar books ; II. Kalendars and Martyrologies ; III. Liturgical books, Eastern and Western — Conclusion. Church History is necessarily the most inspiring and instructive of all histories. It is not only the record of the hves of men aiming at the highest ideal, and living in close association for the purpose of attaining it, but of hves, both singly and collectively, enjoying special assistance from God for this purpose. It is the history of the new and more perfect Covenant between God and man. It is the history of the work of Christ leading men into all the truth by the Holy Spirit, who is His vicegerent on earth, who sanctifies His body and every member of it, and who supplies that body with special means of grace. It is the history of a divine society supported by divine instruments. 2 INTRODUCTION— DESIGN OF THE BOOK A study of Church history is thus inevitably full of varied delight — dehght in the beauty of the cha racters to which it introduces us, dehght in the success of the truths which they have propagated, delight in the energy of eternal hfe of which it makes us conscious, dehght in the vision which it opens to us of the second coming of the Lord, and of His reign of truth and peace. It has manifestly its complement of pain and disappointment, of anxiety and fear. This dark shadow will fall upon us, and chill us more sadly, in proportion to our own growth in holiness and our own sense of the grandeur of the Church's mission and our love of the cause of God which it is designed to serve. We should be want ing in true sympathy if we did not feel this pain severely. But we must not aUow fear to triumph over hope. Our Lord's forecasts have prepared His disciples for such disappointments, and the pain which we experience is salutary. It does not lead us to doubt the reality of the visible Church ; but it makes us acknowledge its incompleteness. We are, if we are true to Christ, constantly driven onwards and up wards, discerning, nevertheless, all the time in the earthly image the foretaste and prophecy of the eternal reahty. The view which I have thus indicated of the value of Church history is something more complete than any of the partial views which appear to be current, or taken for granted, by some recent writers. It embraces, however, as aU complete views must do, the truths which they respectively contain. Let me DIFFERENT VIEWS OF CHURCH HISTORY 3 mention what these partial views are, so far as they have come to my knowledge. Some writers very properly recommend the study of Church history as a wholesome influence on personal character. This is the view of one whom I love to think of as a tried and ever-helpful friend, the late Professor Samuel Berger, of the Protestant Faculty of Theology at the University of Paris, whose labours on the Latin Bible have been of great benefit to Mr. White and myself in our edition of the New Testament of St. Jerome. He has put this view of Church history forward (in a recent opening lecture delivered 3 November, 1899) with his usual clearness and power of illustration.1 How httle did his friends in England suppose that it would be almost the last literary product of his blameless and useful life I Others insist upon the connection of Church history with the course of general history, and point out, often with great pertinency, the influence of environ ment upon the development of Christian institutions. This is the line taken in considerable detail by the late Dr. Edwin Hatch, of Oxford, in his Introductory Lecture delivered as Reader in this subject in 1885, and in his three books bearing upon different parts of the great field which he desired to cover.2 His 1 Des etudes d' histoire ecclesiastique (Paris : Fischbacher, 1899). 3 Introductory Lecture on the Study of Church History, 23 April, 1885, Rivingtons; The Organisation of the Early Christian Churches, Bampton Lectures for 1880, Rivingtons, 1881; The Growth of Church Institutions (Preface dated 16 March, 1887), 3rd ed., Hodder & Stoughton, 1891 ; The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages\upon the Early Christian Church, 1st ed. 1890, 2nd ed. 1891, Williams & Norgate. b 2 4 INTRODUCTION— DESIGN OF THE BOOK object, if I mistake not, is to show the plasticity of Christian institutions, to explain their origin and growth on philosophic principles, and to invite leaders of Christian thought and hfe to courageous action in dealing with them in the future. A third view is that which we may naturally call ' traditional,' which regards Church history as a mine of precedents, in which we are to look for support for our own ecclesi astical position and for controversial weapons against that of opponents. This last view must not simply be dismissed as out of date. For, if the opmions which we now hold are true, we shall certainly find that there is a continuity between them and the past ; and we shaU learn much from observing the steps by which they first became current, and then were accepted as authoritative. We shall also learn a great deal besides ; and particularly we shaU come to understand how divergences have arisen, and why all good people do not agree. We shall learn, in fact, to be tolerant, and to be patient of differences of belief where matters are so mysterious as to elude precise definition, or so indifferent as to be open to variety of handling without loss of unity on funda mentals. But, above aU, we shall attain to a more settled personal conviction — it may be very much the same as that with which we began the study, or it may be one subject to considerable modifications. But in any case we shall have done our best as maintainers of an historical rehgion, of which Holy Scripture, tradition and authority are integral parts, and, as far as we can judge, must remain so till the end of time. THE PAST NOT TO BE OVERVALUED 5 These three views may, I suppose, be fitly called the personal, the philosophic, and the traditional views of Church history. AU have their place and their value for the candid student ; but he wiU rather strive to combine them, and to hold them together in his outlook into the future, than be satisfied with any one of them by itself. He wiU remember that the Church is bmlt on the foundation of the Prophets as weU as the Apostles. He wiU try to gather from the past what is God's design for days that are coming. Development of personal character, the philosophy of history, a clear hold on Apostolic tradition — aU these are exceUent things. But a stiU higher aim is to help to prepare the way for the coming of God's Kingdom in its perfect beauty. In pursuing this great design the student must be prepared for an inevitable difficulty. It is a natural and an unconscious prejudice — but stiU it is a prejudice — that the past is longer and more important than the future. We know that in ordinary experience, when we are travelling from one spot to another between sunrise and sunset, at every step we take, the past part of that day grows longer and the future part shorter. We imagine that the course of human hfe as a whole is like this ; and, though we do not know at what part of the day our own hfe faUs, we seem bound to reflect, in accordance with the general teaching of Holy Scripture, that every minute we are farther from the dawn and nearer to the hour of sunset. Then, again, the great trouble and long expense of time which a study of history involves, 6 INTRODUCTION— DESIGN OF THE BOOK and the certainty that we ourselves shaU die before many years are past, impress us with the fulness of bygone years. The future looks short before us, unless we make a very serious effort to overcome the prepossession. And if we make an effort by what is caUed bmlding castles in the air, or imagining great developments, reason checks us, and bids us be practical. So that it is not mere indolence, but almost a sense of duty, that makes us overvalue the past. But, for all that, it is a duty to remind ourselves from time to time that there is a future for the Church, possibly on this earth (I should even say probably), and certainly in the ages of eternity, which wiU be infinitely larger and broader in its scope than the past with aU its glory has been. If we can reahse this we shaU keep calm in the midst of strife, and strong in the face of opposing numbers or of pretentious assertions of superiority. Let us try in reading history to disentangle what is essential and permanently fruitful from the transitory and temporarily expedient. We shah find truth in many places and in aU ages. The ' guiding into aU the truth,' which our Saviour promises, is not confined to the Apostohc age, though the germs of aU future Church hfe are there. Every truly unselfish soul, striving to be like Christ, has something of the eternal to reveal to us ; and as the wealth and weight of Christian experience grows, we may surely hope for new graces to spring forth abundantly out of the old. Our Saviour foreshadows this in the Gospel, and so do His Apostles. He speaks, on the one hand, of TITLE OF THE BOOK 7 a Word which He has to make known to men, and a Work to accomplish in their sight. He speaks of both as in one sense finished and given (St. John xvii. 4, 8, 14 ; cp. iv. 34), and therefore unique and complete. On the other hand, He says to His disciples, ' Greater works than these shaU ye do, because I go to my Father ' (St. John xiv. 12 ; cp. St. Matt. xxi. 21). St. Luke, in hke manner, evidently conceives of the Gospel as the ' beginning ' only of our Lord's acts and teaching (Acts i. 1). We must always look back to that beginning, and in aU things ' hold the head ' ; but we must remember that we too are caUed to bear * much fruit ' (St. John xv. 8), and this can only be ours if we are fuU of hope and determined to go on ' from strength to strength ' and from grace to grace. Our subject is the ' Ministry of Grace,' the most general term by which we can express the rather complex system of outward assistance by which the divine help given by God to His Church is regularly conveyed to the body and its members under the conditions of space and time. It is a general title, a simple title, and a religious title ; and on these three grounds I prefer it to others which might be suggested, such as ' Church Organisation,' ' History of Church Institutions,' ' Development of Church Polity and Ritual,' or ' Origins of Divine Worship.' I desire it to be general, that is to say, to touch both of the two spheres in which human hfe has to be lived — that of space, to which organisation specially belongs, and that of time, to which rites more particularly appertain. I desire it also to be simple, so that the name and 8 INTRODUCTION— DESIGN OF THE BOOK character of our book may be easUy remembered. But, most of aU, I wish to suggest the sacredness of the subject with which we are dealing. Just as we shrink from titles hke that of the ' Life of Jesus ' when used to describe the mystery of the manifestation of God incarnate, so in the paraUel meeting of the human and divine in His body, the Church, we need to be perpetuaUy reminded that we are on haUowed ground, and that, if the scene of what is described is earth and elements of earth are mixed with it, in its origin, progress and fulfilment it is a work of Heaven. Of those who have treated this subject among ourselves, the most masterly is our own Sarum Prebendary and Sub-Dean, Richard Hooker, who was raised up in the reign of Queen Elizabeth to give expression to the permanent principles of the English Reformation, and to establish them both on a phUo- sophic and a traditional basis, with due regard also to personal edification. His treatise ' Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Pohty ' is deservedly reverenced as more than an Enghsh classic. It has been a power ful instrument in God's hand to promote true rehgion. But it contains apologetic and controversial matters, which are of less interest to us at present ; and, both in knowledge of facts and in principles of study, Church history has made some progress in three hundred years. The neighbouring Diocese of Winchester has the honour of numbering among its Clergy the learned author of the ' Antiquities of the Christian Church,' which stiU holds its own as a fair and honest digest PREDECESSORS— HOOKER, BINGHAM, PELLICCIA 9 of nearly aU that was known up to the date of its pubhcation in the first quarter of the eighteenth century.3 It is, in fact, one of the few books of the kind which bear the test of time, and it is weU known in Germany — as weU as among ourselves. The writer, Joseph Bingham, was a Yorkshireman from Wakefield, sometime FeUow and tutor of University CoUege, Oxford, and then incumbent of the smaU parish of Headbourne Worthy tiU within a few years of his death. He drew largely from the hbrary given by Bishop Morley to Win chester Cathedral — a fact which is interesting in a diocese like our own, at a time when we have just received a valuable gift of books from the library of one of our Prebendaries, Canon T. L. Kingsbury. Bingham's work was recognised in his own day ; but he never received any Cathedral preferment, Win chester being, unfortunately, a monastic foundation without Prebends. It is wonderful that a country parson, having always a weakly constitution and dying in his fifty-fifth year, who enjoyed a poor benefice, worth only 100/. per annum, should have been able to achieve so monumental a work I can, of course, make no pretence to rival either Hooker or Bingham ; nor can I claim to cover so wide a range as the weU-known treatise of PeUiccia, 3 Bingham's book was published between the years 1708 and 1722. It was translated into Latin by Grichow of Halle, and pub lished in eleven volumes, quarto, in 1724-38, and reprinted in 1751-61. Bingham was, unfortunately, not acquainted with Mar- tene's works. He mentions one of them, apparently on hearsay, and by an incorrect designation. 10 INTRODUCTION— DESIGN OF THE BOOK 'De Christianae Ecclesiae primae . mediae et novissimae aetatis Politeia';4 nor can I enter into such fulness of liturgical detail as the brilliant lectures of the French professor, the Abbe' L. Duchesne, pubhshed under the title of ' Origines du culte chretien.'5 I may, however, mention that exceUent book as the nearest example of what I should like to offer to English readers — a summary account of Church organisation as weU as of the early history of the most prominent Christian rites. The first part I am now able to publish, though not in as complete a form as I could wish ; the second must remain for another occasion, if God gives health and opportunity. I have learnt much from Du chesne's book both as to matter and method, and can heartily recommend it to the clergy. The Roman bias in it is not at aU prominent, though here and there aUowance must be made for it, e.g. in his remark on the letter ascribed to Clement of Rome.6 4 This book, written by a professor at the University of Naples, was published in 1777. It is, I believe, the foundation of Binterim's Denkwiirdigkeiten (7 vols., Mainz, 1825-41), which has special reference to Germany. Pelliccia's book has been translated into English. 5 Its second and original title is Etude sur la liturgie Latine avant Charlemagne, which accounts for the comparative slightness of the sections on Eastern rites. I should also strongly recommend Dr. Pierre Batiffol's Histoire du Br eviaire Romain, Paris, 1893, by a writer of the same school as Duchesne. 6 P. 15 : 'A la fin du premier siecle Clement Romain ecrit deja comme pape et intervient avec une imposante autorite dans les conflits interieurs de l'eglise de Corinthe.' A study of the text of the Epistle of Clement will show that the writer's name is never mentioned and that he makes no appeal to authority residing in himself orhis see. Indeed, it is all in the form of a letter of counsel from one sister Church to another : see, e.g., ch. 1 and 58. DUCHESNE— THE ANGLICAN IDEAL 11 But whUe we read books hke Duchesne's for mformation and suggestion, we need something bearing more directly! on our own position. We need criticism of the past as weU as exhibition of the past : and we need to sift what is reaUy Catholic and permanent in organisation and rites, with more discrimination than has often been used among us, from what is local and transitory. My own deter mined conviction is that the fairest hope for days to come is to be found in the spread of Anglican principles both in our own communion and in the Churches which exist around it. Our ideal is not to absorb but to leaven : to penetrate with healthy hfe, not to lord it over God's heritage. I shaU therefore try to connect together what I have learnt from study so as to make it of use primarily to members of our own communion, and secondarUy to that increasing body of persons, in various parts of the Eastern and Western Church, who desire to know not only what Anglicans believe but what they aim at in the future. In this matter, let me remind you, the pohtical and social reputation of this country and the stability of its institutions, and in particular the establishment of the Church and its internal peace and the loyalty of its ministers and lay-members, are important to the future hfe of the Church universal. Other nations have adopted many of our political institutions. If Church and State continue to work happily together, with an increase of reasonable inde pendence on the part of the Church, we shaU see a simUar influence of our ecclesiastical constitution. 12 INTRODUCTION— SPECIAL LITERATURE Our efforts for Church defence and Church reform should therefore not be made merely in the interests of our own Nation and Empire, but in the hope of benefiting the whole complex organisation and rela tion of Church and State throughout the world. Survey of the special ancient Literature Before proceeding to the detaUs of our subject, it is natural to take a survey of the special ancient literature which LUustrates it, and to indicate some of the characteristics of the great Church centres out of which modern Christendom has developed. The literature is not very easy of access even to otherwise weU-equipped students of Church History, and this is my reason for devoting considerable space to it and for occasionaUy making extracts of matters hkely to prove important to students. It may be treated under three heads : I. Church Orders and miscel laneous books of the same nature ; II. Kalendars and Martyrologies ; III. Liturgical boohs. I. Church Orders etc. — If we read the New Testament (outside the Gospels), and then constructed, a priori, an ideal history of the next age, we should, I think, expect to find coUections of Apostolic ordi nances and practices arising so soon as the leaders of the first age began to pass away from the scene of their labours. The earhest writings, as I hold them to be, of the New Testament — the Epistle of St. James and the two Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians — CHURCH ORDERS— THEIR LATE APPEARANCE 13 aU point to a condition of things in which such regulations would naturaUy arise. The Epistle of St. James deals incidentaUy with such matters as seating people in church and the method of visiting the sick, and this in a way to imply that details of the kind were worthy of careful attention. The Epistles to the Thessalonians refer to commandments or traditions dehvered by the Apostle (1 Th. iv. 1, 2, 2 Th. ii. 15, iii. 6) and embody various rules, not unlike those of later canons, on the relation of the sexes (1 Th. iv. 3 on fornication, 6 on adultery) and on the duty of work (2 Th. iii. 10-12). There is also an incidental mention of the ' reading ' of such letters, evidently in church, which imphes a form of rehgious meeting at regular intervals (1 Th. v. 27). The further we advance in New Testament literature the fuUer such evidence naturaUy is. But as long as the Apostles lived it was felt to be unnecessary to put the whole scheme of such regulations on paper whfie the earthly probation of the Church seemed quickly drawing to a close. And even when the great leaders began to die off and to leave behind them communities which evidently needed an external bond to keep them together, were it but for a httle whUe, the codifying of Church regulations was not the first felt necessity. They were in perpetual use as customs, and, as they represented the practice or the whole community, it was the interest and duty of aU to see that they were carried out. It was otherwise with the preacher's message. And so it would seem that the three Synoptic Gospels came first to be 14 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS written down— St. Matthew's as his legacy to the Church in Palestine which he was leaving ; St. Mark's as an attempt to supply the place of St. Peter's oral teaching, an attempt made by one who had long been his ' interpreter ' to the Greek portion of a Christian congregation ; and St. Luke's for the sake of a single convert of position, probably in one of the com munities founded by St. Paul. AU three may be placed in the decade between a.d. 60 and 70, our St. Mark probably being the earliest of the three. The taking of Jerusalem, however, in the last-named year, set free the minds of Christians from immediate dweUing upon the Judgment ; and it seems to me surprising that, after this, attempts were not made, with something hke authority, to codify the customs of the Churches in which Apostles had laboured. It was, however, providentially ordered otherwise ; and no certainly genuine document of the nature of a Church Order has come down to us bearing the name of any Church, or of any Apostle or leader of the Church, which can be assigned to the first three centuries. Nor are such books as undoubtedly did exist referred to in the hterature of that age except in a very loose and uncertain manner. The only refer ences I can recoUect are two. The first is in the second Pfaffian fragment, possibly from some ancient writing — though it cannot with any probability be ascribed to St. Irenaeus— which speaks of 'the Second Con stitutions of the Apostles ' (ed. Stieren, p. 854). The other is in the tract against gambling, < De Aleatori- bus,' c. 4, printed in the works of St. Cyprian ascribed TYPES OF CHURCH ORDER 15 by Harnack to Pope Victor — which quotes a book caUed ' The Teachings of the Apostles.' Although the authorship of these writings ascribed to Irenaeus and Victor is uncertain, they seem to show that treatises of the nature of the books I am now about to speak of were known in some quarters about a.d. 190. The evidence, however, such as it is, goes to prove that, if known, they were not regarded as widely authoritative, and that it was the instinctive feeling of the Church that traditions of this kind, fettering the free develop ment of Church legislation on things indifferent, were of minor importance, if not harmful. AU the books that have come down to us in the class I am now describing are feeble and sectional, where they are not sectarian and heretical ; and they compare unfavourably not only with the canonical books but with genuine Sub-Apostolic literature. The obscurity of the subject wiU of course account for the tentative nature of the conclusions which I put before you.7 The student wiU also find that, though some of the detaUs may appear unimportant, they will afterwards generally be worked into arguments on subjects of larger interest. I shaU first give some account of four types of Church Order : 1, The Didache ; 2, The lost Church Order which was the basis of the Roman and other (Egyptian, Asian, and Syrian) Church Orders ; 3, The Apostolic Church Order, perhaps Asian in origin ; 4, The Didascalia. They have this in common, 7 A list of some of the most necessary books for a study of this literature will be found in an Appendix at the end of this volume. 16 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS that they are Ante-Nicene, but they are practicaUy independent documents. This fact is important, because it shows a considerable unity of custom in the Church. The origin of the first, second and fourth may with some probability be ascribed to Syria ; the third appears to me to be connected with Asia Minor. It has also been ascribed to Egypt. The Syrian or Palestinian origin of documents claiming Apostolic authority is in itself the most probable hypothesis a priori, and next to that the Asian. Egypt was a meeting place for both Palestinian and Roman traditions, but it does not appear to have had much native Christian litera ture in the earliest times. The Gospel according to St. Mark was probably brought to Egypt from Rome by its author. The Epistle of ' Barnabas ' may be its one early production that has come down to us. 1. The oldest of these books is generally held to be the JiSaxi? or Teaching of the Apostles or Teaching of the Lord by the Twelve Apostles. It con sists of three parts — being, like the rest of the class, of composite character. First comes a little book, origin- aUy of Jewish morality, the ' Two Ways,' i.e. of life and of death : see below p. 440 ; then ' Church Ordinances ' of a simple character, the most noticeable feature of which is the continuance of a charismatic and itine rant ministry of ' Prophets ' and ' Apostles,' side by side with a settled ministry of ' Bishops and Deacons.' Thirdly comes a ' Prophecy of the last things.' An early date, in the first half of the second century, is THE DIDACHE 17 suggested by many negative indications, such as the absence of any form of Creed, the inchoate form of Church government just referred to, the simphcity of the Church service imphed, both for Baptism and the Eucharist, the absence of any clear reference to St. Paul's Epistles on the one side, or to Gnostic or Montanist teaching on the other. These negative indications have led many scholars to place the ' Didachd ' in the first century, or very early in the second. Dr. Harnack does not do so, mainly on the ground of its dependence upon the Epistle of Barnabas ; and he therefore assigns it to the period after a.d. 130, but not later than a.d. 160, since he places the appearance of Montanus in a.d. 157 (' Chronologie der Altchr. Lit. ' i. 428 foU., cp. 720 foU., Leipz. 1897). Dr. Bigg on the contrary (in his edition in the S.P.C.K. series of ' Early Church Classics') stands almost alone in assigning a post- Montanistic date to the book, finding a reference to the peculiar teaching of that sect in the phrase ' bearing the whole yoke of the Lord ' (ch. 6, 2) and others some what like it. To me the slightly ascetic colouring seems Ebionite and Encratite rather than Montanist, and I incline (notwithstanding some serious difficulties) to suppose the country from which it sprung to be some part of Syria or Palestine. As to the date, 1 may say that I do not feel convinced of the derivative relation of the ' Didache ' to Barnabas, and simply think it safer to assign the book to the first half of the second century. If the supposed Victor refers to it in the ' De Aleatoribus,' as he may do, it would show c 18 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS that it had penetrated to Rome before the end of the century in which it was composed. 2. The lost Church Order. — Next to the ' Didache" ' we must place a lost book of which we in fer the existence from the common matter contained in a number of others, the earliest of which is the ' Roman Church Order ' usuaUy caUed the ' Canons of Hippolytus ' and the latest the ' Testament of our Lord.' The earliest seems to date in its substance from rather before than after a.d. 200, the latest from about a.d. 400, but with portions dating circa 250 a.d. This lost ' Church Order ' apparently consisted of three parts : — (1) it began with rules for the choice and ordination of a Bishop and described the Eucharistic service in which he was the principal celebrant ; it then went on to give rules as to other officers — Presby ters and Deacons, and probably Readers ; (2) it con sidered the admission of different classes to the Church and described their training as catechumens, their Baptism and Confirmation and subsequent Com munion ; (3) it gave rules for fasting and almsgiving, the entertainment of the poor and aged at the Agapae, the Easter fast and celebration, public and private worship and the like. That this lost basis was originally Syrian or Pales tinian may be argued from the facts that in the ' Roman Church Order ' (' C. H.' xxii. 195) the Easter fast is fixed by observation of the time when the Jews keep the Passover, and that at its close we find the sentence : ' May peace descend upon aU those who shaU have kept these canons and upon all Israel ' (ib. THE LOST CHURCH ORDER— ITS CREED 19 xxxviii. 261). But that it was taken up by the Roman Church, and thence propagated, in most if not all the forms in which it has come down to us, may be gathered from the name of Hippolytus associated with two of them, and more markedly from the fact that where elements of a Creed are found they are in most cases in the Western form. This is particularly the case in the answers to the Baptismal interrogations, which when united form a Creed like that of the Roman Church which we caU the Apostles' Creed. In speaking of the Creed I need hardly remind you that the Western Creed reads ' I believe in God ' . . . ' and in Jesus Christ [his only Son our Lord] ' whereas the Creed of the Eastern Church — which was more in con flict with the heresies that attacked the unity of the divine Persons — runs ' I believe in one God ' . . . ' and in one Lord Jesus Christ,' and often attaches the same epithet one to the Holy Spirit and to the Church in the third part of the Creed. We shaU see that not only the ' Roman Church Order' but also Hauler's Latin fragments and the ' Testament of our Lord ' aU foUow the Western type. The Alexandrian form in the ' Egyptian Heptateuch ' has elements of a later Creed (ch. 46), and the re sponses to the Baptismal interrogations are consider ably interpolated : but even here the epithet ' one ' is not found in reference to any of the three Persons of the Godhead, nor even is 'only' attached to the Church — that being the special Alexandrian epithet. It may be weU to exhibit side by side the three most distinct forms of the Western Creed as it exists c 2 20 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS in these books so that the argument as to origin may be made definitely clear. (a) Roman Church Order ('C.H.'xix. 124 -132). 1. Dost thou be lieve in God the Father Almighty ? Answer : I believe. 2. Dost thou be lieve in Jesus Christ the Son of God whom Mary the Vir gin bore from (ex) the Holy Spirit, [who came to save the human race] who was crucified [for us] under Pilatus Pon tius, who died . . . and rose again from the dead on the third day . and ascended to the heavens and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and will come to judge the living and the dead ? Answer : I believe. 3. Dost thou be lieve in the Holy Spirit [the Paraclete proceeding from the (d) Verona Latin fragments, ed. Hauler, p. 110 1. [This part is lost.] 2. Dost thou be lieve in Christ Jesus the Son of God who was born of (de) the Holy Spirit from (ex) Mary the Virgin and crucified under Pontius Pilatus and died and was buried and rose again on the third day liv ing from the dead and ascended into the heavens and sat (sedit) on the right hand of the Father, about to come to judge the living and the dead ? Answer : I believe. 3. Dost thou be lieve in the Holy Spirit, . (e) Testament of our Lord, ii. 8. 1. Dost thou be lieve in God the Father Almighty ? Answer : I believe. 2. Dost thou be lieve in Christ Jesus the Son of God, [who came from the Father, who from the beginning is with the Father,] who was born of Mary the Virgin by (per) the Holy Spirit who was crucified ... in the days of Pontius Pilatus and died . . . and rose on the third day living from the dead and ascended into heaven and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and is coming to judge the living and the dead ? Answer : I believe. 3. Dost thou be lieve in the Holy Spirit, . THE LOST CHURCH ORDER— ITS CREED 21 Father and the .... .... Son8]?. . .... and the holy Church the holy Church ? and the resurrection .... of the flesh? .... Answer : I believe. Answer : I believe. Answer : I believe. It wiU be observed that, besides minor differences from the ordinary text and from one another, aU three agree in omitting the epithet ' only ' from the article on the Son ; that two of them omit the articles of the ' burial ' and ' the resurrection of the flesh,' and that one omits the article of ' the holy Church.' If we excise the clauses omitted by any of the three, as weU as the other interpolated and peculiar clauses, and merely keep the residue, we shaU obtain the foUowing very primitive form of Creed, which we may assign to the ' Lost Church Order ' : — ' I beheve in God the Father Almighty ; And in Christ Jesus the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Spirit from Mary the Virgin, who was crucified under Pontius PUatus, and died and rose again on the third day (living ?) from the dead, and ascended to the heavens, and sitteth (sat ?) on the right hand of the Father, and wiU come to judge the hving and the dead ; And in the Holy Spirit.' This, as far as it goes, is most like the Nicetianformula (Hahn 'Bibl. der Symb.' ed. 3 p. 47 f.) We must now give some account of the different existing Church Orders based on the lost book from which this Creed must have come. (a) The earhest working up of this lost Church 8 This is apparently a late interpolation from a Latin source. 22 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS Order (except in a few passages which may reasonably be explained as interpolations) is, in my opinion, the ' Roman Church Order ' current under the title of the ' Canons of Hippolytus.' It cannot however, I think, be the work of Hippolytus himself, chiefly for two reasons : (1) because the date of the Easter fast is, in it, ordered to be found by observing when the Jews keep the Passover (xxii. 195), and (2) because the tone is much less rigorous and ascetic than we should expect in the enemy of CaUistus. Its antiquity is also evident by the absence from it of any apocryphal pretence and by the order to use only one and the same prayer (of which the text is given) in ordaining Bishops and Presbyters, with only a change of title to adapt it to either rank (iv. 31). We must therefore probably assign it to a period before a.d. 216-224, when Hip polytus was making researches into the Kalendar, and we may reasonably suppose that it belongs to the time of Pope Victor, who died in a.d. 199. In this case the references to Subdeacons must be numbered among the interpolations. But considering that it has only come down to us in the form preserved by the Coptic Canonists of the twelfth to the fourteenth cen turies, and only in an Arabic version, we need not be surprised at these and other interpolations, but must rather wonder that they are so few. Such interpola tions also exist (see above, p. 20) in the form of Creed, one of them being an obvious Latin intrusion, the clause asserting the double procession of the Holy Spirit. But nevertheless the general form of the Creed in the ' Canons ' is exceedingly primitive. CANONS OF HIPPOLYTUS 23 This book was first edited by D. B. von Hane- berg in 1870, with a Latin version. The edition which I have used is the convenient and scholarly one of Dr. Hans Achehs, in the Leipzig ' Texte und Untersuchungen,' vol. vi. fasc. 4, 1891, which has paraUels from Ludolf's Ethiopic Statutes, from the Coptic or ' Egyptian Heptateuch,' in a new version made by Dr. Steindorff (Achelis, p. 35), and portions of the eighth book of the ' Apostolic Constitutions,' sometimes in two forms.9 Quite recently Dom G. Morin of Maredsous has proposed to identify the book with the Epistle of Dionysius of Alexandria (head of the catechetical school in 232, and Bishop 247-265 a.d.) addressed to the Romans ' by the hands of Hippolytus ' (Si' 'IwrroX-vTov) which Eusebius caUs Sia/owi/a?, and Rufinus renders in his version ' de ministeriis ' (Eus. ' H. E.' vi. 46). As Hippolytus probably died a.d. 235, chronology would permit us to suppose that Dionysius was the author of the treatise in his earlier hfe, and that the Roman Hippolytus acted as his messenger. But it seems moraUy certain that an epistle ' to the Romans ' could proceed only from Dio nysius as Bishop, and therefore after a.d. 247, which is too late probably for any connection with Hippolytus of Rome and too late for several of the rules of the 9 A new German version of the Canons of Hippolytus from a revised text may be found in W. Riedel's Kirchenrechtsauellen des Patriarcats Alexandrien (pp. 193-230, Leipzig, 1900), but little new light is thrown on the history. Riedel follows the order of the MS. and gives no parallels. For Funk see below, p. 108 n. 24 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS book, especially for the one as to the date of Easter. Nor is it very consistent with the Western form of the' Creed. Further, as the treatise has only been pre served in Egypt, and not at Rome, we should have to suppose first that it went to Rome (where it was lost) and then came back to Egypt bearing the name of Hippolytus by a mistake, instead of the famous Alexandrian Bishop who was ex hypothesi its real author. The whole conjecture, in fact, is too elabo rate for probability. Much more probable is it that the book contains material originaUy received by the Egyptians from Rome, and on account of its Roman provenance (for ' origin ' is uncertain) rightly or wrongly connected by them with the famous Greek Bishop of that region. The Epistle of Dionysius might well have been on questions connected with the ministry ; but to judge by his ' canonical Epistle' to Basilides, it would have been much more discursive and argumentative than the book we have been discussing. (b) and (c). The Egyptian Church Order. — Next probably to the ' Roman Church Order ' in antiquity comes the form of this book which is preserved in Ethiopic, and which was first edited, though not quite completely, by the statesman and linguist Job Ludolf, in his ' Commentary ' attached to his ' History of ^Ethiopia,' published at Frankfort in 1691. This is remarkable for the archaic form of the prayers, which are given in fuU. It contains a prayer for the ordination of Presbyters, but in its most simple form, and without any direct mention of their office — being, EGYPTIAN CHURCH ORDER 25 in fact, the prayer often quoted in the dispute about Abyssinian ordinations (v. i. p. 53, n. 19). It also has the earliest form of the old Eucharistic ana phora, which is distinguished by its reference to our Lord's stretching forth His hands and by its early form of the Invocation of the Holy Spirit upon the offering of bread and wine, with no reference to any change in them, but with a prayer for the gifts of holiness and Holy Spirit and strengthening of faith to the communicants. This anaphora is printed below, p. 27, from the almost identical form in the Verona Latin fragments. The paraUel portions of this ' Ethiopic Church Order ' (no doubt reaUy Alexandrian) are con veniently printed by Achehs in his edition of the ' Canons of Hippolytus.' A complete edition of the whole, by my friend Rev. George Horner, editor of the Coptic New Testament, is, happily, in prospect. (c) Closely akin to this is the second book of the Egyptian Heptateuch, which was first published as a whole by Tattam, in 1848. An amended version in Greek was made by Lagarde for vol. vi. of Bunsen's ' Christianity and Mankind,' otherwise caUed ' Analecta Ante-Nicaena,' vol. ii. (pp. 461-477, 1854). Both are now superseded by Dr. Steindorff s version, from which the paraUel passages are printed by Achehs. They contain few prayers. The Creed is in a degree Western, but has more Eastern inter polations than the rest. There is an elaborate Con firmation, with double unction, as in (d). No ordina tion prayers are given, but the old rule of the ' Roman 26 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS Order ' is preserved for Presbyters (§ 32) : 'Let [the Bishop] pray over him according to the form which we have spoken of concerning the Bishops.' This is one evidence out of many that different forms of the lost Church Order vary in relative antiquity in different parts. (d) The Verona Latin Fragments. — Later than either of the two Egyptian books, but earher than the 'Testament of our Lord,' may be placed the Latin fragments from a Verona pahmpsest quite recently edited by Dr. Edmund Hauler of Vienna, under the title ' Didascaliae Apostolorum fragmenta Veronensia latina ' (Lipsiae, 1900). The book con tains in the first place fragments of the ¦' Didascalia,' then of the ' Apostolic Church Order,' and then of a later but interesting form of our book. The prayers are generaUy more interpolated, and there are different forms for ordaining Bishops and Presbyters, as in Ludolfs Ethiopic. That for a Presbyter contains the name of the office in the petition : ' that he may assist the Presbyters and govern thy people with a pure heart ' (p. 108-9) ; and that for Bishops intro duces the thought of ' high-priesthood ' (' primatum sacerdotii,' p. 105). The Eucharistic anaphora con firms and iUustrates the form of Invocation already noticed as found in the Ethiopic (p. 106-7). As the group of books now before us was probably the earliest to put in writing a form of consecration prayer, it may be given here from the second of the two recensions that have come down to us, which is almost word for word the same as the first, and VERONA FRAGMENTS— EARLY ANAPHORA 27 makes it more inteUigible. Being in Latin it is probably nearer the original Greek than an Oriental version. Dominus vobiscum : Et cum spiritu tuo. Susum corda : Habemus ad Dominum. Gratias agamus Domino : Dignum et iustum est. Gratias tibi referimus, Deus, per dilectum puerum tuum Iesum Christum, quern in ultimis temporibus misisti nobis salvatorem et redemptorem et angelum voluntatis tuae ; qui est verbum tuum inseparabile[m], per quern omnia fecisti et bene- placitum tibi fuit ; misisti de caelo in matricem virginis, quique in utero habitus iincarnatus est et filius tibi ostensus est, ex spiritu sancto et virgine natus ; qui, voluntatem tuam conplens et populum sanctum tibi adquirens, extendi^ (MS. -is) manus, cum pateretur, ut a passione liberaret eos qui in te crediderunt ; Qui cumque traderetur voluntariae passioni, ut mortem solvat, et vincula diabuli dirumpat, et infernum calcet, et iustos inluminet, et terminum figat, et resurrectionem manifestet, accipiens panem gratias tibi agens dixit : Accipite, manducate : hoc est corpus metim, quod pro vobis corvfringetur. Similiter et calicem dicens : Hie est sanguis meus, qui pro vobis effunditur ; quando hoc facitis meam commemorationemjheitis. Memores igitur mortis et resurrectionis eius offerimus tibi panem et calicem gratias tibi agentes, quia nos dignos habuisti adstare coram te et tibi ministrare. Et petimus ut mitt as spiritum tuum sanctum in oblationem sanctae ecclesiae ; in unum congregans des omnibus, qui percipiunt, Sanctis in repletionem spiritus sancti, ad confirmationem fidei in veritate, ut te laudemus et glorificemus per puerum tuum Iesum Christum, per quem tibi gloria et honor, patri et Alio cum sancto spiritu, in sancta ecclesia tua et nunc et in saecula saeculorum. Amen. 28 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS The use of puer = irais of our Lord in this anaphora reminds us of the Eucharistic prayers of the ' Didache' ' (c. 9, 2 and 3), as the prayer to wards the close (' in unum congregans ') reminds us of the petitions for the gathering together of the Church in the same book (9, 3 and 6). So also the ex pression, peculiar to this anaphora, about our Lord's stretching forth His hands, may reasonably be used to explain the crrjixelov iKTrerdaeco? if ovpavat of the ' Didache7 16, 7 — a meaning which my friend Arch deacon Palmer suggested when the Didache' first appeared, and one that is more probable than ' open ing of the heavens ' as Harnack renders it. As regards the Verona fragments there are signs of a comparatively late date in the evident desire shown to reduce the Deacons to their proper place (pp. 109, 1. 10 foU. cp. 112, 25 ; also in ' C. H.'), as also in the use of the Gloria Patri. The form of Creed already printed (above, p. 21) is, it wiU be noticed, the only one of the three which contains the article about the resurrection of the flesh. The rite of Confirmation also is elaborate. There is, first, unction by a Presby ter ; then laying on of hands by the Bishop with a short prayer (p. Ill) : ' O Lord God, who hast made them worthy to receive remission of sins by the laver of the new birth of the holy Spirit, send upon them thy grace that they may serve thee according to thy wiU ; for to thee is glory ' etc. Then foUows a second unction, by the Bishop, a ' sealing ' on the forehead by him, and a kiss, and then Communion. The words of administration that foUow are striking. 'Panis VERONA LATIN FRAGMENTS 29 caelestis in Christo lesu,' to which the answer is 'Amen' (p. 112, 23). The administration of the Eucharistic chalice to the newly-baptised is accom panied by that of two others, one of water and another of mUk (mixed with honey), with the words ' In Deo patre omnipotenti.' Answer, ' Amen.' ' Et domino lesu Christo et Spiritu sancto et sancta ecclesia,' to which the answer also is ' Amen,' the same formulae being apparently said for each of the three cups. This, it wiU be observed, is a short summary of the Creed already just professed by the catechumens in Baptism. I do not feel able to localise this form of the L.C.O. The double unction in Confirmation looks Roman (see below, p. 82, n. 31). But the mention of ' Presbyteresses ' in the Didascalia portion (p. 38) makes it probable that the edition was neither Roman nor Alexandrian. Dr. Hauler puts the Greek original before a.d. 350, and perhaps it would be difficult to go much beyond this in assigning a date for the compfla- tion. But the date of the latter or ' canonical ' part is, generaUy speaking, Ante-Nicene, and, according to my conjecture, of Syrian origin. This is suggested by the points of contact with the 'Didache^ noticed in the anaphora. (e) The Testament of our Lord10 is a book exhibiting much more sahent features. It is, hke others of this group, part of a larger compUation, that 10 Portions of this book were edited in Syriac by Lagarde, and also in a Greek version of his own in Reliquiae iuris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, pp. 80-89, 1856. The whole has been recently edited in Syriac with a Latin version, Introduction and Dissertations by the Uniate Patriarch Rahmani, Mainz, 1899- 30 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS of the Syrian Clementine Octateuch, of which it forms the first two books. It has certain enthusiastic and rigorist characteristics which suggest a Montanist handling. I have elsewhere summed them up as foUows : ' The frequent emphasis on spirituahty and works of the Spirit, the phrase " sons of light," the perfectionist tone of some of the prayers, the phrase "lambs and wolves" (i. 36 etc.), the striking prayer for the blessing of oil in which the Paraclete is mentioned (i. 24), the stress laid on fasting and on bearing the cross (i.e. not shrinking from meeting persecution), the severity with which post-baptismal sin is visited (i. 37), and the absence of any provision for penitents either as to place or rules of life, the dislike to second marriages, the references to the Apocalypse of St. John, the picture of the Church as a College of clergy and good women living together without family ties, and the strange TertuUianesque passage about the visible shape of souls in heaven (i. 40).' (' International Rev. of Theol.,' Berne, July 1900, p. 457.) These characteristics have led Mr. R. B. Rackham,11 who has paid great attention to the classification of these books, to entitle the ' Testament ' the ' Asian Church Order.' I think we may accept this title, but with the reservation that the book as it stands must certainly have had a later revision in another locahty, probably in Syria, and about a.d. 400, in which certain 11 See his articles, 'The Origins of Canon Law ' in the Pilot, 9 June 1900 (i. pp. 443 foil.), and 'The Syriac Testament of our Lord' in Ind. Ch. Q. R. Jan. and April 1901. The Montanist handling was suggested by Dom G. Morin in the Revue Benedictine Jan. 1900. TESTAMENT OF OUR LORD 31 Montanist features were obliterated or obscured, and others of a marked and different type added to them. I have elsewhere given reasons for attributing this final revision to the School of ApoUinarius, Bishop of Laodicea, a short distance south of Antioch, who died about a.d. 390.12 The liturgical portion of this book is very inter esting, but the prayers are very much interpolated, somewhat in the same degree as in the 'Apostolic Constitutions,' but in a different direction. The apocryphal pretence is thoroughly and audaciously carried out. The tone is that of highly-strung asceticism for the inner circle for which it was written — an ideal community somewhat of the type of Nicholas Ferrar's experiment in the religious life. It derives its name Testament from the pretence of being the revelation of our Lord to His Apostles after His resurrection. We find this title also given to a part of this book in the ' Arabic Didascalia,' viz. to the section here caUed 'Mystagogic Instruction' (ii. 28), a semi-Gnostic confession of faith, to be taught particularly at the Easter festival. See below, p. 41. The form in which this appears in the Arabic is more original than in the ' Testament of our Lord,' as may be seen by a comparison of the two in my 12 See the article, already referred to, in the Revue Internationale de Theologie, July 1900, and one in the Church Quarterly~Review for April 1900, ' " The Testament of our Lord " : its Connection with the School of ApoUinarius of Laodicea,' vol. 50, pp. 1-29- Dr. Harnack had, before I wrote, assigned the date a.d. 400 to the compilation, on the grounds of general internal evidence (Sitsungsberichte der K. Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften,x]ix. pp. 878 -891, 1899). 32 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS article in the ' Int. Review of Theology,' and it seems to me therefore not improbable that the whole apo cryphal scheme may have grown up from this central point. There is another remarkable point of contact between the ' Testament ' and the ' Arabic Didascalia,' namely the description of a church. In both the Baptistery is planned as oblong ; whereas in all exist ing examples such buUdings are circular or polygonal. The ' Testament ' measures its cubits by the ' com plete number of the prophets,' 21, and that of the Apostles. The Arabic makes the first number 24, to answer to the Elders of the Apocalypse. If the ' Testament ' is later than the * Arabic Didascalia,' this is another evidence of the late date of the 'Testament ' ; for the Arabic (in Funk's opinion) is clearly after the compilation of the ' Apostohc Constitutions ' : see below, no. 4 at end. Notwithstanding some obviously recent features in the ' Testament ' — such as the mention of an Arch deacon, the Festival of Epiphany (see belowp.400) and the development given to the ministry of women, both Presbyteresses and Deaconesses — there are a number of archaic touches in the ' Testament,' particularly in the Deacon's proclamations at the Eucharist, references to the continuance of the charismata, and to persecu tion, and the like, which permit us to consider great part of it to be Ante-Nicene (a.d. 250-325). I am glad to think that an Enghsh version of it is in prospect, made by my friend Dn James Cooper, Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Glasgow, and Dean Maclean, late of the Archbishop's East Syrian Mission, which CONSTITUTIONES PER HIPPOLYTUM 33 wiU extend the knowledge of this book. Funk has also quite recently (1901) written on it : see note p. 108. (f) Another very largely interpolated and de veloped form of these old rules, which nevertheless in its origin belongs to the same class, is that of the Constitutiones per Hippolytum, the name being perhaps due to its association in the MSS. with the Hippoly- tean Tlepi xapicrn,aTa)z> ('A. C viii. 1-2). This book is usuaUy considered to be the first draft of the central and latter part of the eighth book of the ' Apostolic Con stitutions,' to which it answers from ch. 4 onwards, but without the Antiochene Liturgy in ch. 5-15 and the dafly and other services in ch. 35-41. This book was first edited by Fabricius in his ' Hippolytus,' i. 248- 259, from a text prepared by Grabe from two manu scripts, Vindobonensis and Baroccianus (Oxon.) 26, and three times by Lagarde, viz. in his ' Rehquiae ' etc. pp. 5-18, his ' Hippolytus,' pp. 73-89, and, together with the received text, inBunsen's 'Analecta Ante-Nic.' ii. pp. 376 foil. ParaUel portions may be found in Achehs, ' Canones Hippolyti,' but not in sufficient number to exhibit the whole relations of the books. As regards the date, it can hardly be much, if at aU, anterior to a.d. 375, the date usuaUy now assigned to the compilation of the ' Constitutions ' : for it mentions Christmas as distinct from Epiphany (the Theophania), together with other older festivals, and the days of the Apostles and St. Stephen. It is the earhest document in which the rule is introduced for the ordination of a Bishop by one Bishop with two others whfle the Deacons hold the Gospels open over D 34 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS the head of him who is being ordained — which thus seems to be an Antiochene rite. The Gospels no doubt represent our Lord's personal part in the action — a thought perhaps connected with the tradition of the Edessene Canons, of the invisible ordination of the Apostles ; see below, p. 43. It is also the first in which a prayer is given for the laying of hands on a Deaconess. The ordination forms are less interpolated than in the Apostolic Constitutions : see below, p. 46. 3. Another almost independent and evidently popular book is the short treatise commonly caUed the Apostolic Church Order which has been preserved in Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Arabic, Ethiopic, and has been edited by a large number of Western scholars. In its manuscript forms it appears as part of some larger compilation or collection and it has not therefore escaped the interpolation to which such documents are liable. It begins with a formula which meets us in ' Barnabas,' ' Hail ye sons and daughters,' and ends with an anecdote about the sisters of Lazarus, Martha and Mary, which is adverse to the employment of women in any important ministry in the Church. Its first part consists of the ' Two Ways ' as in the ' Didache,' but divided up into sentences among the Apostles, a sign, of course, of date later than the ' Didache'.' It then gives orders for a Ministry of a Bishop and 2 or 3 Presbyters — referring to the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse, perhaps as the whole number in a city — a Reader, apparently 3 Deacons, and 3 Widows, two of whom are to be contemplative and to expect revelations, and one to be active as a APOSTOLIC CHURCH ORDER 35 sicknurse etc. A half-begun section on the ' Oblation of the Body and the Blood ' is cut short, and any attempt to introduce an order of Deaconesses is dis- aUowed. Women are not even to stand in prayer hke the rest, but to sit on the ground. The most notice able points in the central part of this little book, which is probably older than the conclusion, are (1) the desire that the Bishop should be a cehbate or a widower, a suggestion extended in some degree to Presbyters ; (2) the high position given to the Reader before the Deacon, which implies a date for this part before TertuUian ; (3) the reference to visions or revelations which the widows of the Church may expect, a trace perhaps, hke the inclination to celibacy, of Montanist influence. There is reason, indeed, to think that this sect, though proscribed as heretical, exercised great, if secret, influence on the discipline of the Church which rejected it. The date of the final compilation of the ' Apostohc Church Order ' is assigned by Harnack (who edited it with the ' Didache ') to about a.d. 300. It is the only one of these books in which St. John definitely takes the first place. This and Montanist leanings suggest a connection with some part of Asia Minor. 4. The Didascalia is the name now generaUy given to the old basis of the first six books of the ' Apostohc Constitutions,' which is found in Syriac, Arabic and Ethiopic and to some extent in Latin in a fairly original form. Lagarde in 1854 made an attempt to recover the Greek by comparison of the interpolated form with the much shorter Syriac ; and the ' Didascaha purior ' so constituted is of some D 2 36 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS importance. But the work, according to Mr. Burkitt, was hastUy and imperfectly done, and further is not very easy of access. A new edition is much to be desired.13 The ' Didascaha ' is rather a somewhat rambling discourse on Church hfe and society than a Church Order. In order to show its contents, I shaU just summarise the matter of the Syriac 'Didascalia,' according to the divisions of books and chapters in the ' Constitutions ' which are conveniently retained by Lagarde. The first book consists of precepts for the laity. The second is on the duties and rights of the clergy, Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons (High-priests, Priests and Levites, 25), but especiaUy of Bishops, on Church courts (c. 47), and on the internal arrangement of a church (c. 57). The latter is interesting from its arrangement of the women behind the men, and not in a separate aisle, and from having no mention of Bema, Altar or Baptisteiy, or any reference to daUy service. This is the most primitive description of a church that we possess. The third book is on Widows and on Baptism. Baptism by women is dissuaded on the ground that if it had been right, our Lord would have been baptised by His mother and not by St. John (c. 9). A Deaconess, however, is to assist in the 13 Lagarde's Syriac text was published separately. His Greek restoration is in Bunsen' s Christianity and Mankind, vol. vi. (some times cited as Analecta ante-Nicaena, ii.), Lond. 1854. For a criticism on it see Funk, Ap. Konst. p. 41. The Verona palimpsest fragments edited by Hauler (Leipzig, 1900), to the ' canonical ' part of which attention has already been drawn, will materially assist a new critical edition. SYRIAC DIDASCALIA 37 Baptism of women. The fourth book is on Orphans and their adoption by Churchmen. The fifth is on the care and honour due to Martyrs and Confessors, and on Christian festivals. The Sibyl is quoted, and the history of the Phoenix given as a type of the Resurrection. Sunday, though a feast, is not to be a day of disorderly pleasure. The Paschal fast is described at great length, and apparently contains a mixture of two inconsistent accounts, one making it six days (c. 15), the other nine (c. 18). The date is to be learnt, somewhat as in the ' Canons of Hippolytus,' by observing the Jewish Christians, ' your brethren who are of the people ' (c. 17). The chronology of Holy Week is peculiar, and inconsistent with the Gospels. Our Lord ate the Passover on the Tuesday. That night He was taken ; and on the Wednesday He remained in prison in the house of Caiaphas. On Thursday He was taken to Pfiate, and remained in prison with him. On the Friday He was judged by Pilate and crucified. The ' three days and three nights ' are explained by considering the darkness at the Passion as the first night, and the hours of day light that foUowed as the second day. As regards the fast, it is rather fuUy developed, and this is a point against a very early date. Bread, salt and water may be taken on the first days in Holy Week. Friday and Saturday are to be complete fasts (c. 18). The Easter Eucharist is to be at the third hour of the night after the Sabbath (9 p.m. on Saturday, c. 19). No other feast is mentioned. Then foUows, in an awkward position, a short chapter on the disciphne of 38 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS chUdren (= ' A. C iv. 11 ; see Funk, I.e. p. 36). The sixth book is on Heresies and Schisms. The only names of heretics mentioned are those of Simon Magus and Cleobius (c. 8) ; the heresies attributed to them are, not foUowing the Law and the prophets, being at enmity with God Almighty and disobedient to Him, abstaining from certain meats and forbidding to many, and not believing in the resurrection of the flesh, but imagining that spirits (SaijudVia) would rise (c. 26). This section presupposes the legend Of Simon Magus and St. Peter (c. 9). There is also an attack upon Jewish Mishnic and Judaeo-Christian traditions as to cleanness and uncleanness u (c. 22, 23, 27 foU.) from which, as from other indications, we may clearly gather that the book was written in Syria or Palestine. This section also contains one of the rare references to detaUs of pubhc worship : — ' Gather together in the cemeteries, making there the reading of the holy books, and offer an acceptable Eucharist, both in your churches and in the cemeteries, and in the last offices (e^dSois) of those who have faUen asleep ' (c. 30). Much of the argument on ceremonial uncleanness shows good common sense, and there is a simUar opposition to austerity in the rules about disciphne and penitence which may be anti-Montanist. There is no sufficient 14 AEUTe'pGxris (in Hauler's fragments ' secundatio ') is a rendering of the Hebrew ' Mishna.' Its founders and expounders were called ' Tanaites,' apparently from ' Matnita,' the Aramaic form of Mishna. See Graetz, Gesch. der Juden, iv. 17, 91, and notes 2 and 11, ed. 2, 1866. He quotes St. Jerome on Isaiah iii. 14, xxix. 21 etc. to show that the name Sevrepwral was given to these Jewish doctors by the Nazarenes. ARABIC DIDASCALIA 39 evidence that it is anti-Novatian. The date is some where between a.d. 200 and 250. The ' Syriac Didascaha ' was clearly a translation from the Greek. The Latin fragments edited by Hauler frequently refer to the original words. They are very important for the reconstruction of the text, though, in my opinion, much interpolated. The 'Arabic Didascaha' is described by Funk, who gives a hst of the chapter headings, with references to the paraUels in the longer form (' Ap. Konst.' pp. 222-4, 1891). The parts answering to the ' Syriac Didascaha ' are contained in the first thirty- four chapters, generally but not always in the same order. Chapter 35 (of which Funk gives only a summaiy) contains a description of a church which, as I have already said, is like that in the ' Testament of our Lord,' i. 19. Chapters 36-39 are translated by Socin. Chapter 36 is on the ordination of a Bishop. He may be married. AU the Bishops present are to lay hands on him and say a declaratory prayer. The first Bishop shaU then lay his hand on him and say the consecration prayer. This is an expansion of that in the ' Roman Church Order ' at great length, in which the personal name of the new Bishop is three times mentioned. Chapter 37 is on the hours of prayer for a Bishop, of which nine are named. Chapter 38 is on the Bishop's fasting, much as in the ' Testament of our Lord ' ; in it some account of the Liturgy is given. This Liturgy appears to be aUied to the Egyptian, and it is so treated by Brightman in his careful arrangement of it in his Appendix R, 40 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS which shows its points of contact with the Coptic St. Mark. One of the most remarkable points in it is the ritual use of incense which is part of the Prothesis or preparation of the oblations : — ' And the Presbyter shall bring the bread and chahce of the Eucharist. And the Bishop shaU bring the incense and go round about the altar three times, in honour of the holy Trinity ; and he shaU hand the censer to the Presbyter, and he shall go round with it to the congregation ' (Brightman, p. 510). The Coptic St. Mark has a prayer concerning the offering of incense on the altar during the Mass of the Cate chumens (p. 150). The high position given to women at the consecration, within the veil, is, I think, peculiar to the ' Arabic Didascaha ' and to the ' Testament of our Lord ' : ' And so the Bishop shall consecrate, the veU being let down, and the Presbyters and the Deacons and the Subdeacons being within. And the Subdeacons and the Reader, and the Widows who are Deaconesses and have spiritual gifts, and the Bishop shaU stand at the altar, and the Deacons shall be around him, and shall fan with fans and hnens (acmisat) like the wings of the cherubim, and the Presbyters standing with him, and so the whole of the clergy in their order.' This position of women does not appear to be Egyptian but Asian and, in a measure, Syrian. Cp. the Canons of Laodicea 19 and 44, evidently directed against this practice. Chapter 39 is entitled 'the Mystagogia of Jesus Christ our God.' ' The faithful shall lift it up before the holy Liturgy, the Testament ( Vermachtnis) which ARABIC DIDASCALIA 41 He hath taught to the holy Apostles.' This, as I have said, is a curious semi-Gnostic confession of faith. Indeed, the Gnostic ' Acts of Peter ' (' Mart. Petri,' pp. 90, 92) are used in the part about the cross ( ' T. D.' i. 28, p. 63). It seems to have been intended to be taught by the Bishop and recited after him by the people — much as the Creed is now recited in the Liturgy, and with something of the same kind of intention. It re minds us at times of the Te Deum and at times of the Quicunque vult ; but it is expressed with much Orien tal diffuseness. It is closely similar to, and generaUy verbaUy identical with, that in the ' Testament of our Lord,' i. 28, and its title of ' Testament ' suggests that it may be the kernel from which the apocryphal pretence of that book has grown. It is, however, in a more original form, and therefore (as far as this chapter is concerned) the ' Arabic Didascalia ' is older than the ' Testament.' Funk is clear that the ' Arabic ' is a compilation later than the ' Apostohc Constitutions.' This gives us somewhere between a.d. 375-400 for its date, the latter being the ap proximate date which we assign to the ' Testament.' I have here, and in speaking of the ' Testament,' anticipated something that belongs more correctly to the head of ' CompUations ' ; but it seemed difficult to separate these chapters from the rest of the ' Arabic Didascalia.' These four types, the Didache, the Lost Church Order with its six subordinate forms, the Apostolic Church Order and the Didascalia, form a group of generaUy Ante-Nicene books, and supply the chief 42 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS materials from which later large compilations are made up. But there are two other coUections of ' Canons,' which also ought to be mentioned as logicaUy intermediate between the Church Orders and the compUations. 5. The first is the set of Apostolic Canons™ which is the only one of these books that has any recognised position in the Catholic Church. It cannot be earher than a.d. 341, the date usuaUy assigned to the Council of Antioch, from which some twenty of its canons are taken, and with which city its origin may reasonably be connected, since it clearly eman ates from the same school as the ' Apostohc Con stitutions.' Indeed, Mr. Brightman assigns it to the same compiler (' Eastern Lit.' p. xxv). It is also held to be probable that the points of contact with the ' Apostohc Constitutions ' and the CouncUs of Laodicea (of uncertain date) and Constantinople (381 and 394) are due to the same relation, and therefore the collection cannot be dated much before a.d. 400. It is not definitely noticed in history until circa a.d. 500, when the first fifty of its Canons were translated by Dionysius Exiguus, and so found their way, to a great extent, into the law books of the Latin Church. The coUection, however, has never had the positive recognition in the West which it 15 A short and good summary of the questions connected with this collection is given by Dr. Fr. Lauchert, Die Kanones der Altkirchlichen Concilien, p. xiii foil., Freiburg i. B. and Leipzig, 1896. See for more details Funk, Ap. Konst. pp. 180-206, and Brightman, Eastern Liturgies, p. xxiv foil. Eighteen of the Ap. Canons are said to be taken from the Constitutions, see Funk, p. 188 foil. APOSTOLIC AND EDESSENE CANONS 43 has received in the East, where the TruUan Council, a.d. 692, gave canonical authority to its fuU number of eighty-five canons, though rejecting the ' Clemen tine Constitutions ' which are referred to with approval in the last. 6. The Edessene Canons. — These are contained in a Nitrian MS. selected by Cureton entitled ' The Doctrine of the Apostles through Addaeus ' (Lagarde, ' Reliquiae,' pp. 89-95, and ' Ante-Nicene Chr. Lib.' vol. xx. : ' Syriac Documents,' pp. 35-49). The old apocryphal pretence of assigning individual rules to individual Apostles is not here adopted, but the preface is hke a piece of an apocryphal ' Acts,' in which ' Simon Cephas ' takes the lead. Ascension day and the day of Pentecost are identified and made to faU on a Sunday, fifty days after the Passion. The ordination of the Apostles is explained to have taken place by the laying of our Lord's hands upon them on the Mount of Ohves, while He was invisibly present.16 He was seen by them, however, at the moment of His ascension. Then they returned to the upper room where He had instituted the mystery of the body and the blood, and were (at once) prepared for their mission by the gift of tongues, each receiving the tongue of the country to which he was to go. The ' New Testament ' is mentioned, but apparently a Gospel, or rather a Gospel-harmony, is meant ('A.-N. C. L.' xx. pp. 24, 25). St. Luke is spoken of as the writer of the Acts, but none of 16 This was probably an inference from the statement of the Acts i. 3, that our Lord was seen during forty days. 44 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS St. Paul's Epistles are referred to, and his name is only mentioned twice quite incidentaUy. The first rule is ' Pray ye towards the East.' Sunday, Wed nesday, and Friday-afternoon, are to be days for public worship, but the ' oblation ' is only assigned to Sunday (2). The ministry consists of Elders (Presbyters), Deacons, Subdeacons, and a Guide (Duqa = Dux, rjyovp,tvos), i.e. a Bishop (5). The festivals referred to are Epiphany, a fast of forty days before the Passion, the days of the Passion and Resurrection, and then fifty days ending with the Ascension (6, 7, 9). In church the Gospel is to be read last and heard standing (8). There is a tendency — not very common in these books — to limit the authority of the ' Guide ' or Bishop, who is not to act apart from those who minister with him (17). Commemorations are to be made of those who suffer death for Christ (18). The Post-Nicene date of the collection is proved by the reference to the privilege of Christian kings to ' go up and stand before the altar' (25). After the twenty-seven canons comes a description of the preaching of the Apostles, and of the teachers after them, with incidental mention of the names of those whose writings are to be read in Church. In this hst Matthew, Jude, and Paul are omitted, while Andrew and Judas Thomas are included — the two latter being no doubt represented by apocryphal writings. The ' New ' Testament is mentioned as weU as the ' Old,' but evidently as something distinct from the Epistles and probably from the Acts. It means apparently COMPILATIONS— APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS 45 'the Gospel,' and the absence of the name of St. Matthew suggests that it was a harmony based upon that Gospel — hke that of Ammonius. The book ends with a Christian geography describing the countries evangehsed by each Apostle. It may reasonably be ascribed to the first half of the fourth century. Compilations: Apostolic Constitutions; Syrian Octa- teuch ; Egyptian Heptateuch; Verona Latin Fragments; Arabic Didascalia. 7. We must lastly give a short account of the Compilations, of which the most famous is the Apostolic Constitutions. This is also clearly a Syrian production, apparently composed in Antioch, somewhere about a.d. 375, a date to which many indications lead us, and in particular the mention of the Western Christmas, which we know from St. Chrysostom was introduced into that city about that time. The evidence is weU and conveniently sum marised by Mr. Brightman in his ' Eastern Liturgies,' pp. xxiv-xxix, resting largely on the evidence col lected and arranged by Funk. The compiler of the ' Constitutions ' was a theo logian of as marked views as the interpolator of the 'Testament of our Lord,' but belonging to a very different and probably antagonistic school. He has been identified with the interpolator of the genuine and the composer of the forged Epistles of St. Ignatius. In theology he was neither an Arian nor an ApoUinarian, but he had a tendency to assign an undue subordination to the Son of God, and he did 46 INTRODUCTION— COMPILATIONS not believe in the fulness of His nature. In practice he was averse to rigour and to both Jewish and heretical (Montanist or Novatian) forms of asceticism. He was weU versed in Scripture, but somewhat feeble and mediocre in his expositions, and diffuse and wordy in style. There seems no sufficient reason to distinguish the editor of books i.-vi. from that of vii. and viii. The summary already given of the ' Didascalia ' (see above, no. 4, p. 36) wiU afford some idea of the contents of the first six books, though they are much altered and enlarged, and, so to say, brought up to date by the editor, e.g. daily pubhc service is pre scribed. The seventh and eighth books are made up from other sources treated as freely as the ' Didascaha.' The seventh book begins with an expansion of the ' Didache' ' (c. 1-32), but it also includes much other liturgical matter, especiaUy bearing on Baptism and Confirmation. The Sabbath as well as the Lord's Day is now, as generaUy in the East, determined to be a feast (c. 23). The book concludes with a hst of Bishops ordained by the Apostles (c. 46), and with forms for Morning and Evening Prayer and grace before meat (c. 47-49). The eighth book consists of several distinct treatises loosely tied together. The first, ' On Spiritual Gifts,' may be based on the lost writing of Hippolytus (c. 1, 2). It is a sort of sermon, intended to keep those who are gifted in their proper place. Then (after a transition chapter) comes the tract ' On Ordinations ' (LJepl -^upoToviSiv) APOST. CONSTITUTIONS— SYRIAN OCTATEUCH 47 answering to the first part of the ' Lost Church Order ' ( ' C. H.'), much interpolated, and including the Antio chene Liturgy as said at the consecration of a Bishop (c. 4-27 : the Liturgy is c. 5-15). Then comes a third tract, consisting of rules or canons on various subjects (c. 28-46) usuaUy caUed LJepl Kavovcav. This answers to the latter part of the : Lost Church Order ' arranged somewhat differently. The chief subjects are the bless ing of oU and water (28), on first-fruits and tithes (29) ; on distribution of oblations among the clergy (30) ; on the admission to Baptism of certain classes (31) ; on the Christian week — the Sabbath as weU as Sunday to be a day of rest — and Christian festivals, the ' Great Week,' Ascension, Christmas, Theophania, Apostles, St. Stephen (32) ; on hours of prayer — Mattins, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, Cockcrow— to be said pubhcly or privately (33) ; important and full accounts of Vespers (34-36) and Mattins (37-39), offering of first-fruits (40) and service for the departed (41 foU.). There is a warning as to temperance at memorial feasts (44, 45) and an assertion of the rights of the three orders of clergy and their relation to one another (46). For some further remarks on this part of the book see above, no. 2 (f), Constitutiones per Hippolytum. The ' Apostohc Canons ' form an Appendix to the whole, and are found in this position in the manuscripts, making in fact, though not so caUed, a ninth book. 8. The Syrian Octateuch, to give it the name introduced by Lagarde, is stiU unfortunately incom pletely known to us. I have already given some 48 INTRODUCTION— COMPILATIONS account of the character of the first two books into which the ' Testament of our Lord ' is divided. It is a purely artificial division in order to make up the number of books to eight in imitation probably of the ' Apostolic Constitutions.' The Church Order has prefixed to it an Apocalyptic prelude, the main part of which seems to have been written a.d. 250 at the time of the great persecution of Decius. The third book is a version of the ' Apostohc Church Order ' (above, no. 3, p. 34). The fourth is the little treatise LJepl Xapio-fjbdTcov which is found in ' Ap. Const.' viii. 1, 2. The fifth is the treatise LJepl -^eipoTovLcov (' Ap. C viii. 4-27 without the Liturgy=' Const, per Hipp.' 1-15) ; the sixth and seventh contain the LJepl kclvovov, the remainder of the shorter form of this book. The eighth consists of the 'Apostolic Canons.' (See the contents from MS. Sangerm. 38 in Lagarde's ' Reli quiae,' p. xvii.) From this last fact it would appear that the earliest date of the coUection must be that which we assign to the ' Apostohc Canons,' viz. circa a.d. 400, a date which we have seen reason to assign to the present form of the ' Testament of our Lord ' on whoUy independent grounds. It would also appear that the ' Testament ' is by far the most important part of the book, seeing that books 3-7 are only another form of ' Ap. C viii., based indeed, hke the ' Testament ' itself, on the lost Church Order, but treated in a different manner. So that reaUy we have two forms of the same thing both in the ' Syrian Octateuch ' and the ' Egyptian Heptateuch.' 9. The Egyptian Heptateuch is another book of EGYPTIAN HEPTATEUCH 49 closely simUar substance, in slightly different order, and, hke the Syrian coUection, a sort of imitation of the ' Constitutions ' without the ' Didascalia.' It is in seven books, but there are traces of an intention to make them eight. The first is the ' Apostohc Church Order'; the second, as we have seen above, 2 (c), is the ' Egyptian Church Order.' The third is the Hippolytean treatise ' On Spiritual Gifts.' The fourth is the Ilepl yeipoTovmv of the ' Constitutiones per Hippolytum.' The fifth and sixth answer roughly to the remainder of that book (LJepl kolvovcdv), but without the prayers. The seventh is the 'Apostolic Canons.' Thus the contents of the ' Syrian Octateuch ' and the ' Egyptian Heptateuch ' differ mainly in this, that the ' Testament,' divided into two books, comes first in the Syriac, while the ' Egyptian Church Order,' which generaUy speaking covers the same ground, but in much less detaU, comes second in the Heptateuch. We must suppose that the books are arranged in both cases on the same principle. First would come a book claiming to be dictated by our Lord ; then that by the Apostles ; then the Order of the local Church ; then the works attributed to a great Father (Hippolytus), and lastly canons of CouncUs. Two other compilations have been already inciden taUy described, the first, about a.d. 350, represented by the Verona Latin Fragments (see p. 26 foU.), the second, about a.d. 400, of which the Arabic Didascalia forms the principal part (see p. 39 foU.). The table which foUows wUl exhibit the compo sition of all these books at a glance. E 50 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS Separate Woeks Compilations. (as far as possible in chronological order). Apostolic Constitutions Syrian Octateuch. Egyptian Heptateuch. 1. Didache . Bk. 7. Didache, 2. Lost Church Oedek a. Roman Ch. 0. (Can. b. Egypt. Ch. 0. (Eth.) } ¦ • / Bk. 2. Egyptian 1 Ch. 0. c. „ „ (Coptic) d. Verona Latin frag ments part 3 17 e. Asian Ch. 0. (Test. Bk. 1, 2. Testa mentum Domini .irepl xaPLff- Bk. 4. irepl xaPLa~ Bk. 3. irepl X"P'C- /. Constitutiones per poWwv o. ptLrwv pdrcov Sippolytwrn . 1, 2. [preceded by the irepl irepl XeiP°~ Bk. 5. irepl x*'P°- Bk. 4. irepl xf'P°- X&pto'p.&Ttov] "Rt ft . Tovi&v c. rovLaiv roviuv (1) irepl xelP0T0VL&v Bk'b-1 4-27 (1-15) . . . I irepl Kav- Bk. 6, 7. irepl Ka.v- Bk. 5, 6. irepl (2) irepl Kav6va>v (16- 1 6vav C. 28 6vwv KtWj'Wf 26) 18 . I -46,0.32, 1-104 3. Apostolic Chubch Oedeb . Bk. 3. Ap. Ch. 0. Bk. 1. Ap. Ch. 0. 4. Didascalia pueioe (Syriac, Latin, Bk. 1-6. Didas Arabic) 19 5. Apostolic Canons calia (Antiochene) circa [Appendix] Ap. A.D. 400 . Canons Bk. 8. Ap. Canons Bk. 7. Ap. Canons 6. Edessene Canons (Doctrine of Ad- daeus) circa a.d. 325 -350 17 The Verona Latin fragments are evidently a portion of another type of compilation, in which (1) the Didascalia was followed by (2) the Apostolic Church Order and then (3) by a form of the Lost Church Order. See p. 26 foil. 18 Chapter 20 of this book = Ap. C. viii. 32, 1-10 answers to the seventh book of the Syrian and the sixth of the Egyptian com pilation. 19 The Arabic compilation consisted (as far as we know) of the Didascalia followed by selections from a form of the Lost Church Order closely allied to that in the Testament of our Lord. EGYPTIAN SUMMARY OF DOCTRINE 51 Other boohs.— Egyptian: Summary of Doctrine; Prayer-book of Sarapion ; Maxims of Nicene Synod. — Syrian: on Virginity; Pilgrimage of Silvia. — Gallican Statutes. Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. I wiU mention also certain other books which give an insight into the inner hfe of the Church and its services, especiaUy in Egypt and Syria. The Egyptian books are : the Summary of Doctrine, dated about a.d. 300 ; the Prayer-book of Sarapion, about a.d. 350, and the so-caUed Maxims of the Nicene Synod, about a.d. 400. The Treatise on Virginity, also about a.d. 400, and the so-caUed Pilgrimage of Silvia, which is a few years earher, concern Syria. The Gallican Statutes and the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, c. a.d. 500, also deserve notice. 10. The Summary of Doctrine is a short treatise addressed to Christians in general, which the dili gence of scholars has discovered imbedded in a ' Syn tagma Doctrinae' addressed to Solitaries, printed in the works of St. Athanasius. It may be found, in its short form, in the ' Studia Patristica ' of Dr. Pierre Batiffol (fasc. 2, pp. 11-160, Leroux, Paris, 1890). He acknowledges his obhgations to Dr. Rendel Harris and Professor Warfield, who gave the hints which he has foUowed in unearthing this older document. The little book is itself largely based on the ' Didache'.' Its date is fixed to about a.d. 300 by internal evidence. The references to Epiphany and Holy Week and the forty days of Lent show that it cannot well be earlier. The facts that the heresy most reprobated is Marcionite fasting K 2 52 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS on Saturdays and Sundays, and that there is no reference to the Meletian schism (circa a.d. 306), or to Arianism, make it difficult to put it later. The text only occupies about two 8vo pages of smaU print (pp. 150-154, deducting notes). There is no reference in it to any order of clergy, except that of the iepevs, no doubt the Bishop, so that it does not belong to Alexandria, where City Presbyters were influential. The ' Priest ' is to be specially careful whose offerings he accepts. Rules are given for avoiding heathen feasts etc., and with regard to catechumens, but there is no hint of persecution. 11. Sarapion s Prayer-book or Sacramentary (as Mr. Brightman prefers to caU it) is one of the most remarkable liturgical discoveries of the last century. It was first noticed by a Russian scholar, Deme- trevsky, but is best known from the edition of Dr. G. Wobbermin, who copied it from a MS. at Mount Athos (' Texte und Untersuchungen,' N.F. ii. 3 B. 1899). A translation into English, with notes, was edited by myself in June 1899 (S.P.C.K.), and the Greek was elaborately and accurately edited, with valuable notes, by Mr. Brightman in the ' Journal of Theological Studies ' (October 1899 and January 1900). It has all the appearance of being what it purports to be, viz. the Liturgy used in the Church of Thmuis in the Delta, about a.d. 350, part of which was written by the Bishop of that see, who has the honour of being known in history as the trusted coUeague of the great champion of the Cathohc faith, Athanasius. Its most striking features SARAPION'S PRAYER-BOOK 53 are the consecration prayer at the Eucharist and that for the ordination of Presbyters. The Eucharistic prayer offers the Bread and the Cup as the likeness (6p.oCcofia) of the Body and Blood of Christ. It then recites our Saviour's acts and words of Institution—* interpolating between them a quotation from the 'Didache,' about the bread being scattered on the mountains, and adding a prayer that the holy Church gathered out of every nation and every country and every city and vUlage and house may be made ' one living Cathohc Church.' Then foUows a remarkable Invocation that the Word or Logos may ' come ' (iiriSrjfArjo-dTco) upon the Bread, that the Bread may become Body of the Word, and upon the Cup, that the Cup may become Blood of the Truth, 'and make aU who communicate to receive a medicine of hfe for the heahng of every sickness and for the strengthening of aU advancement and virtue ' etc. The Lord's Prayer is not definitely mentioned, but may be implied in a rubric. The ordination prayer for Presbyters does not contain the name of Priest or Presbyter, Sacrifice or Sacrament, and therefore directly faUs short of the requirement made by Leo XIII. in his BuU ' Apos- tohcae curae' addressed to the people of England. It is so important that it may be given at length.20 20 A different form, but even balder in its simplicity, is found in the Egyptian (Ethiopic) Church Order : see above, p. 24-5, and cp. the Bull Apost. Curae (1896), § 7, and Responsio Archiepiscoporum Angliae, Appendix, notes 3 and 4 (Longmans, 1897), and Sarapion, S.P.C.K. p. 51. It may be given here for the purpose of comparison, as it is based on the same thought that the seventy elders, chosen by Moses, 54 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS No. 13. ' Laying on of hands of the making of Pres byters. We stretch forth the hand, O Lord God of the heavens, Father of thy only-begotten, upon this man, and beseech thee that the Spirit of truth may come (iTn8r)p,rjo-r)) upon him. Give him the grace of prudence and knowledge and a good heart. Let a divine spirit come to be in him that he may be able to be a steward of thy people and an ambassador of thy divine oracles, and to reconcile thy people to thee the uncreated God, who didst give of the spirit of Moses upon the chosen ones, even holy Spirit. Give a portion of holy Spirit also to this man, from the Spirit of thy only-begotten, for the grace of wisdom and knowledge and right faith, that he may be able to serve thee in a clean conscience [1 Tim. iii. 9] through thy only-begotten Jesus Christ, through whom to thee [is] the glory and the strength in holy Spirit both now and for all the ages of the ages. Amen.' were the precursors of the Christian Presbyterate — a thought which is also contained in the old and existing Roman form of ordination. It runs thus : 'My God, the Father of our Lord and our Saviour Jesus Christ, look down upon this thy servant and impart to him the spirit of grace and the will of holiness, that he may direct the people with purity of heart. As thou lookedst upon thy chosen people and commandedst Moses to choose elders (Presbyters), whom thou filledst with the spirit which thou grantedst to thy servant and minister Moses : so now, my Lord, give to this thy servant the inestimable grace and preserve to us the gift of thy Spirit and our portion, while thou fillest our heart with piety to glorify thee in sincerity, through thy Son Jesus Christ, by whom be glory and might to thee, to the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, in thy holy Church, both now and for ever and for ages of ages. Amen.' And all the people shall say, ' Amen and Amen. It is meet ! ' MAXIMS OF THE NICENE SYNOD 55 12. The Maxims of the Nicene Synod have no claim to that high-sounding title, but are an Egyptian Church Order intermixed with a consider able amount of didactic and edifying matter. The book exists in two Coptic MSS., one at Turin and one in the Borgian coUection at Rome. Its character can best be ascertained by Enghsh readers from a summary of it by Professor H. Achehs, translated with notes, by Mr. W. E. Crum, in the ' Journal of Theol. Studies,' ii. pp. 121-129, October 1900. It differs from other Church Orders in being an exhor tation to be zealous in using existing institutions rather than a set of rules for creating them. It contains precepts for ordinary hfe, as weU as for that of female ascetics, who are described as 'brides of Christ.' The date is apparently about a.d. 400. The tendency towards cultus of the saints — seen e.g. in the phrase ' behef in God and His saints ' — and the development of legends about the Blessed Virgin, and the absence of any direct penitential discipline or reference to inconvenience from heathenism, mark a date probably quite as late as this, if it does not belong to the fifth century. One point of connection with Egypt is the exhortation to come early to church so as to hear both the lessons and psalms — for lessons at the daily office were not in use in Syria. See below, Chapter VI, pp. 341, 343. 13. The treatise On Virginity, printed in the works of St. Athanasius, is about the same date as the ' Maxims of the Nicene Synod,' or rather earlier, and represents a picture of the life of Christian Virgins, 56 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS not yet subject to monastic rule, just as the ' Maxims ' do, but apparently for Syria, not for Egypt. This seems to foUow from the agreement of the rules about hours and forms of devotion with some of those that are given in the ' Apostolic Constitutions ' : see below, Ch. V. The date, as I have implied, is about a.d. 400 ; for the use of the terra Theotdkos for the Mother of our Lord, and the rules just referred to, forbid us to place it much if at aU earlier. The Virgin (hke those described in the ' Maxims ') is united to the Heavenly Bridegroom (ch. 2), but she stiU hves at home and not in community. She is to fast every day up to the ninth hour (3 p.m.), and then to abstain from animal food (ch. 8). She may, however, drink wine when she is sick, or when others do so, so as not to appear singular (ch. 12 and 22). Her under-dress is to be dark or of natural undyed colour or brown. Her cowl (p.a(p6piov) is to be with out fringes, and of the same colour. She is to have wooUen sleeves covering the arms up to the fingers, her hair cut short, and bound with a wooUen fUlet ; her cloak is also to be without fringes (ch. 11). She may wash her face, hands and feet, but is not to use a pubhc bath without necessity (ch. 11). When a holy man comes to visit her famUy she is to wash his feet (ch. 22). The quotation of the ' Didache' ' in this book has long been observed (ch. 13), but it is noticeable that the ' Canons of Hippolytus ' seem also to be used in the account of the Virgin's private devotions (ch. 12). ON VIRGINITY— PILGRIMAGE OF SILVIA 57 Another point in the description of her prayers at sunset, the twelfth hour, gives an opportunity for quoting the striking address of Hades to our Lord on the occasion of His descent into HeU (ch. 16), which is enlarged upon also in the ' Gospel of Nicodemus,' in the Mystagogic Instruction of the ' Testament of our Lord ' and the ' Arabic Didascalia,' as weU as in the Easter Eve Sermon attributed to St. Epiphanius.14. A much more interesting and instructive book, dating about a.d. 385 — and, hke the ' Prayer- book of Sarapion,' a discovery of the last century — is what is usuaUy caUed the Pilgrimage of Silvia. It was discovered in 1884 at Arezzo, and first edited by its discoverer, J. F. Gamurrini, in 1887. It describes the journey of a Gallic lady of devout life— a member in fact of a sisterhood — to the holy Places, in the reign of Theodosius the Great. The name is merely conjectural, but convenient. The authoress was at first tentatively identified with Silvia daughter of Rufinus ; but later critics think that our pilgrim was not sufficiently learned to be the real Silvia, who could read the Fathers in Greek. Whoever she was, she knew the Bible weU, and was a very accurate and quick observer ; and she shows much abUity in describing the rites and ordinances of the churches which she visited, especially of the Anastasis or holy Sepulchre. The references to the ' Apotactitae,' male and female, sometimes called ' Monazontes ' and ' Parthenae,' come in very weU to iUustrate the early 58 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS history of these ascetics, whose devotions were the centre of the daily offices of the Church.21 15. Another book worth mentioning, which, hke the last, is in Latin, is one which has often misled students, under the idea that it contained canons of the fourth CouncU of Carthage. It is reaUy a coUection of Church Orders and Canons, with Eastern affinities, in use in Southern Gaul, probably in the province and neighbourhood of Aries, about a.d. 500. Scholars nowT generaUy cite it according to a name given to it in several manuscripts as Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua.22 We may perhaps do well to caU it the Gallican Statutes, as a reminder that it has nothing to do with Africa. It, or some simUar body of GaUican customs, has had the effect of producing considerable changes in the Roman Ordinal, in which a number of sections from it are quoted. I may mention the custom of holding the Gospel book over the head of a Bishop — no doubt as a reminder that the ordination was the act of our Lord Himself (no. 3) — which is mentioned first in the ' Constitutiones per Hippo- lytum ' : see above, p. 33. The next rule joins the Pres byters with the Bishop in laying hands on a Presbyter at his ordination, according to our own custom. This is one of several indications of a wish to check the 21 Duchesne has printed the liturgical part of this book as an Appendix to his Origines. The whole is conveniently edited by Geyer, with indices, in his Itinera Hierosolymitana (Vienna, 1898). 22 This title is given as an alternative in Bruns, and also as a headline. For the statement in the text see Duchesne, Origines, p. 337. GALLICAN STATUTES— ECCLES. HIERARCHY 59 isolated power of a Bishop : e.g. no. 22, which forbids him to ordain clerks without the counsel of his own clerks. The ordination of a Subdeacon by the dehvery of an empty paten and chalice (no. 5) is the starting-point of all the Roman practice and the scholastic doctrine of the necessity of the ' traditio instrumentorum.' Another Eastern rule is that (no. 36) about Rectors of churches (presbyteri qui per dioeceses ecclesias regunt) sending for chrism before Pascha from their Bishops, implying that Presbyteral Confirmation was in use at that time in Gaul, as we know it was from other evidence. There is no evidence as to general forms of pubhc worship, except it be the formula of appointing a Psalmist by a Presbyter with these words : ' Vide ut quod ore cantas, corde credas, et quod corde credis operibus comprobes,' which has passed into our familiar vestry prayer (no. 10). 16. A review of this generaUy pseudonymous literature may fitly close with a short notice of a Church Order which forms part of a system of phUo- sophy, the treatise On Ecclesiastical Hierarchy which bears the name of ' Dionysius the Areopagite.' The series of remarkable books to which it belongs has had more influence on Greek and Latin theology than any other apocryphal production — and this not merely because of its supposed authorship by a companion of the Apostles, but on account both of its phUo- sophical form and its fulness of thought. Like the greater part of the books described in this section, the ' Ecclesiastical Hierarchy ' seems to be of 60 INTRODUCTION— CHURCH ORDERS Syrian origin. [Bp.] Westcott suggests that it is from Edessa or the school of Edessa. It seems to have been composed some time between a.d. 470 and 500.23 The ' Ecclesiastical Hierarchy ' is written in an arti ficial Platonising style, with an affected terminology partly drawn from phUosophy, partly from the usage of the heathen mysteries. The two Dionysian key -words, ' Hierarchy,' to represent an ascending and descending scale of being, and ' Unity,' the aim of all things in respect to God, are of course naturally prominent in it. Everything is, as far as possible, arranged in triads. The mysteries described have their origin in the Divine Trinity ; their aim is union with God — the ' deification ' of man — by the three ways which rise one above another, the ways of cleansing, Uluminating and 13 See B. F. Westcott, ' Dionysius the Areopagite ' in the Contem porary Review for May 1867, vol. 5, p. 7. This article gives an appre ciative account of the whole Dionysian literature. See also Professor Joseph Langen' s 'Die Schule des Hierotheos' in Rev. Int. de Theologie for Jan.-March 1894, vol. 2, p. 42, who suggests the reign of Julian c. a.d. 360 as the date. But the ritual indications do not agree, such as the use of incense and, above all, the recitation of the Creed in the Liturgy, which was introduced by Peter the Fuller, Patriarch of Antioch, a.d. 469- Cp. Brightman Eastern Lit. p. liii. and App. E, pp. 487-490, for the Liturgy. Mr. Brightman credits me, by an oversight, with the authorship of the article on Dionysius in the Diet, of Chr. Biog., which is by Mr. J. H. Lupton. The use of the Dionysian writings in the commentary on the Apocalypse by Andrew of Caesarea and Arethas, and the reference to him as the ' Areopagitic ' by the Monophysite Severus, circa a.d. 517, forbid us to date the books much after a.d. 500. The care with which the Apocryphal pretence is maintained is visible in the use of the name ' Jesus ' (not ' Jesus Christ ') and the absence of any reference, as far as I have observed, to any order of the ministry but Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons. ON ECCLESIASTICAL HIERARCHY 61 perfecting. This general thought is expressed in the first of the seven chapters. The rest in each case de scribe a ' Mystery,' with a ' Contemplation' (OeapCa) or mystical comment foUowing the description. The six form (it would seem) two triads, the first three being the three Sacraments generaUy applicable to mankind — Baptism, Communion and the consecration and use of Chrism (puvpov). The second three are consecration of Priests, consecration of Monks, and consecration (as we may caU it) of the departed. This scheme of the Sacraments, artificial as it is, has had, I think, the advantage of preventing the Greeks, who value Dionysius greatly, from attaching too much weight to the sevenfold Western scholastic division. C. 2 is on ' IUumination ' (4>q)t lv 17/ieis SiaSo^oi Tuy^avovTes t^s te avrri«Vi ¦ - .'¦>) is twice mentioned, i. 19 ; cp. 34. 19 See p. 129, note 27. Eulogius, ap. Phot. Bibl. 182, says this succession was a law at Rome ; but this is an exaggeration. Athan- asuis, Deacon of Alexander, similarly succeeded at Alexandria. THE BISHOP'S DUTY OF PREACHING 163 Ai'chdeacons chosen from among the Presbyters seems to be that occurring in the letters of Hincmar of Rheims, a.d. 874. The rise of their separate and permanent jurisdiction is obscure. Customs as to Preaching. Thus the Bishop's functions were shared both during the Liturgy and outside it both by his Presbyters and Deacons. But there was one duty in which for a time, at least in many places, he stood alone, and in respect to which he has always had a special superiority — this is the duty of preaching. The CouncU of Trent is surely accurate in its lan guage when it says, twice over, that ' the preaching of the Gospel is the pecuhar duty of Bishops.' 20 This is one of the points in which the Episcopate has succeeded to the Apostohc ministry in the broader sense. In the first age evidently those who had the ' gift ' of preaching exercised it freely. The gift was not so much recognised after the second century, during the last generation of which the aggressive claims of the Montanists and their putting women forward in this office, as other heretics also did, rendered a certain strictness necessary in the examination of assertions of charismatic powers. Nevertheless, in aU ages there has been at least a tradition that laymen might preach with Episcopal permission, whUe it was the Bishop's special duty and privUege to preach in person. Origen, for instance, 20 ' Praedicatio Evangelii praecipuum munus Episcoporum ' ; Sess. v. De Ref. c. 2, and Sess. xxiv. De Ref. c. 4. m 2 164 II. BISHOPS, PRIESTS AND DEACONS was invited to preach at Caesarea in Palestine whUe he was still only a Catechist ; and, when the Bishop of Alexandria remonstrated, Alexander of Jerusalem rephed by quoting instances of similar invitations given by Bishops to laymen in various parts of Asia Minor : see Eus. ' H. E.' vi. 19. But the Bishop was the usual preacher. Justin in his description of the Liturgy (' Ap.' i. 67) names only the President as preaching, though he was himself a Teacher (Aihdcr- Kakos) and as such held meetings of his disciples over a Bath in Rome ('Mart. Just.' 2). Irenaeus (' Haer.' iii. 3) caUs the Bishop's seat the ' place of teaching,' ' magisterii locus.' The Bishop preached, in fact, sit ting in his chair, just as our Lord did in the Syna gogue at Nazareth.21 The history of preaching by Presbyters is not easy to write, from the lack of continuous evidence. It would, as far as I can judge, seem to have been commoner in the first and second centuries than in the third, and in the fourth to have grown up in the East before it was generaUy accepted in the West. In the first century St. Paul evidently supposes that some Presbyters wUl ' labour in word and doctrine ' (1 Tim. v. 17). The ancient homUy once ascribed to Clement, which may be dated in the first half of the second century, imphes that the Presbyters have been admonishing the people before it was read (ch. 17). I do not think that there is simUar evidence 21 St. Lukeiv. 20: cp. Acts xviii. 11, Hermas, Mand. xi., Ap. Const, ii. 57, Aug. De Cat. Rud. 19, < Antistites sedentes loquuntur ad populum.' PREACHING BY PRESBYTERS AND OTHERS 165 for the third century. St. Cyprian's ' presbyteri doctores,' who sat with him to examine candidates for orders, were probably not preachers (' Ep.' 29). On the other hand, we find evidence from Asia Minor early in the fourth century that preaching was there considered part of a Presbyter's regular functions.22 Towards the latter part of that century it became more usual for Presbyters to preach in the East, even when a Bishop was present, and some of St. Chryso- stom's most famous sermons were delivered under these conditions. In these cases the Presbyters spoke first and the Bishops foUowed, aU, however, sitting.23 In the West the custom progressed more slowly, and it was considered an innovation when Valerius of Hippo permitted Augustine to preach in his presence.24 Rome, as was the case in some other particulars, was strangely behindhand in regard to preaching, and produced no great Christian orators in any rank of the clergy. The only two Popes renowned for their preaching in the first six centuries were St. Leo (440-461) and St. Gregory (590-604). Most of the others, it is probable, did not preach at all.25 22 See the first canon of Ancyra, a.d. 314, which mentions it as one of the things a lapsed Presbyter may not do. 23 Apost. Const, ii. 57, and Peregrinatio Silviae quoted below, p. 323, and St. Chrys. Horn. 2 in Verbis Esaiae. 24 See his Life, c. 5. Valerius defended it by Eastern examples. 25 Sozomen, vii. 19, says that at Rome neither the Bishop nor anyone else was accustomed to preach in church. Kraus, I.e. ' Pre- digt,' p. 642, argues agamst the truth of this sweeping statement, but there was clearly a difference between Rome and other Churches. When I was at Pisa, in 1868, I heard that one Lent course in the Cathedral was the only preaching in that city during the year. 166 II. BISHOPS, PRIESTS AND DEACONS Preaching by Deacons is not much heard of in early centuries. The Arian Bishop of Antioch, Leontius, was censured for letting his Deacon Aetius preach (PhUostorgius, iii. 17). On the other hand the greatest preacher of the East Syrian Church, Ephrem Syrus, of Edessa, was a Deacon. But gener aUy it was held to be contrary to rule, and in the fourth century it appears to have been part of the general policy of checking the aspirations of Deacons to forbid them to preach.26 The Ministry of Ordination. This also is clearly a most distinctive function of a Bishop. Yet even in this he could not properly act alone, except in the ordination of a Deacon according to the practice of our own day. The Deacon was the Bishop's special assistant or minister, and, as the old canons say, the Bishop alone lays his hands upon him because he is not ordained to the Presbyterate but to his own service.27 The usage of Presbyters joining with a Bishop in laying hands on other Presbyters is indeed by no means universal, but their presence and co-operation 26 Hilary the Deacon, In Ephes. : ' Nunc neque diaconi in populo praedicant.' The general policy is to be gathered from the Canons of Aries, 15 (against Deacons offering) and 18, and Nice, 18 (against Deacons giving communion to Presbyters etc., or sitting in their midst : where see Dr. Bright' s note). Cp. Laodicea, 20. 27 This is the general sense of the parallel passages in forms of the lost Church Order : see Achelis, C. H. p. 65, Hauler's frag ments, p. 109, and T. D. i. 38. This has been adopted in the Gallican Statutes, 4 : ' Diaconus cum ordinatur solus episcopus, qui eum benedicit, manum super caput illius ponat, quia non ad sacerdotium sed ad ministerium consecratur ' THE MINISTRY OF ORDINATION 167 in the prayers, together with the Deacons, seems general. This joint laying on of hands is found in most, though not aU, of the forms of the old lost Church Order as weU as in the ' GaUican Statutes,' and in the modern Roman Ordinal as weU as our own.28 The co-operation of other Bishops in the con secration of a Bishop is expressly ordered by the fourth canon of Nicaea, which prescribes three as the general rule. It is, of course, weU known that this rule of co-operation has not always been observed, though it is acknowledged in the West by Pope Innocent I. (a.d. 402-417) as weU, of course, as in the East.29 The Roman form of the lost Church Order, however, prescribed that ' one of the Presbyters and Bishops ' should be chosen to lay hands on the Bishop elect on behalf of aU, and the modern Roman custom, when the Pope officiates, is for him to act alone. But in the face of the declaration of Pope Innocent it is difficult to beheve that this custom has been continuous.30 28 It is not apparently in the Canons of Hippolytus (cp. ii. 10 with iv. 30) ; but in the other forms (Egyptian Heptateuch, 32 ; Ludolf, 22; Hauler, p. 108; T. D. i. 30) and the Gallican Statutes, 3. In the Roman Ordinal, which in many things is a composite pro duction, there is a laying on of hands by the Bishop alone, and another by the Bishop with the Presbyters. The latter may have been introduced from Gallican sources, like many other Roman rites. 29 Ep. ii. 2 : 'Nee unus Episcopus ordinare praesumat epi- scopum, ne furtivum. beneficium praestitum videatur.' The Council of Aries, canon 20, desired seven Bishops, but would be satisfied with three. The Apostolic Canon says : ' Let a Bishop be ordained by two or three Bishops.' There are, however, known old cases where ordination by one Bishop has been acknowledged : see instances in Bingham, ii. 11, § 5, and Dr. Bright's Notes on Canons, Nice 4, p. 11, Chalcedon 25, p. 187. 30 Cp. Bingham, I.e. § 6, and Duchesne, Origines, p. 348. Du chesne cites the words of the canonist Ferrandus, who, quoting the 168 II. BISHOPS, PRIESTS AND DEACONS As regards the efficacy of the act of the assistant Bishops, Martene's energetic assertion of it is worth quoting : ' It may be asked whether aU the Bishops who assist (adsunt) are co-operators or are merely witnesses of the consecration. But it must be affirmed, without the least hazard of doubt, that they are not only witnesses but also co-operators.' 31 It is important for us Anghcans to remember this, inas much as Bishop William Barlow, the principal con- secrator of Archbishop Parker, was assisted by three Bishops, all of whom said aloud the words : ' Take the Holy Ghost ' etc. The fact, therefore, that Barlow's consecration as Bishop was at one time impugned (long after his death, and on most inade quate grounds) becomes of minor importance, since the other three were amply sufficient to hand on a valid succession. In saying this I must not be understood to admit that there is any probability that Barlow himself was not validly consecrated.32 As regards the position of Presbyters who assist words of the Roman Council of a.d. 385, ' Ut unus episcopus epi- scopum non ordinet,' adds 'excepta ecclesia Romana.' Bingham, following Cotelier's note to Ap. Const, iii. 20, considers these words to be a gloss. Ferrandus lived in the sixth century. 31 De Ant. Eccl. Rit. i. c. 8, art. 10, § 16. 32 I may refer to a Letter on the Succession of Bishops in the Church of England, addressed to Abp. Heykamp (S. P. C. K. 1892), and De Validitate Ordinum Anglicanorum Responsio ad Batavos (Long mans etc. 1895). The first specially deals with the case of Parker and Barlow : the second with the requirements made by Roman Catholics as to form, matter and intention in conferring Holy Orders. The fullest discussion of Barlow's and Parker's cases is probably in A. W. Haddan's notes to the third volume of Bramhall's Works, in the Anglo-Catholic Library (1844). See also the Responsio Archi- episcoporum Angliae in reply to Leo XIII in 1897. BISHOPS' 'IUS LITURGICUM' 169 in the ordination of other Presbyters, I feel great reluctance to acquiesce in the position that they are mere witnesses — although that is, I beheve, the ordinary assumption. They represent the Presbyterate or ' Sacerdotium ' receiving new members into its order, and, whether they actuaUy touch the heads of the ordinands or not, their presence and prayers are an ordinary part of the mystery of ordination con sidered as a means of grace. We have seen, then, that in the common offices in which Bishops and Presbyters were engaged Bishops had the presidency and direction ; that in regard to preaching in the Liturgy it was their special preroga tive ; and that in ordination their presence and ministry was considered absolutely necessary, at any rate after the decision of the case of CoUuthus in a.d. 324. It needs scarcely to be added that while Presbyters under accusation were accountable to Bishops, Bishops could only be judged by other Bishops. The ' Ius Liturgicum.' Another right of Bishops which was naturaUy derived from the foregoing was the Ius Liturgicum or right to compose or authorise prayers for public use. Recent research has added much to our store of early prayers before the composition of the Liturgies at present in use, and iUustrates the freedom which existed in this matter. The recovery of several chapters towards the end of the Epistle of St. Clement gives us some long intercessory prayers, 170 II. BISHOPS, PRIESTS AND DEACONS including a beautiful one for rulers, which are the earhest that have come down to us outside the canonical Scriptures. The ' Didache ' has some shorter forms, the exact import and use of which, as regards the Eucharistic service, are not quite clear.33 The different forms of the ' Lost Church Order,' of which three have been edited in our own generation, are fuU of prayers which must have been in use in the third or fourth century, some of them probably at Rome, some certainly at Alexandria. Further, a manuscript at Mount Athos has given us the service-book of the Church of Thmuis in the Delta, dating about a.d. 350 and probably compiled by Sarapion, the friend of Athanasius. Minute examination of the long-known ' Apostolic Constitu tions ' makes it probable that the Liturgy and other forms contained in the eighth book are those of the Church of Antioch ; and the prayers of the ' Testa ment of our Lord,' based upon those of the lost Church Order, are probably those of some Church of Asia Minor, revised about a.d. 400 in Syria. A comparison of these books shows that, while in some cases (as in the prayers of Clement and those of the prayer-book of Thmuis) complete independence was shown, in others, forms, once established, were enlarged and interpolated or amended rather than entirely re written. It is difficult to say which process shows the greater freedom, though it is freedom in each case of a different kind. It is not necessary to suppose that 33 For the history of these documents see above, Introduction, pp. 16 foil. RECENT REVISION OF CHURCH SERVICES 171 aU such prayers were compUed by Bishops. Gregory Nazianzen teUs us of St. Basil that while he was stiU a Presbyter he did good service to the Church of Caesarea in Cappadocia by composing forms and directions for public worship, used, no doubt, with the consent and authority of the Bishop, Eusebius.34 Recent years have brought forward this right of Bishops among ourselves ; and it has been exercised by us with general though not perhaps universal approval, and has been welcomed in many quarters as meeting a practical want. We have revised existing forms outside the Prayer-book, especiaUy those for the Consecration of churches and places of burial, the Reception of Converts, and Harvest Thanksgivings, and have issued others for the Institution and Induction of Clergy, the Commem oration of Founders and Benefactors, and the like, besides sanctioning many drawn up by others, whether individuals or societies, for use as additional services. In so doing we have made free use of one another's materials, generaUy without acknowledg ment, and in this way a large body of additional services outside the Prayer-book is being submitted to the test of experience. It is to be hoped that in time, but not too soon or with any hurry, the most effective of these services wiU come into general use, and perhaps at last receive canonical authority.35 34 Oratio in laudem Basilii (Orat. xliii. 34), ei^5v Siarafeis kcu evKO0"/itas tov firip,aTOcrcroTop,£a>, 'to cut out the tongue.' Cp. Gloss. Philox. : 'yXwo-cro- ropca Linguatio, Elinguatio ; yAu>o-o-oTo/«S Linguo.' This may explain Hauler's manuscript rendering ' linguosus.' READERS— THEIR OLD IMPORTANCE 187 knowing that he works the place of an Evangehst. For he who fiUs the ears of those who do not under stand shaU be counted a workman enroUed in the books of God.' The duty of a Reader in church is of course primitive and honourable. It must always be respected by Christians as the one definite pubhc ministry which our Blessed Lord accepted in the Jewish Church.15 The service of the Christian Church was in many points similar to that of the Synagogue, and reading the Scriptures was a duty common to both, though in the Synagogue a special class of persons was not set apart for it. In the Church it was often, though not exclusively, committed to the ordained clergy. Thus St. Paul writes to Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 13) : ' TU1 1 come, give attention to reading, to exhortation, to teaching,' and he goes on to connect these duties with the special gift received at his ordination. 9. It would seem that in the first age also the Reader was expected to give traditional explanations of passages which had not been explicitly expressed in order to avoid suspicion on the part of the heathen. I take it that this is the meaning of the verse at the end of Daniel (xii. 10), ' the wise' or 'the teachers shaU understand ' and of the note inserted into our 15 St. Luke says (iv. 16) that He went into the Synagogue Kara to £ta>0os avr<3, and stood up to read. This seems to imply that His reading was customary as well as His attendance at Synagogue. What was new was His preaching. The fact that Julian acted as a Reader before he became Emperor is worth noting. 188 III. THE MINOR ORDERS Blessed Lord's prophecy of the destruction of Jerusa lem both in St. Matthew (xxiv. 15) and St. Mark (xiii. 14) : ' He that readeth let him understand.' Some of the notes of interpretation in St. John's Gospel (e.g. i. 38, 41, 42 etc.) may probably be similarly explained as glosses introduced by Readers. It is further not im probable that the primitive Reader was also usuaUy an Interpreter, able to translate the Aramaic Gospel or even Epistle into Greek, and that this is the meaning of Papias's remark about St. Matthew's Gospel : ' Everyone interpreted it as he was able ' ; i.e. before the authorised Greek version was published every Reader in a bUingual Church did his best to render the book offhand into Greek (Eus. ' H. E.' iii. 39, 15). A Reader, again, is mentioned in Justin's descrip tion of the Liturgy (circa 140 a.d.) as distinct from the President who preached and said the prayers, and the Deacons who distributed the Eucharist after its consecration. He was therefore at that time appar ently neither a Bishop nor a Deacon. The remark of the ' Apostolic Church Order ' which puts him before the Deacons, ' Let him know that he works the place of an Evangelist,' imphes something of a charismatic ministry, and, indeed, not without reason, as those who have heard reaUy good reading in church can testify. By the time of TertuUian, however, the Reader was distinctly below a Deacon ; and he notices it as a mark of heretical disorder that a man who is to-day a Deacon may, among heretics, to-morrow be a Reader, i.e. may go down a step in the Ministry (' De Praescr.' 41). SimUarly in the lost DUTIES AND POSITION OF READERS 189 Church Order he seems to have ranked next to the Deacon.16 10. But by the middle of the century he has faUen below the Subdeacon, as in Cyprian, and even below the Acolyte, as in the letter of Cornelius. His position in the African Church was, however, a fairly high one, as St. Cyprian's letters testify, and if that Church had continued to have a powerful existence the office might have maintained something of its old dignity. We get a ghmpse of it in the Diocletian persecution in which the Readers played a considerable part as Martyrs and Confessors, since the copies of the Scriptures, which were speciaUy sought out and destroyed, were in their custody. In the interesting and lifehke ' Acts of the Spohation of the Church of Cirta ' in 303 a.d.17 we find the Readers pointed to by other Church officers as responsible for the sacred books. One very large copy was found alone in the Church. When the Subdeacons were asked for more they rephed : ' We have no more, because we are Subdeacons : but the Readers have the books.' Search was then made in the Readers' 'houses (of whom six were named) with the result that thirty-two more books and four unbound sheets (quiniones) 16 As in the Canons of Hippolytus, vii. § 48, the Egyptian Hepta teuch, 35, and the Ethiopic Statutes, 27 (after Widows). The parallel passage in Hauler's fragments is lost. In the Testament of our Lord, i. 23 (pp. 37, 47) the Readers are mentioned before Subdeacons : in i. 35, p. 87, Subdeacons come first. In Ap. Const, viii. 20, Sub deacons come first, as was natural in a document edited late in the fourth century. 17 Monum. ad Donatistarum Hist. (P. L. viii. 371). 190 III. THE MINOR ORDERS were found. There is evidence also that in the Spanish Church Lectors read the Epistle and Gospel at least up to the year 400, and I believe that in the Eastern Church great freedom is aUowed to the present day.18 But the general tendency in the West has been to depress the office of Reader and to exalt the more external side of worship. In the Latin Church the Reader was apparently restricted to the Old Testament lessons in the Mass, and as these dropped out his office feU more and more into desuetude. The Subdeacon took the Epistle as his special province, and the Deacon the Gospel. The only reference I can find directly to the ' Lector ' as stiU officiating, in the rubrics of the Roman Missal, is before the Prophecy on Good Friday, a day on which many ancient customs are observed. No doubt the eight Prophecies of Easter Eve should also be read by Lectores.19 11. This elevation of ritual and disciplinary officers, at the expense of an order of men who had the great duty of reading holy Scriptures to the people, is a development of a retrograde character which we ought not to fail to notice. Certainly our own Church has done weU in reviving the office of Reader as an important one and in encouraging men of position to 18 Cone. Tolet. i., canon 2 ; Smith, De Graecae Eccl. hod. Statu, p. 145, quoted by Martene, I. iv. 5, § 1. 19 See Gavantus, In Rubr. Miss, ad loc. : ' Leguntur Prophetiae] In medio Chori . . . ubi scilicet ab omnibus audiri queat Lector.' From a note on the general Rubric about the Epistle (p. 127, ed. Ant. 1646) it seems that one of lower rank than a Subdeacon may read it, clad in a surplice. DIGNITY OF MODERN LAY READERS 191 accept it. It is weU that such men, whether land owners, merchants and professional men, or school masters, organists, clerks and sextons, and the hke, should not only become Readers in the daily offices, but should officiate, as far as laymen can, in the Liturgy proper. It is, in my opinion, a great mistake to put forward boys in the latter capacity. Sometimes this is done when other clergy are in church, perhaps in something hke lay dress. The service should be made as noble and dignified as man can make it ; as many clergy as possible of aU ranks should take part in it ; and the people should be instructed and induced to ' draw near ' in person by coming into the chancel at the offertory. Readers certainly took part in the Eucharistic office in ancient days, both in reading the Scriptures generaUy, and particularly the Gospel, and in standing with the other clergy at the anaphora. The reading of the Gospel is imphed in two forms of the lost Church Order, and it was permitted in the African Church.20 20 Can. Hipp. vii. 48 : ' Neque manus ei imponatur primo [i.e. until he is advanced to a higher ministry] sed evangelium ab epi- scopo ipsi porrigatur.' Even in the Testament of our Lord, i. 45, where ' a book ' only is mentioned, the reading of the Gospel is implied in the prayer : ' " Tu autem N. quem Christus vocavit ut sis minister verborum ipsius, cura et contende ut appareas probatus in canone isto et in gradu adhuc maiore, etiam coram Domino nostro lesu Christo, ut tibi in suis mansionibus sempiternis retribuat pro his mercedem optimam," et sacerdotes dicant " Fiat, fiat, fiat." ' In the Egypt. Heptateuch, 35, the book of the 'Apostle' (= St. Paul's Epistles) is given. In Ap. Const, viii. 11, 'a book: only is men tioned. In the longer form the Reader receives imposition of hands, and a rather fine prayer is prescribed, asking for him 'a prophetic spirit,' and making reference to Ezra. 192 III. THE MINOR ORDERS According to St. Cyprian the Lector read the Gospel from the ' pulpitum ' or ' tribunal ' (' Epp.' 38, 39), that is apparently from an ' Ambo ' projecting in front of the raised step on which the clergy sat and where the Eucharist was celebrated. This was the place in which aU the Liturgical Scriptures were read, and no lower position was assigned to the Reader than to any other officer of the Church. 12. The office of Doorkeeper or Ostiarius, the lowest of those mentioned by Cornehus and of the existing degrees of ministry through which a candidate has to pass in the Roman Church, is, hke those of Subdeacon and Acolyte, formed by division of the Deacon's duties. Even as late as the ' Apostohc Con stitutions ' we find a Deacon standing at the women's door, whUe a Doorkeeper is at the men's door (ii. 57). There is no earher reference to the Ostiarius than the letter of Cornehus. He was admitted in the GaUican rite by the dehvery of the keys, and this is now the practice of the Roman Pontifical. The beUs are also put into his charge. 13. I have spoken in passing of Interpreters. They have left but scanty traces in Church History as a distinct order of men, though there can be no doubt that their duty was a necessary and frequent one in bUingual countries such as Syria, Egypt and Africa. The use of Interpreters in the Jewish Church was introduced after the Captivity, as we learn from the eighth chapter of the book of Nehemiah, where we INTERPRETERS 193 find a description of the solemn reading of the Law by Ezra the priest, and have a hst of the names of those who ' made the people to understand ' (Neh. viii. 7, 8, 9, 13). They seem to have been aU or most of them Levites (cp. Neh. ix. 4). Their duty of course was to translate the Hebrew text read by Ezra into the vernacular Syi'iac or Chaldee, which the people, with the usual facUity and adaptability of Israelites, had acquired during their captivity. In the New Testament ' interpretation ' is directly mentioned only in reference to the ' unknown tongues' (yXwcrcrai) in 1 Cor. xii. 10, xiv. 5, 26, 28 : but the ordinary use required no direct mention and may be taken for granted. For my own part, I believe that the twelve Apostles generaUy, hke our Lord Himself, spoke in Hebrew, or rather Syriac, such as was used in Gahlee. They would therefore need interpreters when they passed out of Jewish synagogues into Greek-speaking lands, or even in some of the synagogues of Decapohs. St. Peter, the Apostle of the circumcision, is said to have had Mark for one interpreter, and Glaucias, who afterwards became a heretic, for another. It may be, as St. Jerome suggests, that the difference between his two Epistles is partly due to the variety of translators from the original, and it is likely that those who interpreted for him oraUy would also be employed in making versions of his writings. I have elsewhere21 brought forward evi dence to show the probability that the Epistle of St. James had a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Dr. 21 See the Studia Biblica, vol. i. pp. 142-150, Oxford, 1885, O 194 HI. THE MINOR ORDERS Biesenthal has done the same, with infinitely greater knowledge, for the Epistle to the Hebrews. But as the Church grew more powerful, first Greek and then Greek and Latin grew to be its special languages, though there is a large Christian literature in Syriac and Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic and Arabic, which is largely based on interpretation, especiaUy from the Greek. In Palestine and Egypt it is stiU common to hear parts of the service in two languages : in Greek and Arabic, or English and Arabic, in Palestine, and in Coptic and Arabic in Egypt. Even in the West some traces remain of bilingual services in Greek and Latin, as in the service for Good Friday, where the anthem "Ayios 6 9e6s is said alternately in Greek and Latin in connection with the ' Improperia ' or reproaches to the people of Israel. Similarly, Kyrie eleison etc. is said at the beginning of the Litany. But in old days in some places, both in Italy and France, there was a much larger use of the Greek language, of which details may be found in Martene, I. ui. 2, and iv. 5, § 4. No doubt some of the Graeco- Latin Gospels, like the Codex Bezae, were used for this purpose, and probably the Graeco-Latin Epistles likewise. 14. The ancient notices of Interpreters as a class come from Syria and Egypt. Procopius the martyr held the three offices of Reader, Interpreter and Exorcist in the Chm-ch of Scythopolis, one of the towns of Decapolis ; Epiphanius mentions them in his hst of Church officers as ' interpreters from one INTERPRETERS— COPIATAE 195 language into another either in the readings or the sermons ' ; and they are prayed for with Subdeacons and Readers in the lately discovered Egyptian prayer- book.22 No traces of their ordination have, I beheve, been found. A striking instance of their work in our own land is that of King Oswald standing by the side of St. Aidan as he preached in Northumbria. 15. The hst of Epiphanius, to which reference has just been made, gives us the names of ' Subdeacons, Readers, Deaconesses, Exorcists, Interpreters, Copia- tae and Doorkeepers.' The Copiatae or Totters, also caUed in the West Fossarii or Fossores, as in the Chm-ch of Cirta (above, § 10), were the grave-diggers of the Church and conducted the funerals of Christian people. They seem in the East to have been an institution of the age of Constantine and were speciaUy numerous in his new capital city. The mention of them at Cirta, in the persecution of Diocletian, is of course somewhat earlier, and they seem almost certainly to have existed stiU earher at Rome in connection with the catacombs. They were probably a class of skiUed artisans, having a taste for sculpture and . masonry, and not merely rough labourers. In some places apparently the Deacons numbered the care of the dead among their multifarious duties. We 22 Ruinart, Acta Martyrum, p. 353, and in Valesius's notes on Eusebius : ' in Syri interpretatione sermonis ' ; Epiph. Expos. Fid. at end of the Panarium, c. 21 ; Sarapion, no. 25. ' Silvia ' has an interesting description of interpretation, both of the lections and sermons from Greek into Syriac, and also of the sermons into Latin, at Jerusalem. But she names a Presbyter as interpreting for the Bishop. 196 HI. THE MINOR ORDERS read in the ' Testament of our Lord,' i. 34, that ' if a Deacon be in a city by the sea-shore he is to traverse the coast rapidly to see if there be anyone who has died by shipwreck, and is to clothe and bury him,' and in a later passage he has the duty of embalming the dead ' when a man has desired it ' (ii. 23). 1 6. About the same time as the institution of the Copiatae arose that of the Parabolani (TrapafioXavels), whose office was to attend the sick, especiaUy in times of pestttence, and who are noted as speciaUy numerous at Alexandria. They are thought to have their name from the ' hazard ' to which theu- lives were exposed, according to the saying of St. Paul to the Phttippians (ii. 30). They, too, were doing work that in earlier times was counted a duty of the Deacons and Deaconesses (' Ap. Const.' iii. 19), or of ordinary Christian people : as in the plagues described by St. Cyprian and Dio nysius of Alexandria. For some reason or another the service became a large and popular one, and led to factious organisation requiring repression by law. The guttd or corporation so formed is mentioned several times in imperial laws ; but it does not seem to have continued much after the time of Justinian. Probably the need for it became less with the growth of hospitals, which were an institution of the fourth century. It wttl be remembered that Christian hospi tals and poor-houses excited the emulation of the Emperor Julian, an emulation probably especiaUy kindled by the efforts of his former friend, St. BasU,23 23 See the interesting article ' Hospitals ' in Diet. Chr. Ant. PARABOLANI— PSALTAE 197 of which Gregory Nazianzen speaks so eloquently in his Panegyric after Bastt's death. 17. Sacred music is primitive in the Christian Church, but special bodies of Psaltae or Psalmists are not an early institution. Our Saviour and His Apostles sang a ' hymn ' — that is, probably, a Psalm or a group of Psalms — at the close of the Last Supper, an incident which has always dwelt in the loving memory of the Chm-ch. St. Paul in two of the Epistles of the Roman captivity (Eph. v. 19, Col. iii. 16) takes for granted that the praise of God and sound doctrine wttl be the subject of ' Psalms and hymns and spiritual songs ' ; and one of the earliest references to the Church in secular literature — Pliny's letter to Trajan — mentions the ' songs addressed to Christ as God ' which were chanted by Christians alternately in theu- regular meetings before day -break. There is also an elaborate comparison between unity of spirit and choral music in St. Ignatius's Epistle to the Ephesians (ch. 4) which implies familiar experience of the latter art and possibly an instrumental accompani ment. But this, as I shaU show presently, is an almost isolated evidence. Those also who prefer congregational music may find an argument for it in the fact that Psalmists or choirmen are not mentioned in the Church till the latter half of the fourth century, when they are spoken of in the 'Apostolic Constitutions,' iii. 11, and the ' Apostolic Canons,' 43 and 69, as weU as by the Council of Laodicea, can. 24, just after or just before 198 III. THE MINOR ORDERS the Readers, with whose office they are frequently connected in forms of ordination. Before proceeding to give some account of the method of Psalmody it may be as weU to conclude what has to be said respecting the use of instruments in the Church. 18. The passage of Ignatius, as I have said, stands very much alone ; and in the Eastern Churches to the present day such music is not admitted. This is aU the more remarkable since the Apocalypse represents the service of heaven as accompanied by harpers harping with their harps (v. 8, xiv. 2, xv. 2), and Orpheus with his lute is a symbol of Christ both in the literature and art of the first three centuries.24 Nor was the practice of playing on the harp forbidden to Christians in theu- domestic festivals, or perhaps in the agapae or banquets of loving feUowship (see Clem. Al. ' Paed.' ii. 5). The flute was whoUy proscribed, as ministering too much to the passions and intimately connected with the dangerous associations of the theatre. Various reasons have been suggested to account for this remarkable neglect of an art that is in itself so fitted to assist proper religious emotion. It may be that it was thought undesirable, in days when persecution was imminent, to attract attention to Christian assemblies by the sound of instruments. It may be that even the harp was too much associated with heathen festivals. I cannot think it is likely that Thomas Aquinas is right in asserting that the 24 See Kraus, Realencykl. s.v. 'Orpheus.' LATE USE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 199 Church avoided instrumental music lest it should seem to Judaise,25 though that was a Puritan cry in later days. The matter deserves more attention than has apparently been bestowed upon it by theologians. 19. Even the organ, which to us is so closely associated with Church music that any other kind of music played upon it seems almost irreverent, was known for a long period apparently only as an instrument of secular education or amusement. It has a long pre-Christian history, starting originaUy with the mouth-organ, the pan-pipe or syrinx, to which, in the course of its development, wind was supphed by hydraulic pressure or by beUows, and it is not infrequently referred to by Christian writers on account of the marvels of its construction, the first to mention it being TertuUian (' De An.' 14). 26 Repre sentations of it are found on early Christian monu ments at Rome, and a remarkable one of pneumatic organs, blown by men standing on the beUows, is on the obehsk set up by Theodosius the Great in the hippodrome at Constantinople. The introduction of the organ into the Western Church may go back to the time of Pope Vitahan 28 Summa, secunda secundae, q. 91, art. 2 : ' Ecclesia nostra non assumit instrumenta musica, sicut citharas et psalteria, in divinas laudes, ne videatur judaizare,' quoted by Bingham, viii. 7, § 14. 26 References in support of the statements in . this paragraph will be partly found (somewhat awkwardly arranged) in Kraus, Realencykl. s.v. ' Orgel.' The figures on the obelisk of Theodosius are on p. 558. Other, and in some respects fuller, information will be found in Mr. R. Lunn's article ' Organ' in Diet. Chr. Ant., where there are also three interesting woodcuts. Neither article how ever, is quite worthy of the subject. 200 III. THE MINOR ORDERS (a.d. 658-672). Its use is, however, generaUy traced to the present made by the Emperor Constantine Copronymus to Pipin, King of France, in a.d. 757.27 This was not itself for church use, but it is supposed to have been the model or suggestion on which his son, Charles the Great, had one buttt for his cathedral at Aachen. But, even with the help of this precedent, churchmen were slow in adopting the instrument — partly, no doubt, on account of its costliness and the difficulty of playing it, partly also because the old plain song did not need and was not intended for such accompaniment. It is interesting, nevertheless, to recollect that St. Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne, circa a.d. 700, gives a yet earlier description of the organ, probably from experience (' De Laude Virginum,' P. L. 89, p. 240), and that St. Dunstan gave one to Aldhelm's convent of Malmesbury, which apparently remained until the twelfth century (WiU. Malmesb. ' Vit. Aid.' P.Z,. 179, p. 1660). Ailwin simttarly provided copper organ pipes for Ramsey Abbey (founded a.d. 969). The Benedictine Cathedral of Winchester had a grand organ with 400 pipes in the middle of the tenth cen tury, and that of Canterbury had one built in the twelfth century. It was in fact speciaUy to English conventual churches that the organ belonged. For, according to Martene, its use was probably unknown in French Abbeys before the fourteenth century. The common use of organs in Italy has been connected with the name of the Venetian Marino 27 Martene on Regula S. Benedicti, c. 19, P. L. 66, p. 475. ORGANS— METHOD OF PSALMODY 201 Sanuto TorseUo — an historian of the Crusades (circa a.d. 1312). But they have never penetrated into the papal chapel ; nor was the music of Palestrina or Orlando Lasso written for the organ. At the Refor mation Lutherans were generally for, and Calvinists against, the organ, and our own generation has seen it introduced into Scotland with some reluctance and by no means universaUy. In the reign of Queen Eliza beth some of the reforming party noted it as a defect that ' In addition to the exquisite singing in parts the use of organs is become more general in the churches.' 28 An organ was buUt for Canterbury Cathedral by Abp. Parker.29 But during the civU wars organs were generaUy destroyed or removed and thus gave an opening at the Restoration for the large work done in this country by the German Bernard Smith (commonly caUed Father Smith) and the Frenchmen Thomas and Rene" Harris. It is only, however, in the nineteenth century that organs have come into nearly aU parish churches, displacing the bands of musicians which many of us can stttl remember, though few, I fear, still remain. 20. As regards the method of Psalmody in the ancient Church, it was originaUy congregational. We may, however, distinguish three methods of congrega tional singing : (1) when the whole Psalm or hymn was sung by aU together ; (2) when the verses were sung antiphonaUy, first by those on one side of the 28 ' Laurence Humphry and Thomas Sampson to H. Bullinger,' a.d. 1566, in Zurich Letters, i. p. 164 (Parker Society). 29 Zurich Letters, ii. p. 150. 202 III. THE MINOR ORDERS church and then by those on the other ; (3) when the leader or minister sang half the verse and the people responded with the other half. The first would be apphcable to the Psalms sung most frequently. Some Psalms were so familiar, by constant use, that it was only necessary to give out the first hne, and the whole body would take it up. The Deacon, as the deputy of the Bishop, would act as precentor. Such Psalms would be those usuaUy sung at morning and evening prayer, e.g. the 63rd, ' O God, thou art my God : early wiU I seek thee,' and the corresponding evening Psalm 141, ' Lord, I caU upon thee, haste thee unto me : and consider my voice when I cry unto thee. Let my prayer be set forth in thy sight as the incense : and let the lifting up of my hands be an evening sacrifice.'30 Such also would be the 34th, sung as an invitation to Communion, ' I wiU alway give thanks. . . . O taste, and see, how gracious the Lord is,' and two other Eucharistic Psalms, the 45th, ' My heart is inditing,' and the 145th, ' I wttl magnify thee, O God, my King,' which in many points is suitable. A verse of this Psalm, I may remark, is stiU over the door of the old Cathedral — once the temple of Rimmon, and now the great Mosque — at Damascus : ' Thy kingdom, O Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and thy dominion is to aU generations,' where I photographed it 30 January 1898, having, by 30 Ap. Const, viii. 35, cp. ii. 59, and St. Chrys. In Psalm. 140 (our 141), who speaks of it as being sung daily, and known by nearly everyone. The 133rd, 'Behold how good,' was probably sung at the agape : Tert. De Ieiuniis, 13, ' Hoc tu psallere non facile nosti, nisi quo tempore cum compluribus coenas.' See below, pp. 307 ff. 342 ff. CONGREGATIONAL SINGING 203 a curious accident, just sung it in our own httle church as one of the Psalms for the day. Before the institution of the hour services Psalms were sung before and between the liturgical lections, which in early days consisted of parts of the Old as weU as of the New Testament. It is probable that, as the hour services increased in length and popularity, the Psalms dropped out of the Liturgy, or were replaced by short hymns or fragments, and the lessons in most churches were reduced to those from the Epistle and Gospel. We ought to remember this fulness of the ancient Liturgy, before in any way encouraging or permitting our young people to be satisfied with presence at Holy Communion, and at no other service, even if they are always communicants. 21. The second method of congregational singing — half answering to half — is imphed in Phny's letter to Trajan (secum invicem dicentes) and is based apparently on previous Jewish custom. Nevertheless the notices which we have of it in Church History belong rather to the fourth and fifth centuries. One of them indeed ascribes its origin to Ignatius of Antioch, and this may be evidence that it was speciaUy connected with that Church (Socrates, ' H. E.' vi. 8). The usage of having two choirs is ascribed to the monks Flavian and Diodorus at Antioch in the reign of Constantine, being, I presume, a modification only of an existing custom (Theodoret, ' H. E.' ii. 19). The custom found its way into the West through St. Ambrose (St. Aug. ' Conf.' ix. 7, § 15). 204 III. THE MINOR ORDERS 22. The third method, that of the Minister saying part and the people responding, is of course as old as the book of Deuteronomy (xxvii. 15 foU.) in which the people are told to answer Amen to every Anathema. Amen is mentioned by St. Paul as the people's response to a Eucharistic prayer (1 Cor. xiv. 16). A similar method of more frequent response would seem to be implied in a Psalm hke the 136th, which has a refrain, ' For his mercy endureth for ever.' Readers of Church History wiU remember how St. Athanasius, when the Church at Alexandria was surrounded by Syrianus and his soldiers, sat down on his throne and bade the Deacon read this Psalm and the people to make the response to it : and after it was done, and their minds were so calmed and cheered, bade them depart home (' Apol. de Fuga,' 34). A similar refrain is found of course in the Canticle Benedicite omnia opera. We have an instance of it too in the morning hymn to Christ inserted in the ' Testament of our Lord,' i. 26, between the verses of which the people are directed to sing the refrain ' We praise thee, we bless thee, we acknowledge thee, O Lord, and we beseech thee, O God.' A more familiar instance is the use of the Gloria Patri after each Psalm, though this is not a very old usage, and the form of it varied from time to time.31 31 See the article ' Doxology ' in Diet. Chr. Ant. The oldest form appears to be that in Ps.-Ath. De Virginitate, c. a.d. 400 : ' Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, world without end, Amen.' The clause ' As it was in the beginning ' is of later date. CHOIRS IN THE GREEK CHURCH 205 23. In the modern Greek Church, as far as I have observed, there are always two divisions of the choir, each Psaltes standing at his desk and having a few choristers or singers round him. These desks are to the right and left outside the screen. I have several times taken my stand with the choir and have been courteously offered a book. The people do not, I beheve, usuaUy take part in the singing, but hum a bass note. This, I suppose, is what is meant in old writers by viryjx^v. To respond verbaUy is viraKoveiv or vTroxjtdWeLv, i.e. either to say the end of the verse of which the minister has said the beginning or to say the a.Kpoa-Tix'-ov or inserted response after a verse or series of verses. 206 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM AND THE CELIBACY OF THE CLERGY. Christian asceticism is an attempt to lead a perfect life on earth. It is an effort to fulfil to the utmost the most exacting duties of religion, to foUow to the fuU our blessed Lord's example in the points of it most difficult of imitation, and to accept His severest precepts as literaUy as reason wttl permit. Take first the three duties of external devotion which natural rehgion recognises — almsgiving, prayer and fasting — and make them the chief business of hfe ; take our Lord's example of detachment from earthly ties ; take His precepts, ' if thou wttt be perfect, go and seU that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in Heaven : and come foUow me ' (St. Matt. xix. 21, which fixed the vocation of St. Antony of Egypt), and ' If any man wiU come after me let him deny himself and take up his cross and foUow me ' (ib. xvi. 24) ; finaUy, combine with these His words approving (though by no means enjoining) abstinence from marriage for the sake of the Kingdom (ib. xix. 12) and His final blessing on detachment from home and its relations : ' everyone that hath left houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father, IDEAL OF A CHRISTIAN ASCETIC 207 or mother,1 or chUdren, or lands, for my name's sake, shaU receive a hundredfold, and shaU inherit eternal life ' (ib. xix. 29, R. V.) — and you have a fairly com plete account of the ideal of a Christian ascetic. Add to these the influence of such examples as those of Ehjah and John the Baptist, and you have the type of the Christian anchorite. Add again the two duties which common sense shows to be necessary in an as cetic community, the duty of labour and the duty of obedience, and you have the perfection of Monachism. Thus the basis is a strong one, and Christian asceticism in its various forms may rightly claim gratitude as a means of grace by which carefully disciphned hves minister to the weU-being of the "whole body, though the brethren and sisters who practise it minister neither the word nor the sacraments. It must not, however, be forgotten that if the basis is genuinely Christian, it does not necessarily involve the whole of Christianity, and that there is a great danger arising, both to ascetics themselves and to those over whom they exercise influence, from the frequent nan-owing of the type set up for imita tion. To take the most exacting duties, the most 1 Some Manuscripts add ' or wife,' and so in St. Mark x. 29, 30 ; but it seems an interpolation from St. Luke xviii. 29, 30. How it is to be interpreted there is not quite clear, for obviously our Lord did not sanction arbitrary desertion. It may mean (1) give up the opportunity of marriage ; (2) leave an unbelieving wife who insists upon idolatry or infidelity as the price of her companionship (cp. 1 Cor. vii. 15) ; or (3) temporarily and by agreement leave wife and children at home and go into the mission field, as we often see done by our own missionaries. 208 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM difficult points of Christ's example, the severest precepts, the most uncommon lives, to separate them from other Christian duties and to make an ideal out of them to be foUowed by everyone who feels inclined, is almost inevitably to miss much that is needful to true perfection. GeneraUy speaking, it may tend to leave out of sight the two great motives of hfe — love to God and love to our neighbour. Self may be the idol after aU. Again, the attempt to be perfect in a laborious and methodical way is too mechanical for those who are caUed to influence the whole of society and to dedicate the whole of mankind (self included) to God. It leads too often to the neglect of our Lord's warnings about the Christian's quiet exercise of the three duties of almsgiving, prayer and fasting, and brings them too prominently before the world. It offends against the precept ' Let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth.' It gives occasion to self-conscious pride, if not to actual boasting. It is noticeable that the earliest writer outside the Canon who refers to Christian asceticism is forced to give a warning on this point. ' If any one is able to abide in chastity to the honour of the flesh of the Lord,' writes Ignatius of Antioch to Polycarp of Smyrna, c. 5, ' let him so abide without boasting. If he boast he is lost ; and if it be known beyond the Bishop 2 he is poUuted.' 2 This is Bishop Lightfoot's rendering, supported in his notes. The original does not involve (as many have thought) a reproof of the man as setting himself above the Bishop, but implies that he may make the Bishop his confidant and desire his prayers and guidance in the pursuit of his resolution. A LAY AND CHARISMATIC MINISTRY 209 The ministry of asceticism, therefore, differs from that which we have been considering in previous chapters in two respects. It is a lay ministry, and it is a charismatic or occasional ministry. That it is a lay ministry is attested by many laws of the Church as weU as by the rules of the founders of monastic orders such as St. Benedict.3 That it is a charismatic ministry — hke that of the martyrs and confessors to which it historicaUy succeeded in the third and fourth centuries 4 — is clear, particularly from our Lord's and St. Paul's language as regards what is its most crucial point, the caU to continence. Chastity is a virtue required of aU Christians, and in most of them best fulfilled by adhering to the old precepts given to Adam and Noah and renewed by St. Paul, both 3 On the general character of asceticism as a lay movement see Bingham, vii. 2, § 7, and cp. Dr. W. Bright's note on Chalcedon, canon 4. St. Jerome's epigrammatic sentence in his Ep. 14 Heliodoro, c. 8 : ' Alia . . . monachorum causa est, alia clericorum. Clerici pascunt oves, ego pascor ' etc. was long remembered. It is quoted, e.g., by the Concilium Aquisgranense, a. d. 816, in its large collection of documents on the ( forma institutionis canonicorum et sanctimonialium,' no. xcvii. Labbe, Cone. 7, p. 1367. Chapters 60 and 62 of St. Benedict's rule clearly treat the priesthood as something external to the order, to be permitted in it under certain conditions. 4 Paulus, the founder of Egyptian monachism, retired into the desert during the Decian persecution, being denounced by his brother-in-law. This was in 249-250. Antony, who was born about this date, may have had personal intercourse with him during his long life, and certainly imitated his example, though not under fear of persecution. The Egyptian anchorites and monks were the great supporters of Athanasius in his days of trial. Thus voluntary asceticism succeeded to confessorship in persecution. Hence 'Confessor' is the general title for an ascetic in the old Roman service books. Our own ' Edward the Confessor ' is an instance. He is credited with having lived with his wife as with a daughter. 210 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM to men and women, in a rehgious and equal marriage, one principal aim of which must be the propagation of the race and family.5 Continence is a distinct gift, which some have and some have not. It depends largely upon mental and physical constitution, and hke other gifts is intended for special service.6 It has therefore been a departure from the true and rightful position of asceticism to confuse it with the hfe to which the clergy are caUed. It has been bad for ascetics and ascetic communities, who have thus been tempted to take a leading position in the Church to which theu- limited experience has not entitled them, and which they have often misused. It has also been bad for the clergy and theu- flocks, from whom they have been separated both in manner of life and in aims, more than God's Providence clearly designed them to be. There must be a body of clergy as Pastors and Teachers, as Priests and Ministers, in every age and in every country. Ascetics are for emergencies, hke Ehjah and John the Baptist, Antony, Basil, Benedict and Francis. The details of the history of the fusion which has taken place between the clerical and the ascetic 6 The connection of the increase or decrease of population with chastity is becoming, unfortunately, one of the marked experiences of modern life. Where the birth-rate dechnes in a nation in time of peace, it is natural to infer either that marriage is being avoided, and unchastity practised on a large scale, or that the marriage relation itself is being misused by intentional evasion of its responsibilities. 6 St. Matt. xix. 11: 'All cannot receive this saying but those to whom it is given ; ' 1 Cor. vii. 7 : ' Each man hath his own gift (xdpio-pjx) from God, one after this manner and another after that.' FUSION OF CLERICAL AND ASCETIC LIFE 211 hfe are too numerous even for summary. In the East it has not gone nearly so far as in the West, though in both parts of the Empire special legislation for the clergy has marked the union of Church and State ever since the time of Constantine. In the East continence was finally imposed on Bishops, and Bishops alone, by the TruUan CouncU, a.d. 692, canon 48. In the West attempts were frequently made to bring the clergy in larger or smaUer bodies into community life under canonical rule, notably by Eusebius of Vercellae in the fourth and by Augustine of Hippo at the begin ning of the fifth century. The ' canonical rule ' of Chro- degang, Bishop of Metz, circa a.d. 750, marks an epoch in Church history. It was an effort to organise a body of clergy under the Bishop, living generaUy under the rule of St. Benedict, but without the strictness of mon astic obedience and the prohibition of private property. This, which was at first a local rule for one Diocese, was taken up by the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle under the Emperor Louis in a.d. 816-7, with some modifi cations, and sent by the Emperor to various parts of his dominions. A simttar attempt was made in this country under king Edgar in the tenth century.7 7 For Eusebius of Vercellae see Ambrose, Epist. 64, § 66-70, ad dressed to that Church after Eusebius' s death : ' Ubi duo pariterexigi debent ab episcopo monasterii continentia et disciplina ecclesiae ' etc. On ' the canonical rule ' for clergy generally see Dacherius's edition of Chrodegang's Rule, reprinted in P. L. 89, pp. 1053 foil., which gives the references to the parallels from St. Benedict's Rule (P.L. 66, pp. 215 foil.) ; Isidore's De Officiis ; Prospers Vita contem- plativa etc. On its connection with the Council of 816-7 see Hefele, § 417. On the monastic revival in England see Wm. Hunt, H ist. of Eng. Ch. to the Conquest, ch. 17. Cp. E. Hatch, Growth ofCk. Inst. ch. 9- 212 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM Neither, however, was very largely successful ; though Chrodegang's institute has given birth to the Cathedral Chapters which exist among us in increasing usefulness to the present day, as homes of learning and schools of sacred music, as centres of energy, particularly in the origination of new and control of old work, and to some extent as centres of counsel, a function which they were speciaUy designed to fulfil. It was impos sible to force all the clergy to live in a few centres in a Diocese ; but the prominence given to this idea made it more and more natural to look to the monasteries as the proper homes of the clergy and to increase the tendency to endow monastic communities with tithes and land at the expense of the so-caUed ' secular ' clergy. The complement to this enforcement of the monastic ideal upon the clergy was the enforcement of the clerical ideal upon the monks, which began indeed in earlier times, but culminated only in the time of their decay, early in the fourteenth century, when aU choir- monks were ordered by Clement V. to be ordained priests.8 It would be out of place here to attempt to sketch the whole history of asceticism or even to trace its influence generaUy on the life of the clergy ; but for an able outline of early Monachism I would refer the 8 The tendency to think monachism specially compatible with the priesthood must be an old one, if the decree ascribed to Pope Boniface IV., < Sunt nonnulli fulti nullo dogmate,' ap. Gratian, xvi. 9, 1, cap. 25, dated a.d. 610 (Labbe, v. pp. 1618 f.) is genuine. Similar material is contained in the canons of Nimes a.d. 1072 the second of which is practically the same as the decree ascribed to Boniface, and may be the original of it. For the decree of Clement V. see Corpus Juris Canon. : Clementina III. t. x. c. 1, § 8. It is ascribed to the Council of Vienne, a.d. 1311. COMPULSORY CLERICAL CELIBACY 213 reader to Dom Cuthbert Butler's 'Lausiac History of PaUadius,' pp. 228-256 (Camb. 1898). I would also remark that the enforcement of the evangelical counsels as the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience is scholastic and medieval, not ancient. The Benedictine promise (' Rule ' c. 58, v.i. p. 302) is simply one of ' stability,' ' conversion ' and ' obedience.' A simttar progress towards rigorous system deeply affected the ordinary ministry, and must be treated in some detail. The narrative of the struggle for and against clerical cehbacy is a long and intricate one. But the same causes are found producing the same effects with a sad and wearisome monotony. There are only a few Councils of any importance in the West, from the CouncU of Elvira to the present day, which do not deal with it in some form or another. To treat it fully would be to write the history of Christian society and of the relations of Church and State ; for a very httle knowledge of the subject shows its intimate connec tion with hierarchical considerations generaUy, and particularly with the struggle for supremacy on the part of the Roman See. I have tried, however, to acquire such an independent knowledge of the history, as weU as of the controversy, as is possible in so weU- worn a field, and I see reason to suppose that much might reasonably be added by any historian who had leisure for research especiaUy in the department of wiUs and of manuscript registers.9 But it is impossible to miss the main hnes of study and observation. 9 The case for celibacy is put by many writers : e.g. Brother John of Ludegna at the Council of Trent, a.d. 1563 (Labbe, Cone 214 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM The only direct references to clerical marriage in the New Testament are those in the Pastoral Epistles, where it is noted among the quahties desirable in a xiv. 1534 foil.), L. Thomassinus, Vet. et nov. Eccl. Disciplina de Bene- ficiis, part. I. lib. ii. cc. 60-66 (Magunt. 1787), and P. Gasparri, De Sacra Ord. §§ 515-539 (Paris, 1893). The laws about it are discussed by Sanchez, De Matrimonio, lib. vii. disp. 27 foil. (t. ii. p. 101 foil., ed. Lugd. 1690), and Liguori, Th. Mor. §§ 806-812 (t. iii. p. 627 foil. Paris, 1878). Of foreign writers against compulsory cehbacy Chemnitz and Gerard are (as usual) worth reading, the former in his Examen Cone. Trid. part 3 (Francofurti, 1574), the latter in his Loci Theologici, xxiii. De Ministerio ecclesiastico, part 2 (ed. Preuss, vi. 220-260). The fullest and ablest work is that of the brothers J. A. and Augustin Theiner in their remarkable book Die Einf iih rung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit bei den christlichen Geistlichen und ihre Folgen, published in 1845 and re-edited by Dr. Fr. Nippold in three vols. (Barmen, 1892), where a large number of books and tracts are named. In our own country the Marriage of Priests was defended by Bp. John Poynet of Rochester (aft. Winchester) in 1549, both independently and in answer to 'Thomas Martin' (Bp. Stephen Gardiner). Martin's book in its second form, with a reply to Poynet, was also answered by an anonymous layman (April 1555) in A Defence of Priestes Manages, to some copies of which Abp. Parker added matter of his own : see Ant. Harmer [i.e. Hen. Wharton], A Specimen of some Errors and Defects in the H. of the Ref. by G. Burnet, p. 80 foil., 1693. There are four copies of A Defence of Priestes Manages in the Bodleian Library, two of the shorter form and two (numbered 4° U 21 Jur. and Tanner 948) with Abp. Parker's additions, which occur on pp. 274 and 276-351 inclusive. Jewel's Defence of the Apology contains much useful material ; so does [H. Wharton's] Treatise of the Celibacy of the Clergy (Lond. 1688, 4°). Henry C. Lea, of Philadelphia, published a Sketch of Sacerdotal Celi bacy in the Christian Church, in 1867 (2nd ed. Boston, 1884), unfortu nately without having read Theiner. It is not very scholarly, but it is indispensable on account of its large collection of material. Reference may also be made to Lucien Bocquet, Esquisse historique du celibat dans I'antiqidte et etude sur le celibat ecclesiastique jusqu' au Concile de Trente (These pour le doctorat : Paris, Giard et Briere, 16 rue Soufflot, 1894), which approaches the subject from the legal side. CLERICAL MARRIAGE IN THE N. T. 215 'Bishop' (1 Tim. iii. 2, Tit. i. 6) or 'Deacon' (1 Tim. iii. 12) that they should be ' husbands of one wife,' ruling their households and children weU. Whatever negative force there may be in the word ' one ' — a point which has been diversely interpreted 10 — there is, I think, no doubt that St. Paul positively desired aU the clergy of Ephesus and Crete to be married men. His obj ect, presumably, was to have men of tried and approved character, experienced in manage ment, examples to the people as householders and parents, who could have confidential mtercourse with the families of their flock without causing suspicion, and with fulness of sympathy. These are permanent reasons for clerical marriage ; and they were as likely 10 It must be remembered that /mSs ywaixos avvp, though it may be correctly rendered ' husband of one wife,' is more general in sense = ' a man who has had relations with no other woman than his wife.' A man who had transgressed, either by having a con cubine as well as a wife, as many heathen and alas ! many Chris tians did and do, or by lightly putting away his wife and marrying another in her lifetime, would be chiefly if not entirely in the Apostle's mind. Nor was polygamy unknown to the Jews of the Apostolic age and later : see Justin, Dial. 134. Dr. J. E. Huther has discussed this question with skill and fairness, and comes to the conclusion that 'although even among the heathen second marriages for women were considered something unbecoming . , . yet the re-marriage of a man, after the death of his wife, was held to be entirely unassailable, and no trace of the contrary opinion is to be found ' (in Meyer's Kommentar on I Tim. iii. 2, ed. 3, p. 143). He assigns the prejudice against such marriages to post- Apostolic times, and remarks that many patristic commentators, even when custom had decided against any clerical remarriage, keep to the interpretation that it is a prohibition of practical polygamy or remarriage after divorce. He cites in particular Theodoret, Theophylact, Jerome and Oecumenius (p. 143). See also Jerome's letter to Oceanus, Ep. 69. 216 IV. CPIRISTIAN ASCETICISM to be present to the mind of St. Paul, deeply imbued as he was with the spirit of the Old Testament, as to one of ourselves, to whom a perception of the great blessings that flow from clerical marriage is one of the commonest experiences of our social life. For the union between Jehovah and Israel was represented by marriage to the Rabbinical Jew just as it is to the Christian. Jewish marriage had almost a sacramental character and was held to convey forgiveness of sins.11 It was a maxim of the Talmud, ' Any Jew who has not a wife is no man.' Nor could it be without mean ing to a Christian that God chose a household in which there were at least seven children to be the home of His Incarnate Son. Further, if those scholars are right who hold that they were children of St. Joseph by a former marriage, and that the Blessed Virgin Mary was his second wife,12 there was yet another reason for thinking highly of the married state as blessed by God in contradiction to the prejudice which soon grew up in Christendom against second marriages. Nor was it without obvious significance that our Lord chose a marriage feast as the scene of His fu-st miracle, the keynote of His whole Ministry. The only tendency to the contrary which we know 11 See Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, i. p. 352 foil., and Lightfoot, Colossians ('The Essenes'), p. 139, ed. 1, 1875. 13 See Lightfoot on 'The Brethren of the Lord' in his commentary on Galatians. This is what he calls the Epiphanian theory. The subject has lately been reopened by Zahn, Forschungen, vol. vi., with his usual laborious minuteness. He is in favour of the view, which has generally been rejected by Anglican theologians (e.g. Bp. Pearson), that the other children were younger sons and daughters of St. Mary. JEWISH ESTEEM OF MARRIAGE-ESSENES 217 of in the Apostohc age comes from the sect of the Essenes, who are said, not by Josephus but by Philo, to have rejected the use of marriage. Bishop Lightfoot 13 has shown the probability that this sect was influenced by Eastern, perhaps Persian, mysticism. At any rate, most of the distinctive features of Essenism are non-Christian where they are not anti- Christian ; and their asceticism in particular was probably founded on a false principle, that of the mahgnity of matter. There is evidence, however, in apocryphal literature of an early intrusion of Essene ideas into Christian circles and we may trace to this source much of the severity which even in the second century distorted the Christianity of the Gospels and of the other books of the New Testament. We cannot of course be surprised at the intensity of Christian feeling on the subject of the relation of the sexes ; for there is no matter of conduct on which the heathen world was, and probably at this moment is, for the most part, more utterly at variance with true rehgion. Among the Greeks and Romans before the birth of Christ unchastity, on the part especiaUy of men, even of an abominable kind, was counted aU but indifferent. It might be unbecoming and unphilosophic, but it was hardly sinful. And in the generations which immediately foUowed the Incarnation whtte from time to time partial reforms were attempted by the State, they seem in many 13 See his essay 'The Essenes' in his commentary on the Colos sians, esp. pp. 136 (Clementines), 139 (Marriage), 149 (Parsism), 164 (Hemerobaptists), 168 (St. James etc.). 218 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM cases rather to have led to evasion than to improve ment. The old strict marriage of ancient Rome fell into disuse, and a relation terminable at the wiU of either party took its place. Some women of position might be said to number their years by the names of their fresh husbands, not by those of the consuls, and Juvenal speaks of one who had eight in five autumns.14 When the examples of the old gods ceased to be practicaUy operative, the misconduct of living deified emperors was even more glaringly provocative to evtt, at any rate down to and including the time of Hadrian. - Marcus Aurelius in his own person set a noble example, but his empress was a byword of im morality, and he stood very much alone in the imperial household in his Stoic self-discipline. Heathenism, however, in the second century began generally to admire many ascetic practices, partly in Christianity, partly in Judaism, partly in other Eastern sects which were not Christian ; and a sort of combination of ideals was brought about which was often by no means advantageous to character. The Essenes of whom I have spoken, and the Encratites, of whom Tatian, the scholar of Justin, was the most important, together with the Marcionites, who may perhaps be classed with them, on one side, and the Montanists of Phrygia (who captured the great African teacher TertuUian) on the* other side, were aU led away by 14 See A. Rossbach, Romische Ehe, pp. 42-58, Die Elie ohne Manus (Stuttgart, 1853), and J. Marquardt, Privatleben der Romer, i. pp. 61-78 (Leipz. 1879). The passages referred to are Sen. De Ben. 3, 16, and Juvenal, vi. 224 foil. HEATHEN LAXITY— ENCRATITE TEACHING 219 false ideals largely adopted from the outside.15 WhUe their dogmatic heresies were rejected, the moral poison of their teaching was often absorbed. It is therefore not surprising that the tendency to regard cehbacy as essential to the highest life and as almost necessary to the clergy should be traceable to the third century. The earliest definite claim upon them in this respect is in the probably Asian 'Apostolic Church Order ' (circa a.d. 300 : see above, p. 35), which says in regard to a Bishop : ' It is good that he should be a cehbate, but, if not, one who has only had one wife ' — thus glossing St. Paul's words as if they imphed that the relation was over. But other indica tions also show that pressure was being put upon the clergy either to contract their freedom to marry or to abstain after ordination from the society of their wives.16 The latter unnatural restriction led to the 15 Bocquet's book illustrates this topic in both its parts. Sto- baeus's collections (Flor. 74) of TapiKa irapayyiXpara, e.g. those from Naucratius and Theano, are specially interesting. Clement of Alex andria, Strom, iii. 7, pp. 537-9, gives some interesting examples of heathen asceticism, which he adduces to show that the tendency cannot be held to be absolutely Christian. He mentions the Brah- mans, as abstaining from flesh and wine, and the 2e/woi — probably = the %app.avai or Sramanas (Buddhist ascetics), of whom he speaks in Strom, i. 15, p. 359, q.v. — or Gymnosophists, as abstaining from marriage. His criticism of the Encratites is naturally enlightened. Clement does not refer to the Egyptian recluses of the Serapeum, with whom he must have certainly been familiar. Their position in recent years has often been described as a precedent for Egyp tian monachism ; but the probability is that their lives were in no real sense ascetic. See, however, Butler's Lausiac Hist. p. 229. 16 Apost. Ch. 0. 16, KaXbv p.kv eivcu dyvvaios, ei Se p-q cnrb p.i.as yuvaiKos. The Coptic and Ethiopic soften it : ' If he have married a wife having children, let him abide with her ; ' but the meaning-of 220 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM introduction of an unnatural relation between the sexes, calhng itself spiritual or at any rate innocent or brotherly and sisterly. This has been one of the most dangerous snares and abiding shadows about and upon the life of professedly celibate clergy. The ' agapetarum pestis,' 17 as it is called by St. Jerome, can be traced in theory to the times of Hermas,18 about the Greek (Sltto) is clear, and this seems to be also the idea of the Syriac version of St. Paul, 'qui fuerit.' As regards indications of pressure, the wicked act attributed by St. Cyprian (Ep. 52) to Novatus may have been due to fear on his part of loss of reputation if his wife became a mother. The author of the Refutation of Heresies, ix. 12, treats it as one of the sins of Callistus that in his time (216-222) men who had married twice or thrice were ordained Presbyters and Deacons, and that clergy were permitted to marry after ordination. Single cases of such marriage are hardly recorded in history : that of Eupsychius of Cappadocia, mentioned by Jewel, being apparently a confusion of two persons. That they existed, however, is clearly to be inferred from laws against the practice, the first being Neo-Caesarea, circa a.d. 315. Cp. that of Ancyra, 10, giving Deacons leave to give notice, and Leo the Philosopher, Const. 3. On the latter see below, p. 226. 17 St. Jerome, Ep. 22, ad Eustochium, 14. This letter forms a sort of treatise on the life of Christian Virgins, as Ep. 52, ad Nepotianum, does on the life of clergy and monks, and Ep. 127, ad Principiam, on the life of Marcella, a noble widow. Ep. 69, ad Oceanum, gives a rather more reasonable view of clerical marriage. But generally Jerome's rhetoric is on the other side. 18 See the articles 'Subintroductae' in Diet. Chr. Ant., and Kraus, Realencykl., esp. the former. The basis of the idea may be found in the interpretation generally given to 1 Cor. ix. 5, about the ' sisters ' who accompanied the Apostles in their journeys. The R. V. renders ' a wife that is a believer,' but see Bp. Chr. Wordsworth's note ad loc. St. Clement supposes that they were wives, but that they were not treated as such (ofy ws ya^eTas a\\' v KoiprjOrjo-y g THE ' AGAPETARUM PESTIS ' 221 the middle of the second century ; and it is described in one of St. Cyprian's letters, who dealt with it with strength and good sense.19 It has never ceased openly or secretly, under one name or another, to plague the Western Church ; and it can only be abolished by a restoration of the clergy of the Roman communion to theu* proper social freedom and position. a8e\<£os, Kal ovx <»>s avrjp. Cp. Vis. ii. 2. See the word Soror in Ducange for later instances, and next note. 19 Tertullian, Exhort. Cast. 12, advised widowers to take a ' spiritual wife * — a poor aged widow. But such associations became a great scandal in the African Church circa a.d. 249, which is described in Cyprian's Ep. 4 Pomponio, the persons concerned being ' virgins,' not ' widows ' of the Church. He remarks ' Si autem perseverare nolunt vel non possunt, melius est ut nubant.' Such association was charged against Paul of Samosata at Antioch (Eus. H. E. vii. 30), and it was a great difficulty in the time of St. Chrysostom (see his sermons 12 and 13, vol. i. pp. 279 foil, and 304 foil., ed. Gaume, probably preached at the beginning of his episcopate, a.d. 398). Many canons of Councils refer to it, the most noticeable being the third of Nicaea. Western canons on the subject of who may and who may not live in the same house as the clergy are frequent. Theodulf of Orleans, a.d. 797, desired that no woman of any kind should live with a clerk, for, though a mother or sister might be without suspicion, their visitors might be a source of temptation. Similar strictness for sadder reasons was com manded by the Councils of Aix-la-Chapelle, a.d. 837, c. 11, Metz, c. 5, and Mainz, c. 10, both a.d. 888. Cp. Thomassin, I. ii. ch. 64, §§ 2 and 4. It is remarkable that the name ' sister ' for a priest's wife seems to have remained in this country : see the note in Lyndwood, Pr ovine, on Const. Othon. 16, p. 44, ed. Oxon. : 'Immo clerici huiusmodi concubinas tenent communiter apparatu honesto, nomine appellationis sororiae. C. de epis. et cler. eum qui probabilem,' i.e. Cod. Just. i. 3, 19, a.d. 420. See below, n. 22. The Western Roman Catholic clergy in modern times have, however, gained the freedom of having housekeepers or servants resident with them without any restriction, except that they 'should be advanced in years, and known for their modesty, prudence and blameless lives ' (Four Synods of Westminster, p. 150, Stratford, 1886). 222 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM It may weU seem strange that the warnings of experience should not have so reinforced the teaching of Scripture as to lead the Church back to a wiser and simpler discipline. There were indeed some important protests and examples, especiaUy in the Greek Church. Such was that of Dionysius of Corinth addressed to Pinytus of Gnossus in Crete, who seems to have been disposed to push the rule of continence very widely (Eus. ' H. E.' iv. 23), There was, above all, the warning of Paphnutius the monk at the CouncU of Nicaea, which, together with the Canons of Gangra later in the century, has had the effect of keeping the great mass of the clergy of the Greek Church free from the yoke of enforced celibacy.20 There was the example of the elder Gregory of Nazianzus whose two sons, Gregory and Caesarius, were born after he became Bishop. There was the strong personality of Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais in Pentapolis, who refused to accept office (circa a.d. 410) unless he was aUowed to retain his wife and expressed a hope that he might have ' a large number of virtuous children.' 21 There was the stiU 20 Many Roman controversialists are apt to discredit the account given by the Church historians (Socrates, i. 1 1, and Sozomen, i. 23 etc.) of the language of Paphnutius, or to tiy and twist it into a different meaning. Their chief ground seems to be that Epiphanius and Jerome represent the East as well as the West as requiring or desiring celibacy. But this was much later in the century, and both of them were zealous partisans. Hefele, Councils, § 43, dis cusses the matter at some length, and defends the accuracy of the current narrative. 21 There is a very full Life of Synesius by Rev. T. R. Halcomb, Fellow of Lincoln College, in Diet. Chr. Biog. The passage referred to is his letter to his brother Euoptius, Ep. 105. There is, says MORE MODERATE VIEWS IN THE EAST 223 more remarkable imperial law of Honorius and Theodosius II. in a.d. 420, which, while re-enacting the rule of Nicaea about extraneous women dweUing with clerks, urges, with a considerateness unfortu nately then very rare towards the weaker sex, that those who were married lawfuUy should not be deserted, especiaUy as their union with their husbands had made the latter worthy of advancement to the priest hood.22 The sensible line taken by the ' Apostolic Con stitutions ' (ii. 2) and by the ' Apostolic Canons ' (6, cp. 40), which, as I have said, both emanate from Antioch, and at the very time when Jerome and Epiphanius were pressing cehbacy as the teaching of the Church, is also to be noted. Nor must we forget that commentators on Scripture in general write in a different and a wiser way, and with a higher sense of responsibility, than even the same writers when they are in controversy with opponents or urging some theory or personal opinion in sermons and treatises. But as a rule the great writers of the fourth and fifth centuries pressed cehbacy as the more exceUent way Mr. Halcomb, no evidence that any children were born to him subsequent to his elevation to the episcopate. 22 Cod. Theod. xvi. 2, 44 = Cod. Just. i. 3, 19, ' eum qui proba- bilem.' The final words are as follows : ' Illas etiam non relinqui castitatis [caritatis ?] hortatur affectio quae ante sacerdotium mari- torum legitimum meruere coniugium. Neque enim clericis incom- petenter adiunctae sunt quae dignos sacerdotio viros sui conversatione fecerunt.' This recognition that women may have a good influence upon the character of their husbands, and that their position deserves consideration, is unfortunately so rare as to stand almost alone both in the civil and ecclesiastical laws on this subject. 224 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM with an unfair and misleading emphasis which led to the gravest moral mischief and loss of power in the Church. St. Augustine, though he wrote weU on the blessing of marriage, gave a new turn to the treatment of the subject by connecting the act of procreation with original sin, a notion apparently derived from his old Manichaean errors (' De Nupt. et Concup.' i. 24 etc.). His own early misconduct perhaps also warped his judgment. In the East, where monachism was constantly felt to be an opposing and dangerous force and where the conversion of the people, though often superficial, was more general and genuine than elsewhere, the apphcation of ascetic principles to the lives of the clergy was never carried so far as in the West. The legislation of Justinian was indeed adverse to the married clergy. He desired that childless men should be chosen as much as possible, under the pretence that they would be more generous to the poor (' C. J.' i. 3, 41 : a.d. 528). He also gave the force of civil law to the canons which forbade clergy to marry after their ordination (ib. 44 : a.d. 530) and to the rule that Bishops should not cohabit with their wives ; and he seems to have introduced a new rule making married Presbyters, who had children already, inehgible for the Episcopate (ib. 47 : a.d. 531). The canons, therefore, of the TruUan CouncU (a.d. 692) were rather a relaxation of the laws of Justinian than an extension of disciphne. The thirteenth canon, which has ever since been the rule of the Greek Church, admits married men to the Diaconate or CANONS OF EASTERN CHURCH 225 Presbyterate, as it expressly says, contrary to the Roman tradition, and forbids requiring them to promise not to cohabit with their wives, quoting various texts of Scripture in support of the sanctity and lawfulness of marriage. It requires, however, from them and from Subdeacons a certain abstinence at the time of their sacred ministrations — which minis trations we may interpret to mean generaUy the Lit urgy of Sunday. It ends by denouncing the penalty of deposition on any who should urge the separation of the married clergy. The forty-eighth canon, however, orders the separation (by mutual consent) of a Bishop from his wife, and requires her to go into a distant monastery, where she is to be supported by him and may become a Deaconess. No reason is given for this different treatment of a Bishop and a Presbyter. But there is httle doubt that it was more or less customary from the end of the fourth century, though Synesius successfuUy resisted it in his own case. The result in the Eastern Churches has been to choose Bishops who in previous stages of their career have generaUy been under some monastic vow, though not necessarily members of a community. Widowers, however, are not excluded by law, and are occasionaUy chosen. The consequence has been, I imagine, to confine the highest offices of the Church to men of one-sided experience, and occasionaUy to promote to very high office men who are both timid and ignorant of the world. Nor does it appear that they have been generaUy less influenced by desire to Q 226 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM accumulate wealth or by personal ambition. The reason no doubt is that, where the affections are restrained, the other impulses of human nature are liable to exaggerated development ; and ambition flourishes where self is the only care quite as much as when children have to be provided for. I may mention, in conclusion of this summary of the legislation applicable to the Greek Church, two Constitutions of the Emperor Leo the PhUosopher, a.d. 886-911. In the first he refers to the custom which then obtained that those who were ordained priests were aUowed two years in which to marry, if they thought fit and if they were not already married ; and abolishes it by returning to the older disciphne (Const. 3, ' Ut qui Sacerdotes '). In the second (Const. 79, ' De poena Sacerdotis '), which is closely connected with the first, he reduces the penalty inflicted in case of marriages taking place after ordination, and permits those who have contracted them to remain in the ranks of the clergy but in a lower position. My own experience is that it is usuaUy wisest for a man to marry after ordination instead of before it ; for his character alters so much with the new experience that he becomes sometimes almost a new man, and often feels the need of quite a different sort of help-meet from the one he would have chosen as a layman. Nor is it usuaUy weU for a man to many long before he is thirty years of age. No doubt there are inconveniences the other way which are SIRICIUS— WESTERN LEGISLATION 227 obvious to aU men, and freedom is far better than law in such matters. The Western Church (as Thomas- sinus remarks, I. ii. 61, 2) has made little or no differ ence in regard to marriage before or after ordination : and we must remember this in considering the excep tions to the general tendency to celibacy in the West which wttl be referred to later. The nullity of Priests' marriages was not formaUy asserted tiU the twelfth century.23 The course of legislation in the East has not been whoUy satisfactory, but in the West it has been disastrous. The mischief began at the Council of Elvira in Spain, held in the period of eager and grateful devotion after the Diocletian persecution, a.d. 306. The thirty-third canon of this Council ordered Bishops, Priests and Deacons to abstain from mtercourse with their wives, who, it supposed, would stiU share the same home. This was of course a local canon ; but towards the close of the century the rule was taken up by the Roman Church, which had hitherto been backward in the matter, in the person of Pope Siricius in his letter to a Spanish Bishop, Himerius of Tarragona — which has the ominous position of being the first of the genuine Decretals.24 The date and authorship of this letter are to be noted. Monasticism had recently been propagated zealously at Rome under the teaching of St. Jerome, who resided there in the years 382-385 a.d., at first as the 23 It is generally ascribed to the First Lateran Council, a.d. 1123, but Hefele traces it to earlier local Synods, § 612. 24 It may be found in Labbe, Cone. ii. pp. 1017 foil., where the. rule is chapter 7 of the letter. For its argument see below, p. 243 Q 2 228 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM confidential friend of Pope Damasus (who died in 384), and the director of several noble ladies, whom he persuaded to embrace the monastic life. Jerome had hoped to be elected Pope in place of Damasus, and retired from Rome to Palestine as a disappointed man. We shaU not perhaps be wrong in attributing to Siricius the desire to show himself equaUy zealous and strict with the man who might have been in his place, and who was no doubt much superior to him in learning. A few years later the rule was extended to Africa in canon 2 passed at the Second CouncU of Carthage, held a.d. 389 or 390 — though not without some shght ambiguity of phrase (qui altario inserviunt) which may have been interpreted to mean that the restriction applied to certain times or periods of ministration. This rule as a whole was naturaUy resisted, being of the nature of a counsel rather than a law which could be enforced, and indeed being one of those irrational expedients which show the want of common sense observable in many cehbates when they make laws for others. It was renewed by Innocent I. in 404, and again by Leo I. and extended by him to Subdeacons in a.d. 445 in a letter to Anastasius, Bishop of Thessalonica (' Ep.' 21, c. 4). This order about Subdeacons was naturally very hard to carry out, and we find Gregory I. not insisting upon it in provinces where it was not customary, and it became only very gradually an estabhshed rule.25 25 The various rules about Subdeacons are given by Thomassinus I.e. 61, 63, 65 etc. As late as 1063 a Roman Council, by not EARLY WESTERN LEGISLATION 229 At some period which it is difficult precisely to define, but which Thomassinus fixes in the ninth century, the rule became established that the wives of the clergy on the Continent of Europe, as far as the Roman Church held sway, were no longer permitted to hve in the same houses as their husbands (I.e. 64, 6). By ' estabhshed ' I do not of course mean that it was foUowed by the clergy or at aU regularly enforced by the executive — but that it was understood to be a law of the Church which a man must break at his peril. There is a great mass of evidence to show that the rule of continence was not observed, though lawful marriage was not generally maintained. The latter, however, was not so exceptional as is sometimes supposed. In Lombardy and North Italy the clergy married openly and legitimately, with ring and dower, at any rate up to the time of the fanatic attack upon their position, amounting to civil war, made in the time of Alexander II., in which Peter Damiani was one of the champions.26 In Hungary mentioning them in its third canon, seems to have left them free to marry. See above, pp. 181-2. 26 Cp. the letter of Damiani blaming Cunibert, Bp. of Turin, Ep. iv. 3 : ' permittis ut ecclesiae tuae clerici, cuiuscunque sunt ordinis, velut iure matrimonii confoederentur uxoribus.' The Milanese clergy attributed their freedom in this respect to St. Ambrose : see the authorities in Gieseler, E. T. ii. 436. Damiani's wild ravings against the wives of the married clergy make it pos sible to indulge a charitable conjecture that his other detestable charges against his brethren were equally over-coloured. Unfortu nately, the colder evidence of the Penitential books, and even of such staid documents as the Ordines Romani, makes it clear that the clergy of the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, if not equally before and after that period, were liable to the foulest 230 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM as late as a.d. 1114 pubhc dispensation was given to married Presbyters at the CouncU of Gran (Strigonium) to keep theu- wives.27 In Sweden in the time of Innocent III. the clergy claimed to have a papal privttege to do so (Inn. III. Reg. xvi. 118 : a.d. 1213). In Switzerland the civU laws often protected priests and their wives and children, sometimes under pay ment of a tax, sometimes without it.28 But, whatever may have been the case in other countries, I beheve that at no time before the Reformation of the sixteenth century were the mass of the Enghsh clergy un married, though the position which theu- wives enjoyed was generaUy by no means an enviable one. The attempts to enforce the rule of separation undertaken in consequence of the decree of the Roman Synod under Gregory VII., in 1074, have made an impression upon the minds of men because of the strong character of that Pope and the hazardous counsels which he gave to the laity with which he accompanied the rule. Similar attempts had been suspicions. How much of this degeneracy was owing to the slight cast on marriage, and the low position thereby assigned to women, is not easy to conclude. English historians of the twelfth century certainly thought Gregory's and Anselm's legislation the fruitful parent of vice. Thomassinus himself refers to these criticisms, l.c. 65, 5. 27 See Hefele, Cone. § 606 ; Hardwick, Ch. Hist. p. 260 : ' Presbyteris uxores, quas legitimis ordinibus acceperint, moderatius habendas, praevisa fragilitate, indulsimus,' canon 31. 28 See Theiner, l.c. iii. p. 27, quoting a number of cases, and especially one of the Town Council of Zurich, which assured the Canons of the Cathedral that their wills in favour of their children should be respected. This appears to be in the fourteenth or fifteenth century. DECREE OF GREGORY VII., 1074 231 made indeed earher in the eleventh century, but Gregory's hand stretched further than his predecessor's and on the other side pubhc opinion was beginning to make itself felt more freely after the time of the Norman Conquest. The fuU terms of Gregory's decree have not come down to us ; but the laity were certainly incited to shun the sacraments ministered by the married clergy in language which suggested the error that sacraments depend for their vahdity upon the personal character of their ministers.29 The decree was also obnoxious because it was addressed directly to the laity subject to other Bishops, thus anticipating the Vatican Decree of 1870 about the immediate Episcopal power of the Papacy. The results in the way of riot, profaneness, violence and detention of tithes on the part of the (Continental) laity are said to have startled even its author.30 29 The following portion of it is quoted by Gerhohus of Reichs- berg, On Psalm x. (Migne, P. L. 148, p. 786, and 193, p. 794) : ' Si qui sunt presbyteri vel diaconi vel subdiaconi qui in crimine fornica- tionis iaceant interdicimus eis ex Dei parte omnipotentis et sancti Petri auctoritate introitum usque dum poeniteant et emendent. Si qui vero in peccato suo perseverare maluerint, nullus vestrum eorum audire praesumat officium, quia benedictio eorum vertitur in maledictionem et oratio in peccatum, Domino testante per pro- phetam : Maledicam, inquit, benedictionibus vestris. Qui vero huic saluberrimo praecepto obedire noluerint idololatriae peccatum incurrunt, Samuele teste et beato Gregorio instruente : Peccatum ariolandi est non obedire et scelus idololatriae nolle acquiescere. Peccatum igitur paganitatis incurrit quisquis dum Christianum se asserit, sedi apostolicae obedire contemnit.' The apologist of Gregory, Bernaldus, admits that this decree condemns all those who hear the Masses of incontinent priests as partakers in their excommunication, and guilty of the sin of idolatry (P. L. 148, p. 773). 30 See the quotation in Milman, L. Chr. iv. 32, note : ' referre 232 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM That one object of this decree was a financial one was pubhcly and no doubt truly asserted : ' Causa legis est ne ecclesiarum opes coUectae per sacerdotum matrimonia et liberos rursus diffluerent.' 31 I shaU say something on this point later on (p. 246). Those who thought that this was the cause and a just cause were no doubt satisfied to leave the unfortunate clergy in a state which was considered to be one of sin, provided theu- more unfortunate partners and their children did not grow rich. The decree of Gregory was not, however, at once promulgated in this country. On the contrary, both WiUiam and Lanfranc were unwilling to yield too much to papal demands and between them laid the foundation of the freedom of the Church of England on the lines which have ever since subsisted. The decrees passed at the CouncU of Winchester in a.d. 1076 32 forbade canons to have wives, but permitted clergy in viUages and country towns to retain theirs, only solitus erat, quod tarn crudelia et gravia nunquam in presbyteros fieri mandavisset ' etc. 31 Milman, L. C. iv. 19, attributing the words to the Synod of Worms, but I have been unable to find the reference. Cp. Von Wessenberg, Kirchenversammlungen, i. p. 337, note 16, where the reference is apparently wrong. Dr. Nippold (Theiner, iii. p. 392 n.) quotes Dr. Schulte and Professor Reusch as agreeing that ' the execution and maintenance of the law of celibacy since Gregory VII. is due to hierarchical interest.' Cp. the striking quotation from Cardinal Pallavicini, speaking before Pius VII. in 1782 (ib. p. 373). 32 See Abp. M. Parker, De Ant. Eccl. Brit., ed. Lond. p. 173, quoted in Wilkins, Cone. i. 367 and elsewhere, and E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 422 foil. ed. 2, 1876. WILLIAM & LANFRANC— HENRY I. & ANSELM 233 requiring that in future a profession of remaining un married should be exacted from candidates for ordi nation. At the same time it made the blessing of a priest part of legitimate mamage — an important law for the whole country. The Roman pohcy was, however, adopted by Anselm in his two Synods at London in 1102 and 1108, the second of which was whoUy occupied with this question and went further than was customary in this country. Among other significant regulations its required Archdeacons to take an oath that they would not receive money for connivance at evasion of this statute — obviously pointing to their common custom. Yet only in the previous year Anselm had received a letter from Pope Paschal II. (30 May 1107) — no doubt at his own request — permitting him to dispense with the law against the sons of clergy being promoted, on the ground that ' in England there is so large a number of them that almost the greater and the better half of the clergy are to be reckoned under this head.' Another law against ' foeminarum con- tubernia' was passed in the time of Abp. WUliam de Corbeutt in 1126 m and a sharper one in 1128. But King Henry I. undertook to see it executed, and (it is said) made money by granting exemptions from it. In a Synod at Westminster under Stephen in 1138 the legate Alberic passed a canon depriving aU mar ried or concubinary clergy, but this was probably a 33 This was the Council at which the legate John of Crema presided, whose own conduct brought great scandal on the Church, as our historians relate. 234 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM generahty expected of such a functionary, not accepted as a law of the land. For in the troubled time that followed neither party was strong enough to be ready to ahenate any important group of adherents, and the married clergy seem to have had rest for something like sixty years. When these decrees of Synods were renewed in the CouncU of London in a.d. 1200 it was in obedience to the Lateran Synod of 1179. A similar decree was passed by Stephen Langton in 1222, the wording of which may be given as it seems to show that ecclesias tical authority was now content in this country with attempting to avoid pubhc scandal : ' Ne clerici bene- ficiati vel in sacris ordinibus constituti in hospitiis suis pubhce concubinas tenere praesumant, nee ahbi cum scandalo pubheum accessum habeant ad easdem.' Lyndwood's gloss on this clearly shows that the words ' pubhce ' and ' cum scandalo publicum accessum habeant' were emphasised by those who evaded the law, though he does not admit the argument drawn from them. Nevertheless, on comparing the words of this canon with those of other canons I am convinced that they were intended to form a loophole for evasion.34 From this time, at any rate, the wives of the clergy were, as far as ecclesiastical law went, in the painful position of being unrecognised. The faculty given to Anselm for the promotion of theu- sons was no doubt a personal one and came to an end with his hfe, and the Papacy acquired power by keeping its hand upon such dispensations, and sometimes withheld them 34 See Lyndwood, Provinciate, lib. iii. t. 2, pp. 126-7. STEPHEN LANGTON— CLERICAL FAMILIES 235 arbitrarily or from motives of policy or covetous- ness. But clerical families of distinction certainly existed in this country, particularly in the Anglo-Norman period. One particularly interesting case is that of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury,35 who was presumably the direct ancestor of Richard of Ilchester or Tocleve, Bishop of Winchester, father of Herbert and Richard Poore, both bishops of S arum and the latter afterwards 35 This may be exhibited in a tabular form : Roger, Bp. of Salisbury, A brother Justiciar of Henry I. 1 1 07-1 1 39 Roger Poore, Chan- Nigel, Bp. of Alexander, cellor, 1101-3 Ely, Treasurer, Bp. of Lin- : 1133-1174 coin, 1123- Richard of Ilchester | 1148 or Tocleve, Bp. of Richard Fitz-Nigel, Winchester, 1174- author of the Dia- 1189 logue on the Exchequer, | Bp. of London, 1189-1198 Herbert Poore, Richard Poore, Bp. of Bp. ofSarum, Chichester, 1214-1217, 1194-1217 of Sarum, 1217-1228, of Durham, 1228-1241 I owe this information mainly to the late Bishop (Stubbs) of Oxford. Cp. W. H. Rich Jones, Register of St. Osmund in Rolls Series, ii. p. xii, ed. 1884. Richard of London may have been born while Nigel was Bishop. Other instances may be found in Wharton, CI. Celibacy, p. 158. The case of Boniface of Savoy, Abp. of Cant. a.d. 1245-70, is not made out, cp. Hook, Abps. iii. 230 ; but the fact of his marriage is asserted by Abp. Parker, quoted by Wharton on Burnet, p. 80. At Lichfield Robert Peche, Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry (t 1127), chaplain to Henry I., had a son, Archdeacon of Coventry, who became Bishop of the same see, 1162-1182. 236 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM of Durham. Nigel, Bishop of Ely, was nephew of the same Roger and father of WUliam, Bishop of London. It is probable that most of these sons were born during the early part of theu- fathers' lives, when, e.g., they had held the offices of archdeacon and the like, but in any case their descent was not considered otherwise than reputable. It would be easy to multiply evidence for the continuance of a practicaUy married clergy in this country up to the time of the Reformation. Some times, I believe, they were privately but stiU legaUy married, so that their wives and children might have the benefit of their property after their deaths. For aU marriages properly performed in England were valid according to civU law, unless they were voided by action in the Bishop's court, up to the passing of Lord Lyndhurst's Act in 1835 (5 & 6 Wilham IV. c. 54), however much they might be contrary to law. In other cases the parties lived faithfuUy together without marriage : as Archbishop Parker says, ' Affectu sororio, amore uxorio, etfide coniugali, as they use the Tearmes ' (Wharton on Burnet, p. 80). There is, I believe, little evidence that they were disturbed in this relation by the executive, even after a Statute of 1 Henry VII. chap. 4 (a.d. 1485) gave Ordinaries with Episcopal jurisdiction power to punish in continent clerks and religious men with imprison ment. If they behaved otherwise weU and did not quarrel with their flocks — and, we may presume, paid the customary contribution to the Archdeacon or the fine if they were presented at visitations — they MARRIED CLERGY IN ENGLAND AND WALES 237 were generaUy let alone,36 or admonished without further punishment. In Wales the marriage of the clergy was even more customary, and it probably continued, with very little interruption, up to the Reformation. The description of the famtty hfe of the Canons of St. Davids by Giraldus Cambrensis, circa a.d. 1215, is weU known (Lea, p. 285). Intermarriages between clerical famihes and the inheritance of benefices became apparently tribal, if not national, customs. The Norman Bishops sometimes fought against them, with httle success ; but generaUy they seem to have been content with making money in the way of fines. Archbishop Peckham, in 1284, in writing to the Diocese of St. Asaph, before his Visitation, says, ' Incontinentiae vitium clerum vestrum ab antiquo maculasse dignoscitur enormiter ultra modum ' (H. and S. i. 563) ; and in writing to St. Davids he remarks on the report that corrections were gener aUy made by way of fines, and desires that depriva tion should be substituted in case of incontinence (ibid. p. 572). In the same Diocese, in the middle 36 See Lea, p. 293. Cp. the remarkable letter of Erasmus to the Bishop of Basel, quoted by Theiner, hi. 160. The quotation given by Lea, p. 447, from Cranmer's Confutation of Unwritten Verities (Works, iv. 194, Oxf. 1833) is not from Cranmer's own pen, but that of his translator, E. P. The cases in Hale's Precedents in Criminal Causes, nos. 25, 52, 178, 211, 26l, 303, 362, 369, 375, 381, 393, are generally of misconduct with several women, adfi&tery etc. Nos. 25 and 293 — in 1482 and 1544 — are the only cases in point, and nothing is said as to punishment. Wharton, in the notes to Cranmer, I.e., says, however, that Dr. Weston was deprived of the Deanery of Windsor for a single act of incontinence. 238 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM of the fifteenth century, Bishop De la Bere made a regular income from this source (1447-1460).37 In Archbishop Warham's visitations (by deputy) in 1504, more than eighty clergy were presented for inconti nence in the Dioceses of Bangor and St. Davids,38 and threatened with penalties if they did not dissolve their connections. I am rather inclined to suppose that the strong religious tendency of the Welsh and Scotch, and theu- interest in education, may be in some measure due to the large proportion of married clergy and chttdren of clergy in those countries in pre-Reforma- tion days. I have mentioned the cases detected in Warham's visitations, which bring us within a generation of the Reformation. Yet, if a letter of Erasmus to War- ham, dated in 1518, is genuine, the Archbishop had then a wife and several children.39 This inconsistency would, however, be no more remarkable than that of Wolsey, who left behind him a son and daughter, and was, in other respects, considered a man of loose 37 The accounts of his relation to the married clergy given by Archdeacon Bevan, Diocesan H. of St. Davids, p. 152 (S.P.C.K.), and J. W. Willis Bund, Celtic Ch. in Wales, p. 296-7, are not very easy to reconcile, but the fact above stated seems clear. 38 Gibson, Codex, p. 438, from Warham MS. Register, fol. 222, 227 etc. I have verified the references. Both Visitations were per formed by his deputies, that of Bangor by Dr. Agard, who seems to have been more in earnest than the Visitor at St. Davids, who was precentor of that Church. 39 Erasmi Opera, iii. 1695 : ' Bene vale cum dulcissima coniugali liberisque dulcissimis.' ' Coniugalis ' (see Ducange) is rare as a substantive, and seems to be intentionally used by Erasmus as ex pressing the somewhat peculiar relation. ERASMUS, WARHAM, CRANMER, HENRY VIII. 239 character, but who visited his Diocese in the year in question (1518) and re-enacted the ancient canons agamst concubinage (WUkins, iii. 669, 678). The assertion of the legality of clerical marriage was being made about the same time in Germany, and this, no doubt, influenced this country. Cranmer's first marriage took place in 1523, a year in which several pubhc unions of the same kind were contracted in Germany.40 Luther's own marriage took place in 1525, and this, though not approved by aU his foUowers, produced a great sensation wherever the principles of the Reformation were making them selves felt. Cranmer's second marriage, to the niece of Osiander, took place in 1532, shortly before he became Archbishop. Thus there were no doubt a certain number who took advantage of dispensa tions to marry, obtained from Cranmer under the general Act of 27 Hen. VIII. (a.d. 1535-6) which gave the Archbishop full power to grant dispensations ' in matters not repugnant to the holy Scriptures or laws of God.' Three years later the King issued indeed a proclamation against clerical marriages, but did not pretend to dissolve those existing.41 The reactionary legislation towards the close of his reign, a.d. 1539, made it, however, felony for a Priest to keep company with his wife, and imposed forfeiture of goods and chattels, to be followed if necessary by 40 See Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy, ed. 2, p. 424. 41 See the quotations in [H. Wharton] Specimen of some Errors etc., p. 80 foil. Wilkins' s dates for the matter taken from this book, Cone. iii. 696-7, are strangely erroneous. The date of the Convocation is 1548. 240 IV. CHRISTIAN ASCETICISM imprisonment, on any one hving with a concubine. This severity was moderated in the next year, but heavy penalties still remained up to the time of Edward VI., when aU such legislation was repealed, the first Act on the subject being in the year 1548. The old law was revived under Queen Mary in 1553, and, strange to say, was not definitely abrogated by Parliament under Queen Elizabeth, who was averse from the marriage of the clergy, though she ratified the Articles which permitted it. It was not in fact tiU the beginning of the reign of James I. that the law of the State was brought into thorough harmony with the 32nd Article ratified by the Crown in 1571. At the CouncU of Trent strenuous attempts were made by the Emperors Ferdinand and Maximilian, the Dukes of Bavaria and Cleves and others, to obtain a dispensation at any rate for the clergy of the German empire.42 These attempts, and others made after the Council was over, were frustrated by the action of Pope Pius IV., yielding apparently to the 42 See P. Sarpi's Hist, du Concile de Trente, ed. Courayer (Amst. 1736), ii. pp. 502 foil. He refers to the hierarchical reasons as being felt strongly in the Council (p. 506), and as his critic, Pallavicini, does not contradict him on this point (Hist. Cone. Trid. xxiv. 12, 9), we may conclude that he was correct. The letters of the Emperors etc. may be found in Le Plat's Monumenta, vi. 310, 312, 331, 333. The section in Von Wessenberg, Die grossen Kirchenversamm- lungen des 15ten und l6ten Jahrhunderts, iv. 99 foil. (Constanz, 1840), is very clear and helpful. As this book is not generally known in England, I venture to recommend it to my readers. It is by a precursor of the Old Catholics. As it is not very well printed the references need careful verification. THE CANON OF TRENT 241 influence of King Philip II. of Spain. Pius himself is described by his biographer as ' in voluptates pronus.'43 The main fear, no doubt, was lest the clergy, in becoming legaUy married, should think more of citizenship and nationality than of the interests of the Church. Since that time the canon of Trent is valid in the Western Church, wherever the CouncU has been received, and there seems little probability of its being formaUy repudiated. But the broad doctrine of papal dispensations would probably make it possible for a reforming Pope to 43 Onuphrius Panvinius (whose Lives are printed after those of Platina), De Vitis Pont. Rom. (Coloniae, 1626), p. 427 etc. On his action in refusing, see Lea, pp. 544-5. The canon of Trent is as follows (Sess. xxiv. De Sacr. Mat. can. 9) : 'Si quis dixerit clericos in sacris ordinibus constitutes vel regulares castitatem solenniter pro- fessos posse matrimonium contrahere, contractumque validum esse non obstante lege ecclesiastica vel voto ; et oppositum nil aliud esse quam damnare matrimonium posseque omnes contrahere matrimonium qui non sentiunt se castitatis, etiam si earn voverint, habere donum : anathema sit ; quum Deus id recte petentibus non deneget nee patiatur nos supra id quod possumus tentari.' The reference to 1 Cor. x. 13 is misleading. St. Paul is speaking of trials arranged by God : the words Troirjcrei. eii>) for her nightly ministrations and for any other good works she may desire to do : for these are the first good treasures of the Lord.' The same little treatise at its close shows a determination not to give women any place in liturgical duty, and in connection with this point rules that they are to pray seated on the ground and not standing upright. It in fact rejects the ministry of Deaconesses. But the more enthusiastic ' Testament of our Lord ' puts the Widows more distinctly among the clergy. They are admitted by the Bishop with a prayer of which the text is given (i. 41), which I have printed in a note20 as being different from any 19 This Montanistic feature is very noticeable. It is a point of marked connection between the Ap. Ch. Order and the Testament of our Lord. 20 ' O God, the holy and the high, who regardest things that are lowly, who hast chosen the weak, strong in power, the honourable one, who hast also created things that are contemptible, send, O Lord, the spirit of power on this thy handmaid, and strengthen her 'WIDOWS WITH PRECEDENCE' 273 Western prayer that has come down to us. Nothing, indeed, is said about imposition of hands and that rite can hardly have been used even in the singular community represented by this book.21 But the ' Widows with precedence,' whom we may almost certainly identify with the Presbyteresses of other chapters, are, as in the ' Apostohc Church Order,' three in number (i. 34) and they have special quarters assigned to them in the court of the Church House near the Bishop (i. 19). The Presbyteresses are prayed for as a separate class in the Litany (i. 35, p. 87 ; cp. ii. 19). The Widows also have a place, not merely in front of the other women but in the Sanctuary during the Liturgy, with thy truth, that fulfilling thy commandment, and labouring in thy sanctuary, she may be to thee a vessel of honour, and glorify thee in the day when thou, O Lord, shalt glorify thy poor. Give her the power of cheerfully fulfilling the precepts ordained by thee for the guidance of thy handmaid. Give her, Lord, the spirit of" humility, power, patience and kindliness, that she may support her labours, bearing the yoke with an unspeakable joy. Yea, O Lord God, who knowest our infirmity, perfect thy handmaid to the glory of thy house, to its building up, and to [making it] a noble example : strengthen her, O God, sanctify, teach and comfort her, for blessed and glorious is thy kingdom, O God the Father, and to thee is glory, to thy only begotten Son our Lord Jesus Christ, and to the beneficent, adorable, life-giving holy Spirit, consubstantial with thee, now, before all ages, and through generations of generations, and for ages of ages. Amen.' The last clause about the Holy Spirit shows a late date — circa 380 — but it may have been added to an earlier prayer. 21 Its prohibition in some Church Orders (note 15) makes it probable that it was used in some quarters outside the Church. One text, e.g., of the Apocryphal Acta Matthaei (ed. Tisch. p. 187), makes that Apostle ordain (KaOio-ravai) King Fulvanus a Presbyter and his wife a Presbyteress, and his son and daughter-in-law (aged each seventeen) a Deacon and Deaconess respectively. Another text changes the ' Presbyteress ' also to a Deaconess. 274 V. WOMEN'S WORK and they are bidden to stand at the anaphora on the left-hand side behind the younger Presbyters (i. 23, p. 37). They are privileged to receive the communion immediately after the Deacons and before the Readers and Subdeacons (ib. p. 47). They are expected to recite prayers in church at midnight and dawn, the interesting text of which is given (i. 43), and it is their business to watch over the Deaconesses — instead of being inferior to them — and to do many duties else where assigned to that order of women, particularly those connected with Baptism (ii. 8, p. 129, cp. p. 164 : see above, n. 17). Their character and duties are sketched in a strange semi-Montanist chapter; but whUe they may be expected to receive ' visitations of the Spirit ' (for the purpose of revelations) they are not permitted to speak in church (i. 40). Here we have the furthest effort made in any book professing orthodoxy towards the estabhshment of an order of Priestesses in the Church. That these efforts were not generaUy approved may be gathered from Canon 11 of the Phrygian Laodicea of uncertain date which forbids the appointment of ' so-caUed Presbyteresses or women with precedence ' (Ttpeafiv- TiSas rj TrpoKa6r]p.ei>as). Doubtless it was felt to savour too much of Montanism. The practice was also carried to an even greater length of superstition in the heretical sect of the CoUyiidians, who had passed from Thrace and Upper Scythia into Arabia. They offered to the Virgin Mary worship due only to God, and in particular priestesses among them offered cakes VARIOUS MEANINGS OF 'PRESBYTERA' 275 (KoXkvpCSes) to her of which the rest of the congre gation partook, evidently as a kind of sacrament. Epiphanius in describing and attacking this heresy draws a distinction between the term Trpeo~/3vTis, which is admissible to describe an elder widow, and Trpecr[SvTepi<; or Upicro-a, whose name and function can not be tolerated (' Haer.' 79, 4, p. 1060-1). The allied term Presbytera (irpeo-^vTepa) seems to have had a different use in its Greek and Latin forms. In Greek it may mean the superior of a convent, or at any rate a Prioress. It is so used in two of the interrogations on monastic rules, to which we have the answers of St. Basil (nos. 110, 111, ed. Gaume, ii. 240). In the Western Church the word is not uncommon for the wife of a Presbyter either hving with her husband, under a resolution of chastity, or separated from him. From the letters of Gregory the Great we learn that such ladies wore a special dress, though not so marked as that of an Abbess (' Epp.' ix. 'ind.' ii. no. 7). A Bishop's wife under similar conditions was sometimes caUed Episcopa. It is probable that on the entry of a manied man into the ranks of the clergy his wife received a benediction, but if so the form of it has not come down to us.22 22 I take this to be the meaning of the short sentence in the Ordo Romanus, ix. 3 (P. L. 78, 1005) describing the procession after an ordination : ' Ipse [Pontifex] sedet super equum album ; prae- cedens et subsequens populus canit ei laudem. Similiter etiam feminae diaconissae et presbyterissae, quae eodem die benedicuntur. Deaconesses being very little known in the Roman West 'diaconissae' t 2 276 V. WOMEN'S WORK Looking to the experience of the early Church as a whole, we must see that it was adverse to the estabhshment of an order of Widows, under that name, for any regular and practical purposes of ministry. It would have been, in fact, too accidentally constituted to be reasonable. Widowhood might properly claim the compassion of the Church, and ladies who had become widows might frequently be very weU fitted to take charge of Deaconesses or Virgins, and might in many more cases be fitted to receive an individual benediction when they desired to remain in the widowed state. But the very fact that they had been mistresses of households rather unfitted them for community life as simple members of a body. Hence we find that, when the experiment of Presbyteresses came to be rejected in the Eastern Church, prominent Widows often became head- Deaconesses, like Olympias, the attached friend of St. Chrysostom. II. The history of Deaconesses is certainly more encouraging and more helpful as a precedent to modern women- workers, though we must admit that probably means Deacons' wives, and so ' presbyterissae ' would be Presbyters' wives. An instance is given in Ducange, s.v. ' Presby- terae,' from Oefelius, Script. Rer. Boicar. ii. 28 : ' Presbyter quidam Gunduni nomine cum Presbyterissa sua Histigunde pro Dei amore . . . dedit mansum suum . . . eo pacto, ut post vitam suam et sociae suae eum proprie retineat.' The passage in Mabillon's Ordo Romanus occurs with a slight variant in Hittorp's Ordo, ed. 2, p. 64. The Western benedictions of Deaconesses, collected by Prof. J. A. Robinson, Ministry of Deaconesses, App. B, p. 203, seem to me to be blessings of Deacons' wives. They are, in parts, very like the blessing of Virgins. THE HISTORY OF DEACONESSES 277 its practical development Avas confined to the East, and more particularly to such centres as Antioch and Constantinople, though it appears elsewhere. There is scarcely any mention of the office in the West in the first four centuries,23 and when it is afterwards noticed, it is usuaUy with disfavour. It seems to have penetrated into Southern Gaul — no doubt from the East — at the close of the fourth century, when the assumption of the ' levitical ministry ' by women was spoken of as contrary to Apostolic discipline at the CouncU of Nimes, a.d. 394.24 Three other GaUican CouncUs forbade it in 441, 517 and 533 25 respectively, and, though there are historical traces of the office, e.g. in the person of Queen Radegund, the wife of Chlothaire I., a.d. 544, the Diaconate for women never established itself.26 The first mention of it at Rome seems to belong to the eighth century. Wherever it remained in name in the West, it was generaUy in connection with Abbesses, or members of rehgious houses, or with Deacons' wives living apart from their husbands (see note 22). It is said that the Carthusian nuns to the present day are ' vested in stole and maniple on the day of their consecration and sing the Epistle at the conventual 23 It is not found in the Canons of Hippolytus, or the Egyptian Church Order, or Ludolf's Statutes. 24 This Council is not noticed by Miss Robinson, not being in the older collections of canons or even in Bruns : but its canons are printed by Hefele and Lauchert. 25 Viz. I. Orange, c. 26, Epaon (on the Rhone), c. 21, and II. Orleans, c. 18. 26 See her Life in Surius etc., under August 13. 278 V. WOMEN'S WORK Mass,' a rite which is connected with the rule of S. Caesarius of Aries.27 It is not very easy to account for the rejection of the ministry of Deaconesses in the West, since women were both more free and in some ways more influential there than in the East. Perhaps the very freedom of intercourse between the sexes in the West, and the absence of anything like Zenana hfe or seclusion of women, made it less necessary to have Deaconesses to visit them privately. Inside the churches the Roman spirit of discipline seems to have been averse to any public ministry of women, though the Vestal Virgins of pagan Rome had had a higher place than the Greek Priestesses. The point is one which seems to deserve more elucidation than it has hitherto received. The ministry of Deaconesses in the East, where- ever it was thoroughly encouraged, was closely assimilated to that of Deacons, both in the form of ordination and in the duties assigned to it. The first evidence of it outside the New Testament is in the letter of Phny to Trajan speaking of two ' ministrae ' whom he had examined by torture as proconsul of Bithynia ('Ep. Traj.' 96). The treatment of Paulianist Deaconesses is discussed by the 19th Canon of Nicaea, a.d. 325,28 and rules as to age (40) 27 See Miss Robinson, l.c. p. 98, quoting from The Month of June 1894, p. 234. Other facts bearing on Deaconesses in the West may be found on pp. 51 foil., 58 foil., and 88 foil, of Miss Robinson's interesting book. 28 The discussion is rather ambiguous, but Dr. Bright concludes that, while Paulianist Deaconesses did not receive laying on of ORDINATION OF DEACONESSES 279 and perseverance of Church Deaconesses are given in the 15th of Chalcedon, a.d. 451. From the latter it is clear that they received imposition of hands, and this is also prescribed in the Antiochene ' Constitu tions,' viii. 19. The prayer used in their ordination, as described in the ' Apostohc Constitutions,' viii. 18, is closely paraUel to that used for a Deacon, but it would hardly be right to suppose that it is much older than the final compilation, circa a.d. 375. In this rite ('A. C viii. 19, 20), which we may presume was in use in the Church of Antioch, the Bishop lays hands on the Deaconess ' with the Presbytery standing by, and the Deacons and the Deaconesses,' and says a prayer in which mention is made of Mary (i.e. Miriam) and Deborah, Anna (Hannah ?) and Huldah, and the birth of the Son of God of a woman, and the appointment of women guardians of the gates of the Tabernacle. God is asked to look upon His handmaid appointed unto ministry (SiaKovtav), and to give her the Holy Spirit that she may worthtty accomplish the work com mitted unto her. The rite of Constantinople pubhshed by Goar (p. 262) has also the laying on of hands. The hands, Church Deaconesses probably did as early as this date. His collection of material is (as usual) full and valuable, but the minor discriminations of office are not quite clearly explained. 280 V. WOMEN'S WORK prayers contain a reference to the Virgin birth and to Phoebe — not to the Old Testament examples — and similar petitions for the Holy Spirit. It differs from the earher rite in having a rubric for putting the diaconal stole (orarium) round the deaconess's neck under the veil (maphorion). She also receives the chahce after she has communicated, but does not communicate anyone with it. Among the Jacobites, however, a Deaconess seems to have been aUowed to communicate women and boys of not more than five years of age, and there is evidence that Deaconesses sometimes took the Sacrament to sick women.29 The age for a Deaconess is fixed by the TruUan Council, a.d. 692, c. 14, at not less than 40 years, in agreement with the rule of Chalcedon, though Theodosius the Great had attempted to raise it to 60. Her ' ordination ' is spoken of, and further it is enacted that if a married man becomes a Bishop, his wife must be separated from him, and may, if worthy, be advanced to the dignity of Deaconess (c. 48). AU these enactments show the respect in which the office was held. The duties of a Deaconess, however, as histori- caUy described do not appear to have been very 29 See Ministry of Deaconesses, pp. 197-203, for the fuller text of all these prayers (the words ' standing by ' should not, however, be omitted; Ap. C. viii. 19). In the Testament of our Lord, ii. 20, 143, we find a rule that a Deaconess shall take Communion to a pregnant woman who is sick and unable to attend church. This book is specially honoured by the Jacobite (Monophysite) Syrians. MODERN HISTORY OF DEACONESSES 281 considerable. They had (to use Dr. Blight's words) (1) to assist in the instruction and attend the baptism of female catechumens ; (2) to take messages from the Bishop to Churchwomen ; (3) to look after them in church. Their duties in visiting the sick and in connection with the Eucharist are less frequently mentioned. We have here, however, the germ of all that is now desired for our modern Deaconesses, including their special relation to the Bishop, to whom they are attached much in the same way as the Deacons were. The two great dates in the modern history of Deaconesses are the revival of the name and work at Kaiserswerth in Germany by Pastor Fliedner in 1833, and of the order by the Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England in 1871. The history of the revival of the office in the nineteenth century and of its extension in our own times does not faU within the province of this book to describe. Much informa tion on the subject, both in its earher and later developments, wttl be found in a carefuUy written book by a lady who is herself a member of the order in one of our English Dioceses : Miss Cecilia Robinson's ' The Ministry of Deaconesses ' (1898). It is to be noticed that hitherto no hmit of age has been officiaUy laid down — the American branch of our Church has, however, specified twenty-five years (l.c. p. 222) — and that power has hitherto been reserved to ' the Bishop ' (apparently the Bishop who has admitted her, or his successor) to release her 282 V. WOMEN'S WORK from her obligations upon cause shown (ib. 215 and 218). The tendency to form the Deaconesses into Sisterhoods has had some vogue, but it is by no means universal ; and grave arguments may be advanced on either side. But probably nearly every one would agree that some kind of community, to which a tired, infirm or aged Deaconess could return or, in the end, retire, would be a great advantage to the work and make it much more attractive and spirituaUy useful to the members of the order. Such a community is almost necessary when the work to be done is continuous and concentrated (as in a hospital or penitentiary) and not parochial ; but even where parochial work is the chief object it would be a great blessing. Of course this implies larger buttdings and a greater common fund. III. The history of the Ministry of Virgins in the Church is much fuUer than that of either Widows or Deaconesses, and corresponds to the much greater place occupied in the Church of the present day by Convents of Nuns and Sisterhoods. In the first age of the Church, however, the object of the Christian Virgin was neither retirement from domestic life nor united work and prayer with others, but asceticism practised in the home. The other two conditions, of course, were attached to the vocation in process of time, being indeed recommended by experience. But they naturaUy brought with them compensating difficulties and dangers. The literary notices of Christian Virgins (male and THE MINISTRY OF VIRGINS 283 female) are, as I have implied, both early and frequent,30 but it would seem probable that they did not become a recognised body of persons with any status in the Church ttti the second half of the second century, or the first half of the third.31 One of the earliest evidences of such a definite class would appear to be the two letters wrongly ascribed to Clement of Rome, which are preserved in Syriac, the first addressed to male and female Virgins, the second to men alone. The date is uncertain, but the balance of evidence is in favour of the latter half of the second century or the beginning of the third.32 They are not, however, of great historical or moral interest. The most important early writing on the 30 See Clem. Epist. Cor. 38, Ignat. Ad Polyc. 5, Justin Mart. Apol. i. 15, Athenagoras, Suppl. 33, Minucius Felix, 31, all of whom speak of their example as a glory to the Church, and some of them notice the danger of boasting on their part. Hermas's description of his life among the Virgins, Sim. ix. 11, is in form purely imaginary, but it may imply a movement towards the life of a recognised order in the Church. 31 Tertullian's tract De Virginibus velandis deals with all Virgins, whether dedicated or not, but he gives evidence of the existence of a class of dedicated Virgins in ch. 3, cp. ch. 9 : see above, n. 16. He uses the metaphor of spiritual marriage of Christian Virgins, ch. 16, when urging them to put on the veil as married women did. It does not, I think, appear that he is addressing only Virgins who had a purpose of remaining so, but simply young Christian women still unmarried. The transition to Cyprian's use was very natural. 32 They were first published by J. J. Wetstein at the end of his Greek Testament. They may be found in a Latin version in Funk's Apostolic Fathers. They were not, unfortunately, edited by Lightfoot, but he discusses at some length Mr. Cotterill's arguments for a later date : Clement of Rome, i. pp. 409-414 (1890). Har nack puts them in the first half of the third century (Altchr. Lit. bis Euseb. p. 518). 284 V. WOMEN'S WORK subject is St. Cyprian's treatise ' On the Dress of Virgins,' on which Archbishop Benson's interesting comments should be consulted. Cyprian's fourth Epistle on a case of discipline, to which reference has already been made in treating of the ' Subintroductae ' (p. 221), also gives important evidence. It is perhaps the earhest in which we find the metaphor of the Bride of Christ, which has played so great a part in the development of the position of Christian Virgins, apphed to those who were self-dedicated in purpose (cp. note 31). ' Si autem de eis,' he writes, ' aliqua cor- rupta fuerit deprehensa agat poenitentiam plenam, quia quae hoc crimen admisit non mariti sed Christi adultera est ; et ideo aestimato iusto tempore, postea exomologesi facta, ad Ecclesiam redeat.' Cyprian evidently does not intend the metaphor to be taken strictly (as that would have involved a hfelong penance), but stiU he gave currency to it (see p. 287). In the ' Banquet of the Ten Virgins ' by the Lycian (afterwards Syrian) Bishop Methodius, early in the fourth century, in the hymn which has the refrain, ' Bridegroom, I come to meet thee ! ' (Nvptpie, viravrdva aoi), the metaphor is rather that of a Brides maid of the Church, as in the Gospel parable. But the direct bridal metaphor is treated by St. Athanasius as in general use in the Cathohc Church (' Apol. ad Constantium,' 33). The interesting later tract 'On Virginity' falsely ascribed to St. Athanasius has already been described (v.s. p. 55). These, with the weU-known treatises and letters of St. Ambrose, St. Augustine and St. Jerome in the West and St. Basil BRIDAL METAPHOR— AGE OF ADMISSION 285 in the East, wiU give a good general idea of the position of this class of persons, the dedicated or consecrated Virgins not yet necessartty living in communities. The rules of the different Church Orders also give some information. There is less than we might expect in early canons, that of Chalcedon (a.d. 451), c. 16 being the earhest of any Oecumenical Council. See p. 290 ff. The fact, of course, is that the ancient Ministry of Virgins was of a passive rather than an active character. It consisted in their good example as to dress and conduct and their zeal for the ordinary duties of devotion and charity, in which they were expected to excel in degree rather than to do something singular and exceptional. What was exceptional was their resolution of abiding single. Some details as to (1) the age at which they were admitted, (2) the obligations which admission en tailed, and (3) the nature of the rite, may be of interest. It wiU be convenient, however, not to divide the first two subjects, but to look atthehistoiy as a whole. The age at which self-dedication was recognised does not seem at first to have been fixed, but we may gather that an early age was not considered unseemly from the case mentioned by TertuUian of a Virgin of less than twenty years who was admitted among the Widows. He was scandahsed by her admission to the latter class, but would not apparently have been surprised at her self-dedication as a Virgin ('De Virg. vel.' 9). St. Jerome teUs us of AseUa, sister of his friend MarceUa, that she consecrated herself to God 286 V. WOMEN'S WORK when she was little more than ten years old and bought a dark dress for herself by seUing a gold necklace (' Ep.' 24, ad MarceUam). Obviously there could be no hmit of age as long as there was no necessarily public profession. The earliest mention of such a formal act is in the ' Canons of Hippolytus ' (vii. 51), in a somewhat ambiguous passage : ' Let no one receive laying on of hands as a celibate [or Virgin] except after arriving at mature age and held to be faithful and commended by [proper] testimony.' ParaUel passages in other Church Orders forbid laying on of hands on Virgins at aU.33 The prohibition of a thing, however, is generaUy evidence that some persons were desirous to do it, and it is no evidence in this case of a late date for the ' Canons of Hippolytus.' There is a curious passage, indeed, in the writings of St. Ambrose which seems to imply that, in his days at any rate, at Milan the blessing of a Virgin included laying on of hands, and there is another later trace of the same usage in Gaul.34 No age is mentioned by St. Cyprian, but, from the respectful terms in which he addresses the Virgins, they would seem to have been at least adults. In his day no special dress can have been used (for he earnestly caUs upon them to give up their luxurious fashions of attire), nor is any solemn pubhc vow 33 Egyptian Ch. 0. 38 ; Ap. Const, viii. 24. 34 See Martene, De Ant. Ecc. Rit. Lib. II. c. vi. § 11, quoting St. Ambrose, De Virginibus (I. xii. 66) and the Acts of St. Germanus of Auxerre describing his consecration of St. Genoveva. OBLIGATIONS OF VIRGINS 287 appealed to. The resolution or intention, the ' proposi- tum' or npoalpeo-Ls, was known and manifest. If broken, it was a scandal ; but the words of the Apostle were applied, ' It is better to marry than to burn ' (' Ep.' 4, from 1 Cor. vii. 9). This simple attitude towards the question of Virginity is characteristic of the history of many other institutions in the first three centuries. Cyprian apparently imposed no penalty upon the Virgin who openly gave up her resolution and returned to ordinary hfe. But if she broke it secretly and still kept her position, he wished to impose a considerable penance. In process of time, especiaUy in the fourth century, various and divergent views began to be taken of the guilt involved in the breach of such a resolution. If we knew when and where it first became customary to make a solemn profession in pubhc and to receive the veil from the Bishop we should very likely be able to conjecture the local and personal influences which were at work. Perhaps the earliest case we can date at aU exactly is that of MarceUina under Liberius (a.d. 352-366), which cannot weU have been the origin of such a custom. What, however, is most important is to know that these strong differences of opinion existed. The first CouncU which deals with the breach of the resolution of Virginity is the severely ascetic Council of Elvira. The city of Elvira or IUiberis was in Southern Spain, but the CouncU represented the whole country. It is now generaUy dated just after the cessation of persecution, a.d. 305-6, and it reflects 288 V. WOMEN'S WORK the enthusiastic temper natural at such a time. In its thirteenth canon it prescribes a lifelong penance, with communion at the close of life, as the mttdest treatment. Nothing is said of what is to happen in case of marriage ; but inasmuch as the next canon speaks of the marriage of ordinary Virgins who have faUen, it must be held to be intended to exclude marriage for consecrated Virgins, as well, of course, as other connections. On the other hand, the nineteenth Canon of Ancyra, a Council held a little later, but under somewhat simttar circumstances, and apparently representing most of Asia Minor and Syria, fixes the duration of penance after the marriage in those who had professed Virginity (whether male or female) at the same length as in the case of digamists, which we know from another source to have been a year.35 We meet the same difference of opinion towards the close of the century. The First Council of Toledo, in 400 (canons 16 and 19), draws a distinction between a ' devotee ' (devota) of an ordinary character and one who is the daughter of a Bishop, Priest or Deacon — being more severe towards the latter. In the first case it imposes penance of ten years and separation in case of marriage. In the latter case communion can only be given after the husband's death or at the close of life. But in order rightly to understand this apparent severity we must remember that twenty years before this date the First CouncU of Saragossa (Caesaraugusta), in 380, c. 8, had restricted the age at which Virgins might be vetted to forty years. If the system were 35 St. Basil, Ep. Canon. 2 (199, 18). CANONS ON AGE FOR VIRGINS' PROFESSION 289 worked evenly there was a considerable advantage in it. The vow would not be taken until the Virgin was well able to make up her mind as to her vocation, especially in a chmate hke that of Spain, where youth departs comparatively quickly ; and the penalty for breach of the vow was extremely deterrent. Nor does the CouncU of Saragossa stand alone in this requirement. That no Virgin should be veiled younger than forty years was made a civil law by the Emperor Majorian in a.d. 458 (' Nov.' 6. 12) and a severe penalty imposed on aU concerned in veiling her ; and the same age was mentioned by the Council of Agde, a.d. 506, c. 19. It is also ascribed in the ' Liber Pontificalis ' to Pope Leo I.36 Another age which was not uncommonly fixed in the West was that of twenty -five years. This is the rule of the Third Council of Carthage, a.d. 397, c. 4, and accepted by the Council of Frankfort, a.d. 754, c. 46, and others, but with a permission to shorten the time under certain circumstances. A much earlier age was fixed by St. BasU, who was an enthusiast in this matter. He was willing to admit Virgins to profession of the age of sixteen or seventeen years (' Ep.' 199, 18),37 and yet he treated a breach of 36 ' Hie quoque constituit ut monacha non acciperet velaminis capitis benedictionem nisi probata fuerit in virginitate annis quadra- ginta.' See below, note 42. The law of Majorian was, however, repealed by his successor, Severus. 37 Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. Lib. II. c. vi. § 3, 4, tries to reconcile the discrepancy by making the first profession at the early age and the second at twenty-five or forty ; but though this might have been wise, it does not seem historical. It appears, U 290 V. WOMEN'S WORK this immature resolution as a sufficient cause for dis solving a marriage contracted by a ' canonical ' person (' Ep.' 188, 6 : a.d. 374). This last expression seems to cover Widows and Deaconesses as weU as Virgins, but to be at any rate apphcable to the latter. He aUowed that the old Church law only imposed a year's penance, that of digamists (199, 18), but he considered that the Church was now able to accept and impose a stricter discipline. The sixteenth Canon of Chalcedon, a.d. 451, looks at first as if it were equaUy strict. It declares that a Virgin who has dedicated herself to God, and a Sohtary (p,ovdrovTa) in like manner, are not permitted to marry, and if they do so they are to be put out of communion. But it goes on to give the Bishop of the place power to remit their penance at his discretion. This is, of course, very different from the Spanish rule. The last canon which we need mention on the part of the Greek Church is that of the TruUan CouncU, a.d. 692, c. 40, which actuaUy reduces the age at which the monastic hfe may be entered from St. Basil's sixteen or seventeen to ten. That Virgins are intended as weU as Monks is not, however, quite clear. As regards the obhgation of the resolution in the West, the writer of the tract ' De lapsu Virginis,' which appears in the writings of St. Ambrose, is of the same opinion as St. BasU. He rejects any appeal to the Pauhne (1 Cor. vii. 9) ' melius est nubere quam uri ' (ch. v. 21) as only referring to those who had indeed, as part of a series of steps in the later canonists : see Diet. Ch. Ant. s.v. 'Virgins,' p. 2021 a, by E. Hatch.. TREATMENT OF LAPSED VIRGINS 291 not taken the veil, and treats the lapse as adultery. There is, however, some reason to believe that this tract is not by the Bishop of Milan but by the Dacian Bishop Nicetas of Remesiana, to whom the Te Deum is also sometimes ascribed.38 There are, nevertheless, certain genuine treatises of St. Ambrose which, with out touching this point, show that he gave cunency to the underlying thought of the spiritual marriage between the consecrated Virgin and her Saviour,39 making great use of the language of the Song of Songs. It is, no doubt, chiefly to the thought that pro fessed Virginity is a spiritual mamage, that we owe the inference that any lapse from Virginity, even into a regular and honourable marriage, is to be treated as adultery. St. Augustine, fortunately, did not accept the hazardous inference. He probably remembered St. Cyprian's words : he certainly cannot have for gotten his own experience of youthful temptation, and he saw the husband's side of the question. He ex pressly teaches that such maniages are true marriages and not adulteries. What is perhaps more remarkable is that Epiphanius practicaUy held the same view with Augustine, though he desired a lengthy penance. Even Jerome, at least in one passage, seems to take the hne of Cyprian.40 38 The authorship had long been doubted, (1) on grounds of style, (2) because Nicetas was known to have written a tract with this title. Fresh evidence of direct MS. attribution to Nicetas has been discovered : see E. Hatch, Diet. Chr. Ant. s.v. ' Virgins,' p. 2021 a. b9 De Virginibus ad Marcellinam, I. vii. 37, 'Sponsa es regis aeterni.' Cp. De Lapsu Virginis, 5 : ' Immortali nupsisti viro.' 40 Aug. De Bono Viduit. 10 : 'Qui dicunt talium nuptias non esse v 2 292 V. WOMEN'S WORK The contemporary First Council of Valence, a.d. 374, c. 2, takesyery much the line of Epiphanius. Its language may be quoted as it is rather technical. ' Concerning Maidens (puellis) who have vowed them selves to God, if they have of their own accord passed over to earthly nuptials, we have decreed that thi§ rule should be observed, both that penance should not be given to them at once and that, after it has been given, unless they have made fuU amends (satisfecerint) to God, their communion should be delayed as far as the circumstances of the case (ratio) demand.' The matter is here left to the Bishops, as it was after wards in the East by the CouncU of Chalcedon, and can hardly be supposed to imply a hfelong penance in any case. In fact the CouncU seems afraid that the matter wttl be too hghtly and quickly dealt with : but it is unwitting to specify anytime of pubhc penance, remembering, no doubt, that the circumstances of such persons as it refers to vary very largely. nuptias sed potius adulteria non mihi videntur satis acute ac dili- genter considerare quid dicant.' He goes on to notice the injustice done to their husbands. Cp. Epiph. Haer. 61, 7, who says it is better to have one sin and not an abundant number — better for a celibate who has fallen to have a lawful wife, and to be received to communion after adequate penance, than to be perpetually tempted. These words of Epiphanius are taken by Kraus, Realencyk. s.v. ' Jungfrauen,' p. 81a, as only referring to those who have made a resolution of continence, and not to professed celibates ; and he is severe on Bingham for taking them generally. But I think that Bingham is right, though the text offers a certain difficulty of interpretation. Jerome writes to Demetrias, Ep. 97, that certain persons disgrace the name of Virgins : ' Quibus aperte dicendum est ut aut nubant si se non possunt continere, aut contineant si nolunt nubere.' Cp. to Eustoch. 22, 9, and Ep. 77, 3 ; also, in somewhat different tone, Ep. 79, 10, to Salvina. WESTERN LEGISLATION ON VOWS 293 On the whole, then, we may say that, though Bingham (vu. 4, 4) rather overstates the case when he says ' that there was never any Church decree for rescinding or pronouncing null such marriages ' — since the Council of Toledo enjoins separation — yet the balance of evidence is against very severe treatment of the breach of a resolution of Virginity. Where life long penance is enjoined by any Council, except the exceptionaUy rigorous CouncU of Elvira, it is balanced by precautions taken in the same Church (as in Spain) against the too early admission of a Virgin to make a vow. In other cases apparent severity is mitigated by leaving the Bishops to fix the term of penance, as in the CouncUs of Valence and Chalcedon. In others no penance is prescribed, as apparently by St. Augustine. The author of the tract ' De Lapsu Virginis ' and St. BasU stand very much alone as treating the vow exactly on the footing of the marriage vow, and as pre scribing that at whatever age it was taken (in BasU's case practicaUy any time after the ' age of consent ') a breach of it was to be considered as equal to adultery. The Roman Church seems to have begun to legis late on the subject a httle after the time of St. Jerome's residence in the City. That solemn consecration was in use at Rome we know from the case of Marcelhna, sister of St. Ambrose, who was vetted by Pope Liberius (a.d. 352-366) while she was still young, on the anniversary of the birth of Christ — that is, I pre sume, on our Christmas Day. But the earhest definite regulation on the subject seems to be in the answers to questions from the Bishops of Gaul which are 294 V. WOMEN'S WORK assigned sometimes to Siricius (a.d. 384-398), some times to Innocent I. (402-417). In these rules, as we should expect in Roman legislation, a clear distinction is drawn between Virgins who have been vetted and those who have not. In the first case one who has broken her vow must be a penitent for a very long time ('annis quam plurimis deflendum ei peccatum est') — though not, apparently, for life. Others, not vetted, must not be quickly admitted to communion, and no distinction is to be made whether the marriage was wiUing or forced.41 Innocent I., in more statesmanlike language, repeats much the same regulations, forbidding one who has been veiled and has lapsed to communicate until after her husband's death : i.e. he treats the act of marriage as one of adultery. But an unveiled Virgin who has only made a promise to God is to be treated as having broken a bona-fide contract, and to do penance for a considerable period (' Ep. 2 ad Victricium Rotomag.' 15, 16). In the time of Pope Leo I. (a.d. 440-461) the treatment of veiled Virgins was probably estabhshed ; 42 he answers a correspondent 41 These answers are to be found in the collections of Councils, and in Coustant under Siricius, Ep. x. Langen follows him, Gesch. der R. K. i. 641 foil. Hefele, i. § 114, puts them under Innocent I., a.d. 402. The wild language of the second rule seems more like Siricius. Canon 1 1 is often cited as prohibiting the marriage of cousins. It has, however, in my opinion, been altered contrary to the obvious meaning of the words, which is to forbid marriage with an uncle's wife, but to permit that with a first cousin. 42 It is not necessary to mention the severe civil laws dealing with this subject, which probably fell into disuse on account of their extravagance. They may be found in Cod. Theod. ix. 25. ROMAN LEGISLATION— THE VIRGIN'S VEIL 295 that those who had taken the dress and made the resolution of Virginity, though not vetted, were guilty of double-dealing (praevaricatio) if they married, thus taking up the metaphor suggested by Innocent (' Ep. 168, ad Rusticum Narbon.' inquis. 18). Leo also, it is said, forbade anyone to be veiled before she was forty years of age (' Lib. Pontif.' 47). These canons and rescripts, especially the later ones, emphasise the ' taking the veil ' as the important moment. It was in fact the one evident outward sign of profession, and was given in the West by Bishops alone,43 and with much of the circumstance of a mar riage. The ordinary name of this veil was in the East pad)6piov, and in the West mqforium, mafors, or mavors. It was a cowl or head-covering which was used both by Monks and by Virgins, and came down over the shoulders. This appears to have been different from the ordinary veil referred to by Tertullian, and to have belonged to self-dedicated Virgins ; and prob ably it was originally of a dark colour like the robe. But as the bridal metaphor became more emphatic the veil of consecrated Virgins came to be sometimes called in the West by the same name as that used in the maniage cevemonj—fiammeum.^ In the case of 43 The custom is seen in the cases of Marcellina and Demetrias (Hieron. Ep. 130, 2). Various Councils prohibit Presbyters to act, the first being 2 Carth. 3 (circa 387-390). The Third ;of Carthage, a.d. 397, c. 36, forbids Presbyters to consecrate Virgins ' non con- sulto episcopo.' Presbyters are prohibited also in later Councils : 2 Hispal., a.d. 618, c. 7 ; 7 Rotom., a.d. 650, c. 9 ; 6 Paris., a.d. 829, i. 41, 43 ; and, I venture to think, rightly and wisely. 44 Jerome uses ' flammeum ' or 'flammeus ' in ihe)Epistle to Deme trias, 130, 2, and to Sabinian, 147, 6 ('post Apostoli Petri basilicam 296 V. WOMEN'S WORK married women, as its name implies, it was originaUy of a bright yeUow colour : but probably the shape rather than the colour was foUowed for Virgins. Their flammeum appears to have been violet or lilac. The days chosen for the veiling of Virgins were the great Church festivals, especially Easter ; 45 and the ceremony was an impressive one, being united at Easter with the reception of the newly-baptised bear ing tapers in their hands. Other details may be gathered from the tract ' De Lapsu Virginis ' and Jerome's ' Epistle to Demetrias ' (' Ep.' 130, 2). In St. Jerome's days the Bishop, after words of prayer, covered the Virgin's head with the veil, reciting as he did so St. Paul's words (1 Cor. xi. 2) ' I wish to present you aU as a chaste virgin to Christ.' The Virgin was apparently dressed in in qua Christi flammeo consecrata est '). The colour of the veil of Christian Virgins is probably to be gathered from Jerome's satirical description of it as ' hyacinthina laena ' (from Persius, i. 32) in his letter to Eustochium, 22, 13, where the word 'maforte ' is probably a gloss. They seem to have had a narrow purple stripe on the robe (Hieron. ib.) This is confirmed by a wall-painting in St. Priscilla's Church, reproduced from Bosio in Kraus, Realenc. s. v. ' Jungfrauen,' fig. 57, which represents a seated Bishop stretching his right hand over the right shoulder of a young woman with short curly hair, on whose robe there is such a stripe. She stands with her back or right side towards him, and holds in her two hands what is probably the maforium ; a younger man stands behind her, probably the Deacon of the Bishop. This standing for consecration agrees with the rule for monks in Eccl. Hier. c. 6 (above, p. 61). Cp. the similar figure of a young man standing with his back to a seated Bishop (?), who touches his head, Kraus, s.v. 'Ordination,' p. 544, from S. Hermes. 46 St. Ambrose, Exhort. Virg. 7, speaks of Easber as the usual time ; Gelasius, Decretum Generale, c. 14, mentions Epiphany, Easter or the Nativity of an Apostle. DETAILS OF VEILING OF VIRGINS 297 beautiful many-coloured garments, like those of the King's daughter in the Psalm. After the vett was put upon her, she said the words of the Song of Songs (i. 4) : ' The King hath brought me into his chambers,' and the choir of her companions made response, ' The King's daughter is aU glorious within ' (Ps. xlv. 13). The use of the same Psalm, though of another portion of it, is referred to in the tract ascribed to Nicetas (' De L. V. ' 19, 20) : ' Adspice, fiha, intuere, Virgo, et obhviscere populum tuum et domum patris tui, et concupiscet Rex decorem tuum ; quia ipse est Dominus Deus tuus ' (verses 11, 12). Some kind of ' sponsio ' or marriage promise is also imphed ; and an address was given (no doubt by the Bishop) — hke that of Liberius to MarceUina, of which St. Ambrose has preserved the memory — before the actual veiling. I mention these details because they do not appear in the earhest Sacramentaries that have been preserved to us. The oldest prayers that have come down to us are the ' Leonine,' consisting, as usual, of a short CoUect and a longer Eucharistia. The CoUect is as follows : ' Respice, Domine, propitius super has famulas tuas, ut virginitatis sanctae propositum, quod te inspirante suscipiunt, te gubernante custodiant.' This CoUect may have been at one time the only prayer used. The Eucharistia or Consecratio expands this primitive thought at considerable length, and, while it recognises the ancient honour of matrimony, praises our Lord for those sublimer souls who despise the actual union of man and wife, and prefer the mystery 298 V. WOMEN'S WORK symbohsed by marriage to the actual partnership. It begins with words which form its title : ' Deus castorum corporum benignus habitator et incorrup- tarum Deus amator animarum,' and it has had a long history, which we must try in some degree to trace. It praises God for giving those present the desire of the angelic life, and speciaUy because ' etiam hoc donum in quasdam mentes de largitatis tuae fonte defluxit ut cum honorem nuptiarum nutta interdicta minuissent, et super sanctum coniugium initialis benedictio permaneret, existerent tamen sublimiores animae quae in viri ac mulieris copula fastidirent conubium, concupiscerent sacramentum, nee imitarentur quod nuptiis agitur, sed diligerent quod nuptiis praenotatur. Agnovit auctorem suum beata virginitas, et, aemula integritatis angelicae, illius thalamo, illius cubiculo, se devovit qui sic perpetuae virginitatis est Sponsus quemadmodum perpetuae virginitatis est Alius.' The same prayers exist in the ' Gelasian ' book, but with an addition of eight or nine printed lines at the end of the ' Consecratio,' which may have been omitted by mere carelessness by the transcriber of the ' Leonine.' The point is a curious one and open to discussion, but of httle importance for our present purpose. These prayers, with the Gelasian completion, are incorporated in the Roman Pontifical in the service for the Blessing of Virgins (i.e. Nuns), but as usual in that book, with many accretions before and after DIFFERENCES OF PRAYERS AND RITES 299 them. Among the additional ceremonies are those of the ring and crown or necldace, taken from the rites of marriage. It would perhaps be difficult to trace these latter ceremonies higher than the thirteenth century, when they are explained byDurandus in his 'Rationale' (II. i. 44 foU.). They are found also in some of the later ' Ordines,' printed by Martene, hb. ii. c. vi. — e.g. Rheims, p. 534 ; Aix, p. 541 ; Mainz, p. 543, and Auxerre, p. 545 : aU about this date. I should be inchned to connect them with the paraUel movement in art which made the Coronation of the Virgin so popular a subject among the Franciscans, but which began, I suppose, in the twelfth century.46 The GaUican rite is ascertained with general accuracy by putting together the forms in the 'Missale Francorum' (p. 311, Mabillon) and the 'Missale Galhcanum Vetus' (p. 332), and subtracting from them what is known to be Roman — the ' Deus castorum corporum,' which occurs in the first.47 The result, however, is not quite certain, as there are differences between them which are not accounted for by this comparison. The most important of these differences is that, outside of the Roman prayer, there is no reference to spiritual marriage in the ' Missale Francorum.' That in the other Gallican book is less emphatic than the Leonine, but it is 46 There is a remarkable early outline wall-painting of this subject in the little Somersetshire church of Sutton Bingham, near Yeovil,- 47 The result may be seen in Duchesne, Origines, p. 410 foil. but without indication of the special sources of each part. 300 V. WOMEN'S WORK perfectly decisive as to the animus of the rite.48 The ' Missale Francorum ' also alone contains the words on giving the veil which have passed into modern forms : ' Accipe, pueUa, pallium quod perferes sine macula ante tribunal Domini nostri lesu Christi, cui flectit omne genu caelestium et terrestrium et infernorum.' These words were also used in sub stance at the clothing of the newly -baptised in the white garment. They show that the ceremonies of Baptism, assimilating the neophytes to the wise Virgins of the parable, were adopted in some forms as the ceremonies of marriage were in others. But when we come to the Supplements to the (Gregorian) ' Sacramentary of Hadrian,' added in France in the ninth century, perhaps by Alcuin,49 we find that a very remarkable reform has taken place. All reference to spiritual marriage has been cut out from the ' Deus castorum corporum,' and no other words of the same character are found in other parts of the service. There can be no mistake in 48 The words on this point follow the opening address in the Mk Gall. Vet. p. 332 : ' Qui virginitatem ideo plus intueris et diligis quia tibi origo virginitas, quique in hunc mundum natus ex virgine id in aliis probas quod in matre elegisti, atque ideo aptissime tibi sponso vir[gini ? ] sponsam virginem dedicamus : tu, Domine, tribue hanc puellae iam tuae semper optabilem magno proposito perseverantiam.' For the MS. 'vir' Mabillon suggests 'vir[ginum]' : I prefer 'vir[gini].' 49 I have to thank Mr. H. A. Wilson for information about the relation of these books to one another. See his learned edition of the Gelasian Sacramentary, p. liii foil. The conjecture about Alcuin is due to Micrologus, De Eccl. Obs. c. 60. The texts actually referred to by me are those of Menard in P. L. 78, col. 173, Muratori, iii. p. 184, the Lorraine Missal (Leofric A), p. 227, ed. Warren ; cp. Egbert (Surtees Soc), pp. 108-110. ALCUIN'S REFORM— MODERN SISTERHOODS 301 calling this a reform, because the compiler must have had before him the Gelasian, if not the Leonine, text, and the old GaUican prayer-books. The reformer may have been Alcuin or, as I am inclined to imagine, Alcuin adopting some earlier formulas ; but his work deserves attention, and its character has never, as far as I am aware, been brought to public notice in modern times. It shows that some one of great influence felt just the same anxiety about exaggerations of feeling that we might do. It is curious that our earliest Enghsh Pontifical, that ascribed to Egbert, puts the longer and the shorter form of the ' Deus castorum corporum ' side by side. Its date is uncertain, but if part of it reaUy be Egbert's (Archbishop of York 732-766) Alcuin may have bor rowed the shorter form from his old master at York.50 I wttl conclude with a few practical words. No one who has followed the recent history of the Church of England can doubt the value of the work done by Sisterhoods, which are the modern re presentatives of the early order of Virgins in the Ghurch. In Penitentiaries and Reformatories, in Hospitals and Infirmaries, and in a less degree in Schools, they have taken an honoured place which is generaUy conceded to them without prejudice or objection ; but they have no canonical status in the Church. From time to time there are difficulties as to disciphne, difficulties of temper, difficulties as to ritual and doctrine ; there are also difficulties 50 Egbert's Pontifical is contained in a manuscript of the National Library at Paris, no. 10575, which Delisle attributes to the •eleventh century. Much of the matter is no doubt older. V.s. p. 99. 302 V. WOMEN'S WORK experienced as to the obligation created by entrance into a Sisterhood. The Church of England must shortly legislate with these difficulties in view, and is expecting the report of a Committee of the Lambeth Conference of 1897 on the subject. Let me suggest a few rules based upon the experience of history. A clear distinction should be drawn between professed and unprofessed Sisters. No profession should be permitted except before a Diocesan Bishop, having jurisdiction over the community,61 orhis Com missary, in accordance with the canons already cited, p. 295 n. 43 ; and after it has been made, it should be clearly laid down by canon that the same Bishop or his successor should have the right, on cause shown, to release the Sister from her promise. The profession should be one in general terms and should, as far as possible, be the same for aU Sisterhoods. It might take the form of a promise to the Bishop to serve God and the Church as a Sister — under the Rule of such and such a community. For this purpose the Benedictine form above referred to (p. 213): ' Promittat de stabihtate sua et conversione morum suorum et obedientia coram Deo et Sanctis eius ' (P.L. 56, p. 805, c. 58), is a suitable model. AU perpetual promises made to anyone except the Bishop having canonical authority in the matter should be forbidden, and, if made, should be declared nuU and void ab initio. The Constitutions of the Sisterhoods should b& 51 I do not mean to offer a definite opinion whether this must be the Bishop of the Diocese in which the House is situated, though I think it almost essential as regards the Mother House. SUGGESTIONS— AGE FOR PROFESSION 303 printed and made accessible to aU concerned, and aU secret Rules or vows should be declared void : power being, however, given to the Bishop of the day to authorise by-laws which did not deal with principles, on the apphcation of the Sisterhood and its Council. Sisterhoods which accepted this position should have some guarantee of stability given to them by the Bishop acting with the Cathedral Chapter. They should not be dissoluble or put under disabilities by the mere will of a Bishop for the time being : but some power of Dissolution or Visitation proprio motu should be held in reserve. Probably an appeal to the Archbishop of the Province would be sufficient as a check upon any unfair treatment. As regards the age when hfelong profession should be made, I should myself prefer that of forty as hkely to cause no comphcations ; and I should absolutely refuse to profess anyone under the age of twenty-five years. The matter of age should certainly be regu lated by canon for the whole Church. As regards the service to be used, there should only be one and that pubhc, and it should not be an imitation of the maniage service. Christian Virgins are Handmaids of the Church, the only true Bride of Christ, called to wait upon the Lord ' without distraction ' ; and they should be taught to check the dangerous element of fancy which has been in the past and may be again in the future encouraged by the enthusiastic use of the bridal metaphor. 304 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND THE CHRISTIAN WEEK. SUNDAY— WEDNESDAY, FRIDAY AND SATURDAY- DAILY EUCHARIST AND DAILY OFFICES. The Church was at first entirely composed of con verts from Judaism and it was more than twenty years, probably, after the Ascension of our Lord before the Council of Jerusalem set the Gentiles free from the observance of the Jewish ceremonial law. We have a right, therefore, to look to Jewish conceptions for an explanation of many detatts in the arrangement of Christian worship, particularly in that part of it which touches its foundations in the daily and weekly ser vices. Two points, I think, stand out in this earhest period. First, that the most primitive Christians, hke the Jews, began their day at sunset, and thought in the order ' night and day,' not ' day and night.' Secondly, that the Sunday service grew out of that on the Sabbath evening, and was at first either confined to a continuation of it into or through the night or was foUowed, after an interval of repose, by an early service on Sunday. Sunday afternoon or evening services 'NIGHT AND DAY' THE FIRST ORDER 305 were at first unknown, except in any particularly devout places where daily service was held. It is interesting to notice that St. Mark and St. Paul always speak of ' night and day ' in the Jewish fashion. St. John in his Gospel, on the contrary, shows a knowledge and acceptance of the Roman civil day, which began at midnight, and in his Apo calypse five times uses the expression ' day and night.' St. Luke's usage varies between the two.1 As regards the frequency of services during the week, the majority of inquirers are, I think, agreed that, from whatever causes, daily public worship did not exist generally among the Christians of the Apo stolic ages. Private prayer was of course a duty care fully attended to daily, and Wednesday and Friday were perhaps observed as fasts by stricter Christians when they began to distinguish themselves from the stricter Jews, who fasted on Mondays and Thursdays.2 1 The passages are : St. Mark iv. 27, v. 5, 2 Cor. xi. 25 (wx6rjp.epov), 1 Thess. ii. 9, hi. 10, 2 Thess. iii. 8, 1 Tim. v. 5, 2 Tim. i. 3. St. Luke has 'night and day,' ii. 37, Acts xx. 31, xxvi. 7; and 'day and night,' xviii. 7, Acts ix. 24. The passages of St. John are : i. 40, iv. 6, 52, xi. 9, xix. 14, cp. xx. 19 ; those in the Apocalypse : iv. 8, vu. 15, xii. 10, xiv. 11, xx. 10. It is interesting to notice that the forms for the ordination of a Bishop vary somewhat similarly. That in the Canons of Hippolytus, which we have reason to connect with Rome, and the Testament of our Lord (i. 21), which we connect with Asia Minor, both speak of his service ' by day and night ' ; the Egyptian Church Order, the Didascalia (Hauler), and the Constitutions (both forms) have all ' by night and day.' This is one of those seemingly slight evidences which are really very strong confirmations of the conjectural history of these books. 2 Cp. St. Luke xviii. 12, and Didache, viii. 1, and further references below, note 21, p. 327. 306 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK Some recognition of the Sabbath may also have been early, as it certainly was general, though with varied observance, in the fourth century. But Holy Com munion on Sunday seems to have been universal and continuous from a very early period ; 3 and the only pubhc service everywhere attended. I have said that daily public prayer did not exist generaUy among Christians. There was one remark able exception, however — the Church of Jerusalem. Not only did many of the Christians of this Church attend the daily services of the Temple, possibly at sunrise and sunset and certainly at the evening sacri fice (3 p.m.) but, as St. Luke teUs us (Acts ii. 46, cp. 42), 'Day by day continuing steadfastly with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread at home, they did take theu- food with gladness and singleness of heart, praising God and having favour with aU the people.' These words, which have been variously under stood, seem to me to picture a very simple liturgical service connected with the common meals of the Christian society at Jerusalem — meals having a sacred character, just as those of the Essenes had, though they differed not a httle in theu- meaning and import from those of that nanow sect.4 I have said ' a very simple liturgical service ; ' and I am indeed inclined to think that the Lord's Prayer 3 Acts xx. 7, 1 Cor. xvi. 2, Rev. i. 10 — the latter very probably referring to an inspiration that came on the author during divine service. 4 There is a very remarkable account of the Essene meals in Josephus, Wars, ii. 8, 5. JERUSALEM DAILY SERVICES— THE PRAYERS 307 sufficed as the only necessary form at such a celebra tion as this, and that other prayers would be added, half ex tempore and half from memory, according to the power of the President. Indeed, it was a long time before these prayers became fixed, not in fact apparently tiU the third, and in many places not tiU the fourth, century. As we shaU see, it is only the last book of the ' Apostohc Constitutions ' (viii. 35-39) that gives the text of the daily prayers. Eucharistic prayers were certainly in some cases fixed a good deal earher. What, then, does St. Luke mean when he says in the same passage, a little before the verse just quoted : ' They continued steadfastly in the Apostles' teaching and feUowship, in the breaking of bread and the prayers ' (ii. 42) ? As far as ' the prayers ' outside the Lord's Prayer were fixed, they probably consisted of Psalms, which were the only formal public prayers of the Jewish people and the only set prayers of the Christian Church for a long period, except the Lord's Prayer. We do not know with any certainty what Psalms were chosen ; yet we can see that it is quite possible that later tradition may have preserved a more conect reminiscence in regard to the Psalter than in other matters. What was appropriate in the Psalms was on the surface in the foUowing cases (see above, p. 202). Ps. 63, 1, ' O God, thou art my God, early will I seek thee,' suggested its usage at the beginning of the day. Ps. 14, 2 : ' Let my prayer be set forth in thy sight as the incense, and let the lifting up of my hands be an evening sacrifice ' had its obvious appropriateness. x2 308 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK Ps. 23, 5, ' Thou shalt prepare a table before me.' Ps. 34, 8, ' O taste, and see, how gracious the Lord is,' and the latter part of 22, e.g. 16, ' The meek shaU eat and be satisfied,' and 145, 15, 16, ' The eyes of aU wait upon Thee, O Lord, and thou givest them their meat in due season. Thou openest thine hand and fittest all things living with plenteousness,' would aU have been as fitting for Eucharistic use in the first as in the fourth or any later century. Other verses of Psalms, such as 55, 18, 'In the evening and morning and at noonday will I pray'; 113, 3, 'The Lord's name is praised : from the rising up of the sun unto the going down of the same ' ; and 119, 62, ' At midnight I wttl rise to give thanks to thee,' and 164, ' Seven times a day wttl I praise thee,' were clearly influential in determining the hours first of private and then of semi-public or public prayer.5 But over and above this general influence of the Psalter on Christian worship I must notice Professor Bickell's theory connecting the HaUel Passover Psalms (115-118 and 136), first with the Last Supper as described by the Evangelists, and then with the Apostolic Liturgy as restored by conjecture (see 5 Cp. the subscription to Ps. 72 : ' The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended,' showing that the first two of the five books of the Psalter had the title ' prayers ' (tephilloth). Each day of the week had its Psalm according to Jewish tradition (those marked with a * being noted in the LXX), viz. *Sunday, Ps. 24 ; *Monday, 48 ; Tuesday, 82 ; ^Wednesday, 94 ; Thursday, 81 ; *Friday, 93 ; *Sabbath, 99- See Schiirer, Gesch. des Jud. V. im Zeitalter Christi, ii. p. 237, n. 249. USE OF THE PSALTER— BICKELL'S THEORY 309 BickeU in Kraus, ' Realenc' s.v. Liturgie, p. 310 foil.). According to this theory Ps. 115 (omitting verses 1-11) answers to our Lord's act in taking Bread and Wine ; Ps. 116 (also omitting 1-11), to our Lord's prayer of oblation (euxapio-rrjcras), only recorded by St. Luke, 22, 17 ; Ps. 136, 25 (' who giveth food to aU flesh '), to our Lord's Consecrating prayer, described as ' Eulogia ' or ' Eucharistia,' which BickeU apparently supposes was like that of the ordinary Jewish blessing, 'Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the World, who hast created the fruit of the Vine, for ever. Amen ' ; and simttarly for the Bread. The relation of these Psalms to the supposed Apostohc Liturgyris also worked out with ingenuity. Ps. 115 gives place to the Collect ; Ps. 116 to the Prayer of Oblation (Secreta) ; Ps. 117-118 to the Preface ; Ps. 136 to the Canon. The weak part of the resemblance is in Psalms 115 and 136 : though it must be confessed that the refrain ' for his mercy endureth for ever ' in the latter might have suggested the response of the Litany, ' O Lord, have mercy.' On the other hand, there can be no doubt that Ps. 116, 12-19 is the germ of much liturgical language — ' the cup of salvation ' and the ' sacrifice of thanksgiving ' — and that the Hosanna and the Benedictus come from Ps. 118, 25, 26. Whether we accept the other detatts of this theory or not, there is enough of truth in it to con firm my conjecture that the public prayers of the Christians of Jerusalem consisted chiefly of appropriate 310 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK Psalms or portions of Psalms, and of prayers based on Psalms. It is possible that the stated times of prayer thus indicated by St. Luke in the Acts, as being kept under the duection of the Apostles, were (1) that of an evening meal at which the Eucharist was celebrated, with more solemnity on Saturday night and Sunday morning, and less formally on other days ; (2) an hour of early morning prayer before going out to work ; and (3) one at a mid-day meal. For, if the first disciples in the Holy City ' had aU things common,' they must, hke the Essenes, of whom Josephus gives much the same report, have met to take food together twice a day. Their meetings were all religious, and something of prayer and praise must have accompanied the mid day meal, though it may have been held with much less solemnity than the more leisurely gathering at supper time. It is not necessary to suppose that all met in the Upper Room on Mount Sion ; though that was no doubt one meeting place, and the principal one before the Holy Sepulchre came into Christian hands in the time of Constantine. Probably every large house of which the head was a Christian had its gathering of accustomed guests and worshippers, con tinuing the habits of Passover friendliness and religious hospitahty. It may be that even some Synagogues passed into Christian hands. But in any case the Syna gogue spirit was largely assimilated, and we know that, at a later date, morning, noon and night were the regular hours of Synagogue prayer (Epiph. ' Haer.' xxix. 9). TIMES OF PRAYER— THE TEMPLE SERVICE 311 The hours of Temple prayer would also influence Jewish Christians, whether they had left the City or were stttl resident in it. The Apostles clearly observed the hour of evening sacrifice, the ninth hour (3 p.m.). This was kept, not only by St. Peter and St. John at Jerusalem (Acts iii. 1), but by Cornelius, a Jewish adherent, at his home (x. 6, 30). That is to say, it was observed by Jews and Christians ahke. The other Jewish hours of Temple service were naturally sunrise, at which the morning sacrifice was offered, and sunset, when the lamps were lighted.6 These, as I have sug gested, were probably part of the common life of Jerusalem Christians in their own homes or churches. But besides these, Christian piety speciaUy noted the third hour (9 a.m.) at which the Holy Spirit came down at Pentecost (Acts ii. 15) and (as has been already suggested) the sixth hour or mid-day, at which St. Peter went up on the housetop, at Joppa, to pray (x. 9) just before his mid-day meal. It was not a great stretch, in thought at least, to increase these five hours — sunrise, third, sixth, and ninth hours and sunset — by adding two in the night — midnight and cockcrow — as times at which prayer would naturally be helpful, and so to make ' seven times ' a day : though I must acknowledge that evidence is wanting on this last point of numeration.7 6 On the hours of Jewish Temple worship see Schiirer, l.c. ii. p. 237, note 248. 7 There is, I believe, no evidence that this interpretation was at anytime given to Ps. 119, 164, 'seven times a day will I praise thee.' That given at a later date was one which separated the day from the night hours. But Cyprian goes near to an enumeration 312 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK Apart from the Church of Jerusalem, then, we have as ordinary Christian observances,!., the Saturday night and early Sunday morning service including the Eucharist, the only universal public service in the week ; and, IL, the observance of Wednesday and Friday as fast days to which public services in time came to be attracted, and a possible observance of the Sabbath ; and, III., the sanctification of each day by certain hours of prayer, with or without Holy Communion, but not, at first, of public prayer except when the Liturgy was celebrated. There is something of interest to be said on aU these three heads ; and it wiU be convenient to say it in the order just indicated. I. First, then, of the Sunday Eucharist : its hours and the character of its worship. The key to most of the early developments of the Eucharist is to be found in the Christian conception of the Lord's Day as a weekly commemoration of the Resurrection— that is, as a sort of minor Easter Day. And in connection with this the thought seems instinctively to have arisen that our Lord would come again during the night, at or about the time of His Resurrection. Just as the Jews at the Paschal which would reach it in his De Orat. Dom. 34-36 — where he first mentions the third, sixth and ninth hours, as observed by Daniel and his companions, and gives Christian and Scriptural reasons for following them (ch. 34), and then says that they have been in creased for Christians by necessary prayers at morning and evening (35), and then that we must not cease from praying, even during the night (36). SUNDAY EUCHARIST— THE LORD'S DAY 313 feast stttl place a cup of wine for Ehjah, Messiah's forerunner, and expect the Messiah Himself to come in the middle of the night when the feast is over,8 so at the beginning of each new week, and especiaUy at Easter, the early Church expected the Advent of her King and Saviour. The thought of the reverential awe which befitted such expectation seems to under lie St. Paul's teaching on the Lord's Supper addressed to the profane people of the Corinthian Church : ' Ye do show [or proclaim] the Lord's death tiU He come' (1 Cor. xi. 26). This surely, too, was the meaning of the Eucharistic watchword ' Maran-atha ' ' The Lord is come ' (1 Cor. xvi. 22, ' DidacheV x. 4), or ' The Lord is at hand ' (6 Kupios eyyvs, Phil. iv. 5) and perhaps of the Hosanna, which has early as weU as later hturgical associations.9 With this, too, we 8 See St. Jerome on St. Matt. iv. 25, and cp. Buxtorf, Syn. Jud. p. 416, and T. L. Kingsbury, Spiritual Sacrifice and Holy Communion, note Z. 9 In the Didache ' Maranatha ' follows closely after ' Hosanna to the God of David' in a prayer after reception. With the whole thought compare Rev. iii. 20 : ' Behold I stand at the door and knock : if any man hear my voice and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me,' and St. James v. 8, 9 : ' The coming of the Lord draweth nigh. . . . Behold the Judge standeth at the door.' Hosanna is not mentioned by St. Cyril of Jerusalem, nor is it found in the Liturgy of Sarapion (circa a.d. 350), but it is found with the Benedictus, in the Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions (viii. 12, p. 259, Lagarde) as a prelude to communion. The original position may have been that of the Didache, just after communion, then just before communion, and then, as in ' St. James ' and later Liturgies, as an appendix to the ' Sanctus.' Cp. Brightman on Sarapion, Journal of Th. Studies, i. p. 96, and Scudamore, N. E. ed. 2, 532-3. The Hosanna does not seem to have been introduced into the Roman Liturgy till the eighth cen tury, and then, like other Eastern forms, through Gallican influence. 314 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK must compare the remarkable prayer for the Lord's Advent upon the Bread and the Cup, with which later piety sought, I presume, to supply the place of the immediate expectation which thriUed the wor shippers of the first age.10 Our Lord Himself had given a hint about the time of His return — a hint which simple piety had taken literally — when He warned His disciples that He might come in the second or third watch, mid night or cockcrow, the darkest hours of the night (St. Luke xii. 35). The hghts burning, the servants waiting for their returning Lord and standing ready, the midnight hours : these were transformed at the Paschal and other vigils into something more than reminders of the necessity of constant watchfulness. It is probable that, in the Apostohc age, up to the fall of Jerusalem, every new week as it began was ushered in with something of a like deep and anxious expectancy, in which the vota suspirantia of Christian prophets and spiritual persons of aU classes, uttered on the spur of the moment, graduaUy became shaped into liturgical forms. The change, however, in the attitude of the Church, which naturally followed the destruction of the Holy City and the passing away of the companions and eyewitnesses of the Lord, was foUowed, almost as a matter of course, by a change in the hours as 10 See Bishop Sarapion s Prayer-book (S.P.C.K.), p. 46 foil., and St. Jerome, In Sophon. iii. The idea is perhaps taken from St. Irenaeus, Haer. v. 2, 3, where he speaks of the bread and the cup as ' receiving the Word of God.' CHRIST'S ADVENT— ROMAN CIVIL DAY 315 well as the order of service. The body of Christ was now caUed to settle down into a state of quiet labour to prepare the whole world for the Advent, instead of spending its time in excited expectation of its own release from strife. This common-sense attitude, as it may be termed, did not wholly supersede the old prophetic and emotional attitude. That was kept up by the Montanist reaction in the second century and by the ascetic and monastic movements which followed it, and which stttl largely influence the Church. But for ordinary Christians the last quarter of the first century saw the cessation of the all-night service except on the great festivals or those of local Saints. The partial transference of the centre of gravity of Christendom from Jerusalem and Antioch to Rome introduced another factor into the department of worship, viz. the adoption of the Roman civil day, which began at midnight. As soon as the Church came to the conclusion that the Lord's Day began after midnight and not at sunset on Saturday evening, the Liturgy would be naturally transfened to some time in the new day,11 whether the vigil was going on continuously or not. The first indication of this new arrangement meets us in the account of St. Paul's travels after he had * set in order ' the troubles at Corinth, which had in 11 I have to thank the Rev. T. S. Rundle, of the Diocese of Exeter, for this suggestion in his little book, The Scriptural and Primitive Time for the Celebration of Holy Communion (1898), esp. p. 38. Cp. note 1, above. 316 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK some degree been connected with misbehaviour at the Eucharist. When he wrote the first Epistle to the Corinthians the ' Lord's Supper ' or Agape" stiU formed one whole with the Eucharist. It took place, we may presume, hke the Paschal Supper, at the beginning of the meeting, and was a scene sometimes of profane and unseemly confusion. But when he came back from Greece by way of Troas, a year or two later, we find him holding an aU-night service on the first day of the week, of which the breaking of bread formed a part (Acts xx. 7-12). The day began, as St. Paul's usage elsewhere implies, at sunset on the evening of the Sabbath. The preliminary service, including the Apostle's preaching, continued till mid night. Then foUowed the accident to Eutychus and his revival : and then at last came the ' breaking of bread' followed by the meal.12 Whether the ' setting in order ' at Corinth had anything to do with this anangement or not, it is striking that the only account we have of the hour of a Eucharistic ser vice in the Acts puts it after midnight. The usage here exactly recorded is the natural transition to the custom described by Pliny in his famous letter to Trajan, early in the second century, at a period when and in a district where the Roman civU day appears to have been recognised. The service was stiU in the night ; but, being clearly a Sunday service (' stato die '), it began some time after midnight ('ante lucem'). The common meal, 12 For this meaning of yewa/wos, see the references in Alford's commentary. ST. PAUL'S USAGE— PLINY'S LETTER 317 which at Troas had foUowed immediately, was now put off till another occasion, perhaps till the Sunday evening.13 Other notices which have come down to us represent the Sunday Eucharist as usually in day light, though in the early hours of daylight (mane).u In times of danger or at certain vigils it might stiU be before dawn. Custom dies hard, especiaUy in the Church, and traces of communion at the beginning of the night before the Sunday were found even in the fifth century. It continued in the country parts of Egypt, near Alexandria and in the Thebaid, to the scandal of many in other countries, and, on Maundy Thursday 13 Plin. Ep. ad Traianum, 96, 7 : ' Adfirmabant autem hanc fuisse summam culpae suae vel erroris, quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire carmenque Christo quasi deo dicere secum invicem, seque sacramento non in scelus aliquod adstringere sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne adulteria committerent, ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati abnegarent : quibus peractis morem sibi discedendi fuisse, rursusque ad capiendum cibum promiscuum [i.e. ordinary] tamen et innoxium.' This letter was written a.d. 111-12. Other evidence as to the time of communion has been collected by Scudamore, NE. ed. 2, pp. 31-6. 14 The description in Justin Martyr seems to imply daylight. It is affirmed more distinctly by Tertullian as the ordinary practice, De Fuga in Persecutione, 14, the night hours for celebration being treated as exceptional, and to be resorted to in times of danger. This is the meaning, too, of the well-known passage De Corona, 3 : ' Although our Lord instituted the Sacrament of the Eucharist at meal-time . . . we take it even in assemblies before dawn ' (' etiam antelucanis coetibus '), where the ' etiam,' which is perhaps gene rally overlooked, implies that the usage was exceptional. St. Cy prian says : 'We celebrate the Lord's resurrection in the morning ' (Ep. 63, 16). The Easter vigil and that before the birthday of a martyr would, however, be exceptions, and the Liturgy is celebrated by the Greeks at about 1 a.m. in the Holy Sepulchre to this day, 318 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK alone, in Africa.15 Also when Wednesday and Friday became liturgical days there was a tendency to put the celebration at 3 p.m. so as not to break the fast of those who were strict : a usage of which we have a trace as early as the time of TertuUian (' De Oratione,' 19). But of communion on Sunday after noon or evening there is, I believe, no trace. It was introduced into this country some fifty years ago, and has spread partly from a misreading of the evidence of Scripture ; partly from the hope of attracting certain classes of the population who are too busy or too apathetic to attend at the ordinary hour. It is partly maintained as a kind of protest against the excessive emphasis laid on fasting communion in some quarters. The Church in this manner has suffered, as usual, from the conflict of its two extremes, the excesses of one of which seem to the other side to justify a contrary exaggeration. As regards the hour of communion in our own country and elsewhere in the West, there is a good deal of evidence in favour of 9 a.m. on Sundays as the ' canonical hour,' 16 Mattins having been said 15 On the Egyptian custom see Socrates, H. E. v. 22. The Third Council of Carthage, a.d. 397, c. 29, ordered 'celebrations ' by fasting men, ' excepto uno die anniversario quo Coena Domini celebratur.' These words are omitted in the Spanish books : but they were read by the Trullan Council, a.d. 691, c. 29, which abolished the exception. That Council clearly considered the ' celebrants ' to be intended, and makes no reference to the com municants, though there is, I presume, no doubt that communicants generally did fast. 16 See Scudamore, ed. 2, p. 35, for a number of authorities. The only conciliar canon quoted is that of Third Orleans, a.d. 538, c. 14 : 'ut EVENING COMMUNION— ' CANONICAL HOUR' 319 previously. There is also, I venture to think, not a httle to be said for returning to it, having also an earher celebration, say at 7, for those who could not come at the later hour. It would enable those who were weary with a long week's work to rest longer than usual, and would permit those who desire to make some innocent and healthful excursion, or to visit friends, to do so, after service was over at half- past ten, without missing either morning prayer or Holy Communion. The Sunday School in such a case would probably be held after, not before, service. I have for several years held ordinations at this hour (9 a.m.) and find that the strain of fasting is not excessive for those who naturally wish to receive their ordination fasting, as the Apostles Paul and Barna bas did (Acts xiii. 2). It is likely to be excessive, I venture to think, if the service begins at 10.30 or 11 and is not over till between one and two o'clock. Since ordinations with us are on Sundays, we ought to take care not to turn them from feast-days into fast-days. We have already seen traces of the adaptation of Paschal thoughts to ordinary Sunday celebrations. A minor adaptation, though one of some practical consequence in regard to the perversions to which it is sometimes exposed, is the severe insistence on a previous fast. The rule is older than its canonical missarum celebritas in praecipuis solemnitatibus hora tertia incho- etur,' the reason given being that priests maybe able to be at Vespers. This applies especially to principal feasts. Cp. n. 28. 320 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK assertion for celebrants in Africa (III. Carth. 29) in the time of St. Augustine, but its early associations are not satisfactory or at all conclusive as to present practice. The earhest mention of it is in the ' Canons of Hippolytus,' xxviii. 205, where it is couched in the following terms : ' Let none of the faithful taste anything before he has partaken of the mysteries, especially on the days of the sacred fast. This is clearly not so much a direction to fast in order to make a spiritual preparation for communion, as a direction to begin every day's work and food with a participation of the Eucharist. It is illus trated, of course, by TertuUian's probably con temporary remark to a woman married to a heathen husband, that he wiU not understand what she eats secretly before she tastes any other food.17 There was, of course, no hardship in this rule in the third century, since private reservation was not only permitted but encouraged. AU that was needed was to eat the sacred food, kept in a private ' area ' or casket, immediately on rising from sleep. Shortly afterwards the thought was introduced, if not already accepted in the age of Tertullian, that the Eucharist so taken was an antidote against poison, a charm against every accident during the day.18 Much the 17 ' Quod secreto ante omnem cibum gustes,' //. Ad Uxorem, 5. The translation sometimes suggested, ' before eveiy meal,' is surely mistaken. 18 It is a mark of the relatively early date of the Canons of Hippolytus that this suggestion about the antidote does not appear in it. It is found in the parallels in Hauler's Didascalia, Ixxviii. p. 117, Egypt. Ch. 0. Tattam, § 58, Test. Dom. ii. 25 : 'Sit semper FASTING COMMUNION— CAUTIONS 321 same feeling led travellers, like Satyrus, to carry it hidden on their person. The rule remained after the reasons and condi tions of Church life which led to it were forgotten ; but it has since had such widespread acceptance in the Church that it is both unwise and improper to treat it with neglect or anything hke contempt. It is good that the body should take part with the soul in its pre paration, yet fasting must not be pressed as if it were a part of the Gospel to the injury of weak consciences, or to the neglect of communion on the part of those who find attendance at an early celebration difficult or impossible ; nor must it be allowed to foster an attitude of contempt on the part of the physically stronger towards the physically weaker brethren. Nor must the clergy put it forward as a reason against celebrating by the sick bed, as the positive law of the Church of England bids them do, nor make themselves unfit for work by excessive rigour, nor he in bed idly when they have to take a late celebration. These things are a kind of superstition as much as treating the Eucharist as an antidote against poison or an amulet against accident. On the Use of Incense. Another accessory of the Eucharist, the use of incense, has been of late much discussed among us. At first the Church was naturally shy of using it, fidelis sollicitus, ut antequam cibum sumat, fiat particeps Eucha- ristiae ut evadat nesciens laedi.' For Satyrus see St. Ambros. Oratio in Obitum Fratris, i. 43. See also the matter collected by Scudamore, ed. 2, pp. 903-7, and Brightman, p. 509, n. 27. Y 322 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK notwithstanding the Scriptural associations connected with it both in the Old and New Testament. It was so closely connected with heathen ritual, and with the temptations to deny the faith offered to Christians in time of persecution, that the notices of its use in Christian worship up to the end of the fourth century are extremely scanty. Two uses, however, seem to be older than others in the Christian Church, which, indeed, are more closely connected than is at first apparent. The first is a use at funerals, which TertuUian himself seems to recognise, though he rejects the ritual use as savour ing of heathenism. Christians (he teUs us) do not reject frankincense (tura) ' ad solatia sepulturae,' as one of the soothing accessories of funeral rites (' De Idol.' 11, cp. 'Apol.' 42), though they do not buy any as adjuncts to prayer ('Apol.' 30). This use would naturaUy lead to its introduction into funeral chapels, partly as a measure of pre caution, in what must often have been unwholesome damp and underground buildings, partly as being places where the more superstitious side of Christian worship most quickly developed. ~ This character of the worship in funeral chapels is evident from many utterances of the Fathers, and from the historical records of the action of energetic Bishops drawing congregations away from the dangerous atmosphere of these chapels into the more reasonable and public services of the city Churches under their control. The noblest of such memorial chapels was the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem — in old INCENSE— AT FUNERALS— AT THE ANASTASIS 323 days more fitly called the Anastasis (Resurrection) — and it is in this that we find the first historical record, with which I am acquainted, of the use of incense in public worship as a sort of preparation for the Sunday service. The pilgrim whom we call Silvia visited the Holy City c. a.d. 385. She teUs us that very early on Sunday morning, at the first cockcrow, the Bishop went down into the Cave in the Anastasis. All the people — who had gathered in the court of the great Basilica of Constantine — followed into the Anastasis, which was brilliantly hghted up (of course not enter ing the Cave, which then, as now, only held a few persons at once). After three psalms and prayers and the commemoration (Litany), ' censers are brought within the Cave of the Anastasis, so that the whole Basihca of the Anastasis is fitted with odours.' Then the Bishop read ' the Resunection ' from the Gospel to the people. More or less informal services went on till daybreak, and then began the regular Sunday services in the Basilica of Constantine ; but so long protracted by preaching, first by Presbyters and then by the Bishop, that the service was not over till the fourth or fifth hour (10 or 11 a.m.). The mention of incense in connec tion with the first service implies that it was not used in those of which the description foUows. This usage at the grave of our Lord on Sunday morning also suggests a probable explanation of the rider to the third ' Apostohc Canon,' which does not seem to be as old as the body of the canon : ' Let it not be lawful that anything else should be brought t2 324 VI. THE CHRISTIAN DAY AND WEEK to the altar (or sanctuary) but ott for the light and incense, at the time of the holy offering.' Both lights and incense belong to the early morning service.19 The earliest definite directions for the use of incense in the Eucharistic Liturgy contained in any Church Order is in the ' Arabic Didascalia,' which we date circa a.d. 400. It is not of course impossible that the direction may be an interpolation, by the translator or some later editor, but it is not improb able that a partial usage of this kind began about this period. It belongs to the preparatory service, but at a somewhat later point than the cockcrow service described at Jerusalem. The book directs the Bishop to go three times round the altar, and the Presbyter to go round the congregation, as part of the Prothesis. The Liturgy of the Coptic Jacobites mentions a setting of incense on the altar at the beginning of the Mass of the Catechumens, a point only slightly later (Brightman, p. 150). The Liturgy described in the Dionysian writings (' Eccl. Hier.' iii. 2 and 3) has a censing at the same place, before the service begins, beginning from the altar and going aU round the holy place. Unfortunately all of these last witnesses are of uncertain date, and three of them have the stamp of pseudepigraphy upon them, and give 19 This is now numbered 4 in the edition of Dionysius Exiguus. It runs thus : Mi; 1$ ov Se ecn-crip,ov) is of later introduc tion. The original use, though not due to false etymology, was no doubt supported by it in popular 3 Iren. ibid. Irenaeus refers to the predecessors of Victor, viz. Anicetus, Pius, Hyginus, Telesphorus and Xystus, who, although they did not keep the passover (with the Jews), yet were at peace with the representatives of the communities which did so (airol p.rt njpoSvTes eiprjvevov rots cWo tSa> rrapoiKiuiv iv eus iTrjpeiTO epvouei/ois Trpbs avrovi). Xystus, the earliest mentioned, is generally dated a.d. 115-125. We may gather that Roman tradition did not go beyond his time. The Liber Pontificalis, s. n., and the False Decre tals (ed. Hinschius, p. 116, Pius, Ep. i., ' ut in die dominico pascha celebretur '), add the tradition that the observance of the Pascha on Sunday was revealed to Hermas, brother of Pope Pius (circa 140), by an angel. But the use of ' Pascha ' for Easter Day is by itself enough to prove the comparative lateness of the legend. It only shows that those who wrote it knew nothing of Apostolic authority for the practice. a a 2 356 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST estimation, which connected ' Pascha ' with the Greek Trdcrx<», ' I suffer.'4 The term ' Pentecost ' was originally given to the whole space (' latissimum spatium,' as TertuUian calls it, ' De Bapt.' 19) from Good Friday to Whitsunday ; and Origen talks of one who can reaUy say ' we are risen with Christ ' as walking continuaUy in the days of Pentecost (' Contra Cels.' viii. 22). Our Lord's crucifixion, which was thus com memorated as taking the place for Christians of the Jewish Passover, actually occurred, according to Christian tradition, on a Friday, the fourteenth day of the Jewish spring lunar month Nisan. The anniver sary of this day might clearly be treated as a moveable or immoveable feast. The Asiatic Churches, follow ing, no doubt, the custom of the Jewish communities which surrounded them, and out of which in most cases they sprang, naturally attached themselves to the day of the month, observing the day that the Jews observed, but giving it a Christian colouring and symbolism.5 The Roman Church considered the observance of the day of the week of much greater 4 Cp. Justin, Dial. 40, Iren. iv. 10, Tert. Adv. Iud. 10 adfin., Lact. iv. 26, 40. St. Augustine writes strongly against the ety mology (Ep. 55, 1), as a popular one. 5 Duchesne supposes that the Laodicean controversy, in which Melito, Bishop of Sardis, was opposed by Claudius Apollinaris, Bishop of Hierapolis, near Laodicea, circa a.d. 164-8 (see Eus. H. E. iv. 26, and the Paschal Chronicle), was one in which some of the Asiatics went so far as to keep up the usage of eating a Paschal Lamb, which of course implied a sort of sacrifice, on the day observed by the Jews : see his lithographed Origines Chretiennes, ch. xvi. p. 237 (Chauvin, 27 rue de 1'Estrapade, 1881). DATE OF EASTER— ASIAN AND ROMAN VIEWS 357 importance, and not only exacted a strict fast all through the Friday but extended it also to the Satur day and up to cockcrow on Sunday morning. The Asiatics, however, not only observed the Pascha on whatever day of the week the Jewish fourteenth Nisan happened to fall, but brought their fast to a conclusion at 3 p.m. on the Paschal day.6 Both parties, however, adopted the Jewish Kalendar as the basis of their observance, the Asiatics accepting the fourteenth Nisan, the Romans and the rest of the Christian world observing the first Friday that followed the fourteenth Nisan. At the close of the second century Pope Victor asserted the superiority of the Roman usage with such roughness as to draw forth a strong protest from St. Irenaeus, whose broadminded Christian maxim de serves to be remembered with lasting gratitude by the Church and to be set before aU controversiahsts who try to represent differences of opinion on matters of Church custom as sufficient reasons for tearing the Church to pieces. His words are : 'H SbadxuvLa Trjs v-qo-- reias ttjv opovoiav Trjepr}Tcu). The season of Lent at first bore simply the character of a time of preparation for Catechumens for the Baptism to be administered on Easter Eve. It was also connected — as, apparently, by the canon of Nicaea — with the preparation of penitents for their absolution ; and finally it became a season of penitential retreat for ordinary Christians, which grew in importance as the Easter communion began to stand out as one of the few occasions on which laymen were expected to approach the Lord's Table. Duchesne (p. 232 foU.) has weU pointed out the remarkable way in which the series of St. Athanasius's Paschal letters, issued to notify the date of Easter, ittustrate the growth of the observance of Lent between the years 329 and 347, especially as he came directly under Roman influence. At first he speaks of the season of Lent and the week of fasting ; later on he speaks of the fast of Lent and the holy week of Pascha (' Festal Letter ' xiii., a.d. 341, from Rome). In a covering letter sent with this, or with that of a previous year, to his principal supporter among the Bishops, Sarapion, Bishop of Thmuis (whose Liturgy is one of the most precious discoveries of DEVELOPMENT OF SEASON OF LENT 367 recent years), he urges that Sarapion should give notice of the fixed days before Lent begins, and should press upon the Egyptians to observe it as a fast, lest they should be ridiculed for theu divergence from the rest of the world.11 In the nineteenth of this series of letters (a.d. 347), he treats the man who disregards the fast of forty days as one who rashly and impurely treadeth on holy things, who cannot celebrate the Easter festival.12 So quickly does tradition grow, even in the hands of so wise a man as Athanasius ! Nevertheless at Rome itself, though a season of forty days was observed, it is almost certain that the whole of it was not kept as a season of fasting. The Church historian Socrates, in a well-known and, as I may call it, classical chapter in which he speaks of the divergence of rites in different places, says that at Rome they fasted three weeks before Pascha, exclusive of Saturdays and Sundays (' H. E.' v. 22, p. 294). 13 This exception of Saturdays is contrary to Socrates's own general statement later on in the same chapter, and we know that Saturday was usuaUy a fast at Rome ; but there is something to be said as 11 Athanasius, P. G. 26, p. 1412 foil. This letter is, unfortun ately, not given in the translation of these Epistles in the Library qf the Fathers (Oxf. 1854). 12 P. G. 26, p. 1429. 13 The statement of Socrates is in some degree supported by Cassiodorius, who has made a translation of part of this chapter in his Historia Tripartita, ix. 38, but a translation is not like an inde pendent witness. The close of St. Leo's fourth Lenten sermon, which is also quoted by Valesius ad he, to the effect that the Romans were expected to fast on Monday, Wednesday and Friday is not genuine. See P. L. 54, p. 281, note. 368 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST to the comparative shortness of the early Roman Lent fast, even by those who do not think the statement of Socrates correct. Duchesne supposes the three weeks to have been alternate. The reason why three weeks were at first chosen would probably be to outdo the Montanists, who instituted a fast of a fortnight in order to be more rigorous than the Cathohcs with their one holy week. But soon the whole season of the six weeks' preparation of penitents and catechumens was made a time not of devotion only but of fasting. Thus from the one day's fast of Good Friday grew up a period of six weeks, including Holy Week at Rome, Alexandria and Jerusalem, but anterior to Holy Week and distin guished from it at Antioch and in the region under its influence, which included the imperial city of Constantinople. The number of actual fast-days in the Roman six weeks and the Eastern seven weeks was, however, as a matter of fact the same, since at Rome only Sunday was exempted from the rule of fasting, whtte in the East Saturday and Sunday were both excepted. In process of time, however, it was observed that this was only roughly speaking forty days, and in reality was exactly thirty-six. An attempt was therefore made at Rome to add another week, and finaUy, in the seventh centuiy, by some Pope whose name is unknown, the four days from Ash Wednesday onwards were added to make up the exact number of the traditional name. This we know was after the time of St. Gregory, who only knew the thirty-six days (' Horn.' xvi. ' in Evang.7), but LENGTHENING OF THE FAST 369 before the composition of the so-caUed ' Gelasian Sacramentary,' which adds the observance of the Sundays in Septuagesima, in Sexagesima and in Quinquagesima, thus making a season of nine weeks. At Constantinople three preliminary weeks were also added, two caUed by the names of the Gospels : the Sunday of the Pharisee and the publican, and the Sunday of the Prodigal son, and the third that of the Carnival (tow arroKpea)). The whole Lenten season of ten weeks is called in the Greek Chm-ch the TpuoBiov because the ' canon ' or series of odes, which in other parts of the year contains nine, in this part generally contains only three odes. The extension of Lent introduced at Rome was not, however, everywhere accepted in the West. In the Church of Milan to the present day there is no celebration of Ash Wednesday, and Lent begins at the Vespers on the Eve of the first Sunday in Lent. In Gaul, indeed, in the sixth centuiy, canons were passed in favour of the observance of fasting on Saturdays in Lent (a usage not received at Milan any more than in the East), but in one case a caution is added against prolonging Lent by the addition of the weeks preceding— showing the gradual but not complete introduction of Roman practices.14 As to the services in Lent, the West, as far as 14 See the Councils of Agde, c. 12, a.d. 506 (' etiam die sabbati '), and Orleans, c. 2, a.d. 541 (' quadragesima ab omnibus ecclesiis aequaliter teneatur, neque quinquagesima aut sexagesima ante Pascha quilibet sacerdos praesumat indicere.' Saturdays are only excepted if some compensation is made on Sunday). B B 370 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST Rome prevatted, somewhat slowly settled down to its observance with Eucharistic celebrations, whtte in the East the contrary method prevatted, of frequent non- liturgical services. The Roman practice of celebra tions every week day in Lent except Thursday is traceable up to the seventh century. Thursday did not become a liturgical day tttl the time of Pope Gregory II. , a.d. 715-31. Our modern practice of making Thursday a speciaUy liturgical day may have something to be said for it as a matter of symbolism and convenience, but it is certainly far from primitive. § 3. Holy Week. Palm Sunday. Maundy Thursday. The observance of Palm Sunday, though a very natural one, is not very ancient in the Western Church. It came, no doubt, from Palestine. At the end of the fourth centuiy it was celebrated at Jeru salem. The whole city went in the afternoon to the Mount of Olives and sat on the spot whence our Blessed Lord ascended, singing and hearing lessons from Scripture, and then went home in slow procession, all carrying branches of palm or olive, and singing ' Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord,' and the people did not return to theu- houses tiU late in the day (' Sttvia,' ap. Duchesne, p. 484, cp. p. 237). The earhest mention of the day in the West is in Isidore of Seville, in the first quarter of the seventh centuiy ('De Off.' i. 10), but no service for the blessing of palms or the procession is found in liturgical books PALM SUNDAY— MAUNDY THURSDAY 371 earher than the eighth or ninth centuries. Impulse to its observance was undoubtedly given by the vigorous hymn in Latin elegiacs which the Spaniard Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans, in the time of Charles the Great, wrote for his daughter Gisla. We have a very good idea of its swing and power given us in the excellent translation 'All glory, laud, and honour,' which, however, omits some of the quaint morahsa- tions, e.g. — Sis pius ascensor, tuus et nos simus asellus, Tecum nos capiat urbs veneranda Dei. Be thou our gentle rider, let thy people be thine ass ; Within God's holy city together let us pass. (Cp. Martene, ' De Ant. Eccl. Rit.' lib. iv. c. xx.) The most ancient observances of Holy Week besides the fast of Good Friday, which is the basis of the whole, are attached, as is natural, to the Thursday which preceded it. The most striking of these was the evenmg communion which remained in the African Church as late as the time of St. Augustine, and was expressly exempted from the rule of fasting by the twenty-ninth canon of the Thud Council of Carthage, a.d. 397. It was of course originally a commemora tion of the Last Supper and was connected with a habit of bathing which may or may not have been suggested by our Blessed Lord's own action as regards His disciples. In any case such a bath was a natural termination to the severities of Lent and a prepara tion for the proper keeping of Easter : but for reasons of health it was impossible for it to be taken fasting. For this reason the Church of the fourth centuiy, B B 2 372 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST which had generally become strict about the fast before communion, did not insist upon it on this day (S. Aug. ' Ep.' 54 ad Jan. 9, 10). In process of time, however, even this single reception was held to be improper, and the Greek Counctt in Trullo, canon twenty-nine, a.d. 692, decreed such a celebration to be unlawful, expressly referring to the canon of Carthage. I may remark that the Gallican pilgrim tells us that the Liturgy was celebrated on the Thursday about 4 p.m., and that this was the only day in the year in which it took place in the Chapel on Golgotha (' post crucem,' ap. Duchesne, p. 486). I may also note that the newly discovered ' Testament of our Lord ' (ii. 11) speaks of the Eucharistic celebration on this day, but, unfortu nately, neither of these is necessarily evidence of an earlier date than the time of St. Augustine. The words, however, of the ' Testament ' are remarkable : ' On the fifth day of the last week of Passover let bread and wine be offered,15 and He who suffered instead of that which He offered, Himself is the offerer ' (•:- »o;_o» ooi «Of..o> ]isD octi v2iX*j - - *'? ooio). By this I understand that the writer (who has a considerable amount of enthusiastic, not to say fanciful, thought) agreed with St. Augustine in thinking the sacrifice of the Eucharist to be especially that of the mystical body of Christ, His Church, and that he held the Maundy Thursday celebration to be especially one in which Christ is the priest who offers His people to God. 15 The Copto-Arabic version has 'ad vesperas,' and adds 'ad implendum mysterium paschae. Item faciat die sabbati.' MAUNDY THURSDAY OBSERVANCES 373 The ' Testament ' also speaks of a lamp being offered by the Deacon on this day. The other observances of most ancient date were connected with the special preparation for Easter on the part of catechumens and penitents. In many Churches catechumens were accustomed to repeat the Creed which they had been previously taught (redditio symboli), though in other Churches the fixed day for this was Easter Eve. It has also been often supposed,16 though without sufficient authority, that the ceremonial washing of the feet of catechumens took place on that day, as a feet- washing of certain persons stttl does in many Continental churches. This is an inference drawn from St. Augustine's two letters to Januarius (54, 10 and 55, 33) ; but the first passage refers to private bathing, and the second — the feet-washing — is a ceremony that followed Baptism on Easter Eve in many Western Churches. When the existing feet-washing of inferiors by superiors — which under the name of Mandatwm. gave the name to Maundy Thursday — was introduced into the Western Church, I am not able exactly to specify. Martene quotes the Seventeenth CouncU of Toledo, a.d. 694, as complaining that it was being in some places neglected. This seems to be the earliest notice of it that has come down to us. It cannot have existed very long in Spain, since Isidore of Seville (' De Eccl. Off.' i. 28) treats the washing of altars, walls and pavements, which took place on the same 16 As in the article on ' Maundy Thursday ' in Diet. Chr. Ant. s. v. 374 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST day — no doubt as a natural preparation for the Easter festival — as fulfilling the Lord's example. Isidore wrote about a.d. 620, and therefore we may say that the Mandatum was introduced into Spain during the course of the seventh centuiy. The name, of course, is taken from the anthem sung during the ceremony, being the words of St. John xiii. 34, ' A new com mandment I give unto you, that ye love one another : as I have loved you, that ye also love one another.' Maundy Thursday was, however, certainly the proper day for the spiritual feet- washing — the pubhc absolution of penitents — as St. Jerome witnesses in describing the famous case of Fabiola, who did penance for re-manying after divorcing her husband (' Ep.' 77, 4 ad Oceanum, ' ante diem Paschae ' ; cp. Inno cent, ad Decentium, Ambros. ' Ep.' 33 ad Marcel- linam etc.), and as we learn from many ancient hturgical books. It was also the day on which preparation was made for Baptism by the consecration of the holy otts during the Liturgy — especiaUy of the ott of exorcism, with which candidates were anointed before Baptism ; and of the Chrism used in their Confirmation, which immediately succeeded it ; and the ott for unction of the sick. There was, I beheve, no special propriety in the day, but it was simply a matter of convenience in order that Good Friday might be spent in other more spiritual exercises, and that there might be no hurry on Easter Eve, when there might be a very large number of Baptisms, especiaUy where that HOLY OILS— GOOD FRIDAY 375 was practically the only day for Baptism in the year. One other piece of antiquity is preserved in the communion on Maundy Thursday in the so-called Gregorian Sacramentary — or, as it should rather be caUed, the Sacramentary of Pope Hadrian — sent into Gaul in the time of Charles the Great. (See Duchesne, ' Origines du culte,' pp. 114-119. It is mentioned in a letter somewhere between a.d. 784-791.) This is the administration of the chahce by the Deacon to the Bishop just before he consecrates the holy otts (Migne, 'P. L.' 78, p. 84). The Deacon's special re lation to the chahce has already been described in some detail : see above, p. 159 foU. § 4. Good Friday. The reaction against the Asiatic custom of closing the fast on Good Friday and having a paschal celebra tion on that day, as weU as a general sense of the unfitness of so sad a day for Eucharistic joy, led to making it a day of solemn service without the Liturgy. Indeed, as we have already seen, Wednesday and Friday do not seem to have been at first liturgical days in the West (except in Africa) nor in Alexandria. The service for Good Friday in the Roman Liturgy in aU probability gives us an idea of what such services generally were.17 They consisted of at least three lessons with Collects and Psalms between them, which were followed by a series of intercessions, hke the Collects now said on that day for the Church, the 17 Duchesne, l.c. pp. 159 foil., 164 foil., 238. 376 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST clergy, the emperor or king, catechumens, heretics and schismatics, Jews, heathen etc.18 The two special ceremonies now in use in the Latin Church, the adoration of the Cross and the ' Mass of the Presanctified,' are both of later date.19 The second of them, the communion with the reserved host, is in fact excluded by the terms of the weU- known letter of Pope Innocent I. to Decentius. The adoration of the Cross, hke the observance of Palm Sunday, is an importation from the Church of Jerusalem, where the supposed remains of the true cross discovered by St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, were solemnly brought out, laid on a table on which a linen cloth was spread, and kissed by the faithful, who passed round it, entering one way and going out another. This is described by the GaUican pilgrim whom we call Silvia as lasting for several hours. After which a service very like the Roman followed, lasting for three hours (noon to 3 p.m.) and consisting of many lections, psalms and prayers, the lections exhibiting the prophetic description of the Passion and its fulfilment. The authoress speaks of the great effect produced on aU present, and their 18 They are also found in Hadrian's Sacramentary for the Wednesday in Holy Week. 19 Neither of them is found, for instance, in the description of the papal rites in the Sacramentary of Hadrian nor in the Ordines of St. Amand from the Paris manuscript of the ninth century printed by Duchesne as an Appendix : see pp. 451-2, where the Good Friday service is described. But the communion on Maundy Thursday is apparently reserved : see ib. p. 450, and cp. Duchesne's text p. 238 n. 2. JERUSALEM SERVICE— THE CROSS 377 sighs and tears at the recitation of the Lord's suffer ing for us. This custom of venerating the Cross began in the fourth century at Jerusalem, but was not, appar ently, introduced into the West till the seventh or eighth. It is reasonable to suppose that, hke many other Roman ceremonies, it was introduced from Gaul, partly because it was evidently not at first used in the service conducted by the Pope (Duchesne, p. 238, n.), partly because of the character of the language, particularly of the reproaches or ' Improperia ' ad dressed to the people of Israel, which have a GaUican ring. Probably the first idea was not to kiss or adore the particular cross then and there presented to the people, but the rehc of the true cross (as it was supposed) imbedded in it, which was brought from Jerusalem. Not only was it an ambition of almost every pilgrim to possess such a rehc, but the ambition was apparently gratified to an indefinite extent ; and yet (so faith was taught to believe) the matter of the original cross was in no way diminished. Indeed the Divinity of Christ was by some supposed to be con firmed by the miracle. St. Cyril in his lectures (x. 19) compares the multiphcation with that of the loaves at the feeding of the five thousand : ' The holy wood of the Cross is His witness, which is seen among us to this day, and by means of those who have in faith taken thereof has from this place now almost filled the whole world.' And Pauhnus of Nola in the same strain says that the Cross at Jerusalem, ' having lively energy in its insensate matter, so gives its wood almost daily to the innumerable desires of men as to suffer 378 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST no loss, and remains as if untouched by those who datty take portions from it, and is always venerated as a whole' (' Ep.' 31, 6, 'P. L.' 61, p. 329). The only ancient legend of our own King Arthur is that he carried on his back a cross made at Jerusalem, hke the true cross, during a three days' battle with the heathen (Nennius, c. 64 ; cp. ' Annales Cambriae,' s. a. a.d. 516, where Badon Hill is mentioned). One writer attaches the legend to a famous battle in the West country, which one antiquary at least has supposed to be at Badbury Rings in Dorset. I may mention also that in the year 1218 the Cathedral of Salisbury had two crosses ' cum ligno dominico ' (Hatcher's ' Salisbury,' p. 714). But in time actual relics, however minute, became hard to acquire, and any cross was substituted, although the anthem still imphed that the original cross was present (cp. Amal. ' De Div. Off.' i. 14) : ' Ecce lignum crucis in quo salus mundi pepen- dit. Venite adoremus.' The first Western rituals that speak of the adoration describe it as an act of kissing ; then came approach with naked feet ; then prostration and kissing the ground, and lastly ' creeping to the cross,' which is frequently mentioned in the contro versies at the time of the Reformation. In the meantime theologians had been busy in de veloping the doctrine of adoration, and defended the practice which had grown from a natural devotional im pulse, directed to something supposed to be histori cally connected with our Lord's Passion, into an act of formal and positive worship addressed to a symbol. Aquinas (' Sum.' III. q. 25, art. 4) had swept away the ADORATION OF THE CROSS 379 distinction carefully established by the Greek second Council of Nicaea between the true worship (XaTpeCa) which is alone due to the Divine nature and that doTraoytos ko.1 TiprjTLKri Trpoo-KVPrjo-is which is given to the symbol of the cross and to the Gospels and other objects of devotion. I have dealt with this subject in my ' Considerations on Pubhc Worship.' ch. xx., and have shown how the teaching of Aquinas, that abso lutely divine worship is to be paid to the Cross (which has never been repudiated by Roman theologians, though some subtle explanation of it has been offered), leads to a state of mind in common people which it is almost impossible to distinguish from idolatry, at any rate as idolatry is practised and explained by an enlightened heathen. Some of the addresses made to the Cross were extraordinarily effusive, and, I must honestly say, repulsive, as well as theologically un sound, whtte others were highly poetical and rhetorical. My predecessor Bishop Jewel, in his ' Controversy with M. Harding ' (' Works,' P. S. i. p. 534) quotes among other passages the following verse of a hymn : 0 crux, ave, spes unica Hoc passionis tempore, Auge piis iustitiam Reisque dona veniam ; in which the cross is saluted and desired to increase righteousness in the good and to give pardon to sin ners. Such is the natural course of superstition ; and although it may be true that prayers exactly of this nature are now no longer said in the Latin Church, at 380 VII. EASTER, LENT AND PENTECOST least in the authorised pubhc services, the teaching of Aquinas stttl remains authoritative, especiaUy where- ever the influence of the present Pope, Leo XIII., extends. I may remark that the Eastern origin of this ser vice on Good Friday is kept in memory by the Greek form of the Trisagion stiU recited in the Roman Missal : "Ayios 6 debs, ayios io~Yvp6s, dytos dddvaTos, i\er)o-ov rjpaTqpO'i rjpepo.<; ifaorrjKvla';. 9 P. Silvius in P. L. 13, p. 676 : 'VIII. Idus Epiphania quo die, interpositis temporibus, Stella magis Dominum natum nuntiabat, et aqua vinum facta, vel in amne Iordanis Salvator baptizatus est.' CHRISTMAS— GAUL, SPAIN, ANTIOCH 401 in Africa.10 This practice was, however, discontinued at Rome, where the Popes, first Siricius and then Leo, treated it as a novelty to be put down. In fact, Epiphany was observed at Rome almost entirely as the festival of the Magi, whose visit is the main subject of Pope Leo's eight sermons on the day.11 In the East the festival had a broader character, as is imphed by the plural form Ta 'Errupdvia ' the Epiphanies,' sometimes Td ©eot/xma, ' the divine mani festations.' For just as it was supposed that the Annunciation and the Crucifixion fell on the Passover Day, so the Birth, the Baptism, the first miracle and the feeding of the five thousand were all considered to belong to 6 January, or at any rate were commemo rated at the same time. The Western Christmas Day was, however, introduced into Antioch about a.d. 375, in the time of St. Chrysostom. But at Jerusalem the Nativity was still kept on 6 January, as we learn from the Gallican pilgrim ; and at Alex andria Western Christmas was not introduced till about the time of the CouncU of Ephesus, a.d. 430. 12 10 See Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. iii. p. 118, cp. i. pp. 3 foil. For Africa see Victor Vitensis, De Persecutione Vandalica, ii. 47, about the miracle worked on a blind man at the Epiphany Baptism by Eugenius, Bishop of Carthage. On the other hand see Siricius (a.d. 384-389) ad Himerium Tarraconensem, 2 (P. L. 13, p. 1134), and Leo I. Ep. 16, 1 ad Siciliae Episcopos. 11 The Magi are already called ' kings ' by Tertullian, Adv. Iud. 9 ; and Augustine (Serm. 203) treats the festival as connected with the manifestation of the Redeemer of all nations. 12 Cassian, Collatio x. 2 ; Gennadius, De Viris III. 59. D D 402 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS The Epiphany is stttl observed by the Armenians as the feast of the Nativity. In the Greek Church the water for Baptism and for other purposes is solemnly blessed on the Epiphany, people are sprinkled with it or bathe in it and much of it is taken home by those who are present for the use of the sick and to be employed as a sort of charm. St. Chiysostom refers to this water as being miracu lously preserved sweet for one or even more years.13 The Greek service for the blessing of the water is a very fine one. It is evidently based on the local service for the blessing of the river Jordan : indeed, the chief prayer in it is ascribed to Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem, and contains expressions referring directly to that river. The hole cut in the ice of the River Neva at St. Petersburg is actuaUy caUed the Jordan. Usually, it seems, the service takes place at the font or tank. But there is — at least in some places — a service also at the sea, the water of which is blessed by throwing or plunging the cross into it, just as the font is blessed. I have seen this done at Kyrenia in Cyprus, in 1898, first in the church 13 St. Chrys. De Baptismo Christi, § 2, ed. Gaume, ii. p. 436. The service is called aKoXovOia tou p.eydXov ayi.ao-p.ov. The prayer of Sophronius may be found on pp. 356-9 of TZixoXdyiov, ed. 1885. Cp. Neale, Eastern Church, ii. p. 754, where he quotes Dr. King's descrip tion of the ceremony at St. Petersburg (Greek Church in Russia, p. 384, Lond. 1772). The Abyssinians had a sort of renewal of baptism on this day, but it seems identical in origin with the aspersion practised elsewhere on the Epiphany. Epiphanius believed that water was annually turned into wine on this day at Cibyra in Caria, and Gerasa in Arabia (Haer. 51, c. 29, 30). EPIPHANY— CHRISTMAS SAINTS' DAYS 403 and then outside at the harbour. A number of young men stand on the bank ready to plunge in and seize the cross and bring it back. The one who was successful swam with it to a httle vessel riding at anchor, climbed up the chains and exhibited it in triumph, and then swam back again, receiving a smaU reward for his pains. § 2. Festivals of Saints following Christmas. Its Octave. About the end of the fourth century also arose the happy thought of commemorating the great Saints of the New Testament in close connection with the Nativity— not from any tradition as to dates, but in order to fiU out the joyful thought of Christ's gifts to men in His coming into the world to raise humanity to a new pitch of holiness and exceUence. This usage can be traced to the latter years of the fourth century, though the form of it was not quite the same as our own. The earhest definitely recorded Saint's Day is that: of St. Stephen (' Ap. Const.' viii. 32), and, though the date is not named, there is httle doubt that 26 De cember is meant. The 27th was at first the day of St. James and St. John (the sons of Zebedee), the 28th that of St. Peter and St. Paul. We can trace this observance in substance to the time of St. BasU, in whose funeral oration by his brother, Gregory of Nyssa, it is mentioned that the Church kept the festivals of BI)2 404 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS SS. Stephen, Peter, James, John and Paul after Christmas and before the first of January, on which day BasU died a.d, 379 (' P.G.' 46, 789). Other early Kalendars of about the same date confirm the usage. The Armenians, who do not keep the festival of Christmas, celebrate the memory of David the 0eo- naTojp and James the d§e\d>6deo<; on 25 December. This last festival is of Palestinian origin.14 We do not know why the double festival of St. James and St. John was divided in the West ; for it was adopted in the old form from the East in African and GaUican Kalendars. Cp. Martene, hb. iv. c. xiii. § 10 (iii. p. 110). In the Carthaginian it is ' St. John Baptist and James the Apostle, whom Herod killed ' — a natural union of two conspicuous Herodian martyrs. But there is, I think, no distinct trace of any commemoration but that of St. John the Apostle in Roman service books on 27 December.15 The festival of St. Peter and St. Paul was kept at Rome on 29 June from a comparatively early date : that being the day on which, in a.d. 258, their remains were solemnly translated to the place called ' Ad Catacumbas ' at the third milestone on the Appian 14 Cosmas Indicopleustes, P. G. 88, p. 19. The titles deoTrdroyp and aSeAo#eos illustrate the use of 0eoTo'/cos. 15 The Leonine Sacramentary has, however, some of its collects in the plural referring to ' Apostles,' ' birthdays of the Apostles,' and 'martyrs' (ed. Feltoe, pp. 165-6), which may be a hint of an earlier state of things. In some Western Churches the commemo ration was, not of the death, but of the ' transitus ' or ' assumption ' of St. John (Kraus, s. v. Feste, p. 499). In the Sacramentary of Hadrian, VIII. Kal. Aug (25 July) we have ' Natalis S. Iacobi Apostoli ' ; but with no hint as to which of the James' is intended. APOSTLES, STEPHEN, JOHN, INNOCENTS 405 Way, and having, apparently, nothing to do with any tradition as to the actual date on which they suffered. Their rehcs were afterwards divided again, in the time of Constantine, and removed to the great basilicas built in their honour, but no change was made in the day of their festival. This day, then, being already observed at Rome, 28 December was ready for an other commemoration, and that was found in the ' Innocents ' of Bethlehem — so called at Rome, but in African and GaUican Kalendars caUed ' Infantes.' The institution of this festival goes back probably to the fifth century, as it is found in the Leonine Sacra mentary and those that follow it. One of the Collects in the oldest Sacramentary may be worth quoting : ' Deus qui, hcet sis magnus in magnis, mirabttia tamen gloriosius operaris in minimis : da nobis quae- sumus in eorum celebritate gaudere qui Filio tuo Domino nostro testimonium praebuerunt etiam non loquentes : per I. C. D. N.' (ed. Feltoe, p. 167). In some of the Western Churches in later days the three festivals that foUowed Christmas were observed in a peculiar way. On St. Stephen's Day Deacons naturaUy took the principal part ; on St. John's Day Presbyters, and on Innocents' Day the children of the choir (Martene, iii. p. 110 foU.). On St. John's Day they enthroned their Bishop and held a service with him ; and at Vespers when the Precentor came to the verse in the Magnificat ' He hath put down the mighty from their seats ' he gave up his staff to the Precentor of the boys, and then they went into the upper stalls while the canons took the lower seats. After service the Precentor gave them a feast at his house. The 406 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS next day was one of special sports and revelries in which the boys took the lead. This festival was observed with a good deal of licence and gradually abolished : but when Martene wrote, in the first quarter of the eighteenth century, it was still kept up at Lyons and in some other churches (iii. p. 112). The festival of the Circumcision on 1 January is the natural complement to the cycle of Christmas. In the West it was originaUy simply the Octave of Christmas (Octavas Domini), with some special refer ence to the Blessed Virgin. The Preface summing up the lessons of Christmas week in the Gelasian Sacra mentary is rather interesting, though the latter part* is clearly GaUican, not Roman, not being found in the Sacramentary of Hadrian, and wanting the sim phcity of the Roman style : ' Through Christ our Lord : the octave of whose Nativity we celebrate adoring thy marvels, O Lord. For she who bore Him is both mother and virgin : He who was born is both an infant and God. *Right well have the heavens spoken, angels given gratulations, shepherds rejoiced, the wise men become changed, kings been disturbed, infants been crowned with a glorious passion. Suckle, O mother, our food : suckle the bread that comes down from heaven, laid in a crib (praesepio) as though He were the food of pious beasts of burden. For there the ox knew his owner and the ass his master's crib, that is to the circumcision and the uncircumcision. Which also the Saviour and CIRCUMCISION— FESTIVALS OF B. VIRGIN 407 our Lord taken up by Simeon in the Temple deigned most fuUy to fulfil.* Therefore with angels ' etc. In the West also it was a fast, to counteract the excesses of the heathen New Year, when a sort of carnival, with dressing up in the forms of animals, was celebrated. One of our antiquaries (Rev. C. H. Mayo) discovered such a mask or ' ooser ' in 1891 (' Somerset and Dorset Notes and Queries ' ii. § 239). § 3. Festivals of the Blessed Virgin and of St. John the Baptist. We might naturally have expected that some more personal commemoration of the Blessed Virgin would have been added to the galaxy of Christmas. So indeed it was in certain Churches ; but not in those of the most influence. The Nestorian Kalendar has such a festival, on the second Friday after Christmas ; and other Saints' Days follow on succeeding Fridays (viz. St. John Baptist, SS. Peter and Paul, the four Evangehsts and St. Stephen). The Copts have a simUar festival of the Virgin on 16 January, and Gregory of Tours marks one for Gaul about the same date. But no such festival was known at Rome, except the octave of Christmas, unttt the seventh century, when four festi vals of the Virgin were adopted from Constantinople. The earhest of these is that of the 'Tvavavrq or ' Occursus Symeonis,' or, as our Prayer-book rightly caUs it, ' The Presentation of Christ in the Temple,' forty days after Christmas, and therefore on 2 February if you foUow the Western date, but on the 14th if you foUow 408 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS the Greek date. The earhest person who mentions it is ' Silvia,' who speaks of it as ' the fortieth day after Epiphany ' — ' Quadragesima Epiphaniae. She men tions the regular subjects of the sermons preached on this day as taken from that place of the Gospel ' where on the fortieth day Joseph and Mary brought the Lord into the Temple, and Symeon and Anna the prophetess, the daughter of Samuhel [sic], saw Him, and of the words which they said when they saw the Lord, and of the offering which the parents offered.' This description shows that it was there, at its source, a festival of our Lord, as our own Church teaches us to regard it, rather than one of the Blessed Virgin ; and it appears to have had its origin, like the adoration of the Cross, in the Holy City. The Western procession and blessing of candles probably takes the place of a heathen ceremony of lustration (Martene, iii. 127). As to the Annunciation, we have seen that the date (25 March) is older than the time of St. Augustine. But this was regarded as the Tevecris Xpio-Tov rather than as a day to be observed in honour of the Blessed Virgin ; and indeed there is no clear evidence of its being observed as a festival at all before the TruUan Counctt (a.d. 692 : c. 52). It is of course intended to be an exact period before 25 December. Two other festivals, more directly touching the Blessed Virgin, are those of her Nativity, 8 September, and her death, 15 August. These four are marked in the Gelasian Sacramentary towards the beginning of NATIVITY— 'ASSUMPTIO '-JOHN BAPTIST 409 the eighth centuiy, but they were unknown in the age of St. Gregory and in Britain after his time. In the Gelasian Sacramentary, though the festival is caUed ' Assumptio,' there is no hint at the legendary incidents of a death which was no death unless it be in the words of the CoUect caUed ' Secreta ' — ' quia ad tua praeconia recurrit ad laudem quod vel talis assumpta est. ' But in the Sacramentary of Hadrian the legend is more definitely expressed : ' Veneranda nobis, Domine, huius est diei festivitas in qua sancta Dei genetrix mortem subiit temporalem nee tamen mortis nexibus deprimi potuit.' Its institution as a high solemnity was slowly introduced, as Martene shows (iii. p. 589). The earhest suggestion of anything remarkable about the death of the Blessed Virgin is in the fourth century writer Epiphanius, ' Haer.' 78, § 11. He does not profess to know anything for certain, only he suggests that she may have remained immortal. A festival connected with the date of Christmas as kept in the West, on the eighth day before the Kalends of January, is that of the birth of the Fore runner, St. John the Baptist, kept exactly six months before, on the eighth day before the Kalends of July, and therefore on 24 June. Its Western origin is shown (as Duchesne weU remarks) by the fact that it is kept on the 24th, not on the 25th, of June. It is first mentioned in the sermons of St. Augustine 16 and it is therefore of much greater antiquity, in the West at any rate, than the festivals of the Blessed Virgin. 16 ' Solos duos natales celebrat ecclesia, huius et Christi,' Ausr Serm. 287. 8" 410 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS St. Augustine speaks in a tone of reproof of a pagan custom, kept up by Christians on this festival, of bathing in the sea. We should naturally suppose that, as it was Midsummer Day, the custom had some thing to do with the worship of the Sun. A custom of hghting bonfires on the hills is also stttl in existence in some parts of France. I once heard it refened to on St. John's Day in a sermon at Aime in Savoy. It survived, I beheve, in Cornwall tttl fifty years ago. The fact that St. John's Day was at the summer solstice and our Lord's Nativity at the winter solstice furnishes St. Augustine with a mystical comment on the Baptist's words, ' He must increase, but I must decrease ' ( St. John iii. 30) : ' In nativitate Christi dies crescit, in Ioannis nativitate decrescit : natus est hodie Ioannes, ab hodierno die minuuntur dies ; natus Christus viii. Kal. Ian., ab iUo die crescunt dies ' (' Serm.' 287). All this imphes that the two festivals had been kept for some time and in some sort of connection. For reflection of this sort does not occur at once to the preacher, but only when a celebration has become a sort of second nature. § 4. Festivals of the Cross. Holy Cross Day, which is marked in our Kalendars on 14 September and which was much observed in this country before the Reformation as weU as elsewhere, is a fourth century Palestinian festival, hke the adoration of the Cross on Good Friday and the Presentation of our Lord. It is really the dedication festival of the two churches buttt by MIDSUMMER DAY— HOLY CROSS 411 Constantine at Jerusalem in 335, two years before his death— the Martyrium, to the East, and the Anastasis or Church of the Sepulchre, to the West of the holy site. It is remembered by Church historians as being the solemnity attended by the large concourse of Bishops who at the Council of Tyre had pronounced a sentence of deposition on St. Athanasius. The day chosen was not an accidental one, but was also beheved at Jerusalem to be that of the discovery of the true cross by St. Helena. But it had an even more important if more general coincidence with the ancient Feast of Tabernacles and with the dedication of the first Temple by King Solomon at that season.17 As this was a great season of menymaking among the Jews, it became also a great festival in Palestine and in the Eastern Church generally. It was not, however, introduced into the West unttt the seventh century. Holy Cross Day is not recorded on 14 September in the earhest Roman Kalendar, which marks the day as the burial of St. Cyprian, nor in the Leonine Sacramen tary, which adds to it the commemoration of his friend and contemporary Cornehus (xviii. Kal. Oct.). The later Sacramentaries have both, but put the ' Exalta tion of the Holy Cross ' first. The modern Roman Missal commemorates SS. Cornehus and Cyprian on 16 September ; our Kalendar wrongly attaches the name of St. Cyprian to the 26th. In any reform of 17 Lev. xxiii. 34 etc., 2 Chron. v. 3, vii. 8, 9, 10, and cp. Silvia 48 (ed. Geyer, p. 100) : ' Et hoc per Scripturas sanctas invenitur, quod ea dies sit enceniarum qua et sanctus Salomon, consummata domo Dei quam aedificaverat, steterit ante altarium Dei et oraverit, sicut scriptum est in libris Paralipomenon.' 412 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS the Kalendar it is to be hoped that St. Cyprian may be commemorated on the right day, 14 September. Another comparatively old festival in our Kalendars is that of the Invention of the Cross on 3 May. It appears in the so-called Gelasian Sacra mentary on this day but not in the true Roman books,18 and it may therefore be supposed to be a GaUican festival. We have seen that 14 September was the date given at Jerusalem as that of the finding of the cross, and it is therefore probable that 3 May comes from some other legendary source. It is unknown in the East. Its retention in the table of our Anglican Kalendar is evidence that it was considered of some importance in this country. In France it was the day for blessing crosses intended to be set up as protecting emblems in gar dens, vineyards and fields : a natural and seemly custom at this season of the year, closely akin to that of the Rogationtide processions. Martene gives the form in use in his day (iii. p. 573), which prays that they may be defended from hail, whirlwinds, tempests and all attacks of the enemy. § 5. Festivals of St. Michael and the Maccabees. St. Peter's Chains. Festivals of angels are almost as a matter of course connected with days on which certain churches dedi- 18 Not in the Leonine and in the old manuscripts of the Gregorian or Sacramentary of Hadrian, but in the Gelasian, and therefore presumably a Gallican interpolation. HOLY CROSS— ST. MICHAEL— MACCABEES 413 cated to them have been consecrated. It is possible that some of these may have been chosen on the ground of certain visions which occurred at particular spots, the two most famous being the apparitions of St. Michael on Mount Garganus in Apulia on 8 May and at Rome on 29 September. A similar day was kept at Constantinople on 8 November, which is stiU the feast of St. Michael in the East.19 But on the other hand the visions are as likely to have occurred on the festival day chosen beforehand for another reason. The oldest Western festival is that which we keep as Michaelmas Day on 29 September, which appears in the earhest Roman Sacramentary as a local festival of the dedication (natale) of the basilica of the Angel in the Via Salaria — a church no longer existing, but originally six Roman miles from the city. It must have been a popular festival, as there are five forms of service set down for it. The festival of the Maccabees, in honour of the heroic mother and her seven sons (2 Mace, vii.) who were tortured by Antiochus because they would not eat swine's flesh, and who were regarded as types of the courage of Christian martyrs, was kept very generaUy and perhaps universaUy in the Church from about the end of the fourth century. It was spoken 19 Cp. Sozomen, ii. 3. The MixarjW, he says, built by Con stantine, about four miles by sea from the city, was so called on account of the appearances of the Angel which were accustomed to take place there. It was evidently used, just as the temples of Aesculapius had been, for the purpose of sick men being placed in them to receive dreams as to remedies for their infirmities. 414 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS of with honour in sermons by the great preachers of the Church, St. Chrysostom, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Augustine, St. Leo, and Caesarius of Aries. The day kept was everywhere the same, 1 August. As the only day mentioned in the book of Macca bees in connection with these persecutions is the feast of Bacchus (2 Mace. vi. 7), it is reasonable to suppose that the day chosen was one corresponding to such a heathen festival, and that the Christian celebration was intended to divert attention from it, as the fast on 1 January was intended to do. The Attic Dionysia do not conespond to such a date, but a vintage festival might eastty be held on 1 August in a warmer climate than that of Attica. It would be naturally a local Palestinian or Syriac festival at first, and we find that a church of the Maccabees actually existed at Antioch, in which Chiysostom delivered his sermon on the festival (eis rows dyiovs MaKKafiatovs : ii. 622). Perhaps, indeed, the day may merely have been the day of the dedication of this church and therefore accidental. The commemoration of the Maccabees still finds a place in the Roman Missal, but as secondary to the commemoration of St. Peter ' ad Vincula ' and of the Apostle Paul. The memory of St. Peter's Chains has in fact driven out both the Maccabees and St. Paul from general recoUection in the West, though the chains are a sort of accident and not the original cause even of the local Roman festival. That festival was merely the dedication day of the old Church of the MACCABEES— ST. PETER'S CHAINS 415 Apostles on the Esquiline httl, which according to legend was the first built by St. Peter in Europe (' P.L.' 78, p. 399). In this church, which was rebuilt by the imperial family of the Eastern empire in the time of Pope Xystus III. (a.d. 432-440), the chains of St. Peter, brought as rehcs from Jerusalem by some member of that family, were preserved and were solemnly exhibited and kissed by the faithful on the day of dedication of the Church. Hence in later days the festival is simply called the festival of the Chains and the church was popularly known as that of St. Peter a Vinculis or ad Vincula. Nothing, however, is said about them in the sermon of St. Leo on the Maccabees, who mentions the dedication day of the church as part of the ' duplex causa laetitiae.' There is no reference to either festival or to any commemora tion on 1 August in the Leonine Sacramentary. The Gelasian has only a service for the Maccabees. The Sacramentary of Hadrian, on the contrary, has only one for St. Peter, headed ' Ad Sanctum Petrum ad Vincula,' implying that the service was to be said in the church so caUed. Curiously enough, it has no reference at aU to St. Paul, which must be a reform introduced into the modern Roman Missal. It would be worth while to inquire when and by whom. A festival of St. Peter on 1 August may suggest a kind of intended parallel or even rivalry between him and the founder of the Roman empire, Augustus : a thought which is also brought to our minds by another of his festivals. If our Kalendar should take note of the day it 416 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS should certainly be by referring to the more ancient and widespread memorial of the Jewish martyrs, and not to the local festival. § 6. Festivals of Apostles. Festivals of the dedication of a church and of the translation of bodies or relics are often synonymous, and we have ah-eady seen that this is the case with that of St. Peter and St. Paul on 29 June, being the day on which their bodies were translated (a.d. 258) to the oratory ad Catacumbas (above, p. 404). There was, however, a festival of St. Peter entitled Natale Petri de Cathedra, kept in the eighth centuiy on 22 February, and in some Kalendars etc. on 18 January, to com memorate the beginning of St. Peter's Apostolate. I cannot enter into a full discussion of the various theories about the origin of this festival, as to which two such good authorities as De Rossi and Duchesne do not agree. De Rossi connects the festival of 18 January with the actual chair of St. Peter, of which he finds traces, which existed at a place called the ' Coemeterium Ostiarium 'or 'ad Nymphas,' where St. Peter bap tised, close to the Catacomb of St. Agnes. The fes tival of 22 February he connects with the chair actually existing in St. Peter's Church at Rome be hind the tomb of the Apostle (see Kraus, 'R. E.' s.v. Kathedra d. h. Petrus, p. 157). Both he and Duchesne throw over any idea of Antioch, but Duchesne thinks the material ' chairs ' were comparatively lately intro duced into the celebration. ST. PETER'S CHAIR— ROME— ANTIOCH 417 There can, I think, be httle doubt that the earliest day for this festival was 22 February and that it was chosen in order to compete with the heathen festival of the ' Caristia' or ' cara cognatio ' (cp. Ovid, ' Fasti,' ii. 617), a funeral feast when members of the different families met and when the Emperor Augustus's health was specially drunk. Perhaps there was, as I have hinted (p. 415), an intentional sort of rivalry between the two founders of Church and State — St. Peter and Augustus. Duchesne supposes that the celebration was afterwards transfened to January in order to avoid clashing with Lent, especiaUy in Gaul where such considerations had more weight than at Rome. The day chosen in January was one marked by a a festival of the Virgin, 18 January. A further discrimination was then invented by which 18 January was made the anniversary of St. Peter's accession at Rome and 22 February ascribed to Antioch. As a matter of fact, the only day known at Rome for many centuries was the day in February, and with no reference either to Antioch or Rome, but with an idea of the com mencement of St. Peter's special privileges on the day of his confession recorded in St. Matthew. This is the day marked in the Sacramentary of Hadrian and in the Rheinau and St. Gallen forms of the Gelasian. It also appears in the distich : Dat Clemens [23 Nov.] hiemem : dat Petrus ver cathedratus [22 Feb.] : Aestuat Urbanus [25 Mai.] : autumnat Bartholomaeus [24 Aug.] : which makes it the beginning of the Spring season. E E 418 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS It was clearly difficult to distinguish the day from the heathen festival of the Caristia and from the Terminaha, a festival of the god of boundaries, which followed it' on 23 February. A canon of the Second Council of Tours (a.d. 567), no. 22, speaks of heathen rites practised on this festival both as regards the dead and as regards certain rocks (petras), trees or fountains — ' designata loca gentihum ' — evidently the boundaries of fields and townships. Indeed, in some places the ' Festum epularum S. Petri,' the 'banquet' of St. Peter, took the place of the ' Cathedra.' Both days are still prescribed for observance in the Roman Missal, together with a commemoration of St. Paul : but not with much ceremony. The GaUican distinction — as Duchesne holds it to be — of placing the Roman Cathedra in January and the Antiochene in February is there specified, but the service appointed is the same. This was due, however, to Paul IV., who in 1558 altered the Roman day to January : Gregory XIII. then restored the day in February under the wrong, but traditional, title. Other festivals of Apostles would seem to be those of the dedication of churches, such as that of St. Paul on 25 January, though the church with which it is con nected is not known. That of St. Philip and St. James on 1 May is connected with the Church of the holy Apostles at Rome, rebuilt about a.d. 561, and that of St. John before the Latin Gate on 6 May, with the church dedicated in the time of Pope Hadrian in, the OTHER APOSTLES— MARTYRS ETC. 419 eighth century. The latter day may perhaps have been chosen in connection with a Greek festival on 8 May commemorating a miracle worked on the tomb of St. John. The festival of St. Andrew (30 November), which is at least as old as the fourth centuiy, is perhaps the only festival of an Apostle claiming to be really on the anniversary of his death. It is mentioned in the apo cryphal Acts describing his martyrdom at Patras. The other festivals of Apostles differ so much in the East and West that, though at present we have no explanation of the dates to offer, we may consider them days of dedication of churches or of translation of rehcs rather than actuaUy traditional days of their martyrdom. Where such days were known they would be used for the purpose of burial or translation of rehcs, when it was convenient or possible ; but we have no right to assume that this was done in any particular case. Churches were dedicated when it was possible to collect a goodly number of Bishops for the purpose — as that was made a point of in the old rite ; and their coming together would depend upou other considerations. § 7. Festivals of Martyrs, Confessors, Bishops etc. There were, of course, at first local celebrations in the places where the heroes of the faith had died and been buried. The earhest notice of such a commemoration is in the Epistle of the Church of Smyrna after the death of St. Polycarp, which occuned E E 2 420 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS in a.d. 155 or 156. Such a local celebration happened to be taking place when St. Cyprian was martyred, in a.d. 258. He himself had given orders that the death days of those killed in persecution should be care fully noted in order that their anniversaries might be observed, ' Ep.' 12 : ' Denique et dies eorum quibus ex- cedunt annotate ut commemorationes eorum inter me- morias martyrum celebrare possimus . . . Et celebrentur hie a nobis oblationes et sacrificia ob commemorationes eorum. ' This passage shows, not only that the memory of the martyrs would be observed in the chapels where they were buried, but at the central church of the Diocese. Wherever this became powerful it would naturaUy extend its Kalendar of commemorations into other Dioceses, and it is in this manner that local Roman Saints, hke St. Clement, Xystus II. and his deacon Laurence (who suffered in the persecution of Valerian), Caeciha (22 November) and Fabian, passed into the general Kalendar of the Church. Thus there is much more probabihty that the days of martyrs may be personal anniversaries than those of Apostles or of the greater festivals of our Blessed Lord. The festival of All Saints celebrates the dedica tion of the Roman Pantheon as a Christian church by Boniface IV. (a.d. 608-614). It was first observed on 13 May ; but by the time of Bede it seems to have been transferred to 1 November. The Roman Kalendar as a whole was adopted in England by the Counctt of Cloveshoo (a.d. 747), c. 13. But a certain local freedom stiU remained. The year 1161, when Edward the Confessor was canonised, marks the SUGGESTED REFORM OF OUR KALENDAR 421 transition to complete subservience to Papal rule. Before that the Church had added at pleasure days of its own Saints. § 8. Future Reform of the Kalendar. Three or four considerations should guide us in the reform of our own Kalendar, which is one of the tasks that we or our successors ought to keep in view.20 The first of these is : the desire to bring out any points in the mystery of Redemption that may have been omitted. The second is : to introduce or re-introduce com memorations which may emphasise and foster the sentiment of true Catholicity. The third is : to add what may be necessary to keep in memory the blessings of our own branch of the Church. The fourth is : to omit commemorations which are of httle or no importance or necessity, so as to make what remain of greater interest and to ensure that they should be taken seriously. It is obvious, however, that such a proceeding must be very cautious, since 20 There is an interesting paper by the late Bp. Westcott on ' The Communion of Saints,' read at the Leicester Church Congress of 1880, and reprinted in The Historic Faith, note ix., 1883. It led to the institution of a Commemoration of Benefactors in Peterborough Cathedral in 1881. A similar commemoration was introduced at Salisbury in 1887. I have tried also to make it parochial. 422 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS events in history are often dated by unimportant Saints' Days. A famihar instance is the Battle of Agincourt on St. Crispin's Day, 25 October. As regards days connected with the mystery of Redemption we may weU desire a definite observance of our Lord's Transfiguration. In the West it was remembered in the Gospel for the Lent Ember Saturday (see St. Leo,' Serm.' 51, ' P.L.' 54, 308 and Thomasii ' Op.' v. 447-8). The Greek day, 6 August, was probably brought over by crusaders (see the service on Mt. Tabor described by John of Wurz burg, ' P.L.' 155, 1089 c. 1165). No general obser vance, however, was prescribed till 1457. The American Church, in 1886, assigned proper lessons and a Collect, Epistle and Gospel to 6 August. I have sometimes used a version of another Latin CoUect.21 If we were free to choose a day, a Sunday after Epiphany would be the most natural. As regards the second consideration, the need to foster the sentiment of true Catholicity : what I mean by this is that we ought to have days when we recollect and pray for the needs of particular Churches both in the East and the West, and should choose for 21 ' Collect for the Transfiguration of our Lord. O God, who didst call the Saints of the old Covenant to bear witness to Thy Son's Transfiguration, and by a voice from the cloud of light didst bid us hearken unto Him : grant that, as we have found Him in deed the only perfect Teacher of the Truth, so we may one day behold Him face to face in glory : who liveth and reigneth with Thee and the Holy Ghost, one God world without end. Amen.' TRANSFIGURATION— TRUE CATHOLICITY 423 these the days when special Saints connected with and representing those Churches are elsewhere commemo rated. We should not merely have England repre sented by St. Alban, St. Augustine, Bede, Chad, Hugh, Richard etc., and Wales by St. David, and Scotland perhaps by St. Andrew, but we should certainly introduce St. Patrick's Day (17 March) and possibly St. Bridget's into our Kalendar, and add St. Ninian and St. Margaret as more personal repre sentatives of Scotland. St. Denys (9 October) and St. Martin (11 November) sufficiently represent France, and St. Boni face (5 June) Germany ; and Italy and Africa have several commemorations ; but Scandinavia is strangely enough omitted, and I do not think we have a single point of contact with the great Russian empire. We have also no commemorations at present of the great Greek Fathers — a remarkable oversight — and nothingto recall the existence of the Syrian, Armenian, Coptic and Abyssinian Churches, much less those of Persia, India, China, Japan and America. For the old Churches it would be easy to name : St. Athana sius for Alexandria, St. Ignatius for Syria, St. Ephrem Syrus for Edessa, St. Gregory the IUuminator for Armenia, St. Chrysostom for Antioch and Constanti nople, and St. Basil for Cappadocia, St. Polycarp for Western Asia Minor. Other names would be more difficult, but it would not by any means be impossible to find one at least, or it may be two, a man and a woman, for each of the chief regions of the world. If the Kalendar were thus enriched 424 VIII. LATER FESTIVALS it would need a little commentary which would naturaUy be in the form both of a shortened bio graphy and a summary of the characteristics of the Church represented, and of the points in regard to it for which prayers may be suggested. The third consideration — viz. to add what may be necessary to keep alive the blessings and good examples of our own branch of the Church — is by no means easy in a general Kalendar. We all know the fate which overtook the attempt made in this direction in the form of State Services for 30 January, 29 May, and 5 November, not to speak of the previous disputes over ' St. Thomas of Canterbury.' Yet it is no doubt a cause of weakness that we are not sufficiently united to thank God for the great examples with which He has glorified our Church as reaUy as any other. Probably the best thing that can be done is for each Diocese to have its roU of Saints, Worthies and Bene factors which might be partiaUy adopted, with other special commemorations, in each parish ; but there are surely some days, like the death-days of King Alfred and Queen Victoria, which ought to appear, with general consent, in a national Kalendar. The foUowing Kalendar, which I have drawn up with the valuable assistance of my brother, is a private attempt to commemorate a greater variety of (1) foreign, (2) national and provincial names, and (3) to give a selection of those whom we speciaUy remember in our own Diocese. In this attempt we have tried SAINTS ETC. OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH 425 to be inclusive rather than exclusive, and to name those who are connected with great epochs in history, without attempting to determine their degree of saintship. We have also tried to give the actual 'natales,' the birthdays into eternity, not those of burial or re-burial and translation. Some exceptions no doubt exist, besides the obvious ones of St. Peter and St. Paul (29 June), St. Osmund (16 July) and St. Remigius (1 October). I have, with regret, omitted aU commemorations of Old Testament Saints, notwithstanding their presence in the Greek Kalendar. The choice of days there made seems quite arbitrary, and therefore out of hne with the principles on which this Kalendar is founded. I trust that this hst of names may be found useful, as indicating the directions to which attention should be turned, rather than as being in any degree authoritative. If it enables our own fellow-members of the Church to realise a httle more fuUy the breadth of the Communion of Saints as to time and place and character, it wttl fulfil my desires. A more authori tative hst of commemorations, for Diocesan use, may be possible at some later stage of our history, under the direction of the Cathedral Chapter, working to gether with myself or one of my successors. 426 KALENDAR JANUARY An asterisk refers to a note at the end of the Kalendar, p. 438 1 A Kalendae 2 b 4 Non. 3 e 3 Non. 4 d Prid. Non. 5 e Nonae 6 f 8 Id. 7 g 7 Id. 8 A 6 Id. 9 b 5 Id. 10 c 4 Id. 11 d 3 Id. 12 e Prid. Id. 13 f Idus 14 g 19 Kl. Feb 15 A 18 Kal. 16 b 17 Kal. 17 c 16 Kal. 18 d 15 Kal. 19 e 14 Kal. 20 f 13 Kal. 21 g 12 Kal. 22 A 11 Kal. 23 b 10 Kal. 24 c 9 Kal. 25 d 8 Kal. 26 e 7 Kal. 27 f 6 Kal. 28 g 5 Kal. 89 A 4 Kal. 30 b 3 Kal. 31 c Prid. Kal. Oircumoision of our Lord. Basil, Bp. of Caesarea, 379. S. Titus, disciple of S. Paul. Edward, K. and C, 1066. Epiphanies of our Lord. Commemoration of the visit of the Magi, of His Baptism, and first miracle and the feeding of the five thousand. Wulsin, Bp. of Sherborne, 983. Paul, the Hermit in the Thebaid, 341. Gregory of JSTyssa, Bp. 395-6. William Laud, Abp., 1645. Benedict Biscop, Founder of Wearmouth and Jarrow, 703. Hilary, Bp. of Poictiers, 368. Antony, Abbat in Egypt, 356. Fabian, Bp. of Rome, 250. Sebastian, M. at Rome, 303. Agnes, Roman V. M., 303. Vincent, Spanish Deacon, M. at Saragossa, 304. Victoria, Q., 1901. S. Timothy, disciple of S. Paul. Conversion of S. Paul. Gregory of Nazianzus, 389-391. Charles George Gordon, at Khartum, 1885. Ephrem Syrus, Deacon at Edessa, 373. Charles the Great, Emperor, 814. Charles the First, K., 1649. KALENDAR 427 1 2 3 4 5 6 78 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1718 19 2021 22 232425 262728 Kalendae 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 16 Kl. Mar. 15 Kal. FEBRUARY Ignatius, Bp. of Syria, M., c. 109. Presentation of Christ in the Temple. Bridget, Abbess of Kildare, V. 525. Laurence, Abp., 619. Anschar, Bp. of Hamburg, 864. Gilbert of Sempringham, Abb., 1189. Agatha, V.M. at Catania, 251. Ina, K. of Wessex, C, 728. Romuald, Abb., Founder of Camaldoli, 1027. Teilo, Bp. of Llandaff, 651 (?) John Hooper, Bp., 1555. e 14 Kal. f 13 Kal. g 12 Kal. A 11 Kal. b 10 Kal. c 9 Kal. d 8 Kal. e 7 Kal. f 6 Kal. g 5 Kal. A 4 Kal. b 3 Kal. c Prid. Kal. Caedmon, Monk and Poet, 680 (?) Cyril (Constantine), Apostle of the Slaves, 869. Sigfrid of York, Bp., Ap. of Sweden, 1045. Thomas Bray, one of the founders of S.P.C.K. and S.P.G., 1730. Onesimus, Bp . of Colossae. Simeon, second Bp. of Jerusalem. Mildred, V. Abbess of Thanet (7th cent.). S. Peter's Chair (see p. 417). Polycarp, Bp. of Smyrna, M., 155-6. Edict of Diocletian, 303. S. Matthias, Ap. M. George Herbert, Poet, Parson of Bemerton, 1633. Oswald, Bp. of Worcester, Abp. of York, 992. 428 KALENDAR l 2 34 56 7 8 9 10 1112 131415 16 17 1819 2021 2223 24 26 27282930 31 d e f g A b c d ef g A b c d ef A b c d ef Kalendae 6 Non. 5 Non. 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 17 Kl. Apr. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. MARCH David, Bp. of Menevia, 544. Chad, Bp. of Lichfield, 672. Bernard Gilpin, Parson of Houghton-le-Spring, 1583. Piran or Kieran, Abb. in Cornwall, c. 540. Chrodegang, Bp. of Metz, 766. Perpetua and Felicitas, Mauritanian MM., 203. Thomas Aquinas, 1274. Thomas Wilson, Bp. of Man, 1755. The Forty Martyrs at Sebaste in Armenia. Gregory, Bp. of Rome, C, 604. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland (465?). Gilbert Burnet, Bp. of Sarum, 1715. Cyril, Bp. of Jerusalem, 389. Edward, K. of West Saxons, 978. Thomas Ken, Bp. , 1711. Cuthbert, Bp. of Lindisfarne, C, 687. Thomas Cranmer, Abp., 1556. Gregory the Illuminator, Apostle of Armenia, 332. The Annunciation. The Passion of our Lord. Benedict, Abbat, 542.* S. Gabriel. Dedication of the completed Church of Salisbury, 1260. The Resurrection of our Lord. John Keble, poet and divine, 1866. KALENDAR 429 APRIL 6 7 B 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819 202122 23 24 25 2627 28 29 30 A b c e f g A b c d e f gA b c d e f g A b c d e f g A Kalendae 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 18 Kl. Mai. 17 Kal. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. Melito, Bp. of Sardis. Reginald Heber, Bp. of Calcutta, 1826. Richard, Bp. of Chichester, 1253. Ambrose, Bp. of Milan and Doctor, 397 (on Easter Eve). Dedication of Old Sarum Cathedral by S. Osmund, 1092. Leo the Great, Bp. of Rome, 461.* Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, Bp. of Meaux, 1704. Richard Poore, Bp., Founder of the Church and City of New Sarum, 1237. Stephen Harding of Sherborne, Abb. of Citeaux, 1134. Alphege, Abp., 1012. John Davenant, Bp. of Salisbury, 1641. Anselm, Abp., 1109. George, M., 303 (?). Adalbert, Apostle of Prussia, M., 997. S. Mark, Ev. M. Vitalis, M. at Ravenna. Foundation of Salisbury Cathedral, 1220. Catharine of Sienna, 1380. 430 KALENDAR MAY 1 b Kalendae 2 c 6 Non. 3 d 5 Non. 4 e 4 Non. 5 f 3 Non. 6 g Prid. Non. 7 A Nonae 8 b 8 Id. 9 c 7 Id. 10 d 6 Id. 11 e 6 Id. 12 f 4 Id. 13 g 3 Id. 14 A Prid. Id. 15 b Idus 16 c 17 Kl. Jun 17 d 16 Kal. 18 e 15 Kal. 19 f 14 Kal. 20 g 13 Kal. 21 A 12 Kal. 22 b 11 Kal. 23 c 10 Kal. 24 d 9 Kal. 25 e 8 Kal. 26 f 7 Kal. 27 g 6 Kal. 28 A 5 Kal. 29 b 4 Kal. 30 c 3 Kal. 31 d Prid. Kal.' Beginning of our Lord's preaching (ace. to the Latins). SS. Philip and James, App. MM. Athanasius, Bp. of Alexandria, 373. S, John Ev. at the Latin Gate. John Damascene, c. 770. Methodius, Apostle of the Slaves, 885. Pancras, Phrygian boy M. at Rome, 304. Pachomius, Abb. in the Thebaid, 349. Elfgiva, Queen, at Shaftesbury, 971. Alcuin of York, Pr., 804. Dunstan, Abp., 968. Constantine, Emperor, 337. Henry VI., K., 1471. Vincent of Lerins, Pr., 445. Aldhelm, first Bp. of Sherborne, 709. Augustine, first Abp. of Canterbury, 605.* Yen. Bede, Pr., historian, 735.* Germanus, Bp. of Paris, C, 576. Constantinople taken by the Turks, 1453. Restoration of Church and King, 1660. KALENDAR 431 1 e Kalendae 2 f 4 Non. 3 g 3 Non. 4 A Prid. Non. 5 b Nonae 6 c 8 Id. 7 d 7 Id. 8 e 6 Id. 9 f 5 Id. 10 g 4 Id. 11 A 3 Id. 12 b Prid. Id. 13 c Idus 14 d 18 Kl. Julii 15 e 17 Kal. 16 f 16 Kal. 17 g 15 Kal. 18 A 14 Kal. 19 b 13 Kal. 20 c 12 Kal. 21 d 11 Kal. 22 e 10 Kal. 23 f 9 Kal. 24 g 8 Kal. 25 A 7 Kal. 26 b 6 Kal. 27 c 5 Kal. 28 d 4 Kal. 29 e 3 Kal. 30 f Prid. Kal. JUNE Justin, Apol. and M., c. 165.* Pothinus, Bp. of Lyons, e. 177. Forty Martyrs of Lyons. Petroc, Bp. of Cornwall, 564. Boniface, Apostle of Germany, Bp. of Mainz, M. in Frisia, 755. Columba, Abb. of lona, 597. Margaret, Q. of Scotland, 1093. S. Barnabas, Ap. and M. Aldate or Eldad, at Amesbury, c. 490 (?) Joseph Butler, Bp. of Durham, 1752. Alban, soldier, first M. in Britain, 303.* John Fisher, Bp., 1535. Etheldreda, Queen, Abbess of Ely, 679. Nativity of S. John Baptist. Irenaeus, Bp. of Lyons, c. 202.* SS. Peter and Paul, Apostles and MM.' Wm. Ayscough, Bp. of Salisbury, 1450. Raymund Lull, Missionary to Moslems, 1315. 432 KALENDAR JULY 1 g 2 A 3 b 4 c 5 d 6 e 7 f 8 g 9 A 10 b 11 c 12 d 13 e 14 f 15 g 16 A 17 b 18 c 19 d 20 e 21 f 22 g 23 A 24 b 25 c 26 d 27 e 28 f 29 g 30 A 31 b Kalendae 6 Non. 5 Non. 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 17 Kl. Aug. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. Rumbold, Bp. at Mechlin (c. 755 ?). Swithun, Bp. of Winchester, 862. Germain, first Bp. of Man at Peel. Sir Thomas More, 1535. George Moberly, Bp. of Salisbury, 1885. Hedda, Bp. of Wessex, 705. The Temple burnt by Titus, 70. "Vladimir, Russian Duke, 1015. Jerusalem taken by Godfrey of Bouillon, 1099. Tr. of S. Osmund, 1457 (see 3 Dec). John Pearson, Bp. of Chester, 1686. Vincent of Paul, C. at Paris, 1660. Margaret, V. M. at Antioch. Mary Magdalene. S. James, Ap. M. Christopher, M., 254. Anne, Mother of B. V. M. Olaf Haraldson, K., 1030. William Wilberforce, 1833. Abdon and Sennen, Persian Martyrs, 252. Germanus, Bp. of Auxerre, 448. KALENDAR 433 1 c Kalendae 2 d 4 Non. 3 e 3 Non. 4 f Prid. Non. 5 g Nonae 6 A 8 Id. 7 b 7 Id. 8 c 6 Id. 9 d 5 Id. 10 e 4 Id. 11 f 3 Id. 12 g Prid. Id. 13 A Idus 14 b 19 Kl. Sept 15 c 18 Kal. 16 d 17 Kal. 17 e 16 Kal. 18 f 15 Kal. 19 g 14 Kal. 20 A 13 Kal. 21 b 12 Kal. 22 c 11 Kal. 23 d 10 Kal. 24 e 9 Kal. 25 f 8 Kal. 26 g 7 Kal. 27 A 6 Kal. 28 b 5 Kal. 29 c 4 Kal. 30 d 3 Kal. 31 e Prid. Kal. AUGUST The Seven Maccabees. St. Peter's Chains. Walter Kerr Hamilton, Bp. of Salisbury, 1869. Dominic, founder of the Order of Preachers, 1221. Simon de Montfort, E. of Leicester, 1265. Oswald, King and Martyr, 642. The Transfiguration of our Lord. Laurence, Deacon of Rome, 258. The falling asleep of the B. V. M. Bernard of Clairvaux, Abb., 1153. Hippolytus, Bp. of Portus (235 ?). S. Bartholomew, Ap. M. Ela, Countess of Salisbury, foundress of Laycock Abbey, 1261. Louis, K.C., at Paris, 1270. Augustine, Bp. of Hippo in Africa, C. Doctor, 430. Beheading of S. John Baptist. Aidan, Bp. of Lindisfarne, 651. Cuthburga, Q., Foundress and Abbess of Wimborne, 725 (?). F F 434 1 f Kalendae 23 4 5 678 9 1011 121314 151617 1819 20 21 222324252627 28 e 29 j f 30 j g 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 18 Kl. Oct. 17 Kal. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. kalenlVar SEPTEMBER Beginning of the Indiction and the Greek ecclesiastical year. Giles, Abb. C. in Pro vence, 712. S. Bega or Bee, Abbess, c. 690. Nativity of B. V. M. Cyprian, Bp. of Carthage, M., 258.* Comm. of Cornelius, Bp. of Rome, 252. John Chryso stom, Abp. of C.P., 407. Dante, Poet, 1321. Ninian, Bp. in Galloway (5th cent.). Edith, Abbess of Wilton, 984. Theodore of Tarsus, Abp. of Cant., 690. John Coleridge Patteson, first Bp. of Melanesia, 1871. S. Matthew, Ap. Ev. John Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury, 1571. Sergius, Abb. of the Troitzka, 1392. Cosmas and Damian, brother physicians, MM., 297. William of Wykeham, Bp. of Win chester, 1404. Lancelot Andrews, Bp., 1626. Wenceslas, K. of Bohemia, 936. S. Michael and All Angels. Jerome, Pr. and Doctor, 419. Dedication Feast of Salisbury Cathedral Church, 1258. KALENDAR 435 1 A 2 b 3 c 4 d 5 e 6 f 7 8 8 A 9 b 10 c 11 d 12 e 13 f 14 g 15 A 16 b 17 c 18 d 19 e 20 f 21 g 22 A 23 b 24 c 25 d 26 e 27 f 28 g 29 A 30 b 31 c Kalendae 6 Non. 5 Non. 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 17 Kl. Nov. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. OCTOBER Tr. of Remigius, Bp. of Rheims, c. 532.* Leger, Bp. of Autun, 678. Francis of Assisi, Founder of the Friars Minors. 1226. Raphael, Archangel. Faith, V. M. at Agen in Aquitaine, 287. Bruno, Founder of the Carthusians, 1101. Denis, Bp. M. at Paris, 286. Paulinus, Bp. of York, 644. Robert Gross- teste, Bp. of Lincoln, 1253. Philip the Deacon. Edward White Benson, Abp., 1896. Gall, Abb., c. 646. Hugh Latimer, Bp., and Nicholas Ridley, Bp. , 1555. Henry Martyn, Missionary, 1812. S. Luke, Ev. Hilarion, Hermit in Cyprus, 371. Crispin and Crispinian, MM. at Soissons, c. 285. SS. Simon and Jude, App. MM. Alfred King, 901. ff2 436 KALENDAR 1 d 2 e 3 f 4 g 5 A 6 b 7 c 8 d 9 e 10 f 11 g 12 A 13 b 14 c 15 d 16 e 17 f 18 g 19 A 20 b 21 c 22 d 23 e 24 f 25 g 26 A 27 b 28 c 29 d 30 e Kalendae 4 Non. 3 Non. Prid. Non. Nonae 8 Id. 7 Id. 6 Id. 5 Id. 4 Id. 3 Id. Prid. Id. Idus 18 Kl. Dec. 17 Kal. 16 Kal. 15 Kal. 14 Kal. 13 Kal. 12 Kal. 11 Kal. 10 Kal. 9 Kal. 8 Kal. 7 Kal. 6 Kal. 5 Kal. 4 Kal. 3 Kal. Prid. Kal. NOVEMBER All Saints' Day. All Souls' Day. Richard Hooker, 1600. Perpetua, wife of S. Peter, M. Charles Bor- romeo, Abp. of Milan, 1584 SS. Zacharias and Elizabeth. Willibrord, missionary to Frisia, 739. Martin, Bp. of Tours, C, 397-400. Aelfric, Bp. of Ramsbury and Abp. of Cant., 1006. Edmund Rich, Abp., 1240. Hilda, Abbess, 680. Hugh, Bp. of Lincoln, C, 1200 Elizabeth of Hungary, 1231. Edmund, King of East Anglia, 870. Columban of Leinster, Abb. of Bobbio, 615. Cecilia, V. M. Clement, Bp. of Rome, M., 100. Catharine, V. M. S. Andrew, Ap. M. at Patras. Frumentius, Bp. , Apostle of Abyssinia (circa 353). Francis Xavier, Missionary, 1552. KALENDAR 437 DECEMBER 1 f Kalendae 2 g 4 Non. 3 A 3 Non. Birinus, Bp. of the West Saxons, 650. 4 b Prid. Non. Clement of Alexandria, 217. Barbara, ^ Osmund, Bp. of Sarum, 1099. 5 c Nonae 6 d 8 Id. Nicholas, Bp. of Myra (4th cent.). 7 e 7 Id. 8 f 6 Id. 9 g 5 Id. 10 A 4 Id. 11 b 3 Id. 12 c Prid. Id. 13 d Idus Lucy, V. M., 303. 14 e 19 Kl. Jan. Spyridion, Bp. in Cyprus, 350. 15 f 18 Kal. 16 g 17 Kal. 17 A 16 Kal. 18 b 15 Kal. 19 c 14 Kal. 20 d 13 Kal. 21 e 12 Kal. S. Thomas, Ap. 22 f 11 Kal. 23 g 10 Kal. Thorkc, Bp. of Skalholt in Iceland, 1193. 24 A 9 Kal. 25 I) 8 Kal. Christmas Day. 26 c 7 Kal. S. Stephen, the first Martyr. 27 d 6 Kal. S. John, Ap. Ev. 28 e 5 Kal. Innocents' Day. 29 f 4 Kal. Thomas Becket, Abp. of Canterbury, 1170 30 g 3 Kal. 31 A Pr. Kl. Jan. Silvester, Bp. of Rome, 335. 438 KALENDAR NOTES TO KALENDAR 25 March. Benedict Abbat. In the English P. B. Kalendar this day is transferred to the 21st, probably to avoid the Annunciation. 11 April. Leo the Great. The day of his death is unknown. It was appa rently in November. 26 May. Augustine. See his epitaph in Bede, H.E. ii. 3. 27 May. Bede. This is the day in English P. B. Kalendar ; but it should be also 26th (septimo Kalendas Junias) : see Cuthbert's letter to Cuthwin, P.L. 90, p. 64. It was Ascension Day, whichfixes the year to 735. 1 June. Justin Martyr. The day is uncertain, but it appears to have been in this month. Otto conjectures that it was on the 12th. 22 June. Alban. In the English P. B. Kalendar on the 17th ; probably an error. 28 June. Irenaeus. The day is quite uncertain. 29 June. SS. Peter and Paul. This is not the day of their deaths, which were very possibly quite distinct from one another in time. It is the day of the translation of their bodies to the church Ad Catacumbas in a.d. 258. See above, pp. 404, 416. 14 September. Cyprian. The day is wrongly given in English P. B. Kalendar as the 26th. For other associations with this day (Holy Cross Day), see above, pp. 410-411. 1 October. Bemigms. This is the day of his ' translation ' in 1049. The day of his death is variously given as 13 or 23 January. 439 APPENDIX LIST OF A FEW OF THE BOOKS ILLUSTRATING THE 'INTRODUCTION' AND THE SUBJECT OF THIS BOOK GENERALLY. General. Church Orders fyc. Edm. Maetene, De antiquis Ecclesiae Ritibus. First published in 4 vols. 4to in 1700 onwards ; also 4 vols. fol. (best edition), Antwerp, 1736-8. [Contains extracts from liturgical books illustrating each section of the text.] L. Duchesne, Origines du culte chretien : itude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne. Paris, 1889, ed. 2, 1898. [Contains extracts from Silvia and various Ordines as an Appendix.] Pieeee Batiffol, Histoire du Breviaire Romain. new ed. Paris, 1895. Feedeeick Henry Chase, The Lord's Prayer in the Early Church. Cambridge Texts and Studies, 1891. Eduaed Freiherr von der Goltz, Das Gebet in der altesten Christenheit. Leipzig, 1901. For Dr. Hatch's books see above, p. 3, n. 2. Joseph Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, ed. 1. 10 vols. 8vo, 1708-1722 ; 2 vols. fol. 1726 ; new ed. 9 vols. 8vo., Lond. 1829 ; 2 vols, large 8vo, Bohn, Lond. 1850. Wm. Smith and Samuel Cheetham, Dictionary qf Christian Antiquities. 2 vols. London, 1875 and 1880. F. X. Kraus, Real-Encyhlopadie der Christlichen Alterthiimer. 2 vols, large 8vo, Freiburg i/Br. 1882. Job Ludolf, Commentarius ad suam Hvstoriam Aethiovicam Francofurti ad Moenum. fol. 1691. 440 APPENDIX J. B. Cotelier, Patres Apostolki. ed. Joh. Clericus, 2 vols. fol. 1672 and later. [Contains the Apostolic Const, and Apost. Canons, and the Clementine Recognitions and Homilies etc., with notes.] H. Tattam, The Apostolic Constitutions or Canons qf the Apostles in Coptic with E. T. Lond. 1848. C. C. J. Bunsen, Christianity and Mankind, vol. vi.=Analecta ante-Nicaena, vol. ii. Lond. 1854. [Contains Ap. Canons, ed. Bunsen ; Ap. Const, (sepa rating the Didascalia) and Constit. Eccl. Aegyptiacae, ed. Paulus Boetticher (afterwards de Lagarde).] A. P. de Lagaede, Reliquiae Iuris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, Lips. 1856. Constitutiones Apostolorum, Lips, and Lond. 1862. Philotheos Beyennios, AiBa^v ra>v ScoBs/ca airoaToXwv . K.LT. 1883. Adolf Haenack, Die Lehre der Zwolf Apostel, nebst Unter- suchungen zur altesten Geschichte der Kirchenverfassung und des Kirchenrechts. 'T. und U.' ii. 1, 2. Leipzig, 1884. [This also contains an edition of the Apostolic Church Order and of the parallel passages of the Ap. Const.] Paul Sabatier, La Didache. ed. 2, Paris, 1885. Roswell D. Hitchcock and Francis Brown, The Teaching qf the Twelve Apostles, revised and enlarged, ed. Lond. 1885. C. Taylor, Teaching of the XII Apostles, two Lectures. Camb. 1886. Essay on the Theology qf the Didache, with Greek text. Camb. 1889. Charles Bigg, The Doctrine qfthe Twelve Apostles. S. P. C. K. Lond. 1898. L. E. Iselin, Eine higher unbekannte Version des ersten Theiles der " Apostellehre? ' T. und U.' xiii. 1, Leipz. 1895. [A short recension of the Two Ways from a Coptic and Arabic life of a Saint Schnudi who died a.d. 451.] Joseph Schlecht, Doctrina XII Apostolorum : una cum versions Latinaprioris partis ' deduabus viis,'1 primum edidit, Friburgi Brisgoviae, 1900. [This is the complete Latin version of the Two Ways APPENDIX 441 from a Frising MS. now at Munich. Von Gebhardt discovered a portion of the same text (I. i.-ii. 6) which is printed by Harnack in his edition, p. 277 foil. The texts published by Iselin and Schlecht prove (1) the independence of the Two Ways as a tract ; (2) its antiquity. The Latin version ends with a further exhortation to obedience and a doxology, instead of the sections on ' the whole yoke of the Lord ' and idol- meat. It also does not contain any distinctly Christian phrases. The quotations from the Sermon on the Mount &c. in i. 3-5, and the reference to confession in Church (iv. 14) are absent from both. The tract in both (notwithstanding some Christian fringes in the Arabic) is, in fact, very little removed from its Jewish original. The result is to strengthen the evidence for the origin of the DidacM in a country where Jewish influence was strong, and its moral teaching was already current. This book is noticed by Joseph Offord and E. Gilbert Hightonin Proc. qf Soc. Bib. Arch. vol. 23, pp. 132-7, 1901.] Franz Xaver Funk, Die Apostolischen Konstitutionen. Rot- tenburg am Neckar, 1891. Das Testament des Herrn und die verwandten Schriften. Mainz, 1901. Hans Achelis, Die altesten Quellen des Orientalischen Kirchen- rechts, Erstes Buch, Die Canones Hippolyti. ' T. und LV vi. 4. Leipzig, 1891. Edmundus Hauler, Didascaliae Apostolorum Fragmenta Vero- nensia Latina ; accedunt Canonum qui dicuntur Apostolorum et Aegyptiorum reliquiae, fasc. prior. Lipsiae, 1900. Ignatius Epheem II. Rahmani, Pateiarcha Antiochenus Syeoeum, Testamentum Domini nostri lesu Christi (Syriac and Latin). Moguntiae, Kirchheim, 1899. Wilhelm Riedel, Die Kirchenrechtsqueilen des Patriarcats Alescandrien zusammengestellt und zum Theil iibersetzt. Leipzig, 1900. [Contains a new translation of the Canons qf Hippolytus.] 442 APPENDIX Eastern Liturgical Books. Isaac Habert, ^py^tspaTOKov. Liber pontiflcalis Ecclesiae Graecae. fol. Paris, 1643. J. Goar, EiiyoXoyvov, sive Rituale Graecorum. Paris, 1647, Venice, 1730. J. A. Assemani, Codex liturgicus Ecclesiae universae. 13 vols. 4to. Rome, 1749 &c. ~E,vyo\6yiov to fisya. 4to, Venet. 1526, and frequently to the present day. Also editions at Constantinople 1803 onwards, and Athens 1835 onwards. Euseb. Renaudot, Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio, 2 vols. 4to. ed. 1, Paris, 1716 ; ed. 2, Francofurti ad M. et Lond. 1847. P. Moeinus, De Sacris Ordinationibus ; fol. Paris, 1665. ed. 2, Antwerp, 1695. De Poenitentia. fol. Paris, 1651 ; Antwerp, 1682. [These contain both Eastern and Western texts.] Hen. Denzingee, Ritus Orientalium, Coptorum, Syrorum et Armenorum. 2 vols. Wirceburgi, 1863—4. C. A. Swainson, The Greek Liturgies, chiefly from original Sources. Camb. 1884. F. E. Beightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western, on the basis of the former work by C. E. Hammond, vol. i. Eastern Liturgies. Oxf. 1896. The Sacramentary qf Sarapion qf Thmuis in ' J. of Th. Studies,' vol. i. pp. 88-113 and 247-277. Lond. 1899, 1900. Georg Wobbeemin, Altchristl. Liturg. Stiicke aus der Kirche Aegyptens. < T. und LL, N. F.' ii. 3 b. Leipzig, 1899. John Woedsworth (Bishop of Salisbury), Bishop Sarapion's Prayer-book. S. P. C. K. 1899. Western Liturgical Books. Melchior Hittorpius. De Catholicae Ecclesiae divinis qfflciis ac ministeriis varii vetustorum fere omnium Patrum ac Scrip torum Libri. fol. Colon. 1568, Romae, 1591, Paris. 1619 and 1624. APPENDIX 443 Joh. Mabillon, O.S.B., De Liturgia Gallicana libri III. Paris, 4to, 1685. — Musaeum Italicum ; tom. i. pt. 2, contains the Bobbio Sacramentary. Lud. Ant. Muratori, Liturgia Romana vetus. 2 vols. fol. Venet. 1748. [Contains Leonine (after Bianchini, 1735), Gelasian, Gregorian, Missale Gothicum, M. Francorum, M. Gallicanum vetus, Sacramentarium Gallicanum (Bobiense), Ordines Romani I. and IL] Josephi Maeiae Thomasii Opera, ed. M. F. Vezzosi; vols. v. and vi. Romae, 1750—1. [v. contains Antiphoner of Pope Gregory, Antiphonarius Carnutensis, Comes Ecclesiae Romanae, Lectionarius Missae, Lectionarius Evangeliorum ; and vi. : Libri III Sacramentorum Romanae Ecclesiae, Missale Gothi cum, M. Francorum, M. Gallicanum vetus.] Wm. Palmee, Origines Liturgicae. 2 vols. Oxford, 1832 &c. W. E. Scudamoee, Notitia Eucharistica. ed. 2, 1876. H. A. Wilson, The Gelasian Sacramentary. Oxford, 1894. Index to the Leonine, Gelasian and Gregorian Sacra- mentaries ace. to Muratoris text. Camb. 1892. C. L. Feltoe, Sacramentarium Leonianum. Camb. 1896. F. E. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual qf the Celtic Church. Oxford, 1881. The Bangor Antiphonarium. H. Bradshaw Soc. 2 vols. 4to. (H. B. S.) 1893 and 1895. The Leofric Missal &c. 4to. Oxford, 1883. J. H, Bernard and Rob. Atkinson, The Irish Liber Hym~ norum. H. B. S. 2 vols. 1898. W. Greenwell, The Pontifical qf Egbert. Surtees Soc. vol. 27, 1853. J. Stevenson, Rituale Ecclesiae Dunehnensis (ixth cent. ?). Surtees Soc. vol. 10, 1839. Latin Hymns qf the Anglo-Saxon Church (xith cent. Winchester ?). Surtees Soc. vol. 23, 1851. W. Maskell, Monumenta Ritualia Eccl. Anglicanae. 2nd ed. 3 vols. Oxf. 1882. 444 APPENDIX W. Maskell, The Ancient Liturgy qf the Church qf England. 3rd ed. Oxf. 1882. Che. Wordsworth, The Pontifical offices used by David de Bernham &c. with Appendices. 4to, Edinb. 1885. For recent Milanese books see above, p. 88, n. 35. The following volumes of Migne's Patrologia Latina contain reprints of much that is in the foregoing, often with addi tional matter. P. L. 53. Sacramentarium Leonianum. 66. S. Patris Benedicti Regula commentata, and some other rules. 72. Liturgia Gallicana, containing also the works of S. Germanus of Paris, the Antiphoner of Bangor, &c. 74. Sacramentarium Gelasianum. 78. Liber Sacramentorum Romanae Ecclesiae (Gregorian, ed. Menard) and Ordines Romani (ed. Mabillon). 80. Regula S. Columbani (Cursus Scottorum). 85-6. Liturgia Mozarabica. 103. S. Benedicti Anianensis Codex Regularum and Concordia Regularum, &c. 104. Agobard. 105. Theodulfus of Orleans, Jesse of Amiens and Symphosius Amalarius. 119. Florus of Lyons. 138. The Masses published by Mone from Reichenau. For the Kalendar. Theodoric Ruinart, O.S.B., Acta primorum Martyrum sin- cera et selecta. ed. 2, fol. Amstel. 1713 ; also 8vo, Ratis- bonae, 1859. [Contains early Kalendars at the end.] Migne, Pat. Lat. 13. For its contents on this subject see above, p. 397, n. 5. R. T. Hampson, Medii Aevi Kalendarium . . . with Kalendars from the tenth to the fifteenth century. 2 vols. Lond. n.d. [circa 1850.] Nicolaus Nilles, S.J., Kalendarium Manuale utriusque Eccle siae. 2 vols. ed. 2. Oeniponte, 1896-7. 445 INDEX. AACHEN Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), organ built at, 200 ; Council of, takes up Chrodegang's ' Canonical rule,' 211 and n. ; Council of, on clerical households, 221 n. Absolution, power of, vested in the Divine Society, 111-2 ; exercised by special represen tatives, 112 ; regulations of St. Cyprian for extreme cases, 162 and n. ; Lent a preparation of penitents for, 366 ; their recon ciliation on Maundy Thursday, 374 Abyssinians, their Epiphany cus tom, 402 n. Achelis, Hans, edition of 'Canons of Hippolytus,' 23 ; referred to, 25, 55, 66, 166 »., 332 n. Acolytes, ordained by gift of ' sacculus,' 77 and 185 ; at Rome (a.d. 251), 179 ; notat Milan, 183 ; Western in origin, 184 ; men tioned by Cyprian and Eusebius, 184 and n. ; duties and ordina tion of, 184-5, 381 'Actor,' required by Roman Law, as representative of corporate bodies = steward, 122 and n. ; influence of this on growth of Episcopate, 122-3 Advent, the Second, expectation of among early Christians a leading thought in early Litur gies, 313-5 Aetius, Deacon of Antioch, 166 Africa, Church of, almost a colony from Rome, yet has its peculiar features, 104 ; its opposition to ' transmarina iudicia,' 104 ; daily Eucharist in, 332 ; evening Com- ALEXANDER munion on Maundy Thursday, 271-2 Agapae, use of harp at, 198 ; Psalm 133 used at, 202 n. ; St. Paul's censures on Corinthians, 315-6 ; probable alteration of time for, 317 ; in the Thebaid (4th cen tury), 330 and n. Agde (or Agatha), Council of, a.d. 506, fixes 40 as age for Yirgins, 289 ; on Communion three times a year, 333 ; on daily offices, 351 ; on length of Lent, 369 n. 1 Agnus Dei,' introduction of, 77 ; not in first Easter celebration of Roman rite, 389-90 Alban, St., date of commemoration, 438 Alberic, Papal Legate in England, deprives married clergy, 233-4 Alcuin, probable author of Gallican additions in Gregorian Sacra mentary, 75-6 ; referred to, 264 ; his alterations in rite for conse crating Virgins remarkable, 300- 1 nn. ; perhaps derived from Egbert of York, 301 and n. Aldhelm, St., early description of an organ, 200 Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria, 137 n., 138, lessens powers of City-Presbyters and enlarges those of comprovincial Bishops, 139, 162 n. Alexander of Jerusalem, permits Origen to preach as a Cate chist, 164 ; ordains Origen, 175 and n. Alexander II. Pope, attacks Church in N. Italy on question of cleri cal celibacy, 229 and n. 446 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE ALEXANDRIA Alexandria, Church of, its con nexion with Rome, 103, 125, 134 ; their reciprocal influence, 104 ; growth of Monarchical Episcopate slow here, 135-141 ; organised by St. Mark, 134 ; St. Clement A. speaks of two orders of the Ministry here, 135 and n. ; St. Jerome's statement on choice of Bishop from and by the Presby ters, apparently without further ordination till middle 3rd century, 135-6 and n. ; popular element in choice limited, 136 and n. ; legend of the dead Bishop's hand, 137 and n. ; College of City - Presbyters as at Rome resembles an episcopal College, 137 ; earliest known instance of parochial system, 137-8 ; Coun cil of Bishops at (a.d. 243), 138 ; case of CoUuthus impor tant, 138-9 ; Alexander pro bably lessened power of City- Presbyters, while enlarging those of comprovincial Bishops, 139 ; parallel evidence from Ancyra and Neo-Caesarea, 139-141 ; number of Deacons in Alexandria, 152 ; number of Presbyters in, 153 and n. ; parabolani numerous at, 196 ; manner of observing Wed nesday and Friday, 329 ; in fluence on the Paschal question, 362 ; accepts Western date for Christmas, 401 Alford, Dean, his Commentary referred to, 316 n. Alfred, King, a suggested com memoration in Kalendar, 424 All Saints' Day, origin in the dedi cation of the Pantheon as a Christian church, 420 ; date changed, 420 Amalarius of Metz, 76 ; importance of his ritual works, 78 ; his opponents at Lyons, 78 ; on the adoration of the Cross, 378 ; on consecration by intinction, 381 n. Ambo = pidpitum = tribunal, 192 Ambrose, St., 'De Mysteriis,' 68, 74 ; midnight hymn attributed ANDREW to, 93 ; on St. Laurence, 159 ; on the three kinds of chastity, 181-2 n. ; introduces antiphonal singing in West, 203 ; on Euse bius of Vercellae, 211 n. ; said to have allowed his clergy to marry, 229 n. ; on Virgins, 284, 286 and n. ; prob. not author of ' De Lapsu Virginis,' 290-1; his views on the spiritual marriage of Virgins, 291 and n. ; on veiling Virgins at Easter, 296 n. ; on Satyrus carrying the Reserved Sacrament, 321 and n. ; possible reference to use of incense, 325 and n. ; manner of keeping Saturday, 331 ; introduces daily offices at Milan, 341 and n. ; on Maundy Thursday absolutions, 374 ; reference to deacon Lau rence consecrating chalice, 381 Amelius, Bp. of Senogallia, Ordo written by, mentions Com munion in both kinds, end 14th century, 390 * Amen,' its use in public worship traced, 204 Anaphora (v. Eucharist), earliest form in Egyptian Church Order, 25 ; in Verona Lat. Fragments, 27 ; in Sarapion, 53 ; early Latin form in 'De Sacramentis,' 83 and n. ; Readers stand at, 191 Anastasis (i.e. the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, q.v.), 323 Anastasius, Bp. of Thessalonica, important letter of St. Leo to, respecting clerical celibacy, 228 Anchorites, ideal of, 207 ; Egyptian, the supporters of Athanasius, 209 m. Ancyra, Council of, a.d. 314, Canon on ordination by City- Presbyters and Chorepiscopi, 139-40 and n., 141; on preach ing of Presbyters, 165 n. ; on marriage of Deacons, 220 n. ; mild Canon regarding marriage of professed Virgins, 288 Andrew, St., commemorated, 65 ; on anniversary of his death, a INDEX 447 solitary instance in festivals of Apostles, 419 ' Angels ' (in Apocalypse), 124 n. Anglican principles, 11, 108 Anicetus (of Rome), 127 and n. Anna, referred to as a type of widowhood, 265, 267 n. ' Annales Cambriae,' on Badon Hill, 378 Annunciation, tradition of its taking place at the Passover, 394 and 395 n. ; computation of its date, 394-5 and nn. ; known as the ' Genesis,' 395 ; date given by Clement of Alex., 399 and n. Anselm, St., confirmation held by, outside his own diocese, 176 ; action enforcing celibacy blamed, 230 n. ; his stringent regulations, 233 Anthony, St., 206, 209 n., 210 Antioch, Church and Patriarchate of, early connexion with and subordination to Constantinople, 106 ; seed-plot of schisms, 106 ; Episcopate early there, 124 ; Prophets and Teachers ordain Barnabas and Saul, 131 ; Canon of a.d. 341 restricting Chor- episcopi, 140 n. and 141 n. ; number of Presbyters in, 153 and n. ; on Subdeacons, 184 n. : antiphonal Psalmody at, 86-7, 203; its Liturgy in 'Ap. Const.,' 47, 223 ; 'Apost. Const. ' and ' Apost. Canons ' emanate from, their attitude on clerical mar riages, 223 ; its common-sense tradition, especially in regard to Widows, 270-1 ; daily morning and evening prayers arranged by Leontius, 341 ; accepts Western date for Christmas, 401 'Antiphona,' in Celtic Psalter, 97 and n., 384 n. Antiphonal- method of Psalmody, Jewish in origin, 203 ; introduc tion into Christian worship at Antioch, and later by St. Ambrose in West, 203, 341 ff. Apologists, 148 Apostles, education of the, 110 ; their earlier and later Com- ARMENIANS mission, 110 f. ; their general authority, 121 ; their ministry and numbers in the first age, 146 Apostles, festivals of, 33, 65 ; SS. Peter and Paul, 73, 398, 403-4-5 ; St. James and St. John, 403-4, 408 ; of various Apostles, 416-9 ; days chiefly connected with dedication of churches, 419 Apostolic Succession, idea of, dates from St. Clement of Rome, 145; other early authorities, 145 ; three reasons for maintaining, 146 Apostolic times, codes of Church regulations not felt necessary in, 13 ; local Bishops not required in, 121 ; charismatic ministry in, 146 f. 1 Apostolicae Curae,' the Bull of Leo XIII., 53 ; its untenable positions, 103 Area, Casket for the Reserved Sacrament, 320 Archbishop of Canterbury, his dispensing power, 256 Archdeacon, in the ' Testament, ' 32 ; the first of the 'ministers,' 62; administered the Chalice to the Pope, 159 ; said to ' consecrate ' the Chalice, 159-60 ; prepares the large chalice for communi cating the people,. 160 and n. ; this probably a consecration by infusion, 161 ; the Treasurer of the Church, 162 ; date of title, 162 ; often the predestined suc cessor of the Pope, 162 ; not chosen from Presbyters till 9th century, 163 ; admits Acolytes, 185 and n. ; required to take an oath against bribery in cases of clerical marriage, 233 ; fine or tax paid to, by married clergy, 236 Arius, 138, 152 Aries, Council of, Canon against Deacons offering, 166 n. ; on consecration of Bishops, 167 n ; Canon concerning Easter accep ted by British Church, 363 Armenians, their date of the Nativity festival, 402 ; keep a 448 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE festival of David and James on 25 December, 404 Arthur, King, legend of his carry ing a cross in battle, 378 Articles, the XXXIX, referred to, on celibacy of clergy, 183 Ascension Day, identified with Pentecost in Edessene Canons, 43 ; in A. C. 47 ; cannot be traced beyond middle of 4th cen tury, 365 Asceticism, imposed on clergy by Siricius and Gregory VII., 103; its effects, 103 ; its ideal and strong Christian basis, 206-7 ; dangers arising from, 207-8 ; warning of St. Ignatius about, 208 and n. ; a lay and charis matic ministry, 209-10 ; inten ded for emergencies, 210 ; to impose on all clergy, a confusion, 210 f. ; influence of Essenism on Christian ideas, 217 and n. ; Clement (Alex.) on heathen, 219 n. ; keeps up emotional tradition of early age, 315 Ascetics, female, 55 ; regulations for, 56 ; referred to in ' Pilgrim age of Silvia,' 57-8 ; se.e Virgins Ash Wednesday, added to Lent, 368 Asia Minor (Church in), Monarchi cal Episcopate early in, 124 ; preaching considered as part of Presbyter's regular duties early in 4th century, 165 Athanasius, St., 104, 139 n., 162 n. ; ordains outside his own Dio cese, 174 and n. ; calms the people by the recitation of Ps. 136 by Deacon and congregation, 204 ; supported by Egyptian ascetics, 209 n. ; uses bridal metaphor of Virgins, 284 ; on observance of Saturday, 330 n. ; his Festal Letters and the growth of observance of Lent, 366-7 ; condemned at Council of Tyre, 411 ; ought to be commemorated in English Calendar, 423 Athenagoras, mention of Virgins, 283 n. Atkinson, Prof. 92 BANGOR Augusti, his assertion about In cense criticised, 326 Augustine, St. (of Canterbury), not commemorated in Stowe Missal, 92 ; Gregory's advice to, 98 Augustine, St. (of Hippo), his ' Confessions ' referred to, 114 n. ; on the Episcopate, 150-1 ; on St. Laurence, 162 n. ; on Bishops preaching seated, 164 n. ; per mitted to preach in presence of Bishop Valerius, 165 and n. ; his allusion to St. Ambrose's Church Music, 203 ; his efforts for community life of clergy, 211 ; his teaching on marriage and celibacy criticised, 224 ; on con cubinage, 249 n. ; on validity of marriages contracted by Virgins, 291 and n. ; on the Wednesday and Friday fast, 328 «., 329 ; on the way of observing the Sabbath, 331 and n. ; on variety of practice concerning frequency of Eucharists, 333 ; on daily offices at Milan, 341 n. ; on the Maundy Thursday evening Communion in Africa, 372 ; on the Eucharist as a sacrifice of the Church to God, 373 ; on the washings on Maundy Thursday, 373 ; accepts synchronism of date of Annunication and Pas sion, 395 n. ; on Epiphany, 401 n. ; mention of Nat. St. John Baptist, 409 and n. ; on pagan customs of Midsummer Day, 410 ; contrasts date of our Lord's birth and that of the Forerunner, 410 ; Sermon on the Maccabees, 414 Aunarius, Bishop of Auxerre, 66 Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, as Cappadocian, possibly introduced Milanese Liturgy from East, 86, 321, 341 Auxerre, Council of, 63 Badbury Rings, 378 Bangor Antiphoner, 89 n. ; account of and contents, 92-4 and n. ; its Gallican features, 94 INDEX 449 BAPTISM Baptism, interrogations at, the earliest types of Creed, 19-21 ; by women questioned, 36, 270 ; rite of 'Illumination' in 'Eccl. Hier.,' 61 ; consecration of water, trine immersion, 61 ; in ' Ordines Romani,' 76 ; in ' De Sacra mentis,' 80-1 ; Bishop the minister of at Milan, 80 and 156 ; washing of feet at, 81, 90, 104 ; in our Lord's commission, 111-2; one Baptism, 148 ; sanction of Bishop presupposed for, 156-7 ; Creed used at, varied locally, 172-3 ; duties of exorcists at, 185-6 ; Lent a preparation for, 366 ; consecration of oUs for, on Maundy Thursday, 374 ; on Easter Eve, 374-5 ; at Epiphany in East and some parts of West, 400-3 and nn. ; blessing of the waters, prayer of Sophronius, 402 and n. Baptistery, shape of, 32 Bardenhewer, 395 n. Barlow, Bishop W., his part in the consecration of Archbishop Parker, 168 ; his own conse cration impugned on inadequate grounds, 168 and n. Barnabas, St., designation to Apostolate and ordination of, 131, 146-7 Barnabas, Epistle of, prob. Alex andrian, 16, 135 ; relation to ' Didachey 17 ; on unity, 114 n. Bartholomew, St., his festival be gins autumn, 417 Basil, St., as a liturgiologist, 171 and n. ; his efforts for hospitals, 196-7 ; an ascetic, 210 ; use of ' presbytera,' 275 ; on Virgins, 284 ; admits them at an early age (16 or 17), his strict disci pline, 289-90 ; on the days when he communicated, 327 to., 329, 330 and n. ; on daUy Eucharist, 332-3 ; introduces daily prayers, 341 and n. ; funeral oration for, 403-4 ; commemoration sug gested, 423 Basilides (a Gnostic), his followers observe Christmas and other BILINGUALISM festival*? before the Church, 393, 399 and n. Batiffol, Pierre, ' Hist, du breviaire romain,' 10 to. ; his ' Studia Pa- tristica,' 51 ; referred to, on daily offices, 340 «.., 351 Bede, use of parochia for diocese, 145 ; referred to, 264 Bells, in charge of Ostiarii, 192 ' Bema,' name for Chancel or Presbytery, 154 ' Benchuir bona regula,' hymn in Bangor Antiphoner, 94 ' Benedicite omnia opera,' in Gallican and Celtic Liturgies, 89 ; instance of the Response in Psalmody, 204 ; said at Mattins in Syrian daily offices, 343 Benedict, St., his monastic rules referred to, 209 and «.., 210, 211 and n. ; threefold promise in, 213, 302 ; his rule of reciting the ' Hours,' 351 ; his commemora tion transferred, 438 ' Benedictus,' in Eucharist, derived from Psalm 118, 309, 313 n. Benson, Archbishop E. W., on Cyprian, 132 to. ; referred to, 271 n. ; on Cyprian's treatise 'On the Dress of Virgins,' 284 Berger, Samuel, 3 Bernard (a Frankish monk, circa a.d. 870), describes ceremony of the New Fire at Jerusalem, 384 Bernard, Professor J. H., 92, 125 Bernard, St., his assertion about Irish Confirmation explained, 90 Bethlehem, Monastery of, set up by St. Jerome, 347 Bevan, Archdeacon, on Diocese of St. David's, referred to, 238 to. Bible, important work of early Charismatic Ministry in regard to, 148 BickeU, Professor, on the Hallel Psalms and the Eucharist, 308-9 Biesenthal, Dr. , on Ep. to Hebrews having an Aramaic original, 194 Bigg, Dr. C, on the 'DidacheV 17 Bilingualism, 188 ; need of inter preters, 192 ; traces of, in various books of N.T., 193-4 ; and in G G 450 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE various portions and services of the Church, 194 Bingham, Joseph, 9 ; referred to, 141 «. , 167 to. , 168 to. ; quotation from, 174-5, 199 to. ; on asceti cism as a lay movement, 209 to. ; attacked by Kraus on interpre tation of Epiphanius on Virgins, 292 to. ; overstates his case, 193 ; on frequency of celebrating Eucharist, 333 to. ; and infrequent Communions, 334 ; on daily offices, 340 to., 341 to. Bishops, Apostolic Succession of, 145-6 ; the link between early Charismatic Ministry and local ministry of later times, 146 Bishops, Authority of, called a ' Guide ' in Edessene Canons, 44 ; limited, 44, 59 ; share the ' sacer- dotium ' with Presbyters, 142 ; their 'charisma veritatis' and consequent claim to declare the Faith in Councils, 149-50 ; ' Vicars of Christ,' 150 ; equal authority of all Bishops, 150-1 ; in the Presbytery, 151, 154 ; important passage in St. Igna tius on their prerogatives and powers of delegation, 157 ; can be judged only by other Bishops, 169 ; their ius liturgicum, its early history and modern use, 169-71 ; in drawing up Confes sions of Faith, 172-3 ; power constitutional, 173 ; Cyprianic maxim on unity of episcopate considered, 173-7 ; intervention in other dioceses, 174-7 ; faculty for dispensation in regard to illegitimacy conceded to, by Pope, 250 and to. Bishops, Duties of, Ministers of Baptism at Milan, 80 ; not necessary for Confirmation in ' De Sacramentis,' 81 ; their benediction in Liturgies, 89 ; their preaching, 163-4 ; ordina tion their distinctive func tion, 166 ; yet in this almost always assisted, 166-7 and to. ; Martene on efficacy of co-opera tion in ordination, 168-9 and to. ; in relation to Deaconesses, 281 ; to Virgins, 290, 292 ; bestow the veil on Virgins, 295-6 andriTO. ; in regard to modern Sisterhoods, 302-3 ; to use incense at the Prothesis('Arab. Didasc.'), 324 ; in daily offices of 'Ap. Const.,' 343 ff. ; and at Jerusalem, 348- 50 ; on Maundy Thursday, 374-5 Bishops, Marriage of, in ' Apostolic Church Order ' not allowed, 35 ; interpretation of 1 Tim. iii. 2, 215 and to. ; legislation regarding, 224-5 ; Eastern limitations, 225- 6 ; Western rules for celibacy of, 227 f. ; TruUan Council on, 280 Bishops, Monarchical Rule of, slowly developed at Rome, 104 ; how far derived from Synagogue, 118 f. ; uncertain relation to Presbyters in earliest age, 118-9 ; origin of title, 119 f . ; name used for Treasurers of Greek Clubs, 120 ; financial aspect of office, 120 ; official heads of local Churches not required in lifetime of Apostles, 121 and to. ; excep tion at Jerusalem, 121 ; a three fold unity of Faith, Order, and Worship subserved by, 121-4 ; earliest in Jerusalem, Asia and Antioch, 124 ; later at Rome, 125 f . ; influence of St. Cyprian's teaching on, 131 f. ; at Alexan dria, 135 f. Bishops, Ordination of, in ' Const. per Hipp.' with Gospel Book, 33 ; in 'Didascalia, ' 39; in 'Ap. Const. ', 47 ; in ' Gallican Statutes,' 58 ; in 'Eccles. Hier.' 62 ; per saltum, 77, 130 and n. ; by single Bishop in Celtic rite, 90 ; at Rome in ' OH.' not clear if to be further ordained when already a Presbyter, 129 and to. ; enthrone ment of, 129 to. ; Roman forms for, in ' OH.,' the basis of others, 130 ; rules for, 167 and to. ; on efficacy of co-operation in conse cration, 168 and to. Bishops, Popular element in the election of, 129, 142 Blessed Virgin (The), growth of INDEX 451 legends, 55 ; heresy of the Colly- ridians, 274-5 ; her Coronation a favourite subject with Fran ciscans and may have influenced ceremonies of veiling Virgins, 299 ; Nestorian commemoration of, in Christmastide, 407 ; also among Copts and in Gregory of Tours, 407 ; four festivals of, adopted in Rome, 407 ; the Puri fication or ' Occursus Simeonis,' 407-8 ; Western ceremonies on 2 Feb. and their possible origin, 408 ; the Annunciation or ' Ge nesis,' 394-5, 399 and to., 408 ; Nativity of, 408 ; Death or ' Assumption ' of, 408-9 Blessing of the Waters, on Easter Eve, 374^5 ; at Epiphany in the East, 402 and to. ; prayer of Sophronius, 402 and to. ; at St. Petersburg and Cyprus, 402-3 Bocquet, Lucien, on legal aspect of celibacy of clergy, 214 to. and 219 Bona, ' Rer. Liturg.' referred to on Communion in both kinds, 391 Boniface, St., a monastic mission ary, 264 ; on the New Fire, 384-5 Boniface IV., decree of, 212 to. ; Pantheon dedicated as a Chris tian church in his time, 420 Bonwetsch, edition of works of Hippolytus, 395 and to. Book of Deer (Scottish) has a Communion of Sick, 95-6 Book of Dimma, contains a Visi tation, Unction, and Communion of the Sick, Creed and Act of Confession, 95, 96 Book of MuUing, 94-5 ; has an Unction of the Sick, 95 ; form and manner of administering Communion to sick, 96 ; blessing of water and of sick man, 96 Borromeo, S. Carlo, rule for fre quency of celebrating Eucharist, 336 Boucher, G., edits Philocalian Kalendars, 397 to. Bridget, St., ought to be in English Kalendar, 423 Bright, W., 145 to., 166 to., 167 to.; on the use of vnrjpeTris, 184 to. ; CANONS on asceticism as a lay movement, 209 to. ; on Paulianist Deacon esses, 278 n. ; on duties of a Deaconess, 281 Brightman, F. E., 39, 42 to., 45, 52, 60, 61 ; on Eastern Liturgies, 68-71, 86, 87 ; his opinion about Gallican and Roman rites, 88 ; on Sarapion, 313 to. ; on early Reservation of Eucharist, 321 n. ; on use of incense, 324 Buck, Victor de, 64, 66 Bund, J. W. WUlis, on Celtic Church in Wales, referred to, 238 to. Burial of the dead, services of the Copiatae and Deacons, 195-6 Butler, Dom Cuthbert, referred to, 64 ; ' Lausiac History of Palladius,' commended for out line of early Monachism, 213, 219 to. Buxtorf, 118 to. ; on Jewish ex pectation of Elijah, 313 ra. Cabrera, Bishop, case of, 176 Caecilia, St., commemorated, 420 ' CaecUiani, Gesta Purgationis,' 152 to. Caesarius, St. (of Aries), his rule for a conventual Mass, 278 and to. ; sermon on Maccabees, 414 Callistus, accusation against, 220 to., 249 to. Candidates for Holy Orders, in St. Cyprian's time, 165 Candlemas, procession at, 77 Canon Missae (Roman), early frag ment of, 82 f. and toto. ; grave blots in, 102 'Canons Apostolic,' probable date of, 42 ; accepted by TruUan Council, 43 ; appendix to 'Ap. Const.,' 47; on Consecration of Bishops, 167 to. ; on Psaltae, 197 ; on clerical marriages, 223 ; on Wednesday and Friday fast, 327 to. ' Canons, Edessene,' 43-5; identify Ascension Day and Pentecost, 43 ; gift of tongues in, 43 ; limit authority of Bishop, 44 'Canons of Hippolytus,' date, 22 ; interpolated, 22 ; editions, 23; not 962 452 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE CANTERBURY by Dionysius of Alexandria, 23 ; rule as to ordination of Bishops and Presbyters, 128, 130, 167 and to. ; mention of Subdeacons probably an interpolation, 180 to. ; on Readers, 189 to., 191 to. ; on clerical marriage, 243 to. ; no mention of Deaconesses, 277 to. ; on Virgins receiving imposition of hands, 286 ; use ' day and night,' 305 to. ; rule of fasting communion explained, 320 and to. ; early morning service ordered [? interpolated], 340 to. Canterbury, Bishop's seat at, 154 ; organ built at, in 12th century, 200 ; another by Abp. Parker, 201 ; Abp. 's dispensing power, 256 Caristia, observance of, in Galli can Kalendar, 65 ; supplanted by Natale Petri de Cathedra, 417-8 Carthage, Council of, a.d. 397, fixes age for Diaconate at 25, 152 ; Council of, a.d. 389, adopts Western rule regarding celibacy of clergy, 228 ; on limit of age for Virgins (25), 289; forbids Presbyters to consecrate Virgins, 295 to. ; on the fast before Com munion, 318 to., 371-2 Carthaginian Kalendar, 65 ; re ferred to, 397 to. ; contains both Christmas and Epiphany, 400 ; on 27 Dec, 404 ; the 'Infantes,' 405 Cassian, 141 to. ; on the hours of Liturgy in Egyptian monasteries, 330 to. ; on daily offices, 341 and to., 347 to. ; on date of Christ mas, 401 to. Cassiodorius, on Lenten fast at Rome, 367 to. ' Catalogus Sanctorum Hiberniae,' 67 ; its division of three orders of Irish Saints witnesses to variety of Irish rites, 91 Catechumens, prepared during Lent for Baptism on Easter Eve, 366 ; to recite Creed on Maundy Thursday, 373 ; feet- washing of, 373 Cathedra, draped in white linen for enthronement of Bishop, 129 and «. ; how placed in the Presbytery, early examples, 154 ; 'magisterii locus' in St. Irenaeus, 164 Cathedral Chapters, origin and usefulness of, 212 Catholic, Church designed by our Lord to be, 111 Celestine IL, Pope, ' Ordo Romanus XI.' written for, 390 to. ; re ferred to on blessing of Paschal Lamb, 390 n. Celibacy, tendency to, in Apostolic Ch. 0., 35 and 219 ; address to subdeacons the only reference in modern Rom. Pont, to clerical celibacy, 181 and to. ; the obliga tion discussed, 181-3 ; confusion of ascetic with clerical life, 210 f . ; imposed on Bishops in the East, 211 ; attempts of Eusebius and Augustine to enforce, 211 and to. ; importance of Chrodegang'sRule, 211 and to. ; the long struggle for and against, 213 ; authorities on the subject named, 213-4 to. ; influence of Essenes, 216-7 and to. ; spread of ideas respecting, in 3rd century, 218-9 ; 'agapetarum pestis,' 220-1 and toto. ; regula tions concerning clerical house holds, 220-1 and toto. ; protests in the East against enforced clerical, 222 ; examples of Gregory Nazianzen and Synesius against clerical, 222 ; pressed by great writers of 4th century, 223-4 ; never carried so far in East as in West, 222, 224 ; disastrous legislation in the West regarding, 227 f. ; Council of Elvira, 227 ; action of Pope Siricius, 227-8 ; legislation in African Church, 228 ; renewed legislation by Popes in spite of opposition, 228; Gregory I. more lenient, 228 ; 'established' in 9th century, 229 ; but with notable exceptions in Lombardy, Hun gary, Sweden, Switzerland and England, 229-30 and to. ; com ments of 12th century English INDEX 453 historians on legislation of Gregory and Anselm, 230 to. ; maintenance of, attributed to financial objects, and hierarchical interest, 232 and n. ; important decrees of Winchester a.d. 1076, 232 and to. ; laws against 'foe- minarum contubernia,' 233 ; Stephen Langton's decree and its possible loopholes, 234 and to. ; papal policy regarding dis pensations, 234-5 ; action of Henry VIII. and his successors, 239-40; Canon of Trent, 241 and to. ; interpretation of 1 Cor. x. 13 discussed, 241 and to. ; Roman case for, discussed, 242 ff. ; closely connected with the ambi tions of Western Church, 244-5 ; its advantages and disadvantages in Mission work, 246 and to. ; reasonable legislation of Middle Ages to prevent benefices be coming hereditary feudal tenures, 246-7 and to. ; prepossession of laity in favour of, 247-8 ; Roman position summed up, 250-1 ; its error criticised, 251 f. ; disad vantages of celibacy, 253 ; ought not to be made a necessary con dition for Holy Orders, 254-6, advice to dissatisfied Roman clergy, 255-6 ; no express vow imposed on Roman clergy, 256 ; our Lord's teaching in St. Matt. xix., 258 and to. Celtic Lists of Saints, 66-7 Celtic Liturgies, 89-98 ; derived from Gaul, 89 ; features in common with Gallican, 89 ; evidence of their variety, 91 ; order of chanting Psalter in ' Cursus Scottorum,' 97-8 Central party of Anglican Church, 107 Ceriani, A. M., 88 Chalcedon, CouncU of, 145, 167 to. ; on Church Deaconesses, 278-9, 280; passes earliest oecumenical canon on Virgins, 285 ; gives power of remitting penance of Virgins to Bishop, 290 Chalice, the duties of Deacons CHRISTMAS and Archdeacon at Rome in consecrating, 159-161, 375 ; ad ministered to laity at Rome on Easter Day up to 14th century by means of a tube, 390 Charismatic Ministry, in the first age, 146 ; Divine appointment of, 146 ; general, not local, 146 ; includes Prophets, Teachers, Evangelists, Pastors, 147 ; exists side by side with settled ministry, 148 ; great instrument of unity, 148 ; what we owe to it, 148 ; regarded as transitory by St. Paul, 148-9 ; its passing away, part of Divine order, 149 ; but still a reserve force in the Church, 149 ; asceticism, 209 f . Charles the Great, 75 ; builds an organ for cathedral at Aachen, 200 Chazan, 118-9 Chemnitz, against compulsory celibacy, 214 n. ; on Tridentine Canon, 241 to. Choir children, curious customs on St. John's and Innocents' Days, 405-6 Chorepiscopi, 138 ; Council of Ancyra, Canon on their ordi nation, 140 and to. ; CouncUs of Neo-Caesarea and Antioch on their subordination, 140 and to., 141 ; compared to English ' Suffragans,' 141 ' Chorus,' a group of Psalms, 98 to. Chrism, its consecration and use, the mystery of perfection, 61 Christmas, date of its introduction at Antioch, 33 ; date in West given by Hippolytus, 63; in Roman Church, a.d. 336, 64, 65 ; history of its observance, 392-403 ; date (25 Dec.) fixed by Hippolytus, circa a.d. 235, 393-6 ; Easterns observe 6 Jan., 394 ; reason of difference dis cussed, 399 ; no necessary con nexion of Christmas with the 'Brumae,' 396-8 ; Clement's date, 399 and to. ; Eastern date at first kept also in parts of West, 400 ; then becomes in West the 454 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE CHRODEGANG separate Festival of Epiphany, 400 ; the ' Theophania,' 401 ; Western date for Christmas accepted at Antioch and Alex andria, 401 ; still observed on 6 Jan. by Armenians, 402 ; the Saints' days in the Octave, 403-7 Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, his ' canonical rule ' marks an epoch, 211 and to. ; origin of Cathedral Chapters, 212 Chrysostom, St. , his sermons as a Presbyter, 165 and to. ; on singing of Psalms, 202 to. ; on difficulties about clerical celibacy, 221 to. ; on the 'daily sacrifice,' 333; regrets decline in numbers of communicants, 333 ; on the Baptismal Waters of Epiphany, 402 and to. ; sermon on the Maccabees, 414 ; ought to be commemorated in English Kalendar, 423 Church, internal arrangements of, in ' Testament ' and ' Arabic Didas calia,' 32 ; in ' Didascalia,' 36 Church History, its character, 1 ; different views of, 3-5 Church Orders, earliest notices of, 14-15 ; their poverty as literature, 15 ; chief early examples, 16-50 ; minor works on the same, 51-63 ' Church Order, Apostolic,' contents and date, 34-5 ; on number of Deacons, 152 ; on number of Presbyters, 153 ; honourable position of Readers in, and their qualifications, 186 and to., 188 ; tendency to clerical celibacy, 35, 219 and to. ; on Widows, 269-72 ' Church Order, Egyptian and Ethiopic,' 24-26, 153 to., 189 to., 219 to. ; on Widows, 269 to. ; no mention of Deaconesses, 277 to. ; forbids imposition of hands for Virgins, 286 and to. ; usage of 'night and day,' 305 to. ; reserved Sacrament regarded as antidote, 320 to. 'Church Order, the Lost,' 18-21 ; contents, 18 ; on Syrian or Pales tinian basis, 18 ; had a Western COLLECTS Creed, 19 ; its form, 20, 21 ; re ferred to, 166-7 and toto. , 170, 189 and to. ; on clerical marriage, 243 to. Circumcision, festival, originally kept only as Octave of Christmas, 406 ; proper Preface for, 406-7 Cirta, Church of, 152 n., 153 to. ; spoliation of, 189 and to. ; men tion of Copiatae at, 195 Clement, St., of Alexandria, 135 and to., 153 to. ; on use of harp at ' Agapae,' 198 ; on heathen asceticism, 219 to. ; on 1 Cor. ix. 5, 220 to. ; on Fasting Days, 327 and to. ; on reasons for Wednesday and Friday, 328 to. ; his dates for events in our Lord's life, 399 and to. Clement, St., of Rome, Epistle ascribed to, 10 ; its anonymity, 125 ; wise interference at Corinth, 102, 113 ; on unity, 114 to. ; use of terms Bishops and Deacons in quoting Isaiah lx. 17, 119 to. ; on the delegates of the Apostles, 121 to., 134 to. ; on Apostolic succession, 145 ; on 'offering the gifts,' 156 ; inter cessory prayers, including one for rulers, in Ep. of, 169-70 ; instance of intervention in another diocese, 174 ; mention of Virgins, 283 to. ; his festival, 417 ; commemorated, 420 Clement, (so-called) second Epistle of, reaUy the homily of a 'Teacher,' 147 ; on the admoni tions of Presbyters, 156 ; Syriac Epistles to Virgins, 283 Clement V., orders choir-monks to be ordained priests, 212 and to. ' Clementine Homilies,' 147 Clerical Families, 230, 235-6 Clerical Households, regulations respecting, 220-1, 223 and toto. Cloveshoo, Council of, a.d. 747, adopts Roman Kalendar for England, 420 Codex Bezae, 194 Collectio (for Oratio), a Gallican use, 94 Collects, multiplicity of, in Leonine INDEX 455 COLLUTHUS Sacramentary, 73 ; in Gallican and Celtic Liturgies, 84, 89 CoUuthus, 138 ; 'leading case ' on vaUdity of Presbyteral ordina tion, 138-9 and m., 140 Collyridians, attacked by Epi phanius for allowing women to baptise, 270-1 ; and for appoint ing ' priestesses,' 274-5 Columban, St., directions of, for chanting Psalter, 97-8 Comgall, St., hymn of, 93 ' Communion,' antiphon introduced into Liturgy in 4th century, 389 Communion, The Holy : v. Eu charist Communion of Saints, Bp. Westcott on, 421 to. ; helps to realise, 422-5 Communion of the Sick, in both kinds in one act (Celtic rite), 89 ; forms for, in Celtic books, 95 CompUations of Church Orders, 45 f. ; table of, 50 Concelebration (in Eucharist) of Bishop and Presbyters, 156 ; pre served in Roman Pontifical, 157 ; its loss in our service to be re gretted, esp. in its results, 157-8 Concubinage, attitude of Western Church in regard to, 248-50 and TOTO. ' Confessio Orthodoxa,' 107 to. ' Confessors,' i.e. Ascetics, 209 to. 'Confirmare,' used of administer ing the Chalice, 159 n. Confirmation, with double unction, in Egyptian Ch. O., 25; in Verona Fragments, 28, 82 to. ; single in Gallican books, 81 ; presbyteral, 59, 82 to. ; in Ire land, 90 and m. ; called reX«a)TiKi) Xpia-is in 'Eccles. Hier.', 61 ; in 'De Sacramentis' Western prayer with Eastern rite, 81-2 ; address to the oil, 90 to. ; the Crossing as part of the unction, 90 n. ; Western tradition respecting, 156 ; consecration of oil for Chrism on Maundy Thursday, 374 ' Considerations on Public Wor- CORNE1IUS ship, ' th e author's, referred to, 162 to. ; on kinds of adoration, 379 Constance, Council of, a.d. 1415, rapid change of front on question of Communion in both kinds, 390-1 Constantine, Emp., list of gifts to Roman Churches untrustworthy, 325 Constantine Copronymus, sends an organ to King Pipin, 200 Constantinople, Church of, con nexion with Antioch, 105 ; ambition of ' Oecumenical ' patri archs, 106 ; large number of Deacons in, 152 ; Copiatae numerous at, 196 ; rite for ordaining Deaconesses, 279-80 'Constitutions, Apostolic,' 45-47; date, 33, 153 to., 154 to., 164 to., 165 to., 168 to. ; its Liturgy pro bably that in use at Antioch, 170; on Subdeacons, 184 to.; on Readers, 189 to., 191 «., 192 ; on the care of the sick, 196 ; on Psaltae, 197 ; on the singing of Psalms, 202 to. ; on clerical marriages, 223, 244 to. ; on Widows, 269-71 ; on ordination of a Deaconess, 279 ; on duties of Deaconesses, 280 to. ; forbids imposition of hands for Virgins, 286 and to. ; usage of 'night and day,' 305 to. ; contains text of daily prayer in last book, 307 ; use of 'Hosanna' and 'Bene dicts ' in Eucharist, 313 to. ; on Wednesday and Friday fast, 327 and n. ; Saturday observed as feast, 330 and to. ; daily offices in, 341 ; contents of these described, 342-7 ; give festival of St. Stephen, 65, 403 ' Constitutiones perHippolyt.,' 33 f. Cooper, Dr. James, 32 Copiatae, or Toilers, called in West Fossarii = grave-diggers, pro bably skilled masons, at Cirta, Constantinople and Rome, 195 Cornelius, Bp. of Rome, 144, 152 and to., 153 to., 162 to., 179, 189; on maintenance of Widows, 265 to. ; commemoration of, 411 456 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE Cosmas Indicopleustes, on the Ar menians, 404 m. Cotelier, J. B., 168 to. Covel, J., on the Synod of Jeru salem, 107 to. Creed, Western and Eastern forms of, 19 ; early Western types compared, 20, 21 : use of, in Eucharist, 61 ; in Celtic Visita tion of Sick, 96 ; Unity of, due to early Charismatic Ministry, 148 ; valuable modern works on, 172 and to. ; altered locally by Bishops, 173 Cross, Adoration of the, 376-80 ; relics of the, 377-8 ; theological views of the adoration, 378-80 ; festivals of the, 410-2 ; their Palestinian origin, 410-1 ; connex ion of Holy Cross day (14 Sept.) with Feast of Tabernacles, 411 and to. ; and its coincidence with burial of St. Cyprian, 411-2 ; the Exaltation of, 411 ; these two festivals not found in earlier Sacramentaries, 411 ; the Inven tion of the, 412 Crum, W. E., 55 Cunibert, Bp. of Turin, attacked by Damiani for allowing clerical marriage, 229 to. 'Cursus Scottorum,' St. Columban's directions for chanting Psalter, 97-8 Cyprian, St. , his independent atti tude on rebaptism, 104 ; Life of, referred to, 129 to. ; his maxim ' one Bishop to one Church ' and its effects at Rome, 131-2 and to. ; his teaching of the unity of the Episcopate, 132-3 ; on the high priesthood of Bishops, 133 f . ; mention of Felicissimus, 141 to. ; on Apo stolic succession, 145 and to. ; Bishops as Vicars of Christ, 150; regulations regarding death bed confessions, 162 ; mention of 'presbyteri doctores,' 165 ; maxim on the unity of the Episcopate considered, 173-7 ; his maxim itself a legal one, 173 and to. ; his own illustration of maxim in letter to Pope Stephen, 174 ; mentions office of Sub deacon, 180 ; mentions Acolytes, 184 and to. ; on Readers, 189, 192 ; care of sick during plague, 196 ; against Novatus, 220 to. ; regulations on clerical celibacy &c, 221 to. ; on Parable of Sower, 267 to. ; on Virgins, 283 to. ; uses metaphor of Bride of Christ for dedicated Virgins, 284 ; his simple attitude on ques tion of resolutions of Virginity, 286-7, 291 ; enumeration of hours of prayer, 311-2 n. ; Eucharist celebrated in the morning, 317 to. ; witness to daily Eucharist in Africa, 332 ; his martyrdom commemorated in Philoc. Kal., 398 ; in early and later Sacramentaries, 411-2 ; on commemoration of martyrs, 420 ; date of his martyrdom, 438 Cyprus, Blessing of Waters at Cyrenia, 402-3 Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 68 ; no mention of 'Hosanna' in Eu charist, 313 to. ; on the multi plication of relics of the True Cross, 377 Dacheritts, 211 TO. DailyOfnces, in 'Apost. Const.'46; in ' Pilgrimage of SUvia,' 58 ; Celtic forms, 97-8 ; not general in Apost. Age, except at Jeru salem, 305-8 ; there they grew out of Temple worship, 306 ; and consisted probably of Lord's Prayer and others variable, with recitation of Psalms, 305-8 ; no fixed forms of prayer, till 3rd or 4th century, 307 ; hours of ' the prayers,' 310-11 and to. ; history of, discussed, 339-52 ; reasons for revival in 4th century, 339 ; its nature, 340 ; custom in Egypt, Antioch, Milan &c, 341 ; offices of 'Apost. Const.' 342-7 ; influ ence of St. Jerome, 347 and to. ; introduction slow at Rome, 350-1 ; regulations of Western CouncUs regarding the ' ordo INDEX 457 dall' ongaro psaUendi,' 351 ; modern obliga tions, 352 Dall' Ongaro, Florentine poet, 385 Damascus, inscription over door of Mosque at, 202 Damasus, Pope, the friend of St. Jerome, 228 Damiani, Peter, attacks married clergy of N. Italy, 229 and to. Daniel xii. 10, 187-8 Day, the primitive Christian, began at sunset, 304 ; Roman usage of dating from midnight adopted by St. John and others, 305 and n. 'De Pascha Computus,' treatise of a.d. 243, referred to, 361, 395-6 to. Deaconess (v. Women, Ministry of), 32, 34, 35, 36, 77, 144; not mentioned at Rome, a.d. 251, 179 ; Bishop's wife to become, (TruUan Council), 225 ; Phoebe (Rom. xvi. 1), 260-1 ; in 1 Tim., 260; preferred to Widows as assistant in baptism of women, 271 ; placed under care of Widows in ' Testament,' 274 ; ' diaconissa,' probably in West = ' deacon's wife,' 275-6 to. ; de velopment of this order confined to East, especially Antioch and Constantinople, 277 ; viewed with disfavour in West, 277 and toto. ; Queen Radegunde, 277 and to. ; there its traces remained only in members of religious houses, or deacons' wives, 277 ; consecra tion of Carthusian nuns, 277-8 and to. ; reason for rejection in West, 278 ; in East their ministry closely resembles that of Deacons, 278 f. ; rites and ceremonies of their ordination, 279-80 and to. ; age for, 280 ; duties of, 280-1 ; modern development of the order, 281-2 ; tendency to com munity life, 282 Deacons (v. also Archdeacon), in Verona Lat. Fragments, 28 ; proclamations of, at Eucharist, 32 ; hold Gospels over Bishop's head, 33 ; powers of, in ' Eccles. Hier.' 62 ; unction of hands in DEMETRIAS Celtic Ordination rite, 90 ; how far derived from Synagogue, 118 f. ; attendants and deputies of the Bishop, 151 ; stand during public assembly, 151 ; numbers vary in different cities, 152 and to. ; no Church service complete without, 152 ; age for Diaconate, 152 ; called 'Ministers of Christ' by Ignatius, 155 ; their position, proclamations and litanies during service, 158 ; proclamation in ' Testament,' 158 ; received and distributed the offerings of the people, 159 ; question about communicating Presbyters, 159 ; said to consecrate chalice, 159 ; convey the 'fermentum' to the 'tituli,' 160 and to. ; duties of watching the conduct of the worshippers afterwards assigned to minor orders, 161 ; duties at baptisms, 161; might baptise and reconcile penitents in extreme cases, 161-2 and to. ; the almoners of the Church, and other secular duties of, 162 ; preaching by, rare in early centuries, 166 ; Ephrem Syrus an exception, 166 ; preaching by, forbidden in 4th century, 166 and to. ; policy of checking aspirations of, 166 to. ; power of, at Rome, 180 ; duties subdivided and given to minor orders, 179-80 ; in Justin, 188 ; have care of the dead, 195-6 ; as precentors, 202 ; interpreta tion of 1 Tim. iii. 12, 215 and to.; allowed to be married in East, 224-5; Western regulations about their celibacy, 227 f. ; duties of, in daily offices of 'Apost. Const.' 344 ff. ; and at Jerusalem, 348-50 ; administer chalice to Bishop on Maundy Thursday, 375 ; read the 'Ex ultet ' Rolls, 387 ; prominent part on St. Stephen's Day, 405 Decian persecution, 209 to. Decretals, the first genuine, 227 and to. Demetrias (a Roman Virgin), Epistle of St. Jerome to, 295 toto. 458 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE DEMETRIUS Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, 175 TO. Departed, offices for the, in ' Didas calia,' 38; in 'Apost. Const. ,'47 ; remarkable, in 'Eccles. Hier.,' 62 ; kissing and anointing the corpse forbidden, 63 ' Depositiones,' 64, 397 to., 398 ' De Sacramentis,' contains earliest form of the Canon Missse, 68, 74; pseudo-Ambrosian, 79; but not Milanese in origin, 80 ; similar in plan to St. Cyril's lec tures, 80 ; date, origin, and con tents, 80-84 Descent into Hell, our Lord's, referred to, 57 ' Didache',' described, 16-18 ; date, 17 ; Encratite rather than Mon tanist, 17 ; on 'life and know ledge,' 109 to. ; on priesthood of ministry, 134 to. ; referred to, 139 m., 146, 147, 156 ; contains short forms of prayer, 170 ; on the Wednesday and Friday fast, 305 to., 327 and n. ; on use of ' Hosanna ' and ' Maranatha ' at Eucharist, 313 to. ; editions, 440 ' Didascalia, Arabic,' 31, 39 ; use of incense in, 40 ; high place of women in, 40 ; Mystagogia in, 40-41 ; older than 'Testament,' 41 ; Bishop to cense three times round altar, 324 'Didascalia, Syrian,' 35-41; strange chronology of Holy Week, 37 ; opposition to Mishnic traditions, 38 and to. ; date, 39 ; oblations made to the Bishop, 120 ; the Bishop as 'Priest,' 124; on clerical marriage, 244 to. ; on Widows, 269 to., 270, 271 and to. ; usage of 'night and day,' 305 to. ; reserved Sacrament regarded as antidote against poison, 320 and to. ; no mention of daily offices in, 342 Diocese, at first known as Parochia, the unit of Church life (a.d. 200-250), 144-5 ; considerable variation in number, 145 Dionysius Exiguus, edition of 'Apostolic Canons,' referred to, DUCHESNE 324 to. ; his system of arranging the Kalendar, 363-4 Dionysius of Alexandria, 135, 196 Dionysius the Areopagite, supposed author of ' On Eccles. Hierarchy/ 59 ; works bearing his name, 60 to. Dionysius of Corinth, protest agst. enforced celibacy, 222 Dispensing power (of Popes), in regard to clerical marriages, 234 f. ; possible development of, 242 Dogma, periods of activity in, also periods of activity in organisation and rites, 101 ; relative impor tance of the two, 102, 108, 110 Domitian's taxation of Christian communities, its effects on growth of Episcopate, 123 and to. Doorkeepers : v. Ostiarii Ducange, on Presbyters' wives, 276 to. Duchesne, L., 'Origines du culte chre'tien,' its value, 10 ; rare in stance of Roman bias, 10 to. ; referred to, 58, 66, 71 ; its value for Western Liturgies, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79 ; an omission by, 83 to. ; theory about Milanese rite as origin of Gallican, 85 ; on the Roman ' Actor ' and relation to growth of Episcopate, 122 and to. ; on ordination of Bishops, 129 to. ; correction of, on election of Formosus, 130 to. ; another correction, 153 to. ; on the wine in the ' scyphus,' 161 to. ; on preaching of Presbyters, 165 to. ; on Roman exception to Nicene rule of three Bishops for consecration, 167-8to. ; onrites for consecration of Virgins, 299 to. ; on observance of Wednesday and Friday at Jerusalem, 329 to. ; re ferred to on ' Pilgrimage of Silvia, ' 348 to. ; referred to on Paschal controversy, 356 to. ; on the observance of Lent in Festal Letters of St. Athanasius, 366 ; on Roman Lent, 368 ; on Palm Sunday at Jerusalem, 370 ; on Maundy Thursday Liturgy, 372 ; INDEX 459 DUNSTAN on the Gregorian Sacramentary, 375 and 377 ; on Good Friday Services, 375-6 toto. ; on the Mass of the Presanctified, 380 to. ; on the New Fire, 385 ; on the Paschal Taper, 389 ; account of Easter Day Liturgy, 389 and to. ; on date of Christmas, 393 to. ; on the Philocalian Kalendars, 397 to. ; on Eastern date for Christmas &c, 399 to. ; on Nativity of St. John Bapt., 409 ; on Natale Petri de Cathedra, 416-8 Dunstan, St., gives organ to Malmesbury, 200, 211 Easter, the E. fast in Roman Church Order, 18, 22 ; in 'Didas calia,' 37 ; the ' Great Week,' ' A.C 47 ; circa a.d. 120, 63 ; dated 27 March in Gallican Kalendar, 65 ; Celtic dates for, 91 ; Rome adopts Alexandrian calculation, 104 ; veiling of Virgins at, 296 ; our Lord's Second Advent expected at, 313-4 ; the Easter Vigil and Eucharist (1 a.m.) at Jerusalem, 317 to. ; the historian Socrates on the observance of, 353 ; possible aUusion to by St. Paul, 354 ; no mention of, in earliest writers, 354 ; but St. Polycarp is said to have derived custom of observing the Feast from St. John, 354 and ra. ; observed at Rome on a Sunday, 355 to. ; late use of ' Pascha ' for Easter, 355 and to. ; differences in time of observing between Asiatics and Romans, 356-7 and toto. ; Roman method prevaUs, 358 ; a premature deci sion, 358 ; cycle of Hippolytus to find, 359-61 ; Alexandrian method of finding, 362 ; error in British Church, 363 ; archaic form of the first celebration on Easter Day, 389-90 ; other ceremonies connected with, 390 Easter Eve (see Easter), Bap tism and Confirmation on, 383 ; ceremony of the New Fire : its symbolism explained, 383 ; ENCRATITES the ceremony at Jerusalem de scribed, 383-4 ; not mentioned by Silvia, 384 ; earliest mention by Bernardus, c. 870, 384 ; superstition connected with it, '384 ; the New Fire at Florence, 385 ; symbolism of ceremony in Roman Liturgy, 386-7 ; blessing of Paschal Lamp or Taper, 386-9 Eastern Church, attitude on marriage of clergy, 211 ; its ambitions checked by Byzantine Empire, 244 ; on marriage and divorce, 249 ; differences with West on Eucharist on Fast Days and Saturdays, 327-331 Ebionites, 116 and to., 327 ' Ecclesiastical Hierarchy,' treatise on, its contents summarised, 60-63; Monks to stand for ordination, 296 to. ; use of incense in, 324 Edersheim, Dr., on sacramental character, of Jewish marriages, 216 to. Edgar, King, 211 and to. Edward the Confessor, reason of title, 209 to. ; canonised a.d. 1161, 420-1 ' Egyptian Heptateuch,' 48-9 ; rule for ordaining Presbyters, 128 to., 167 to. ; on Subdeacons, 184 to. ; on Readers, 189 to. , 191 to. Eleutherus, Bishop of Rome, 128, 129 and to. Elijah, model for anchorites, 207, 210 ; Jewish expectation of, 313 and to. Elvira, Council of, a.d. 306, im portant rule respecting clerical celibacy, 227 and to. ; its severe legislation on breach of vows of Virginity, 287-8 ; restricts pro longed fasts, 329 to. Embalming the dead, Deacons to attend to, 196 Embolismus, after Lord's Prayer in Liturgy, 380 Emperors, birthdays of, in Gallican Kalendar, 65 Encratites, ' Didachd ' connected with, 17 ; their asceticism, 218-9 and to. 460 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE English Church, causes of Roman influence in early, 105 : ought to become more of a pilgrim Church at Jerusalem, 107 ; barrier between ourselves and Orthodox Eastern Church, 107 Ephesians, Ep. to, 147 ; probable meaning of iv. 12, 148-9 Ephrem Syrus, rare instance of Deacon allowed to preach, 166 ; ought to be commemorated in English Kalendar, 423 Epiphanius, St., his Easter Eve sermon referred to, 57 ; on Ebionites, 116 to. ; referred to, 132 to. ; on parochial system at Alexandria, 137-8 ; his irregular ordination of Paulinianus, 175 ; his defence of same, 175 to. ; on Subdeacons, 184 to. ; mentions Interpreters, 195 and to. ; on clerical celibacy, 222 to., 223; attacks Collyridians on minis terial order of women, 270 and to., 274-5 ; opinion on marriages contracted by Virgins, 291-2 and to. ; on Synagogue hours of prayer, 310 ; on ob servance of Wednesday and Friday fast, 327 and n. ; on Saturday as a feast, 330 and. to. ; on daily offices, 346-7 ; on Epiphany, 402 to. ; bn the As sumption, 409 Epiphany, in the ' Testament,' 32 ; in : ConstitutionesperHipp.,'33 ; in Edessene Canons, 44 ; Theo- phania, 47 ; in Gallican and Cartha ginian Kalendars, 65 ; same date as Eastern festival of Nativity, 400 ; kept by Emperor Julian, 400 ; commemoration of Magi, Western, of Baptism and Miracle at Cana, Eastern, 400 and to. ; a time for Baptism in Gaul and Africa, 400-1 ; water for Baptism in East prepared, 402 and to. Episcopa, used of Bishop's wife, 275 Epistle, in the Eucharist, possibly read by Readers as well as Sub deacons, 190 and to. eucharist Erasmus, on married clergy, 237to. ; letter of, implying that Arch bishop Warham had a wife and children, 238 n. Essenes, ascetic practices of, 216-7 ; their common meals, 306 and?i., 310 Ethiopic Statutes : v. Church Order Eucharist, earliest forms of Ana phora in Egyptian Church Order, 25, and in Verona Lat. Frag ments, 27 ; Deacon's proclama tions at, 32 ; a Liturgy in ' Di dascalia,' 39 ; incense used at Prothesis, 40 ; the veil, 40 ; Antiochene Liturgy in 'A.C.'47; Sarapion's Liturgy and striking Consecration Prayer, 53, 314 ; the Synaxis or Communion in 'Eccles. Hier.,' 61 ; ear liest Western form of Canon Missae quoted and commented on, 82 ; its remarkable ending, evidently from Eastern Ana phora, 83 and to. ; paraUel in stance of subsidiary prayer pro moted to the Canon, 84 to. : difficulty of fixing on essential 'form' of Consecration, 84; fea tures common to Gallican and Cel tic rites, 89 ; original character of, 103 ; changed by Roman Church in adopting dogma of Transub stantiation, 103 ; daily in Africa in Ante-Nicene times, 104 ; double significance of, 112 ; dis tinct gifts conveyed by the double Sacrament, 112-3 ; one Eucharist, 148 ; to be valid must be ' under the Bishop ' (St. Ignatius), 157 ; concelebration of Bishop and Presbyters, 156-7 ; deacons' duties at, 158 f . ; people at Rome received from the chalice through a 'pugillaris' or 'fistula,' 160 to. ; the ' Sancta,' 159-60 and to. ; the 'fermentum,' 160 and to. ; objects of these rites the solidarity of the one Eucharist throughout the city, 161 ; at tendance of Readers to be en couraged at, 191 ; on Sundays universal and continuous, 306 ; INDEX 461 eucharist prayers of, fixed earlier than daily offices, 307 ; Psalms at, 308 ; theory connecting the Hallel Psalms with early Litur gies, 308-9 ; early developments of, based on weekly commemora tion of the Resurrection, 312 ; and on expectation of His Second Coming, 313-4 and to. ; use of 'Maranatha,' ' Hosanna,' 'Bene- dictus,' 313 and to. ; all-night vigUs dropped for most part at close of 1st century, 315 ; effect of adoption of Roman civil day, 315 and to. ; St. Paul and the Agape1, 315-6 ; his Eucharist at Troas in early morning, 316 ; similar witness of Pliny's letter, 316-7 and to. ; of Justin and Ter tuUian and Cyprian, 317 and to. ; communion before midnight on Sabbath found in Egypt and Africa up to 5th century, but regarded as a scandal, 317-8 and n., 330 and to. ; hour of 3 p.m. adopted for Fast Days, 318 ; but no trace of Sunday afternoon or evening Communion until about 50 years ago in England, 318 ; criticism of innovation, 318 ; 9 a.m. the 'canonical hour' in England : its restoration advo cated, 318-9 ; history of Fast before, discussed, 319-21 ; use of Reserved Sacrament in early times, 320-1 and toto. ; use of incense at. 321-6 ; history of the daily, 331-339 ; daily first at Jerusalem, then found in Africa (circa 250), 331-2; dis cussion attributed to Hippolytus, 332 ; early authorities for the daily, 332-3 and toto. ; rules re lating to communion, 333-6 ; mediaeval custom in England, 334-5 ; rule of Council of Trent, and practice of modern Roman Church, 336 ; ' assistance ' of the laity at, 337 ; in evening of Maundy Thursday in Africa, 371-2 ; Mass of the Presancti- fied, 380-82; theory of conse cration, 380-82 ; account of the first Easter celebration in Roman rite, 389-90 ; introduction of Introit, 'Offertory,' and 'Com munion,' end of 4th century, 389; of 'Agnus Dei,' 7th century, 389-90 ; Communion in both kinds on Easter Day retained at Rome up to 14th century, 390 ; decree of Council of Constance on Communion in one kind dis cussed, 390-1 Eugenius IV., his untenable posi tion in regard to what is valid in rites, 103 ; his definition of the Ordination Charisma, 254 and to. Eulogius, on the Archdeacon at Rome as successor to the Papacy, 162 to. Eusebius, 'H. E. ' 23, 147, 152 to., 153 to. ; on Origen preaching as a Catechist, 164, 175 to., 179 ; mentions Acolytes being present at Nicaea, 184 and «. ; referred to, 188, 265 to. ; on Paul of Samo- sata, 221 to. ; on the protest of Dionysius against enforced celi bacy, 222 ; on the Apostles being married men, 254 to. ; on daily Eucharist, 332 ; on Easter, 354 to. Eusebiuspf Caesarea in Cappadocia, referred to, 171 Eusebius of Samosata, 174 Eusebius of Vercellae, 211 Eutychius, Patriarch of Alexandria, 137 and to., 139, 153 n. Evangelists (the four), comme moration in Nestorian Kalendar, 407 Evangelists, in early Charismatic Ministry, 147 ; St. Timothy and Philip the Deacon, 147 Exaltation of the Cross, 74 Exorcists in Roman list of minor orders, a.d. 251, 179 ; a survival of Charismatic Ministry, 185 ; sink in importance, 185-6 ; duties • and appointment of, 186 ' Exultet ' Rolls, description of. 387-8 Ezra, reads the Law, employing Interpreters, 193 462 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE GELASIAN Fabian, Bishop of Rome, a.d. 236- 250 ; probable originator of Sub diaconate, 179 ; commemorated, 420 Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, 144, 152 to., 162 to., 179 Fasts, early observance of Wednes day and Friday, 305 and to. ; before Eucharist, 318 and to. ; before Ordination, 319 ; history of Fast before Communion dis cussed, 319-21 ; authorities for Wednesday and Friday fasts, 327 and to. ; reasons for and manner of keeping these days, 327-29 Felicissimus, case of, 141 and to. Felicitas, St., commemorated in Philocalian Kal., 398 Felire of Oengus, 67 Feltoe, C. L., edition of Leonine Sacramentary, 72, 443 'Fermentum,' from central church at Rome probably used by Deacons for consecrating the Chalice at the ' tituli,' 160 and to. ; afterwards carried by Aco lytes, 185, 381 Ferrandus, on Roman rule of con secration of Bishops, 167-8 to. Festivals, Christian (v. Kalendars), development slow, 63 Flammeum, or bridal veil, used for Virgins, 295-6 Flavian and Diodorus, ascetics at Antioch, 341, 348 to. Fliedner, Pastor, revives order of deaconesses, 281 Florence, ceremony of the New Fire at, 385 Forbes, Bishop A. P., 67 Fossarii (or Fossores) : v. Copiatae Francis, St., 210 ; his followers fond of the subject of the ! Coronation of the Blessed j Virgin, 299 Frankfort, Council of, a.d. 754, fixes 25 as limit for Virgins, 289 Freeman, E. A., on the reception of decrees of Gregory VII. in England, 232 to. Frere, W. H., 72, 88 Friday (see Wednesday and Friday), reasons for observing, 328 and to-. Funk, 39, 41, 42 to., 45, note on his recent book, 108 ; edition of Syriac letters wrongly ascribed to Clement of Rome, 283 to. Gallican Kalendar of Polemius Silvius, 64, 397 to. ; contains both Christmas and Epiphany, 400 and to. ; gives St. James and St. John for 27 December, 404 ; the 'Infantes,' 405 Gallican Liturgies, 78-85 ; variable form of Canon in 7th century, 84 ; probably derived from MUan, 85 ; their primitive elasticity, 88 ; rites of, adopted without insight by Rome, 102 ; of widespread influence in West, 105, 313 to. Gallican Statutes, influence on Roman Ordinal, 58-9 ; on Ordina tion, 166 to. , 167 and to. ; on Ordi nation of Subdeacons, 180 ; of Acolytes, 185 and to. , book of exorcisms delivered to Exorcist this adopted in Rom. Pont. , 186 keys delivered to Ostiarii, 192 on work of Widows, 270-1 to. Gamurrini, J. F., 57 Gangra, Canons of, in favour of married clergy in East, 222 Garibaldi, and the new fire of Italian liberty, 385 Gasparri, P., on case for celibacy, 214 to. ; on dispensations for ordaining the illegitimate, 250 to. ; on St. Peter's wife, 254 a. Gaul, Church of, causes of Roman influence, 105 Gavantus, 'In Rubr. Miss.', 190 to. Gebhardt, 119 to., 126 ii. Gelasian Sacramentary, its date, Gallican r.dmixtures and test for same, 74, 180 to., 185 to. ; prayer for a Widow, 266-7 to. ; prayers for Consecrating Virgins, 298 ; adds three preparatory weeks to Lent, 369 ; on Com munion with the Presanctified, 380 to., 381 and to. ; Proper Preface for the Octave of Christ mas, 406-7 ; four festivals of the B.V.M., 408-9; on the 'As sumptio,' 409 ; introduces festival INDEX 463 gelasius of Invention of the Cross, prob. from Gaul, 412 and to. ; Com- mem. of Maccabees on 1 Aug. , 415 ; the festival 'Petri de Cathedra,' 417 Gelasius I. (Pope), on Widows, 267 ; on times for veUing Virgins, 296 to. ' Genesis,' another name for the Annunciation, q. v. Gennadius, 'De Viris HI.' referred to, 401 to. Genoveva, St., her consecration as Virgin, 286 to. Gerard, referred to, against com pulsory cehbacy, 214 to. Germanus of Paris, St., letters of, give a sort of Ordo GaUicanus, 79 Geste, Bishop, a ceUbate, 183 Gibson, Codex, on Warham's Visita tions, 238 to. Gieseler, on the attack of Alexander II. on Church in N. Italy, 229 to. ; on the decree of Constance on Communion in both kinds, 391 Giraldus Cambrensis, account of married clergy in Wales, 237 Glaucias, interpreter of St. Peter, afterwards heretic, 193 ' Gloria in Excelsis,' Hymn at Mattins in Syrian offices, 343 ; used in Easter Liturgy in Roman rite, 389 ' Gloria Patri,' 28 ; instance of response in Psalmody, 204 and to. Gnosticism, 117 Good Friday (see Passion of our Lord), non-liturgical services for, in Roman Liturgy, 375-6 and toto. ; ' Mass of the Presanctified ' of late date, 376 ; adoration of the Cross, derived from Jeru salem, 376 ; witness of ' SUvia,' 376-7 ; introduced through Gaul into Rome, 377 ; the ' Re proaches,' 377 ; relics of the True Cross, 377-8 ; theological views of the adoration, 378-80 ; the use of the ' Trisagion ' a witness to Eastern origin of this service, 380 ; Mass of the Presanctified discussed, 380-82 Gore, C. , on ordination of Bishops, 129 to., 132 toto., 141 to. 'Gospel of Nicodemus,' referred to, 57 Gospels, Synoptic, when written, 13-14 Gothic Kalendar, 65 Gradual, relic of Psalm between Epistle and Gospel, one of oldest parts of Liturgy, 390 Graetz, on term Bishop, 119 to. Gran, Council of (Strigonium), dis penses married Presbyters, 230 Greek Fathers, not commemorated in English Kalendar, a remark able oversight, 423 Greenwell, W., 99 Gregorian Sacramentary, more pro perly of Hadrian, the Pope's Book, partly Roman, partly Gallican, 75-6 ; supplements to, added in France perhaps by Alcuin, 300 and n. ; remarkable omission of reference to spiritual marriage in consecration of Virgins, 300-1 ; on the adminis tration of chalice by Deacon to Bishop on Maundy Thursday, 375 ; on non-liturgical services of Holy Week, 375-6 and toto., 377 ; on communion with the Presanctified, 380 to. ; on Easter services, 389 to. ; on festival of St. James, 404 m. ; on the 'Assumptio,' 409; service for St. Peter ad Vincula, 415 ; the festival 'Petri de Cathedra,' 417 Gregory the Great, advice of, to Augustine on local uses, 98 ; one of the few great preachers produced at Rome, 165 ; more lenient than his predecessors on celibacy of Subdeacons, 228 ; his ambition for the Church, 245 ; on the dress of ' Presbyterae,' 275 ; knew only of 36 days of Lenten Fast, 368 ; on use of Lord's Prayer for consecrating the Eucharist, 382 ; festivals of the B.V.M. not known in his age, 409 Gregory II. , instituted observance of Thursdays, in Lent, 74, 370 ; 464 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE GREGORY disapproved of more than one chalice on the altar, 161 to. Gregory VII., his policy in regard to asceticism of clergy, 103 ; criticised by English historians of 12th century, 230 to. ; his in temperate counsel to the laity to shun married clergy, 230-1 and to. ; its results, 231 and to. ; its financial object, 232 and to. ; his ambition for the Church, 245 Gregory IX., legislation on succes sion to benefices, 247 to. Gregory XIII., Pope, 418 Gregory Nazianzen, on St. Basil, 171 and to., 197 ; son of a married Bishop, 222 ; sermon on the Maccabees, 414 Gregory of Nyssa, his funeral oration for St. Basil referred to, 403-4 Gregory the Illuminator, St., sug gested commemoration in English Kalendar, 423 Grindal, Archbishop, his review of the powers of the Archbishop of Canterbury, 256 to. Haddan and Stubbs, 67 ; Haddan on Bishops at Alexandria, 136 to. ; on cases of Barlow and Parker, 168 to. Hadrian, Pope, sends Sacramentary to Charles the Great, 75 ; referred to, 181 to., 185 to. ; Sacramentary of, see Gregorian Sacramentary Hahn, Drs. A. and G. L. , valuable work on the Creeds, 172 and to. ; on Ordination, 254 to. Halcomb, T. R., Art. on Synesius, 222 to. Hale, 'Precedents,' referred to, 237 to. Hallel, Passover Psalms : theory adapting these to Last Supper and early Liturgies, 308-9 Hard wick, ' Ch. Hist.' on married clergy in Hungary, 230 to. ' Harmer, Ant.,' see Wharton, 214 to. Harnack, Adolf, on date of 'Dida che,' 17 ; on ' Test, of our Lord,' 31 to. ; on date of ' Apostolic CO.' 35 ; referred to, 109 to. ; tendency to take the 'second handle,' 114 to. ; referred to, 126 to. ; on St. Clement Alex., 135 to. ; on early Charismatic Ministry, 148 ; on Roman Creed, 172 to.; on two letters ascribed to Clement, 283 to. Harris, Thomas and Rene\ organ- builders, 201 Hatch, Edwin, 3 ; on origin of title 'Bishop,' 120; referred to, 129 to., 132 to., 141 to., 211m.; error on benediction of Widows, 268 to. ; on Virgins, 290 to. , 291 to. Hatcher, on Salisbury, 378 Hauler, Edmund, referred to, 26, 29, 166 to., 167 to., 186 m.; ' Dida scalia ' referred to, 320 to. Heathenism, influence on Church organisation, 115 ; its clubs and secret societies, 117 ; produced Gnosticism, 117 Hefele, on the Council of Aix-la- Chapelle, 211 to. ; on Paphnutius at Nicaea, 222 to. ; on the nullity of clerical marriages, 227 to. ; on clerical marriages in Hungary, 230 to. Hegesippus, makes out Roman succession, 127 Heinichen, 153 to. Helena, St., discovery of the True Cross, 376 Henry I., King, makes profit out of laws on celibacy, 233 Henry VII., King, legislation against married clergy probably without effect, 236 Henry Bradshaw Society, publish ' Martyrology of Gorman,' 67 ; Bangor Antiphoner and Irish 'Liber Hymnorum,' 92-3 Heraclas of Alexandria, 135, 138 Heresies, of Simon Magus and Cleobius in 'Didascalia,' 38; Marcionite in ' Summary of Doc trine,' 51 Hermas, on Unity, 114 to. ; on the government of Roman Church, 126 and to. ; on Apostles, 146 ; on preaching, 164 to. ; on clerical 'sisters,' 220 and to.; imaginary description of life among Virgins, INDEX 465 HEXHAM 283 to.; on the 'Stations,' 327 and to. ; Easter observance at Rome traced to, 355 to. Hexham, Bishop's seat at, 154 Heykamp, Archbishop, letter ad dressed to by Author, 168 to. Hieronymian Martyrology, falsely so-called: its origin and influence, 66 Hilary the Deacon, on the work of Bishops to root out heresies, 122 ; ' Episcopi et Presbyteri una or- dinatio,' 136 ; on number of Deacons and Presbyters, 153 ; on Deacons not aUowed to preach, 166 to. Hilary, St., his Hymn on Christ, 93 Himerius, Bishop of Tarragona, important letter of Pope Siricius to, 227 and to. Hincmar, of Rheims, first mentions Archdeacons as chosen from Presbyters, 163 Hippolytus, St., not the author of the Canons, 22 ; LTepi x^^fxarav, 33 ; on the trial of Noetus ' be fore the blessed Presbyters,' 128 and to.; not antipope, 132 and to. ; on Apostolic succession, 145 and to. ; quoted by St. Jerome on daily Eucharist and weekly fast, 327 and to., 332 and to. ; his arrangement of the Paschal cycle, 359-61 ; his position in Roman Church, 359 ; on date of the Nativity, 393-6 ; changes his views on length of our Lord's ministry, 395-7 Holy Week, 370-89; see Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Eve Honorius, Emperor,, law respect ing priests' wives, 223 and to. Hook, Dean, on Bonifaoe of Savoy, 235 to. Hooker, Richard, 8 Horner, George, 25 ' Hosanna,' in Eucharist, 309, 313 and to. Hospitals, institution of, 4th century, 196 ; St. BasU's efforts ILLEGITIMACY for, excite emulation of Julian, 196 and to. Hours of Prayer in 'A.C 47 ; for Bishops, 39 ; Celtic hours for reciting Psalter, 97-8 ; develop ment of services for, caused Psalms to be dropped out of Liturgy, 203 ; early usage at Jerusalem, 305-8 ; probable arrangement there, 310-11 ; Cyprian's enumeration of, 311-2 to. ; day ' hours ' later distinguished from night 'hours,' 311 to. ; gradually becoming fixed : their history traced from 4th century onwards, 341-52 ; influence of St. Jerome on their popularity, 347 ; Rule of St. Benedict, 351 Hungary, clergy of, aUowed to retain their wives, 229-30 and to. Hunt, Wm., 211 to. Huther, Dr. J. E., on the meaning of ' husband of one wife,' 215 to. Hymns, 93, 94 ; quaint Irish rule of reciting, 95 ; primitive use of, illustrated from N.T. and early writers, 197 f. ; in Syrian daily offices, 342-3 Ideler, on the lunar and solar year, 360 to. Ignatius, St. , his Epistles a witness to importance of unity, 114 to. ; use of term ' synagogue ' for Christian assembly, 116 ; on Episcopate at Antioch, 124, 126 ; his sUence regarding Bishops at Rome, 126, 133 to. ; on Presbyters, 153-4 to. , 155 ; on unity with the Bishop, 157 ; allusion to instrumental music, 197-8 ; said to have introduced antiphonal singing, 203 ; warning about asceticism, 208 and m. ; mentions Virgins, 283 to. ; ought to be commemorated in English Kalendar, 423 Illegitimacy, in reference to ordi nation : attitude of Western Church, 249 to., 250 and to. ; attitude of modern English Church, 256 to. H H 466 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE ILLUMINATION Illumination : v. Baptism Imposition of Hands, not used for Widows, 273 and to. ; prescribed at Constantinople for Deacon esses, 279 ; apparently aUowed for Virgins in 'Can. of Hipp.,' but forbidden in other Church Orders, 286 ; allowed for them by St. Ambrose and used by St. Germanus, 286 and to. ' Improperia ' : v. Reproaches Incense, use of, in Liturgy of 'Didascalia,' 40; in 'Eccles. Hier.,' 61 ; its history discussed, 321-6; Church at first shy of using it because of heathen associations, 321-2 ; use at funerals, not as adjunct to prayer, in Tertullian, 322 ; at pubUc worship in funeral chapels, especially at Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, 322-3 ; witnessed by 'Silvia, c. a.d. 385; in 'Apost. Canons ' to be brought to altar at time of holy offering, 323-4 and to. ; in 'Arab. Didascalia ' to be used at Prothesis, 324 ; at Mass of Catechumens, 324 ; other possible references to, 325 ; preparatory to the Liturgy in early times, 325 ; modern use of, discussed, 325-6 ; Roman views about, 326 ; blessing of incense connected with the ceremony of Paschal Taper, 389 Infants (i.e. the Holy Innocents), commemorated, 65, 405 Innocent I., Pope, on custom of carrying the 'fermentum,' 160to. ; acknowledges Nicene rule about three Bishops at consecration of Bishop, 167 and to. ; enforces clerical celibacy, 228 ; on lapsed Virgins, 294 and to. ; objects to Eucharist being celebrated on certain Fast Days, 329, 331 ; on Maundy Thursday absolutions, 374 ; on Communion with the reserved Host, 376 Innocent III., Pope, on marriage of Swedish clergy, 230 ; on celibacy, 244 to., 245 ; dispen sation to Richard Poore, IUS LITURGICUM 246-7 ; on the duties of Priests, 335 Innocents, commemoration of, 65, 405 Instruments (musical) : v. Music Interpreters, Readers act as, 188 ; not a distinct order, 192 ; in Jewish Church (Nehemiah), 192-3 ; in N.T. 193 ; Mark acts for St. Peter, 193 ; also Glaucias, 193 ; bilingual traces in various Scriptures and Churches, 193-4 ; Presbyter acts as Interpreter at Jerusalem, 195 to. ' Intinction,' 160 ; consecration by, 381 Introit, introduced in 4th century, 389 ' Invention ' (of the Cross), its commemoration and ceremonies of the festival, 412 and to. Invocation of the Logos, in Sarapion's Prayer-book, 53 Invocation of Saints, in Litany of ' Stowe Missal,' 92 Irenaeus, St., traces of Paschal Feast in, 63 ; his connexion with GaUican Church, 85 ; on Isaiah, lx. 17, 119 io. ; uses Bishop and Presbyter as interchangeable terms, 127-8 and to., 133 to. ; on ApostoUc succession, 145 ; on Tatian, 148 to. ; on the ' charisma veritatis,' 149-50; on the preach ing of Bishops, 164 ; on the Coming of the ' Word of God ' in the Eucharist, 314 to. ; on St. Polycarp's observance of Easter, 354 and to., 355 to. ; his wise maxim in reply to Pope Victor's action regarding the time of Pascha, 357-8 ; on Pentecost, 365 to. ; on length of our Lord's Ministry, 397 ; commemoration of, 438 Ischyrion, 'libel' against Dioscorus, no reference to incense in, 325 Iselin,L. E., Arabic 'TwoWays,'440 Isidore (of Seville), referred to, 85; 'De Officiis,' referred to, 211 to. ; on Palm Sunday, 370 ; on the ' Mandatum,' 373-4 'Ius Liturgicum,' early history and modern use of, 169-171 INDEX 46? JACOBITES Jacobites (Syrian Monophysites), 280 and to. ; Coptic Liturgy of, referred to, on use of incense, 324 James, St. (brother of John), his festival at first on 27 December, 403-4 ; on 25 July in Sacra mentary of Hadrian, 404 to. James, St. , traces of Church regula tions in his Epistle, 13 ; use of term ' synagogue ' for Christian assembly, 116 ; first Bishop, 121, 124 ; question of Aramaic origi nal of Epistle, 193 and to. ; expectations of the Second Advent, 313 to. ; Liturgy ascribed to, 313 to. Jeremiah, prophesies women's work in Christian dispensation, 257 and to. Jerome, St., more powerful at Bethlehem than at Rome, 107 ; on election of Bishops at Alex andria, 135-6 and n. ; on the equal authority of all Bishops, 150 ; on number of Deacons at Rome, 152 n. ; uses title Arch deacon, 162 to. ; referred to, 175 n. ; on St. Peter's Epistles, 193 ; epigram on asceticism, 209 to. ; on 1 Tim. iii. 2, 215 to. ; works and teaching dealing with clerical celibacy and marriage, 220 to., 222 n., 223, 227-8, 243 to. ; disappointed of the Papacy, 228 ; to Furia, 264 to. ; on the dress of Widows, 266 to. ; on the house of MarceUa, a sort of domestic church, 266 and to. ; on meaning of Parable of Sower, 267 to. ; on Virgins, 284 ; on the dedication of Asella to virginity at 10 years old, 285-6 ; views on marriages contracted by Virgins, 291-2 and to. ; on veiling, 296-7 and to. ; on Jewish expectation of Elijah, 313 to. ; on Eucharistic invocation, 314 to. ; on Hippo lytus's opinion about daily Eu charists and fast days, 327 to., 332 and to. ; on daUy Eucharist in Rome and Spain, 333 ; his connexion with Bethlehem, 347 and to. ; on the absolution of Fabiola on Maundy Thursday, 374 Jerusalem, Church of, its Liturgy in St. CyrU's Lectures, 68 ; alter nately influenced by Syria and Egypt, 106 ; its oecumenical im portance, 106 ; Anglican repre sentation in the Holy City, 107 ; first local Bishopric, 121, 124 ; several Bishops at, in modern times, 177 ; Easter Vigil and Eucharist at 1 a.m. still retained by, 317 to. ; observance of Wed nesday and Friday at, 329 and to. ; trace of a daily Eucharist at, 306-7, 331-2; 'see 'PUgrimage of Silvia ' Jerusalem, Synod of, a.d. 1672, cause of barrier between Anglican and Eastern Churches, 107 Jerusalem, taking of, frees the mind of Christians, 14, 314, 315 Jesse, Bishop of Amiens, 76, 78 Jewel, Bishop, a celibate, 183 ; on clerical marriage, 214 to., 220, 243 to. ; on the adoration of the Cross, 379 John Baptist, St., commemorated, 65 ; model for Anchorites, 207, 210; festival in Nestorian Kal., 407 ; his Nativity kept in the West, 409 ; first alluded to by St. Augustine, 409 and to. ; pagan customs on Midsummer Day, 410 ; St. Augustine's mystical comment, 410 John the Evangelist, St., i. 17, 'grace and truth,' to be sought for in part in Church organisa tion, 109 f . ; 'My Kingdom is not of this world,' xviii. 36, 110 and to. ; his labours in Asia Minor, 124 and to. ; rebukes Diotrephes, 143 ; notes of inter pretation in Gospel possibly glosses by Readers, 188 ; uses reckoning 'day and night,' 305 and to. ; his Apocalypse prob. an inspiration during the Divine Mysteries on Sunday, 306 to. ; observance of Easter traced to, 354 ; festival on 27 December h h 2 468 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE originally combined with St. James, 403-4 and to. ; but only St. John in Roman books, 404-5 and to. ; festival of, before the Latin Gate, 418-9 John of Crema, Papal Legate in England, his scandalous conduct, 233 to. John, Bishop of Jerusalem, conflict with Epiphanius, 175 and to. John of Ludegna, on the case for celibacy, 213 to. Josephus, on the Essenes, 306 to., 310 Judaism, influence on Church organisation, 115 f. : synagogues the nurseries of infant Churches, 115 ; term ' synagogue ' applied to Christian assembly, 116 ; ideas of priesthood and sacrifice, 116 ; danger arising from, 117 ; con stitution of synagogue, 117-8 ; its parallel in early Church, 118 f. ; the position of Reader, 187 and to. ; as to Music, 199 and to. ; influence of its laws of uncleanness on question of clerical celibacy, 241-4 toto. ; Jewish con ceptions explain many details of Christian worship, 304 ff. ; the beginning of the day at sunset, 304-5 ; the Sunday ser vice grew out of that of Sabbath evening, 305 f. ; influence of Synagogue hours of prayer, 310 Julian, Emperor, at one time a Reader, 187 to. ; roused by Christian Hospitals, 196 ; his reaction indirectly strengthens Christian life, 339 ; keeps festival of Epiphany, 400 and to. Justin Martyr, 134 n. ; one of the 'Teachers,' 148; mentions Readers in account of Liturgy, 188 ; on Polygamy among Jews, 215 to. ; mention of Virgins, 283 to. ; on hour for Eucharist, 317 to. ; on the fire at our Lord's Baptism, 383 ; his commemora tion, 438 Justinian, Emperor, legislation ad verse to married clergy, 224 ; laws on concubinage, 249 to. ; law on daily services, 351 Juvenal, on lax Roman practice regarding Marriage and Divorce, 218 and to. Kalendar of Festivals, 63-67 ; earliest traces of, 63-4 ; Roman, Syriac, Gallican, 64 ; Cartha ginian, Gothic, 65 ; first half of 3rd century important for, 144 ; history of the different methods for finding Easter, 353-64 ; in fluence of powerful Churches, 420 ; suggestions for future re form of English, 421-5 ; materials for a Kalendar, 426-37 Kimmel, 107 to. Kings, Christian, their privileges, 44 Kingsbury, T. L., ix. 9 ; on expec tations of Messiah, 313 n. Kneeling, of clergy at Ordination, 62 Kraus, Encyckl., on preaching at Rome, 165 n. ; referred to, 198, 199 toto. ; on 'subintroductae,' 220 to. ; on Widows, 264 to. ; criticism of Bingham, 292 n. ; on veils of Virgins, 296 to. ; on standing at Ordination, 296 to. ; theory con necting the Hallel Psalms and the Eucharist, 308-9 ; on use of incense, 326 ; on 27 December, 404 to. ; on Natale Petri de Cathedra, 416 Krieg, Dr., a Roman view of use of Incense, 326 Labbe, ' Concilia,' referred to, 209 to., 212 to., 213-4 to. ; letter of Pope Siricius, 227 to. ; on 4th Lateran CouncU, 244 to. ; on Ischyrion's supposed reference to incense at Chalcedon, 325 Lacy, Bishop, 'Pontifical,' 390 to. Lagarde, 25, 29, 33 ; ' Didascalia,' 35 ; ' Syrian Octateuch,' 47 ; re ferred to, 120, 124 ; on ' Apost. Const.,' 313 to., 440 Langen, Joseph, 60 to., 123 to. ; referred to, 130 to. , 131 to. Langton, Archbishop Stephen, de- INDEX 469 cree of a.d. 1222 on clerical celibacy, 234 and to. Laodicea, CouncU of, referred to, 166 to., 184 to., 197, 330 and to. Lasso, Orlando, 200 Lateran Council, the fourth, a.d. 1215, rule of Communion, 334 Lauchert, Fr., 42 to. Laurence, St., Deacon of Rome, said by St. Ambrose to have ' consecrated ' the Chalice, 159 and 381 ; called ' Archdeacon ' by St. Augustine, 162 to. ; com memorated, 420 Lawlor, Dr., his ingenious recon struction of fragment in ' Book of Mulling,' 94-5 Laymen, might baptise in cases of necessity, 161 ; encouraged to hear deathbed confessions in ab sence of a priest, 162 to. ; tradi tion as to their preaching with Bishop's permission, 163 ; case of Origen, 164 Lea, Henry O, on sacerdotal ceU- bacy, 214 to., 237 and to., 239 to., 241 to., 246 to. Lectionary of Luxeuil, 79 Lenten Fast, of 40 days before the Passion in Edessene Canons, 44 ; Thursdays in Lent to be ob served, 74 ; Roman length of fast adopted at Alexandria, 104 ; originally a fast of 40 hours, 365 ; period of 40 days first men tioned in Canon of Nicaea, 365 ; intended as a preparation of penitents and catechumens for Easter, 366 ; growth of obser vance traced in Festal Letters of St. Athanasius, 366-7 ; fast of three weeks at Rome, temp. Soc rates, 367 and to. ; variation in length elsewhere, 368 ; addition of four days before 1st Sunday in Lent, 368 ; addition of three preparatory weeks, 369 ; in MUan and Gaul, 369 and to. ; in Roman West observed with Eucharistic celebrations, but non- liturgical services in East, 370 Leo, St., one of the few great preachers produced at Rome, LIBERATUS 165 ; tries to force celibacy on Subdeacons, 181 to., 228 to. ; his ambition for the Church, 245 ; fixes age for Virgins at 40 in 'Liber PontificaUs,' 289 and to. and 295 ; on ' praevaricatio ' of Virgins, 294-5 ; sermons on Epiphany, 401 and to. ; sermon on Maccabees, 414-5 ; commemo ration of, 438 Leo III., Pope, adopts observance of Rogation Days at Rome, 365 Leo XIII. (v. ' Apostolicae Curae'), on teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas, 380 Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, on clerical remarriage, 220 to. ; two laws of, respecting marriage o priests, 226 ; on concubinage, 249 to. 'Leofric Missal,' a Gregorian Sa. cramentary from Lotharingia : short account of Leofric and the Missal, 99, 100 ' Leonine Sacramentary,' its date and curious features, 73 ; Collect and Eucharistia for consecration of Virgins, 297 ; defective inHoly Week services, 380 ; on 27 De cember, 404 to. ; on the Inno cents' Day, 405 Leontius, Arian Bishop of Antioch, censured for aUovring Deacon to preach, 166 ; introduces daily service with antiphonal singing, 341 and to. Le Plat, ' Monumenta,' referred to on Emperor's letters to CouncU of Trent, 240 to. Lessons, in Celtic offices for Sick, 95-6 ; no mention of in Celtic ' Hours,' 98 ; used in offices of Egyptian monks, 341 ; not in Syrian offices, 343, 346 ' Liber Hymnorum ' (Irish), 89 to. ; short account of, 93 m. and 94 ' Liber Pontificalis,' on institution of parishes by Dionysius, 180 to. ; on age for Virgins, 289 and to., 295 ; doubtful lists of Constan tine's gifts, 325 ; Easter to be kept on Sunday, 355 to. Liberatus, strange story about the 470 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE LIBERIAN dead Bishop's hand at Alexan dria, 137 and to. Liberian Catalogue of the Popes, a Kalendar of Christian Com memorations, 397 to. Liberius, Pope, public profession of Marcellina as Virgin by, 287, 293 Lightfoot, J. B., 126 to., 135 to., 137 to., 208 to. ; on Jewish mar riage ideas, 216 to. ; on the ' Brethren of our Lord,' 216 and to. ; on the ' Essenes,' 217 and to. ; on Deaconesses, 261-2 and to. ; on two letters wrongly as cribed to Clement of Rome, 283 TO. Liguori, A. di, referred to on laws about celibacy, 214 to., 244 to. Litany, the Greater, 77 ; in MUan- ese Liturgy, 87 ; in Celtic day Hours, 98 ; perhaps suggested by refrain of Ps. 136, 309 ; or ' Commemoration,' 323 ; in Eas ter Liturgy (Roman rite), 389 Liturgies, 67-100 ; v. also Eu charist ; Eastern (Brightman's List), 69-71; Western, list of authorities on, 72 ; Roman, 73- 78; Gallican, 78-85; Milanese, 85-89 ; Roman and Gallican contrasted, 88 ; Celtic. 89-98 ; Anglo-Saxon, 98-100 Loudon, two Synods of, under Anselm : decrees on celibacy, 233; Council of a.d. 1200, on clerical celibacy, 234 Lord's Prayer (The), in connexion with daily Eucharist, 3''2and to. ; use of, in Mass of the Presancti fied, 380 ; this use commented on, 382 Louis, Emperor, 211 Lucar, CyrU, 107 to. Ludolf, Job, 24, 167 to., 277 to. Luke, St., iv. 20, 164 ; iv. 16, 187 and to. ; xviii. 29, 30, 207 «. ; varies in usage of reckoning the day, 305 and to. Lumby, Dr. , 172 Lunn, R., Art. on Organs, 199 to. Lupercalia, observance of in Galli can Kalendar, 65 MARCIONITES Lupton, J. H., 60 to. Lyndhurst, Lord, Act of 1835 on Marriages, 236 Lyndwood, on the use of term ' sister ' for priest's wife, 221 to. ; on Archbishop Langton 's decree on celibacy, 234 and to. Mabillon, John, 'Ordines Romani,' 76, 130 to., 380 to., 381 to. ; Lit. Gall., 78, 79 ; prayer for Virgins, 300 to. Maccabees, commemorated, 65 ; universally about end of 4th century, 413-4 ; sermons in honour of, 414 ; date (1 August) chosen possibly in order to sup plant feast of Bacchus, 414 Maclean, Dean, 32 Magistretti, Dr. M., 82 to. ; his valuable account of Milanese daily offices, 88 and 89 to. ; on ' Notarii ' at Milan, 183 and to. ; on St. Ambrose's allusion to incense, 325 to. 'Magnificat,' a prophecy of the tendency leading to the Ministry of Women, 257 Majorian, Emperor, law fixing age for Virgins at 40, 289 Mamertus, Bishop, introduced observance of Rogation Days, 365 Mandatum, see Maundy Thursday Maphorion, or veil, for a deaconess, 280 ; for Virgins, 295 and to. ; sometimes called ' flammeum,' 295-6 ; ceremony of veiling, 296 f. ' Maranatha,' Eucharistic watch word, 313 and ¦«,. MarceUa, her house on Aventine, a domestic church, not a com munity, 266 and to. Marcellina, probably earliest in stance of public profession of Virginity (by Liberius), 287, 293, 297 ; sister -of St. Ambrose, 293 Marcianus, Bp. of Aries, Cyprian's letter urging his excommunica tion, 174 Marcionites, 218, 329, 331 INDEX 471 MARCUS Marcus AureUus, a noble example in married life, 218 Margaret, St. (of Scotland), sug gested addition to English Kalendar, 423 Mark, St., 134, 135, 137 to., 193 ; Gospel according to, xiii. 14, 188 ; uses reckoning ' night and day,' 305 and to. ; authority for Friday fast (ii. 20), 328 Marquardt, J., on Roman marriage ideas, 218 m. Marriage, St. Paul's advice on, 210 ; Jewish and Christian ideas about, 216 ; lax views prevalent in heathen world, esp. at Rome, 217, 218 and ra. Marriage (of Clergy), authorities on, 214 to. ; of Bishops and Dea cons, St. Paul's words ' husband of one wife' explained, 215 and to. ; reasons for clerical, 215-6 ; remarkable law of a.d. 410 respecting, 223 and n. ; line taken in ' Ap. Const.' and ' Ap. Canons,' 223 ; laws of Justinian adverse to, 224 ; general reflec tions upon, 226-7 ; pre-Refor- mation clergy in England frequently married, 230 ; per mission for country clergy to retain wives, Council of Win chester, 232 and to. ; another decree of Winchester makes blessing of priest part of legiti mate marriage, 233 ; married clergy deprived, 233 ; Stephen Langton's decree and its effects, 234 ; papal policy regarding dispensations, 234-5 ; distin guished clerical families in England during Middle Ages, 235-6 and ™. ; legaUy vahd in England, if properly performed, unless voided in Bishop's court, 236 ; married clergy probably not interfered with, 236-7 ; even more numerous in Wales and Scotland, 237-8 ; source of in come to certain bishops, 238 and to. ; assertion of legality in Germany, 239 ; Cranmer's mar riages and his dispensations to MARTYRS others, 239 ; severe enactments in 1539, 239; repealed 1548, 240 ; under Mary and Elizabeth and James I. , 240 ; permitted by Art. xxxii., 240; action of Council of Trent, 240-1 ; reason able tendencies and teaching in the Latin Church, 242 f. ; diffi culties of silencing a married clergy, 245 ; legislation of Middle Ages in regard to suc cession to benefices, 246-7 ; ' forbidding to marry ' a sign of false doctrine, 251 f. ; and prac ticaUy a disadvantage to the Church, 253 ; Roman concessions to Uniate clergy, 255 ; our Lord's teaching about, 258 ; blessing probably given to wives of married men at ordination, 275-6 and to. Martene, Edm., 72, 99; assertion re garding efficacy of co-operation of assistant- bishops in conse crating, 168 ; referred to, 181 and to., 190 to. ; on bilingual services, 194 ; meagre list of benedictions of Widows, 268 to. ; references in, for Imposition of Hands on Virgins, 286 to. ; on St. BasU's rules for Virgins, 289- 90 ra. ; reference to ' Ordines ' containing Consecration of Vir gins, 299 ; on Good Friday fast, 357 m. ; on hymn for Palm Sunday, 371 ; on the feet- washing on Maundy Thursday, 373 ; on the New Fire, 384 and to. ; 385-6 ; on the blessing of Paschal Lamb, 390 and to. ; on Epiphany, 401 to. ; on 27 De cember, 404 ; on the customs of 27 and 28 December, 405-6 ; on the Purification, 408 ; on the 'Assumptio,' 409 ; on the prayers for the Invention of the Cross, 412 Martyrologies, 66-7 Martyrs, Commemorations of, 37, 44 ; ' natales ' and ' depositiones ' at first local only, 64 ; St. Lau rence, 73 ; aU-night vigils kept, 317 to. ; at first in places where 472 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE they died and were buried, 419 ; earliest instance, St. Polycarp at Smyrna, 419-420; St. Cyprian extends these commemora tions, 420 ; powerful Churches thus influenced general Kalendar of the Church, 420 Mary of Magdala, 258-9 and to. ' Matricula,' Church roll, 265 Matthew, St., the Gospel according to, xxiv. 15, 188 ; remark of Papias about, 188 ; xix. 21, xvi. 24, xix. 12, 206 ; xix. 29, 207 and n. ; xix. 11, 210 to. Maude, J. H., on history of Book of Common Prayer, 339-41 and toto. ; 351 Maundy Thursday, Evening Com munion in African Church up to time of St. Augustine, 371 ; exception to rule of fasting Com munion revoked by TruUan Council, 372 ; at Jerusalem Liturgy at 4 p.m. in Chapel on Golgotha, 372 ; remarkable say ing of the ' Testament ' on the Eucharistic offering, 372 ; a lamp offered, 373 ; Catechumens re cite Creed od, 373 ; bathing and washing of the feet, 371, 373 washing of altars &c, 373-4 origin of name Maundy, 373-4 public absolution of penitents on, 374 ; holy oils consecrated in preparation for Easter Eve Baptism and Confirmation, 374 ; administration of Chalice by Deacon to Bishop in Gregorian Sacramentary, 375 Maurice, F. D., on our Lord's Ministry, 110 ' Maxims of Nicene Synod,' no claim to title, 55 ; its contents summarised, 55 Mayo, C. H., 407 Meals, in common among early Christians : simple services at, 306 and to., 310 Menard, Hugh, 75 ; on the blessing of the Font with the Paschal Taper, 388-9 Methodius, Bishop, Hymn for Vir- monachism gins, 284 ; on the services of a vigil, 340 to. Metonic Cycle, 360 to. ; used at Alexandria, 361-2 Meyer, Paul, on concubinage, 249 to. Michael, St., festival of, its origin, 412-13 and to. ' Micrologus,' on Alcuin, 300 to. Milan, Church of, its liturgy, 85-89 ; Duchesne's theory about its origin and influence, 85-6 ; compared with Pontic fragments and GaUican Liturgies, 87 ; Pon tifical referred to, 181 to. ; neither Subdeacons nor Acolytes men tioned by St. Ambrose, 183 ; clergy aUowed to marry up to late date, 229 and to. ; attack of Alexander II. and Damiani on, 229 and to. ; observance of Satur day in, 330, 331 and to. ; daily offices introduced in, 341, 347 ; does not begin Lent on Ash Wednesday, 369 ; milk and honey given to confirmed, 29 Milman, Dean H. H., ' L. Con Gregory VII.'s action enforcing celibacy of clergy, 231-2 toto. Minor Orders, extended in first half of third century, 144, Chap. III., 178 f. ; at Rome a.d. 251, 179 Minucius FeUx, mention of Virgins, 283 to. 'Missale Francorum,' generally Roman in character, 74, 180 n., 181 to. ; prayers for a Widow, 267 ; rite for consecration of Virgins, 299 f. ; resemblance of this to baptismal rite, 300 ' Missale Gallicanum Vetus,' amere fragment, 79 ; rite for Consecra tion of Virgins, 299, 300 to. 'Missale Gothicum' (of Autun), short account of, 78-9 Mithras, festival of, coincidence with Christmas, 397 MogUas, Peter, of Kieff, 107 to. Mommsen, Professor, referred to, 64 ; on the PhUocalian Kalen dars, 397 to. Monachism v. Asceticism, Monks : INDEX 473 MONE adopted by Rome from Alex andria, 104 ; ideal of, 207 ; en dowment of, 212 ; able outline of, by Dom C. Butler, 213 ; Egyptian, 219 n. ; legislation in regard to en dowments, 247 and ra. ; less bene ficial among men than women, 263-4 ; keeps up emotional tradi tion of early age, 315 Mone, Masses pubUshed by, 79 Monks, consecration of, 62 ; v. Asceticism, Celibacy, Mona chism; choir-monks ordered to be priests, 212 and to. ; their daUy offices in Egypt, 341 ; the ' SoUtaries' take part in daily offices at Jerusalem, 348 ff. Montanists, characteristics of, 30 ; their influence on Church dis cipline, 35 ; influence in Africa, 104-5 : allowed women to preach, 163 ; ideas on celibacy, 218 ; capture TertuUian, 218 ; influ ence seen in 'Ap. Ch. Order' and ' Testament of our Lord,' 270, 272 to., 274 ; an emotional reaction, 315 ; their fast of a fort night, 368 ; observed 6 April as the Passover, 399 Morin, Dom Germain, on Dionysius Alex., 23 Morinus, ' Episcopi et presbyteri una ordinatio,' 136 Mozarabic Liturgy, Gallican in origin, stiU used at Toledo, 85 ; reference to symbolism of fire at Easter services, 385 Muratori, 75, 93 Music (sacred), its use, primitive, 197 ; aUusion to in N. T., 197 ; in Pliny and in St. Ignatius, 197 ; bodies of Psaltae not mentioned till fourth century, 197-8 ; instrumental not admitted in East and rare in West in early ages, 198 ; reasons for this, 198-9 ; history of introduction of the organ, 199-201 ; disap pearance of bands of church musicians, 201 ; singing of the Psalms &c, 201-5 ; use of, com pared with use of incense, 325-6 Mystagogic instruction, 31, 41 OECUMENIUS Neale, J. M., 93 ; on Eastern Epiphany, 402 to. Nehemiah, viii. 7 f., 193 ; ix. 4, 193 Nennius, on King Arthur, 378 Neo-Caesarea, Council of, 140 and to. ; on number of Deacons in a city, 152 to. ; on age for Presbyters, 153 ; on Subdeacons, 184 to. ; against clerical remar riage, 220 to. Nesbitt, A., 161 to. New Fire : see Easter Eve New Year, heathen carnival at, 407 ; mask or ' ooser ' found, 407 Nicaea, Council of, a.d. 325 ; canon repressing Deacons, 166 to. ; canon prescribing three Bishops to co operate in consecrating a Bishop, 167 and to. ; in regard to clerical celibacy, 221 to. ; protest of Paph nutius, 222 and to. ; on Paulia nist Deaconesses, 278 and to. ; on the Paschal question, 362 ; on forty days of Lent, 365 Nicaea, second Council of, distin guishes between kinds of adora tion, 379 Nicetas, Bishop, probable author of 'De Lapsu Virginis,' 290-1 and to. ; 297 Nicholas I., Pope, on Widows, 267 Nimes, Councils of : a.d. 394, con demns ' levitical ministry ' of women, 277 and to. ; a.d. 1072, on celibacy of clergy, 212 to. Ninian, St., suggested addition to English Kalendar, 423 Nointel, Marquis de, 107 to. Norwich, Bishop's seat at, 154 Notarii, at Milan, possibly the same as Subdeacons and Acolytes, 183 Novatian schism, 131, 141 and n., 174 'Nunc Dimittis,' said in Sunset offices of Syrian Church, 343 ' Nuntius congregationis,' 118 to. Oecumenius, on 1 Tim. iii. 2, 215 n. 474 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE OFFERTORY ' Offertory,' introduced into Liturgy in 4th century, 389 Oil, to be brought to altar at time of holy offering (' Ap. Can. ') 323-4 and to. O'Laverty, J. , 93 to. Old Catholics, 177 ; their attitude on clerical celibacy, 183 Old Testament Saints, commemo rated in Greek Kalendar, 425 Olympias, a widow, friend of St. Chrysostom, 266, 276 ' Orarium ' (stole), Deaconess vested in, 280 ' Ordinal,' English (Preface to), 124 Ordination, forms of : see Bishop, Presbyter, Deacon, Subdeacon, &c. ; also Pontifical, Sarapion, Gallican Statutes Ordination, the Charisma of, what it is and is not, 254-5 ' Ordines of St. Amand,' list of contents, 77 ; on Good Friday services, 376 ra. ' Ordines Romani,' contents of the more important, 76-7 ; referred to, 130 to. ; on clerical degeneracy of 9th to 12th centuries, 229 to. ; on the consecration of Virgins, 299 ; on Archdeacon ministering the Cup to the Pope, 159 and to., 160 and to. ; on other duties of Deacons, 160 and toto. ; on ordi nation of Subdeacons. 180-1 to. ; on admission of Acolytes, 185 and to. ; on the Procession after an Ordination, 275-6 to.; on Mass of the Presanctified, 380 ra. ' Ordo,' name given to CouncU of Presbyters, 154 Organisation, Church, growth of, connected with growth of dogma, 101-2, 110 ; implied by our Lord, 110 f. ; moral reasons for, 113 ; points to be traced in Acts and Epistles, 113-4; follows lines of civil divisions, national and provincial, 114-5 ; how far moulded by Judaism and Heathenism, 115 f. ; systems have to be administered by papal fallible men, 143 ; consequent dangers, 143-4 ; first half of 3rd century an important period for, 144 Organs, use of in church, 199-201; pre-Christian, 199 ; in Western Church temp. Pope Vitalian, 200 ; gradual introduction of, traced, 200-1 ; generally in con ventual churches, 200 ; not ad mitted into papal chapel, 201 ; opposition of Calvinists to, 201 and to. Origen, invited to preach while stUl only a Catechist, 164 ; irregular ordination of, 175 and to. ; his teaching on celibacy, 243 and to. ; on fasting days, 327 and to. ; on ' this day ' in Lord's Prayer, 332 to. ; on the use of term 'Pentecost,' 356, 365 to. Orleans, third Council of, a.d. 538; Eucharist to be at ' third hour,' 318-9 to. ; Council, a.d. 541, on duration of Lent, 369 to. Orpheus, used as a symbol of Christ, 198 and to. Osmund, St., his commemoration, 425 Ostiaru, duties of , 161 ; at Rome, 179 ; admission of, 192 Palestrina, did not compose for the organ, 201 PaUavicini, Cardinal, his speech before Pius VII. on celibacy of clergy, referred to, 232 to. , 240 to. Palm Sunday, its observance derived from Palestine, 370 ; witness of the 'Pilgrimage of SUvia,' 370 ; first mentioned in West by Isidore of Seville (7th century), 370 ; blessing of palms and procession found in books of 8th and 9th centuries, 370-1 ; hymn for, composed by Theodulf, 371 Palmer, Edwin, 28 Pantheon, dedicated as a Christian church : hence Festival of AU Saints, 420 Papal Claims, fostered by devotions INDEX 475 paphnutius to reUcs, 151 ; a fatal declension, 151 Paphnutius (Bubalus), Abbat, sup posed instance of non-episcopal ordination by, 141 to. Paphnutius, Bishop, Monk at CouncU of Nicaea, protests against enforced clerical celi bacy, 222 and to. Papias, remark on interpretation of St. Matthew's Gospel, 188 Parabolani, tend the sick during pestilence, 196 ; popular and factious organisation of, repressed by law, 196 ; superseded by Hospitals, 196 Parker, Archbishop, consecration of, 168 and to. ; buUds organ for Canterbury, 201 ; supplements Poynet's work, 'A Defence of Priestes Mariages,' 214 ra. ; on the reception of deurees of Gregory VII. in England, 232 to. ; on Boniface of Savoy, 235 to. ; on married clergy before Refor mation, 236 ; quoted on the 1 Articles of the Devon Rebels,' 334 ' Parochia,' early uses of the word, 145 Parochial System, first organised at Alexandria, 137-8 ; first germ of, 157 'Pascha,' for three centuries used of Good Friday fast, not Easter, 355 ; popular etymology of, 356 and to. ; on the time for ob serving, 356 ff. ; treatise ' De Pascha Computus,' 361 ; change in use of term accounts for Paschal controversy in British Church, 363 Paschal Lamb, blessing of, a Western ceremony of Easter day, 390 and to. ; attacked by the Greeks, 390 Paschal Taper or Lamp, the cere mony connected with Easter Eve Baptism, 386 ; Spanish and GaUican in origin, thence adopted in Rome, 386-7 ; im portance of the 'Exultet ' Rolls and their symbolism, 387-8 ; meaning of the ceremony, 388-9 Paschal II. , letter to Anselm dis pensing with law against sons of clergy being promoted, 233-4 Passaglia, his attempt to reconcile Papacy and kingdom of Italy, 245 Passion (of our Lord), observed in ' Syriac Didascalia,' 37 ; dated 25 March in Gallican Kalendar, 65 ; called ' Pascha ' in first three centuries, 355 and to. ; reason assigned for the fast, 355 ; the right refectio for, 357 to. ; date of, fixed by Hippolytus, 361 Patrick, St., usage of, 91 ; hymn in his honour, 93 ; his com memoration ought to be in English Kalendar, 423 Paul, St., perplexing use of terms Bishop and Presbyter, 118-9 and to. ; rebukes Corinthian schisms, 143 ; ordination by Prophets and Teachers, 131 and 147 ; election by Holy Spirit, 146 ; ordains Timothy, 147 ; Bpeaks of charismatic ministry as a transitory gift, 148-9 ; devotion to relics of, 151 ; on asceticism and marriage, 209-10, 1 Cor. vii., 210 to., 242, 252, 287, 290 ; 1 Cor. ix. 5, 220 to. and 254 ra. ; 1 Cor. x. 13, 241 to. ; on marriage of Bishops and Deacons, 215 and to. ; 1 Tim. iii. 1, 253 ; 1 Tim. iv. 3, 251-2 ; 1 Tim. v. 14, 252 ; on Ministry of Women, 260-3 ; uses reckon ing 'night and day,' 305 and to. ; on Sunday celebration of H. C. , 306 to. ; 1 Cor. xi. 26, 313 ; ' Maranatha ' and cf. Phil. iv. 3, 313 ; possible reference to an observance of Easter, 354 ; a festival on 28 December, 403 ; on 29 June, 404-5, 416 ; in Nestorian Kalendar, 407 ; Com memoration also on 1 August, probably a later addition, 414-5 ; note on 29 June, 438 Paul of Samosata, accusation against, 221 ra. 476 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE Paul IV., Pope, 418 Paulinianus, brother of St. Jerome, case of his ordination, 175 and to. Paulinus, of Nola, on the multi plication of relics of the True Cross, 377-8 Paulus, founder of Egyptian monachism, 209 to. Pazzi, stone brought by one of this family from Jerusalem, used for ceremony of the New Fire at Florence, 385 Pearson, Bishop, ' Vind. Ignat.' referred to, 154 and to. ; on the perpetual virginity of the Blessed Virgin, 216 to. Peckham, Archbishop, on the Welsh clergy, 237 Pelliccia, A. A. , 9-10 Pentecost, identified with day of the Ascension in Edessene Canons, 43 ; the gift of tongues in, 43, 63 ; its incidents pro phetic of national organisation of Christendom, 114 ; the term used of whole Easter season, 356 ; rule against kneeling during, 365 and to. Perpetua, St., commemoration of, in Philocalian Kal., 398 Peter, St., relations with St. Mark, 134 ; warning to Presby ters, 143 ; himself a fellow-Pres byter, 151 ; devotion to relics of, 151 ; his interpreters, 193 ; dtf- ference between his two Epistles accounted for, 193 ; supposed by Roman Church to have left his wife, 254 to. ; a festival on 28 Dec, 403 ; on 29 June, 404-5 ; in Nestorian Kal., 407 ; festival of ' ad Vincula,' its origin and his tory, 414-6 ; festival called Natale Petri de Cathedra, its origin and history, 416-18 ; probably intended to supplant the ' Caristia ' in which Augustus was commemorated as founder of Roman State, 417 ; remains of festival of Terminalia traced in this observance, 418 ; note on commemoration, 29 June, 438 Peter (of Alexandria), on fasting days, 327 and to., 328 to. Peterborough, commemoration of benefactors at, 421 to. Philip and James, SS., origin of festival, 418 Philip the Deacon, 147, 161 PhiUp, Bishop of Heraclea, mar tyred a.d. 304, 400 Philo, on the Essenes, 217 PhUocalus, Kalendars of, 393, 397 and to. ; entry for 25 December different in his heathen Kal endar from that in his Christian Kalendar, 398 ; other entries, 398 'PUgrimage of Silvia,' its dis covery and contents, 57, 165 to. ; mentions interpreting at Jerusa lem, 195 to. ; on use of incense at Sunday worship in Anastasis, 323 ; on observance of Wednes day and Friday at Jerusalem, 329 n. ; on daily offices, 344 ; her witness to the services at Jerusalem, 348-50 ; on Palm Sunday, 370 ; on the Maundy Thursday Liturgy, 372 ; on Na tivity festival at Jerusalem (6 Jan.), 401 ; mention of the ' Quadragesima Epiphaniae,'408 ; on Holy Cross Day, 411 and to. Pinytus of Gnossus, pushes rule of celibacy, 222 Pipin, King of France, receives present of an organ, 200 Pisa, one Lenten course the only preaching in 1868 at, 165 to. Pius I., Bishop of Rome, e. a.d. 140, 126 ; the Presidency of College of Presbyters at Rome more important from his time, 127, 131 to. ; referred to an Easter observance, 355 to. Pius IV., Creed of, its acceptance by Roman clergy at ordination, 182 and to. ; action in regard to clerical marriages, 240-1 Pius IX., 245 Pliny, letter to Trajan on Christian worship, 197, 203 ; mentions two ministrae (Deaconesses), 278 Poemen, apophthegm of, 136 INDEX 477 POITIERS Poitiers Pontifical, referred to, 384 to. Pole, Cardinal, on the charisma of ordination, 254 and to. Polemius SUvius, author of a Gal lican Kalendar, 64, 397 n. ; con tains both Christmas and Epi phany, 400 and to. ; on 27 Dec, 404 ; the ' Infantes,' 405 Polycarp, St., date of martyrdom, 64 ; his ministry not merely local, 149 ; his Epistle on duties of Presbyters, 155 ; letter of St. Ignatius to, 208 ; on the observ ance of Easter, 354 ; his martyr dom commemorated, 419-20 ; ought to be in English Kalendar, 423 Pontic books, their importance as a Unk between East and West, 86-7, 105 ; fragments in Bright- man, 71 'Pontifical of Egbert,' contains form of Coronation service, 99 ; referred to, 181 to. ; has variant forms for consecrating Virgins, 301 and to. ; on blessing of Paschal Lamb, 390 to. ' Pontifical, Roman ' : see Ordina tion ; the Presbyters join in or daining Presbyters, 167 and to. ; custom when the Pope ordains, 167 and to., 168 to. , 180-1 to. ; address to Subdeacons the only allusion to clerical celibacy in, 181 f. ; adopts Gallican method of admitting Subdeacons, 180 ; Exorcists, 186 ; and Ostiarii, 192 ; service for blessing Virgins and its late accretions, 298-9 Poore, Herbert andRichard, Bishops of Sarum, members of a clerical famUy, 235 ra., 246-7 Pope, ordination of, limitations in choice of, the 'regnum' or crown, 77 ; in early centuries, 129-30 and to. Population, increase and decrease of, 210 ra. Poynet, Bp. J., defends marriage of Priests, 314 to. Preaching, the peculiar duty of Bishops, 163 and to. ; limitations PRESBYTERS on, owing to Montanist and other heretical abuses, 163 ; case of Origen as instance of laymen per mitted to preach, 163-4 ; Council of Trent on, 163 to. ; Justin and Irenaeus speak only of the Presi dent or Bishop preaching, 164 ; of Presbyters, 164-5 ; behind hand at Rome, 165 ; St. Leo and St. Gregory the only Popes in first six centuries renowned for, 165 ; by Deacons, rare, 166 and to. Presanctified (Mass of the), of late date, 376 and to. ; its ceremonial, 380-82 and toto. Presbytera, in Greek = prioress, in Latin = presbyter's wife, 275 Presbyteresses : see Widows Presbyters, Marriage or Celibacy of, in 'Ap. Ch. O.,' 34 ; legislation regarding, 224-5 ; nullity of their marriages not formally asserted till 12th century, 227 and to. ; Western regulations enforcing celibacy, 227 f. Presbyters, Numbers of, in various cities, 152 ra. ; two in every Church mentioned by some, 153 and toto. Presbyters, Office and Duties of, in ' Eccles. Hier.,' 62 ; how far derived from Synagogue, 118 f. ; uncertain relations to Bishops in earliest times, 118-9 ; College of P. at Rome and its powers, 125-132 ; their Ordo or Council, 154 ; College at Alexandria, its powers and parochial system, 136 f . ; unity of ' sacerdotium ' with Bishops a Western tradition, its possible application in modern times, 142 ; St. Peter's warning, 143 ; admonitions in public wor ship, 147 ; St. Polycarp on, 155 ; in (so-called) second Epistle of Clement, 156 ; share with Bishop in offering the gifts, 156 ; at Baptism and Confirmation, 156 ; delegated and licensed by Bishops (implied by St. Ignatius), 157 ; preaching not easy to trace, 164r-5 ; earlier in East than West (instances), 165 ; forbidden 478 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE PRESBYTERS to consecrate Virgins, 295 to. ; to go round congregation using incense ('Arab. Didasc.'), 324 ; to celebrate Eucharist frequently, 335-9 ; given a prominent part on St. John's Day, 405 Presbyters, Ordinations by, in case of St. Timothy, 147 ; together with Bishop in ' GaU. Stat.,' 58 ; power to ordain not given to P. ('Canons of Hipp.'), 129 ; at Alex andria, powers limited and then lost, 139-141 and toto. ; no valid evidence of later, 141 and to. ; custom of joining Bishop in lay ing on hands, general but not universal, 166-7 and to. ; efficacy of this act considered, 169 Presbyters, Ordination of, Prayer in Sarapion's Book falls short of Leo XIII.'s requirements, 53-4 and n. ; lay on hands with Bishop in 'Gall. Stat.,' 58; unction of hands in Celtic rite, 90 ; rule for in 'Canons of Hippolytus,' 128-9 ; in 'Egyptian Heptateuch,' 128-9 to. ; forms at Rome, 130, 153 to. Presentation of Christ in the Temple, 407-8 Priscilla, 260 Procopius, 194 ' Prophets and Teachers,' at An tioch, 131 ; their charismatic ministry, 147 ; Hermas and second (so-called) Epistle of Clement as examples of their work, 147 ; the Apologists Justin and Tatian as Teachers, 148 Prosper, ' Vita contemplativa,' 211 TO. Provinces (of Church), appeals not to go outside, 133 to. Prudentius, 152 to. Psalmody, early methods congre gational, 201 ; three types of, 201-5 ; Psalms sung between liturgical lections, 203 ; this fell into disuse as the ' Hours ' ser vices were developed, 203 ; use of alternate choirs ascribed to Antioch, 203 ; and thence brought to West by St. Ambrose, 203; people respond to the Minister, an ancient method : its history, 204 ; in East, 205 Psaltae, in 'Cursus Scottorum,' 97 ; bodies of Church singers, in 'Apost. Const.' &c, 197-8 ; con nected with Readers, 198 Psalter, Celtic rules for reciting, 97 ; early use of by Christians, especially at Jerusalem, 307-8 ; first two books of, known as the ' Prayers ' (cf. Acts ii. 42), 308 to. ; Jewish use of Psalms for each day, 308 to. ; theory adapting the Hallel Psalms to the Last Supper and early Liturgies, 308-9 ; Psalms in daily offices in 'Ap. Const.' and at Jerusalem, 342 ff. ; regulations of Western Councils, 351 Public Worship : see Eucharist, Psalmody, Music, Responses ; arrangements for in 'Didascalia,' 36, 38 ; on Sunday, and on Wednesday and Friday after noons, 44; to be daUy, 'A.C.,' 46 ; exhortation to come early, 55 ; reading of homilies after the Scriptures, 147 ; Holy Com munion always on Sundays, 306 ; daily offices at Jerusalem, 306-8 ; hours of, 310 ; all night vigils, 312-4 ; these dropped for most part after Fall of Jerusalem, 314-5 ; Eucharist general in early morning, except on Fast Days, 315-8 ; criticism of Even ing Communion, 318 ; the 'canonical hour' of 9 a.m. ad vocated for England, 318-9 PuUan, L., on daUy offices, 340 to. QjOARTODECIMANS, 358 Rackham, R. B., 30, 140 to. Rahmani, the Patriarch, 29 to. Ratramnus, on daUy Eucharists, 335 and to. Reader, in 'Apostolic CO.,' 34, 35, 147, 153 ra. ; at Rome, 179 ; in 'Apost. CO.' ranks next to Pres byter, 186 ; qualifications for office, 186 and to. ; office honour able and primitive, 187 ; served INDEX 479 RECTORS by our Lord in the Synagogue, 187 ; and by St. Timothy, 187 ; to give traditional explanations of Scripture, 187 ; hence certain glosses now incorporated in the Scriptural text, 187-8 ; as Inter preter in a bilingual Church, 188; as Evangelists, 187-8; in Justin, 188 ; in TertuUian ranks below Deacon, 188 ; also in vari ous Church Orders, 189 and to. ; ranks lower in Cyprian and Cor nelius, 189 ; importance of in Dio cletian's persecution as guardians of the sacred books, 189 and n. ; in Spain and the East, 190 and to. ; tendency to depress the office in West, 190 ; mentioned in Roman Missal in Good Friday services, 190 ; office revived in England, 190-1 ; in certain Church Orders aUowed to read Gospel, 191 to. ; forms of Ordination for, 191 to. ; in Cyprian, 192 Rectors of churches, to send for chrism before Pascha, 59 Remarriage, clerical, 215 to., 220 to. 'Reproaches,' or 'Improperia' in Good Friday service retains traces of bilingualism, 194 ; pro bably Galhcan as weU as Eastern in origin, 377, 380 Resch, ' Agrapha,' 114 to. Reservation of the Blessed Secra- ment, early usages : reserved in the home, 320 and m. ; regarded as an antidote, 320-1 and to. ; suggestions for its restoration, 382 ; three dangers in connexion with, 382 Responses, a method of Psalmody, history of traced, 204 ; curious custom in Eastern Church, 205 ' Responsio Archiepiscoporum An- gliae ' referred to, 130 to. Rich Jones, W. H., 'Reg. of St. Osmund ' referred to, 235 to. Riedel, W., his text of 'Canons of Hippolytus,' 23 to. Rites, development of, coincides with periods of activity in dogma, 101 ; their relative importance, 102, 108, 110 Robert of Jumieges, Missal of, referred to on blessing of Paschal Lamb, 390 to. Robinson, Deaconess CecUia, on Deaconesses, 262 to., 277 to., 278 «., 281 Robinson, Prof. J. A. , on benedic tions of Deaconesses ( 1 Deacons' wives), 276 to. Rogation Days, a late introduction, 365 Roman Church Order : v. ' Canons of Hippolytus ' Roman Kalendars, 64 ; see also Chap. VIII. passim ; influence of, 420 Roman Liturgies, 73-78 ; more rigid line of development than GalUcan, 88 ; incorporate Galli can features without insight, 102; Ordination rites a strange com- pUation, 102 ; adopts ' Hosanna ' in Eucharist from Gaul in 8th century, 313 to.; Good Friday services, 375 f. Roman Missal : v. Canon Missae ; mention of Reader in Good Friday Prophecy, 190 Rome, Church of, has shown greater interest in department of order than of rites, 102 ; its tendency to simplicity in ritual, 102 ; lack of insight in adopting new rites, 102-3 ; balance of advantage and disadvantage in this tendency Ulustrated, 103 ; its connexion with Alexandria, and reciprocal influence of the two, 103-4 ; relations with Africa, 104 ; causes of influence in West, Gaul, England, 105 ; growth of Monarchical Episcopate slow here, 125-132 ; witness of the Epistle ascribed to Clement, 125 and to. ; witness of Ignatius, 126 ; of Hermas, 126 and to. ; heretics at Rome, 127 ; time of Pius important in regard to Presidency of College at Rome, 127 ; succession drawn up by Hegesippus, 127 ; but Irenaeus still (a.d. 180) uses Presbyter and Bishop as interchangeable 480 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE ROSSBACH terms, 127-8 ; rules for Ordina tion of Bishops and Presbyters, 128-9 ; enthronement of Bishop, 129 and to. ; Ordination ' per sal tum,' 130 and to. ; Bishop often chosen from Deacons, 130 ; choice restricted to Roman clergy, 130 to. ; earliest instances of Bishops of other sees being elected to Papacy, 130 to. ; presiding Pres bytery more like a College of Bishops, 130 ; action of Victor, 130 ; peculiar provision relating to Ordination of Bishops by the Pope, 131 ; influence of St. Cyprian's teaching on the status of the Pope, 132 f. ; Hippolytus not an antipope, 132 ; Petrine claims to papal supremacy, how fostered, and fatal results, 151 ; number of Deacons in, 152 ; 36 Presbyters in a.d. 251, 153 and to. ; produces no great preachers, except St. Leo and St. Gregory, 165 and to. ; list of Minor Orders in, a.d. 251, 179 ; same has con tinued to present time, 179 ; importance of Deacons in, 180 ; institution of ' tituli ' ascribed to Dionysius, 180 to. ; Copiatae necessary for the Catacombs, 195 ; teaching on clerical celibacy, Chap. IV. passim ; influence of, in formation of Kalendar of Saints' Days, 420 ; Roman Kal endar adopted in England, 420-1 Rossbach, A., on Roman marriage ideas, 218 to. Rossi, De, referred to, 66, 76, 416 Ruinart, referred to, 64-5, 195 to., 397-8 to., 400 Rundle, T. S., on the hour for the Eucharist, 315 to. Sabbath, to be a feast, ' A.C 46, 94 ; evening service of, grows into Sunday service, 304 ; observance of in fourth century, 306 ; see Saturday Sacramentary of Hadrian : see 'Gre gorian Sacramentary' Sacraments, their number in trea tise on 'Eccles. Hier.,' 61; in SCHOOLMEN our Lord's commission of the Apostles, 112 ; in the Acts and Epistles, 113 Sahre, Rudolf, on Amalarius, 78 St. Petersburg, blessing of waters at, 402 and to. Salisbury, Cathedral possessed two crosses ' cum ligno dominico,' 378 ; commemoration of bene factors at, 421 to. Salmon, Dr., 132 and ra. ; on the Cycle of Hippolytus, 361, 394, 396 and to. Sanchez, ' De Matrimonio,' on laws about celibacy, 214 to. , 256 ' Sancta,' the reserved sacramental bread, 159-60 and ra. ' Sanctus,' one of the oldest parts of Liturgy, 390 Sanday, Dr. Wm., on Creed, 172 Saragossa, Council of, a.d. 380, fixes age for Virgins at 40, 288 ; order of observance of 6 January and the three weeks before it, 400 Sarapion, 'Prayer-book' of, dis covered : its publication and con tents, 52-3, 170 ; mentions In terpreters, 195 and to. ; does not contain ' Hosanna ' in Eucharist, 313 n. ; letter of St. Athanasius to, on Lenten observance, 366-7 Sardica, Council of, 130 to. Sarpi, P., 'History of Council of Trent,' referred to, 240 ' Sarum Manual,' referred to on blessing of Paschal Lamb, 390 to. Saturday, differences as to observ ing in East and West, 329-31 ; in West a fast and non-liturgical, 329 ; in East, in opposition to Marcionites, made a feast, 329 ; observance probably not con tinuous, 330 ; in Milan, Alexan dria, Thebaid, 330; St. Augus tine's influence removes cause of dispute between East and West, 331 and to. Satyrus, carried the reserved Sacra ment when travelling, 321 and n. Schlecht, J. , Latin version of ' Two Ways,' 440 Schoolmen, ignorant of history of INDEX 481 SCHULTE rites, 102 ; their phUosophy about Transubstantiation, 103 Schulte, Von, referred to, 183 «., 232 to. Schiirer, 118 ra. ; on Jewish use of Psalter, 308 ra. ; on hours of Temple worship, 311 m. Scudamore, W. E., 'Diet. Chr. Ant. ' referred to, 160 to. ; 'Not. Euch.' referred to, on ' Hosanna ' and ' Benedictus,' 313 to. ; on hour of celebration, 317 n. ; on the 'canonical hour' of Eucha rist, 318 to. ; on early Reserva tion of Eucharist, 321 to. ; on Communion in one kind, 391 'Scyphus,' or 'calix ministerialis,' 161 TO. Scythopolis, Church at, 194 Secundums, St., his hymn on St. Patrick, 93 Seidl, 161 to. Seneca, on Roman marriage ideas, 218 to. Sepulchre, the Holy, came into Christian hands temp. Constan tine, 310 ; the Easter Eucharist at, 317 to. ; caUed Anastasis, 323 ; use of incense at, 323 ; custom of sharing daily ser vice with church on Sion, 338 ; witness of ' SUvia ' to daUy offices in, 348 ff. ; Maundy Thursday Liturgy in Chapel on Golgotha, 372; the ceremony of the New Fire at, 383-4 Severus (of Antioch), 136 'SUvia,' see 'Pilgrimage of SUvia,' 57 etc. Siricius, Pope, imposes asceticism on clergy, 103, 227-8 and to., 243 to. ; on lapsed Virgins, 294 and ra. ; puts down baptisms at Epiphany ,,- 401 and to. ' Sister,' use of term for a priest's wife, 221 to. Sisterhoods, the value of their work, 301 ; difficulties connected with, 302 ; legislation suggested for, 302-3 Smith, Bernard (Father), buUds organs in England after Restora tion, 201 Smith, Th., ' De Graecae Eccl. hod. Statu,' 190 to. Socrates, 'H. E., 'referred to, 174». ; 203 ; on Communion before midnight in Egypt, 318 to. ; on observance of Saturday at Con stantinople, 330 to. ; and in The baid, 330 to. ; on observance of Easter, 353 ; on the Lenten Fast at Rome, 367 and to. Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem: his prayer on blessing of waters at Epiphany, 402 and to. Sozomen, on preaching not being a custom at Rome, 165 to. ; referred to on date of Passover, 399 and to. ; on festival of St. Mi chael, 413 to. Standing, at the reading of the Gospel, 44 ; of monks at their consecration, 62 ; during Pente costal season, 365 and to. 'Stationem annuntiare,' 160 n. Stations, a name for Wednesday and Friday fasts, 327 to. and 328, 338 'Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua': v. 'Gal lican Statutes' Steindorff, Dr., work on ' Egyptian Church Order,' 25 Stephen, St. , festival of, 33 ; in 'AC.,' 47 ; in Kalendar, 65, 403 f. ; in Nestorian Kal., 407 Stephen, Pope, Cyprian's letter to, urging him to intervene outside his own diocese, 174 Stern, Dr., 116 Stobaeus, on heathen asceticism, 219 to. ; on second marriages, 264 to. Stokes, Whitley, 67 ' Stowe Missal,' 66, 74 ; based on Roman rite, 92 ; its peculiar Litany and memorials, 92 ; has forms for Visitation, Unction, and Communion of Sick, 95-6 Strabo, Walafrid, attacks Western ceremony of blessing Paschal Lamb, 390 Strype, 'Life of Grindal,' referred to, 256 to. Stubbs, Bp. W., on clerical famUies of Middle Ages in England,235 to. II 482 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE SUBDEACONS Subdeacons, Marriage of, laws re specting, 225 ; action of Leo I. and Gregory I. in regard to, 228 and m. ; see also 181-3 Subdeacons, Office and Duties of, mentioned in Edessene Canons, 44 ; at Rome, 161 ; prob. insti tuted by Fabian, 179 ; mentioned by CorneUus and Cyprian, not by TertuUian, 179-80 and to. ; derived from Diaconate, 179-80 ; absence of at MUan, 183 ; later in East, 183 ; terms for and duties assigned to, in East, 184 and toto. ; reckoned among Major Orders since Innocent III., 181 Subdeacons, Ordination of, by ' traditio instrumentorum,' 59 ; by gift of Chalice, 77, 152-3 toto. ; varying forms for, 180 and toto. ; address on celibacy, 181 and to. ; its obligation discussed, 181-3 'Subsellia,' seats of the Presbyters round the apse, 154 ' Summary of Doctrine,' its date and contents, 51-2 ; referred to for date of Eastern Christmas, 400 Sunday, in 'Didascalia, '37; oblation assigned to in Edessene Canons, 44; in 'A.C.,' 47, 63; universal observance of, due to Charismatic Ministry of first age, 148 ; its services grew out of the Jewish service for the Sabbath evening, 304 ; Holy Communion on, uni versal and continuous, 306 ; weekly commemoration of Re surrection, 312 ' Superposition,' extension of Good Friday observances by, 355 Surius, ' Life of Radegund,' referred to, 277 to. Surtees Society, 99 Sutton Bingham, wall painting of Coronation of B.V.M. in the church at, 299 to. Sweden, clergy of, claim privUege to marry in a.d. 1213, 230 Switzerland, civil laws protected wives and children of priests, 230 Symeon, second Bishop of Jeru salem, 124 TESTAMENT Synagogue : v. Judaism ; Christian missionaries still allowed to preach in, 116 ; our Lord as Reader in, 187 ; hours of Prayer, 310 ; indirect influence of, 339 Synesius Bishop of Ptolemais, in stance of a married Bishop, 222 and to., 225 Syriac Kalendar, 64 ' Syrian Octateuch,' 47-8 Tatian, a ' Teacher,' 148 ; an Encratite, 218 Tattam, Henry, 25 ; ed. of ' Egypt. Ch. O.' referred to, 320 to. Taylor, Jeremy, 61 Teachers: see Prophets and Teachers ' Te Deum,' valuable text of, in Bangor Antiphoner and ' Liber Hymnorum,' 94 Temple (at Jerusalem), influence on Christian services, 306, 311 TertuUian, 122 to., use of 'ara' and ' summus sacerdos qui est Episcopus,' 133 and to. ; on position of Readers, 188 ; on the construction of an organ, 199 ; Psalmody, 202 to. ; captured by Montanists, 218 ; influence on growth of celibacy, 219 ; advice to widowers, 221 to. ; on concu binage, 249 to. ; on position of Widows in the congregation, 265 m. , 269 to. ; tract on Virgins, uses metaphor of spiritual marriage, 283 to. ; on age of Virgins, 285 ; on hours for Eucharist, 317 n. ; on the use of the reserved Sacra ment, 320 and to. ; on use of in cense at funerals, 322 ; on Fast ing days, 327 and to. ; on their name ' Stations,' 328 ; on ' Con- tinuare ieiunium,' 329 and to. ; on the ' Pascha,' 355 ; on ' Pente cost,' 356, 365 to. ; on the ob servance of the ' Brumae,' 396 ; on Epiphany, 401 to. ' Testament of our Lord,' 29-33 ; Montanist characteristics, 30 ; Apollinarian, 31 ; origin of name, 31 ; connexion with ' Arabic Didascalia,' 32 ; first form, a.d. 250-325, 31 ; final, c. 400, 30 ; INDEX 483 THANKSGIVING on number of Deacons in a city, 152 to. ; on Presbyters, 154 to. ; Deacon's proclamation before the Anaphora, 158 ; reason for as signing date of, 162 to. ; on Ordi nation of Deacons and Presbyters, 166-7 and nn. ; prayers found in, based on lost Church Order, 170 ; on Readers, 189 to., 191 to. ; Deacons to attend to burial of dead, 196 ; method of response in psalmody, 204 ; on Widows, 269, 271 to., 272-4; benedic tion of Widows, 272-3 to. ; duties assigned to Deaconesses, 280 to. ; usage of ' day and night,' 305 to. ; reserved Sacrament regarded as a protection against evU, 321- 2 to. ; on the Eucharistic sacri fice of the Mystical Body, 372 ; on the ceremonies of Maundy Thursday, 372-3 and 386; on the method of consecrating the Eucharist, 381 w. Thanksgiving (after Communion), GaUican form in Celtic books, 96 and to. Theiner, J. A. and A., able work against compulsory cehbacy, 214 to. ; on married clergy of Switzer land, 230 ra. ; quotes opinions on the maintenance of law of celibacy, 232 to., 237 to. ; on ceU- bacy in Roman Missions, 246 to. Theodore of Tarsus, 98 Theodoret, 139 to., 175 to., 203; on 1 Tim. in. 2, 215 to. ; on Leon tius of Antioch, 341 n. Theodosius the Great, representa tion of an organ on his obelisk, 199 and to. ; on age for a Deacon ess, 280 Theodosius II., Emperor, law re specting priests' wives, 223 and to. Theodulf of Orleans, on clerical households, 221 to. ; his hymn for Palm Sunday, 371 Theophylact, on 1 Tim. ui. 2, 215 n. Thessalonians, Epistles to the, various rules on Church order, 13 Thomas Aquinas, St., on Church music, 198-9 and to. ; on the charisma of ordination, 254 and traditions to. ; on the adoration of the Cross, 378-80 Thomas, St., of Canterbury, his commemoration, 424 Thomassinus, L., on age for Presbyters, 153 ; on case for celibacy, 214 to. ; on clerical households, 221 to. and 229 ; on polity of Western Church regard ing clerical marriages, 227 ; on marriage of Subdeacons, 228 to. ; on English criticisms of 12th century on celibacy, 230 to. Thursday, observed as a liturgical day in Lent, temp. Gregory III. , 370 ; not a liturgical day in primitive times, 370 Timothy, St., his designation, or dination, and ministry as Evan- geUst, 147 ; as Reader, 187 Timothy (of Alexandria), on ob servance of Saturday, 330 to. Title of the work explained, 7-8 ' Tituli,' district churches in Rome, 160 and to. ; institution of, as cribed to Dionysius, 180 to. ; 'fermentum' carried to, 160, 185, 381 Titus, Epistle to, on the ^special duty of a Bishop (i. 9), 120; titles of Bishop and Presbyter interchangeable in, 125 Todd, J. H., 93 to. Toledo, CouncU of, a.d. 400, re ferred to on Readers, 190 to. ; on concubinage, 249 m. ; on breach of vows of virginity, 288 ; a.d. 694, on neglect of feet- washing on Maundy Thursday, 373 ; a.d. 633, on the Paschal Taper, 387 and n. Tommasi, Cardinal, 78, 443 Tonsure, in 'Eccles. Hier.,' 62; Celtic, 91 TorseUo, Marino Sanuto, con nected with use of organs in Italy, 200-1 ' Traditioinstrumentorum,' in ordi nation, earliest example of, 59 ; to Subdeacons, 180 ; to Acolytes, 185 and to. ; to Exorcists, 186 ; to Readers, 191 ra. ; to Door keepers, 192 Traditions, early notices of, 13 484 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE TRANSFIGURATION Transfiguration, plea for it to be brought into greater prominence in the Kalendar, 422 ; coUect for, 422 to. Transubstantiation, mischievous action of Roman Church in regard to, 103 ; adopted in Synod of Jerusalem by Frankish influence, 107 and to. Trent, CouncU of, on the duty of Bishops to preach, 163 and to. ; John of Ludegna puts case for celibacy before, 213 to. ; letters of Emperors &c. to, in regard to clerical marriage, 240 and to. ; canon on same subject, 241 and to. ; on use of incense, 326 Tpi&Siov, name given in Greek Church to ten weeks before Easter, 369 ' Trisagion,' in Good Friday ser vices, 380 TruUan CouncU, a.d. 692, accepts ' Apostolic Canons,' 43 ; on celi bacy of Eastern Bishops, 211 ; its canons contain law of Eastern Church respecting marriage of clergy, 224-5 ; fixes 40 as age for a Deaconess, 280 ; regulations regarding a Bishop's wife, 280 ; on age for Virgins, 290 ; on fast ing Communion, 318 to., 372 ; on festival of Annunciation, 408; Tyre, CouncU of, condemns St. Athanasius, 411 Ulfilas, 65 Unction : i>. Confirmation Unction of the Sick, in Irish books, 95 Uniates, concession of Rome to their clergy, 255 Unity, regarded in N. T. as a moral duty and means of grace, 114 and to. ; importance of Bishops as instruments of, 121 f. ; its debt to the Charismatic Ministry of first age, 148 Upper Room (the), used for meet ings of Christians at Jerusalem, 310 Crbanus, commemorated, 417 Ussher, Archbishop, 67 virgins Valence, CouncU of, a.d. 374, on penance of lapsed Virgins, 292 Valens, Emperor, Arian persecu tion under, 175 Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, permits Augustine to preach as Presbyter : this considered an innovation, 165 and to. Vatican Decree of 1870 : its ascrip tion of power to the Pope of directly addressing the laity anti cipated by Gregory VII., 231 Verona Latin Fragments of a Church Order, 26-29 ; one of the ' Compilations,' 49, 50 to. Vestry prayer, referred to,_59 Victor, Pope, author of ' De Aleator- ibus' (?), 15, 17; his harshness on the Paschal question, 102, 357- 8 ; his pretensions, 130 ; letter of St. Irenaeus to, 354 to. Victor Vitensis, ' De Persecutione Vandalica,' referred to, 401 ra. Victorinus of Pettau, on the pro longation of the Friday fast, 329 to. Victorius of Aquitaine, his Kalen dar, 364, 397 to. Vienne, Council of, 212 to. ' Virginity,' the (Syrian) treatise on, its date and contents, 55-6 ; referred to for daily offices, 342 Virgins : v. Ascetics, Female ; con secration of, 74, 76 ; Mary of Bethany, 258 and to. ; St. Paul's advice concerning, 262-3 ; in early ages asceticism practised in the home, 282 ; status of, recog nised about end of 2nd century, 283 ; early authorities for, 283 toto. ; St. Cyprian's use of metaphor 'Bride of Christ,' 284; also found in Athanasius, different in Methodius, 284 ; treatises on, by Ambrose, Jerome and BasU, 284-5 ; Canon of Chalcedon on, 285 ; their ministry passive rather than active, 285 ; in early times no limit of age and no pubUc profession, 285-6 ; traces of imposition of hands for, 286 ; Cyprian's simple attitude on question of resolutions of Virgins, INDEX 485 286-7 ; later differences of opin ion on this subject, 287 f. ; pro fession of Marcellina, 287 ; life long penance imposed on breach of Vows by Council of Elvira, 287-8: mUder regulation of Council of Ancyra, 288 ; age fixed at 40 years by Church and Civil Laws, 288-9 and to. ; other CouncUs and Leo I. on this question, 288-9 ; age of 25 fixed by Councils of Carthage and Frankfort, 289 ; St. BasU admits at 16 or 17: his strict regulations, 289-90 ; lapse from vows treated as adultery in ' De Lapsu Virgi nis,' 290-1 ; but Augustine, Epiphanius and Jerome take a more moderate view, 291 and toto. ; so also Council of Valence, 292 ; general balance of view against severity and against too early admission, 293 ; early Roman regulations distinguish between veUed and unveUed Virgins, 293-5 and toto. ; veil bestowed by Bishops, 295 ; the veU de scribed", 295-6 and to. ; times and ceremonies of veiling, 296-7 and ra. ; a ' sponsio ' or marriage im plied, 296, 297 ; prayers used at veUing in various rites, 297-301 and toto. ; practical advice on modern Sisterhoods and legis lation required for them, 301-3 ; recite daUy offices at Jerusalem, 348 ff. 'Visible Church,' our Lord came to found a, 110 ; moral reasons for, 113 ; points clearly traceable in N.T., 114; adapts itself to natural divisions of the people, 114-5 Visigothic kingdom, 78; Gallican rite maintained in, 85 Visitation of Sick, forms for, fre quent in Celtic books, 95-6 Vitalian, Pope, 200 Warham, Archbishop, his Visita tion of Welsh dioceses, 238 and ra. ; possibly himself a mar ried man, 238 and to. widows Warren, F. E., 89 «., 90 to. ; his edition of Bangor Antiphoner, 93 to. ; of Books of Dimma &c. , 96 ; of 'Leofric Missal,' 99 Wednesday and Friday, early ob served as Fast days, 44, 63, 305 andn., 326-9; authorities for, 327 and to. ; differences in observance in East and West, 327 ; reasons given for observance, 327-8 and to. ; called ' Stations,' 328 ; fast lasted till 3 p.m., sometimes with Eucharist afterwards, 328 ; objections of Pope Innocent I., 329 ; custom at Jerusalem, 329 and to., restoration of ancient observance advised, 338 Wessenberg, Von, referred to on Council of Trent, 240 to. Westcott, B. F., Bishop, on Dio nysius the Areopagite, 60 and to. ; on St. John i. 17, 109 to. ; re ferred to, 256 to. ; paper on ' Communion of Saints,' and its results, 421 to. Westminster, ' Four Synods of,' on concessions of Roman Church in regard to clerical households, 221 ra. ; Synod of, a.d. 1138, deprives married clergy, 233 Wetstein, J. J., his publication of two letters wrongly ascribed to Clement of Rome, 283 and to. Wharton, H. = Anthony Harmer, referred to against celibacy of clergy, 214 to., 235 to., 236, 237 to. Widows, in 'Apostolic C. O.,' 34, 35 ; in ' Didascalia,' 36, 152 to. ; at Rome in a.d. 251, 179 ; Salome and Joanna probably Widows, 258-9 to. ; Dorcas, 260 ; at Ephesus (1 Tim.), 261 ; in post- Apostolic Church, 264 ff. ; dis- Uke of second marriages general, 264 and to. ; limitations laid down by St. Paul, 265 ; provided for out of Church moneys, 265 and to. ; honourable position and duties, 265 ; of higher rank do not re ceive alms from Church, 265-6 ; the intimate friends of St. Jerome and St. Chrysostom, 266 ; their dress their chief distinguishing 486 THE MINISTRY OF GRACE mark, 266 ; earnest prayer or blessing for, 266-7 to. ; at Rome not to be veiled nor confined to monastery, 267 ; different prac tice in Gaul, 267-8 ; not entirely merged in profession of nuns, 268 and to. ; Lady Margaret a professed Widow inEngland, 268; advice on modern professions of, 268 ; in East, especially in heretical centres, Widowhood more of a formal ministry, 268 ff. ; mentioned by Ignatius and Poly carp, 269 ; and in documents of third and fourth centuries, 269 ; in ' Didascalia ' and ' Apost. Const.,' 270-1 ; duties in regard to Baptism, 270-1 to. ; known as 'Presbyteresses,' 271 and to. ; higher position of in 'Apostolic Church Order,' but no liturgical duties assigned to, 271-2 ; ranked among the clergy in ' Testament,' 272-4 ; remark able benediction in ' Testament,' 272-3 to. ; no imposition of hands in Catholic Church, 269 and to., 273 and to. ; Montanist ' Pres byteresses' forbidden, 274 ; after ' Presbyteresses ' rej ected in East, prominent Widows become head- deaconesses, 276 WUkins, ' Concilia,' on Gregory VH.'s decrees in England, 232 to. ; on Wolsey's canons against con cubinage, 239 WUliam de CorbeuU, Archbishop, laws on celibacy, 233 William of Malmesbury, 200 WUson, H. A., edition of Gelasian Sacramentary, 72, 75, 381 ; on benedictions of Widows, 268 to. ; referred to on Sacramentary of Hadrian, 300 to. Winchester, Cathedral had large organ in 10th century, 200 ; Council of, a.d. 1076, on clerical celibacy &c, 232 and ra. Wobbermin, Georg, 52 Wolff, Dr., 116 ZURICH Wolsey, Cardinal, his character and action against clerical concubi nage, 238-9 Women, Ministry of, in the ' Tes tament,' 32 ; laying of hands on Deaconesses, 34 ; in ' Apostohc Ch. O.,' 34, 35 ; baptism by, dis suaded, 36 ; Deaconess to be present at baptism of women, 36 ; blessing of Deaconesses and Presbyteresses, 77 ; first half of 3rd century an important period for, 144 ; not named in Roman List, a.d. 251, 179 ; a revolution introduced by Christianity, 257 ; types of women who ministered to our Lord, 257-9 ; in the Apostolic Age, 260-3 ; commu nities of women more beneficial than those of men, 263-4 ; three types : (1) Widows, 264-76 ; (2) Deaconesses, 276-82; (3) Virgin:? , 282-303 Women, primitive position in Church, 35, 36, 40 Wordsworth, Bishop Chr. , on 1 Cor. ix. 5, 220 to. 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