YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY HISTORY INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. Printed by George Ramsay & Co. ' lift I rfi»;# ¦: '!* ,-s*'. *'.\ if >'¦&.* HMif- - ' k-M HI ¦ s^SM^ a is IWww fl HISTORY or THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO: CONTAINING AN ACCOUNT MANNERS,- ARTS, LANGUAGES, RELIGIONS,. INSTITUTIONS, AND COMMERCE OF ITS INHABITANTS. JOHN CRAWFURD, F.R.S. it. LATE BRITISH RESIDENT AT THE COURT OT THE SULTAN OF JAVA. - | WITH MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. " IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. II. EDINBURGH : PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO..EDINBURGH; AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND CO. CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 1820. CONTENTS VOLUME SECOND. BOOK V. LANGUAGE. Chap. I. — Language and Literature of Java, Page Chap. II. — Language and Literature of the Ma lays, - - - - - - - 40 Chap. III. — Language and Literature of Celebes, 59 Chap. IV. — Minor Languages of the Archipelago, 66 Chap. V. — General Observations on the Polynesian Languages, - .... 71 Chap. VI. — Vocabularies, - - - - 130 BOOK VI. RELIGION. Chap. I. — Ancient Religion of the Indian Islanders, 194 Chap. IL— Religion of Bali, - - - - 236 Vl CONTENTS. Page Chap. III. — Character of Mahomedanism in the Indian Archipelago^ - 259 Chap. IV.— State of Christianity in the Indian Archipelago, - - - - - 272 BOOK VII. HISTORY. Chap. I.^Freliminary Remarks on the History of the Archipelago, - - - - - 284 Chap. II. — 'Ancient History of Java, - - 293 Chap. III.— History of the Propagation of Maho medanism in Java, ----- 303 Chap. IV.— History of Java continued, - -320 Chap. V. — Sequel of Javanese History, - - 337 Chap, VL— History of the Malay?, - - 371 Chap. VII — History of Celebes, - - - 379 Chap. VIII. — Portuguese History of the Archi pelago, 3Q1 Chap. IX. — Dutch History of the Archipelago, 410 Chap. X. — Spanish History of the Archipelago, 445 Chap. XI.— Chronological Table of the principal Events in the History of the Archipelago, - 481 DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES. VOLUME FIRST. Plate 1. View near Buitenzorg, or Bogor, in Java, to face title-page. 2. A native ofthe black and brown complex- ioned races, - - page 17 3. Malay houses, ... 157 4. Javanese houses, - - 163 5. Warlike weapons, - - 221 6. Coins of the Archipelago, - 253 7. Signs of the week of five days, &c. 285 8. Antique metallic bowl, - - 297 9. Javanese musical instruments, - 326 10. Specimen of music, - - 340 11. Do. do. - - ib. 12. Do. do. - - ib. 13. Do. do. - - ib. 14. Agricultural implements, &c; - 348 VOLUME SECOND. 15. View of Boro Budor in Java, to front title- page. 16. Alphabets, - - - 71 17. Do. ib. veh. ni. DIRECTIONS, &C. Plate 18. Temple of Sukuh in Java, Page 195 19. Sculptures from the temple of Boro Bu dor in Java, ... 203 20. Do. do. - - ib. 21. Dp. do. - - ib. 22. Do. do. - - ib. 23. Do. do. - - ib. 24. Do. do. - - ib. 25. Fig. of a warder from the temples of Bram- banan, - - - . 207 26. Fig. of a lion from the temple of Boro Budor, - - - ib. 27. Fig. of Mahadewa, from the temples of Brambanan, - - - ib. 28. Fig. of Siwa, from a cast in the Author's possession, - - - ib. 29. Fig. of Buddha, from the temple of Boro Budor, - - - ib. 30. Fig. of Vishnu, from the temples of Bram banan, ... ib. 31. Ancient inscriptions, - - 211 ' YOLUME THIRD. 32. Raja of Bali and female attendant, to front title-page. 33. A Bramin of Bali, - - 75 34. A Chinese junk, &c. - - 140 35. Map of the Eastern Archipelago, at the end. l HISTORY INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. VOL. II. BOOK V. CHAPTER I. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF JAVA. Alphabet. — Grammatical Form. — Copiousness. — Redundancy. — Ordinary and Ceremonial Dialects. — Analogy qf Sound lo Sense. — Figurative Language. — Derivation qf the Lan guage.— Literature. — Division into Ancient and Modern Literature. — Lyrical Compositions. — Hindu Literature. — Native Romances. — Historical Composition. — Prose Com position.— Arabic Literature. — Education. — Books and Ma nuscripts. — General Character of Javanese Compositions. Of all the languages of the Indian Islands, the most improved and copious is that of the Javanese. It is written in a peculiar character, of great neat ness, which, extends to the language of the Sundas, the Madurese, Balinese, and people of Lombok, and, in comparatively recent times, along with the parent language, made some progress in Sumatra and Borneo. It is confessedly formed on the principles ofthe Sanskrit alphabet, but, unlike some other languages ofthe Archipelago, it has not foi- VOL. ii» * 4 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE lowed the well known and artificial classification of that alphabet. The Javanese language has twenty consonants, and six vowel sounds. The letters of the alpha bet, in the native enumeration of them, are con sidered but twenty in number, the vowels being omitted, and considered only as orthographic marks, like the supplementary characters of the Arabic alphabet. Of the Dewanagari alphabet, the Java nese wants no less than fourteen consonants. An European is most struck with the absence of the letters J" and v, and of that sound for which sh stands in our own language. With respect to the vowels, the greatest peculiarity is the frequent sub stitution of the vowel o for the a of other languages, or rather the transformation of the latter into the former. The Indian words kama, love, and sama, with, become, in the enunciation of the Javanese, komo and somo. But this happens without any change in the orthography ; for this commutable sound is that vowel of the Indian alphabet inherent in every consonant, without being expressed. This peculiarity I am inclined to consider as quite acci dental ; for we find, that while the o is the favour ite vowel of the Javanese, their neighbours, on the same island, and on Madura, adopt the a, and tribes as little connected with them as possible on Sumatra, like them prefer the broad sound of o. When one consonant coalesces with another, or 12 OF JAVA. , 8 follows it without the intervention of a vowel, the practice of the Javanese alphabet differs from that of the Sanskrit. The Javanese, in such situations, give their consonants new forms, and often place the second in position underneath the first. This is evidently an improvement on the Sanskrit al phabet, where confusion is the consequence of mul tiplying and combining the characters, begetting rather an alphabet of syllables or of combinations of letters, than of the simple elements of sounds. The Javanese alphabet, as it relates to its own language, comes up to the notion of a perfect cha racter, for it expresses every sound in the lan guage, and every sound invariably with the same character, which never expresses but one. From this excellence of the alphabet, it follows, that the language is easily read and written, and a false or variable orthography, so common in European languages, is seldom discovered, even among the unlearned. In splendour or elegance the alphabet of the Arabs and Persians is probably superior to that of the Javanese ; but the latter, it may be safe ly asserted, surpasses in beauty and neatness all other written characters. All the languages of the Archipelago are sin gularly simple and inartificial in their structure, and the Javanese partakes of this common charac ter, though it perhaps be on the whole the most complex and artificial in its formation. 6 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE The noun admits of no variation in its form to express gender or number, which are effected by adjectives, as the first is in our own tongue. One simple inflection represents the genitive case, and the other relations are expressed by prepositions ; nay, even the prepositions, in situations where they could not be dispensed with in other languages, are omitted, and the sense left to be made out from the context, — a practice very consonant to the genius of the language. The adjective is still more simple in its form than the noun, admitting of no distinction of gen der, number, or case, and seldom of any change by comparison. The pronouns are equally invariable in their form. Their position before or after a word de termines them respectively to be pronominal or ad jective. Those of the first and second person are very numerous. There is none at all ofthe third, except in a possessive form. Now and then the word self is vaguely so used. The verb, like that of other languages, may be divided into active and neuter. There is but one mood, the imperative, determined by any change in the form of the verb. The rest are left to be understood by the context. The simple form of the verb expresses present time, one auxiliary a perfect past, and another an indefinite future, and these are all the tenses of a, Javanese verb. With 10 OF JAVA. 7 the characteristic brevity, or rather looseness, which belongs to the language, even these signs of the tenses are often omitted, and the meaning left to be gathered from the context. The most perfect portion of the verb is the pas sive voice, unless we except the processes by which verbs are changed from intransitive to transitive. The most complex and artificial processes of Ja vanese grammar are those by which one part of speech is formed from another. Most of the parts of speech admit of being changed one into the other, even with a degree of versatility beyond that of our own language. This is most commonly ef fected by prefixing or affixing inseparable particles, or both ; but it not unfrequently happens, that the same word, in its primitive and most simple form, is used for several different parts, of speech, — a prac tice which particularly obtains in the spoken dia lect, the more formal language of composition being usually somewhat more artificial in its struc ture. The Javanese language is not less remarkable for its copiousness in some respects, than for its meagreness and poverty in others. In unimport ant trifles, it deals in the most puerile and endless distinctions, while, in matters of utility, not to say in.matters of science, it is utterly defective. These characters of the language belong to the peculiar state of society which exists among the people of 8 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Java, which I shall endeavour to illustrate, by en« tering at some length upon the subject. There are two sources of copiousness in the Ja vanese language, one resulting from the natural ten dency of this language, and perhaps of most other semi-barbarous tongues, to degenerate into redun dancy, and the other from political causes. In the first case, it descends to the slenderest ramifications of distinction, often more resembling the elaborate arrangements of science than the common lan guage of the world. It wantons in exuberance, when species, varieties, and individuals, are describ ed, — while no skill is displayed in combining and generalizing. Not only are names for the more general abstractions usually wanting, as in the words fate, space, nature, &c. but the language shows the utmost deficiency in common generic names. There are, for example, two names for each of the metals, and three for some ; but not one for the whole class,— not a word equivalent to metal or mineral. There exists no word for ani mal, expressing the whole class of living creatures. The genera of beasts, birds, insects, and reptiles, are but indifferently expressed ; but for the indi viduals of each class there is the usual superfluity, five names, for example, for a dog ; six for a hog and elephant, and seven for a horse. The disposition to generalize which appears in every polished language, and so discoverable in the OF JAVA. 9 structure of almost every sentence, is, in short, a stranger to the Javanese. It is fitted for the lan guage of pure description, of the passions, or of fa miliar life, but wholly defective when any degree of subtlety or abstraction is implied, as may well be expected in the language of a simple and semi-bar barous people. It is, of course, on familiar occasions, that the minute and painful redundance of the language is most commonly displayed. The various postures or modifications of position in which the human body can be placed, not only for ease and conve nience, but from whim or caprice, are described in a language so copious, that the anatomist, the painter, or the statuary, might derive assistance from it. There are with the Javanese ten ways of standing, and twenty of sitting, and each has its distinct and specific appellation. To express the different modifications of sound, there are not less than fifty words. In such cases the ramifica tions of meaning are expressed by distinct words, and the nicer shades by changing the broader vowels for the slenderer ones, the greater intensity being expressed by the first, and the lesser by the second. Thus, gumrot means the noise of a door on its hinges, while gumret and gumrit mean the same thing, each in a less intense degree. The great source of copiousness in the language, 10 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE however* is that which springs from the fabric of society, considered in a political view. This pecu liarity of the language runs to so great an extent, that speech is in fact divided into two dialects, the ordinary language j and one invented to express deference and respect. This distinction, by no means implies a court or polished language, op posed to a vulgar or popular one, for both are equally polite and cultivated, and all depends on the relations in which the speakers stand to each other, as they happen to be inferiors or supe riors. A servant addresses his master in the lan guage of deference, a child his parent, a wife her husband, if there be much disparity in their ages, and the courtier his prince. The superior replies in the ordinary dialect, the language still affording modifications and distinctions, according to the rank of the person he addresses, until that rank rises to equality, when, if no intimacy subsists be tween the parties, the language of deference is adopted by both, or when, if there does, ceremony is thrown aside, and the ordinary language becomes the only medium of conversation. An extensive acquaintance with the language of deference is held a mark of education and good-breeding. With persons who frequent a court, or are in ha bits of intercourse with the great, the phraseology is refined and copious ; but ofthe ordinary peasant, OF JAVA. 11 it may be well believed that the vocabulary is meagre and confined. In the formation of the Javanese language of de ference, the aim is to avoid what is ordinary or fa miliar, as equivalent to what is not respectful. In a few words of rare occurrence, and not familiar by use, no change is effected. Recourse, in other cases, is had to the recondite language of literature, which is equivalent to the Sanskrit -, thus estri, putro, suryo, chondro, are the respectful terms for a woman, a child, the sun, and the moon. When it happens, however, that, by frequent use, a Sanskrit word melts into the common idiom, a new proceeding is followed. Thus we have kan- chono, gold, converted into janne, the yellow ob ject, and saloko, silver, into pettakan, or the white object. Sometimes the word used in the language of de ference is an entire synonym differing in sound and orthography, as, for gawe, to do, damal ; for turon, to sleep, sare or tilam ; for watu, a stone, selo ; for dalan, a road, margi ; and for bali, to return, wangsul. The most frequent mode of all is, by effecting a slight orthographical change in words of the ordi nary language. These changes are not wanton or capricious, but subject to a fixed principle, capable of being reduced to rule. A termination in s, in ng, and in tan, is respectful, and it is respectful 12 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE always to change a broad sounding vowel into \t more slender one. Maricho, pepper, becomes by this rule mariyos ; priyayi, a chief, priyantan ; ka- yu, wood, becomes kqjang ; Jowo* Java, becomes Jawi ; kulon, the west, becomes kilen ; and lor, the north, becomes ler. Even the names of places are, in the most pro voking and puzzling manner, subjected to the same changes. Often these are entire synonyms, and still more frequently literal translations of the compound ed words, of which the names of places so often con sist. In writing to a superior, for example, it would be thought ill bred to use the usual words Cheribon, Garsik, or Solo, for the names of these towns. The inferior would call them respectively Grage, Tandas, and Surakarta ; and were he to write Bauyumas, or the country of the golden wa ter, the name of a beautiful province of the island, he would call it Toyojanne, which means just the same thing ; while a still higher stretch of com plaisance might induce him to give it the Sanskrit name of Tirto-kanchono. There are no bounds to the little ingenuity of flattery and adulation on this subject. Even the peasant exercises himself in it, but his efforts are often unsuccessful ; and I have sometimes seen a smile excited in the chiefs, by the awkward flat tery of their dependents. Some words are so stubborn as not to yield to the rules of this politi- OF JAVA. 13 cal grammar, and the result is an awkward com bination of letters. On such occasions, the native princes will condescend to issue a dispensation in their behalf; for such subjects are, with them, matters of interest and moment. Sounds, in the Javanese language, have often an analogy to the sense, as in other languages. It is not enough, indeed, that this analogy is pre served ; the language often aims at stating the degree of it, by the use, according to circumstan ces, of the broader or weaker vowels, or by adopt ing liquids in some cases, and harsh consonants in others. The Javanese writers delight in an as semblage of such words, when they attempt sub jects of awe or terror ; and, no doubt, they must have a powerful effect on the ear of a native. The Javanese language, in common with every other language of the Indian Isles, does not a- bound in figurative modes of expression ; such as have, by some, been imagined to be characteristic ofthe language of all barbarians, and especially of those of the East. Nothing, indeed, can be more adverse to the genius of the Javanese than a figurative and hyperbolical style. We see, indeed, a good deal of this in the poetry borrowed from the Hindus of Western India ; but the observa tion now made strictly applies to writings purely Javanese, to their epistolary correspondence, and 14 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 0 to the language of verbal narrative, and ordinary conversation. The few examples of words used figuratively are plain and obvious, and probably exist in al most every language, — as foot for base, head for chief; vegetable root, for source or origin ; high and low, for moral superiority and inferiority ; heat, for anger ; little, for low in rank, and great for high in rank. Sometimes these figurative words take a more characteristic and amusing form. From the word wqjah, to wash clothes, for example, we have tvqjah, to discipline a child ; from lattah, turbid water, we have the same word meaning confusion, disturbance, anarchy; from liwar, to break loose, we have liwar, a strumpet ; from Sabbal, to quit the highway on a journey, we have sabbal, to disobey a parent ; from gdbbung, the grasp of the forefinger and thumb, we have power, authority ; and from gabbal, the dust or filth that adheres to the feet in walking, is too obviously derived the same word, meaning a me nial or servant. Comparisons and similes, used as ornaments of composition, are pretty common. Not unfrequent- ly the allusion is extremely absurd and ridiculous ; at other times, though quaint and singular, it is appropriate. A prince rendering an account of himself in a foreign country, is made to say that he is " a wanderer without a home, like a paper OF JAVA. ]5 kite without a string, which is driven to and fro by the caprice of the wind ;" or that he is " like dust driven by the wind ;" or " a grain of rice- seed, cast from the hand of the husbandman." In such similes, however, there is no variety ; and without invention or ingenuity, we see the same stale comparisons used, upon similar occasions, by every successive writer, and even by the same writer in the same composition. The derivation of the language will be treated of at such length in the chapter on the character and affiliation of the East insular languages, that it would be superfluous to say much on the subject at present. Suffice it to state, that, to the original meagre stock of the rude tribe from which the Ja vanese nation sprung, has been superadded, at dif ferent epochs of its history, a proportion of the great Polynesian language of Sanskrit, and of Arabic. The introduction of the latter is a mat ter of historic record ; the circumstances of the second of rational induction, from strong presump tive and collateral argument ; but those of the first are buried in the darkest, and, it may be sus pected, in nearly impenetrable obscurity. Such are the four great components of the modern Ja vanese ; and if we add to them a few trifling and almost adventitious words of modern Persian, Te- Knga, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, and English, the analysis is complete. 16 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE The literature of the Javanese is of three dif ferent descriptions : that which has been borrowed from the Hindus ; that borrowed from the Arabs ; and that which is native or indigenous. The por tion borrowed from the Arabs is inconsiderable, and will not demand much consideration. All other Javanese literature is, like that of every rude people, metrical ; the plain and simple reason for which seems to be, that all composition being oral before it was written, would naturally be poetry, to assist the memory, — not to say that to amuse the fancy, and awake the passions, of which poetry is the natural language, and not to satisfy the reason, is the main object in such cases with all barba rians. When the use of letters is first acquired, oral composition is, from habit, committed to writ ing unaltered, while the circumstances of the so ciety continuing unchanged, and amusement, not instruction or utility, continuing the chief object of men, the practice is necessarily persevered in. To this day, the songs of the Javanese peasants, who can generally neither read nor write, are in the same peculiar measures, and on the same subjects, which we find described in their literary composi tions. From this cause it is that poetry with every people precedes prose, and that poets attain cele brity for ages before prose writers are heard of. Making ample allowance for the generous and manly genius of European nations on the one OF JAVA. 17 hand, and for the feebleness, incapacity, and pue rility which has ever characterized those of Asia on the other, the Javanese are, at this moment, in the same state of advancement in literature that the Greeks were in the time of Homer, a,nd the Caledonians in that of Ossian ; bating the acciden tal advantage, in the instance of the former, of an earlier knowledge of writing, with the use they have made of it, perhaps in this case, but a dubious one when it is recollected that the tameness of wiiting is substituted for the animated declamation of oral delivery. Like many nations who have made some pro gress in civilization, the Javanese are found to be possessed of an ancient and recondite language, in which are buried some relics of their ancient litera ture and religion. This language the Javanese term Kawi, which, in their acceptation of it, means refined, as opposed to the ordinary or po pular tongue. The words Kawi and Jowo, or rather Jawi, from the language of deference, here adopted for the rhyming termination, always so agreeable to a rude ear, are correlative terms. The Kawi, in its simplicity of structure, resent bles the Javanese, but it has a greater variety and range of consonant and vocalic sounds than the popular language, is harsher in its prosody than what we expect in the genius of the. soft -tongues of the Indian islanders, and seems, in short, to vol. n. B 18 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE have in this particular a foreign air. In its com position it abounds in Sanskrit words to a degree unknown in any other language of the Archipela go, and these in a degree of purity also beyond the rest, an advantage secured to it by a more copious alphabet. At the same time, it contains many essential words of the modern language of Java. The opinion I am inclined to form of this sin gular language is, that it is no foreign torigue in troduced into the island, but the written language of the priesthood, to whom it is probable, in early times, the use of letters was confined. What would be the effect of confining the literature of a people to a cast or order, may in some measure be judged from the effect which a similar state of things produced in literary composition in our own country, at a time when professed writers adopted an affected and obscure language, hardly intelligible to us at present, and which even then differed so widely from the language of business and the world. If we advert to the fact, that that particular order was the priesthood, of the Hindu religion, — of a reli gion which loves to veil its doctrines and precepts in the darkest and absurdest language, and of which a foreign and dead tongue is the sacred text, — we may be prepared to explain the singular fact of the Kawi differing so widely from the present Javanese, or even from the most ancient specimens of the ordinary speech of which we are possessed. IO OF JAVA. 19 AH Kawi composition is in verse, and this verse formed on the principle of Sanskrit prosody, that is to say, not rhymjng measures, such as belong to all languages simple in their grammatical form, but such as is found to belong to original languages of complex structure. This will appear to the European reader something like the attempt to impose the fetters of Latin prosody upon the mo dern language of Europe, in the shape of blank verse. The only compositions in the Kawi which it is worth while adverting to in this place, are epitomes of the Mahabarat wARamayana ; the lat ter preserving its name unaltered, and the forming recognized under that of the Brata-yuda, or war of Barat. These works, which in India are not only the first of literary compositions, but have al so the authority of scripture, are the sources of the principal mythological knowledge of the Indian islanders, as connected with the literature, religion, and superstitions of Hindustan. Absurd as these two works generally are, a brighter passage may now and then be selected ; and they display a comparative vigour of fancy and force of intellect, which places them, as poetical compositions, far above the utter inanity and child ishness of more modern works. Javanese poetry, contrary to Kawi verse, is in a peculiar rhyming stanza, of which there are a great many varieties. No language, I believe, affords a 20 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE parallel to this strange kind of measure, and, there fore, I shall offer a brief account of it. A stanza consists of a limited and given number of lines, or rather pauses, each of which must invariably and unalterably consist of a given number of syllables, and terminate in the same rhyme, which rhyme must be a broad or slender vowel, it being indif ferent what its sound be, provided the arrangement into these two classes be attended to. To give an example, the stanza called Durmo consists of seven" pauses, the first ending in the broad vowels o or u, and consisting of twelve syllables ; the second in e or i, and consisting of seven syllables ; the third in o or u, consisting of six ; the fourth also in o or u, and having seven syllables ; the fifth in e or i, consisting of eight syllables ; the sixth in o or u, consisting of five syllables; and the seventh of slender vowels, consisting of eight syllables. It is not easy to understand from what princi ple this -fantastical measure could have had its ori gin, for it is not to be supposed that the rhyme which is not repeated until at the interval of seven lines or pauses, as in the instance quoted, and of others at an interval of nine or even ten, should still hang upon the ear and be remembered. A Javanese poem of any length does not uni formly consist of the same measure throughout, for the different measures are supposed to be most ap propriate to particular subjects; hence, they are ' OF JAVA. 21 varied as the subject is grave or lively, expresses love, hatred, peace, war, or negociation. The trammels of this description of verse give rise to the necessity of ample prosodial licences. Sometimes the first, or even the two first syllables of a word are omitted, and at other times as many are added to eke out a line, and obtain a rhyme producing a very ludicrous effect, as in several of the worst of our own old ballads. In short, sense is as often sacrificed to sound in the poetry of the Javanese, as in that of any people on earth. An account of Javanese literature is curious, and even important, as it tends to throw light on the history of society in general, and more partir cularly on that considerable portion of the species which is contained in Java itself, and the other countries of the Indian Archipelago ; but if the reader expects to find in the literature of Java any merit worthy the attention of the European scho lar, he will be utterly disappointed. He will dis cover in it neither sublimity, pathos, tenderness, nor humour, but, on the contrary, bombast, pueri lity, or utter inanity, in literature, the very stam mering of infancy without its interest or amuse- ment. Javanese literature may be divided into lyrical compositions, or songs ; romances founded on Hin du legends ; romances founded on native story ; histories of modern transactions ; legal and ethical €2 LANGUAGE ANB LITERATURE i tracts, chiefly in prose ; and compositions, chiefly on matters of jurisprudence and religion, founded on Arabic originals. Of these I shall say a few words in their turn. Of all these, to my taste, tlie best are the simple songs, for they are the most easy and natural. The simplicity of the subject deprives the writer of all opportunity of wantoning in that inflated ex travagance which he indulges on other occasions. The following is a favourable specimen of one of these compositions, with a literal translation : Midaro sewu nagoro, Mongso hantuko kakalch, Ingkang kayo diko merafa Wadono hanawang sasi, Batuk selo chandani. Michis wutah sinom-miptm, Halis hangron ning Imbo, Hidap tumanggeng rawit, Remaniro handau-Kandan handrawilo. Kang netro jab.it kangraraa, Pipi-ne duren saj«ring Latinyo mangis karangat. Grono rungeh rnantasi, Hati-hati ngudap turi, Hwang-gniro nyangkal putung, Tangah-nyo lung-ning jonggo, .Jojo wijang hamantasi, Lir nyu-dlnto pambayun, sumonggo kars*. OF JAVA. 23 Pambayu-ne sang kusumo, Hanglir pendah changkir gading, Kababad-ing kamban jinggo, Mantak-mant&k hangedani. Bahu gilig haramping, Hanggandewo hasta-nipun, Tangah-he koyo putungo, Driji puchuk-ing ngri, Kanakane hapanjang tuhu hangraras. Wawangkonng papad kumatan, Wantes-se pudak sisili, Dalamakan hanggamparan, Papad sumbar tulis neki, Watarane pawestri, Halayak pajah salulut, Yen chinondro ing warno, Korang papan luweh tulis Ngulatono satahun mongso hautuko. * Translation. " Let a thousand countries be travelled, and another like you, my love, will not be found ; your face is as the moon, your forehead is alabas ter. The hair on your temples resembles a string of coins ; your eyebrows the leaf of the Imba ; your soft eyelashes look upwards ; your long jet hair falls undulating ; your eyes, sharp-angled, are becoming ; your cheek is the partition ofa Duren ; your mouth the fissure of a ripe Mangostin ; your slender nose is becoming. The lock behind your * The stanza in which this is written is called. Sinom. 24 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE cheek is as the blossom of the Turi tree ; your chin as the angle of an adze, with its handle ; your neck bends like the tendril of a -weeper ; your wide bosom is becoming ; your breasts are as the ivory coco-nut, leaving nothing to desire. The breasts of my princess are like two young co co-nuts, bound in a vest of red, full and smooth, intoxicating to madness. Her shoulders are po lished and slender; her arms like an unstrung bow ; her waist as if it would break'by an effort. The tips of her fingers are as thorns, her nails long and becoming ; her legs are shaped as the flower of the pudac ; the soles of her feet are arched. My fair one looks as if she would perish at the breath of love. Were all her perfections to be enumerated, how little room, how much to write. A year's search will not produce her equal." r Of romances, founded on Hindu story or my thology, I have already said a few words in speak ing of the obsolete and recondite language. Trans lations of various merit or demerit of the Brata- yuda and Ramayana exist in modern Javanese ; and from the latter, in particular, a great many compositions are fabricated, detailing the various adventures of Rama. One advantage the Java nese epitomes have over the Sanskrit originals, they are free from their tiresome prolixity ; and I have no doubt that a spirited version of the Brata-yuda OF JAVA. g5 would give less dissatisfaction to the European reader, than the most skilful one of the Indian original. The following is an example : " The charge of the King of Awangga was as a torrent. The forces of the Pandus, advancing with clattering pace, met Kama. Tlieir chiefs at tempted to arrest his career, but their close ranks were trode down, were fiercely trampled upon. His chariot rushed on, with a hollow noise, like the flight of Garuda. His arrows flew in every direction, interrupted only for a moment by the thunderbolts he discharged ; his arrows, which fell on the foe thicker than a shower of rain, poured on without interruption. The Pandus, crushed, over whelmed, could not sustain themselves. The rage of Kama was unbounded. The hundred Pandus enraged, again rallied and charged, but again fled, broken, trdd down, scattered, as if overwhelmed by a mountain flood ; while the Kurawa advanced with shouts like the roar of a torrent, or like that ofthe approaching storm." All the translations which I have seen of the Ramayana make it appear a more feeble and less interesting production than the Brata-yuda. The following is afavourable specimen ; it describes Ra- wana, the giant of Ceylon, going forth to encoun ter Rama, after the death of his sons : 26 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE " The monarch was furiously enraged ; he gnawed his mustaches. His countenance was inflamed, and his bosom red as the warawari flower. Sweat exuded from every pore ; the angles of his mouth trembled ; his eye-lashes stuck together. His rage was like that of him who stabs the guilt less. He bounded from the earth, and took his flight in the regions of the air. His speed was like that of the falcon about to make a prey of the pigeon. In his desire to exact revenge for his sons,, he seemed to feel as if he had already en countered the adverse leader himself. He secret ly rejoiced ; he vaunted, he called aloud, he chal lenged all his enemies to meet him at once." The most abundant class of compositions are the romances founded on native story. A prince of Java called Panji is the hero of the greater num ber. From inscriptions, this prince is ascertained to have reigned in the eastern extremity of the is land, not more than 500 years back. A period which, with more civilized nations, would afford matter of historic record, is by the Javanese the era of fabulous legend, and unfathomable obscuri ty. Not a single fact of the true history of the prince in question, or of the country in which he reigned, is handed down to us. What is most sin gular, in all performances of this class, however, is their unaccountable feebleness and utter want OF JAVA. 27 of ingenuity, beyond, indeed, that of all other semi-barbarians. Notwithstanding this, they are suited to the taste of the people, and are not only popular in Java, but have been translated into the Balinese and Malay languages, in which they are favourite performances. Previous to the introduction of Mahometanism, the Javanese made no attempt to write history, and were as ignorant of chronology as the Hindus, with whom they were so intimately connected. The Mahometan religion brought with it, as it did in India, a more manly and sober style of think ing, and since the era of that conversion, we are possessed of a tolerably connected and circumstan tial narrative, improving in credit and in approxi mation to common sense as we descend. Even yet, however, history is considered rather an object of amusement than of utility and instruc tion. Like most of other compositions it is written in verse, and a constant attempt is made to give every transaction, even the most common, an air of romance, — to make in short a tale of it. A com mon-place conversation, for these are most circum stantially narrated, is delivered in solemn and la boured measure ; and the petty action of a Java nese chief with the Dutch East India Company, becomes an ambitious imitation of one of the bat tles of the Mahabarat, or of the combats of the god or hero Rama with the giant Rawana. 28 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Facts are often accurately, and even circumstan tially narrated ; but whenever there is an opening for the marvellous, it is sure to be indulged. In offering examples of Javanese historical writing, I shall endeavour not only to select such passages as will illustrate the remarks I have now made upon it ; but, in making that selection, instead of indis criminate extracts, choose the best, with the hope of avoiding the offence of tiring or disgusting my readers. One of the most singular and extraordinary characters of Javanese, or indeed of any story, is a person called Surapati, a native of Bali, and the slave of a Dutch citizen of Batavia, who raised himself from that abject condition, in spite of the native and European - governments, to sovereign authority, and maintained it until his death. His immediate descendants were defeated by the Dutch, and despoiled of the territory, while the body ofthe founder was taken up and treated, with ignominy. The following is the Javanese account of this vile transaction, in which is discoverable that strange union of the true and the marvellous, which is so characteristic ofthe intellectual state of the Javanese : " The commissary remained long at Pasuru- han, making diligent search for the body of Sura pati, but it was not to be found. He was distres- OF JAVA. 29 sed at this, and said to the inhabitants, ' I will re ward whoever finds for me the body of Surapati.' Those people forgot their lord, and accepted the proffered bribe. The commissary was shown the spot where was the chief's grave, but it was level, and no one could discern it was a tomb. The body was dug for and found. It was still entire as when alive, and shed a perfufne like a flower garden. The Hollanders bore it away to the camp, and placing it in a sitting posture in a chair, the officers took the corpse by the hand, saluting it according to the custom of their country, and tauntingly exclaiming, ' This is the hero Surapati, the mighty warrior, the enemy of the Dutch.' After this they threw the corpse into a great fire, and burnt it to ashes, and the ashes they took and preserved. The commissary rejoiced in his heart at all this." In the year 1740, the Javanese joined the Chi nese, with the hope of expelling the Dutch from the island after they had perpetrated the well- known massacre of the Chinese at Batavia. The mi nister of the Susuhuman, commanding the Javanese army on its route to the European establishment of Samarang on the coast, is afflicted with a dream, of which circumstance the annalist renders the fol lowing account : 80 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE " The Adipati arrived at Onarang, where he halted five days. Here he summoned into his presence a priest of Mataram, who had made the pilgrimage, and thus addressed him, ' My elder brother, I have had a dream, in which the whole of the Chinese appeared to me in the shape of women. Tell me, I pray thee, the interpretation of it.' Thepilgrrm replied, ' My Lord, the dream is good, for women imply prosperity, and your ex pedition will have a fortunate termination.* Yet,. notwithstanding this explanation, the Adipati was not satisfied. In the, meantime, another priest came in and said, ' Father, I too had a dream last night, in which a flame of fire seemed to pursue thee and me. We attempted to escape, but the fire pursued us still : forthwith my sword fell from my aide and the kris with which you once gifted me. Shortly after every surrounding object appeared to- be involved in the same flame.' The heart of the chief was as if it would crumble into atoms when he heard this narrative. His voice became feeble, and he said, • This is good, but take notice of what you have seen to no one.' " Of the character for fairness' and impartiality which Javanese history is likely to maintain, we have ample opportunity of forming a judgment, when we are told that it is always composed under the eye of the prince or chief, who is the principal OF JAVA. §1 hero ofthe piece, that there is no ostensible or re sponsible author, no individual who claims the merit of the intellectual execution, no more than there is one who claims merit for the workmanship of the rude plough or harrow with which the rice field is tilled. The execution of an historical composi tion is, in fact, considered as a mechanical process, and intrusted to any one who has dexterity and practice enough to string together verses, — to make rhymes by the hundred, — whose memory can fur nish him with the usual routine of similes and me taphors ; and, finally, who is master of a tolerably easy and distinct hand-writing. I have in my possession the original of the history of the Sultan Mangkubumi, composed in the manner I have mentioned ; and a prince of Djojocarta had the complaisance to furnish myself with a circumstan tial narrative of political and military transactions, in which I had a share. There are some facts, to be sure, which are cor roborated by these peculiar circumstances under which the narrative of them is composed, and which afford the best and most unquestionable il lustrations of the character of the people who are the subjects of them. When facts are unconscious ly adduced, as often happens, unfavourable to the national character, or to those in power, we may consider them conclusive. Tracts on law and ethics are most frequently 32 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE in prose, but they are neither numerous nor refin ed, being chiefly a few fragments from the Hindu Sastras, and some unimportant ones, of native pro duction, rude and incongruous, and valuable only in so far as they now and then contribute to afford some happy illustrations of the state of society. The Javanese are not in that state of society in which "nice points of casuistry and subtle reasonings on abstract and useless questions are agitated and be come the favourite pursuit of men. They have no controversies, no scholastic disputations like the Brahmans of India, or the Doctors of Arabia, and of the middle ages of Europe. They take no in terest in such subtleties, and are perhaps unable to comprehend them. Their very language has never been tried on such topics, and wants words to express them. In furnishing examples of the works in question, I shall pursue the principle a- dopted in respect to historical composition, to se lect the.best, and while I warn the reader how little he has to expect, not disgust him by con temptible and frivolous quotations. From a work called, in imitation of the Hindus, Niti-Sastra, I extract the following fable, the best and most sensible specimen of the literature of the Javanese that has ever occurred to me in the course of my reading. " Make choice of an equal friend, and do not 1 OF JAVA. 33 act like the tiger and the forest. A tiger and a fo rest had united in close friendship, and they af forded each other mutual protection. When men wanted to take ^vood or leaves from the forest, they were dissuaded by their fear of the tiger, and when they would take the tiger, he was concealed by the forest, After a long time, the- forest was rendered foul by the residence of the tiger, and it began to be estranged from him. The tiger, thereupon, quit ted the forest, and men having found out that it was no longer guarded, came in numbers aud cut down the wood, and robbed the leaves, so that, in a short time, the forest was destroyed, and became a bare place. The tiger, leaving the forest, was seen, and although he attempted to hide himself in clefts and valleys, men attacked him, and killed him, and thus, by their disagreement, the forest was exterminated, and the tiger lost his life, " The same work affords the following : " The poison of a centipede is in its head ; the poison of a scorpion in its tail ; the poison ofthe snake is in its tooth, and one knows where1 to find them. But the venom of a bad man is fixed to no pne spot, but, dispersed over his whole body, can' not be reached at." If we reflect that the Javanese have professed the Mahomedan religion for between three and vol. n. c 34> LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE four hundred years, we shall be surprised at the small progress which the Arabic language and li terature has made among them. The number of Arabic words introduced into the language is extremely small, greatly smaller than into any other of the more cultivated languages of the Archipelago. Tlie reason is, that the Javanese are little more than half Mahomedans ; that their language was more copious, and did not stand in need of such words as the Arabic had'to give to it ; and that in euphony, orthography, and grammati cal structure, nothing can be more adverse io each other than the genius of the two tongues. When, in short, an Arabic word is adopted by the1 Java nese, it is so thoroughly metamorphosed as scarce to be distinguishable. The few works which the Javanese have borrow ed from an Arabic source, are solely on the subjects of jurisprudence and religion. The greater number are written in the Arabic character, with supple mental consonants to express such sounds as are peculiar to the Javanese. The Javanese language thus written is called by the natives Pegon, mean ing mixed, or, as we would express it in a familiar idiom, bastard Arabic, which, ift fact, conveys the meaning they intend to attach to the word. The Arabic language itself is taught to the Ja vanese youth, and a considerable number of Ara bic works are circulated in Java, chiefly on the two 6 ¦ OF JAVA. 35 subjects which interest Mahomedans, law and re ligion, and chiefly from the school of Shafihi, the orthodox doctor, whose peculiar tenets are profess ed by the Javanese. In the Javanese schools a smattering of Arabic, with a religious view, is the only branch of in struction. Javanese literature itself is no where taught as a branch of education, but left to be picked up as occasion offers. Its acquisition seems not to be considered as a thing of utility or neces sity, but rather as an accomplishment which it may be agreeable to possess, but which it is no discre dit to be ignorant of. Arithmetic, or other useful science, is unknown. I have seen many a chief of rank who could neither read nor write, and out of the whole population of an extensive village, you cannot always be sure that you will find an indi vidual who can do so. A tolerable dexterity cal culated for business is not to be met with in one among ten thousand. As far as concerns the wo men, literary education may be said to be altoge ther unknown. When one is seen who can read and write, she is looked upon as a wonder. I do not think that, during my extensive intercourse with the Javanese, I saw half a dozen who could do so. The palace of the Sultan of Java afforded but a single example. This want of education among the Javanese is the more remarkable, when contrasted with the 3Q LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE diffusion of it, no matter how superficial or trifling, which is known to prevail in Hindustan and China. Javanese books are written either on palm leaves or on paper ; in the ruder parts of the island usual ly on the former, and in the more civilized, on the latter. Their paper is a peculiar manufacture of their own, from the fibre of a plant cultivated for the purpose, in appearance and texture resembling thin parchment, but peculiarly liable to be preyed upon by the destructive insects of the climate, Their intercourse with Europe and China supplies them with the papers of these countries, and in their best works that of the former is employed. The pens made use of are either twigs from the Aren palm, or quills as with ourselves, the latter being in gener ral preferred, though their use seems but recently acquired from Europeans. -¦ Though the Javanese character be peculiarly neat and beautiful, very little pains are generally taken with their writings, and no effort to produce those finished and elegant specimens of penman ship which distinguish the manuscripts of the Turks, Persians, Arabs, and Mahomedans of In dia. It is not in composition done that the Ja vanese display the imperfection of the art, for even in the mechanical part of it they are childish and inexpert. The writing of an ordinary letter is a work of pains and trouble, and not one in a thou? n OF JAVA. 37 sand can write straight without lines to guide him. Such is the state of literature among the Java nese, the most literary and civilized of all the In dian islanders. The object of this work is to ren der a faithful picture of them as they actually are, and not to draw attention to them, or excite pub lic curiosity regarding them, by representing them as having made a progress in arts and knowledge which does not belong to their stage in society. A subject more inexplicable than the want of skill and refinement in writing and composition, which is referable at once to barbarity, is the won derful feebleness and imbecility of all they write, the utter absence of that ardour, energy, and sub limity, which has so often characterized the poetry of nations which had made far less progress in the arts which minister to comfort and necessity than the Javanese. The following remarks will, how ever, go far to explain this. Every noble effort of the muse among barbarians has been made a- mong free barbarians, and not among the slaves of despotism, for reasons which it would be super fluous to explain. These free barbarians have ex isted only in Europe. The East is the natural country of despotism. The superior fertility of the soil and benignity of the climate breed a less hardy race, — give rise to a more rapid civilization in the earlier stages of social existence, — to more 38 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE wealth in the society, — and for all these reasons, t& the means of enslaving the9 people, or, in other words, of repressing the nobler sentiments which are natural to independent man, when individual character is permitted to develope itself. In pro portion as the soil and climate improve, or perhaps nearly in the degree in which we proceed east ward, or towards the equator, and nature fur nishes man with necessaries with the smallest ef fort, despotism increases, and the human intellect becomes weaker. The Persians, Turks, and Arabs, whose individual characters are unquestionably the most independent and energetic of all eastern na tions, have also the best poetry ; that of the Hin dus is much worse ; the ¦ best poetry of Java is- borrowed from the latter. The Burmans and Siamese, from all accounts, are as tame in# poetic genius as the Javanese ; and for the poetry of the nations which write in the Hieroglyphics of China, nonsense is hardly too bad a name. I have sometimes thought, that the extreme monotony and uniformity of season, production, and scenery, in the East, might contribute, with political institutions, to deaden and tranquillize the faculties, removing from the mind the powerful in centive of variety, to animate, and rouse it to action. In further illustration of this subject, I may ob serve, that to this cause, too, may possibly be owing the great similarity, not only between the different OF JAVA. 39 nations of the East at the same period, but the same nation with itself at every known period of its existence. While the nations of the West, like their seasons and productions, are liable to fluc tuation and change ; now in the savage state ; now emerging from it ; now semi-barbarians ; now civi lized, polished, and refined ; then decaying, and again relapsing into barbarity ; the nations of the East, in point of civilization, continue unchanged,— seem rapidly to advance to a certain state of im provement, and then to continue in all ages the same unchangeable semi-barbarians, when circumstances have not detained them in the state of primeval barbarity and savage existence. Chapter ii. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF THE MALAYS. ' Alphabet. Grammatical Structure- Written Language, known by tlie name qf Jaivi. — General Characters— Cere monial Language scanty; — Derivation and Compositions- Literature. — Metrical Composition. — The Pantun. — The Sayar. — Prose Composition. — -Romances. — Character qf Prose Composition. — Origin ofthe Malay Language. — Its Diffusion. — Used as a Lingua Franca. — General Uni formity. — Spoken faith most Propriety in the State qf Queda. 1 he native sounds of the Malay language, like the other improved languages of the Archipe lago, are twenty consonants, five vowels, and two diphthongs. The Malay, unlike the other po lished languages, has no native alphabet ; but, as with the modern Persian, is written in the Arabic character. That it may express alike the sounds of the Arabic language, and those indigenous sounds which do not belong to the Arabs, six supplemen tal letters are added by the simple contrivance of LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, &C. 41 increasing the number of the diacritical points; and thus the modern Malay alphabet amounts to thirty-two consonants. The genius of Malay pro nunciation, however, being remarkably soft, and vocalic, many of the harsher Arabian sounds are either modified, or omitted in speaking ; and, in writing, seldom serve any other purpose than to mark the etymology of a word. The Malay language is remarkably simple in its grammatical form. Words are not modified by in flection, or other change to express gender, num ber, or case. Gender is ascribed to no object without sex. Number is denoted by distinct words, expressing plurality or singularity. Cases are always expressed by prepositions. The verb is hardly less simple than the noun. Of modes it may perhaps be said to have two, the indi- cative"and imperative ; of tenses it cannot be said to have more than three, a present, expressed in the simple form ofthe verb, and a past and future, each expressed by an auxiliary. The most important changes which the verb undergoes, are the changes from a neuter to an active form, which are effected either by affixing or prefixing certain inseparable particles, or both. The written Malay language is known to well informed Malays by the singular appellation of % Jam, a term the origin of which, as it may be con nected with the history of the people and their Ian- ,42 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE guage, it may be worth while pausing to make some inquiry about. The word Jawi appears to me to be the inflection of the word Jawa of the Javanese language, used as the correlative of Kawi, the one, as already described, meaniug common, and the other abstruse language. It seems to have been borrowed by the Malays, like many other words, and, as the latter have no native learned or recon dite language of their own, in which relation the Arabic stands to the vernacular tongue, they use Jawi as the correlative of Arabi. The Javanese use the word Jawi as equivalent to translation. By the usual rule, the noun or adjective is changed into a verb, and then they familiarly say of an an cient composition, or of an Arabic one, that it is translated or made into Javanese, as, in earlier pe riods of our own language, the phrases making English of, and doing into English, were com mon. In imitation of them, when the Malays translate from the Arabic, they use the same lan guage precisely, and even extend the word to every species of translation. I imagine it is this very word for the language which the natives of Arabia have erroneously, but naturally enough, bestowed not only on the Malay language, but the people, and hence, as a common appellation, upon the whole of the na tives of the Archipelago. The Malayan language affords no internal evi dence of ancient culture. Its genius is destitute of OF THE MALAYS. 43 the bold metaphorical character ascribed to early language, particularly in the East. Like the Ja vanese, but in an inferior degree, it is rich in sim ple epithets, and wantonly and uselessly redundant in trifles ; and like it, too, is singularly deficient in words of abstract meaning. The distinction of language, which expresses the relative language of the speakers, extends to but a very few words in Malay. This distinction seems to prevail in the Polynesian languages in proportion as the people who speak them are im proved and civilized. That it holds to so trifling an extent in the Malay is an evidence ofthe small advances made in civilization and improvement by the people who spoke it, previous to their acquaint ance with the Arabs, when their improvement as sumed a new modification. On the derivation and composition ofthe Java nese language, it will not be necessary to enter at length in this place, as the subject will be fully discussed in the chapter containing general remarks on the languages of the Archipelago. The lan guage, as at present written and spoken, may be said to consist of three essential, one necessary in gredient, and about four adventitious ones. The essensial ingredients are the primitive language of the Malayan tribe, the basis of the whole, the great Polynesian language, and the Sanskrit. The ne cessary ingredient is the Arabic, and the adventii 44 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE tious are small portions of modern Javanese, of the vernacular language of- Kalinga, of Persian, and of the languages of modern Europe, mostly Portu guese, with a trifling portion of Dutch, and a still more insignificant one of English. After several trials, I consider, that out of 100 parts of modern Malay, the following may be con sidered as the proportion of the various ingredients, viz. primitive Malayan 27 parts, Polynesian 50, Sanskrit 16, Arabic 5, and the adventitious por tions the remaining two parts. The primitive portion ofthe Malay contains, if I may so express it, the gkeleton of the language, those portions of it which express its grammatical form ; such as the auxiliary verbs, the substantive verb, the preposi tions generally, and always those which express the most abstract relations,' or, in other words, those which represent the cases of languages complex in their form. To the same source may be referred most of the particles, with the adjectives and verbs of most frequent occurrence, representing the most useful abstract qualities or actions. The numerous class of words from the Polyne sian language are of a more arbitrary character, and generally unconnected with the form of the lan guage. The first dawn of civilization is to be dis covered in this portion ofthe language, as instanced in the names" of the numerals, of the useful plants, the useful animals, and , the metals. The incur- OF THE MALAYS. 45 sions of the great Polynesian language are very extensive, and have evidently displaced many pri mitive words which must have existed in the lan guage ofthe xudest savage, such, for example, as the words sky, moon, mountain, white, black, hand, eye, &c. The Sanskrit enters into the Malay in much smaller proportions than into any dialect of the Java nese, even the most popular, and exists also in less purity. The most usual class of words supplied by the Sanskrit are mythological terms, and words ex pressing the most early class of abstract nouns, such as understanding, prudence, cause, time, &c. The Malayan language, from being written in the Arabic character, and from the more thorough adoption by the people who speak it, than by any other tribe, ofthe law and religion of Mahomed, has admitted the largest portion pf Arabic. Mr Mars- den's account of the introduction of Arabic into this language is equally sensible and correct, and deserves to be quoted at length. " The effects produced," says he, " by the introduction of this re ligion," (the Mahomedan,) " were similar to those which took place in Persia, and many other coun tries where it has prevailed. The use of the Ara bic character superseded that of the ancient mode of writing, and the language became exposed to an inundation of new terms, for the most part theo logical, metaphysical, legal, and ceremonial, the 46 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE knowledge of which is indispensable to those who study the Koran and its commentaries. These terms their writers, in some species of composition, affect to introduce as a proof of their religious as well as of their literary attainments, but few com paratively have been incorporated with, or consti tute a part of the language." " About the num ber of twenty or thirty words may be pointed out as having a claim, from their familiar recurrence, to be considered as Malayan by adoption." * Even these few words are seldom simple terms, but ex press, conformably to the Wants of the language when they were adopted, ideas of considerable ab- stractness, such as ingenuity, cause, doubt, vigour, value, &c. The number of Telinga words in the Malay is considerably greater than supposed by Mr Marsden. They form, however, no intrinsic in gredient of the language. The greater number are commercial terms, and the rest words introdu ced through the medium of translations. One is, indeed, surprised to find the number of words so few, when a well-known fact is adverted to, that much of Malayan learning is at present in the hands of Creole Telingas, in most countries of the Archipelago. * Marsden's Malay Grammar. OF THE MALAYS. 47 Mr Marsden and Dr Leyden * have nearly ex hausted the subject of Malay literature, one in it self not very fruitful. Malay literature bears none of these marks of originality which characterize that of the Javanese. The great bulk of Malayan composition is not metrical, but prosaic ; and it all, or almost all, bears the impression of an Arabic chai'acter. I shall render a brief account, first of their poetry, and then of their prose writings. Their metrical compositions are of two descrip tions, the Pantun and the Sayar. The Pantun is a stanza of four short lines rhyming alternately. The first two lines of the quatrain, in the accurate language of Mr Marsden, " are figurative, con taining sometimes one, but oftener two unconnect ed images ; whilst the latter two are moral, sen timental, or amorous ; and we are led to expect that they should exemplify and constitute the ap plication of the figurative part. They do in some few instances, but, in general, the thought is wrapt in such obscurity, that not the faintest analogy be tween them can be traced, and we are even dis posed to doubt whether any is intended, or occurs otherwise than by chance." These Pantuns are often recited in alternate contest for several hours. Such playful trifles do not deserve the name * Asiatic Researches, Vol. jf. 48 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE o of poetry or literature, and yet they are the only description of composition which can justly be considered national or original among the Malays. It is in the light only of amusing trifles that the Malays themselves, indeed, consider them ; and they are scarcely of higher dignity in their estimation than the nonsensical rhymes which we call crambo are in our own. A few of the best are committed to memory, and we often hear them repeated. The following are favourable specimens : Marak anggok-anggok Marak de-atas kota Bargrak ujung Sanggut Naik sri muka. Tlie peacock nods his head ; The peacock that sits on the castle, When the loose end of her braided hair trembles^ New beauties rise in ber countenance. Trang bulan aram tamaram Hantubarjalan lakki bini. Jangan tuan tararam ararp Saya tiada datang- ka-sini, By the dim light of the moon, Wander spectres of both sexes. Chide me not again, my love, For I will not come hither. Jika tiada karna bulah Musakan bintang timur tinggi. Jika tiada karana tuan Masakan abang datang kamari. of The Malays. 49 But for the moon, Would the eastern star be so high ? But for you, my love, Would your elder brother (lover) come hither ? The Sayar, correctly written Shaiar, . is, as its name imports, of Arabic origin. It is a measure of rhyming couplets, of from eight to twelve syllables to a line, resembling the rhyming metre of the modern languages of Europe. Poems of this de scription are of considerable length, and their sub ject is either an avowed romance, or a scrap of history treated as if it were one. They may truly be said to be poetry only to the eye and the ear, for they are wholly wanting in the essentials of poetry, fancy, and passion. The following is a favourable specimen of the Sayar as rendered into English by Dr Leyden : il When my mistress looks forth from her win dow, her eye sparkling like a star, its brilliant rays glancing and glittering, her elder brother cannot support its lustre. Like the red mango is the hue of her cheek, becoming ber tapering neck, traversed with shadows whenever she swallows. Her features like those ofa shadow or scenic figure j —her forehead like the new moon in its first day ; — her eyebrows curved so fair I could devour her. Long has she been chosen to, be my mistress, — ¦ wearing a ring set with gems of Sailan, — her long VOL. IL D 50 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE nails shining like lightning, transparent as a string of pearls ; — her waist slender, and extremely ele gant; — her neck turned like a polished statue. Eloquent in the enunciation of her words. Her parting words like the crimson red wood ; not by dress, but by herself adorned. Black are her teeth stained with Bqja powder. Graceful, slender, apr pearing like a queen. Her locks adorned with the Saraja flowers ; — her features beautiful, with no defect of symmetry. My soul is often flutter ing, ready to depart ; — glancing eagerly forth from my eyes, and quite unable to return to its station."* Prose composition, the largest portion of Malay an literature, consists chiefly of romances, and of fragments of real story, so garbled and so obscured by fable, as to deserve the same name. The subjects of these are Hindu, Javanese, Arabian, and Telin- ga legends, with some fragments of domestic story of no remote period. The Mahabarat and Rama- yana, through the medium of Javanese paraphra ses, as may be discovered by the intermixture of Javan localities, have afforded the subject of the first. The second consist of the adventures of the hero of Javanese romance, Raden Panji. The Asiatic Researches, Vol. X. OF THE MALAYS. 51 origin of the third is too obvious to be insisted upon ; and that of the fourth is traced to the in timate connection wliich, in modern times, has ex isted between the Malays and the people of Telin- ga, in the progress of which, many of the latter have settled and colonized among the former, ex ercising among them, in many respects, the prero gatives of superior civilization and endowment. A literal or faithful translation from any lan guage is not attempted. Perhaps the extremely opposite genius of the Malay and languages of continental Asia especially, would be hostile to such an undertaking. Were it otherwise, the care less and inaccurate Malays would be found inca pable of accomplishing a work demanding a labour and precision, which is very adverse to the genius of their character. I shall select, as a specimen of their prose com position, an extract from the story of Hang Tuah, Laksimaua, or admiral of the King of Malacca, upon the invasion of Albuquerque, the same chief whose gallantry and patriotism are commemorated by the Portuguese historians. The work affords us but mere glimpses of true history, and is full of fable, anachronism, and discrepancy* but deserves some consideration for the naked -fidelity with which it paints the manners of the Malays of the time. " Satalla sudah, maka minuman pula di angkat &% LANGUA'GE ANDLlTERATURE orang, maka piala yang bartatakkan ratna muttt manikam itu-pun di-paredarkan oranglah pada sa- gala Pagawe dan Patuwanan ; maka rabana pun bar- bunyilah dan baduan yang baik suwara itu-pun barnyanyilah t&rlalu mardu suwaranya ; maka sa- kalian pun ramailah barbangkit manarik; maka Tun Tuah pun manyambah kapada raja muda, lalu barbangkit, sarta mamagang hulu kris panjangtampa Malakatarlalu amat baik sikap-nya manarik itu, lalu barlompat saparti partikaman sarta manyambali la;- lu suka ; maka raja-muda pun suka malihat iya tiada jamu pada mata baganda ; maka didalam hati ba- ganda sunggohlah Tun Tuah ini hulubalang, manis barang lakunya. Satala itu, maka Tun Jabat pun manyambah Raja-muda, lalu manarik ; maka Hang Lakyer dan Hang Lakyu pun mangambil piala dari pada orang mangisi piala itu lalu di-anggapkan pada Hang Kasturi ; maka Hang Kasturi pun ma- nanggap Adipati Palembang, makd, sagala Pagawe dan Patuanan pun barsoraklah tarlalu ramai ; maka Adipati Palembang pun manyambah lalu bangun ma*- narik; maka di-anggap-kanyapada Tun Rana Diraja ; maka Tun Rana Diraja pun manyambah pada Raja- muda lalu bangun manarik ; maka Tun Tuah, Hang Jabat, Hang Kasturi pun mangambil piala itu dari- pada tangan orang mangisi piala itu, maka dipanohi dangan arak, maka di-bawah-nya manarik; maka di- anggapkan kapada Tun Rana Diraja, maka Tun Rana Diraja tiada khabarakan diri, lalu tarduduk, OF THE MALAYS. SS maka Tun Rana Diraja pun tarlalu suka sarta tar- tunggang-tunggang ; maka Raja pun tarlalu suka tartawa malihat kalakuan Tun Rana Diraja mana rik itu ; maka rabana pun tarlalu ramai, maka Raja pun malihat kapada Tun Tuah dangan isharat, manyuroh malarah Tumanggung Sri Sroja ; maka Tun Tuah pun mangambil piala diponohi-nya dangan arak, lalu di-bawah nya manarik, maka ulih Tun Tuahdi-larahkan-nya kapada TumBnggung, sarta kata-nya santap-lah datuh titah duli yang di- partuan muda. Dami di-dangar Tumanggung, maka di-ambil piala itu sarta kata-nya daulat Tuan-ku, maka piala itu-pun di-junjung ulih Tumanggung lalu di-minumnya ; maka Tumanggung manyambah lalu manarik, maka piala pun sabagai di larah orang pada Tumanggung, maka sigra di-ambil ulih Tu manggung piala itu di parsambah-kannya pada Bandahara ; maka sigra di-sambut ulih Bandahara manyambah lalu bangun manaril? dua tiga langka lalu iya malatakkan kris-nya ; maka Bandahara pun sujud pada kaki Raja maka baganda pun tahulah akan kahandak Bandahara itu ; maka baganda pun sigra bangkit dari attas Patrana itu mamaluh leher Bandahara ; maka piala itu-pun di-sambut ulih Ban dahara, lulu di junjung di-minum-nya, maka Ban dahara pun barasa kheallah, maka baganda pun bSrbangkit manarik; maka Bandahara pun mangam bil piala dari-pada orang mangisi piala itu ; maka Bandahara pun barbangkit manarik lalu di-parsam- 54 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE bahkan pada-raja muda ; maka di-sambut raja-muda piala itu lalubarkata, "ayo mama Bandahara uaabuk- lah kita," maka sambah Bandahara daulat Tuan-ku, maka Raja pun duduk, maka sagala Pagawe dan Pa- tuanan habis-lah mabuk, ada yang s&mpat pulang-ka- rumah-nya,ada yang rabah di tangah jalan tartidor, ada yang di usung ulih hamba-nya pulang, tar- banyak pula tidor saganap kadai." " Then the attendants produced the liquors, and cups, studded with precious stones, were placed in order before the chiefs of various ranks. The tabours were sounded. The damsels of sweet voices sung — passing melodious was the air. The guests gave themselves up to pleasure, and rose to dance. The Laksimana began after making his obeisance to the prince. He rose, holding in his hand the head of his long kris, the workmanship of Mal- lacca. Passing good was his figure in the dance ¦—bounding like an experienced stabber, he bow ed to the prince — he was happy. The young prince was delighted with what he saw, and viewed him with eyes unsatiated, saying to himself, assured ly Hang Tuah is a champion— his every gesture is becoming. Tun Jabbat made his obeisance to the young prince, and rose to dance. Lakyer and Lacyu took the cups from those who were employed in filling them. They were pledged by Hang kasturi. Hang kasturi challenged the Adipati of Palembang to the dance. The chiefs, 12 OF THE MALAYS. 55 in their mirth, shouted aloud. The chief of Pa. lembang made his obeisance, and rose to dance. He challenged Tun Rana Diraja. Rana Diraja bowed, and rose. Tun Tuah, Hang Jabbat, and Hang Kasturi, took the cups from the hands-of those employed in filling them, and they filled them with liquor. They danced with the cups in their hands, and challenged Rana Diraja to drink. The reason of Tun Rana Diraja was overpowered — he sat down and nodded as he sat. The young prince was rejoiced, and laughed exceedingly when he beheld the condition of the chief. The tabours were struck anew. The prince glanced at Tun Tuah, hinting to him to press the Tumangung Sri Saroja to drink. Tun Tuah took a cup and filled it up, holding it in his hand while he danced. He replenished it for the Tumangung, and pre senting it, said, ' Drink, my Lord, according to the commands ofthe youthful ruler .of the kingdom.' The Tumangung, hearing the prince's commands, took the cup, and placing it respectfully over his head, drank, bowed, and rose to dance. The attendants plied him with fresh cups. The Tu mangung presented the cup to the Bandahara, which the latter accepted, and rose to dance a few steps, when he laid down his kris, and bowed at the feet of the prince. The prince perceived the wish of the minister. He rose from his seat and embraced him. The Bandahara took the cup 50 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE again,, drank, and was intoxicated. The prince rose and danced. The Bandahara took a cup from the attendants, filled it, danced, and present ed it to the prince. The prince tpok the cup, saying, ** My relation, alas, I am already drunk.' '?' And the chiefs became one and all intoxi cated. Some were just able to reach their own houses — some dropped down and fell asleep on the way — some were carried home by their slaves — and more slept scattered here and there io the stalls of the market-place." Malayan romances, whatever be their origin, are singularly destitute of spirit. To point a mo ral is never attempted ; and the gratification of a puerile and credulous fancy seems the sole object. All prose composition is remarkably monotonous. This arises, perhaps, in a good measure, from the singularly inartificial grammatical form of the lan guage, which admits of no order but the natural order of ideas, and renders it almost impossible to extend a sentence beyond a single clause. This quality of the language, assisted, probably, by that unskilfulness in composition which is natural to the rude period of written language, unaided by metre, gives rise to the practice of marking the be ginning of each sentence by a particle or particles, almost exclusively appropriated to this use, such as now, and, then, moreover, he. The perpetual OF THE MALAYS. 57 recurrence of these adds greatly to the monotony complained of. The Malay language, as now described, had its origin in the interior kingdom of Menangkabao, on Sumatra; from thence it spread to the Malayan peninsula, and here, in all probability, received the cultivation which reduced it to its present form. From the Malayan peninsula, it spread by coloni zation to the coasts of Borneo, and back to Suma tra ; and some straggling adventurers carried the partial, use of it to the coasts of Java, Celebes, and the countries farther east. The great defect of this language for composi tion, its simplicity of structure, is the very quality to which it chiefly owes its currency among fo reigners. It is the lingua franca of the Archipe lago, the medium of intercourse between the na tives of those countries themselves, as well as be tween the latter and every description of strangers. It is farther fitted for ready acquirement, by the frequency of liquid and vocalic sounds, and by the absence of consonants of harsh or difficult enun ciation. In speaking and in writing, it has the same sort of currency, but a greater degree of it, that the Persian language has in Hindustan.* Those * " The language (Malay) in these parts is no less epidemick than are the Latine, Arabick, and Sclavonian elsewhere." — Herbert's Travels, p. 366. 58 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE," &C. who read and write a language written in the same character with the Koran, pride themselves on the circumstance, and view with some contempt those whose learning is expressed in a profane alphabet. There is a surprising uniformity in the language of all the Malayan tribes, both oral and written, a circumstance to be attributed to the similarity of their situations, and the stationary condition of their manners throughout, since the period when their language assumed its present form. The language of the people of Menangkabao* the pa rent tribe, differs most from the rest. As far as I can judge, the best Malay is written and spoken in the state of Queda, of Keddah. Here, at least, the Malays are most anxious about the purity of their language, and most scrupulous in excluding foreign words. In the neighbourhood of the other great tribes of the Archipelago, the language is often corrupted by admixture with their dialects; and in the vicinity of former, or existing European es tablishments, by a mixture of Portuguese and Dutch, still more incompatible with its genius. CHAPTER III. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE OF CELEBES. A wide Difference between the Languages ofthe Eastern and Western portions ofthe Archipelago. — Alphabet qf Celebes. — Two great Languages spoken in Celebes, the Bugis and Macassar. — Character of both Their Literatare. — Speci men qf their Poetry. — Composition and Derivation ofthe Languages ofthe Eastern portion qf the Archipelago. . I he moment we pass the island of Lombok, pro ceeding eastward, striking features of difference are, to the most ordinary observer, discernible in the manners, customs, and state of civilization of the people of the Indian islands. The great island of Celebes is the centre from which that peculiar description of civilization which characterizes this portion of the Archipelago seems to have emanated. The eastern portion of the Archipelago has, in deed, received improvement through the more ge neral sources of civilization, of which all the nations have par taken ; but a more local one seems to have likewise operated. 60 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE * The languages and literature of Celebes, though in many features of resemblance partaking of the character of those of the more western countries, differ very essentially from them. The alphabet, in the first place, takes a new character ; the letters of which it consists taking a new form, as little like that of the Javanese as the latter is to the Arabic or Roman. The alphabet of Celebes consists of eighteen consonants and five vowels, to which are added, sometimes, four supplemental consonants, being merely four of the first eighteen aspirat ed, and an additional vowel. It is singular that thp peculiar and technical classification of the Sanskrit alphabet should have been adopted in the alphabet of Celebes, though rejected in that of Java. - ^ Besides the dialects of some abject savages and of some tribes more improved, two great languages prevail in Celebes, the language of the Bugis and Macassars, as they are denominated by the people of the western portion pf the Archipelago, and from them by us ; or Wugi and Mangkasara, as they call themselves. The Bugis is the language of the more powerful and numerous natipn, and the most cultivated and copious. The Macassar is more simple in structure, abounds less in syno nyms, and its literature is more scanty, Both partake of the common simplicity in structure pf OF CELEBES. 6j all the languages of the Archipelago, and are dis tinguished above all, even the Malay, for a soft and vocalic pronunciation. Of the two the Ma cassar possesses this property in the most eminent degree. Except the soft nasal ng, no word or syl lable in either language ever ends in a consonant, and no consonant ever coalesces with another; The organs of the people seem hardly capable of pronouncing a consonant so situated, so that even foreign words, when used, or adopted in the lan guage, must undergo the change implied in this principle of orthoepy, whether they be from the guttural Arabic, the grunting Dutch, or the his sing English. The best Macassar is spoken in the state of Goa or Macassar Proper, and the worst in the principality of Turatea, the inhabitants of which are, by their fastidious neighbours, accused of injur ing its natural softness by an uncouth pronuncia tion. The Bugis are said to be possessed of a recon- - dite and ancient language parallel to the Kawi of Java and the Pali of the Buddhist nations ; but the knowledge of it is confined to a very few, and I have met no specimens. The learning of the Macassars, as already men tioned, is inconsiderable ; but the Bugis have a considerable body of literature, which consists of tales and romances founded on national legends and traditions, — translations of Malayan and Java- 62 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE nese romances,— historical accounts of their trans actions since the introduction of Mahomedanism, and works on law and religion from the Arabic. All of them, frpm the most authentic t accounts which I haye been able to collect, are characterized bythe same feebleness, childishness, and extreme credulity, which I have ascribed to Javanese li terature, and probably they are still more tame and infantine. When the reasoning faculties are less concerned than the passions, the poetry of the na tions of Celebes, who possess more individual ener gy of character than any other people of the Ar chipelago, and among whom women, in particular, enjoy privileges seldom yielded to them among barbarians, may be expected to assume a more re spectable character. The following love song from the Macassar, though under the disadvantage of a translation through the Malay, may still be ad duced as evidence in favour of this supposition. " Let the world disapprove of thee, I love thee still. When two suns appear at once in the sky, my love for thee may be altered. Sink into the earth, or pass through the fire, and I will follow thee. I love thee, and our love is reciprocal, but fate keeps us asunder. May the gods bring us to* gether, or to me this love will be fatal, I should count the mpment of meeting more precious than that of entering the fields of bljgg. Be angry with OF CELEBES. 6$ me, or cast me aside, still my love shall not change. Nothing but your image meets the eye of my fan cy, whether I sleep or wake. Visions alone are propitious to my passion ; in these only 1 see thee and converse with thee. When I expire, let it not be said that I died by the ordinary decrees of fate, but say that I died through love of thee. What are comparable to the delightful visions which paint my love so fresh tp my fancy ? Let me be separated from my native country, and at a distance from thee, still my heart is not far from thee. In my sleep, how often am I found wan dering about and going in search of thee, hoping, perchance, I may find thee ?" The Bugis, as the most copious and ancient tongue, and that of the most numerous and power ful people, may be looked upon, reasonably, as that which has exerted upon the cpgnate languages of the eastern pprtion of the Archipelago the local influence to which I have alluded. These tongues, as, for example, the languages of Sambawa, Flores, Timur, Butung, Salayer, &e. may be said to be composed of the following materials : --the original meagre dialect of each savage tribe --r-the IJugis-— the great Polynesian language-- the Sanskrit — the Arabic, with trifling admixtures of the same ingredients mentioned in speaking of the composition of the Javanese. The Macassar &4i LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE and Bugis languages have a great many wofds- in common, but they have many, too, radical and in- Variable, which bear no resemblance ; they are in timately connected, but are not dialects of one tongue, and the people who .speak them are mu tually unintelligible to each other. The pro portion in which the great Polynesian language enters into those of Celebes may be judged of from this, that in a short vocabulary of the Bugis, about one-fourth is discovered to be of that com mon tongue. It may be remarked, that words of this elass, still current in Celebes, are frequently such as in the languages of the western portion of the Archipelago have become obsolete, or are ap propriated to more solemn occasions than those of Common life. Of the Sanskrit portion of the Celebesian lan guages, the quantity, compared to that in the Ja vanese, or even Malay, is inconsiderable. The words will be found to be mostly religious terms, or the names of substances, theuse of which has been introduced among the people from India. Every language of the Archipelago will be found to have. ingrafted Upon it a quantity of Sanskrit, propor tioned to the extent to which it has been itself cul tivated; or, which is nearly the same thing, to the civilization of the people who speak it. The1 people of Celebes, and their language, are less im proved than those of the western islands* generafc OF CELEBES. 65 ly ; and this accounts for the paucity of Sanskrit in their language. Their greater distance from the original source of that language, the continent of India, will cpntribute to produce the same ef fect. vol. ir. CHAPTER IV. MINOR LANGUAGES OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. The Javanese, the Malay, the Bugis, and. Macas sar, of which an account has been rendered in the three preceding chapters, are the most cultivated languages of the Archipelago. Besides the many unwritten languages of negro and brown-com- plexioned savages, there are many written lan guages of tribes less powerful and cultivated than the great nations of Java, Sumatra, and Celebes. These are the Batta, Rejang, and Lampung of Sumatra; the Sunda of Java, the Madurese, the Bali, and Lombok ; and to the east, some lan guages written in the character of Celebes, as those of Sambawa, Butung, &c. Of most of these, copious examples are given in the vocabulary ; and I shall content myself here with offering a brief sketch of one or two of those, concerning wliich I have received the best information. The Sunda is the language of the mountaineers ofthe western part of Java, of perhaps one-third of the area of the island, but, in round numbers, MINOR LANGUAGES, &C. Qj probably of not more than of one-tenth of its in habitants. The number of consonants in the Sunda is eigh teen, the cerebral* d and t of the Javan alphabet being wanting. Besides the ordinary vowels of the Javanese, they have several uncouth sounds, si milar to those which prevail in the Celtic dialects, and which, as speech becomes more cultivated, ap pear in all ages and countries to be laid aside. Contrary to the practice of the Javanese, a word or syllable may in the Sunda begin with a vowel ; nay two vowels may immediately follow each other, without any contrivance to obviate the hiatus that is the consequence. Words are devoid of any inflection that marks gender, number, relation, time, or mode. The possessive or genitive case of nouns is determined by position, the first of two nouns being the go verning one. This seems an universal rule in the structure of the languages of the Indian islands. Actual property in an object, is expressed by a distinct term, (boga,) importing this sort of rela- * " This series of consonants is pronounced by turning and applying the tip of the tongue far back against the palate, which, producing a hollow sound as if proceeding from the head, it is distinguished by the term Murddhanya, which Mr Halhed, in his elegant grammar of the Bengal language, hai translated cerebral." — Wilkins' Sanskrit Grammar, p. 8. 68 MINOR LANGUAGES tion. The dative and ablative cases are express ed by prepositions, and the objective or accu sative case simply marked by the precedence of the transitive verb, without a preposition. The pronouns are peculiar. The tenses of the verb are formed by auxiliaries, but of these there are but two, One implying a perfect past, and another a future. A passive voice is formed by prefixing an inseparable particle, (deb) The verb is changed from a neuter to a transitive sense, by prefixing an inseparable particle (ma,) or, occasionally, by sub joining another (an,) or by both contrivances united. These few words comprehend the grammar of this most simple and inartificial tongue. The disposition, in the circumstances of society in the Indian islands, to form a language of defer ence and respect, is discoverable in the simple speech of the Sundas ; but it is not carried far, being confined to some words of most familiar oc currence, as the' pronouns, the names of parts of the body, and of the relations of consanguinity., There are no books in the Sunda language, for the Sundas have no national literature. The few who have any education aim at a little instruction in Arabic and Javanese, and even business is gene rally conducted in the latter. The Madurese is the language of the island of Madura, and of the emigrants from that island on OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 69 Java, in round numbers of probably three hundred thousand people ; a people inhabiting a poorer soil, and more rude and needy than the Javanese. Ma dura is separated from Java by a strait, in one place hardly two miles broad, yet the languages of the two islands are scarcely more like than any o- ther two languages of the western portion of the Archipelago. All the observations made respecting the Sunda language apply generally to the rude and uncul tivated dialect of Madura. Like it, its consonant sounds are, by two, fewer than those of the Java nese ; and it has, like it, some uncouth vocalic sounds. Upon the whole, the language of the Madurese is a more copious and cultivated speech than that of the Sundas, as they are themselves a more improved race. The refinement, of its kind, implied by the dialect of ceremony, takes a wider range, and Che language is occasionally the medium of epistolary correspondence. Still the Javanese is the language of literature and important busi ness ; and literary education implies a knowledge of it. The Balinese is the sole language of the island of Bali, throughout all its states, and has been of late years spread by conquest to the island of Lom- bok. If the accounts we receive of the popula tion of Bali can be relied on, it is spoken by half a million of people. It is a rude, simple, and pe-. 70 MINOR LANGUAGES, &C. culiar dialect, more improved, however, than the languages of the Sundas and Madurese ; and in particular, having a copious and refined language of deference, borrowed from the Sanskrit and Javanese. The language of law, literature, and religion, is the Kawi of Java, which, as written and taught in Bali, offers no new feature of distinction. The literature of the Balinese seems to be the same as that of the Javanese in the days of their Hindu ism ; and the ancient indigenous legends of the Javanese are as well known in Bali as in their pa rent island' Alpliabets not arranged. tteeording to iftejOewaJLagrh cl/tssificatLon,. MiDDEM JAVAIESE ALPHABHT. * Open, Consonants, which, the 'Vowels a or o are always understood, to follow . ' Jlo np cho to ho - r jnediaL y no mnrksdi^lermJjLaiLoiL ,\~0 TO SO "DO GO SO (-6 / J "J OiZO- r™171™ np mi rus^ ms\ >£ Vowels and orthographical marks l a ^ a. e Beffintdng or a njur measure. Beginning ofaStaTixn. feru>d. (g» ¦ gag" gnr > BATIK. a . A? S^T ~ TA- o. it,. c=z x XJ ^ <-^ J IP n\ i/^ oy3 $S l/i \) ~^~- 3 /""""x Specimen, of Javanese, writing. rnirOTiMLnn^nji^nmn^rn^^ ^ 4 I te ,! ! te ^ ^ !* 1* « 'K \ K ^ 4 V M a » ¦~ i h ? C x» 3s e r v ? o < VV •f 7 c • a (' > r > «*< r« <' 1 '(< I ci ¦ a c(' 't (•V »--¦». "*' (• 1 0 CHAPTER V. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. Resemblance between tlie whole of the Languages of the Indian Archipelago. — Resemblance in Sound. — In Grammatical form.- In Idiom. -Redundancy on some Subjects and poverty on others. — Great variety qf Written Character. — Three Alpha bets on Sumatra. — One on Celebes. — A current and obsolete Alphabet on Java.-~-East-imsidar Alphabets cannot be traced to the Hindus. — The improved Languages maybe resohed infoseven component parti. —Radical portion qf each language distinct. — Languages numerous in each Country in the di rect ratio qf their Barbarity. — Arguments in Favour qf an aboriginal Language with each Tribe. — Great Polynesian Language. — Pervades the^whole ofthe languages of Polyne sia. — Words of this Language most numerous inthe most cul tivated Dialects. — Nature qf this Class qf Words. — Conjec tures respecting the People qfwhom the Great Polynesian was the Language. — Arguments in favour qf Java being their country. — Influence qf the Polynesian long prior to that qf the Sanskrit. — Cognate Languages. — Probable history qf their Reciprocal Influence on each other, illustrated in the In fluence ofthe Malay on thetieighbouring Languages. — Ex* amples of that Influence, illustrated*"m the History of ihe Malay Language^— Sanskrit Words admitted into all the improved Languages, — Probable history qf its Introduc tion, and arguments in Support of the Hypothesis adduced, — Kawi, a recondite Language, how formed. — Sanskrit 72 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE words probably in great part disseminated among the other Languages through the Language, qf Java.— Introduc tion of Arabic Its History and Extent. — lis Genius very incompatible with that qf the East- Insular Lan guages. — Other Oriental Languages introduced into the Dia lects of the Archipelago.— Telinga. — Persian. — Chinese. — ; European Languages. In the general character, particular form, and ge nius, of the innumerable languages spoken within the limits of the Indian islands, there is a remark able resemblance, while all of them differ widely from those of every other portion of the world. This observation extends to every country, from the north-western extremity of Sumatra, to the western shores of New Guinea, and may be even carried to Madagascar to the west, the Phillipines to the east, and the remotest of Cook's discoveries to the south. * The first point of similitude to whichlshajl refer, is that of sound or pronunciation. Twenty consonants and five vowels are the great est variety which these languages generally admit. Two diphthong sounds only are found. In some of the more barbarous dialects, to be sure, the vocalic sounds appear to a stranger more various ; but a minuter acquaintance discovers some of these to be no more than uncouth substitutes for more ordinary sounds. * Archeologia, Vol. VI. POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 73 The resemblance in grammatical structure is not less curious. The languages are invariably of sim ple structure. There is not one tongue within the whole Archipelago of complex form, like the great original languages of Europe and Asia. The rela tions of nouns are formed by prepositions; the tenses of verbs by auxiliaries ; the passive forms by the prefixing of particles ; and the transitive by affixing them in a manner extremely analogous in all. * In idiom and genius the parallel is still more complete ; and here, indeed, we are less surprised that the character of various tribes, liowever dis tinct in their origin, yet formed under similar cir cumstances, should have stamped a character on their languages, than when we find the same cause extending to the very sounds and grammatical forms of their dialects. Of similarity of idiom one example will be conclusive. The sun is expressed in at least ten languages of the Archipelago by a compound epithet, which means " the eye of day." Yet the words are frequently dissimilar in sound, each lan guage rendering it by its own vocables. In all the more improved tongues we discover, throughout, tbe same redundancy of expression on familiar subjects, and the same poverty on higher and more abstract ones. For the former, the Javanese has often ten synonyms, and the Bugis six or seven, the Malay * The adjective always follows the noun j dinl the first of two nouns is invariably the governing one. 7* GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE frequently four or five ; but for abstract words, parti cularly such as relate to the operations of the mind, and which are familiar in the most barbarous ages of European languages, the deficiency of every one of the Polynesian languages is pitiable. For mind we have nothing but the metaphorical sense of the word heart ; for understanding we are driven to the Sanskrit or Arabic ; for memory we have no thing but the verb to remember, used substantive ly ; for friendship we fly again to the Arabic ; for dissimulation, scholars have got up an awkward translation, meaning" a heart alary ; for merit there is no word at aU ; for modesty none but the one that expresses shame ; for integrity no expression what ever ; for right, expressing either just claim, or ex pressing property, none ; for reason none ; for ar~ gument none.* Whenever we press the languages of the oriental islands into our service on such occa sions, we offer violence to their genius. The peo ple are strangers to the modes of expression in which such words are necessary, and when foisted into their language, the result is ambiguity or non sense. The East- Insular languages, then, may just ly be characterised as not copious, but wordy. There are no less than five written characters known among the nations of the Indian islands, * Not one of the East-Insular languages distinguishes be tween air at rest and air in motion ; there is, in fact, no na tive terra for -wind. POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 75 without mentioning the Roman or Arabic charac ters, the latter of which is of universal use among the nations which speak the Malay language ; the Tagala of the Phillippines, and the obsolete cha racter of the Sundas of Java. These five cha racters are in form as distinct, and in charac ter as unlike, as can well be supposed in alpha bets which, represent languages so similar in sound and formation ; and I see no rational ground for concluding that they are from one origin. How ever we may pretend to refine on the difficulties of inventing alphabets, there is one fact which we cannot keep out of sight, that all alphabets what ever have been inventions of rude and barbarous ages ; of ages so remote, that in all parts of the world they are beyond the reach of historical re cord. There seems no cause to exclude the bar barians of the Indian islands from the list of those who invented alphabets. Alphabets, like other great inventions, were, no doubt, the discoveries of highly gifted geniuses, who anticipated their time and nation by many ages ; and it would be unfair to attempt to trace their invention by referring to the general state of mind in the barbarous nations which possess them. The great number of these alphabets, while no less than three of them exist on one island, has been looked upon as a singular and puzzling fact ; but it appears rather a proof ofthe im perfect intercourse which existed in early times be tween the different tribes or nations ofthe same coun- 76 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE try. The inhabitants of Sumatra have three distinct characters ; but Sumatra is a great island little cul tivated, and the intercourse between its inhabitants is very inconsiderable. The aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo are a few miserable savages, who never had an alphabet. The inhabitants of Celebes, who are not savages, occupy but a small portion of it ; and, besides, from the geographical character of their island, must always have been a maritime people, which implies considerable and easy inter course. The two nations of Java have, it may be alleged^ but one alphabet ; but then nine-tenths of the population are one people, and the weaker and more barborous were subjected to the more power ful and civilized ; not to say thaf on ancient and rude stones we still discover, among the Sundas, the vestiges of a national alphabet, supplanted by that of their conquerors. Attempts have been made to trace the written characters of the Indian islands to a Hindu origin ; but of this hypothesis it may be remarked, that while the portion of the language of the Hindus which is contained in those of the Indian islands is distinctly from one origin, and bears the most uni form mar^ts of identity among the most distant tribes, ihejive alphabets are not only themselves dissimilar, but quite unlike to any ancient or mo dern written character of India. The arguments used in favour of the Indian origin of the alpha*; POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 77 bets of the Archipelago, are their being written from right to left, the principle of their for mation, and their peculiar classification ; while their diverging from the parent alphabet, with their own dissimilarity, are left to be accPunted for by the effects of time, and by the difference brought about by the practice of writing, in some cases on paper, or scratching, in others, on palm leaves. The first argument is not worth examining, or at least is fully refuted, by the circumstance of one of the five alphabets being written, not from the right to the left, nor from the left to the right, but, fantastically, from the bottom to the top of the page. In the principle of formation, the only strik ing similarity is in the consonants always implying the short vowel a though not expressed ; and with respect to the classification, this is not universal, it happening that two of the alphabets, that of the Battaks and Javanese, believed to be the most an cient, and the latter, undoubtedly, that of the most . polished language, are not classed according to the Dewanagri order, but in an arbitrary manner. It is curious to discover, at the same time, the alpha bet of the distant island of Celebes classed on the Hindu principle. An additional argument may be drawn from the fact of inscriptions, in the true Detvanagari character being found in Java, among those in the national character. The fact seems to be, both with respect to the 78 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE M principle of formation and classification, that they might have been modified on the introduction of Hinduism by the priests of- that religion ; and, if we reflect that, in the early age of letters in every country, learning is entirely in the hands of the priesthood, and rather an instrument of priestcraft than of common utility to the society, we can readily understand how easily such a modification might have been introduced. Time, and the circumstance of writing, either on 1 paper, or - palm leaves, or bark, must be deemed wholly inadequate to account for the difference be tween the different Polynesian alphabets and the supposed parent alphabet. The alphabet of Java is written to-day with little or no difference on Bali, and on Palembang in Sumatra* after the inter course between them has been interrupted for be tween three and four hundred years, and although in Java the character be, almost always, written on paper, and in Bali invariably on the Palmyra leaf. Any of the languages of the more improved tribes of the Archipelago, may be resolved into the seven following component parts : 1. The primitive language of the rude horde with which the tribe originated, which may be looked upon as the radical portion of the language. 2. The Great Polynesian language, a language which extends its influence from Madagascar to New Guinea and the South Sea Islands. 3, The language of the 6 POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 79 tribe or tribes in its immediate neighbourhood. 4. The Sanskrit, or ancient language of India. 5. The Arabic. 6. A few words of other Asiatic languages ; and, 7> A still smaller portion of the languages of Europe. Each of these will demand some observations. In the infancy of society, in every part of the world, men are broken into small communities, numerous in proportion to their barbarism, and, as they improve, tribes and hordes become nations, extensive according to the degree of their civiliza tion. Languages follow the same progress. In the savage state they are great in number, — in im proved societies few. The state of languages on the American continent, affords a convincing il lustration of this fact, and it is not less satisfac torily explained in that of the Indian islands. The negro races, who inhabit the mountains of the Malayan peninsula, in the lowest and most abject state of social existence, though numerically few, are divided into a great many distinct tribes, speaking as many different languages. Among the rude and scattered population of the island of Timor, it is believed that not less than forty lan guages are spoken. On Ende and Flores we have also a multiplicity of languages ; and, among the cannibal population of Borneo, it is not improbable that many hundreds are spoken. Civilization ad vances as we proceed westward ; and in the con- 80 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE siderable island of Sambawa there are but five tongues ; in the civilized portion of Celebes, not more than four ; in the great island of Sumatra, not above six ; and in Java but two. Abundant proof of the existence of a distinct language in each tribe, may be adduced. The languages are of course original and unmixed, in proportion as circumstances have kept the tribes distinct. Colour, complexion, and physical con figuration, have naturally kept the negro tribes dis tinct from the brown-coloured races, and their lan guages are, therefore, nearly in a state of pristine originality. The languages spoken by the negro races which inhabit the mountains of the Malayan Archipelago, hardly contain a word in common with the languages of the brown-coloured civihzed races, and differ so much from those of each other, that Malayan interpreters must be employed to conduct the petty intercourse which now and then takes place between them. The languages of Tambora, Ternati, Ceram, and Saparua, have hardly a word of the more improved dialects of the Archipelago, and differ, just as widely, from the languages of the negroes at the other extremity of the Archipelago. These are the languages of some of the least improved tribes with which we are acquainted. The evidence of an original language with every primitive horde, is even to be discovered POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 81 still, in the more improved and mixed dialects. This is most remarkable in the class of words con nected with the metaphysical structure of language, and which, from their very nature, did not admit of being displaced by foreign words, such as the substantive and auxiliary verbs ; the prepositions representing the most abstract of the relations of cases ; the termination representing a possessive case, and the inseparable particles representing a passive and a transitive signification ofthe verb ; and, perhaps, above all, the common class of particles. * The merit of distinctly pointing out the existence of a great Polynesian language, as pervading the Indian Archipelago, belongs to Mr Marsden ; of all the writers who have treated of the literature, his tory, or manners of the Archipelago, the most la borious, accurate, able, and original ; and previous to whose writings we possessed neither correct nor philosophical accounts of these singular countries, t * " The particles of every language shall teach them whi ther to direct and where to stop their inquiries, for wherever the evident meaning and origin of the put cles of any lan guage can be found, there is the certain source of the whole." Diversions of Purl ey, Vol. I. p. 147- -\ The learned Reland point's -out the extr .ordinary connec tion between the Malay, the other languages of the Archipe lago, and the Madagascar, but he draws no important or inte resting conclusion from this singular fact — Diss. XL De Un guis Insularum Orientalium. VOL. ir. F • 82 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE In collating the languages of the Archipelago, the most ordinary observer must bP struck with the prodigious number of words in all the more civi lized languages, radically and essentially the same. Such words are numerous in proportion to the civi lization of each tribe^ and are few in proportion to its rudeness ; until, among the utter savages, ex cluded by circumstances from all intercourse with the greater tribes, hardly a parallel w6rd is to be discovered. The first point in an investigation into this curious subject is, to determine the nature and character of the class of words which is com- mon to the more civilized dialects ; but words of this nature are so various and extensive, that the selection becomes a matter of difficulty and nicety. If, on the one hand, words of this class be less essential to each language than its own ra dical stock, they are, on the other, more necessary to it, as the language of an improved community, than the Sanskrit, commonly the medium pf intro ducing words mpre extrinsic and adventitious. I would say, generally, that the class of words indi- - eating the existence of a great Polynesian language are generally such as indicate the first and neces sary great steps in the progress of civilization ; ar guing thence, that civilization and improvement e- manated from the people who spoke it. The fol lowing may be enumerated as examples : — the names of useful plants and grains, such as rice, 10 POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 8S Indian corn, sugar cane, &c. ; words connected with the necessary arts, .such as modes of husbandry, weaving, the names of the useful metals, and of do mestic animals. The word for weaving, the shuttle, . the warp and the woof, are, as far as my informa tion extends, the same in every language of the Archipelago. Iron and gold are generally known by the same terms ; but silver and copper, of fo reign introduction, are usually known by a Sans krit name. The domestic animals are commonly known by one general name ; while the wild ones of the same race, in those countries where they are indigenous, have a distinct name in each sepa rate dialect. Words connected with arts so simple and neces sary as to imply no invention, but which must at once have occurred to the most untutored savages, will be found distinct in each language. In such arts, the use of the rattan and bamboo, the na tive and abundant growth of every country of the Archipelago, is perpetually implied, and these plants, therefore, retain their primitive names in every separate language. One of the most striking examples of the influ ence of a general Polynesian language in the civi lization of the ruder tribes, may be adduced from a collation of the numerals of the different langua ges. We are not to suppose that even the rudest tribes required to be taught the rudiments of an art which has its origin in the very nature of man 84 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE and language, but the extension and improvement of that art may evidently be traced to one source. The numerals, of the more improved tribes are, with few exceptions, and making proper allowance for variation of orthography, the same in all. In ail, however, relics of an original enumeration may be discovered. In the less improved, these relics are considerable in the lower part of the scale. In a few, the original numerals continue unaltered so far ; but in the higher, all agree in in borrowing from the same source— from the great Polynesian. * Besides the class of words now alluded to, a very considerable number of the most familiar and or dinary words of every language will be found the same throughout the more cultivated langua ges ; such words, for example, as sun, moon, star, sky, stone, earth, fire, water, eye, nose, foot, hand, blood, dead. The existence of a class of words of this descrip tion will hardly be explained by any influence short of domination and conquest, or of great admixture, which implies, in that state of society, nearly the same thing. As questions- of deep and curious interest, it will occur to ask, — what was the nation whose lan- * The subject of the numerals will be found discussed more at length in another chapter. * POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 85 guage produced so strange and extensive an influ ence, — where its country, — what its state of society, — and what its name and history ? On the evidence of language, we may pronounce as to the state of civilization of such a nation, that they had made some progress in agriculture, — that they understood the use of iron, — had artificers in this metal, and in gold ; perhaps made trinkets of the latter, — were clothed with a fabric made ofthe fibrous bark of plants, which they wove in the loom, — were ignorant of the manufacture, of cotton cloth, which was acquired in after times from the continent of India, — had tamed the cow and buf falo, and applied them to draught and carriage, — • and the hog, the domestic fowl, and the duck, — and used them for food. Such a nation, in all proba bility, was in a state of social advancement beyond the ancient Mexicans ; for they not only under stood the use of iron, and of the larger animals, which the Mexicans did not, but the wide spread of their language across many seas proves that they had made considerable progress in maritime skill, which the Mexicans had not. If they possessed the art of writing, and a national kalendar, the pro bability of which will be afterwards shown, their superiority was still more decided. There is no living language of the Archipelago, and still less of any nation, modern or ancient, be yond its limits, which can be denominated the pa rent stock of the Great Polynesian language. It 86 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE was, in all likelihood, a language of the Archipe lago itself ; Of a nation who inhabited a favourable and centrical situation ; and who, from these causes, first emerged from the savage state, and were af terwards enabled to disseminate civilization over the rest of the Archipelago in unequal portions, according as the various tribes were qualified, from distance, local situation, fertility or barren ness of territory, and even from fortuitous circum stances, to receive it. Java, the only country which deserves the name of improved, and the only one which, to our know ledge, ever had an extensive population, united as one nation, is that country of the Archipelago to which I am inclined to look as the seat of the an cient nation to which I allude. To the evidence thus derived from probability, we can add a few collateral illustrations from the source of lan guage. In the collation of the languages of the Archipelago, we soon discover a curious variety in the orthography of the same word, carried, in- 2 ^ deed, on some occasions, to such an extent, that it requires a knowledge of the principle on which these corruptions came about, and some skill in the application, to trace a word to its proper root. To ascertain the primitive stock of a word, there are four tests which may be applied : lst, The manner in which commutable consonants are used : 2d, The manner in which one class of vowels is changed into anotHlr : 3d, The use of POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 87 / abbreviation in the derivative tongue ; and, 4th, The figurative use of words in the same, when they can be distinctly traced to a literal one in the primitive language. I shall at present consider the three first tests only, reserving my account of the third for the discussion respecting the influ ence of the minor and neighbouring languages on each other. Tried by these tests, the lan guage of Java comes the nearest to the pure source of the Great Polynesian language, and thence arises the presumption, that Java was the country of the nation who spoke it. The most usual examples of commutation of consonants are, w into b, d into j, r into d, y into j, and ch into s, or p. In the more bar barous languages, we find / corrupted into r, p into f, and b into p. Watu, a stone in Ja vanese, becomes in Malay batu. Warak, a rhi noceros, in Malay, becomes badak, the same word affording two instances of commutation. Corrup tions analogous to these are what are made on Sanskrit words introduced into the vernacular language^ of India; and it is a striking corrobora tion of the argument in favour of the antiquity of of the Javanese, that, in other languages, the Ma lay for example, the very same corruptions are made upon Sanskrit words, while, in Javanese, they are preserved unaltered. It may be worth while giving a few examples: Wichaksana in Sanskrit is ixi* IV^alay bijdksana ; wichara be- 88 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE comes bachara, imlawargah, lalurga ; daksinet is taksina, hangsa, gangsa; and randa,janda. In Javanese, the orthography of these words is pre served with perfect purity, exactly parallel to the manner in which it preserves words of the great Polynesian language. In derivative languages, not only are the harsh consonants of the primitive language softened, but its broad vowels assume a more slender sound. Such changes are, I believe, constantly effected in the English upon Saxon roots, and they perpe tually occur to us in comparing other languages of the Archipelago with the Javanese. I take my examples from the Malay, the only language fami liar enough to me to enable me to institute such a comparison. Here we find the short ii of our orthography changed into Italian i, long ii into short ii, or into i or e, and broad o into short u or a. Thus jdnnak, tame, in Javanese, becomes in Malay jinak ; pochot, to pluck up, pachat ; and suruh, betle pepper, sireh. Of the disposition in the derivative language to substitute vowels or soft consonants for consonants of difficult utterance, innumerable examples may be adduced. Nganteh in Javanese becomes ganteh in Malay, mliwis becomes blibis, and ngasap be comes isap ; woh becomes buah, and ros ruas. Sometimes to obviate a hiatus a consonant seems to be interposed, and on this principle I account for wos in Javanese, supposing it to be the root, POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 89 taking the following singular and various shapes. In Malay it is bras, in Sunda bias, in Bali bahas, in Bugis werasa, in Macassar berasa, in Samang bayas, and in Dayak bahas. Some of the more eastern languages demand euphonic rules peculiar to themselves. It seems adverse to their genius that any word should end in a consonant, with the exception of the soft nasal ng. It seems equally adverse to the genius of their pronunciation that one consonant should coalesce with another. It is in consequence of this that we sometimes see a vowel added or intervened, a terminating conso nant rejected or commuted for the favourite nasal ; so that we have, on this principle, bulan, the moon, converted in Macassar into bulang ; kilat, lightning, in Macassar and Bugis into kila ; guntur, thunder, into gunturu ; and, with some more violence bun, dew, into apung. This variety of orthography and pronunciation may be contrasted with the singular uniformity of a word made up of what I may call the favourite* sounds of the East-Insular languages, which for the vowels arebroada, and Italian u, a, and i, and for the consonants n, k, t, s, p, g and ng. In words where these sounds prevail the uniformity is surprising. Maize is for instance called jagung unalterably in every language of the Indian islands that I have heard of ; a board is with equal uni formity papan, the sky langit, the earth tanah, and the eye mata. 90 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE If on the *philological principles here assumed the Javanese form of words is to be considered as approaching the nearest to the speech of the an cient race whom I have supposed to have dissemi nated its language and civilization over the other nations and tribes of the Archipelago, to enable us to consider that language consistent with itself, we must look upon it from very early times as a writ ten language ; for it is a fact fully understood, that oral utterance and the ear are altogether in adequate to the preservation of the integrity of sounds ; a fact nowhere more amply and satisfac torily illustrated than among the languages of the Indian islands, where those that have a written cha racter preserve a surprising consistency, while the more barbarous wanton in the wildest and most fantastic corruptions. Two examples will suffice. In every cultivated, or, which is the same thing, every written language, the moon is invariably wu- lan or bulan, but wjien they cease to be written we have the following variations : in the Lombok* Ulan ; in the Gorongtalo, ulano ; in the Ceraniy bulante; in Bima, wurah; and in the Menado,, thoroughly mangled, lelehon. -In the greater num ber of the written languages wulu or bulu is a hair ; in the unwritten we have the following whim- sical corruptions :.. in the Butung, welua ,¦ in Go rongtalo, woho ; in Minado, wuhuk ; in Ceram* Vahura ; in Ende, abbreviated as well as corrupted POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES! 91 fu >• in the language of the Friendly Islands, furu or fulu ; in that of New Zealand, ruru ; and in that of Madagascar, volo. * As an argument against the antiquity of the Ja vanese, and of Java being the country of the great Polynesian language, it may be urged, that many words are common to several of the Insular dialects not known in modern Javanese ; that in the Sunda, the language of Madura and those of Celebes for example, many words are found, which rather ap pear to point out the Malay than the Javanese as the more primitive language. Most ofthe consider able languages of the Archipelago have, as will be pointed out afterwards, produced a considerable influence on each other, but the greater number of the words in question are to be accounted for on a different principle. They are, in fact, words of the great Polynesian language, sometimes become obsolete in one language and sometimes in another, according to the accidents of time and the caprice of manners. For the satisfaction of the critical reader, I shall give a few examples. The follow ing words of ordinary or familiar Malay, are no longer known in modern Javanese, but occur in the languages of several of the surrounding tribes, * Hawkeswortli's Voyages, Vol. II. Cook's Voyage, Vol. III. Burney 's History of Voyages and Discoveries, Vol. II, Madagascar, by Robert Drury, p. 459. 92 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE and are certified to have once belonged to the peo ple of Java, by their existence (amidst a crowd of words still current) in the ancient language, as we find it both in manuscripts and on inscriptions : Sagala, all ; dan, and ; diri, self ; lagi, yet ; makin, the more, by so much the more ; bah, inundation ; tasek, sea, lake ; tapi, border ; takut, fear ; tingi, high, with many others. Even in the languages of the distant island of Celebes, we discover words in current use, which, in Java, are found only in books, and are obsolete on common occasions. The fate of some Sanskrit words in the different languages, though proof will be afterwards brought that all words of that tongue were probably introduced through the same chan nel, will illustrate this in the most convincing manner. In the modern Javanese, there are twb Sanskrit words for one in Malay, yet some Sanskrit words are in Malay current and popular, which in Javanese are either*confined to books or obsolete, and a few occur in Malay which have no existence at all in modern Javanese, and for the detection of which, we must have recourse to ancient manu scripts and monuments. The common circumstance of affinity between all the languages, both of the Indian Archipelago and Australasia,, is the great Polynesian. I think it will be found, that the languages nearest to Java, in geographical position, or which possessed in any re- POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 98 spect the easiest intercourse with it, will, in the ratio of these advantages, be found to contain words of the Polynesian. They are abundant in the Malay and other cultivated tongues of the west, decrease as we go eastward, and mpst where there is most barbarism, until, in the distant islands of the South Sea, a few stragglers only reach the languages of the more civilized tribes, and even these wanderers do not reach the dialects of such abject savages as those of New Holland, Such are the only arguments which have occur red to me for ascertaining the locality bf the nation which has exerted such an influence over the In dian islands ; an influence which may be compared, within its sphere, to that which the Sanskrit and the people who spoke it exerted over the languages and nations of Hindustan. The Sanskrit lan guage exists indeed embodied in writing, while the Polynesian language can be traced only as it is scattered over a thousand living dialects. We know from analogy that a people, of whom San skrit was the tongue, must have existed ; must have made a certain and considerable progress in civilization, and spread their language and im provements over the continent of India ; but it is from these inferences, drawn from analpgical reasoning alone, that we form such conclusions, for we possess not even the most trifling record of such a people ; we know not when they flourish- 94 «ENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE ed; the geographical situation of their country, or their very name. If the arguments I have addu ced for ascertaining the situation of the people who spoke and disseminated the great Polynesian language, be of any force, we are in a state of less uncertainty with respect to them than we are in respect to the people of whom Sanskrit was the living speech. We guess at the country they in habited, and we trace the influence of their lan guage, arts, and institutions among the various tribes of the East Indian isles, now considerable in the degree in which each country is near to it, or more correctly, as it is accessible ; and now diminishing! as it recedes from it, or is more difficult of ac cess, until it cease altogether, where great dis tance, or other cause of inaccessibility, have ex cluded all connection. The supposition of a great East-Insular lan guage, and, necessarily of a people, of whom it was. the medium of 'communication, is one ofthe very few facts which seem to carry the history of oar species to a great antiquity, particularly if we sup pose, that, in common with other great original languages, it was a language of complex structure,. a character from which every tongue of the East ern isles has long ago more completely departed,. than the languages of any other portion of the globe. The superior antiquity and extent of the influ-. POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. Q5 euce of the great Polynesian language on the vernacular tongues, over that of the Sanskrit, is proved by the existence of the first, and the ab sence of the second in the more secluded and in sulated languages, such as those ofthe savages just mentioned, and those of the South Sea islands, hi which a few insulated and corrupted words of the great Polynesian exist ; but not a syllable of Sanskrit, as far as I know, has been discovered. In investigating a subject of so much obscurity, even such a discovery as this assumes some im portance. The prodigious multiplicity of languages withiu the Indian islands has been already described, and the decrease of their numbers in the progress of civilization has been pointed out. We have seen nations of a few families with a language se parate and distinct from those of its neighbours, while populous communities have no greater num ber. It is instructive and interesting to advert to the history of the joint improvement of society and language, and to attend to the circumstances un der which a community is increased, in strength, number, and civilization, while the numerous dia lects of the first savages unite to the formation of one more copious and improved tongue. Such a history would be pretty nearly as follows : — One tribe raised above its neighbours by circumstances natural or fortuitous, would conquer one or more 98 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE pf these, — adopting, as in savage society, the con quered as captives. The tribe would be increased in numbers and strength to enable it to undertake new conquests. The languages of the conquered and conquerors would amalgamate, the latter chief ly giving it its form and character. Progressive conquests of this nature would, in the course pf ages, thpugh after many reverses and fluctuations, reduce a country under the sway of one people, and reduce to one its many dialects. The neces sity of supporting an increasing population would be the incentive to industry, invention, and im provement, and, in this manner, we can trace the progress of the savage state to semi-barbarism, un til some natural obstacle, as the barrier of seas and mountains, interrupted the geographical progress of improvement. This, in short, is the progress of so ciety in every part ofthe world ; but, as an examina tion of its consequences will tend to make us bet ter acquainted with the state of society in the In dian islands, I shall illustrate the subject with a few examples : — Nine-tenths of the population of Java speak the same language, and this portion occupies the whole of the low and fertile portion of the island. The mbuntainous nature of the country occupied by the remaining tenth has hin dered them from being subjected, and has kept theh1 language distinct. The conquests and lan guage of the Javanese have penetrated as far as POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 97 they could ; for the whole accessible part of the coast of the island has been occupied by them, even where it runs parallel with the mountainous districts of the Sundas. The straits which are the boundaries between Java and the islands of Bali and Madura have preserved to the two latter a separate language. In Celebes, the fertile and occupied portion of the island is divided unequally between two nations, the Bugis and Macassars. Nothing but the natural barrier of their moun tains could have saved the language and indepen dence of the Macassars. As to the smaller tribes, from the unfavourableness of their situation, some times occupying a sterile soil, sometimes inaccessi ble to each other through forests, rivers, or marshes, and always struggling for existence, no one na tion among them has emerged from the savage state to subjugate its neighbours, and take the lead in the march of civilization. They are, consequent ly, as already described, divided into numerous petty tribes, each speaking a distinct language. It is by conquest only that we can suppose the languages of rude nations to produce a material influ ence upon each other, and the notion of partial and occasional subjugation is not excluded by such cir cumstances, as ultimately proveebstacles to the union of two or more tribes, to the formation of one nation and one language. An oscillation of partial and temporary conquests is constantly going forward, VOL. II. G 98 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE which produces important effects upon the language of the weaker party, though the unskilfulness and weakness whieh belong to this condition of society, incapacitate the parties from making permanent conquests under circumstances of any difficulty. In this manner we account rationally for the great number of words common to all the neighbouring languages. It is the language of the more power ful and civilized tribe, which naturally imposes words upon the weaker. Sometimes this communication is direct, but at others, no doubt, it is received in termediately ; a principle on which it is, often, more reasonable and consistent to explain the wide-spread connection which we perceive, than by supposing enterprises and adventures of difficulty, incompati ble with the genius of barbarians. We have, how ever, positive and unquestionable evidence to assure us, that, from the more considerable nations of the Archipelago, expeditions, of no inconsiderable ex tent, have been at times undertaken, both for set tlement and conquest. The Javanese have had their expeditions to Borneo, to Sumatra, and the Pe ninsula ; the Malays to the Malayan Peninsula and to Borneo ; and the Bugis to Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Peninsula,^-though the influence of the latter, or that of their language, towards the west, has been inconsiderable. The extraordinary facility of maritime enterprise, in the tranquil safe navigation ®f the Indian islands, and the difficulties so frequent- ll POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 99 ly interposed to communication by land, caused by deep forests, impenetrable morasses, or inaccessible mountains, ought to be steadily kept in remem brance in a discussion of this nature. The inha bitants of the Archipelago are, in short, a people naturally of maritime habits, and we expect that their movements shall be directed by this principle. They have not the means of emigrating by land. They have not, like the Tartars, extensive grassy plains to march over with facility, and extensive flocks or herds to feed them in their wanderings. To afford illustrations of the nature of the influ ence now referred to, I shall endeavour, in a few short sentences, to trace the influence of the Ja vanese language upon some of the neighbouring tongues ; looking in this view upon Java less as the country of the people who disseminated the lan guage which, in imitation of Mr Marsden, I have called the Great Polynesian, than as the source of a more modern and less essential influence. The Javanese seem to have made repeated tem porary conquests ofthe Sundas, and one of these is matter of such recent history, that Europeans them selves were witnesses to it. Nearly the same words apply to the conquests made of Madura. Of those of Bali we have no accurate record, but the tradi tions of both nations are full of them. The effect of these conquests has been every thing short of imposing a new language, or of amalgamating the 100 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE inferior with the superior languages. The Sunda, Madura, and Bali, abound not only with words of pure Javanese beyond any other languages of the Archipelago, but they have adopted the most ex trinsic, artificial, and superfluous portion of the Ja vanese ; the dialect of deference and respect, al most, word for word, as it exists in that language. The influence ofthe Javanese upon the Malay has been less considerable/but great. Of the portion which is common to the Malay and Javanese, it would be no easy or possible matter to define which was received into the Malay from the great Polyne sian language, and which through the more modern vernacular language. The more radical and neces sary may generally be considered as having come from the great East-Insular tongue ; the more in cidental and extrinsic from the vernacular language of Java. Sometimes words received from the lat ter source refer to some peculiar or local usage of modern Java, when they may be easily identified ; at other times, the words are no better than the af fectations of the learned, and may even be recog nized by a foreign pronunciation. An additional influence on the part of the Javanese on the Malay, seems to have been exerted on the dialects of some of the Malayan states, after their emigration from the parent state on Sumatra. In the Patani dialect of "Malay, I find, for example, many words of, Java nese in familiar use, but which are unknown to any POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 101 of the rest of the tribes. The following are ex amples : lawas, old, of long standing ; hulun, I ; mu, thou ; kulon, west ; wetan, east ; lor, north ; kidul, south ; muning, angry ; dalik, to hide ; mamah, to masticate ; bangun, to mend ; tiba, 1 . to fall, €. to arrive ; jupuk, to take ; suwele, to tear. Javanese tradition, in fact, of no very re mote antiquity, describes the existence of a connec tion of a very intimate nature between Java and the state of Patani, on the eastern shore of the Malayan peninsula. The greater number of words common to the Malay and Javanese languages are, however, of a more radical and permanent, character than those just referred to ; and whether they be of the .great Polynesian language, or modern Javanese, seems of less consequence than to determine that the lan guage of Java, under whatever name, and not the Malay, is the primitive tongue. In words com mon to both languages, it often happens, that the figurative sense of a word only is recognized in Malay ; at other times, the Malay word is a de rivative from some Javanese root ; sand, occasional ly, the Malay word, which appears, at first view, a simple word, is a compounded one in Javanese, the component parts of which have no existence in the former language. A few examples of each will, I think, satisfy the reader of the originality of the Javanese. The literal sense of the word 102 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE nyidam, in Javanese, is fructification, or the act of forming fruit ; and its figurative, conception or pregnancy. Its figurative sense only is known in Malay, in the corruption ofthe word, idam. Lan- chang means literally, in Javanese, to run a-head, to run before another ; and, figuratively, to antici pate. In the latter sense only we have it in Ma lay. Mujur and malang, in Javanese, in their li teral significations, imply, the one lengthwise, and the other athwart ; and figuratively, fortunate, and unlucky. In the latter sense only are they used in Malay. Suku, a quarter or fourth part, in both languages, is derived from suku, the leg, in Ja vanese, which, as well as baliu, a shoulder, are me taphorically used to express that fraction. Sung- gut,'to hint, or insinuate, is a metaphorical use ofthe same word, meaning the feelers or antenna? of fish or insects. In the literal sense it is not known in Malay. ^ The word daman, a fever, corrupted in Malay damam, is derived from the Javanese word adam, cold, which has no existence in Malay. To understand this etymology, it is necessary to explain, that it is not the hot stage of fever, as with us, and the people of India, but the cold, which gives name to a fever. In Javanese, the word buruh means to labour; and buruhan, a derivative, wages. The derivative only is known in Malay. Pagawe, a tool, an instrument, in both languages is* derived from a Javanese root gawe to do, to work. Kaba- POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 103 ¦¦chikim, goodness, in Malay and Javanese, is deriv ed from the Javanese adjective bdchik, good. Pen- juril, a leader, in Malay, is a Corruptionof Prejurit, a soldier, or warrior, in Javanese, itself a deriva tive froBa jurit, war, in Javanese — Bacbik and jurit, the roots, in these two examples, are words not known in the Malay at all. Pararara, corrupted in Malay P&rwara, waiting women, or rather a sort of maids of honour, is, as far as the Malayis concerned, a pri mitive word, but in Javanese, is resolvable into its component partsy para, all, used collectively, and rara, a maid. Gandarusa, in both languages, is the name of a medicinal plant, a simple term' in Malay, but in Javanese referable at once to its component parts, ganda, odour, and rusa, strong,, an epithet which describes its most sensible quality. The par ticles of each language, as stated in another place, will generally be found original ; but an example or two may be produced of the less familiar ones be ing derived from the Javanese. The particle maka, now, then, for example, is evidently a derivation from mangka, time, in Javanese ; and the copu lative, dan, is a corruption of the Javanese Ian, it self an abbreviation of lawan and kalawan, the root of which is the numeral kaleh, two. The influence of the Javanese upon the Malay may be traced after the period when the former received its portion of Sanskrit ; for words exist in Malay, consisting jointly of a Javanese and San skrit root. Gandapura, for example, is the name 104 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE** ofa plant, from the flower of which a perfumed essence, in high repute, is drawn. It is composed ofthe Javanese word ganda, odour, and the San skrit one, para, a palace. Rontal, in Javanese, the leaf of the Palmyra palm, used to write upon, is, in Malay, by a very common corruption, lontar. The genuine word is composed of ron, a leaf, and tai, in Sanskrit, the Palmyra palm. It is singular that the word ron had, in its simple uncompound- ed state, been already corrupted into daun, on a principle already explained, it being apparently a word of the great Polynesian language. Had the compound word been formed by the Malays, we should have found it, not lontar, but dauntal. This subject will be renewed when I speak of the introduction of Sanskrit. In a superior fertility of soil, and conveniency of situation, there seems to exist in Java a permanent and effectual cause for ascribing to its inhabitants a higher civilization than could naturally have been the growth of any other part of the Archipelago, and to infer necessarily from thence^ that the lan guages of the people of Java, of all ages, must, in their times, have exerted the greatest influence on those of the other tribes ; but this by no means excludes a minor influence on the part of the other tribes, and each greater one may be proved to haye exerted a powerful influence on the languages of its immediate neighbours. The Mahomedan re ligion was first introduced among the Malays,' who — " POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 105 became, in their turn, the chief instruments in propagating it throughout the rest of the Archipe lago. Commerce and religion went together ; and the Malays of these times were not only the apos tles of Islam, but the chief merchants of the Ar chipelago. From this double source, a considera ble influx of Malay words has taken place into the languages of all the Mahomedan and commercial nations cf the Archipelago. They are, indeed, mostly, words relating to religion or commerce, and hence are readily detected. In Javanese, for example, we have the Malay word malcum, night, used in the restricted sense of evening, counting time according to the Mahomedan style. Golok a cleaver, or small hanger, in Malay, is applied in Javanese to the description of side-arms worn by the priests. T&tak in Malay means to cut or lop off any thing ; in Javanese it is to circumcise. The Bugis and Macassar languages afford many examples. They preserve the primitive words, for instance, for the cardinal points of the compass, but, in commercial language, often apply the Ma lay ones. The influence of the Malay, in this re spect, though infinitely smaller, may, in its princi ple, be compared to that which the Persian has ex erted on some of the vernacular languages of con tinental India. We are accustomed to look upon the Hindoos as a people whose religion admits no proselytes, and who are interdicted from emigration by its sacred 106 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE and ittviolable precepts. Singular as is the frame of society among the Hindus, there can be no doubt but those who have impressed the public with these opinions have rather consulted the assertions of the Bramins than the principles of human nature and the analogy of history. Such opinions will not bear the slightest examination. Hindustan itself con tains ten different nations, all professing the Hindu religion ; and the many ages before such a revolu tion could have been completed, implies most ex tensive conversion and proselytism. Actual emi gration, among Hindus, is proved by the existence of Hindu colonies on the shores of the Caspian, and by the abundant and unquestionable relics of Hindu manners, language, and religion in almost every country of Eastern Asia. * This, indeed, is a point now too firmly established to demand any ad ditional evidence. Having premised these neces sary observations, we shall be the better enabled to understand and explain the fact, still sufficiently curious and interesting, of the existence of San skrit in all the improved languages of the Archi pelago. There are five circumstances respecting the existence of Sanskrit in the dialects of the Ar chipelago which may be looked upon as established, and frPm an attention to which we shall be enabled * A small Hindu colony exists at present at Malacca, and has existed there for ages. The original settlers were from Telinga. POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 107 to form some rational opinions respecting the nature, character, and extent of the connection between the distant Indian isles and the country of the Hindus. First, The Sanskrit exists in a state of as great pu rity as the articulation and alphabets of the Archi pelago would admit, nearly unmixed with any mo dern dialect of which it is a part, and apparently in a state of original purity. Secondly, It is most pure in the more cultivated dialects. Thirdly, It is abundant in the direct proportion of the im provement of each language. Fourthly, It is pure and abundant as each dialect of the same tongue is improved, and rare and corrupt as the language is common and popular. Fifthly, Where corruptions of Sanskrit words exist, the same corruption per vades all the different dialects. It is only from a sober examination of the internal evidence which these prominent facts afford, assisted by the evi dence which the relics of ancient art and religiott lend us, that we can expect to determine the man ner in which the Polynesian dialects received their infusion of Sanskrit ; for we cannot trust to tradi tion, and the barbarians, on both sides of the wa ter, have no historical record of this or any other remote transaction. The singular facts now stated respecting the condition in which Sanskrit exists in the languages pf the Indian islands, lead me to imagine that the language was not introduced by conquest, but pro- 108 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE pagated by the slow and gradual means of religious conversion, effected, j ust as in later times, the Arabic, by the Mahomedans, through the activity and in trigues ofa few dexterous priests. The Sanskrit, it may be said, forms a more essential, necessary, and copious portion of the Insular languages than the Arabic ; but this may be explained. The de fects of the Insular languages had been supplied through the Sanskrit before they knew the Arabic, and since then the advancement of society in the In dian isles has not been such as to render .an influx of newvvords necessary, even could the Arabic have sup plied what the Sanskrit did not afford. The most puzzling circumstance, at first view, is the fact of the Sanskrit language not being mixed in the dia lects, of the Indian islands with any living dialect of India ; but this apparent difficulty tends, on a nearer inspection, to clear up the history of its in troduction. Had any living tongue been intro duced with it, we should have no doubt but the language had been introduced through conquest and subjugation, or commercial intercourse. The conquerors and the conquered mixing, would un doubtedly have mixed their languages, and we should see not only the peculiar corruptions of the Indian dialect, but, superinduced on these, the im perfection of oral communication. Even supposing the conquerors of the Indian islands to have been the very nation who spoke the Sanskrit language, POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES. 109 a supposition perhaps too violent, as it would carry us to a period of antiquity in Indian history on , which even tradition is silent, the Sanskrit lan guage must, through the popular and oral commu nication which must have ensued, have undergone corruptions similar to those which it has undergone in all the vernacular tongues of India, and which, indeed, all languages must undergo when similarly situated among a barbarous people, unless when in fused through the medium of tetters, or, which in such a state of society is the same thing, through the priesthood. The class of words which has been admitted is not such as by any means to warrant us in the belief that a popular intercourse existed be tween the two people. The • affinity between the two languages is, indeed, far from being radical, for, the terms borrowed by the East- Insular lan guages are generally abstract words, rendered ne cessary to the people who adopted them in the course of improvement, and deliberately selected for the purpose, just as we apply ourselves to the ancient languages of Europe for technical terms. In some of the less improved languages they are seldom more than terms connected with the pecu liar mythology of the Hindus. The class of words most liable to be introduced' when two nations are mixed, is necessarily that of most familiar and con stant application in the ordinary intercourse of life. It is so far the reverse of. this with the Insu- 110 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE lar dialects, that wherever Sanskrit words most abound, the language will be found to be the most artificial and refined. The polite dialect of Java, or language of respect, which is strictly a factitious speech, uses the Sanskrit liberally. The ordinary written language does the ' same, and the Kami or •recondite language of the priesthood wantons in Sanskrit words nearly in a state of primitive purity. In some instances it is impossible to account for the caprice of language, for Sanskrit words extend even to the objects of sense. In Malay we have kapala for the head, in Javanese sir a for the same object. In Bugis and Macassar, as well as in Ma lay and Javanese, we have rupa for the face, and all belonging to the most common dialect, being, in- deed, the only words for these objects in all but the Javanese. Words of this nature are, however, ex tremely few in number, and are here adduced as exceptions to a general rule. Let us suppose the case of a few Hindu missionaries arriving among the Indian islanders for the purpose of con verting them. It would surely, in that case, be a hopeless task to attempt to teach the rude natives their language ; prudence would at once dictate to them the necessity of acquiring the dialect of the country, and their own tongue would not once be referred to. When religious instruction was to be given, the Sanskrit, the language conse crated to religion among all Hindus, would be had POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES'. Ill recourse to. This would be stripped of its inflect tions, and mixed with the rude language of the people, and thus would be formed such a language as the Kawi, or abstruse language of Java and Bali. From this language Sanskrit words would be dif fused, in the progress of civilization and improve ment, over the common speech of the people, losing a greater or less share of their purity as they were more or less trusted to oral utterance, or were adopt ed by tribes more or less improved. The historical fact seems to have been, that, in the course ofthe commercial intercourse by which the precious products of the Eastern islands have been conveyed during all ages to India, Hindu missionaries came at various times into the Eastern islands, chiefly from Telinga, and that through them the Hindu religion and the Sanskrit language were widely spread over the Archipelago ; but I shall not at present enlarge on this subject, as it will be more fully considered in treating of the history and antiquities of the islands. I have attempted to argue that Java was the seat from whence originated the early civilization of the Indian Archipelago ; and I imagine there is some ground for believing, that, through the channel of the Javanese, the other Polynesian lan guages received, perhaps, the principal portion of their Sanskrit. Making every allowance for the similarity in sound and sense which must, result 112 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE from the operation of those more general causes which tend to assimilate to such a degree, in some of their grander features, all the Insular lan guages, there still exist coincidences and points of resemblance of so arbitrary a nature, that they could only have had their source in the mod ifications pro duced by one tongue, whatever tongue that was. Before attempting fo bring this directly home to the Javanese, I shall produce a few examples of the similarity to which I allude. Sakti in Sanskrit means power ; in the Polynesian languages it means only supernatural power. Putra in Sanskrit means a son ; in Malay it is son of a king or prince. We shall afterwards see how it is in Ja vanese. Laksa, one hundred thousand, is in all the. languages of the Archipelago only ten thou sand. As to similarity in corrupted orthogfephy, this is less to be wondered at ; but, even here, we meet such examples of arbitrary pronunciation and spelling, that it is difficult not to ascribe their origin to one common source of error. We have, for example, garu, lignum aloes, instead of agur ; nagasari, the name of a plant, instead of nagake- sar ; kuda, a horse, in place of ghor a ; balara, an avatar, instead of awatara. If we are to consider the Sanskrit words in the Polynesian languages as coming from one source, we must imagine that a class of words, the very existence of whieh implies some civilization and improvement, were derived EAST-INSULAR LANGUAGES. 113 from the most improved race, from the language in which the Sanskrit exists in the greatest purity and greatest abundance, and not from a ruder tribe or more meagre language, in which it exists but thin ly scattered. This strong presumptive evidence is very satisfactory ; but more positive and conclusive testimony may be drawn from an actual examina tion of the languages. I have already produced ex amples of compound words in Malay, in which the 'Javanese and Sanskrit, are united as component parts. Putro, a son, and putri, a daughter, in San<- skrit, mean strictly the same thmg in Javanese, but belong exclusively to the language of respect, from whence they have been transferred to the Malay, where they are used in the limited sense of prince and princess, or son and daughter of a king. The vfOY&puja, prayer, in Sanskrit, becomes in the polite dialect of Java puji, which corruption ofthe word is the only form in which it appears in Ma lay. N agar a is a city in Sanskrit; inthe ordi nary language of Java the word is preserved with out alteration ; but in the language of deference it becomes nagari ; and this corrupt form, de rived from the peculiar genius of the Javanese, is admitted into the Malay where the word has no other. In discussing the subject of a great Polynesian language, I have attempted to show, that many evi dences exist of a considerable degree of local and VOL. II. H 114< GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE indigenous civilization in the Indian Archipelago, wholly independent of foreign instruction ; that the principal tribes understood the culture of grain; the use of iron, tin, and gold ; of the larger ani mals ; that they had a national kalendar, and pro bably understood the art of writing. If we con sider how small their progress has since been, be yond what is implied by this statement, we shall not think very highly of the extent and value of the improvements which the islanders received from the Hindus, and the catalogue of them will not be difficult to sum up. The Hindus may have in structed the islanders in the knowledge of copper and silver ; perhaps taught them to tame the horse and elephant, which are commonly known by San skrit names : instructed them in the use of cotton and of the fabric manufactured from it ; in that of pepper, and the manufacture of a drug from the in digo plant, and in the culture of some Indian fruits. Finally, the Hindus taught the East- Insular tribes a new kalendar, which became supplemental to their own without superseding it ; they modified their writing, gave them a new literature and a new re ligion, fortunately unaccompanied by the unsocial and revolting genius of genuine Hinduism. The introduction of a portion of Arabic has, as in other situations, been, among the tribes of the Indian islands, the consequence of the adoption of the Mahomedan religion. Into the distant regions EAST-INSULAR LANGUAGES, 115 ef the Archipelago the Alkoran was not introduced by the sword, and in the days of Arabian conquest and enthusiasm, but at a comparatively late period, and by a few straggling merchants. In the proud est days of Arabian empire, the maritime unskil- fulness of the Arabs must have been unequal to so distant an enterprise as the conquest and conver sion of the Indian islands. The exact period of the earliest conversion is not very well defined, but may be generally stated at about five hundred years back. The Malays were the first converts, and were followed by the Javanese at a long interval of a century and a half, and by the nations of Celebes at one of two cen turies. Of all the tribes of the Indian islands, the Malays are the most thorough converts to Maho- medanism, and they enjoy, among their less zealous neighbours, the reputation of being good Maho medans. They are the only considerable nation of the Archipelago * who have followed the exam ple of the great Mahomedan nations of western Asia, in adopting the Arabic character. This cir cumstance gives a facility to the introduction of Arabic in the written language, and, added to their superior zeal and longer conversion, is the cause why much more Arabic is found in the Malay, than * The Bantamese and Achinese, and people of iMindana©, do so also, but they are inconsiderable tribe?. 116 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE in any other language of the Archipelago. Still,. however, the harshness and variety of the Arabic consonants are so hostile to the few soft and sim ple spunds of the Insular languages, that the num ber of words naturalized in the Malay is very in significant, and even some of these are softened down to the standard of Polynesian pronunciation. Mars den, as stated in another place, with accuracy con siders the number of Arabic words adopted into the Malayan, not to exceed twenty or thirty ; but, by a sanctioned pedantry, a writer introduces words, or whole sentences, at pleasure, as is, practised in all languages of which Arabic is the sacred text. In languages, not written in the Arabic character, such a practice is generally excluded, but these, too, are not without expedients. When treating of religious topics, the Javanese priests write their native tongue in a modified Arabic character, and the nations of Celebes follow a more awkward plan, often intermixing the Arabic and native character in the same manuscript.- Notwithstanding these contrivances, words are often so disguised, parti cularly in oral language, that it is only through the awkwardness bf sound that we are led to suspect them to be aliens. The Arabic word mujdkat is made, for example, pakat in Malay ; and fekir, in the pronunciation ofthe Archipelago, is piker ; sa- habat is sabat. The changes in the Javanese are the most violent of all, sometimes leaving hardly a feature of resemblance with the original. Sabab EAST-INSULAR LANGUAGES. 117 becomes in Javanese sawab ; sahabat, skabat, and nqfkah, kalakah, whether in writing or speaking. The other oriental languages, which, besides the Sanskrit and Arabic, enter into the composition of the more improved Polynesian dialects, are Te- linga, Persian, and a few words of Chinese. The Telinga has been introduced chiefly through the medium of commerce, in the course of the traffic which is still carried on, and seems to have existed in very remote times, between the Indian islands and the kingdom of Kalinga, the only name for the whole continent known to the Insular lan guages. A few words, I have no doubt, have also been admitted in the progress of the conversion of the Indian tribes, and some in making translations from the vernacular language of the Telingas. Words of Telinga are most frequent in Malay, the Ungua franca of commerce ; and it may, indeed, be considered as singular, that they exist in no greater number. But the case with the Telingas is nearly parallel to that of the early propagators of Hinduism. They are not numerous enough for con querors, and have, consequently, not ingrafted their tongue upon the vernacular languages. Still they consider themselves superior to the natives of the country, and affect to play the part of instructors in religious matters ; but, in this case, it is the , Arabic, and not their own language, which is called for. This affords a striking illustration of the his tory and manner of the introduction of Sanskrit. 118 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE The number of Telinga words in Javanese is very trifling ; and even in Malay but inconsider able. In the latter, the words are commercial tprms, and1 a few words familiar to their written compositions, but not adopted in colloquial speech. Some of the latter are corrupt forms of Sanskrit, easily recognised by thejr peculiarity of termina tion. In Javanese we have no words of this class. Here no word is found with any other corruption , than what may be traced to imperfect orthography or pronunciation- Inthe Malay only, we discover, probably, about a hundred words of Persian, which crept into, the language, during the busy commercial intercourse which existed between the Indian isles and the Mahomedan states of India, after the conversion of the islanders to Mahomedanism. Some have made their way through translations, and, perhaps, a few by a direct intercourse with the Persians of the gulf. Of the oral languages of China, a very trifling portion, indeed, has been infused into the Poly nesian tongues, notwithstanding the long and inti mate intercourse which has existed between the people, and the number of Chinese settlers within the Archipelago. The languages have been hin dered from mixing, by difference of religion and mannere on the part of the people, and of genius in that of their languages, — the one uncouth and monotonous, the other smooth and harmonious. EAST-INSULAR LANGUAGES. 119 Among European languages, the Portuguese alone has exerted any considerable influence on the Polynesian languages, and this is nearly confined to the Malay. The character of the Portuguese intercourse with India, was, from the beginning, widely different from that of other European na tions. They were professed conquerors, and sub jugated and colonized to the extent of their ability. They came into direct contact with the natives of the country, and caused the effect of their religious and civil institutions to be practically felt. The go vernment of other European nations has been a go vernment of opinion and management, effected through the instrumentality of the natives of the country, in the course of which, the object seems rather to have been to avoid a familiarity of inter course, than to court it. The difference is disco vered in the effect produced upon language, and has been forwarded by the congenial softness of a southern dialect, opposed to the roughness of our guttural northern tongues. The Dutch, in parti cular, is so dissonant and so repugnant in sound to. the smoothness of the Insular languages, that few words of it can be articulated at all ; and even the easiest are so metamorphosed, that it will defy conjecture to guess at them. Who, for example, can recognise in the Javanese word ratpani, the Dutch words Raad van Indie,, the famous ." Coun cil ofthe Indies?" CHAPTER VI.' VOCABULARIES. Account ofthe series qf Vocabularies contained in this Work. — Errors in mar^y former Collections. — Examples. — Voca bulary ofthe Languages ofthe Archipelago. I o render the subject of the preceding chapters more intelligible, and to afford the professed scholar an opportunity of judging for himself, as well as of the accuracy of the opinions which the writer has advanced in the course of this book, a series of vo cabularies are appended. These are of various au thenticity, according to the circumstances under which they were collected. Those of the Javanese, Malay, Bugis, Macassar, Madurese, Balinese, Sunda, and Biajuk Dayak, were compiled by myself, personally, under such advantages, that I think they may be entirely relied upon. Of the rest, many have also been compiled under more favourable auspices than usual ; but it must be acknowledged, , that, in general, there exist innumerable sources of error in any attempts to compile vocabularies of languages with which we are unacquainted, — from our own ignorance and unskilfulness, — from the care^ lessness,— incapacity, and apathy of the natives, — s VOCABULARIES. 121 and from the incompatibility of the idioms of the European and Indian languages. Ordinary voyagers are seldom or never to be trusted, and endless ex amples of the ridiculous blunders comtriitted by them might be adduced. For the reader's satisfac tion and amusement, I shall quote a few examples from our own old voyagers and travellers. The first specimen of the language of Java with which we meet is in the voyage of Sir Francis Drake. It is called " Certaine wordes ofthe naturall language pf Java, learned and observed by our men there." It turns out to be not Javanese, but a mixture of that language with Sunda and Malay. The very first word affords a striking example of the progress of error in matters of this nature. For silk, we have the word sabuck, which means a sash. The origin of this blunder is obvious. The sashes worn by the Javanese are usually of silk. The in quirer, wishing for the native name of silk, pointed to a silken sash, and received the name of the in dividual for that of the class. The word doduck, which ought to have been written dodot, is an in stance ofthe same kind. It is interpreted " blue cloth," but means properly the portion of dress with which the loins of the natives are usually gird- ed, and which is frequently of a blue colour. * In Ogilbie's Asia we have " a brief vocabulary of the Malayan tongue," I know not where obtained, * Drake's voyage in I-Jakluyt's Voyages, Navigations,' &c. Reprint, Vol. IV. p. 246. ' 122 VOCABULARIES. which abounds in the most extravagant errors of all; Here are found such ludicrous interpretations as the following : senderi, (self) " all one ;" nante, (wait) " both ;" barmyn, (to sport) " foolish ;" kyaey ugum, (ageing) (a saint or sage,) " a civil man ;" macanan minum, (meat and drink) " a wedding ;" Icekeer, (a file, figuratively a miser) " bounteous ;" Ibou, (mother) " a grandfather," and anack, (child, young, progeny) " a calf."* Sir Thomas Herbert's collection of Malay words is less extrava gantly absurd than Ogilbie's, but still abounds in very ludicrous errors. He has cambi, (kambing, a goat) as the word for ox, and for a goat carbow, (karbao,) which is a buffalo. Some of his transla tions put to defiance all attempt to trace them, as, for example, " Is he not here ?" beef; " well done," sarsa; " let pass," ganga ; " near hand," gila. t * Asia, by John Ogilbie, Esq. his Majesty's Cosmographer, &c. p. 129. f Some years' travels into divers parts of Africa and Asia the Great, by Sir Thomas Herbert, Bart. p. 366*— Some more recent voyagers are as little to be relied on. Forrest, who had a vulgar knowledge of Malay, interprets karang- asam, the name of the principal state of the island of Bali, ' l the country of the rough rock," knowing that karang com monly meant a rock, and asam, sour, which he thought, when in search of an etymology, he might alter into rough. But karang means also an orchard or grove, and the primitive signification of asam is the tamarind tree, so that the com* pound is literally and strictly " the tamarind grove." VOCABULARIES. lgS Making every allowance for errors of transcrip tion, the orthography is so wantonly vague and false in all these compilations, that it is not very easy to conceive how the ears of our predecessors could have been so deceived as to record them. In the following vocabulary the whole of the languages are exhibited at one view under each word, and follow each other in their natural classes. The first class comprehends the two great lan guages of the western portion of the Archipelago which have exerted the most extensive influence upon those of their neighbours. The second com prehends the languages of the tribes of the second order in the same portion of the Archipelago, and the third a specimen of the languages of the savages of lank hair and brown complexion of the same quarter. The fourth contains the great languages ofthe eastern portion ofthe Archipelago, the Bugis and Macassar; the fifth class the secondary languages of the same quarter ; the sixth *a specimen of the languages of the South Sea islands ; and the seventh of the languages of the Papuan, or woolly- haired races. Before concluding these preliminary remarks, it will be necessaiy that 1 explain the nature of the sources from which I have drawn such parts of this comparative series of vocabularies as I am not my self pledged for the accuracy of. The most copi ous and perfect, that of the Lampungs, is extract- Igds VOCABULARIES. ed from the work of Sir Stamford Raffles, and its correctness may be trusted. The specimen of the languages of he South Sea islands is that of the Atui, taken from the third volume of Cook's voy ages. It is, like all o; hers from the same and similar sources, scanty and unsatisfactory. The selection of words in the original is ; extremely injudicious, and many > xampks bear internal evidence of error and i norance. The specimen of the lan guage of Timur, the most prevalent of the many dialects of the island, and of that of Rotti, were collected by Lieutenant Owen Phillips, a gen tleman well versed in the Malayan language, and their chief defect is their brevity. The specimen of the language of the Samang, or woolly-haired race of the mountains of the Malayan peninsula, was collected for me by the minister of the prince of Queda,. a man of very superior mind, and cor rected by my friend Major Macinnes, after Mr Marsden, among Europeans, perhaps the best Ma layan scholar existing. The examples of the Ma dagascar are from the well-known narrative of Ro bert Drury, who lived fifteen years among the na tives. It carries with it internal evidence of au thenticity, and the errors into which the writer has fallen are those only, incident to "an untutored and unlettered mind, errors in orthography and of un» skilfulness in selection. • 12 VOCABULARIES. 125 VOCABULARIES. The letters o, c, and a, within brackets in the following Vo cabulary, express respectively — ordinary, — ceremonial, — and ancient. The numerals point out the arrangement ofthe languages into classes. ENGtrSH sky _ 1. Javanese (c .) langit Javanese (c .) ngawiyat Javanese [i .) hakoso jumantoro gagono Malay langit ¦ 2. Bali (o.) langit Bali(c) 'angkasa Madura (o. ) langih Madura (c ) Sunda (o.) langit Sunda (c.) Lampung langit 3. Biajuk langit 4. Bugis langih. Macassar langih 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui hairani 7. Samang kael Madagascar longitchs English star . Javanese (o.) lintang Javanese (c.)lintang Javanese (a.)tranggono , sutoro Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Eotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar bintangbintangbintang bentang bintang bintang bintoeng bintoeng fetoen du ebetubintingversir 126 VOCABULARIES. English moon English rainbow 1. Javanese (o. ) wulanrambulan 1. Javanese (o. )kuwung Javanese (c ) sasi Javanese (c )tejo Javanese (a .) chondro sitangsu Javanese (a. ) sosodoro rati, bulan Malay Malay ular-danu 2. Bah (o.) buian 2. Bali (o.) byang-lalah Bali (c.) sasi Bali (c.) cuwung-kuwung Madura (o. i bulan Madura (o.) andang Madura (c] Madura (c] Sunda (o.) bulan Sunda (o.) katombiri Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung bulan Lampung goneh 3. Biajuk bulan * 3. Biajuk liyu 4. Bugis ketarig 4. Bugis tara-uwe Macassar bulang Macassar tara-uwe 5. Timuri fulan 5. Timuri Rotti bulak Rotti 6 Atui marama 6. Atui 7. Samang kachik 7. Samang Madagascar voler Madagascar avvar English sun English east 1. Javanese (o. ) srang-nge-nge 1. Javanese (o. ) wetan timur Javanese (c ) suryo Javanese (c. ) purwo Javanese (a. I baskoro, rawi prabonggo Javanese (a. ) purwo prabouggopati Malay matahari Malay timur 2. Bali (o.) mata-nahi 2. Bali (o.) kangin Bali (c.) surya Bali (c.) wetan Madura (o.) are Madura (o.) temor Madura (c] Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) panan-poc Sunda (o.) wetan timur Sunda (c.) > Sunda (c.) Lampung matagani Lampung 3. Biajuk matandao 3. Biajuk timor 4. Bugis mataso 4. Bugis alao, timura Macassar matalo Macassar iraia, timura. 5. Timuri laroh 5. Timuri Rotti lacloh Rotti 6. Atui hai, raa 6. Atui 7. Samang mitkatpk 7. Samang Madagascar andro Madagascar . tinogher VOCABULARIES. 127 English west English south i. Javanese (0 ) kulon . 1. Javanese (0.) kidul Javanese (c. ) kilen Javanese (c.) kidul Javanese (a ) panchim barat Javanese (a.) daksino Malay Malay ' salatan 2. Bali (0.) kau 2. Bali (0.) kalod Bali (c.) kulon Bali (c.) kidul Madura (0. 1 barah Madura (0.) lahoh - Madura (c. 1 Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) kulon, barat Sunda (0.) kidul Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) parnangin Lampung Lampung 3. Biajuk barat 3. Biajuk salatan 4. Bugis urai, barata 4. Bugis maniyang Macassar ilao, barata Macassar itimu'rao 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samaug 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar atimo English north English earth 1. Javanese (0 .)lor 1. Javanese (o.)lasah, bumi Javanese (c )ler Javanese (c-) siti Javanese (a .) utoro Javanese (a.) pratolo bumi pratiwi kesmo Malay utara Malay tanah 2. Bali (0.) badaja 2. Bali (0.) tanah Bali (c.) kaler Bali (c.) gumi Madura (0. ) daja Madura (0.) tana, bumi Madura (c. ) Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) kaler, utara Sunda (0.) taneu, tana Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.)' Lampung Lampung bumi 3. Biajuk otra 3. Biajuk petak 4. Bugis manorang 4. Bugis linoe Macassar wara, utan Macassaar lino p. Timuri 5. Timuri rahi Rotti Rotti dahai 6. Atui 6. Atui motu 7. Samang 7. Samaag tek Madagascai Madagascar tonus 128 VOCABULARIES. English earthquake English island 1. Javanese (o. lindu 1. Javanese (o. ) pulo Javanese (c.) Hudu Javanese (c. nusa Javanese (a.) menggut Javanese (a. ) nuswa - gam pa gili Malay Malay pulao 2. Bali (o.) , lino 2. Bali (o.) pulo Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) gandag Madura (o.) polo gili Madura (c.) Madura (te Sunda (o.) lini Sunda (o.) nusa Sunda (c.) ' Sunda (c.) Lampung kukok Lampung pulao 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk pulao 4. Bugis rongrong 4. Bugis liwukang iviacassar rongrong , Macassar liwukang 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui motu 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar nosa English land (dry) English mountain 1. Javanese (o. darat 1. Javanese (o. ) gunung Javanese (c.) daratan Javanese (c. i wukir hardi Javanese (a.) Javanese (a. prawoto akolo haldoko Malay darat Malay giri gunung, bukit 2. Bali (o.) darat 2. Bali (o.) bukit Bali (c.) Bali(c) gunung Madura (o.) darat Madura (o.] gunung Madura (c.) Madura (c. Sunda (o.) darat Sunda (o.) gunung Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung dara Lampung .rugok 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk bukit 4. Bugis dara 4. Bugis mongchong Macassar bonto ' Macassar • mongchong 5. Timuri maran 5. Timuri tauuik Rotti luu Rotti lakti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samaug 7. Samang tabing, chubuk Madagascar Madagascar vohitcht VOCABULARIES. 129 English plain 1. Javanese (,o.) tsigal horohoro Javanese (c.) t&gil Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Suuda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English stone 1. Javanese (o.) watu Javanese (c.) selo Javanese (a.) selo ' parang padang tagal tagal tagal landosi padang.gneparaug tachanmo Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o. ) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar VOL. IL, batubatu watu batobatubatue batro batu batu fatuk batu varto English sand . Javanese (o.) waddi Javanese (c.) waddi Javanese (a.) Malay 1. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) * Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar pasir byas paser badi gasik hanni baras kasi kasi fasse English road 1. Javanese (o.) dalan lurung Javanese (c.) margi Javanese (a.) Malay jalan 2. Bali (o.) marg a Bali (c.) jalap Madura (o. 1 jdlan Madura (c ) lorong Sunda (o.) jalan Sunda (c.) Lampung ganggang 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis agang Macassar agang 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar I 130 VOCABULARIES. English water English river 1. Javanese (6.) banyu 1. Javanese (0.) kali Javanese (c.) toyo Javanese (c.) lepen Javanese (a.) her, jolbnidi Javanese (a.) bangawan Malay ayer Malay sungai 2. Bali (o.) yeh 2. Bali (0.) tukad Bali (c.) toyo tirta . Bali (c.) kali / Madura (o.) aheng Madura (0.) songai Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) chai Sunda (0.) walungan Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) kachai kali Lampung uwai Lampung batanagi 3. Biajuk danutn 3. Biajuk sungai 4. Bugis uwai 4. Bugis binangae Macassar jaine Macassar binanga 5. Timuri yehi 5. Timuri motah Rotti owai Rotti laialak 6. Atui evy 6. Atui 7. Samang bateao 7. Samang sungai Madagascar rawano Madagascar English rain English lake I. Javanese (q.) udan I. Javanese (0.) rowo Javanese (c.) jawoh jawah Javanese (c.) rawi Javanese (a.) tasek Javanese (a.) warso Malay ujan Malay tasek danao 2. Bali (0.) ujan 2. Bali (0.) talaga Bali (c.) sabah Bali (c.) danu Madura (0.) hojan Madura (0.) subang Madura (c.)' Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) ujan Sunda (0.) ranchuk Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung labong Lampung danao 3. Biajuk ujan 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis bosi 4. Bugis balange Macassar bosi Macassar balan'g 5. Timuri udan 5. Timuri Rotti udan Rotti 6. Atui 6". Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang lant Madagascar Madagascar VOCABULARIES* < English sea English ' Jlood 3. Javanese (o.) sagoro 1 . Javanese (o.) rob Javanese (c.) sagantan Javauese (c.) rob Javanese (a.) samudro Javanese (a.) jaiaun j uiuiJUi' Malay laut Malay "pasang 2. Bali (o.) pasih i. Bali (o.) blabar Bali (c.) sagara Bali (c.) bak Madura (o.) tasek lahot Madura (o.) undor Madura (c.) . Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) laut Sunda () mendo kambing Malay Malay burung 2. Bali (ov) Lambing 2. Bali (o.) kades Bali (c.) waddus rriessi Bali (c.) Madura (b.) hambih Madura (o.) manok Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) wedus, beh, Sunda (o.) manuk Sunda (Ci) Sunda (c.) Lampung kambing Lampuug burung 8. Biajuk 3. Biajuk burung 4. Bugis bebe 4. Bugis manu Macassar bebe Macassar jangang S-. Timuri , bebi b. Timuri manoh,tohek Rotti behi' Rotti man poi 6i Atui -6. Atui manu 7. Samang 7. Samang kawao Madagascar osa Madagascar voro English cow English a beast 1> Javanese (o.' sapi lambu 1 . Javanese- (o.) sato kewan * . Javanese (c] lambu Javanese (c] sato Javanese (a.] andoko andini Javanese (a.j sat wo margu Malay lambu sapi Malay binatang S.Bali (o.) sampi 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) banteng Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (o.) sato Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) sapi Sunda (o.) sata Sunda (c.) Sunda (e.) Lampung sapi Lampung 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis sapi 4. Bugis olo-olo Macassar sapi Macassar olo-olo 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang lem bok 7. Samang Madagascar omebay Madagascar English fowl ] . Javanese (o.) manuk Javanese (c.) paksi Javanese (a,) paksi kogo ' A corruption pf the Arabic word Hainan, a Uvkfg creature. VOCABULARIES. 147 English . Javanese (o.) Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) * Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar jaran kapal turongo hundakankudo, wajik kud.l jaran hundakan jarankuda titiyan ajaran nyarang jarang f kuda dalan suwaller English elephant 1. Javanese (o.) liman Javanese (c.).hesti Javanese (a.) dirodo dipongo — — rinoro matonggo ¦ gajah, brojomuko Malay gajah 2. Bali (o.) gajah Bali (c.) Madura (o.) gajah Madura (o.) Sunda (o.) gajah Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7 SamangMadagascar liman gajah gaja gajah English frog 1. Javanese (o.) kodok Javanese (c.) kudang Javanese (a.) chantoko Malay 2. Bali (o) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang katak kadak bangkong turn pang tumpang English crow Javanese (o.) gagak Javanese (c.) dandang Javanese (a.) wagoso Malay Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Biajuk Bugis Macassar Timuri Rotti Atui Samang Madagascar gagak goakdangdaogagak kaka kala kala kwark " Vehiculum^' f Sometimes called Tedtmg Jaiea, or " the buifalo of Java." 14S VOCABULARIES. English r~ duck English goose L Javanese (o .)bebek 1. Javanese (o.) banyak Javanese (c ) kambangan * Javanese (c.) banyak Javanese (a. ) itek Javanese (a.) angso Malay Malay gangsa 2. Bali (o.) bebek 2. Bali (o.) banyak' Bali Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) walilis Sunda (o.) marak Sunda (c.) Sunda (c) Lampubg Lampung marak 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bugis mara Macassar Macassar mara 5. Timuri i". 5. Timuri Rotti ' Rotti '" - 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang' Madagascar Madagascar * '¦ The floatis g object." VOCABULARIES. 149 English pigeon 1. Javanese (o.)doro Javanese (c.) doro- Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) " Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampuug 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English dove 1. Javanese (o.) daruk putar Javanese (c.) darkukuk Javanese (a.) prakutuk ra m&rpnti da Malay nuri dara 2. Bali (o.) Bali (e.) nori komantra Madirra (o.) Madura (c.) nori japati .Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) nuri punai Lampung 3. Biajuk nuri bodowangl .ing 4. Bugis nuri bodowaugl ;ing Macassar 5, Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang nuri dahew Madagascar Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar kukur kukur walek l English parrot Javanese (o.) betet, nori Javanese (c.) Javauese (a.) English egg I. Javanese (o.)andog Javanese (c.) tigan Javanese (a.) antigo Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (a) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar talortaluli talorhandok, takalui tSIo baiao tolontolor tule 150 VOCABULAKIES. English nest . 1. Javanese (o.) susuh Javanese (c.) sasah Javanese (a.) Malay sarang 2. Bali (o.) sabun Bali (c.) Madura (o.)- lebun Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) sayahg Sunda (c.) Lampung sara 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis rumung Macassar rumung 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang ' Madagascar English 1. Javanese (o.) iwah Javanese (c.) ulam Javanese (a.) mino, matsyo Malay % Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (e.) Lam pung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar ikanbe jukoh lauk-chai iwa laek bale juku nahan-tasi ehak haiiaikan feer English tortoise 1. Javanese (o.) pannyu Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) kurmo Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar pannyu boko-boko pannyu pannyu hatun panriyu pannyu pannyu faunu English" crab 1. Javanese (o.) kapiteng Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) karkoto Malay kattam 2. Bali (o.) kapiteng Bali (c.) Madura (o.) kapeteng Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) kapiting Sunda (c. Lampung gara 3, Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar h.. Timuri Rotti 6* Atui 7. SamangMadagascar VOCABULARIES, 15 English make English bee L Javanese (o ) ulo 1. Javanese (o.) tawon Javanese (c ) sawar Javanese (c.) Javanese (a. ) taksoko sarwo Javanese (a.) Malay nogoular Malay Jabah tawon 2. Bali (o.) nan i pi 2. Bali (o.) tabwan Bali (c.) ula naga Bali (c.) Madura (or; olar Madura (o.) n yam wan Madura (V Madura (c.) Sunda (o,) orrai Sunda (o.) tiwuan, Sunda (c.) 8 Sunda (c.) nyiruan Lampung ulai Lampung nyawan 3. Biajuk 3, Biajuk 4. Bugis ulara 4. Bugis bani ' Macassar nlara Macassar bani 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang ek»b 7. Samang gala Madagascar mari Madagascar English ant English honey 1 . Javanese (o. ) sgmut 1. Javanese (o.) mada Javanese (c] 1 Javanese (c.) Javanese (a. 1 samut Javanese (a.) Malay Malay manisan liibab, 2. Bali (o.) samot 2. Bali (o.) madu Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) bilas Madura (o.) madu Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) sirum Sunda (o.) madu, tawa} Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung sarom Lampung madu S.Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4, Bugis kaliwara 4. Bugis jene-bani Macassar kaliwara Macassar jene-bani 5, Timuri 5. Timuri i Rotti Rotti 6, Atui 6. Atui 7, Samang les 7. Samang Madagascar vefik Madagascar tentals* 152 VOCABULARIES. English wax 1. Javanese (o.) lilin Javanese (c.) malam Javanese (a.) English silver 1 . Javanese (o.) saloko Javanese (c.) patakan Javanese (a.) saloko lilin Malay Malay perak 2. Bali (o.) malam 2. Bali (o.) salaka Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) malan Madura (o." ) salaka Madura (c.^ Madura (c. 1 Sunda (o.) malang edeng Sunda (o.) salaka Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung pantes Lam pung salako 3. Biajuk 4$ Bugis 3. Biajuk tai. bani 4. Bugis salaka Macassar tai- bani Macassar bulaieng-mata 5. Timuri liling 5. Timuri murak-mutin Rotti tiling Rotti lailo-fulali 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang sud 7. Samang Madagascar luko Madagascar tolerfuti * English gold English copper 1. Javanese' (o. 1 mas - . 1. Javanese (o. ) tam b ogo Javanese (c.) janne Javanese (c. ) -tambagl Javanese (a.) kanchono . rukmi mas Javanese (a. ) tambogo , Malay Malay tambaga 2. Bali (o.) mas 2. Bali (o.) tambaga Bali (c.) Bali(c) Madura (o.) mas Madura (o. | tambaga Madura (c.) Madura (c. ) Sunda (o.) mas Sunda (o.) tambaga Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung mas Lampung dalong 3. Biajuk bolao 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis „ bulaeng 4. Bugis tambaga Macassar bulaieng Macassar tambaga 5. Timuri muruk maihau 5. Timuri tambaga Rotti lailo pelas Rotti tambaga 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar volermaner. Madagascar sarbermaner +¦' • The literal meaning of gold in this language is " the red moon," and of Silver " the white moon." -f Literally " red brass." VOCABULARIES. 153 English tin English steel 1. Javanese (o.) timah rajoso 1. Javanese (o.) wojo Javanese (c.) Javanese (c.) wahos mSlelo Javanese (a.) rajoso Javanese (a.) Malay timah Malay baja 2. Bali (o.) timah 2. Bali (o.) waia Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.). timah Madura (o.) baja Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) timah Sunda (o.) waja Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung timah Lampung waja 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis tumbera 4. Bugis Macassar tumbera Macassar 5. Timuri makadadi 5. Timuri Rotti engga Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar veofFu English iron English suasa 1. Javanese (o.) wassi 1- Javanese (o.) suwoso Javanese (c.) tosan Javanese (c.) suwahos Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) ^ Malay basi Malay suasa 2. Bali (o.) basi 2. Bali (o.) suasa Bah' (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) base Madura (o.) suasa Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) basi Sunda (o.) Stfnda (c,)- Sunda (c.) Lampung * "basi Lampung suasa S. Biajuk sanaman 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis basi 4. Bugis suasa Macassar basi Macassar > suasa 5. Timuri basi 5. Timuri Rotti basi Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar ve Madagascar , 154 VOCABULARIES. English diamond 1. Javanese (o.) intSri i Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay intan 2. Bali (o.) intan Bali (c.) Madura (o.) intan Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) intan Sunda (?.) Lampung intan 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis intang Macassar intang 5, Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English pearl 1. Javanese (o.) mutyoro Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay mutiara % Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) mutyara Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) mutiara Sunda (o.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis mutiara Macassar mutiara 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar English sulphur 1. Javanese (o.) walirang Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay . 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English cloth 1, Javanese (o.) jarit Javanese (c.) sinjang Javanese (a.) wastro balirang wlirang balirang walirang barelang cholo cholo Malay , kain 2. Bali (o.) kamban Bali (c.) wastra Madura (o.) jarit Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) samping Sunda (c.) sinjang Lampung kain 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis lipa Macassar lipa 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang panjuk Madagascar 11 VOCABULARIES. 155 English cottan 1. Javanese (o.) kapas Javanese (c.) jujutan Javanese (a.) kapas Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar kapas kapas kapaskapas kapas kapasa kapasa hairsey English silk 1. Javanese (0.) sutro Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) lungs! , dewonggo Malay sutra % Bali (0.) sutra Bali (a) Madura (o.) sotra Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) sutra Sunda (c.) Lampung sutara 3. Biajuk '4. Bugis sabe Macassar sabe 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English orange, lime, fyc. 1. Javanese (0.) jSrruk Javanese (c.) jarrram Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (0.) Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English manga 1. Javanese (o.) pSlant Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) jarruk jawok jarram jaruk jarrok lima* lemu lemu Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar inampSiatu pohpaomampalarn mangga kapalam hampalam taipa pas taipa mampalam 156 VOCABULARIES. English magusiin 1. Javanese (o.) mangis Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) , Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar manggusta manggis manggis mangu manggos sunkop manggisi , manggisi mastak English tamarind I.Javanese (o.) asam kamal Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda;(c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis „ , Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar asam-jawamassam asamkamalassum assum peros-kamal chamba chamba English palma-ehristi Javanese (o.) jarak Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) jarak jarak Malay Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) kaleki jarak Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) jarak kaliki jarak jara jara Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English breadfruit . Javanese (o.) sukuu Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar sukun sukunsukun sukun sukun bacara- uru VOCABULARIES. 157 English pomegranate 1. Javanese (o.) dalimo Javanese (c.) gangsalan Javanese (a.) Malay S.Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English indigo plant 1. Javanese (o.) tom Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) dalimadalima dalimadalima dalima dalima dalima Malay tarum 2. Bali (o.) tom . Bali (c.) Madura (o.) tarom Madura (c.) Sunda (c.) tarum Sunda (c.) Lampung talam 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis poko-mla Macassar poko-nila 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui %. SamangMadagascar English indigo drug 1. Javanese (0.) nilp nilawardi Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay nila 2. Bali (0.) lakad Bali (c.) Madura (o.) nila Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) nila Sunda (c.) Lampung nila 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis nila Macassar nila 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar, English black peppet 1. Javanese (0.) maricho Javanese (c.) mariyos Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) " Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar lada mricha la-angmarichapadas-hidang lada-halom maricha niaricha 158 VOCABULARIES. EngUsh banana - Engli*h cucumber I.Javanese (o.)gadang 1. Javanese (o.) timun karti Javanese (c.) pisang Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay pisang Malay timun 2. Bali (o.) biyu 2. Bali (o.) katimun Bali (c.) Eali (c.) Madura (o.) gadiang Madura (".) terriun Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) chawuk Sunda (o.) bonteng, timuft Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung punti Lampung antimon 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis unti 4. Bugis Macassar unti • Macassar 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui maia 6. Atui 7. Samang piseng 7. Samang Madagascar punche Madagascar English durian English bamboo 1. Javanese (o.) duren 1. Javanese (o.) preng wuluh Javanese (c.) Javanese (c.) rosan Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) ¦ Malay durian Malay buluh 2. Bali vo.) duren 2. Bali (o.) tieng Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (a.) duren Madura (o.) p&reng Madura (c) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) kadu Sunda (o.) awi tamian Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung< durian Lampung awi 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis duriang 4. Bugis bulo Macassar duriang Macassar bulo 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui ohe 7. Samang hampak , 7- Samang labeh Madagascar '- 1 Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 159 English rattan l. Javanese (o.) panjalin Javanese (c.) panjatos Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar rotan panyalin hwoe raokang raokang awe English sugar*can 1 . Javanese (o.) tabbu Javanese (c.) rosan Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) . Bali(c) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar ; 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7» Samang Madagascar tabbutabbutabu tiwutabu tebo tabu tabu tutabuk faatfay English cocoanut , Javanese (o.) kalopo nyu Javanese (c.) krambil Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) nyohor Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) k&lapa Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui iniu 7. SamangMadagascar new English nutmeg. 1. Javanese (o.) polo Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) nyur, kalapa nyoh klapa kalukukaluku Malay pala j 2. Bali (o.) pala Bali (c.) Madura (o.l) pala Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) pala Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar 100 VOCABULARIES. English . clove English leaf 1. Javanese (o.) changkeh 1. Javanese (o.) godong Javanese (c.) Javanese (c.) ron Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) potro Malay changkeh Malay daun 2. Bali (o.) lawang 2. Bali (o.) don Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) changkeh Madura (o.) dawoa Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) changkeh , Sunda (o.) dawui* Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung changkeh Lampung bulong 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis changke 4. Bugis daung Macassar changke Macassar lekp 5. Timuri 5; Timuri Rotti Rotti 6- Atui 6. Atui 7- Samang 7. Samang Madagascar * Madagascar rawe* English tree English flower 1. Javanese (o.) wit 1. Javanese (o.) kambang Javanese (c.) , Javanese (c.) sakar Javanese (a.) wrakso Javanese (a.) sari puspita puspokusumt Malay pohun poko Malay bunga kambang 2. Bali (o.) punyanya 2. Bali (o ) bunga Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) pohon, bunka Madura (p.) kombang Madura (c.) Madura (c.) sakar . Sunda (c) tangkal Sunda (o.) kambang Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung batang Lampung kambang 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis poko 4. Bugis bunga Macassar pokp Macassar bunga 5. Timuri ayun 5. Timuri Rotti ayu Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang chuk 7- Samang v Madagascar harzo Madagascar 12 VOCABULARIES. 161 English fruit 1. Javanese (o.) woh Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) polo Malay by ah -2. Bali (o.) buah Bali (c.) Madura (o.) buwah Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) wuah Sunda (c.) Lampung buah 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar rapu rapu buhwuer English teak 1. Javanese (o.) jati Javanese (c.) jatos Javanese (a.) Malay jati 2. Bali (o.) jati Bali (c.) Madura (o.) jati Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) jati Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Maca"ssar 5. Timuri Rotti 6- Atui 7. Samang Madagascar VOL. II. jati jatijati English pine apple 1. Javanese (0.) nanas Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay, 2. Bali (o.) Bali(c)Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English rice husked. 1. Javanese (0.) bras Javanese (c.) wos Javanese (a.) dahno nanas man as Ian as danas kanias pandang pandang rtiefnasse Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4". Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar L brasbaas was bras beasbias behas werasa 'berasa tohos, narese bayas 162 VOCABULARIES. English rice in the husk 1. Javanese (o.) pari » Javanese (c.) pantun Javanese (a.) Malay - 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar padipadi pantun padi pareh paripare ase asebari hari padil varray English' wet arable 1. Javanese (o.) sawab Javanese (c.) sabin Javanese (a.) Malay . Bali (o.) sawah umah Bali (c.) charik Madura (o.) sawah Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) sawah Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar sabah tannah pamariang * pamariang English dry arable 1. Javanese (o.) tagal Javanese (c.) tagil Javanese (a.) ladang, umah tagal Malay* 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) t&gal Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) tagal Sunda (s.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang MadagascarEnglish plough 1. Javanese (o.) waluku Javanese (c.) walajar Javanese (a.) kokokoko Malay langgala 2. Bali (o.) klaka Bali (c.) Madura (o.) nanggala asaka Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) wluku, singkal Sunda (o.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis pajeko Macassar pajeko 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar * Literally " rice ground." Vocabularies. l( English harrow English salt 1. Javanese (o.) garu 1. Javanese (o.) uyali Javanese (c.) saram Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) sraru Javanese (a.) Malay , sisir, Malay garam 2. Bali (o.) garu 2. Bali (o.) uyah Bali (c.) Bali (c.) tasek Madura (o.) palaga Madura (o.) uyah buja Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) garu Sunda (o.) uyah Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Lampung uyah 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bugis chela Macassar Macassar chela 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7- Samang 7- Samang siyak Madagascar , Madagascar serer English sugar English milk 1. Javanese (o.) gulo 1 . Javanese (o.) bannyu-susu Javanese (c.) sakar gandis Javanese (c.) toyo-puwan Javanese (a.) gulo srakoro Javanese (a.) mtow oro Malay gula Malay ausu 2. Bali (o.) gula 2. Bali (o.) nyonyo Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) gula Madura (o.) aing-soso Madura (c.) Madura (c) puwan Sunda (o.) gula Sunda (o.) chai-susu Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung gula Lampung wai-mah ' 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis gula 4. Bugis dadi Macassar gula Macassar dadi 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar serermarme* Madagascar ronunu * Literally ' ' meet salt." lt)4 VOCABULARIES. ' English buy English debt 1. Javanese (o.) tuku 1. Javanese (o.) utang Javanese (c.) tumbas Javanese (c.) nyalang Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay bali Malay utang 2. Bali (o.) bali 2. Bali (o.) utang Bali (a), tumbas Bali (c.) nyambut Madura (o.) mali Madura (o.) otang Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) mali Sunda (o.) utang Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung bli Lampung . utang 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis manali 4. Bugis mangingrang Macassar amali Macassar ngingrang 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar English sell English market I.Javanese (o.)adol 1 . Javanese (o.) pasar Javanese (c.) wade sade Javanese (c.) pakan- Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay j§ial Malay pasara, pakan 2. Bali (o.) ngadap 2. Bali (o.) pakan Bali(c) Bali(c) pasar Madura (o.) juwal Madura (o.) pakan, pasar Madura (c.) Madura, (c.) Sunda (o.) najual Sunda (o.) pasar / Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung ' jual Lampung pasar 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis mabalu 4. Bugis pasara Macassar abalu Macassar pasara 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7- Samang Madagascar vele Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 1&5 English hoe English goldsmith 1 . Javanese ( o ) pachul 1. Javanese (o.) kamasan Javanese (c ) • Javanese (c.) Javanese (a •)¦ changkul Javanese (a.) Malay Malay tukang-mas * 2. Bali (o.) tambah 2. Bali (o.) tukang-mas Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.] landuk Madura (o.) kamasan Madura (c. ) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) pachul Sunda (o.) kamasan Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung pachul Lampung tukang-mas 3. Biajuk ". Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bugis padede-ulawang Macassar bingkung Macassar padede-bulaieng 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar soro Madagascar • English cleaver English blacksmith 1. Javanese (o ) bjrang bendo I. Javanese (o.) ampu Javanese (c ) Javanese (c.) pande Javanese (a ) parang Javanese (a.) Malay Malay pandai basi 2. Bali (o.) blakas 2. Bali (o.) * pande-basi Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) bandu Madura (p.) pandi Madura (c.) ' Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) badog Sunda (o.) pandai Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung chandong Lampung tukang-basi 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis bangkung 4. Bugis padede-basi Macassar , berang Macassar padede-basi 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascai Madagascar * By prefixing ithe word tukang, " artificer, " at pande, " skilled," to the name of the material, we obtain, in every cane, that of the calling or profeisi»n. 166 VOCABULARIES. English carpenter 1 . Japanese (o.) tukang-kayu Javanese (c.) tukang-kajang Javanese (a.) - Malay 2. Bali (o.) Ball (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7- Samang Madagascar English weaver 1. Javanese (o.) tukang-tanun Javanese (c.) juru-tanun Javanese (a.) tukang-kayu tukang-kayu undagi tukang kaju tukang-mapas tukang-kahitukang kayu takang-aju tukang-kayu Malay" ^ukang-tanun 2. Bali (o.) nunbn Bali (c.) Madura' (o.) tukang tanun Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) ninun Sunda (c.) Lampung1 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis tanung Macassar tanung 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang ' Madagascar English shuttle I . Javanese (o.) tropong Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay tropong 2. Bali (o.) blida Bali (c.) Madura (o.) tropong larenan Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) taropong Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis taropong , Macassar taropong 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang MadagascarEnglish thread 1. Javanese (o.) banang Javanese (c.) lawi Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) kante Madura (c.) Sunda (<*.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui . SamangMadagascar fola banangbanang kante banang banang VOCABULARIES. 16? English spinning-wheel 1. Javanese (o.) jontro Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English boat 1. Javanese (o.) prahu Javanese (c.) bahito Javanese (a.) palwo rahat j antra jantra kantiankinchir tingkiran tingkere tingkere Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5- Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar prahu prahu praho grahu parahu lopi bisiangroho afak evapahuk English rudder . Javanese (o.) kamudi Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English anchor 1. Javanese (o.) jangkar Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Kamudi kamudi kamudi kamudikamudigulingguling Malay sawuh 2. Bali (o.)# jangkar Bali (c.) Madura (o.) jangkar Madura (c.) Sunda (...) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti ' 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar jankar rangrarig rangrang 168 VOCABULARIES. English . ship English scout - 1. Javanese (o.) kapal 1 . Javanese (0.) halik nalik Javanese (c.) Javanese (c." Javanese (a.) Javanese (a. ) Malay kapal Malay suluh mata-mata 2. Bali (o.) kapal 2. Bafi (0.) talek Bali (c.) Bali (c.) ' Madura (o.) kapal Madura (0.) mata-mata Madura (c.) Madura (c.) talik Sunda (o.) kapal Sunda (0.) talik Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung kapal Lampung mata- mal am j3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis kapala 4. Bugis suro Macassar kapala Macassar suro 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7- Samang 7- Samang Madagascar Madagascar English watch or guard English war 1. Javanese (0.) tunggu tugur 1. Javanese (0/ prang Javanese (c.) kamit Javanese (c.) yudo Javanese (a.) jogo Javanese (a,' logoronosamoro Malay tunggu, jaga Malay prang 2. Bali (0.) gabagan 2. Bali (0.) masiyat Bali (c.) Bali (c.) miyuda Madura (0.) kabal jaga Madura (0.) prang Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) tunggu Sunda (0.)* prang Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung' Lampung parang 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis pakami kami 4. Bugis amusuh . Macassar pakami kami Macassar bundu £. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti . Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar ambenner Madagascar mealier VOCABULARIES. 169 English peace 1. Javanese (o.) badami Javanese (c.) Javauese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English victory 1. Javanese (o.) raanang Javanese (c.) joyo Javanese (a.) joyo wijoyo damaikasseh madami wawuh damai adameadame Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar manang mandap manang manang manangmanang pachao anyaoru English defeat . Javanese (o.) kalah Javanese (c.) kawon Javanese (a.) Malay a lali 2. Bali (o.) kalah Bali(c) kawon Madura (o.) kalah Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) elleh Sunda (c) Lampung kalah, ala 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis nikahaoni Macassar nasaoru 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English flight 1. Javanese (o. uiiilay u Javanese (c.) malajang Javanese (a.] Malay lari 2. Bali (o.) malain Bali (c.) Madura (o.) buru Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) lumpat Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4>. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar tagaglijonglarini larimi 170 VOCABULARIES. English how English shield 1. Javanese (o.) gandewo 1. Javanese (p.) tameng Javanese (c.) Javanese (c.) paris , Javanese (a.) chopo Javanese (a.) tangkulam i ghru — — — kantar Malay panah Malay taming, prisai 2. Bali (o.) 2. Bali (o.) tamiang Bab (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) panah Madura (o.) tameng Madura (c.) gandiwa Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) pateng Sunda (o.) kapang Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Lampung taming 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis panah 4. Bugis lengu Macassar panah Macassar lengu 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui tito 6. Atui 7. Saniang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar English arrow English dagger 1. Javanese (o.) panah 1. Javanese (o) kris Javanese (c.) jatnparing Javanese (c.) duwung Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) churigo katgo Malay anak-panah Malay kris 2. Bali (o.) panah 2. Bali (o.) kadutan Bali (c.) Bali(c) duwung Madura (o.) Madura (o.) kris Madura (c.) Madura (c.) abenan Sunda (o.) panah Sunda (o.) kris, skin Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Lampung, karis 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bugis sele Macassar Macassar tapi 5. Timuri 5. Timuri kris Rotti Rotti kris 6. Atui pua 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 171 English sword 1. Javanese (o.) padang Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6*. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar padang padang padang padang padang padang English spear J. Javanese (o.) tumbak Javanese (c.) wahos Javanese (a.) golo Malay tumbak 2. Bali (o.) tumbak • Bali (c.) Madura (o.) tonibak Madura (c.) chantakan Sunda (o.) tombak Sunda (c.) paean basi * poke Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar leiFu English musket I . Javanese (o.) s&uapang f Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English cannon 1. Javanese (o.) mariyam Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) sanapang sanapangsanapang snapaug sinapang si na pang mariam, badel Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) mariyam Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) mariam Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis mariam Macassar mariam 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar Literally " iron." -)• For snaphtm, Dutch. 172 VOCABULARIES. English matchstdck 1. Javanese (o.)satingar * Javanese (c) Javanese (a.) Malay satingar 2. Bali (o.) satingar Bali (c.) Madura (o.) satingar Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) satingar Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis japong Macassar japong 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English fort 1. Javanese (o.) kuto boto Javanese (c.) kito Javanese (a.) bolowarti kota Malay Malay sumpah 2. Bali (o.) galar 2. Bali (o.) supata Bali (c.) kota Bali (c.) Madura (o.) kota Madura (o.] sotnpah Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) benteng Sunda (o.) sapata Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung kuta Lampung sumpah 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis kota 4. Bugis asumpa Macassar kota Macassar a mi m pa 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. A tui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar 1 Madagascar roofontor * From egpingarc a, Portuguese. English witnessi 1. Javanese (o.) saksi Javanese (c.) Javanese (a,). Malay saksi 2. Bali (o.) saksi Bali (c.) Madura (o.) saksi Madura ^c.) Sunda (o.) saksi Siinda (c.) Lampung saksi 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis . sabi Macassar sabi 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English oath 1. Javanese (o.) siipoto Javanese (c.) sapahos Javanese (a.) prasatyo VOCABU] VARIES. 1 English prison English retaliation 1. Javanese (o .) kunjoro 1. Javanese (o. ) walas Javanese (c •) Javanese (c.) belo Javanese (a .) tarungku panjara Javanese (a. ) Malay Malay balas, bela 2. Bali (o.) blagbag 2. Bali (o.) tulung bela Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o. ) patandan Madura (o.) balas bela Madura (c. ) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) tarungku, Sunda (o.) bela, malas Sunda (c.) panjara Sunda (c.) Lampung Lampung balas 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis tarungku 4. Bugis balasa Macassar tarungku Macassar balasa 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar English flne or mulct English agreement .] . Javanese (o ) dando I.Javanese (o.) janji Javanese (c ) Javanese (c/ Javanese (a ) kapidono danda Javanese (a.] Malay Malay janji ( 2. Bali (o.) danda 2. Bali (o.) basaketa. Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.] danda Madura (o.) jangji Madura (o.J Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) danda Sunda (o.) jangji Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Lampung janji 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis pasala 4. Bugis jangji Macassar pasala Macassar jangji 5. Timuri " 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7 Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar melongorc 173 174 VOCABULARIES. English king 1. Javanese (o.) ratu rojo Javanese (c.) narendro Javanese (a.) sribopati pati norodipo aji maharojo, narpo Malay raja 2. Bali (o.) ratu Bali (i .) hanakagang Madura (o.) rato Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) ratu Sunda (c.) Lampung raja 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis arung Macassar karaing 5- Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang eja Madagascar panzakar English slave 1. Javanese (o.) kawulo Javanese (c.) abdi Javanese (a.) horubo Malay hamba saiya 2. Bali (o.) kawula Bali (e.) Madura (o.) kawula Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) - kula Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis ata Macassar ata 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar andavo English ' ¦ forest 1. Javanese (o.) alas Javanese (c.) wono Javanese (a.) wono Malay utan 2. Bali (o.) alas Bali (c.) Madura (o.) gunong Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) lawang Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk ' 4. Bugis pangala Macassar romang 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English country 1 . Javanese (o.) deso Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) deso Malay tanah 2. Bali (o.) desa Bali (c.) Madura (o.) desa Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) lambur Sunda (c. Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis tana Macassar buta 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar 6 VOCABULARIES. 175 English city . Javanese (0.) n&goro Javanese (c.) nagari Javanese (a.) projo puro Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English o own 1. Javanese (o.)inakuto Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) makuto nagri Malay na gara i. Bali (0.) Bali (c.) nagara Madura (0.) Madura (c.) daya Sunda (0.) nagara Sunda (c.) nagari Lampung 3. Biajuk parasangang 4. Bugis parasangang Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui , 7. Samang taunar Madagascar Malay makota 2. Bali (o.) makota Bali (c.) Madura (o.) makota Madura (c.) Sunda (.0.) sigar Sunda (c.) Lam pung S.Biajuk 4. Bugis makota Macassar makota 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English statute 1. Javanese (0.) undang Javanese (c.) parenta Javanese (a.) undang-undang undang undang.undang undang undang-undang prenta, undang prenta, ondang English money 1. Javanese (o.) huwang Javanese (c.) yotro Javanese (a.) radono Malay wang 2. Bali (0.) yatra Bali (c.) Madura (0.) yatra Madura (c.) Sunda (0.) wang Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis uwang Macassar uwang 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar 176 VOCABULARIES. English religion English hill 1. Javanese (o.) agomo 1. Javanese (o. ) naroko Javanese (c.) agami Javanese (c.) jahnam Javanese (a.) agomo Javanese (a.] — i umbro-gumako na rnlf it . Malay agama Malay • Hull' Iv^J naraka 2. Bali (o.) agama 2. Bali (o.) naraka Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) agama Madura (o.) naraka Madura (c.) : Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) agama Sunda (o.) naraka Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung agama Lampung naraka 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk m 4. Bugis agama 4. Bugis_ naraka Macassar agama Macassar naraka 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar English heaven 1 English spiritual teach er 1. Javanese (o.) swargo 1 . Javanese (o.] guru Javanese (c.) swargi Javanese (c.J Javanese (a.) suroloyo Javanese (a,} Malay suarga Malay guru 2. Bali (o.) swarga 2. Bali (o.) pandita - Bali (c.) Bali (c) guru Madura (o.) suarga Madura (o.) guru Madura (c.) Madura (c.) ' Sunda (o.) sawarga Sunda (o.) guru Sunda (e.) Sunda (c.) Lampung suaraga Lampung guru 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis ' suruga 4. Bugis guru Macassar suruga Macassar guru, 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 177 English penance I. Javanese (o.) topo Javanese (c.) tapi Javanese (a.) topo, teki Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) tapa Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) tapa Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar fctpamatapa tapa tapa tapa English fast I.Javanese (o.) puwoso Javanese (c.) siyam Javanese (a.) puasaposa Malay . Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) powasa, siam Madura (c.) 3. 4. Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung . Biajuk Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7 . Samang Madagascar VOL. II. puasa, sahum puasa puasapuasa English many 1. Javanese (o.) hakeh, keh Javanese (c.) hakung, katah Javanese (a.) kweh pranggi Malay 2. Bali (o ) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7- Samang Madagascar English few 1. Javanese (o.)"kadek Javanese (c.) hawisawisan Javanese (a.) chimik bannyakhakeh banyak rea, loba lamon arehmaiga jai mawrow Malay sadikit Bali (o.) sadikit Bali (c.) Madura (o.) didih, sakoni Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) satik Sunda (c.) Lampung sabah Biajuk esut Bugis chede Macassar sikade TimuriRotti Atui SamangMadagascar M 178 V/&CABULARiE&. English great English long 1. Javanese (o.) gSde 1. Javanese (0.) dotoo, panjaftg Japanese (c.) agdng Javanese (c.) wahos Javanese (a.) goro 1 Javanese (a.) . Malay h,asar, agang Malay • panjang 2. Bali (o.) gade 2. Bali (0.) lantang Bali (c.) agang Bali (c.) panjang Madura (o.) raja Madura (0.) larijang Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) gade Sunda (0.) panjang Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung bala Lampung tajong 3. Biajuk hai 3. Biajuk hapanjahg 4. Bugis maraja 4. Bugis malampe Macassar lompp Macassar labu 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7- Samang 7. Samang Madagascar bay Madagascar lavvar English little English short 1. Javanese (o.) chilik 1. Javanese (0.) chandak ' Javanese (c.) alit Javanese (a.) Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay kachil Malay pendek 2. Bali (o.) chSriek 2. Bali (0.) endep Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) kene Madura (0.) pandak Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) latik Sunda (0.) pondok Sunda (c) Sunda (c.) Lampung lpni Lampung bunta 3. Biajuk korik 3. Biajuk andap 4. Bugis baichu 4. Bugis maponchq Macassar chad'e Macassar bodo 5. Timuri ki-ik 5. Timuri Rotti anak* Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar kala Madagascar fuher VOCABULARIES. 179 English sweet English black I. Javanese (o.) manis 1. Javanese (o .) irang Javanese (c.) laggi Jayanese (c ) cham&ng Javanese (a.) datu Javanese (a ) kolo krisno , Malay • manis Malay 2. Bali (o.) itam 2. Bali (o.) manis salam Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) manis Madura (o. ) Madura (c.) Madura (c. ) Sunda (o ) amis Sunda (o.) hidung Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung mis Lampung 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk babilan 4. Bugis machaning 4. Bugis mlotong Macassar teni Macassar leleng 5. Timuri 5. Timuri mai tan Rotti Rotti mati 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang gahet 7. Samang balteng Madagascar marme Madagasca • minetay English bitter English wh'ite 1. Javanese (o.) pahit 1 . Javanese (o .) puteh Javanese (c.) gatar, gatir Javanese (c .) patah Javanese (a.) langu Javanese (a •) tnl'tn Malay pahit Malay puteh 2. Bali (o.) pahit 2. Bali (o.) patah Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) paet Madura (o. ) Madura (c.) Madura (c. ) Sunda (o.) pahit Sunda (o.) bodas SUnda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung pahi Lampung 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk puteh 4. Bugis pai 4. Bugis maputeh Macassar pai Macassar kfbu, 5. Timuri 5. Timuri mutin ' Rotti Rotti fulah 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang kadeg 7. Samang paltas Madagascar merfaughts Madagascar fute 180 VOCABULARIES. English red English yellow 1. Javanese (o.) abang 1. Javanese (o.) kuning Javanese (c.) abrit ! Javanese (c.) ' Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay merah Malay kuning 2. Bali (o.) bara 2. Bali (o.) kuning Bali(c) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) baram Sunda (p.) koneng Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) , Lampung Lampung 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk babendak 4. Bugis machala 4. Bugis maridi Macassar eja Macassar didi , 5. Timuri 5. Timuri madok Rotti Rotti mamodok 6. Atui 6. Atui 7- Samang tohon 7. Samang Madagascar maner Madagascar English green English hard , 1 > Javanese ( o.) iju 1. Javanese (0.) atos Javanese (c.) ijain Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay iju Malay , kras 2. Bali (o.) gadang 2. Bali (0,) katos Bali (c.) Bali (c.) Madura (6.) Madura (0.) haga] Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) ejo Sunda (0.) taas Sunda (a) Sunda (c.) Lampung u Lampung karas 3. Biajuk ijao 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis monchong-bulo 4. Bugis terasa Macassar monchong-bulo Macassar terasa 5. Timuri matak 5. Timuri Rotti mamasah Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang balon 7. Samang Madagascar michue Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 181 English soft 1. Javanese (o.) ampuk, madpk Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay lambut 2. Bali (o.) mas Bali (c.) Madura (o.) lembut Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) oduh, siyap Sunda (c.) Lampung lamoh 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis malama Macassar lu nui 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar merlemma English strong 1 . Javanese (o. ) roso, kuwat Javanese (c. ) kuwawi Javanese (a.) kuwowo kral Malay kuat 2. Bali (o.) kuat Bali (c.) Madura (o.) koko Madura (o) Sunda (o.) badas Sunda (c.) Lampung tagoh 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis gasing Macassar gasing 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English new 1. Javanese (o.) annyar Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) baharuannyar Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) baru Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) anuyar Sunda (c.) Lampung muak 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis baru Macassar beru 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang MadagascarEnglish old 1. Javanese (o.) tu wo Javanese (c.) sapub, sapah Javanese (a.) Malay Bali (o.) Bali(c) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung Biajuk Bugis Macassar TiniuriRotti Atui Samang Madagascar tuhatua towa kolot tuha bakas toatoa tuhakantichs 182 VOCABULARIES. English ugly English good 1. Javanese (o.) olo * 1 . Javanese (o.) bachjk Javanese (c.) awon Javanese (e.) sahe Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay buruk Malay baik 2. Bali (o.) jaleh 2. Bali (o.) malak Bali (c.) kahpn Bali (c.) bachek Madura (o.) jubak Madura (o.) bachik Madura (c.) ¦ Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) gpreng Sunda (o.) hadph Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung jahal , Lampung bati 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis kodi, ja 4. Bugis madeching Macassar kodi Macassar baji 5. Timuri 5. Timuri da-ak Rotti Rotti maloli 6. Atui 6. Atui my, ty 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar rawtche Madagascar suer English handsome English bad 1. Javanese (o.) bagus 1. Javanese (o.} olo Javanese (c.) ayu Javanese (c.) awon Javanese (a,) Javanese (a.) Malay elok, bagus Malay jabat 2. Bali (o.) bagus 2. Bali (o.) jaleh Bali (c.) Bali (c.) kahpn. Madura (o,) bagus Madura (o.) jubak Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) kasep, galis Sunda (o.) goreng Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung halap Lampung jahal 3. Biajuk bahalak 3. Biajuk 4. -Bugis madechirg 4. Bugis kodi Macassar baji Macassar kodi . 5. Timuri 5. Timuri ta-uk Rotti Rotti mangalaut 6. Atui 6. Atui ino 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar sengger Madagascar rawtche Ugly " and l' bad" axe expressed by tlie same words in almost all the Polynesian languages. VOCABULARIES. 183 English deaf English lame I.Javanese (o.} hudac 1. Javanese (o.) pinchang Javanese (c.) tua Javanese (c.) dengklang Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) Malay tuli Malay timpang 2. Bali (o.) bongol ~ 1. Bali (o.) pcrot Bali (c.) budag Bali (c.) Madura (o.) tengal Madura (o.) tepang Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) torek Sunda (o.) pata; dingkik Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung tulok Lampung timpang 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bugis tern pang Macassar tongolo Macassar tempang 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar English blind English fat 1. Javanese (o.) wuto, picbak 1. Javanese (o.) blandung, lamu Javanese (c.) kabuwanan Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) pitong Javanese (a.) pustini Malay buta Malay gamuk 2. Bali (o.) pecheng 2. Bali (o.) mokoh Bali (c.) Bali(c) Madura (o.) buta Madura (o.) lotnpo Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) pechak Sunda (o.) lintuk, palam Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung buta Lampung taboh 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis buta 4. Bugis chomo Macassar buta Macassar chomo i» 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang Madagascar chemexheter Madagascar vonidruk 18'4 VOCABULARIES. English lean 1. Javanese (o.) kuru Javanese (c.) karo Javanese (a.) Malay kurus Malay sudah 2. Bali (o.) barag 2. Bali (o.) suba Bali (c.) Bali (c.) sampun Madura (o.) kering Madura (o.),alah' Madura (c.) > Madura (c.) ampun Sunda (o.) kuru Sunda (o.) anggus Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung rayang Lampung radu 3. Biajuk 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis makojo 4. Bugis pura Macassar roso Macassar leba 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui *". Samang 7. Samang lawek Madagascar merhir Madagascar English be English become 1. Javanese (o.) hono 1. Javanese (o.) dadi Javanese (c.) won tan Javanese (c.) dados Javanese (a.) , Javanese (a.) Malay ada Malay jadi 2. Bali (o.) ada 2. Bali (o.) dadi Bali (c.) wontan Bali (c.) Madura (o.) bada Madura (o.) dadi Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) aiya Sunda (o.) jadi Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung uwat Lampung jadi 3. Biajuk atun 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis angka 4. Bugis purani JMMacassar nia . 5. Timuri Macassar jari 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang wek \7. Samang i Madagascar • Madagascar English was 1 . Javanese (o.) wus, wes Javanese (c.) sampun Javanese (a.) VOCABULARIES. 1SS English mill L Javanese (o.) arap Javanese (c.) ajang Javanese (a.) nyak Malay Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) haudah Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) rek, hayang Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar hajumelo gamek English take 1. Javanese (o.) amek, jupuh Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) ambil Malay ambil 2. Bali (o.) janmak Bali (c.) ambil Madura (o.) nalah Madura (c.) mondut Sunda (o.) ngala Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar akudiron alai ale makon English bear 1. Javanese (o.) go wo Javanese (c.) bakto Javanese (a.) Malay bawa 2. Bali (o.) aba Bali (c.) Madura (o.) giba Madura (o.) Sunda (o.j Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar ba-.va, mawa dijdyak batok ritiwi nyerang yoe English -burn 1. Javanese (o.) bakar Javanese (c.) obong Javanese (a.) basmi tuuu Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassaf 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar mundveDgher bakar bakar' ,°bong, joting obar, tono balatnpangangpapwi ' tunu tunu m VOCABULARIES* English niake, do 1. Javanese (p..) gawe Javanese (c.) damai Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timur Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar tado bri, kaseh bahang sukahakebri pareng meue ngayapan kani manenga crengi sare youmayow English lall 1 . Javanese (p.) mateni Javanese (p.) in&jabi Javanese (a.) kito - Malay buat Malay bunoh 2. Bali (o.) maggal 2. Bali ( o.) matyang Bali (c.) makarya Bali (c.) Madura (o.) gabai Madura (o.) matejie Madura (c.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) nyiung, gawe Sunda (o.) kanihayang Sunda (c.) damai Sunda (c.) Lampung sani - Lampung pati 3. Biajuk manggawe 3. Biajuk munoh 4. Bugis mebu i. Bugis buno Macassar apare Macassar buno 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang 7 Samang cheg Madagascar Madagascar vpnu English give English I 1. Javanese (p.) haweh 1. Javanese (o.)aku, ingsun Javanese (c.) paring Javanese (c) kawulo, >hulun> Javanese (a.) suko Javanese (a.) kito, kami Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. BugisMacassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar aku, say a, beta wake, h,ora liachang, titwa senkok, bula kawula aing kawulo ku, nia yaku ja^ inakc ou, matou zowh/j VOCABULARIES, 187 English thou 1. Javanese(o.)kowe,diko, siro Javanese ( c. ) sam pey an Javanese (a.) jangaudiko Malay bang, inkang 2. Bali (o.) iya Bali (c.) chokor * Madura (o.) bahua, dika Madura (c)dehna, sampeyan Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar sia, silahing sam pey an niku item iko kao bo English he 1. Javanese (o.) Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay % Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar dia, ia lanih iya tak English self (.Javanese (o.) dewe Javanese (c.) piyambak Javanese (a.) pribadi diri, sandiri dewe diri, dewek nunggalan Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) dibih Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c. Lampung 3. Biajuk 1. Bugis- Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar English whof ^Javanese (o.) sopp Javanese (c.) sintan Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung i. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar* 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui ?. SamangMadagascar sea pa nyenta sapa sapa saha sapa nigainai lelao LiteraUy " the foot.' 188 VOCABULARIES. English who English that 1. Javanese (o.) kang 1. Javanese (o.) iku iko Javanese (c.) ingkang Javanese (c.)puniku, puniko Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) • Malay yang Malay itu 2. Bali (o.) nyang 2. Bali (o.) hantuk Bali (c.) Bali (c.) neka, puneka Madura (o.) se Madura (o.) rowa Madura (c.) Madura (c.) girowa Sunda (o.) nu Sunda (o.) eta Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung sipa Lampung sena 3. Biajuk ye we 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis 4. Bngis ianatu Macassar Macassar antu, 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui. 6. Atui 7. Samang 7. Samang tuk-un Madagascar Madagascar English this English all I. Javanese (o.) iki • 1. Javanese (o.) kabeh, sadoyo Javanese (c.) pu'niki Javanese (c.) sadantan •Javanese (a.) Javanese (a.) sadarum, sagolo Malay ini Malay Samoa, sagala 2. Bali (o.) nek 2. Bali (o.) makajang Bali (c.) niki, puniki Bali (c.) Madura (o.) reyah, neko Madura (o.) kabeh Madura (c.) paneka Madura (c.) sadaja Sunda.(o.) iyak Sunda (o.) kabeh Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung siji Lampung saunyin 3. Biajuk heto 3. Biajuk sandeai 4. Bugis iana 4. Bugis iamanang Macassar anre ' Macassar iangasing S. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui 6. Atui 7. Samang tudeh 7. Samang Madagascar Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 189 English to 1. Javanese (o.) tako, marang Javanese (c.) datang Javanese (a.) dumatang pada, akan, ka kajaha Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) ka Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) ka Sunda (c.) Lampung hanakan 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English from 1. Javanese (o.) sako, sing Javanese(c.)saking, sangkiog Javanese (a.) Malay dari 2. Bali (o.) huleh Bali (c.) Madura (o.) dan Madura (c.) Sunda ,(o.) ti Sunda (c.) , Lampung anja 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar /English in,at,by,of,ori 1. Javanese (o.) ing Javanese (c.) Javanese (a.) Malay di 2. Bali (o.) ka Bali (c.) Madura (o.) ai, c Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) di Sunda (c.) Lampung di 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis ri Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6, Atui 7. Samang Madagascar English with 1. Javanese (o.) karo, sarto, Ian Javanese (c.) kalih, kaleyan • Javanese (a.) Malay sarta, sama 2. Bali (o.) sarang, barang Bali (c.) Madura (o.) barang, sarta Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Jung Sunda (c.) Lampung kalawan 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis • Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. SamangMadagascar 190 -Vocabularies. English. aboVe , Javanese (o.) duwur,- luhur Javanese (c.) iflggil Javanese (a.) English within 1. Javanese (o.) j&roh Javanese (e.) labbat, dalam Javanese (a.) atas ' Malay Malay dalam 2. Bali (o.) daduhur 2. Bali (P.) jaroh Bali (c.) badohur Bali (c.) Madura (o.' atas Madura (o.) dalam Madura (te Madura (o.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (e.) luhur Sunda (o.) jarph Sunda (c.) Lampung alas Lampung lorn 3. Biajuk lambo 3. Biajuk whang 4. Bugis asa 4. Bugis lalang Macassar rate Macassar lalang 5. Timuri 5. Timuri Rotti ^ Rotti 6. Atui nuna 6. Atui irotto 7. Samang kepeng 7. Samang baleh Madagascar ambunha Madagascar English' below English without 1. Javanese (o. i ngisor 1. Javanese (p.) jobo Javanese (c. ngandap Javanese (c.) jawi Javanese (a. bawah Javanese (a.) Malay Malay luar 2. Bali (o.) liakten 2. Bali (p.) wart&an Bali (c.) ngisor Bali (c.) Madura (o.) babah Madura (o.) lowar Madura (e.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) andap Sunda (o.) luar Sunda (c.) Sunda (c.) Lampung bah - Lampttng luah 3. Biajuk waniwak 3. Biajuk kalwar 4. Bugis awa 4. Bugis saliwang Macassar raWa : Macassar pantara 5. Timuri 3. Timuri Rotti Rotti 6. Atui dirro 6'. Atui 7. Samang kiyotii 7. Samang mos Madagascar 1 Madagascar VOCABULARIES. 191 English near 1. Javanese (o.) par&k Javanese (c.) chalak, chadak Javanese (a.) Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar dakat pahak tapak parak null, dakat pasutukep makawe ambani English far 1. Javanese (o.) adoh, tabah Javanese (c.) tabeh Javanese (a.) Malay jao , Bali (o.) joh Bali (c.) hadoh, sawat Madura (o.) jaho Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) jaoh Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar jao inejao, hetuh mabelabela English here 1. Javanese (o.) ingkene Javanese (c ) ingriki Javanese (a.) Malay * sini Bali (o.) dini Bali (c.) diriki, hiriki Madura (o.) dinah Madura (u.) dinto Sunda (o.) diyak Sunda (c.) Lampung jah 4. Bugis korini Macassar angrini 5. TimuriRotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar intir English there 1. Javanese (o.) inkono Javanese (c.) inriku Javanese (a.) eunai eban -Malay 2. Bali (o.) Bali (c.) Madura (o.) Madura (c.) Sunda (o.) Sunda (c.) Lampung 3. Biajuk 4. Bugis Macassar 5. Timuri Rotti 6. Atui 7. Samang Madagascar sana, situ dif u dirika, hirika disahkahdisah ditu san kankani cozo anjozen JO tuk-un 192 VOCABULARIES. SPECIMEN OF THE GREAT POLYNESIAN* land tanah king ratu sky langit day hari moon wulan month wulan stone watu year tahun water weh heat panas fire api sweet manis air angin bitter pahit child anak white puteh bone balung burn bakar hair wulu weep nangis blood rah kill bunoh head duwur, ulu die mati skin kulit read wacha nose irung write nulis eye mata I aku hand tangan, lima thou kowe gold mas who? sapa .' iron bassi what apa maize jaguiig above diiwur rice wos certainly pasti rice in straw pari hog bawi fruit woh , buffalo kabu leaf' ron dog asu sugarcane tabbu goat kambing coconut nyu cow lambu, sapi' yam uwi horse jaran artificer tukang rhinoceros warak in-, terior corresponds in shape with the exterior, or is of a pyramidal form, terminating in a sharp point. The stones overlap each other within, so. as to pre sent to the eye the appearance of the inverted steps of a stair. The builders of Brambanan. had pos sessed the art of turning an elliptical arch and vault, for the entrances or door-ways are all arch ed, and the roofs all vaulted. A circular vault or arch, however, is no where to be found among the ruins ; and the principle of turning an arch is no where carried to such a length as to convey the impression of grandeur or magnificence. There is evidently a regular design, not only in every group, but in every individual temple ; nothing is left unfinished, but all thoroughly completed in its way. What is chiefly to be admired is the excellence -of the materials, their great solidity, and the mi nute laboriousness of the execution. This last quality is most remarkably displayed in the sculp tures on the walls. These are covered with a pro fusion of such qmaments, some in alto, and others INDIAN ISLANDERS. 201 in bass-relief, while niches in the walls give room to statues, all of them preserving a degree of sym metry and proportion little to be expected in such structures. What is still more remarkable is, that, we see no gross or indecent, representations ; and seldom any even very fantastic or absurd, if we ex cept the Hindu objects of worship, which occupy the interior of the temples, and which are seldom exhibited in the external decorations. It is evident that the whole of the sculptures must have been executed after the construction of the buildings, the only obvious and practicable means of deli neating figures and groups of such magnitude and extent, on a variety of different stones. The or naments strictly architectural may be described j to consist of frizes, cornices, and architraves, ; and a sort of flat pilastres carved in the stone, and not set into them. There exist no ballustrades, colonnades, nor pillars in any shape, the absence of all of which gives to the structures a heavy and in elegant look, notwithstanding the profusion of minute ornament. Upon the whole, the struc tures themselves are individually too small, the entrances to them are mean, the interior is dark and contracted ; and the impression left on the mind is, that a vast deal of excellent materials, of skill, time, and labour, have been wasted without producing a corresponding effect, even abstracting from the buildings, all character of utility, and con- 202 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE sidering them only as structures dedicated to a system of superstition. Of some of the ornaments of the temples a more particular account is requisite, for, from an observation of them may be drawn some of the strongest presumptions for determining the religion to which the temples were dedicated. The first which I shall mention is a monstrous face, without a lower jaw to be seen sculptured on all the most conspicuous parts of the buildings, as at all pro jecting angles, and on the keystones of arches. This, on the authority of the ambassadors of one of the princss of Bali, I conclude to be a representation of Siwa. The prevalence of vegetable decorations among the sculptures of the temples is remarkable. Delineations of animals are much less frequent. The most usual are the lion, the elephant, and the deer ; the cow, singular enough to say, is never seen. In general, it may be said, that both the plants and animals delineated are strangers to the island. May the prevalence of vegetable deco rations be attributed to the doctrines of Buddha, which recommend vegetables for food, and profess ing abhorrence for the shedding of bldod, forbid the use of an animal diet.? The most remarkable and interesting portion of the sculptures of the temples of the first and second class are the historic groups so often deli neated. I shall take my account of these from the 3 a INDIAN ISLANDERS. 203 splendid temple of Boro Budur, where they are found in the most complete and satisfactory form. These groups represent a great variety of subjects, such as audiences, processions, religious wor ship in temples, hunting and maritime scenes. I shall select for description a few of those that seem most directly connected with the mythological history ofthe temple. On the external face of the third wall, Buddha is represented in a great many in stances. Close to the gateway, in particular, is one group in which he is the principal figure. The sage, or deity, is surrounded by a crowd of disci ples or votaries, some sitting and some standing ; most of them are in the act of presenting gifts, which, in agreement with the assumed mildness of spirit which is the characteristic of his religion, are found to consist of nothing but fruits and flowers. Male votaries appear on one side, and female on the other, while the sage sitting in the centre ap pears to address the multitude. On the fourth wall of the same magnificent temple, Buddha is repeatedly represented address ing certain persons, who, contrary to the usual practice in the temple, are represented with beards, and whom I conjecture to be the Bramins of the bloody worship of the Hindu destroyer. - In an other place, his own votaries, with their smooth chins, are listening to him from the clouds ; and in a third place, a battle is fought in his presence, ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE in which I conclude the party nearest to him to be victorious. Buddha is never found represented as the object qf worship in a temple ; and the only figures that are so, are a certain male and female divinity, decked with crowns, and with the dis tinguishing thread of the higher orders over the shoulders. These want any distinguishing attri bute of a Hindu divinity, but in other respects are identified with delineations of Siwa and Durga, where they are better characterized by their parti cular emblems. Siwa is better marked in an other group, where he is carried in procession in a triumphal car, being the individual distinguish-? ed by the crescent. Except these, no pther my thological personages are represented in the sculp tures of Boro Budur, or any other temple on the island. I shall conclude these remarks on the sculptures and decorations of the temples of the first and second class, by submitting a few remarks ofa general nature which apply to all. 1. The scenery, the figures, the faces, and costume, are not native, but those of Western India. Of the human figures, the faces are characterized by the strongest features of the Hindu countenance. Many of these are even seen with bushy beards, an ornament of the face denied by nature to all ihe Indian islanders. The loins are seen girt after the manner now practised in India, a cus? torn unknown to the Javanese, or any other pep* INDIAN ISLANDERS. 205 pie of the Archipelago. The armour worn is not less characteristic. The spear, the kris, and the blowpipe for discharging the poisoned arrow, in all ages the weapons of the Indian islanders, are no where delineated on the temples, but4 in- stead of them, we have — the straight sword and shield, — the bow and arrow, and the club. The combatants, when mounted, are conveyed in cars, or on elephants, both of these modes of convey ance of foreign custom, for the elephant is not a na tive of Java, and the nature of the country preclud ed the use of wheeled carriages; 2. There is not a gross, indecent, or licentious, representation through out, and very little, indeed, of what is even grotesque or absurd ; and 3. we discover no pointed nor very distinct allusion in the sculptures to the more cha racteristic and unequivocal features of Hinduism. Of the sculptures and decorations of the third class of temples, or those constructed of brick and mortar, the casing in which they were wrought is either entirely broken away, or so much defaced, that we can render no account of them. The more permanent materials of which the statues they con tained consisted, has rescued them from a similar destruction, and some conjectures respecting them will be afterwards offered. The construction of the temples themselves is most excellent in its kind. The bricks are unusually large, and well •burnt, and the mortar so good, that the junction 206 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE \ of the bricks is not perceptible, the whole wall I appearing rather like an uniform mass, than a * congeries of parts. The fourth or rude class of temples is in con struction so distinct from those described, that some have, though erroneously, considered them to have been structures dedicated to a different worship. They are constructed, like those of the first and second class, of hewn stone, but neither so well cut nor so well fashioned. In the plan of the temples themselves, we hardly trace any marks of design ; they appear a heavy mass of solid ma terials, and nothing else. The interior abounds in sculptures, generally rude, and not unfrequent- ly half-finished. One of the first objects that strikes us at Sukuh, in the very threshold of one of the entrances, is a representation, in relief, of the Phallus and Yoni, in the most unequivocal and disgusting nakedness. The former is represented, both at Sukuh and Katto, in a piece of statuary six feet long. One group represents a person in the act of striking off human heads. Representa tions of stags, tortoises, and snakes, none of them seen in the better order of temples, are frequent. The figures are distorted and monstrous. We see a dog in the dress of a man, a boar with horns, and an elephant with four pairs of tusks. We here discover, for the first time, representations of na- i 2>ra.u>n. byJldil Warna. a. nature of'Jaya. Sngrayed.'by'W.S.Lvt OtuLoftiie GlGAKTIC STATUTES representing a 71'ardcr from tJie Tejnpl&s ofJiramhanan., Jbtb'iibiuyh.J'ithlLsJie&by Constable. A C?182o. FhLU>27. 1LE PIUS SEN TAT I ©19" OF SlWA frvm,a.Ifvass CkLStirhike. Authors possession.. BdmtiayhPulte'hed li A . Gwl*£U fc C. J820. jriate &&. Cf >dTl!ft^StBfl6*l)llWln' ¦'¦'¦¦' '¦ ¦ ihlKlrtlUlfiir"'!^'' '¦¦ : VP- ^ '~" T^fulll »i. te 1teV,,,«4A,'w ¦ir1* ULEVTLEB'EHriA.TTOHr OI? BlTDDHA as JSxkJriieil-inons af-Oic.400 Frcher/rfthATempl&oflloroBwSjn: :'¦.;,¦....,,.,,/, F^,.:,./„.i ^ ,,,;,... ,.„:i. .i,,"> m';',,. Jireuvn.bvAdj. Warrut eLtuULVa of Java. Er^nwed-Jfy WffJuaov REIPMJE SEN TATIOH OF TlSHKU, From.a.7rujJzLatG& ston^Irna^e. in.lhe.Tcfrzples of£ra7nifana7L. Edinburgh, Fubh.shed.by Constable A C?282Q, INDIAN ISLANDERS. £07 tive manners and costume. The kris is frequent ly delineated ; and one very conspicuous group re presents a Javanese blacksmith, under a shed of modern construction, using a pair of bellows* of the peculiar structure of the country, and in the act of forging. . Another peculiarity is the- frequent oc currence of inscriptions never discovered in the temples of the^rs^ and second class. I am now to speak of that branch of the anti quities of the island which relates to statues and images, perhaps the most valuable of all, as from it the most distinct inferences concerning the ancient religion of the people of Java may be drawn. The different images may be ranged into three classes. 1st, Images belonging to the genuine worship of the Hindus. 2d, Images dedicated to that wor ship in its decline. 3d, Images of a rude descrip tion, probably of a more ancient religion, than Hin duism. I shall speak of them respectively in this order. Genuine Hindu images, in brass and stone, exist throughout Java in such variety, that I imagine there is hardly a personage of the Hindu mytholo gy of whom it is usual to make representations, that there is not a statue of. Those sculptured in stone are executed, for such a state of society, with uncommon skill. Not unfrequently there is a handsome representation of the human features, and symmetry and proportion are not disregarded. §0!8 ANCIENT RELIGION OF tiIe The material is the same basaltic stone* of which the temples are constructed. The execution of the images of brass is far less skilful, yet often re spectable, and sometimes evenbeautiful. By far the most frequent images of this class are those of the destroying power of the Hindu triad and his family. We have images Of Siwa himself in a great variety of forms, of Durga his consort, and of Ganesa the god of wisdom, of Surya the deity of the sun, of the bull of Maha dewa, and of the Linga and Yoni, all of them, a hundred to one, more frequent than any other de scription of images, except representations of Budd ha. Wherever the original appropriation of such ima ges can be distinctly traced, they will be found to have been the principal objects of worship in the tem ples, always occupying in the groups the great cen tral temple. Thus the temples of Brambanan are dis covered to have been consecrated to the worship of Siwa, by the discovery in one of the great central temples Of an image ofthe god himself, of his Sakti Durga, and, of his son Ganesa, not to say that the neighbouring country is strewed with images of the same description. The same observation applies to the groups at Singhasari, the most considerable remains of this class of buildings after Brambanan. From the principal temple, there were removed, a few years ago, the fine image of Siwa, in the form ofa devotee, with a trident j and the more su- INDIAN ISLANDERS. 209 perb ones of Kala or death, — of Durga, — of Nandi, and of Genesa, The most frequent images of all are those of Buddha. The single temple of Boro Budur con tains near four hundred ; there are a great num ber at Brambanan, and they are to be found in all the ruins of the island, those in the mountain Lawu excepted. The figures of Buddha are the same which are found in all countries professing the doctrines ascribed to that personage. Now and then I have seen an erect statue of him in brass, and on one occasion saw a Linga crowning the head of a stone image of Buddha; but the following is the most usual appearance. The figure is in a sitting posture, the legs bent, and the soles of the feet turned up ; the right side of the bosom is bare, the lower part of the body clad in a loose trowser, reaching to the ankle. The hands are variously disposed, sometimes resting on the points of«the knees, sometimes as if demon strating. The features are well raised and hand some, of the genuine Hindu cast ; the expression of the countenance is placid, the hair is short, and curled as if done by art. There is no appearance of the woolly hair of the African. The fact most worthy of attention, in respect to the images of Buddha, is, that they never appear in any of the great central temples as the primary objects of wor ship, but in the smaller surrounding ones, seeming them selves to represent votaries. They are not found vol. n. o 210 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE as single images, but always, as far as my experi ence goes, in numbers together ; and when an other object of worship exists, always looking to wards it. In a wor,d, in short* they appear to re present not deities themselves, but sages worship ping Siwa. The images of the second class are of a more ambiguous character than those now noticed ; but, connected with the circumstances under which they are found, I have no doubt may be identified with the same worship as the last, when it had decay ed, and, with it, the arts which ministered to it. Images of this class are Found near the temples, constructed of brick, and in a ruder state at the stone temples in the mountain Lawu. In the sculpture of these, the rude inhabitants appear as if left to themselves, and, forgetting the principles of the more decent Hinduism, pourtrayed in the first class of temples, to have remembered only its grosser parts, and to have allowed their imagi nations to wanton without guide, when they deli neated the rest. In this condition of the Hindu ism of Java, the rude images are wholly destitute of the characteristic emblems Of the Hindu gods. They are generally monstrous, being partly only human. One of the most frequent is a human figure with wings over the neck or shoulders, and with spurs like a cock. This figure is found both at Suku and Mojopahit. At Katto, alene, is sculptured a ANCIENT IKSCRIPTIOWS. Fa.c-Simdle of a DetyaruLffrilTiscripSion, from the hack of a. brass Cast of Buddha, inthe .hollar's possession.. "wry Spea/nen of oji Ancient Javanese Inscription*. ApccifTicTL of oji Ancient Javanese Inscription^. >^™^\ Specimen ofa barbarous form. ofJayajiese. irom. anlnscriptum. on Stone f~ ^^ V/"~,"S| found infafozhuzg an in Java.. V \ |*""™\ Specimen of the Sunda Character, from, an Inscription onStone. foiazdin/neIro0inceofOierLboniriJa.va. (^ uOaSy (P ^7ff) (J INDIAN ISLANDERS. 211 figure of the five-faced Siwa ; and among the ruin ed temples at Mojopatiit, we have several figures of Buddha. Of the. third and .last class of images I have little to say. In the least civilized parts of the island, as the mountains of the Sundas, and par ticularly the eastern province of Banyuwangi, there are foiftid a variety of images extremely rude and ill-fashioned, and which, frequently, by the ex tensive decomposition' which their surfaces have un dergone, appear of greater antiquity than those already described. These are, in all probability, representations of the local objects "of worship among the Javanese before they adopted Hindu ism, and which probably, as is still the* case in Bali, continued to receive some share of their a- doration, after that event. The ancient inscriptions found in .Java are of four kinds. 1 . Sanskrit inscriptions m the Dewan- agari character. 2. Inscriptions in the ancient Javanese, or Kawi. 3. Inscriptions in ,an anti quated but barbarous form of the present Javan ese ; and, 4. Inscriptions which- cannot be decy- phered, and are probably the characters in which the Sunda was written*. A very few inscriptions only are found in Dewanagari, and these are con fined to the two most distinguished remains of Hinduism on Java, Brambanan, and Singhasari. Colonel Mackenzie*, in 1811, discovered a long 212 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE inscription of this sort at Brambanan, upon a stone more than six feet long, in the form of a tomb stone ; in 1815, I found, myself, another of ex actly the same description, and a third of smaller size was discovered in the same year by Dr Tytler. Besides these, smaller inscriptions, consisting of a few words, or at most of a few lines, have been found, chiefly at Singhasari, and commonly on the stone images of the principal objects of. worship. I have one in brass in my own possession, on the back of a figure of Buddha, found near Bramba nan. No translations of any of these inscriptions have been effected, but I think some important in ferences may be drawn from their bare existence, surrounded even among the same ruins by inscrip tions in the ancient Javanese ; and these are, that a few genuine Hindus of Western India were among the founders of the principal temples, but that they were not the most numerous body of the priest hood of the time • that Sanskrit' was not the usual language consecrated to religion ; and that, as we see the Dewanagari and Javanese characters exist ing, separate and distinct, at the same moment, the one was not derived from the other. Of inscriptions of the second class, a great number are found in every part of the island where other Hindu ruins exist, from Pakalongan to Ma- lang. They are particularly abundant in the eastern portion, of the island, and, as already men- 7- INDIAN ISLANDERS. 213 tioned, are found in the very same ruins where Dewanagari inscriptions are found. At Brambanan I discovered two myself in 1812. They are found engraved both on stone and copper. The character of these inscriptions is an ancient form of the present Javanese, and does not even differ very essentially from it in shape, except that it is rounder. A good deal of it can be read by persons giving their attention to the subject, but there are the best grounds for suspecting the accuracy of the attempts made to render these ancient inscriptions into mo dern Javanese or the European languages, for no two translations agree. The knowledge of the language is lost in Java, and for faithful translations we have only to look to a better acquaintance with the priests of Bali, among whom it is still the language of re ligion. The only portion of this character which it can, in our present state of acquaintance with it, be safe to rely upon, is dates, when in written figures, and perhaps proper names, when these are corrobo rated by tradition. Trusting to imperfect interpre tations of the ambiguous and mystical system of no tation in the matter of dates, which the Javanese have borrowed from the Hindus, several of the Kawi in scriptions, it is pretended, afford examples of dates which go as far back as the middle of the ninth, nay, in one or two instances, as early as the begin ning of the sixth centuiy of Salivana. Not one of these is corroborated by a date in legible figures, 214 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE nor even by the more doubtful authority of the me morial verses, in which the ancient chronology of the Javanese is pretended to be recorded- Dr Horsefield discovered among the Hindu ruins of Panataran, in the district of Srangat, in 1815, one of the usual stones, with a Kawi inscription, the only one in which I find any reference to an ac knowledged tradition of the Javanese, for it men tions more than once the hero of Javanese romance, Panji Inakarta Pati, as the reigning prince, Jang- gala the name of his kingdom, and that of his princess, by whom the neighbouring temples, ac cording to the interpretations given to me, were constructed. It is not pretended that this in scription has any date ; but over the gaiteway of one of the ruins to which it belonged, are inscrib ed in distinct and legible characters the year 1242. The stones on which it is pretended that the early dates referred to have been taken, are exactly si milar to this one ; many of them have been found in the site of ancient Jangala, the capital of the prince whose name is recorded on the stone at Pa nataran ; the inscriptions are not more defaced, the stones have not suffered more by decomposition, and the character is identically the same. Fromu the ruins in this quarter there has been brought a stone vessel, three feet long, on which is inscrib ed, in legible figures, the year 1246. Two zo diacal copper cups in my possession, discovered sit INDIAN ISLANDERS. 215 no great distance from Kadiri, or Doho, which contained important Hindu relics, and was one of the chief seats of the Hindu worship, has inscrib ed upon them, in plain figures, the one, the year 1241, and the other 1246, and in the collection of Sir Stamford Raffles is one brought from Doho, with the year 1220. I have never seen nor heard of any earlier dates that could be relied upon. It is satisfactory to find how well these dates corre spond with the more recent, and therefore rea sonably the more authentic, dates recorded in the memorial verses. Joyoboyo, king of Doho, is there said to have flourished in 11 17 of Salivana, the earliest of the temples of Prambanan, to have been constructed in 1 188 ; the most recent in 1218, and the temple of Boro Budur 1260. I come now to speak of the third class of inscrip tions, or those in a barbarous form of Javanese. One of these, in the district of Kwali, of which there is a copy in the valuable collection of Sir Stamford Raffles, contains in figures the date 1363. Inscriptions of this character are very rare, and seem all of recent date. With these may be rank ed the dates and inscriptions on the barbarous re mains in mount Lawu, and on some zodiacal cups, distinguished from those already mentioned, by the rudeness and uncouthness of the workmanship, as well as by a considerable variation in the character, which is frequently in relief, instead of being, as 216 ANCIENT RELIGION OF THE in the more ancient monuments, carved in the stone. The date in the ruins of Katto in Lawu is 1856 ; those in Sukuh, in the same mountain, are 1361 and 1363. A zodiacal cup, of the inscrip tion of which my friend, Sir Stamford Raffles, has afforded a drawing, has the date 1361, and one in my own possession 1 320. Those now enumerated are the only authentic dates which have come with in my knpwiedge, until the connection of the Javanese with the Mahomedans commenced. The dates contained in these more modern inscrip tions are also corroborated by a reference to the memorial verses of the corresponding era of Javanese history. Mojopahit is, in these, said to have been founded in l' INDIAN ISLANDERS. 235 vieille qui a perce le cochon prend et met dans sa bouche pour l'6teindre. L'autre vieille trempe dans le sang du co chon le bout de sa trompette dont elle va toucher et ensang. lanter le front des assistans, en commencant par celui de son mari ; mais elle ne vint pas a nous. Cela fini les deux vieil les se deshabillent, mangent ce qu'on avoit apporte dans les deux premiers plats et invitent les femmes, et non les horcmes, a manger avec elles. On depile ensuite le cochon au feu. Jamais on ne mange de cet animal qu'il n'ait ele auparavant purifi6 de cette. maniere, et il n'y a que de vieilles femmes qui puissent faire cette c6r6monie." — Premier Voyage autoitr du Monde, p. 113, 114, 115. CHAPTER II. RELIGION OF BALI. 1'he Hindu Religion at present nearly confined to the Island qf Bali. — The National Religion of Bali is the Worship qf Siwa, and a small number qf Buddhists only exist.-^-The Siwais, as in Hindustan, divided into Jour great Casts. — The Brahmins and Higher Classes genuine Hindus, but the Lotoer Orders left to practise their local superstitions.-— The Brahmins intrusted 'with the Administration qf Justice. — Few, Prejudices on the subject qf Diet — No Religious Mendicants, and no practice qf painful Austerities. — Sa crifice qf the Widow on the Funeral Pile qf her Husband, and* Immolation qf Slaves and Domestics with deceased Princes. — Interesting Quotation from a Dutch Narrative. — Quotation from the Voyage of Cavendish. — Bodies of the Dead Burned. — Two great Religious Festivals. — Bali- nese have adopted the Indian Era and Kalender. — List qf their Religious Boohs. — The Worship qf Siwa when intro duced. — Existence of Hinduism in Bali after the conversion of the other Civilized Tribes accounted for. Vvith the partial exception of a few moun taineers in the eastern end of Java, the Hindu religion, as far as I know, has been banished from every country of the Archipelago, except the island of Bali, where it is at present near ly the only form of worship. I visited this is* RELIGION OF BALI. 237 land in 1814, and communicated the result of my inquiries concerning its religion, in a paper to the Asiatic Society, which they did me the honour to print in the last volume of their Trans actions. The principal matter of that essay I shall now transcribe. The great body of the Balinese are Hindus of the sect of Siwa, and there are a few Buddhists among them ; with the latter I had no communi cation, and, therefore, it is regarding the former only that I can furnish any precise information. The followers of Siwa in Bali are, as in Western India, divided into four great classes or casts, namely, a priesthood, a soldiery, a mercantile class, and a servile class, respectively called Brahmana, Satriya, Wisiya, and Sudra. The following origin of the casts was distinctly stated to me by the Brahmins, without any leading question. " The god Brahma produced the Brahmana from his mouth, which imports wisdom, — the Satriya from his chest, which imports strength, — the Wisiya from the abdomen, which implies that it is his busi ness to furnish subsistence to the society ; and the Sudra from his feet, which implies, that he is des tined to obedience and servitude." The institu tion of the casts the Balinese term Chatur-Jalma. The superior classes may take concubines from the lower, but the opposite practice is strictly inter dicted. The offspring of such unions form, as in 238 RELIGION OF BALI* Continental India, a variety of new casts. A legal marriage, however, can only be contracted between persons of the same cast, 'so that the four great classes are thus preserved distinct. There exists a class of outcasts, called by the Indian name Chandala ; they are held impure, and being excluded from associating with their fellow sub jects, they occupy the outskirts of the villages. Potters, dyers, dealers in leather, distillers, and dealers in ardent spirits, are of this order. The Brahmins of Bali may be considered ge nuine Hindus, but in general the people are left to their local superstitions, consisting of the wor ship of personifications of the elements, and of the most striking natural objects which surround them. The deity thus created, ranks in proportion to his supposed power, and the importance of the duties assigned to him. Every nation in Bali has its peculiar tutelary god, and the villages, mountains, forests, and rivers, have their respective guardians. To these deities rude temples are constructed, in which the lower orders, usually Wisiyas and Sudras, and never Brahmins, officiate as priests. These persons so officiating are called Mamangku or guardians. The Brahmans declared to me that they worshipped no idol whatever, not even those" of the Hindu mythology. In the part of Bali which I visited,' although temples were numerous, there certainly were none dedicated to pure Hinr RELIGION OF BALI. 239 duism. Such, however, I am informed, do exist in other parts of the island. The Brahmins are treated with great respect, and contrary to the practice of India, which places the magistracy in the hands of the military class, are entrusted with the administration pf justice, civil and criminal. The princes and chiefs are usually of the military order, but this is not in variable, for the princes of the family of Karang- asam, the most powerful in the island, and who, of late years, conquered the neighbouring Maha- medan island of Lombok, are of the mercantile or der, a fact which shows, that the institution of the casts is not tenaciously adhered to. The Brahmans, in external appearance, are easily distinguished from the inferior classes, for the former wear the hair long, and tie it in a knot at the back of the head, as in India, while the latter invariably crop it short ; neither they, how ever, nor the other twice-born casts, wear the dis tinguishing thread of the superior orders. In conformity to their profession of being sectaries of Siwa, the Balinese pay their principal adoration to Mahadewa, whom they generally designate Prama Siwa, or the Lord Siwa, but he is known to them also by many of the epithets under which he is recognised in India, such as Kala, Anta-pati, Nilakanta, Jagat-nata, &c. In their solemn in vocations, the Balinese frequently prefix to his 240 RELIGION OF BALI. name the sacred trilateral syllable aum, pronoun ced by them ong, as in the expression ong Siwa Chatur-bqja, " adoration to Siwa with the four arms." I did npt observe that the Balinese made, like the Hindus, any scruple to pronounce this sacred and mystical syllable. The perpetual and tiresome routine of ceremo nies practised by the genuine Hindu are generally, as far as I could discover, neglected by the Ba linese ; and the strange and wanton prejudices on the subject of food are paid little regard to by the body of the people, who eat beef without scruple, and among whom the domestic Jowl and hog afford the most favourite articles of diet. The Brahmins are more scrupulous, and abstain from every species of animal food, confining themselves to what is barely vegetable ; some of the more meritorious even restrict themselves to roots and fruits. In Bali I could discover no religious mendi cants. In a fruitful soil, understocked with in habitants, and where the priesthood possess valu able temporal authority, there is less occasion to seek for . spiritual distinction. Those whimsical and extravagant acts of self-mortification which have made the Hindu devotee so famous, are un known to the Ascetics of Bali, whose severest penances consist of — abstinence from some descrip- RELIGION OF BALI. 241 tions of food, — seclusion from the society of man kind in caves and forests,—- and sometimes, but not very frequently, in celibacy. Of the Hindu customs which obtain among the Balinese, the only one of which the certainty has been long ascertained among foreigners,, is the sacrifice of the widow on the funeral pile of the husband. In Bali this practice is carried to an excess unknown even to India itself. When a wife offers herself, the sacrifice is termed Satya ; when a concubine, slave, or other domestic, Bela, or retaliation. A woman of any cast may sacrifice her self in this manner, but it is most frequent with those of the military and mercantile classes. It very seldom happens that a woman of the servile class thus sacrifices herself; and, what is more extraor dinary, one of the sacred order never does. The sacrifice is confined, as far as I could learn, to the occasion of the death of princes and persons of high rank. Perhaps the most remarkable circumstance connected with these sacrifices in Bali is the in credible number of persons who devote them selves. The Raja of Blelling stattd to me, that, when the body of his father, the chief of the fa mily of Karangasam, was burnt, seventy-four women sacrificed themselves along with it. In the year 1813 twenty women sacrificed them selves on the funeral pile of JVayahan Jalanteg, VOL. II. ft , ,242 RELIGION OF BALL another prince of the same family. I am satis fied, from the conversations which I held on this subject with, some Mahomedans of Bali, whom I met in Java, that no compulsion is used on these occasions, but abundance of over-persuasion and delusion. From some circumstances connected with this .strange custom, I am strongly inclined to believe that it was not entirely of foreign origin, but an original custom of the Indian islanders modified by the Hindus. The practice of sacrificing the; living in honour of the dead, it must be recollect ed, is not an arbitrary institution of Hindustan, but has been found to obtain in other parts of the world where priestcraft or despotism have assumed ,an early empire. The sacrifice, it may be observ ed, is performed, only in honour ofa chief ; — his fe male domestics in numbers sacrifice themselves as well as his wives ; — and the genuine name of the Hindu sacrifice is confined to the former, while the name of the latter is a native term imply ing retaliation or retribution, in strict conformity with one of the most prevailing sentiments of the human mind in the earliest stages of social exist ence. A similar institution, under a similar name, prevailed in Java before the conversion, and I have no doubt that one parallel to that of the Natchez of America prevailed, very generally, iu n RELIGION OF BALI. 243 the Indian islands, wherever arbitrary and des potic authority was fully established. * * Pigafetta gives us the following singular account of a fu neral ceremony at Zebu, one ofthe Philippines, which, in the progress of despotism, may be readily supposed to assume the form of the horrid ceremony practised by the people of Bali. " A la mort d'un de leurs chefs on fait egalement des ceremo nies singulidres, ainsi que j'en ai et6 le temoin. Les femmes les plus consfderees du pays se rendirqnt a la maison dumort, au milieu de laquelle le cadavre etoit plac6 dans une caisse, autour de laquelle on tendit des cordes pour former une esp6ce d'enceinte. On -attacha a ces cordes desi branches d'arbres ; et au milieu de ces branches on suspendit des draps de coton en forme de pavilion. C'est sous ces pavilions que s'assirenfc les femmes dont je viens de parler couvertes d'un drap blanc. Chaque femme avoit une suivante, qui la refraichissoit avec un eVentail de palmier. Les autres femmes 6toient assises d'un air triste tout autour de la chambre. II y en avoit une parmi elles qui avec un couteau coupa peu & peu les cheveux du mort. Une autre, qui en avoit et6 la femme principale (car quoiqu'un homme puisse avoir autant de femmes qu'il lui-plait, une seule est la principale,) s'6tendit sur lui de facon qu'elle avoit sa bouche, ses mains et ses pieds, sur sa bouche, sur ses mains et sur ses pieds. Tandis que la premiere coupoit les cheveau, celle-ci pleroit ; et elle chantoit quand la premiere s'arretoit. Tout autour de la chambre il y ayoit plusieurs vases de porcelaine remplis de feu, ou Ton j etoit de tems en tems de la myrrhe, du storax et du benjoin, que rSpahdoient une odeur fort agr&able. Ces cer6monies continuent cinq a six jours, pendant lesquels le mort ne sort pas de la maison ; je crois qu'on a soin de l'embaumer avec du camphre poar Je 244 RELIGION OF BALI. In the year 1633, four years after the last at tack on Batavia by the sultan of Mataram, the Dutch, dreading a renewal of hostilities on the part of that prince, sent a mission to the island of Bali to request the assistance ofthe prince of GeU gel, who appears at that time to have been sole sovereign of the island. The manuscript account of this mission has been translated by Mons. Prer vost, and affords an interesting and most curious account of the funeral ceremonies of the Balinese princes. The ambassadors found the king in the deepest affliction on account of the death of his two eldest sons, and the dangerous illness of his queen, who, in fact, also died soon after their ar rival. No business could be transacted until after that princess's funeral, which the king, according to the Dutch statement, gave orders, in compli ment to the Europeans, should take place in eight days, although, in conformity to ancient usage, the ceremony ©ught npt to have taken place earlier than a month and seven days after death. The Dutch narrative proceeds as follows. " The same day, about noon, the queen's body. was burnt with out the city, with two and twenty of her female slaves ; and we consider ourselves bound to render preserver de la putrgfaction. On l'enterre enfin dans le meme cais.se, qu'on ferme avec des chevilles de bois, dans le cime- tidre qui estun endroil enclos et couvert d'ais."—P. 115, 116. RELIGION OF BALI. 245 an exact account ofthe barbarous ceremonies prac tised in this place on such occasions as we were eye-witnesses to. The body was drawn out of a large aperture made in the wall to the right hand side of the door, in the absurd opinion of cheat ing the devil, whom these islanders believe to lie in wait in the ordinary passage. * The female slaves destined to accompany the dead went before, ac cording to their ranks, those of lowest rank tak ing the lead, each supported from behind by an old woman, and carried on a Badi, skilfully con structed of bamboos, and decked all over with flowers, t There were placed before, a roasted pig, some rice, some betel, andotherfruits, as an offering to their gods, and these unhappy victims of the most direful idolatry are thus carried in triumph, to the sound of different instruments, to the place where they are to be in the sequel poignarded and con- •sumed by fire. Each there found a particular scaf fold prepared for her, nearly in the form of a trough, raised upon four short posts, and edged on two sides with planks. After moving three " It is almost unnecessary to say, that this cannot have been the true account of the superstitious practice in question. Eai'ly European voyagers are in the constant habit of ob truding their own mythological opinions upon us as those of the natives. + The Badi is a kind of litter. 24-6 RELIGION OF BALI. times round in a circle, at the same pace at which they arrived, and still sitting, in their litters, they were forthwith taken out of their vehicles, one after another, in order to be placed in the troughs. Presently five meni, and one or two women, ap proached them, pulling off all the flowers with which they were adorned, while, at each occasion, holding their joined hands above their heads, they raised the pieces of" the offering which the other women posted behind, laid hold of, and threw upon the ground, as well as the flowers. Some of the at tendants set loose a pigeon or a fowl, to mark by that that their soul was on the point of taking its flight to the mansions of the blessed. "At this last signal they were divested of all their garments, except their sashes ; and four of the men seizing the victim, two by the arms, which they held out extended, and two by the feet, the vic tim standing, the fifth prepared himself for the .execution, the whole being done without cover ing the eyes. " Some of the most courageous demanded the poignard themselves, which they received in the f right hand, passing it into the left, after respect fully kissing the weapon. They wounded their right arms, sucked the blood which flowed from the wound, and stained their lips with it, making with the point of the finger a bloody mark on the forehead. Then returning the dagger to their ex- RELIGION OF BALI. 2^7 ecutioners, they received a first stab between the false ribs, and a second, from the same side, under the shoulder blade, the weapon being thrust up to the hilt, in a slanting direction, towards the heart. As soon as the horrors of death were visible in the countenance, without a complaint escaping them, they were permitted to fall prone on the ground, their limbs were pulled from behind, and they were strip ped of the last remnant of their dress, so that they were left in a state of perfect nakedness. "The executioners receive, as their reward, two hundred and fifty pieces of copper money, of about the value of five sols each. The nearest relations, if they be present, or persons hired for the occa sion if they are not come, after the execution, and wash the, bloody bodies, and having sufficiently cleaned them, they cover them with wood in such a manner, that the head only is visible, and, hav ing applied fire to the pile, they are consumed to ashes. " The women were already poignarded, and the greater number of them in flames, before the dead body of the queen arrived, borne on a superb Badi, of a pyramidal form, consisting of eleven steps, and supported by a number of persons pro portioned to the rank of the deceased. At each side of the body were seated two women, one holding an umbrella, and the other a flapper of horse-hair, to drive away the insects. Two priests 248 RELIGION OF BALI.: preceded the Badi, in vehicles of a particular form, holding each in one hand a cord attached to the Badi, as if giving to understand that they led the deceased to heaven, and ringing in the other a little bell, while such a noise of gongs, ta bours, flutes, and other instruments, is made, that the whole ceremony has less the air of a funeral procession than of a joyous village festival. "When the dead body had passed the funeral piles arranged in its route, it was placed upon its own, which was forthwith lighted, while the chair, couch, &c. used by the deceased in her lifetime, were also burnt. The assistants then regaled themselves with a feast, while the musicians, without cessation, struck the ear with a tumultuous melody, not un- pleasing. This continues until evening, when the bodies being consumed, the relatives and chiefs return home, leaving a guard for the protection of the bones. On this occasion the bones ofthe queen only were preserved, the rest having been gathered up and thrown away. " On the following day the bones of the queen were carried back to her former habitation, with a ceremony equal in pomp to that of the preceding day, and here the following forms were observ ed. Every day a number of vessels of silver, brass, and earth, filled with water* accompanied by a band of musicians and pikemen, are carried thither. Those who bear them are preceded by two young boys carrying green boughs, marching RELIGION OF BALI. 249 before others carryings — the mirror, — the vest,— the loose garment,— the betel-box, and other conve niences of the deceased. The bones are devoutly washed during a month and seven days, after which, being placed in a convenient litter, they are conveyed by the same retinue as was the body, to a place called Labee, where they are entirely burnt, and the ashes carefully collected in urns, and cast into the sea at a certain distance from the beach, which terminates the ceremony. " When a prince or a princess of the royal family dies, their women or slaves run round the body, uttering cries and frightful howlings, and all eagerly solicit to die for their master or mistress. The king, on the following day, designates, one by one, those of whom he makes choice. From that moment, to the last of their lives, they are daily conducted, at an early hour, each in her vehicle, to the sound of musical instruments, with out the town, to perform their devotions, having their feet wrapped in white linen,, for it is no more permitted to them td touch the bare earth, because they are considered as consecrated. The young women, little skilled in these religious ex ercises, are instructed in them by the aged women, who accompany them, and who, at the same time, confirm them in their resolution. " A woman, on the demise of her husband, ap pears daily before the corpse, offering it viands, 250 RELIGION OF BALI. but seeing fliaf it will not partake, she resumes, afr each time, the usual lamentations, carrying her affliction so far for three or four days, as to kiss the body, and bathe it all over with her tears. This mourning, however, only lasts until the even ing before the funeral rites. Those who have de voted themselves, are made to pass that night in continual dancing and rejoicing, without being per mitted to close an eye. All pains are taken to give them whatever tends to the gratification of their senses, and from the quantity of wine which they take, few objects are capable of terrifying their imaginations. Besides, they are inflamed by the promises of their priests, and their mis taken notions of the joys of another state of exist ence. " No woman or slave, however, is obliged to fol low this barbarous custom. Yet, even those who have desired to submit to it, and have not been accepted, as well as those who have not . offered themselves, are alike shut up for the remainder of their lives, in a convent, without being permitted the sight of man. If any one should find means to escape from her prison, and is afterwards taken, her fate is instantly decided ; she is poignarded, — dragged through the streets, — and her body cast ip the dogs to be devoured, the most ignominious form of inflicting death in that country. " At the funeral of the king's two sons who died RELIGION OF BALI. M51 a short time before, forty-two women of the one, and thirty-four of the other, were poignarded and burnt in the manner above described ; but on such occasions the princesses of royal blood leap them selves at once into the flames, as did at this parti cular time the principal wives of the princes in question, because they would look upon them selves as dishonoured Tiy any one's laying hands on their persons. For this purpose a kind of bridge is erected over the burning pile, which they mount, holding in their hand a paper close to their foreheads, and having their robe tucked up under their arm. As soon as they feel the heat, they precipitate themselves into the burning pit, which is surrounded by a palisade of coco-nut stems. In case their firmness should abandon them at the appalling sight, a brother, or pther near relative, is at hand to push them in, and render them, out of affection, that cruel office. " We were informed, that the first wife of the younger of the two princes just alluded to, who was daughter to the king's sister, asked her father, who was prince, of Couta, whether, as she was but three months married, and on account of her ex treme youth, she ought to devote herself on the funeral pile of her deceased husband. Her father, less alive to the voice of nature than to the pre judices of his nation, represented to her so strong ly the disgrace she would, by preferring to live, 252 RELIGION OF BALI. bring upon herself 'and all her family, that the unfortunate young woman, summoning all her courage, gaily leapt into the flames, which were already devouring the dead body of her hus band. " On tlje death of the reigning king, the whole ofhis wives and concubines, sometimes to the num ber of a hundred, or a hundred and fifty, devote themselves to the flames. None of them are previous ly poignarded, a distinction confined to this occa sion. As they are at such a time permitted to walk without restraint, it happened, at the funeral of the late king of Bali, that one of his women, as she was preparing to follow the example of her companions, lost her courage at sight of the dreadful preparations. She had sufficient presence of mind, in approaching the bridge, to ask leave to withdraw for a moment on some common pretext, which being granted without any suspicion, she be took herself to flight with all possible speed. The singularity ofthe circumstance, rather than any mo tive of compassion, saved her life, and gave her her freedom. We were assured that she came daily to the public market to sell provisions, but that she was regarded by all persons of rank with the last degree of contempt, though custom had taught her to bear with the most cruel raillery. "Another object of contempt among this people, and for a reason sufficiently singular, is the female RELIGION OF BALI. 253 slave to whose lot it falls to wash the dead body of her mistress, during the month and seven days be fore the funeral rites. It is, in fact, for the per formance of this task that her life is saved, and li berty afterwards given to her to retire where she pleases into the country, to earn her livelihood. " To obviate the infection which would otherwise be generated by preserving the dead bodies so long in a climate of such excessive heat, they are oblig ed daily to rub them with salt, and with pepper, and other aromatics, so that they fall away to mere skin and bone. Afterwards these drugs, which form a coat of four or five inches thick, are washed off, and it is in this state that the bodies are burnt. The coffin, which contains the body, is perforated at the bottom, "to permit the animal fluids to run off, and these are received into a vessel, which is daily emptied with much ceremony."* The province of Blambangan, composing the eastern extremity of Java, was, down to very late years, subject to the Balinese, and chiefly inhabit- . ed by that people. Cavendish, in his circumnavi gation of the globe, passed through the straits between Java and Bali, touching at the fonner island. Purchas gives the foliowing curious * H'stoire General des Voyages, Tom; XVII, p. 52, et jequent. 254 RELIGION OF BALI. account of the ceremony alluded to in the text, as received by Cavendish and his companions from the Portuguese : — " The custome of the countrey is, that whensoeuer the king doth die, they take -the body so dead, and burne it, and preserue the ashes of him, and within fiue dayes next after, the wiues of the said king so dead, according to the custome and vse of their countrey, euery one of them goe together to a place appointed, and the chiefe of the women, which was nearest vnto him in accompt, hath a ball in her hand, and throweth it from her, and to the place where the ball rest- eth, thither they goe all, and turn their faces to the eastward, and euery one, with a dagger in their hand, (which dagger they call a crise, and is as sharpe as a razor,) stab themselues to the heart, and with their hands all to bebathe themselves in their owne blood, and falling grouelling on their faces, so ende their dayes. This thing is as true, as it seemeth to any- hearer to be strange."* * Purchas's Pilgrims, Vol. I. B. 2. p. 6&. The -testimony of Pigafetta confirms the existence of the practice in Java. " On nous c}it que c'est l'usage a Java de bruler les corps des principaux qui meurent ; at que la femme qu'il aimoit le plus est distinSe si etre brftle^es toute vivante dans le meme feu. Ornee de guirlandes de fleurs, elle se fait porter par quatre hommes sur un siege par toute la vjlle, et d'un air riant et tranquille elle console ses parens qui pleurent sa mort prochaine en leur dissant : « Je vais ce soir souper avec RELIGION OF- BALI. 255 1 had written my account of the funeral rites of the Balinese princes, before reading either the nar rative of the Dutch envoys, or the above passage in Purchas, and I have since made no alteration, that the reader may have an opportunity of comparing it with those earlier accounts, and drawing his own conclusions. The Hindus of Bali, like those of India, burn the bodies of their dead ; but differ from the latter jn this singular particular, that they keep the dead body for an extraordinary length of time previous to consuming it. The bodies of persons of the lowest condition are usually kept for several weeks, and those of persons of rank often for a year, nay sometimes even for two. A fortunate day must be determined upon by the Brahmins for burning the body, and, during the interval, it is embalmed and preserved in an apartment for the purpose. The Balinese have two great religious festivals, followed the one by the other at an interval of ten days, and repeated twice a-year. The first, in point of time, is called Galungan, and is, of five mon mari, et cette nuit je coucherai avec lui. Airivee au bucher elle les console de nouveau par les meme discours, et se jette dans les flammes qui la devorent. Si elle s'y refusoit, elle ne seroit plus regardee comme une femme honnete ni comme une bonne epouse.' '' French translation from the ©riginal manuscript, p. 217. 256 RELIGION OF BALI. days duration ; the second Kuningan, and is of two days duration. These festivals occur in De cember and June, or at the winter and summer solstices, the first when the great rice crop is sown, and the second when it is reaped. They are dedicated to the worship of the gods, to festivi ty and rejoicing. All serious occupation is inter rupted, and even war, at all other times carried on with the relentless ferocity common to barbarians, is held unlawful during the celebration of these festivals. From the seasons at which they occur, and the native names by which they are designated, J am inclined to consider them as native rather than foreign institutions, or perhaps at furthest, but as modified by tbe Hindus. The Balinese have generally adopted the Indian chronology, and the era of Salivana, which they call Saka warsa chandra. * Besides the works current among the ancient , Javanese, and of which an account is given under the head of Literature, the Balinese Brahmins of the worship of Siwa supplied me with the follow ing list of works, containing the peculiar doctrines of their own sect. Agama — Adigama — Sarsa- muschay agama — Dewagama — Maiswaralatwa—r f Wiyawaraha — Dustakalabaya — Slokantaragama — Satmagama, and Gamiyagamana. They com plained of the loss of other religious works, and RELIGION OF BALL 257 made anxious inquiry respecting their existence in India. The religion of Siwa was introduced in Bali be tween three and four hundred years ago, previous to which the reigning religion was Buddhism. The following is the account of this revolution fur- ' nished to me by the Brahmins themselves. A few years previous to the Mahomedan conversion of the Javanese, there arrived in Java, from Kalinga, a num ber of Brahmins, of the sect of Siwa, who receivedpro- tection from Browijoyo, the last Hindu sovereign of Mojopahit, Soon after the overthrow of that state, they fled to Bali under their leader Wahu Bahu, and there disseminated their doctrines. The pre sent generation are, by their own account, the tenth in descent from Wahu Bahu and his com panions. The fact of the Hindu religion existing in the little island of Bali, after the conversion to Maho- medanism, appears at first sight singular. This phenomenon is to be ascribed to a variety of circum stances, such as hostility to the Mahomedan re ligion, on the part of the Hindu refugees from Java, who are known, when persecuted, to have fled to Bali in considerable numbers, — the adop tion of another new religion on the part ofthe Ba linese, but probably, above all, the inaccessibili ty of the shores of Bali, the only civilized and po pulous country of the Archipelago, destitute of VOL. II. R 258 RELIGION OF BALI. harbours, and even of tolerably safe anchoring ground. This has kept away the Mahomedan merchants, by whose means Islam was propagat ed in the other countries of the Archipelago. At present the Balinese, without hating the Mahome dan religion, or persecuting its followers, show no small degree of jealousy of it. CHAPTER III. CHARACTER OF MAHOMEDANISM IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. Indian Islanders throughout are qf the orthodox creed, fol lowing almost invariably the doctrines qf Shqfihi. — The doctrines ofthe Imams have never found their way into the Archipelago. — Malays considered among their neighbours the best Mahomedans. — In religious sentiment all the tribes are liberal and tolerant — i-State of Mahomedanism in Java. — The Mahomedan Festivals qf Java modifications -qf the ancient Hindu ones. A Mahomedan Festival in Java de scribed. — Javanese Priests, their duties and offices. -^-Lower orders qf the Indian Islanders singularly inattentive both to the positive and negative precepts of the Koran. — Anec dotes in illustration qf this, « 1 he Indian islanders first received the religion of Mahomed from the orthodox land of Arabia; and the flame has been kept alive by the intercourse which has since subsisted with that country. All^ the tribes and nations of the Archipelago are, therefore, necessarily, nominally of the orthodox faith. Of the four great divisions of Mahome- 260 CHARACTER OF MAHOMEDANISIff danism, deemed equally orthodox, the Indians Islanders, with minute exceptions not worth men tioning, are followers of the doctrines of Shafihi, the prevalent doctrines of Arabia, * and particular ly of the maritime portions of that country, from whence proceeded the first apostles of Islam to the Indian islands. Among the Indian islanders there are no sec taries of any description. The doctrines of the Imams, or of those who believe in the divinity of Ali, have not found their way thither, and the few Malays who visit Siam alone have an opportunity pf seeing a few straggling Shiahs or Rqfzi, as they call them, in that country. The Malayan tribes have the reputation of be ing the most exemplary Mahomedans of the Ar chipelago. On essential points they are sufficient ly strict without being intolerant. Their superior instruction is owing to their longer and more intimate intercourse with their masters the Arabs, and the Mahomedan^ of the Eastern coast of India; and their liberality is to be ascribed to their extensive inter-f course with men of various religious persuasions, with Hindus, Buddhists of farther India, Chinese, Christians, and Pagans of their own country. TO * SaleV Preliminary Discourse to his- Translation of the Alcoran,,, IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 261 the positive precepts of the Koran, viz. attention to festivals, — fasting, — prayer, — attendance at the mosque, — and performance of the pilgrimage, they are sufficiently attentive, but their violation of some of its negative precepts, as stated in another place, is open and flagrant : they are the greatest of gamb lers, and the most determined consumers of intoxi cating drugs. The state of Mahomedanism in Java differs widely from that among the maritime and com mercial tribes, and will demand a more particular account. Of all Mahomedans the Javanese are the most lax in their principles and practice, a singularity to be ascribed to their little intercourse with foreign Mahomedans, occasioned by the ex clusion of the Arabs in particular, through the commercial jealousy of the Dutch, during a period of two hundred years. It will be necessary to fur nish the reader with a review of the conduct of the Javanese in the various duties of a Mahomedan. The Javanese, like the Arabs, keep the tVvo re gular festivals prescribed by the Koran, the Id td Petre, and the Id ul Kurban. To these they add a third and fourth, one in honour of ancestors, already mentioned, and a festival on the 12th of the- month of Rabbi ul awal, the alleged anniver sary of the birth and death of the prophet. The first of these two is evidently a relic of their an cient superstitions, and the last was instituted, I 262 character of mahomedanisM imagine* to supply the place of the ancient Hindu festivals, called in these countries the Galungan and Kuningan, which divided the year into two equal parts, and which in a civil, as well as reli gious view, were considered as important seasons, for then the public revenue was paid, and all con tracts concluded. The institution of this festival was, in all probability, a discreet concession made to the, Javanese by the first Mahomedan mission aries. The festival of the nativity or Maulud, and that which succeeds the Ramzan or Mahomedan lent, on the first of Shawal, called rather ambigu ously by the Hindu name of Puwasa, or the fast, divide the year into nearly equal portions, and are now the principal festivals of the Javanese ; it is then that the public revenue is paid and all con tracts made. Except the festival in honour qf ancestors, the Others are celebrated in the same way, and are considered rather as occasions of rejoicing and fes tivity, than pf the performance of prayer and relir gious duty. A description of them, as exhibited at the courts of the native princes, may gratify curio sity, while it affords a new and unexpected picture of eastern customs and manners. Previous to these great festivals, the governors of provinces and other chiefs, with a numerous concourse of retainers and followers, repair to court. At an early hour of the morning ofthe festival, each, accompanied by his peo- IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 263 pie, fully armed, attend in their gala dresses, and, preceded by drums and music, proceed to the great square of the palace, and hold themselves in readi ness to appear at an appointed hour in the presence. Every part of the ceremony puts Mahomedan de corum at defiance. About the hour of ten the monarch makes his appearance in the idolatrous garb of his ancestors, decorated with ponderous golden bracelets, armlets, and finger rings rich with diamonds. The procession which attends him consists of persons whimsically dressed in the ancient costume of Java, and a great number are women, in contempt of the usual fastidiousness of Mahomedan nations. The most conspicuous of the group are the handsomest of the concubines of the prince himself, bearing the ancient regalia of a Javanese monarch, of which the most remark ably in contrast to Mahomedan precept, are the golden figures of a naga or snake,— of an animal of the goose kind, — and of a deer. Some of the more aged women appear in the procession with arms in their feeble hands. In the native language these last are called Langdn-astra, or Langan-kusuma, which imply, as much as, soldiers in play or jest, terms sufficiently descriptive of their office. Such a whimsical anomaly in oriental manners, had pro bably its origin in no better foundation than the absurd and playful caprice of some ancient despot. The prince arriving at the Sitingil, or terrace of 264 character of mahomedanism ceremonies, takes his seat on the throne, the chiefs of all ranks, from the highest to the lowest, squat ting on the bare ground, the heir to the throne only being, when in high favour, admitted to a seat of some little distinction. The troops of all descrip tions, whether those of the household or the rabble militia of the provinces, then pass before the prince in review, moving mostly according to the man ners of the country in a strutting or dancing atti tude, and exhibiting costumes the most grotesque and ludicrous than can well be imagined. Some appear in the ancient dress, — others in the more mo dern garb of the country, and these to an Euro pean are the most becoming ; others superadd some of the more antiquated portions of the costume qf Holland. The absurd solemnity of some of the figures, and the extravagant and wild gestures of others, afford to a stranger a trial too severe for the most determined gravity. The public charity to be distributed in confor mity to the institutions of Mahomed, is now dis played in slow procession, to the sound of a hun dred bands of native music. It consists of dressed food, chiefly rice, piled up into a conical mass of four or five feet high, tastefully decorated with flowers, and each mass supported on a separate lit ter, borne along by porters dressed for the occa sion. From their shape and size, and still more because they are thought to be emblematic of the IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 265 bounty of the sovereign, these masses of food are emphatically and figuratively denominated " moun tains." After being duly exhibited in procession, they are carried to the houses of the nobles of rank, according to their size and qualities, and, being thrown down in their court-yards, there ensues among the retainers of the chiefs an indecent but , amicable scramble for them. That portion of the festivities of the day which have their origin in the connection with the Euro pean authority, are not the least remarkable, or least at variance with the duties of good Mussel- mans. No sooner is the injunction of the Koran, the distribution of charity complied with, than wine is served, and half a dozen bumpers are quaffed off by the Mahomedan monarch and his subjects, to the health of their European allies and them selves. The evening, by long established custom, is passed at the residency of the European chief, where may be seen every year the strange spec tacle of a Mussulman prince and his court cele brating the festival of the sacrifice, or comme morating the death and nativity of the Prophet, ¦ by a Bacchanalian feast in the house of a Chris tian ! * * The author has often had the honour of entertaining his Highness the Sultan of Java on such occasions. 266 CHARACTER OF MAHOMEDANISM In most of the Mahomedan institutions of the Javanese, we discover marks of Hinduism. The institutions of the latter have in reality been ra ther modified and built upon than destroyed, and in viewing them, we cannot withhold the tribute of our applause to the discreet and artful conduct of the first Mahomedan teachers, whose temperate zeal is always marked by a politic and wise for bearance. The present priests of Java are the successors in office, and almost in duty, to the priest and astrologer of the Hindu village. The "latter were entitled to a small share of the crop, and the same, under the legitimate Arabic name of Zftkat, or alms, is now paid to the Mahomedan priests. This, which ought by law to be a tithe, Is but a 25th of the staple crop, and, by the fru gal piety of the donor, who selects for his spi ritual guide the smallest' sheaf, often still less. The contribution is, indeed, strictly eleemosynary, but usage, prescription, and superstition, ren der the payment more imperious and punctual than any municipal law could render it. This, with fees at marriages«and funerals, and small gifts at festivals, constitute the incomes of the Javanese priests, who are a peaceful, contented, and re spectable portion of the Javanese peasantry, liv ing in terms of perfect equality with the ordinary Cultivators. Neither the prayers nor the fastings of the In* in IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 267 dian islanders, commonly speaking, are very rigid. The lower orders know little, and care less,, about these matters. * Such is the ignorance or careless ness of some of them in Java, of which I can per sonally speak, that they do not even know the name of the Prophet whose religion they profess to follow. Once when presiding in the Resident's court at Samarang, a peasant was about to give evidence on oath, when I directed him to be in terrogated on the nature and obligations of the oath he was about to take. It came out that he had never heard the name of Mahomed, and, *' * " The religion of these people is Mahomedanism, Friday is their Sabbath, but I did never see any difference that they make between this day and any other day, only the Sultan himself goes then to the mosque twice. Laja Laut never goes to the mosque, but prays at certain hours, eight or ten times in a day ; wherever he is, he is very punctual to his canonical hours, and if he be on board, will go ashore on purpose to pray, for no business or company hinders him from this duty. Whether he is at home, or abroad, — in the house, or in a field, he leaves all his company, and goes about 100 yards off, and then kneels down to his devotion. He first kisses the ground, then prays aloud, and divers times in his prayers h,e kisses the ground, and dogs the same when he leaves off. His servants and wives and his children talk and ping, or play how they please all the time, but himself is very serious. The meaner sort of people have little devotion ; I did never see any of ihem at their prayers, orga into a mosque.'' s^Dampier's Voyages, Vol. I. p. 338. 268 CHARACTER OF MAHOMEDANISM when urged upon the subject, he pronounced with great simplicity the name of his village priest ! Tlie lower orders even display a most singular levity upon these points. In the vicinity of the town of Yugydkarta, I met one evening a band of labourers returning from their work, and their ex traordinary amusement was as follows : One of the party was repeating a verse of the Koran, which he had somehow acquired, and mimicking a preacher of tlieir acquaintance. When he had done, the rest applauded him by a loud shout, and a convulsive roar of laughter. He again repeated the verse, and received the same approbation, and this was their diversion as they passed on to their houses, I do not quote these cases as extraordi nary examples, but as a true picture of the popu lar feeling on the subject of religion. I dp npt mean, in general, to assert, that, in matters of re ligion, , the Javanese are incapable of conducting themselves with decorum, but certainly there is neither bigotry nor austerity in their religious be lief, and most frequently it has not much solem- . nity, and hardly ever any austerity. Some of the higher classes, now and then, pay a more sober and decent regard to the exterior ob servances of religion, but it is not very general, and it is never severe. The late sultan of Yugyakarta, who was a chief of a most kind and humane dis position, used frequently to apprize me as a joke, IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 269 that his mother had gone to the mosque to pray for herself and^or him too, — that he did not yet trouble himself with matters of this sort,— that it was time enough, and — that he would be more at tentive as he grew older. The pilgrimage to Mecca is frequently under taken by the Javanese, and all the other Maho medan tribes, .less on account of piety, than on ac count of the distinctions and immunities which the reputation ofthe pilgrimage confers among a simple and untaught people. As, however, an extensive in tercourse with the world, where there are no fixfed principles of morality, and no education, more fre quently produces depravity and cunning than im provement or wisdom — the islanders often re turn worse subjects than they went away, and have been accused of misleading the people, and of be ing the most active agents in insurrection and re bellion. The disregard of the Javanese, and of many other of the Mahomedan tribes of the Archipe lago, for the negative precepts of the Koran, is open and avowed. They entertain an universal passion for intoxicating drugs. They consume not less annually than eighty thousand pounds of opium. Although they are no drunkards, all Glasses partake of spirituous liquors, or wine, without reserve, when it comes in their way. Among the native chiefs of highest rank, I re- 270 CHARACTER OF MAHOMEDANlSSf member but three examples of persons refraining from the open use of wine. * To the prohibition against games of chance they pay no regard on earth. They are passion ately fond of gaming, and give way to this pro pensity without restriction or reserve. * " Then putting on the roll upon my head, I sat down in the king's (of Achin) presence, who drank to me in aquavitce., . and made me drink of many strange meats." — Davis' Voyage in Purchas, Vol. I. p, 120. — " Puis il (the king of Achin) me fit donner a boire dans un petit gobelet d'or, porte dans un grand bassin du meme metail, par un eneuque ; par le moyen du Sabandar. Je beus a, la sante' de sa grandeur, luy sou- haittant meillure, en bref qu'elle n'estoit de present, et pen- sant vuidef ce petit gobelet, la force du breuvage me le fit bien-tost quitter, ct pensois avoir beu du feu^ en sorte qu'il me prit une grande sueur : II me dit qu'il falloit achever pu- isque j'avois beu I sa sante, et qn'il estoit bien marry, de ne pouvoir boire' a celle du Roy de France, et qu'il vuideroit tout,'" — Beaulieu's Voyage, in the collection of Melchizedec Theremot, Vol. I. p. 54 — " This rice drink is made of rice boiled, and put into a jar, where it remains a longtime steep ing in water. I know not the manner of making it, but it is a very strong and pleasant drink. The evening when the ge neral (brother of the sultan of Majindanao) designed to be merry, he caused a jar of this drink to be brought into our room, and he began to drink first himself, then afterwards his men, so tbey took turns till they were all as drunk ds sitine, before they suffered us to drink. After they had enough, then we drank, and they drank no more, for they will not drink after us. The General leapt about our, room for a little while, but having his load, soon went to sleep. '—Dam- pier, Vol. I. p, 36p. IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 271 The inhibition of usury is as little regarded as the last. The rate of interest for a loan is fre quently inserted in their written contracts, and the amount sued for as openly and avowedly as any other debt whatever. The only negative precept of the Koran by which the Javanese can be said strictly to abide, is the prohibition against eating the flesh of hogs, the one which presents no temptations. How readily men are led to make such easy sacri- fices may be inferred from a singular relic of Hinduism in Java, now confined to the royal fa mily, an abstinence from the flesh of the cow. I have seen many of the princes in a state of ine briety from wine at a solemn religious festival, who most piously abstained from touching beef. CHAPTER IV. STATE OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. Catholic and Protestant Christians found. — Zeal qf ihe early European Adventurers to make Proselytes. — Circumstances which frustrated the effects of that zeal.-^-Rone ofthe more thoroughly converted to Mahomedanism adopted Christiani ty. — A rational religion cannot be established until tfie Peo ple, are more Civilized. — Superiority ofthe Christians over the Mahomedan and Pagan Tribes, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which they labour. — Christianity con-' sidered as an Instrument qf Civilization. — Efforts qf insu lated Missionaries useless or mischievous. — Circumstances which have contributed to bring Christianity into disre pute among the Indian Islanders, and their neighbours. — ¦ The misconduct qf Christians the only oltstacle to the Pro pagation of Christianity. Did the nature of this work admit of it, the pre sent chapter might be extended to a great length. As it is not, however, the object to enter into any details, a very few pages will comprehend every remark that can interest the liberal and en lightened reader. STATE OF CHRISTIANITY, &C. 278 The Christian religion, as a. prevailing \vprship, can only be said to exist in the Spice Islands and the Philippines. In the latter, the converted na- tives are nominally Cathohcs, and in the former nominally Protestant?. To describe the particular modifications of re ligious practice induced by local superstitions, would be equally impossible and unprofitable. Valentyn as sures us that the Christianity of some ofthe tribes of the Moluccas, consisted in having a little baptismal water sprinkled upon them, and being able to answer by rote half a dozen common questions, vyhich they did not understand. They were Christians one day, and Mahomedans equally sincere another. This gen tleman, a clergyman ofthe reformed church, argued with the chiefs of one place on the necessity of taking some active means for extirpating certain heathenish practices/ His arguments produced no influence on the minds pf the chiefs, who were convinced of the utility of the practices in ques tion. " If," said they, "for example, in a trial, the evidence is so equally balanced that we are at a loss to decide, and pass no sentence, the people will murder each other, To avert this, we must ; pronounce in favour of him who can continue long? est wider water" * * This is the most usual form, among the Indian islanders. of appealing to the judgment of God., — Valentyn, Deel J, VOL. If? (J 274 ' STATE OF CHRISTIANITY Both the Portuguese and Dutch supported schools in the Moluccas for religious instruction, and an allowance of rice was given to the students, which appears to have been the great inducement to frequent them, from whence it is that the Dutch often ludicrously denominate the native converts rice Christians, Valentyn quotes one case in which the reduction of the usual supply was the cause of dispersing all the students ; and another, more fa vourable to the native character, in which the schor lars absented themselves, because the preacher spoke bad and unintelligible Malay to them ! The Portuguese and Spanish adventurers, who first visited the Archipelago, were deeply tinctur ed with the religious frenzy, bigotry, and intole rance of their age and nations, and no sooner had intercourse with the islanders than they began the work of conversion. The illustrious Magellan himself set the example, and, indeed, fell a sacrifice to his imprudent zeal on this subject. Many circumstances contributed to frustrate the effects of this zeal. The instructors were ignorant of the language, the habits, and manners of the natives,— the manners of Europe were at direct variance with those of the east, — the Europeans, by their intemperance, and, above all, by their avarice and rapacity, brought their religion into odium, — and it happened unluckily that but a very little time before the commencement pf their ha- IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 275 tercourse, the people of the Archipelago had re ceived a new religion, more popular, because in troduced with more skill, and under circumstances more agreeable to the genius of their character, their state of society, and their temporal prosperity. Had not, however, the violence, injustice, and ra pacity of the first Europeans estranged the natives from their worship, they were still in time enough, for scarcely was the Mahomedan religion any where fully established. The greater number of the people of the Moluccas and neighbouring isles were Pagans, so were many of the Javanese, and even many of the inhabitants of Malacca were so. The success of the Mahomedan missionaries, contrasted with the failure of the Christian, it is not difficult to trace to the true cause. The Arabs and the other Mahomedan missionaries conciliated the natives of the country, — acquired their language, — followed theirmanners, — intermarried with them, — and, melting into the mass of the people, did not, on the pne hand, give rise to a privileged race, nor on the other, to a degraded cast. Their superiority of intelligence and civilization was employed only for the instruction and conversion of a people, the current of whose religious opinions was ready to be directed into any channel into which it was skil fully diverted. They were merchants as well as the Europeans, but never dreamt of having re course to the iniquitous measure of plundering the §7<3 STATE OF CHRISTIANITY people of the produce of their soil and industry. This was the cause which led to the success of the Mahomedans, and it was naturally the very opposite Course which led to the defeat of the Christians. The Europeans in the Indian Archipelago have been just what the Turks have been in Europe, and the consequences of the policy pursued by both may fairly be quoted as parallel cases. The only people among the Indian islanders who adopted the Christian religion were those nations and tribes who had' but partially adopted Mahomedan- ism,orwere still Pagans, and who, among the nations their neighbours, had made but a secondary progress in civilization. None of the greater and more im proved tribes ever became proselytes, because they hadadopted more heartily the Mahomedan doctrines, and were, besides, too powerful to be wholly subdued. The poverty and barbarism of the natives of the Archipelago, under their own forms of go vernment, and the deprivation of political, and even of personal rights under those of Europeans, forbid us to believe that a rational Christianity either was, or ever can be, under such circum stances, the character of religion among them. Their religion, under such disadvantages, whatever its name, can reasonably be viewed as but little better than one form of superstition distinguish ed from another. No middle or higiher class, we may be assured, can be formed to set an example, IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 277 or form the morals of the humbler classes, in a country, the natives of which are, by a fixed po licy, deprived of the property of the soil they were born to inherit, and where commerce is shackled by the effects of restrictions and monopolies, the direct tendency of which, as long as they last, must be to perpetuate poverty, ignorance, and superstition. Under all the disadvantages of intolerance, bi gotry, and oppression in the Philippines, and of a state of slavery in the Moluccas, amounting to a privation of almost every genial right which be longs to the natural situation of these people, some advantage may still be discovered in the influence of the Christian religion. It has either given rise to an energy and intelligence superior to that which characterizes the followers of the other modes of worship, or has bred manners more mild, and morals more inoffensive. * The natives of the Philippines, who are Chris tians, possess a share of energy and intelligence* not only superior to their Pagan and Mahomedan brethren of the same islands, but superior also to " Independent of the direct influence of religious principles, no doubt a good deal of this may fairly be ascribed to the re ciprocity of kindness, good offices, and confidence, which a, similarity of religious belief induces between the governors and the .governed. 278 STATE OF CHRISTIANITY all the western inhabitants of the Archipelago, to the Very people who, in other periods of their his tory, bestowed — laws, — language,— and civilization upon them. They not only excel the^e, but the more advanced nations of Hindustan, as well in energy of character, as in intrepidity and intelli gence. A well known fact will place this beyond the reach of doubt. In the intercolonial naviga tion of all the nations of Europe in the Indies, the natives of Manila are almost universally employ ed as gunners and steersmen ; that is, in those offices where it is necessary to combine skill and firmness with mere physical labour and agility. It is an acknowledged fact, that the natives of Hindustan, with their present character, are incapable of being bred to fill such offices. The natives of Amboyna, who are Christians, are much superior, both in morals and intelligence, to their countrymen who are Mahomedans, and not withstanding all the oppression they have endured, are a peaceable and most inoffensive race of men. In the Dutch armies, they ranked above all the other Asiatic troops, and were paid, equipped, and considered on this scale of merit. Without venturing at present to decide upon our right to impose our religion upon the people of this portion of India, or our claim to arbitrate for them in a matter pf conscience, it will be fair to view Christianity in its influence as a mere instrument IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 279 ef civilization. The most sceptical, then, may admit that it must tend to the unspeakable benefit of the governed to be of the same religious belief with their governors, — that mutual confidence must be strengthened, — and benevolence and kindness increased, by an accordance of opinion on so mate rial a point. It is not, indeed, possible to con ceive that the barbarians of the Archipelago should ever adopt a material and beneficial portion of the humanity, — improvement, — -and morality of Europe, without, at the same time, adopting the religion with which these concomitants of civilization are so closely interwoven. A perfect freedom of colonization and settle ment to Europeans, an equality of rights to every denomination of inhabitants, and an unlimited and unrestricted freedom of commercial intercourse, will prove the certain, but the only means of dis seminating civilization and Christianity, which, in such a case, are one and the same thing, for the one cannot be supposed to make essential progress without the other. In a country, such as the In dian Archipelago, no where peopled to within one third of its capacity to maintain a thriving popu lation, there exists the most ample field for such improvement ; and we have only to divest ourselves of the disgraceful and sordid prejudices which have for more than three ^centuries reduced these: fine countries to misery and slavery, and suffer the or- 280 ~ STATE OF CHRISTIANITY dinary and'nattiral course of human society to pro ceed without interruption, to ensure a tranquil and certain success. The feeble efforts made to propagate Christianity by insulated and unprotected missionaries, have prov ed, and must always prove* either injurious or nuga tory.* The Christian religion, in the countries of the Archipelago, and in those around it, is justly unpopular, because, in every instance, it has either been the instrument of political intrigue, or been propagated by violence, when the consequence of its introduction has been the inevitable loss of the most valuable political and civil rights. The na tives now view it, therefore, as the badge of sla very, and every where resist its introduction. It is the religion of the people only, where the people are weak enough, and the territory li- * As to the converts these people (the Catholic Mission aries) have made, I have been credibly informed that they are chiefly of the very poor people, and that, in scarce times, their alms of rice have converted more than their preaching ; and as to those also who have been converted, as they call it, that is, to beads and new images, and belief in the Pope, they have fallen off again, as rice grew plentiful, and would no longer be Christians than w hile the priests administered food to them. Yet I cannot thin'k but that these people, "who have such notions of a Supreme. Deity, might, by the industry and example of good men, be brought to embrace the Christian ¦faith.-~Dampier, Vol. II. p. g6* IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 28l mited enough to enable the Europeans to effect a total subjugation,, as in the examples of Luconia and Amboyna, in which the European power is con centrated, and the natives of the country too few for effectual resistance. Even here the propagation of Christianity has generally been the work of violence, and not of persuasion ; and the tribes who prefer red poverty to foreign domination have fled to the mountains, and are still unconverted. All the countries which surround these are still uncon verted. Majindanao and Sooloo, so near to Lu conia, have always resisted alike the Christian re ligion, and- the Spanish yoke. The brave, active, and numerous inhabitants of the large island of Celebes, were offered at the same moment the re ligions of Mahomed and of Christ, and they gave the preference to that which did not endanger their national independence. Since then deprived of their rich commerce and their independence, by the Christians, they have had at least no temporal motive to repent of their choice. If we take a survey of the history of Christi anity in ihe great nations of Asia, who are the im mediate neighbours of the tribes of the Indian islands, we shall discover ample corroboration of all that has been here advanced. In every country of the East, Christianity has been introduced to the peo ple, along with the invariable and odious associates of unprincipled ambition, and commercial rapacity. 282 STATE OF CHRISTIANITY In Japan, the intrigues of the Christian mission aries, and those who employed them, caused the massacre of many thousand Christians, in a perse cution more awful and extensive than any of which the> annals of Christendom itself afford an example. The perpetual proscription of their religion, and the loss of that vast portion of the population of the globe, to the intercourse, and almost to the know ledge of the rest of mankind followed. * The Chi nese, t as the influence of the Christians was smal ler among them, and, therefore, excited less alarm, endured them longer, but they, too, finally ex pelled them, because they saw no end to their rest less and unprincipled ambition. In Tonquin,t Cochin.China,|| and Camboja, they were persecut ed, executed, or expelled, and a similar treatment was pursued towards them in Siam.§ With the exception of the obstacles which the impolicy of Europeans themselves has created a- gainst the propagation of their religion, there exist no others. The habits and character of the people of this portion of Asia are not, in any respect, in imical to the adoption of a new form of worship. They are rather, indeed, in that stage of society * Kempfer, Vol. 11. Book iv. + Duhalde's China, Vol. II. J Choix Lettres Edifiantes, Tom, II. p. 32, et sequent. |j Choix Lettres Edifiantes. Tom. II. p. 7% &c. § Kempfer's Japan, Vol. I. B. ii. IN THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. 283 in which new opinions are listened to with most avidity. What M. La Loubere says, from his ex perience of the Siamese, is still more applicable to the races whose history I am writing. " The Orientals," * says he, " have no prejudice for any religion, and it must be confessed, that if the beauty of Christianity has not convinced them, it is principally by reason of the bad opinion which the avarice, treachery, invasions, and tyranny of the Portuguese and some other Christians in the Indies, have implanted and rivetted in them." t * This observation is much too general, and ought not to be extended to the west of the Berhampootr. f Du Royaume de Siam, Tom. 1. VOL. IT. BOOK VII. HISTORY. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. History of the Archipelago, naturally divided into two parts. Native and European The History of three ofthe Native tribes only worth a separate detail.— European History. — Paucity of greatEvents,andqfremarkableCharacters,towhat to be ascribed Most remarkable Native Characters. — The Laksimana, or Admiral qf Malacca — Character qf Asiatic Settlers. — Shekh Maulana, Sultan of Cheribon. — Remark able European Characters — Antonio Galvan, the greatest man of whom the History of the Archipelago makes men tion. — Character qf Albuquerque — Of St Zavier.— Pauci ty qf Eminent Characters among the Dutch.— Character qf the early Governors. — Character oj Speelman, the most re markable individual of the Dutch History qf the Indies. — . Causes which proved hostile to the appearance of distin guished talent among the Dutch Colonists. 1 he history of the Indian Archipelago naturally divides itself into two parts, the one comprising the Native, and the other the European story. PRELIMINARY REMARKS, &C 285 The first, alone, has an immediate relation to the nature of the work which I have undertaken to write ; but, as the dominion which European na tions have, for more than three centuries, establish ed in the Archipelago, has produced a most im portant influence on the fortune and character of the native races, a sketch of its history could not he dispensed with. To the native history, I have devoted six short chapters ; and to the European narrative three. Both are too obviously defective in interest and dignity to demand the solemn and continuous narrative of regular history, and I have, therefore, treated the first chiefly with the view of illustrating the character of the people, and the progress of social order in a condition of society in many respects novel and peculiar ; and the second, principally in its bearings on the first, avoiding, as unnecessary to my purpose, and probably as of lit tle interest to the general reader, the details pf co lonial intrigue and depravity. With the view of superseding any objections which might be urged against this plan, — of giving some degree of unity to the present book,— and of supplying useful or necessary information tp the more practical reader, a chapter is subjoined, which embraces, iu the form of a chronological table, a detail of the whole events of the history of the Ar chipelago, whether native or European, Among the innumerable tribes of the Archipe- 286 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE lago, the great nations inhabiting Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, from the more favourable circumstan ces under which they have been placed, have, in all known periods of the history of the Archipela go, distinguished themselves above the other tribes, — by their knowledge of letters, — useful arts, — and arms, — in a word, by their progress in civilization. That .civilization has, by various means, been spread throughout the Archipelago, and influenced the manners and character of the neighbouring tribes. Their governments have long assumed a regular form, and records, or consistent traditions, have handed down to us a narrative of their transactions. Their history alone, therefore, is deserving of con sideration, and forms the first department of this book. To the history of the most civilized of these nations, the Javanese, three chapters are assign ed ; and one is appropriated for each of the other two, which will comprise all that it is necessary to narrate of their transactions. With regard to the European history, three na tions only, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the Spaniards, have established a dominion ©f such ex tent or duration, as to produce a material influence upon the condition of the native inhabitants, and the story of each of these is treated of in a distinct chapter. In perusing both the native and European story, the reader will not faiL to remark both the pau- HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 287 city of great events, and the absence of great cha racters, on the theatre of Polynesian history. There is no circumstance in their history, unless we except their discovery by Europeans, which de serves to be considered among the great events of the common history of mankind ; and hardly an individual, of such prominent fortune or endow ment, as to rank with the great men of other coun tries. This phenomenon, as far as the natives are concerned, may be traced to the insulated situation of these regions, — to the barbarism of their inha bitants, — and to the physical condition of insular and tropical countries, the very nature of which has proved an insuperable barrier to the great and ambi tious movements and migrations which have marked the progress of nations equally or more barbarous in temperate and continental climates. In the Indian islands the field is wanting for the exercise of great military talents, and they have, of consequence, never existed. Such a feebleness of intellect is the result of such a state of society, and such a climate, that we may usually reckon that the greatest powers of the native mind will hardly bear a comparison, in point of strength and resources, to the ordinary standard of the human understanding in the highest stages of civilization, though they may necessarily be better suited for distinction in the peculiar circum stances in which they are called into action. The only native characters, whose genius places them above the 288 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE ' usual mediocrity of their country and ages, are the Laksimana of Malacca, Surapati, the Balinese slave, Senopati, prince of Mataram, and his grandson, the Sultan Agung. Of these, the most distinguished, beyond all compare, was the Laksimana, or admiral of Mahomed, king of Malacca, a chief endowed with a courage, prudence, and resources, which enabled him, for years, to make head against the conquering arms of the Portuguese, who had the generosity to do justice to his great qualities. The Asiatic strangers who settled in the Archi pelago, and effected so great a revolution in its re? ligious and even political history, as they belonged to nations in a higher state of social improvement than the native tribes of the Archipelago, so were their intellectual powers usually of a higher order and more vigorous character. The particular adven turers, however, who found their way into the In dian islands, were unfavourable specimens of the people whom they represented. Instead of being bold military adventurers, advanced to rank and command by their talents and exploits, or ambir tious chiefs of distinguished birth, they were petty traders, whose minds were narrowed by tbe hum bleness of their occupations. With all the aids of canonization, therefore, few of their names haye- been handed down to us, and still fewer have, fv0M any real merit, a claim to have those names re? cprcted, The most distinguished is jShekh Mm- 12 HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 289 lana, who founded in Java three considerable states^ which were handed down in a long dynasty. The man who conquered at least a million of inhabitants, and converted so numerous a people to a foreign religion, could have been no ordinary person. Of the European nations, the Portuguese fur nish by far the most numerous list of distinguished characters, and the following names deserve parti cular notice. Alphonso Albuquerque, Magellan, Antonio Galvan, and St Francis Zavier. Of these, or of any names connected with the history of the Indian Archipelago, incomparably the greatest, ex cept that of Magellan, whose merits scarcely belong to our present subject, is that ofthe virtuous, the pious, the discreet, and heroic Galvan. He composed the odious dissentions ofhis countrymen in the Moluccas, introduced order and tranquillity into those oppressed islands, purity into the European administration, and instituted seminaries for education, of such ap proved wisdom, that they afterwardsbecame the model for similar ones established on the continent of In dia, and in Europe. The high and heroic enthusiasm of his character is displayed in his successively chal lenging to single combat the two principal kings ofthe Moluccas, to save the effusion of blood, and put a speedy end to the horrors of war. This great man, whose high endowments were not in request with his countrymen in the east, and were not appreciated in the west, was, after a short ad- VOL. II. T 290 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE ministration of two years, removed from his trflst ; and, on his return to Portugal, permitted to die from want in a prison. The conqueror, Albuquerque, was a brave officer, and endowed with the great and high qualities necessary for the government of hien in the turbulent and violent career pursued by the first Portuguese conquerors ; but his conquest of Ma lacca is not among the most .(distinguished events pf his brilliant administration. The conquest was, in itself, an act of palpable injustice ; it was carried into effect with peculiar ferocity ; and such was the want of wisdom and moderation which marked his own short administration of the new acquisition, that he laid the seeds of much of the misfortunes which attended the future history of the ill-fated city. The apostle of the Indies deserves to be consi dered as one of the greatest men, and one of the most disinterested, virtuous, and useful, that ever visited the Indies. It is impossible-to read his true story without forming this conclusion. The Dutch, from their more extensive power, we might be led to expect, would have produced a long list of eminent individuals, but this has not been the case. Not an illustrious name has been handed down to us, from the ranks of inferior a- gents ; and we hear only of those at the head of the government, a circumstance that may excite a HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. " 291 suspicion, that the indiscriminate eulogies with which the latter are loaded, they owe rather to the lustre of their high rank, than to the greatness of their personal qualities. The first governors-general were men of plain good sense, steady perseverance, and intrepid courage, who sustained their difficult trusts with applause, and they were in all respects superior to their European competitors of the same age, on the same theatre of action. But they do not seem to have risen much beyond the level of ordinary educated Europeans of their own day. Coen was the most remarkable of them. Their successors degenerated from .their virtues. Speelman was one of these, and may, upon the whole, be considered as the most eminent of all the characters which the Dutch history of the In dies has produced. He was a man of enlightened understanding, and of active enterprise, and may be considered as a man endowed with high qualifica tions, both for civil and military command. These qualities were displayed in a remarkable degree, in a lpng course of subordinate service ; but it turned put unfortunately for his reputation, that when he rose to supreme authority, he sunk into an indo lent and ordinary voluptuary, and did nothing to support his early fame. The mercantile principle, which was perpetually held in view in the Dutch councils, , was inimical to the growth and display of genius and talents of 292 PRELIMINARY REMARKS, &C. the higher class. The persons, too, who, in later times, sustained the fortunes bf the Dutch nation in the Indies, were depraved by the circumstances under which thpy were placed, — by the contempla tion of domestic slavery, — by wantoning in irregular gains, — by the absence of all regular industry and competition, — by a long course of domination over the feeble races by which they were surrounded, — and by the want of an equal enemy or rival to afford a wholesome exercise and emulation. The Spanish worthies are still fewer in number, and I think it would be difficult to produce one name of distinctipn, except that of Legaspi, who established the Spanish power in the Philippines, and founded Manila. He was a man of courage, discretion, and wisdom, and possessed of the en thusiasm and the suppleness of character, which suited him for the novel and difficult charge com mitted to his care. * * Lafitau, Histoire des decouvertes^et conquetes des Portu- gais dans le noveau monde.— Valentyn, History and Descrip tion of theDutch Settlements in the East Indies,— Ziniga, His tory ofthe Philippines. CHAPTER II. ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. No Ancient Historical Composition known to the Javanese.—* Attempts at History sincethe Introduction qfMahomedanism. — Character of these attempts. — No great permanent empire ever established in Java, and why. — The latter part qf the twelfth Century, ihe earliest authentic date ascertained^— Lists qf ancient Kings mostly fabrications. — Ancient In scriptions referred to. — Hindu States, viz. Doho, Bram banan, Madang-kamolan, Janggolo, Singhasari, Pajaja- ran, Mojopahit. JN o one, aware of the weakness of the human mind, and of the universal prevalence of supersti tion and credulity, in so rude a state of society as that which exists in Java, will reasonably expect to find the Javanese possessed of any remote records deserving the name of history. If the accounts of their ancient story be less monstrously extrava gant and impudent than those of the Hindus, they are fully more childish and incongruous. We find the mythological legends of ancient India na turalized in Java, and blended with the wild tales of the country, while the whole, mixed up witli Jewish and Mahomedan story, forms a mass of ab- 29* ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. surdity, and of puerile incongruity, almost unequal led in the accounts of any other people. From the period of the acquaintance of the Ja vanese with Mahomedans, forming an exact paral lel case with the Hindus of India, the dawning of the historical truth, and some common sense' and moderation may be discovered, brightening slowly as we descend > and, for the last two centuries, im proving into records of some consistency and mo- deration. Still, however, the professed object of his torical writing among the Javanese is amusement, and not utility ; in their most recent productions we see a constant effort made to give the most natural and obvious transactions an air of romance, and even to convert the most ordinary affairs of human life into tales to amuse the fancy. • Every transaction which wears an air of mystery is eagerly seized, and con verted into a miracle, or ascribed to supernatural agency, while the most important movements of society are either taken no notice of at all, or treated with provoking apathy and neglect. The unskilfulness and awkwardness even of these at tempts, as efforts of fancy, are such as to excite no other feelings than pity for tne weakness of the hu man mind in the irtfancy of civilization, in regions oftlie world where the strength and fertility of the imagination have never compensated, as in Europe, for the feebleness of reason. What we are soCn struck with in Javanese story ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. 295 is its reeentness, for even tradition does not pre tend to an antiquity of above a few centuries. In the history of the rude Javanese, the lapse of a hundred years removes from their knowledge all preceding facts, in a much greater degree than five times the period among a people acquainted with true history and chronology. It is for this reason that the Mahomedan conversion, an affair not yet three centuries and a half old, is already ancient history, and enveloped in its miracles and myste ries, and that all previous transactions are involved in utter uncertainty and obscurity. The remote story of the Javanese is, in fact, a fit topic for a disserta tion on antiquities, rather than a subject for histo ry, and will soon be discovered to relate with pro priety to the portion of this work which treats of the ancient religion and antiquities of the island, to which I, therefore, refer the reader. • With respect to the history of Java, one very im portant remark requires to be premised. Compact, defined, and, compared to great empires, limited, as is the territory, the island has never been perma nently united under one sovereign. The state of society in Java did not supply those powers of com bined action which enable a people to make exten sive and distant conquests, and, above all, the skill necessary to regulate and maintain them. A few princes, more able and ambitious than their contem poraries, have at times subjugated their immediate 296 ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. neighbours, and thus extended their dominions ; and, on one or two occasions, we see approaches made to a dominion over the whole island. But the duration of these more considerable states is but momentary, and marked with constant anarchy and rebellion, while the natural determination of the society to subdivide into small states, is distinctly marked in every period of the history of the island. We shall perhaps, however, underrate the improvement of the Javanese, by applying to them too rigidly this test of civilization. They possess the necessaries;, the comforts, and some of the refinements,— per haps of the luxuries of life, — in a far superior de gree to most of the Nomade tribes, who effected and retained the mighty conquests of Europe, Western Asia, and China. The shepherd state, the offspring of the cold and immeasurable plains of Tartary, and the school both of war and govern ment, could have no existence among the woods, the narrow valleys, and soft climate of Java. The Javanese are naturally an unwarlike people, and it is the necessary consequence of their luxurious climate, that they should want the hardihood and manly virtues of the semibarbarians of sever er regions. The fertility of their soil, and the be nignity of their climate, are a sort of hot-bed, in which has sprung up a sickly civilization, wanting the vigour and hardihood of the plant of a rougher clime, and more stubborn soil. ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. 297 The latter portion of the twelfth century is the earliest period of Javanese history to which I can with any confidence refer. From this time, down to the establishment of Mahomedanism, at the close of the fifteenth century, a number of consi derable, but independent states, existed in Java, and the religion ofthe people was a modified Hin duism, according to the doctrines ascribed to Bud dha, as is shown in the chapter on Ancient Religion. The theory ofa great monarchy, and of an antece dent state of high civilization and improvement, so often pretended by the Brahmins, has also been forg ed by the national vanity of the Javanese, unsupport ed, as already remarked, by a shadow of proof, and contradicted by unquestionable internal evidence. The different independent states now alluded to, are conjectured by the Javanese writers to have been so many seats of this great monarchy, and genealogical lists of the sovereigns of Java are fabricated, where the patriarchs of Jewish history, — the saints of Ma homedan legends, — :and the heroes of the Mahaharat, are, as occasion requires, employed to fill up a gap. Even in the more recent portions of them, these ge- nealogicallists are equally irreconcilable with reason and each other. Some of them go as far back as the utmost extent of the established era, or 1747 years, while others modestly stop short at two, three, or five hundred. The most disordered discrepan cy prevails in these pretended chronologies. By 298 ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. one account, five princes are described as having reigned in one place ; by a second, seven. A seat of empire, where four princes are described as hav ing reigned in a third account, is, princes and all, omitted in a fourth. The average duration of a reign, by one account, is 55 years,— by another, 50, — and by a third, near 40. In short, they abound as much in folly, ignorance, and inconsistency, as we have a right to reckon upon in the remote story of a people still rude and uninformed. Upon such fabulous relations as those now allud ed to, we can place no confidence whatever, and our only reliance is upon the meagre and un satisfactory notices contained in ancient inscrip tions, from which a few dates may be ascertained, though not a single hint respecting the transac tions of the country is to be collected even from these. From the incompetency of our interpre ters, and the absurd and mystical principle on which dates are generally reckoned, such latitude and uncertainty of interpretation arise, that our resources from inscriptions, even in determining a few dates, are extremely limited ; and, in general, it will scarcely be safe to trust to the dates to be deriv ed from them, except when given in actual figures. The remains of ancient palaces and royal tombs, but particularly of ancient temples, — of numerous images of stone and brass, — and of inscriptions on the same materials, all dedicated to religion, in . n ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. 299 rude ages the only ccnsiderable and durable monuments of art, still point out to us the seats or capitals pf the principal native states in Java, and tradition has handed down their names. The fol lowing are the chief, which existed in the three centuries which preceded the conversion to Ma- homedanism: Doho, Brambanan, Madang-kamo-f Ian, Jangola, Singhasari, Pqjqjaran, and Mo- jopahit. Considerable relics of ancient temples, and other structures, in various situations, in the midst of some of the most fertile districts x>f the island, point out where there must have existed other considerable states, but respecting these, even tradition itself is silent. The ruins of Doho are in the fertile district of Kadiri, about the centre of the island, counting by its length and towards the southern coast. The earliest date I can ascribe to these is the year 1117, of the era of- Salivana, or 1195 of Christ. Here reigned Joyo Boyo, a prince of high fame in Javanese romance. The state which existed at Brambanan flourish ed about the years of Salivana 1188 and 1218, or L266 and 1^96 of Christ. Of' this state we know not one syllable of the real history. Tradition hands down to us the name of Ma- dang-kamolan, and, in the district of Wirosobo, the ruins of a palace are still discernible, but it is ut terly impossible to assign any era to it. ' SOO ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. Janggolo and Singhasari, the first in the district of Surabaya, and the last in that of Malang, both towards the eastern part of Java, are said to have flourished at the same time. One of the fabricat ed accounts assigns to them the year 1082 of Sali vana; another, 846; and a third, 818; but an in scription and a real date, in legible figures, enables us to determine that they flourished about the year 1242. * At Jdnggolo reigned the princes so famed in Javanese romance, and from them in those of the Malays and Balinese, under the name of Panji. It would be in vain to attempt to extract an atom of true history from the absurd and inco herent traditions respecting the princes of Jang golo ; but it seems probable, that their authority extended over a considerable portion of the eastern part of the island, and that they displayed a con siderable share of adventure, holding some con nection with princes beyond the limits of the island, which was even, perhaps, extended to India. Pajajaran, t about forty miles from the modern city of Batavia, is pointed out by tradition as the on ly ancient state of considerable extent, which ever flourished in the country of the Sundas. Its situa- * An inscription found by my friend Dr Horsfield, in the eastern district of Panataran, contains the date here alluded tp, with the name of the prince and his queen. t This word means arrangement. ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. 301 ¦tion is determined by the foundations of a palace still distinctly to be traced. With respect to the era of the foundation of Pqjqjaran, I can discover no date to which I can refer with confidence. The pretended annals of the Javanese differ from each other on the subject, as widely as two hundred years. The probability is, that it flourished during the end of the thirteenth, and beginning of the fourteenth centuries of the Christian era. The origin of the last and best known of the Hindu states of Java, Mojopahit, * remains as un determined as that of Pqjqjaran. In the chrono logies of the Javanese writers, there is here, too, an irreconcilable discrepancy of from 80 to 143 years. All accounts agree that Mojopahit was destroyed in the year of Salivana 1400, or 1478 of Christ, and, from presumptive evidence it is inferred that it may have been founded about a century and a half before. The dynasty of princes which reigned at Mojopahit, appears to have ex tended its authority over the finest provinces of the island, and to have spread the name and arms of the Javanese nation beyond the precincts of their own country, for it was during this period of * The word means, " The place of the bitter Mojo tree." Places are very frequently named by the Indian islanders after trees or plants, as Pasuruhan, the place of the betel vine ; and Pajarakan, the place of the Palma Christi. The bitter Mojo is an imaginary fruit. 302 ANCIENT HISTORY OF JAVA. the history of Java that at Palembang, in Sumatra, was established the Javanese colony^ which to this day speak the language of Java, and exhibit the peculiar manners, customs, and forms of government of that country; and it was by the same princes, though Javan ese story or tradition be wholly silent on the subject, thatthe Malayan state at Singhapura was subverted.* The ruins of the city of Mojopahit are still visible in the district of Wirosobo, and both from the extent of the area which they occupy, not less than several square miles, and the beauty of some of the relics of architecture, we are inclined to form a respect able opinion of the power of this native state, esti mating it by a just standard, and rejecting those exaggerations which the imagination is prone to indulge with regard to all that is involved in the mystery of antiquity. We must not forget, how ever, that much of the celebrity which it enjoys, in the legends of other countries of the Archipe lago, was probably owing to the missionaries of Islam, who disseminated and exaggerated the fame of a conquest they had themselves made. * The invasion of the territory of a smaller iribe by a great er, is an affair of higher importance in the history of the for. mer than in that of the/ latter, and more likely to be preserv. ed in their records or traditions. In investigations of this nature, this circumstance ought to be kept in remembrance. I think it a supposition not improbable, that Mojopahit is ignorantly applied by the Malays to all the eastern portion of mncient Java, and to every period bf iis aUcient history. CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. Many ofthe circumstances connected with the introduction qf Mahomedanism involved in fable. — Mahomedanism intro duced among some qf the more Western Tribes, 150 years before it was established in Java. — Decay of Hinduism in Java facilitated the propagation qf Mahomedanism. — Ma homedan Merchants had long frequented the Island, pre vious to the establishment qf their Religion. — An unsuccess ful attempt to propagate Mahomedanism in the Western Districts. — Missionaries qf Islam, in Java, were not alien strangers, but persons familiar with the Habits and Lan guage qf the People. — Shekh Rahmat the first Mission. ary. — Raden Patah, a Javanese of the Colony qf Palem bang, the principal Agent. — His story, according to the Ja vanese. — He intrigues for the Subversion qf the National Religion of Java. — TheMahomedans defeated in thefirst Ac tion. — Mahomedans Victorious inthe second Battle.— They take and destroy the Hindu Capital qf Mojopahit. — Stric tures on the Javanese Accounts qf these Transactions. — Ab stract qf the true story qf the Introduction qf the Religion of Mahomed. — Political State qf Java, immediately before the Triumph qf Mahomedanism. — The nine Apostles qf Ma* homedanism usually designated Susunan. — Their Cha racter. — Shekh .Maulana the ablest qf them Account of his Converting the People qf the Western Districts. — Che- ribon. — Bantan.—P'&jajaran. — General Reflections. 304 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION J. he establishment of Mahomedanism in Java is just of 347 years standing ; yet even* this event* comparatively so modern, is involved in much of that fable and perplexity, which are ever insepar able from the story of rude people in every age. I shall, in this chapter, endeavour to glean,, for the reader the true circumstances of this transaction, where they appear of sufficient consequence to merit narration. The event is an important one in the particular history of the people of whom I am rendering an account ; and so far as it illustrates the character of a people in a peculiar stage of civilization, — of consequence in the his tory of man in general. Mahomedanism was predominant in the west ern portion of the Archipelago, at least 1^0 years before it was finally established in Java. The commerce in spices, for which the western countries of the Archipelago were the emporia, attracted thither some adventurers from the Ara bian and Persian Gulfs, at an early period, who, colonizing on the coasts, became in time fit in struments for the propagation of the Mahomedan religion. No record whatever is preserved of any early intercourse between Arabia and Java, but there can be little doubt but the richest and most civilized country of the Indian islands soon OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 305 attraoted the curiosity or cupidity of the Arabian traders or of their descendants, naturalized among the western natives. The Hinduism established throughout the Ar chipelago was by no means of the same inveterate character as that of continental India. It had not laid a strong hold of the imagination, and was not, as there, interwoven, not only with political insti tutions, but with the common duties and offices of life. * It had by no means superseded the still grosser local superstitions of the country, and it was a system in itself too complicated and subtile to suit a state of society unquestionably more rude and unimproved than that in which its baneful empire has been so fully established. In. Java, which contained the most civilized com munity, Hinduism, we are warranted in believ ing, must have made a deeper impression than in any other country of the Archipelago ; and to this we ought, in some measure, to ascribe the long rejection of Mahomedanism by the Javanese, after it had been adopted by so many of their neigh bours. Even among the Javanese, however, the empire of the Hindu religion over the human mind was very far from being firmly established. The propagation of Mahomedanism^ when once * Hume's History of England, Vol.T. VOL. II. W 306 HISTOEY OF THE PROPAGATION the work of conversion was fairly commenced upon, was rapid, and as complete as the genius of society among the people would permit. The period of the conversion of the great tribes of the western portion ofthe Archipelago, may, indeed, I think, be pointed out particularly, as the most flourishing period of Hinduism in Java, as I have endeavour ed to show, in the account of ancient religion and antiquities. On the other hand, the era of its de cline was that of the successful propagation of Ma homedanism. That the Mahomedans frequented the island of Java long previous to the establishment of their reli- 1 gion, is determined with certainty, by the existence of their burying grounds, on more than one part of the north coast, where tombs are found ofa date nearly a whole century earlier than the fall of Mo jopahit ; and an unsuccessful attempt to convert some of the Sunda tribes is said to have been made as early as the year of Salivana 1250, or 1328 of Christ. In the more populous and civilized eastern districts, an attempt to propagate Mahomedanism was made in 1313 ofthe era of Salivana, or 1391 of Christ, by a foreigner called Raja Ch&rmen, and by an Arab of the name of Maulana Ibrahim. The latter lived at Gtirsik, after this unsuccessful, and, apparently, imprudent and premature attempt, and died there, in 1 334 of Salivana, A. D. 1412. In the history of the conversion of the Indian OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 307 islanders to Mahomedanism there is one important fact which ought to be kept in view, that the mis sionaries who brought about this revolution were not alien strangers, unconnected and unprepared, but supple agents disciplined for their enterprise, by a . knowledge of the language, character, and manners of the people. We see that in Java the road had been paved for the introduction of Mahomedanism, by a whole century's acquaintance, a period during which would have been bred up a number of use ful inferior agents to aid the efforts of the principal actors. The discreet forbearance of the Maho medan missionaries, and the many essential doc trines and practices of their faith, which they compromised, show that, however vulgar and une ducated, they were no intemperate zealots, but men who understood the art of governing mankind, and whom a general knowledge of mankind and necessity had taught to substitute dexterity and cunning for open force. The principal state in Java, at the period of the conversion, was the kingdom of Mojopahit, and the name of the ruling monarch, it is agreed on all hands, was Browijoyo. * The principal agents in the work of conversion were Shekh Rahmat, the son of an Arab priest, by a woman * A contraction, it is said, of BramahrWijaya, a Sanskrit compound epithet, meaning Bramah the Victorious. 308 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION of Champa, whose sister was in the haram of the king of Mojopahit ; but, above all, Raden Patah, son of Arya Damar, chief of the Javanese colony of Palembang, in Sumatra, already mentioned. This colony, surrounded by Malay tribes, and mixing with them as the less numerous party, though the most powerful, seems to have adopted the religion of Mahomet, and to have become,^ from this circumstance, and its natural connection with Java, a principal means of propagating Ma homedanism in the latter country. > The story, although involved in 'much improba bility and contradiction, must be given as narrated by the Javanese writers themselves ; after which I shall add the necessary comments and strictures. During the period of the Mojopahit empire, a con siderable intercourse existed between Java and the continental part of India, and the favourite wife of Browijoyo was a native of the Little Buddhist and Siamese kingdom of Champa, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Siam, * the daughter, in short, of * c{ Here we found two small vessels at an anchor on th* east side. They were laden with rice and lacquer, which k used in japanning of cabinets. One of these came from Champa, bound to the town of Malacca, which belongs to the Dutch, who took it from the Portuguese ; and this shows they have a trade with Champ,. This was a very pretty, neat vessel, her bottom very clean, and curiously coated ; she had about forty OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 309 the king of that country. In her own country the princess had a sister who married an Arabian priest, whose name was Shekh WaU Lanang Ibrahim, The sister of the queen of Java, say the Javanese accounts, had by this person two sons, who are known in Java by the names of Raden Panditq and Raden Rahmat. When they arrived at the years of manhood, they were recommended by their mother to visit the court of their uncle by mar riage, the king of Mojopahit. They accordingly embarked, bull were shipwrecked on the coast of Kamboja, and being detained by the sovereign of that country, a deputation from the Javanese mo narch was necessary to effect their release. The two adventurers finally effected their voyage to Java* and were received and caressed by the king of Mojopahit. Of Raden Pandita we hear no more ; but Raden Rahmat became afterwards celebrated as the first apostle of Islam in Java, made many proselytes, — acquired a grant of land from the monarch, — and constructed the first mosque ever built in Java. He assumed the title of Susu- meij, all armed with cortans, or broad swords, lances, and some guns, that went with a swivel upon their gunnal. They were of the idolaters, natives of Champa, and some ofthe briskest, most sociable, without fearfulness qj shyness, and the most neat and dexterous about their shipping, of any such J have met with in all my travels."— Dampier, Vol. 1. p. 400, 3i\ 0 HISTORY W THE PROPAGATION hunan, abbreviated Susunmn, and Snnan, which, no matter its literal signification, meant, in its early use, apostle, but when assumed by the temporal so vereigns, two centuries afterwards, is more appro priately explained by the word Caliph, as it was applied to the temporal and spiritual successors of Mahomet. Among the wives of Browijoyo was a Chinese, or more probably the Creole descendant of a man of that nation, whose history is by the native writers connected with the introduction otf the Mahome dan religion. This woman was repudiated by the Javanese monarch, when pregnant ot Raden Patah, and made- over to the chief of Palembang, Arya Damar, said to have been Browijoyo's own son. Raden Patah, when hs grew up, accompanied by Raden Husen, a real son of Arya Damar, by the same mother, came to Java, both converts to the Mahomedan religion. Raden Patah assumed the character of a zealot and a devotee, but Raden Husen contented himself with temporal advan tages, and the promotion he received at the court bf his grandfather, where he was raised to the rank of adipati, or governor of the district of Trung, and in due time even intrusted with the command ofthe army, which afterwards encountered the forces of the faithful. Raden Patah settled in the district of Damak, or Bintoro, where he was permitted to reside, 4 OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 31 1 through the influence of his brother. His conduct, however, creating at last some suspicion at the capital, his brother paid him a visit, and prevailed upon him to make his appearance at court, and pay the accustomed homage. Raden Patah was not only forgiven, but preferred to the honours and emoluments of adipati of Bintoro. With this title he returned to Damak, and be gan to intrigue anew for the subversion of the na tional worship, surrounded by the most celebrated ofthe advocates of the new religion. Raden Pa tah having, by his intrigues, at length formed a con siderable party, and mustered a respectable force, gave the command to a Javanese, who obtained or assumed the name of Susuhunan JJdang, for the zealot* himself appears to have been no soldier. This is alleged to have happened in the year 1390 of Salivana, after Raden Patah had been no less than five and thirty years on the island. The Ma homedan force was encountered and defeated near Garsik, by the Hindu forces under the command of Husen, and their general killed. Raden Patah, not discouraged by this de feat, applied for, and obtained succour from, the faithful at Palembang, and was in condition shortly after to assemble a fresh force, of which the com mand was given to Susunan Kudus, son of the ge neral who had been defeated and killed in the last engagement. Husen, still the commander of the 312 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION troops of Mojopahit, was now in his turn defeated, and the consequence of the loss of the battle was the capture of Mojopahit, its eventual destruction, and the triumph, of Mahomedanism, which is well ascertained to have happened in the year of Sali vana 1400, corresponding t« 1478 of the Chris tian era. The leading circumstances of this account are no doubt correct, but there are some of the minu ter parts of the detail irreconcilable with truth and probability. The most remarkable of these are the story of the princess of Champa, and of the birth of Raden Patah. Champa, as already mention ed, is a small state on the eastern coast of the gulf of Siam, the inhabitants of which are Hin dus of the sect of Buddha, like the other people of farther India. The emigration of females is strictly forbffi.den in all these countries, and, there fore, it is not very likely that the king of Java, though of the same religion, should obtain a wife from that country ; and if he had, it is absurd to imagine that the vagabond priest of a foreign and hostile religion, should obtain in marriage her sister and the" daughter of the king of the country. The probability is, that the wife of the king of Java was some humble female, clandestinely withdrawn from Champa, and procured for the king of Java's ha ram, by the instrumentality of some of the Arab traders themselves. This princess is alleged by OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 315 the Javanese to have been converted to the Maho medan religion on the capture of Mojopahit ; and her tomb, still reckoned a holy shrine, and attend ed by Moslem priests, is pointed out near the ruins of the city. In a visit made to this place in 1S15, we discovered, unfortunately for this account, the date 1320, distinctly inscribed on the tomb, eighty years before the destruction of the city, and as many at least before the reputed death of the prin cess. As to the revolting account of the birth of Ra den Patah, in which a father, and a king, is repre sented as giving his pregnant wife in marriage to his own son, it was probably the fabrication of a later age, determined, at all hazards, to give a royal pedigree to the founder of the Mahomedan reli gion. All that is important in the history*of the intro duction of Mahomedanism is told in a few words. The Mahomedans, in the course of several ages, had accumulated in considerable numbers. Many of them were persons who had seen the manners of Other nations : all were superior in intelligence to the natives, and were capable of acting in combi nation for a great end ; — they were actuated by a religious zeal, and, at length, found an ambitious, persevering, and able leader. The aboriginal bar barians of Java, less active and civilized, with a re ligion which never laid a strong hold of the imagi- 314 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION nation, and, at the moment, as is proved in another place, for a long time on the decline, or unsupport ed by an active priesthood, were no match, not withstanding their numbers, for the zeal and ener gy of their adversaries. The throne and govern ment being subverted, and *the leaders adopting the new religion, the progress of conversion among a people who, at this moment, would almost adopt a new religion on the authority of a royal mandate or proclamation, was necessarily rapid. * The political state of the island, previous to the subversion of Hinduism, maybe described as follows. - — The eastern and central provinces, the richest and most populous districts of the island, were sub ject to the king of Mojopahit, some in a vassal state, and others under his direct sway. Cheribon, and the districts around it, were under petty independent princes. 1 ne rest of the island, comprehending * If we are to credit the apochryphal authority of Mendez Pinto, and tnere is no goud reason to distrust it, the Hindu religion existed entire in the independent kingdom cf Pasuru. ban, 68 years after the fall of Mojopahit. The chief of Da- mak, and other Mahomedan princes, went against it in the year 1546, and were defeated. Pinto accompanied the ex pedition, along with some other Portuguese adventurers, and his narrative though crowded with the most palpable falsehoods in matters of detail, shows that he understood the country and the people of which he was rendering an account..— VoyagfiB' and Adventures ef Ferdinand Mendez Pinto, Chap* xliv. OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 315 all the other Sunda districts, and Bantam, were subject to the king oi Pqjqjaran. In the western districts, the work of conversion went on as rapidly as in the eastern, and at the same time. The most active and distinguished of the leaders in the work of conversion^ through out the island, are known by the name of the nine Susuhunans or apostles, of whom as many fabulous and puerile tales are related, as if in Europe they had been the worthies of three thousand years ago. The truth is, that such of them as were foreigners, or rather the descendants of foreigners, were a set of adven turers who, as usual, traded as well in religion as in merchandise, and who were more remarkably characterized by the cunning of petty traders, than by that high and chivalrous enthusiasm which dis tinguished the hardy and high-born chiefs of Arabia, that spread the religion of the prophet over the countries of Western Asia, in the early ages of Moslem history. * Unquestionably, the most able and enterprising of all these was the apostle of the western districts, Shekh Maulana, Sultan of Cheribon, called Su- suhanan Gunung-Jati, from the place of his resi dence. He was by birth an Arab, but had sojourned for years among the Mahomedan countries of the * Ockley's History of the Saracens. 316 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION Archipelago, before he reached Java. He is said to have- arrived in that island as early as 1334, which is highly improbablei as his, death, which is better ascertained, did not take place until 94 years after ; and surely the man, who had sojourned for years in other countries of the Archipelago, after being old enough to leave his. own, and of years to become the character of an apostle, could not, on his entering upon that office, have been a youth. Whatever the period of his arrival or birth, his apostolic functions were active and important, and the reward to himself and his family, was the acqui sition of considerable principalities. He con quered and converted the districts of Cheribon for himself, and, sending his son to Bantam, in 1402 of Salivana, 1480 of Christ, the young prince made proselytes of the inhabitants, as is expressly mentioned in the annals or traditions of that part of the island, by the gentle means qf persuasion and not by the sword. His father conferred upon the young prince the title of Sultan of Bantam, and assumed himself the same title for Cheribon. From them are descended the present princes of both countries. The Sultan of Bantam, after he was some years established in his government, made war upon the pagan king of Pajqjaran, Prabu Seda, and capturing his palace, the country fell, without farther struggles under his authority, and the in habitants accepted the religion of the Koran. A OF MAHOMEDANISM IN JAVA. 317 third kingdom was formed for another son of the Sultan of Cheribon, in the principality of Jacatra, on the seat of the modern Batavia, and which he reditarily descended to his posterity, until their conquest by the Dutch in the beginning of the seventeenth century. These spiritual and temporal conquests were made in concert, or at least in correspondence, with the apostles of Islam to the east, and reciprocal aid was frequently furnished by them toeach other. Such is a sketch of all that is useful or authen tic in the history ofthe conversion ofthe Javanese to the religion of Mahomet. It may be remarked, as a singular coincidence, that the Mahomedan re ligion was extending itself thus in Asia, at the very time it was expelled from Europe ; and it is curious to observe, that this important revolution was going forward nearly at the same moment with the grand est events of the history of man. Mojopaphit was destroyed but 14 years before the discovery of America, and but nine before Vasca di Gama doub led the Cape. It was a moment, indeed, when the nations of the world throughout were becoming better acquainted with each other. The European reader, in reflecting upon this subject, will feel re gret, that the intolerant religion of Mahomeu1 should have anticipated the religion and civilization of a more polished and improved portion of man kind ; but that regret will be moderated when he 318 HISTORY OF THE PROPAGATION, &C. considers the bigotry and cruelty ofthe Portuguese, the first adventurers, and the mean and pitiful po licy of their mercantile successors of all nations, viewing that policy in its influence upon the hap piness and improvement of mankind. CHAPTER IV. HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. Petty States which sprung up from the Convulsions occa sioned by the Introduction qf Mahomedanism. — Damak Pajang. — Rise qf the Dynasty of Mataram Kyayi A- gang Pamanahan, the founder qf the Dynasty Reign qf Pan&mbahan Senopati, at Mataram He Conquers the Eastern Districts, as far as Pati. — Anecdotes of this Prince's reign — Death qf Panambahan Senapati Pa- nambahan Krapyak ascends the throne Conquers the Province qf Pronorogo. — Suppresses various Rebellions. Remarkable events in his reign. — Reign of Sultan Adi Ma taram, usually called the Great Sultan. — Conquers the whole qf the Eastern Districts, Cheribon, and the Sunda Districts, down to Jacatra. — Receives missions from Borneo and Sumatra. — Sends an embassy to Celebes. — Anecdotes qf his reign. — Predatory incursion into the Eastern Dis tricts. — Massacre ofthe Inhabitants qf the Sunda District of Sumotdang. — Sultan of Mataram poisons the waters qf the river qf Surabaya. — Chiefs qf the Eastern Dis tricts combine against the People qf Mataram, and are defeated. — Generosity qf the Sultan on the occasion. — Des perate and gallant action of the Prince of Pamakasan, in Madura.— Story of the heroic Princess, Wandan Sari. — Execution of ihe spiritual Chief of Giri. — Remarkable na tural events during this reign. — Sultan TSgalarum succeeds 520 HISTORY OF JAVA C ONTINtfED. to the throne of Mataram.~Is an abominable Tyrant.-*- His whole reign characterized by a series of Rebellions. — He is finally driven from his throne, and dies in his flight to Ta gal. — Principal incidents qf Ms reign. — Story of the Re bellion of the P anger an Alit. — The Priests of Mataram, with their families, amounting to six thousand persons, mas sacred by the Sultan in cold blood. 1 he portion^ of the history of Java contained in this chapter, extends from the establishment of the Mahomedan religion, to that of the influence of Europeans in the destinies of the native inhabi tants, and is the most curious and instructive branch of Javanese story. For a hundred years, or from the establishment of the Mahomedan religion, tp the rise of the dy nasty of Mataram, the island of Java was divided into a number of petty states, governed by the suc cessors of the first missionaries, and disturbed by their ambition and intrigues, We possess, no au thentic and detailed record of their transactions, and if we did, they would be unworthy of rela tion. A rapid sketch is all that can interest the European reader, and this I shall proceed to give. The principal of these states were, Damak, Cheribon, Bantam, Jakatra, and Pajang. Ma dura, and the eastern end of Java, were inde pendent, and split into still" more inconsiderable principalities. HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 321 Raden Patah, the principal agent in the subver sion of Hinduism to the eastern end of the island, was raised to sovereign authority by the voice of his followers, v It deserves to be remarked, as a proof of the great influence of the Mahomedan priest hood, that, during the first century of Mahome danism, they exerted, very generally, the high prerogative of choosing the sovereign. The go vernment of the eastern districts was in fact elec tive, in a hierarchy, until it became hereditary in the family of Mataram. The place which Raden Patah chose for the seat of government was Damak, on the north coast of the island, and about twelve miles from the modern city of Samarang. Three princes of this dynasty in all reigned at Damak, during a period of about sixty years ; and their authority seems to have extended over a considerable portion of the east and centre of the island. This partial monarchy was farther divided on the death of the last prince, when the most consi derable state which arose out of it was Pqjang, a central province of the island, to which was subject several of the surrounding districts. This govern ment fell to a chief named Joko Tingkir, on whom was eventually conferred the title of sultan by the spiritual chief of Garsik. Pqjang was subverted by the chief of the famdy of Mataram, after it had existed about forty years. Its destruction VOL. II. x 322 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED, is calculated to have happened in the year ,1578 of Christ. The stories of Cheribon, Bantam, and Jakatra, which continued hereditarily for a much longer period in the families of the first missionaries, will be briefly told in another place, Towards the latter end of the fifteenth centu ry of our time, the richest and most extensive part of the island, the central and eastern provinces, whatever might have been its condition earlier, was broken down into a great number of indepen? dent states. In Madura, alone, there were three independent principalities, and in Java at least eight. The fortunate family of Mataram now commenced a successful career of conquest, and during the reigns of four princes, but chiefly of the first three, and in less than a century, subjugated the whole island except Bantam, assuming in com plete sovereignty the whole of the eastern and cen tral part, reducing Cheribon to the condition of a vassal kingdom, and exacting homage from Jaka tra. The detail of this conquest is preserved with tolerable fidelity, and as it illustrates the character of the people, and presents a curious picture of manners and society, I shall be tempted to offer it to the reader at more length than its importance would otherwise seem to merit. Kyayi Agang Pamanahan, the first ofthe family of Mata? am that rose to consequence, was chief of the dependent' province of Mataram, under the HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 323 Sultan of Pqjang. He is said to have been the fourth in lineal descent from Browijoyo, the last Hindu sovereign of Mojopahit, a genealogy, in all likelihood, fabricated in after times to impose on the credulity of the people, by tracing the origin of the family to a source which insured their veneration and affection. This person was suc ceeded in the administration of the province by his son, the first sovereign of the family, who is best known by the title of Senopati, or military commander, conferred upon him by the Sultan of Pqjang, in return for which he poisoned his be nefactor, and by a course of intrigue, too often re peated in the history of man to demand a new re cital, deprived his family of their patrimony, add ed Pajang to Mataram, and assumed the sovereign title of Panambahan.* (A. S. 1508, A. D. 1586.)— The principal object of the reign of this prince was the subjuga tion of the eastern districts, and in this he succeed ed as far as Pati, towards the north coast, and Kadiri towards the south. He made predatory in cursions as far as Pasuruhan, but no permanent conquest. Of the manner in which the war was conducted, I shall offer a few specimens. The prince of Mataram having made an expedition to the east, was opposed by the confederated chiefs * Literally " the object of an obeisance." 324 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. of Madura and Java, and used the following stra tagem to disengage the two first of the confede rates that opposed his progress, the princes of Ma- diyon and Pronorogo. He selected a beautiful wo man, of the highest rank, and sent her as his am bassador to the prince of Madiyon, who, by the way, affected the habits and life of a devotee. The chief of Mataram called him of Madiyon father, which is equivalent, by the customs of Java, to tendering submission, and acknowledging depend- ance or inferiority. The lady was particularly in structed to resist no solicitation of the prince. She obeyed his instructions, and by her blandishments seduced him from his alliance. The Senopati meanwhile attacked the prince of Pronorogo, and surprised him with two hundred chosen horse, led by himself in person, after which success, without farther ceremony, he fell upon the prince of Madiyon, and obtained an easy victory. This chieftain, flying from his palace, with his fa mily, left his favourite daughter behind him, as a decoy to his antagonist, and this lady was after wards married to the prince of Mataram. The prince of Mataram having attacked the pro vince of Pasuruhan, the chief of that district would have submitted, but was dissuaded by a re fugee from Blambangan, a chief called Adipati Kaniten, to whom he gave the command of his troops. This person having challenged the chief HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 325 of an advanced party of the Mataram forces,v who, unknown to him, was the Senopati himself, he was worsted in the single combat which ensued, and thrown wounded from his horse. The conqueror, without offering him any further injury, directed a lame mare to be brought, on which, bare backed, and with a miserable bridle, he mounted his dis comfited rival, and in this plight dismissed him to his chief, to tell the story of his disgrace. It is necessary to explain, that, in Java, it is considered a disgrace to ride a mare ; none but the meanest of the people using mares for the saddle. The troops of Pasuruhan, after the loss of their leader, took to flight, and the chief of that province, to make his peace with the victor, put the wounded Kani- ten to death, by pouring melted tin down his throat, and transmitted the dead body, with gifts and proffers of submission, to the Senopati. This prince died in the year of Salivana 1523, leaving the reputation of the bravest and most in trepid, though not the wisest, of the princes ef Java. He owed a large portion of his success to the counsels of his uncle Mondoroko, by whose wisdom and prudence his ardour and impatience were tempered and restrained. (A. S. 1508, A. D. 1686.)— In the first year of the reign of this prince, there was, say the na tive writers, a dreadful eruption of a volcano, ac companied by showers of ashes, and violent earth- S26 History of java continued. quakes, which terrified the inhabitants of Java. This was the same eruption to which the Portu- • guese were witnesses, and which, by their account, hid the sun for three whole days, and destroyed ten thousand souls. (A. S. 1523, A. D. 1601.)— The Senopati was succeeded by his second son, Mas Jolang, called after his death Panambahan Krapyak, from the spot where he died, in •conformity with the uni versal practice of the Indian islanders. This prince, less active and ambitious than his prede cessor, added but the single province of Prono rogo to his dominions. He was chiefly occupied, indeed, in a contention for authority with the prince of Pugar, his elder brother, and in suppress ing a variety of those rebellions which are natu rally incident to a dominion acquired by violence, and maintained without skill. In the year 1524 of Salivana, (1602,) the Ja vanese writers record a total eclipse of the sun. (A. S. 1535, A. D. I6i3.)— The eldest son of the last prince succeeded his father, taking the name of Adi Mataram. He and his son alone took the Arabic title of Sultan, their predecessors contenting themselves with the humbler appella tion of Panambahan, and their successors tak ing the spiritual distinction of Susunan. In Javanese history he is called Sultan Agung, or the Great Sultan, a title which he undoubtedly HISTORY OF JAVA CONTIMUED. 327 deserves, for he was not only the greatest conque ror, but the best prince of whom any mention is made in Javanese story. In a reign of thirty- three years, he conquered the whole of the eastern districts, including the principality of Blambangan, at the extreme east, Cheribon, and the whole of the Sunda countries, except Jacatra and Bantam. His disgrace and discomfiture in his wars with the Europeans will be mentioned in another place. His fame spread to Celebes, where he sent an embassy, as well as to Sumatra and Borneo. The Adipati, or chief of the Javanese settlement o£Palembang,'mihe former island, paid his respects in person, and the Javanese colony of Banjarmasin, in the latter coun try, sent a mission. These honours from distant islands, and the homage which the chief of Mata ram received from many states of Java, had their origin as much in the terror ofhis name, as in any experience of his real power, for sovereign power has on the mind of the Indian islanders the mys terious influence which religion has on the minds of all barbarians, arising from the same causes, fear, ignorance, and superstition. From a few examples of the mode in which this best of Javanese princes conducted his wars and government, we have an opportunity of estimat ing the character of the society over which he ruled. 'i The very year that the Sultan ascended the^ 328 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. throne, he sent a large force for the conquest of the eastern districts, which ended in a mere pre datory expedition, no permanent conquest having been effected. In this affair, the country was laid waste, the villages burned, and the cattle and in habitants carried off, and divided as booty among the troops. Sometimes the men were put to the sword, in stead of being led into captivity, but the latter was invariably the fate of the women. In the 27th year of his reign, the chief of the Siinda district of Sumadang revolted. The Sul tan was highly incensed, and his orders were, to ex terminate the males, without sparing the children, and to carry off the women into captivity. These orders were obeyed, — no resistance was offered, and in that poor and ill-peopled district, a thousand persons were massacred. One of the most powerful and obstinate of the Sultan's enemies was the Pangeran, or prince of Surabaya. The Sultan, in the year of Salivana 1545, (A. D. 1623,) sen^a powerful force to sub due him, and the following is the stratagem by which the purpose was effected. The commander halted at Japan, on the river of Surabaya, thirty miles above the town of that name. Here he dammed up the river, diverting a portion of the stream. Into the stream, thus diminished, he threw dead carcases, putrid vegetables, and, above all, the a- HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 329 bundant and noisome fruit of the aren palm, with the view of poisoning the water, and compelling the inhabitants of Surabaya to submission, a conse quence which, either from the real or imaginary effects of the measure, soon followed. The chief of Surabaya having submitted, sent his son to Mataram to make his submission. On this occasion, the young prince, with his compa nions and domestics, his wives, and all the fe males of his family, were, say the native writers, according to custom, brought into the public pre sence of the Sultan, bound in cords. We may glean a few facts now and then, of amore favourable character. In the year 1537 of Saliva na, (A. D. 1 615,) the ambitious projects of the family of Mataram raised against them a host of enemies, in a confederation of the princes of Ma dura, and of the eastern part of Java. Encouraged by the response of the spiritual chief of Giri, whom it was customary to consult as an oracle, they march ed in great numbers to the west, with the hope of sub verting Mataram. Ignorant ofthe country, and im provident, they had not reached Pajang when their stock of provisions was expended, and they were compelled to feed on wild roots and the bark of trees, which engendered fatal disorders that car ried off great numbers. In this condition they were attacked by the Sultan of Mataram and utter ly defeated. Among the slain was the chief of S3Q HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. Japan, a man of great gallantry. At sight of the dead body of his enemy, the Sultan exclaimed, with a generosity which is commonly a stranger to such a state of society on such an occasion, — " This is, indeed, the body of a true soldier, let it be duly honoured and buried with distinction ;" and, turn ing to the Adipati of Pqjang, whose fidelity was suspected, he farther eulogized the open and ho nourable hostility of the fallen chief. In 1545 Salivana, (A. D. 1623,) a powerful force was sent to subdue Madura, and the conquest was finally effected, but not till after a brave strug gle on tbe part of the chiefs of that island, then divided into five states. The Madurese are reput ed a braver and hardier race than their more civi lized neighbours the Javanese. On this occasion the prince of Pamakasan, incensed against the in vaders of -his country, hoped to turn the fortunes of the war, by depriving the enemy of so skilful a leader as the commander of the Javanese army, Joyo Saponto ; and, with this view, accompanied by a few determined followers, he entered the Ja vanese camp in the dead of the night, made his way to the quarters of the adverse chief, and, mor tally wounding him, effected his retreat, but not un til he himself had received a fatal stab, of which he expired the following day. This accident threw the troops of Mataram into consternation, and for a time arrested the progress of the war. HISTOKY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 331 I shall give but one other anecdote of this reign, and chiefly because it affords a curious illustration ofthe female character in the' highest rank of life. A similar example has not, indeed, been often af forded in Java, though there the women claim a de gree of equality with the stronger sex, not often seen in the east, but frequent instances are afforded of fe male heroism among the more warlike, ferocious, and uncivilized tribes of Celebes. In the year 15 JO-of Salivana, (A. D. l62£,) the Sultan attack ed Giri, the residence of the spiritual chief of that name, and the descendant of one of the most con- , spicupus of the first apostles of Mahomedanism, and subdued it after an obstinate struggle. He was probably induced to diregard the holy charac ter of this person, from resentment for the advice he had given to the eastern chiefs in their invasion of Mataram.The command of the troops for this enterprise was entrusted to the prince of Surabaya, now affi anced to the Sultan by a marriage with his daughter the princess Wandan Sari. The priest of Giri made a gallant defence, and in one rencontre defeated his adversary, whose fortunes were retrieved by the spirit of his heroic consort. This princess present ed herself before the troops, accoutered as a war- rior, spoke pf the bravery of her ancestors, ha rangued the soldiers, distributed gifts to them, and put herself at their head. Encouraged by her ex- 332 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. ample, the troops renewed the attack, captured the temple and mausoleum of Giri, and took the Su- sanan and his family prisoners. The daughters of Javanese princes, when married to subjects, assume a tone, and insist on privileges, unknown to their sex in the east. The husband, in such a case, fre quently terms the wife mistress, addresses her in the language appropriated to ceremony, and cannot marry a second wife or keep a concubine. The Ratu Wandan claimed and maintained this ascen dancy over her husband. The following natural calamities are recorded by the Javanese writers to have happened during this reign. In the year 1536, (A. D. 1614,) the island was enveloped in a cloud of ashes, whieh oc casioned a total darkness. This had its origin in one of the volcanos of the neighbouring islands. In the year 1563, (A. D. 1641,) a vast number of lives were lost by the falling of a portion of the mountain of Adiksa. In the year of Salivana 1566, (A. D. 1644,) the country was afflicted with a dreadful epidemic, ¦ which swept off a gf eat number of people. The Sultan Tagal-arum succeeded his father in the year of Salivana 1568, (A. D. 1646,) and reigned three and thirty years. The records of Asiatic despotism, so fruitful in crime and villany, hardly afford a superior to this Javanese prince. He was, in short, a cruel and ferocious madman, without the shadow of a virtue HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 333 to redeem his character. It is unnecessary to add, after this, that numerous insurrections took place. His own son-in-law, a native of Madura, named Truna Jaya, abetted by his son and the heir to his throne, revolted in the year 1595 of Salivana, (A. D. 1672,) and this rebellion terminated in the conquest of the whole of the eastern districts, and eventually in that of the centre, the expulsion of the tyrant from his throne, and the seizure of his capital: In his flight to Tagal after this event, he was taken ill and died on his road. I shall proceed briefly to narrate a few of the incidents of this reign, by which we shall be en. abled to appreciate the character of the sovereign, and of the society over which he presided. Shortly after his accession to the throne, the Pangeran Alit, his younger brother, entered into a conspiracy against him. The principal instigator of this transaction was a noble of the name of Sing- singan. The Sultan being duly apprised of his danger, had the noble secretly put to death. On the following day, when the young prince appeared in the presence, the first spectacle which offered itself to him, was the bloody head of his friend sus pended from the Sultan's own hand by the hair. The Sultan indignantly threw it down at his bro ther's feet, who, to make his peace, and save his life, began with a baseness equal to the ferocity of the other, to insult the head by wounding and 334 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. disfiguring the face with his dagger. This scene of wild and savage barbarity did not end here. The young prince retired from the presence with dis sembled resentment, and refusing compliance with the Sultan's order. to surrender his accomplices, he prepared for resistance. The chief of Madura entreated the youth to desist from his rash enter prise, and in doing this, embraced his feet accord ing to the custom of the country. The prince put an end to his entreaties and his life by drawing his kris, and mortally wounding him in the throat, as he thus lay supplicating him. The retainers ofthe chief of Madura, who were witnesses to this trans action, rushed upon the prince, and sacrificed him to their fury and resentment. The Sultan hearing of the loss of his brother, feigned a deep sorrow, accused himself of his death, unsheathed his dagger, and wounded himself in the arm, as an expiation for the share he had in his death. Connected with this transaction is another of much greater atrocity. The Sultan, suspecting the priests of Mataram to be implicated in the conspi racy of Pangeran Alit, directed registers of them to be formed, and on pretence of conferring upon those of the capital some distinctions, had them as sembled, when, upon a concerted signal, an indiscri minate slaughter was commenced, and six thousand, HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. 335 including women and children, were thus butchered in cold blood ! One farther example ofthe atrocities of this abo minable tyrant will be enough. He had married in his father's lifetime the daughter of the prince of Surabaya, and by her had a prince, now appa rent heir to the throne. Of this prince, and of his father-in-law, he seems early to have entertained a deep-rooted jealousy. The young prince having fallen in love with a young woman of Surabaya residing at Mataram, applied to his grandfather to put him in possession of her person. But the Sul tan himself had unfortunately also felt a passion for the same lady. Notwithstanding this, the chief of Surabaya, willing to gratify his grandson, used his influence, and obtained her for the young prince, to whom she was accordingly married. The Sul tan, when he heard of this transaction, was incen sed to madness, and directed the immediate execu tion ofthe chief of Surabaya, his wife, children, and grandchildren, to the number of 40 persons. There is one part of the story, which, for the credit of human nature, it were better to refuse .our belief to, had it not been too well authenticated. The Sul tan ordered the young prince and his bride to ap pear before him, and there commanded him to stab her with his own hand ; and this lover obeyed the mandate ! 336 HISTORY OF JAVA CONTINUED. After this transaction, the Sultan gave a loose t# all the extravagance of his tyranny, and massacred without scruple, and without provocation, the first persons of the land. I have already remarked, that fear, and not love, is the source of the political as well as the religious creed of the Javanese ; and the respect still shown to the memory of this monster is a signal proof of it, for his tomb at Tagal is not considered as less than the shrine of a saint, and often receives the pious visits and oblations of the present race of inhabitants ! CHAPTER V. SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. Retrospect of Portuguese History, as immediately connected xvith that if Java — Of Dutch History, and Reflections on the policy pursued by Europeans — Reign of the Susunan Mangkorat.— Rebellioji qf Truna Jaya, and Invasion ofthe Macassars. — Mangkorat calls in the Dutch to his assist ance. — Story qf Surapati. — Singular incident at Japara. — Tragical story of Truna Jaya Tragical story of Sukro, son qf the first minister. — Reign of Mangkorat Mas. — Re bellion ofhis uncle, the Pangeran Pugar, and his dethrone ment. — Murder ofthe Chief qf Pronorogo. — Reign qf Pa. kubuono. — Jayeng Rono, Prince of Surabaya, assassinated by the Susunan, ai the instigation ofthe Dutch. — Rebellion qf Joyo Puspito — Reflections on the conduct ofthe Dutch. — Account of the Impostors called Kraman. — Story of Mas Dono, one oj these. — Reign of Susunan Prubu. — His reign a series qf rebellions. — The reign of Susunan Sedo Lawe-. yan. — Susunan joins the Chinese who had escaped from ihe massacre of Batavia. — They jointly attack Samarang. — The Susunan treacherously quits the Chinese, and allies himself again with the Dutch. — Chinese make a Susunan qf their own, and drive their late allyjrom his throne — Chinese de feated and the Susunan restored. — Narrative of some ofthe principal events of this reign. — Treacherous attack upon the Dutch Fortress at Cartasura, and Massacre ofthe Prison- . ers. — Atrocious circumstances connected with the secession » VOL. II. Y 338 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. of the Javanese from the Chinese alliance. — A mock battle fought between the Javanese and Chinese io hoodwink the Dutch. — Specimen of the correspondence qf two hostile Javanese Chiefs. — Charaeter displayed by the Chinese in the war which they conducted in Java. — Reign of Paku- buono the third. — Rebellion qf Mangkubumi. — Of Mangku- nagoro. — Character of these rebellions. — The Javanese Em pire split into two separate monarchies. — Establishment qf Yugyakdrta. — A small principality bestowed on Marighu- nagoro. — Internal tranquillity restored in Java, which has now lasted sixty years. 1 o this chapter, which gives the sequel of Java nese history, and which commences with the pe riod when the Dutch power began to be felt in the Javanese counsels, and to influence the fortunes of the people, it will be necessary to premise a brief retrospect of the circumstances and character of the European connection, as it more immediately relates to the island of Java. The more general narrative of European affairs will be related in sub sequent chapters. The Portuguese arrived in Java in the year 1511,* the same year in which they conquered Malacca, two years after their first, appearance in the seas of the Archipelago, and thirty-three after * Albuquerque sent embassies from Malacca to the princes of Java, but neither the names of those princes, nor of their kingdoms, have been handed down to us. SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 339 the Mahomedan religion had agsumed the ascen dancy in the island. The immediate successors of the first apostles of Islam still ruled the country, though it would appear that many of the inha bitants continued to follow their ancient wor ship.* It was not a moment propitious to the in troduction of a new power, or the introduction of a new religion. The Portuguese were, besides, ful ly occupied on the continent of India, and the western portions of the Archipelago, and were at * The Portuguese, on their first arrival, are said to have treated with a Hindu sovereign in the western end of the island. In the voyage of Oliver Noort round the world, he touched in 1601 at the eastern end of Java. The narrative; according to Purchas, has the following strange passage, which does not occur in the narrative in the " Collection of voyages which contributed to the formation of an East Indian Com pany." — " On the twentie-eight they came to Jortan, and heard of Holland ships at Bantam. Heere they bought mace and provision. Jortan hath a thousand houses all of timber.. The king was absent at Passaruan, five years before he had be sieged Balamboa, and destroyed the king with all his kindred. He is also king of Sorbay, a citie not far distant, all which four cities are Mahometan, and very rigid in that swinish su perstition. The Pagodes and idols argue permission of Elh- nicke and ancienter Indian rights.'' — Pilgrims, Book u. p. 77. The Dutch voyagers may have been deceived by the number of ancient temples of Hindu worship, which must have existed at a period little more than a century after the subversion of Hinduism. 340 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. the moment anxious to be possessed of the country of the spices. They seem never to have attempted any conquest in Java, and to have confined them selves solely to the affairs of commerce, which they conducted chiefly at Bantam and Panarukan. In the native annals, no notice whatever is taken of them. The Dutch arrived in Java in the year 1595, eighty-four years after the Portuguese, and 1 17 after the establishment ofthe Mahomedan religion. This was during the last years pf the reign of the first prince of the house of Mataram, the Panam bahan Senopati. Cheribon, Bantam, and Jacatra, were then independent, and Madura, Surabaya, and the maritime provinces east of it, were still un subdued. It was during the four and twenty years which elapsed from their arrival, until the founda tion of Batavia, that the family of Mataram was chiefly aggrandized by the conquest of the best part of the island ; but the probability is, that a number of years must have passed, before the igno rant and gross traders ofthe sixteenth century under stood and noted the political movements of a great country, especially as the residence ofthe more in telligent portion of them was always momentary and uncertain. The object of the European adventurers of those times was purely mercenary and commercial. The plunder of the east, for it does not deserve the SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. S4J name of commerce, was their object. To give an equitable price for the commodity they purchased, or to demand no more than a reasonable profit, never entered into their minds. They considered the natives of those countries as fair game, and drove a trade, in short, in which the simplicity, ig norance, and weakness of the inhabitants of the country, were but poorly opposed to the superior intelligence, more enlarged experience, and, above all, to the power and violence of the European. On these most inauspicious principles commen ced the intercourse between the Dutch and Java nese. It would have been far more beneficial to the latter, had the Europeans with a great force at once conquered their country. Ultimately they did so, after two centuries of misery and tedious suffering. In the first case, the European con querors would have mixed with the native popula tion, instructed them in the arts and civilization of Europe, and the interests of both must have been finally assimilated. In the last, the interests ofthe two parties have been at direct variance. The tribu tary party, distrusting every thing European, have neither adopted the improvements, nor the religion ^)f their masters ; and, to say the least of it; are at this day not a whit more civilized or improved than when the connection commenced more than two centuries back. From 1595 tp 1612, the Dutch traded chiefly 342 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. with the kingdom of Bantam, then the principal emporium of the east for pepper, in those times the staple of European commerce. In 1612 they removed to Jacatra, obtaining per mission from the prince of that place to settle theref Here they conducted their trade peaceably for five or six years, but at last broke with the prince who had afforded them protection, subdued his countiy, and built Batavia in the year of Salivana 156 1, (A. D. 1619,) on the ruins of his capital. It was in this year that the Sultan of Mataram, incensed at the piratical conduct of the Dutch at Japara which they had de stroyed, and their violence and usurpations at Jaca tra, sent on the invitation of the Pangeran of the latter place, a numerous force levied from almost every province of Java to expel them from the country. The result of this expedition, probably the most numerous and powerful which Java had ever seen, consisting of troops accustomed to conquer, and acting under the orders of a victorious monarch, will give us a just impression of the military cha racter of the Javanese. They were defeated by a handful of Europeans, — after three assaults were unable to capture an ill constructed and half finished redoubt, and, losing the best part of their numbers chiefly by famine and sickness, at last retired dis comfited and disgraced. Upon this occasion they arrested the progress of the conquests of the kings of Mataram, and sp far SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 343 may be said to have influenced the domestic poli tics of the Javanese ; yet without their interference, the temporary empire of Mataram was about to tumble to pieces in the subsequent reign, through the unsupportable tyranny and misgovernment of the succeeding prince, as we have already seen. —A. S. 1551. (A. D. 16 wheii his, tyrannical an^ violent coiiduct drove his uncle, the Pangeran Pugar, into rebellion. This prince flecl to Samarang tp the Dutch, and being counte nanced by them, was installed Susunan under their auspices. The, consequence was a ciyij, vyay, which, raged in the central and eastern districts of the island for four years, and which ended in the seizure of tlje^ person of Mangkorat Mas, by an act of treachery on the part of the Dutch, and; his final bani^mentj to Ceylon. Mangkorat Masci appears to have been, a tyrant, voluptuous and wanton, equally destitute of talents and pf pru dence His character, anfl probably that of many an eastern dgsp.pt, is pourtrayed in the folowing. anecdote of; him, which is, circumstantially related by the^ Javanese writers, : In Jus flight frqm his, cap pital, proceeding eastward tp join the force of the gajlant a^ intrepid, Surapati, he haljgdv hi t\& di&a,nt and seclude^ ^stf ict,. of Prqnqrpgo, aiadj here, un,^]n.sc^ou.s.t%t( he, ^ad^rea&Y. virtually lost SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 355 his honour and his crown, he gave himself up to every illiberal pleasure. The loyal chief of the district, to gratify his prince, directed an inclosure to be constructed, and here assembled a variety of game, to afford him, at an easy rate, the diversion of shooting. The Susunan, with his family, men and women, repaired to the s'pot, and, taking up a bow and arrow, he began the sport by shooting a deer. The chief of Pronorogo, seeing the game fall, ran into the inclosure,and directed the priest to slaughter the animal according to the ritesof the Ma homedan religion, that it might be legal food* But he was unused to the severe, punctilio of a Javanese court, which permits no order, however trivial or in different, to be given in the presence without the royal nodof assent, The brutal andinfatuated prince proceeded on the spot to punish this breach of eti quette, and, before the thousands who were as sembled, noit forgetting the females of his pwn fa mily, ordered $le chief to, be emasculated, and had the' satisfaction:, to see his bpst faint before bini from the pain of the operation., This act was too much even for the forbearance and slavish loyalty of the. Javanese ;. and the relations of the chief of Pronorogo were preparing to retaliate,, but the Su- susan, receiving notice ofi their intentions, eluded their vengeance by a precipitate flight. The Pangeran Pugar took the title of Pakukup won®± a name which )m since descended to all 356 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. his: successors, Counting from his accession, he reigned sixteen years, as he died in the A. J. 1643, A. D. 1718. From the circumstances of his elevation, and his own character, this prince became a mere tool in the hands of the Dutch, and they used their in fluence neither with good policy nor discretion. Their conduct, equally marked by wanton cruelty, and imprudence in the affair of the chief of Su rabaya, involved the country again in civil war. This noble, whose name was Jayeng Rono, was the confidential friend and adviser of the Su sunan, and to his counsels, and those of the prince of Madura, he was chiefly indebted for his eleva tion. He had, however, incurred the displea sure of the Dutch, most probably from thwart ing some of their ambitious designs, or being de ficient in that flexibility and subserviency which was necessary to their purposes, and they demand ed his life from the Susunan. There is some thing so sorrowful in the whole story, that I can not forbear entering into the circumstances of it, as given by the native writers. The Susu nan received the demand of the life of his friend with astonishment, exclaiming, as is reported, " I have already lost my right hand, (alluding to the death of the prince of Madura", which had just happened,) and they would also cut off my left." He hesitated to comply with the order, and yet SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. Q&? knew not how to resist it. The chief was absent in his government, and a messenger was instantly dispatched to inform him that the Dutch had de manded his life, but that if he chose to resist, he should be secretly abetted and assisted. The chief of Surabaya, clearly foreseeing that his resistance would involve the ruin, not only of himself, but of his whole family, came to the disinterested and noble resolution of sacrificing his own life to se cure the safety of his friends and relations, and he proceeded forthwith to Cartasura, to submit to his fate. Here he had repeated audiences of the Su sunan, who assured him of his thorough convic tion of his innocence, promised to protect his fa mily, and complied with his request to place his brother in his situation after his death. For a whole month he waited the arrival of the warrant for his execution, if it be allowable to use, on such an occasion, a word which belongs to the language ofjus tice. At length it arrived from Batavia. The Susunan summoned the chief, who proceeded to the palace, clothed in white, the habit of resignation and devo tion. His retainers were hindered from following him into the interior, and as the old man, for Jayeng Bono was much advanced in life, entered the outer court ofthe palace, he was met by the public execu tioners, who dispatched him on the spot. The most formidable and destructive rebellion which has ever characterized the annals of Java was the consequence. 358 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. Joyopuspilo, brother to the deceased chief, accepted ofhis office, but only to use the influence which it af forded him for revenge. He subdued all the dis tricts in his vicinity, called to his assistance the people of Bali, was joined by the Madurese, and by several rebel princes of the house of Matarato* so that this formidable insurrection only terminat ed by his death in the succeeding reign, after de solating the country for a great many years. The chief of Surabaya, in the many actions which he fought with the Dutch, and in all his proceedings, displayed so much enterprise, spirit, and conduct, that, but for the slender portion! of European sci ence opposed to him, he must have acquired the sovereignty of the island. I shall take this opportunity of animadverting up- on the policy pursued by the Dutch, not only on the present occasion, but in every war which they carried on in Java. They always permitted a beaten enemy t'O' retreat uaimolested,. and' never vigorously prose cuted any advantage. This either arose from igno rance and want of conduct,, or from a crooked arid mistaken policy, which led them to believe it th© wisest conduct to reduce the native power,, whether legitimate or insurgent,, by expending its strength in a protracted contest. Probably both causes had their share. By the imagined refinement implied in the latter, nothing, can be more eertain than. that they were exhausting, their own finances, and SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. &59 training the natives to a predatory and desultory war fare, the Only one which a barbarous enemy, in a close country, can with any success conduct against a civi lized and disciplined one, and that even in the event of success, they would acquire but a desolated and ruined conquest, hardly worth the occupation. Oppression on the part of the government Act ing on the singular credulity and superstition of the people, gives rise in Java to those rebels, called, iii the language of the country, Kraman, a word which literally means " an impostor or pretender to royalty." Whenever the country is in & state of anarchy, one or more of these persons is sure to appear. Sbmetimes they affect to be descended from some ancient line of sovereign's ; at others, pretend td redress grievances, and now and' then to propagate some absurd and nonsensical opinions1, under the name of a new religion. Sometimes the individuals themselves are designing" fanatics, at others, mere boys, or simple peasants, the puppets5 or tools of more designing and artful persdns. Who ever they be, they are quite sure of finding follow ers, and they have been often known to siibjugate whole provinces, and to disturb the peace of ihe Country for whole years, defying the legitimate authorities. The reign of Pakubuwoho wa;s fruit ful in these insurrections. The fate of one of these impostors is worth narrating, because it affords but too true a picture of native manners. Mas Ddno set up the standard of rebellion in the district of Mata- 360 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. ram, and, ravaging this and several of the other fine • districts near it, for a long time, eluded every at tempt of the native government against him. The Susunan was highly incensed, and, in the words of the native writer from whom I borrow the account, gave orders, " that should Mas Dono be killed in action, his ears should be brought to him for his satisfaction ; but he made a vow, that should he be taken alive, he should be conveyed to Cartasura, and there exposed in front of the palace, to be punctured to death with needles, for the amuse ment ofthe people" Mas Dono was at last taken alive, and transported to Cartasura, where he was actually tortured to death, agreeably to the savage vow of the prince. (A. J. 1643, A. D. 171 8.)— Pakubuwono was succeeded by his son, who took the name of Susunan Prabu. During the greater part of this reign, the country was in a state of the greatest anarchy, and, for the most part, in a state of open rebellion. No less than five princes of the royal family rebelled, and the standard of rebellion was erected,. at times, in three, four, or five places at the same moment. These rebellions were at length quelled, chiefly by acts of treachery, in which the Dutch were the principal agents. The persons of the leaders got possession of by such means were disposed of, some by the bowstring, and some by the dagger. Some were immured in the pestiferous dungeons of Ba- SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 361 tavia, and some sent into banishment to the Cape of Good Hope or Ceylon. (A. J. 1650, A.D. 1725.)— This prince was succeeded by his son, a lad of a few years old, who reigned twenty-five years, — twenty-five years of warfare and misery. (A. J. 1675, A. D. 174-9.) — He died in a state of insanity. Like his grand father, he was called Pakubuwono, but is distin guished by the appellation of Sedo Laweyan, or he who died at Laweyan. The two great events of his reign, and of that period of the history of Ja va, are the rebellions of the Chinese and of the prince Mangkubumi, the termination of the last of wliich he did not live to see. The story of the massacre of the Chinese at Batavia will be told in a subsequent chapter of this work. Suffice it at pre sent to say, that the Chinese of the cityof Batavia had grown in numbers and wealth ; that they presumed , on their own strength, and the weakness ofthe rul ing authority; and that they incurred the jealousy of the Dutch, who, by an act of perfidy which has few examples in the history of any people, and none in that of a civilized one, committed a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre of them. A large body of these people retired from Batavia towards the east, and then commenced the portion of the story which relates to the history ofthe Javanese. They clandes tinely negociated with the Susunan and his ministers, who, at length, burning to free himself from the 3.62 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. yoke of the Dutch, openly joined them,— besieged the Dutch fortress close to his capital, took it, and razed it to the ground. The Chinese and Javanese forces uniting on this; inarched to Samaiaiig, hop ing to expel the Dutch from their principal esta blishment td the east, but, unskilled in the science of war, they made no impression on the petty for tress of that place ; discord began to arise between the Chinese and Javanese, and the intrigues of the Dutch finally separated the Susunan frohl his league. The Chinese, not discouraged by this de fection, and still eincdursiged by the adherence of several Javanese chiefs, elected a Susunan of their owri from the royal family, marched to the capital, drove the legitimate prince from it,: arid occupied it. It was not until after a war of two years duration that the false Susunari was taken, the Chinese dis persed, and peace in part restored. I shall relate a few of the transactions of this war, to show the spirit in which it was conducted. The conduct o'f the Susunan towards the Dutch v^as of the most treacherous character. Under the pretext of joining them for the destruction of the Chinese, he prepared a force to attack their fortress as already stated. When the expedition he had thus prepared was ready, as he pretended; to match, he sent the commanders, three resolute arid1 despe rate persons 6hosen for the Occasion-, into the fbf- titess to receive the final orders 6f the1 Dutch 12 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 363 commander. This was the moment chosen for, perpetrating the act of treachery which had been meditated. While in the act of saluting the com mander, the assassin's drew their daggers and com menced the attack. A crowd of Javanese now at tempted to rush in at ihe gate, but the European centinels had the presence of mind to close it. The Dutch in their turn became the assailants, and the Javanese were in a few minutes put to death with as little mercy as they deserved. The Chinese force now joining the Javanese, the Dutch fort was besieged, and the garrison, 450 in number, had the folly to surrender themselves prisoners of war, on the faithless assurances of safety made to them by the Javanese prince. In the first paroxysm of caprice, he directed the Chris tians to be circumcised, and instructed in the Ma homedan religion ; or, as the Javanese writer care lessly expresses, " directed them to change their prophet." Soon repenting of this degree of lenity, he ordered the European officers to be executed, " by beating them to death with bludgeons !'" These circumstances are related on the authority of native manuscripts. When the Javanese agreed to forsake the Chinese,' and renew their alliance with the Dutch, on the sug gestion ofthe latter^ they agreed suddenly to fall up on their old friends occupying the same camp, and massacre the whole of them. The matter was con- 364 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. certed in a secret negociation, and would have beea carried into effect, had not some of the Javanese chiefs revolted at the atrocious proposal. The scheme which they substituted, to be sure, is in wickedness inferior to it only in extent. They proposed to the Chinese chiefs to make a sacrifice of their wounded to save appearances on their part- with the Dutch, and what is more wonderful, the Chinese acceded to it. The Chinese forces accord ingly marched from their encampment unmolest ed, leaving, their sick behind them. These unfortu nate people were immediately butchered by the Ja vanese, " and their heads being struck off, were sent in baskets to the Dutch commandant of Samarang, in token of their fidelity to their engagements." The Chinese having retreated, accompanied, how ever, by a number of Javanese, who still adhered to them, they were followed by the Javanese force, commanded by the first minister Noto-kusumo, the prime mover of the conspiracy against the Dutch, and a perfect pattern of dissimulation. He and the Chinese perfectly understood each other, but he thought it necessary to fight a mock battle, the more thoroughly to hoodwink the Dutch. The Chinese acceded to the proposal, but not under standing how such matters were conducted,. they thought it necessary to consult their Javanese col leagues. The answer given by the latter affords the most undisguised and impudent specimen of orient- SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 365 al despotism which I have ever met with. " Fa ther, replied the Javanese chief, (I quote the na tive writer,) such a battleis conducted by us in per fect earnestness with mutual slaughter, for not the smallest compassion is shown to the people. Keep ing your secret, and saving the life of the chief, you may exterminate the rest." An action was accordingly fought on these principles, and some lives lost on both sides. The first minister, perfectly true to them, offered a reward for every ear ofa Chi nese that was brought to him ; when openly opposed to the Dutch a little before, he had offered rewards for " Dutch heads" under similar circumstances. It may amuse the reader to be supplied with a specimen ofthe correspondence ofthe hostile chiefs. Martopuro, the chief of those Javanese who were on the side ofthe Chinese, and ofthe prince they had proclaimed, wrote to Pringoloya, commanding a detachment of the Susunan's army, a challenge in the following words : — " There is a wild bull to the north ofthe range of Kandang,* that longs to gore the female white elephant to the south of it." By the wild bull, which is an emblem of cou rage among the Javanese, was meant the prince under whose banners he was fighting ; and by the * A long range of mountains which divides, in the eastern part of the island, the low belt of land on the north coast, from the valleys of the centre of that quarter of the island. 366 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. white elephant the Susunan, a noble object, being degraded by assigning to it the female sex. Prin- gployo, in his reply, pursued the sarnie style of si mile, and observed, that " he was aware there was a buffalo calf to the north ofthe range of Kandang, accompanied by a little fugitive ragged animal of a; goat, of both of whom he would soon render a good account." By the buffalp calf was of course meant the false Susunan ; arid by the; goat, Martopuro himself, who was a person of diminutive stature, that, contrary to the usual practice of the Javanese, wore a beard. Buffalo, qv goat, but particularly the latter, is in the mouths of the Javanese equi valent to " ass in pars.." They seldom, indeed,, go farther, for gross, invective and scurrility are no vice of their manners. , iThe vicinity of the dagger is an insurmountable barrier to the habitual use of them. ,1 shall pause for a moment, to make a, few obser vations on the conduct of the Chinese in fhe course, of this warfare. They showed themselves to, he a people much beyond the Javanese in civilir zation, as evinced in their superior enterprise, skill, and: energy of character. Wh^t we should he less apt to. reckon, upon is their cc-Maigei j but in this qua lity, too, they much exceeded the Javanese. When the two nations acted together, we find the Chinese, and the Javanese themselves tell the story, not only running and directing every operation, but taking the most active part iu their executipn,, leading and SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 367 shwuig an. example of intrepidity in every situa*. tiou of danger or difficulty. From the ambition $nd enterprise shpwn by them on this occasipn, there is little doubt, but, in the absence of Euro peans, they would have made themselves masters of the island, and, supported by the swarms of emi grants from China, have established a permanent supremacy in it. Their ahuse of the right of conquest, and their violation of the laws of war, were, however, still more flagrant than those of any of the belligerent parties. They almost constantly put their prisoners to death in cold blood ; and to burn, and ravage the country were certain attendants upon their march. After a rapid series of advanta ges, for example, they entered Cartasura. The prince had hut just time to escape, and was forced to abandon almost the whole of his family. The Chinese, on this occasion, forcibly seized the females and violated them, not excepting the queen-mo ther, aud the wives of the Susunan. In the wan tonness of, their brutality, they even made the unr fortunate princesses dance naked before them! In the year 1675 of the Javanese era, (A. D. 1749,) Pakubuwono, the second of the name, was succeeded by his son the third of the name. The rebellipn of Mangkubumi, already alluded to, which commenced in the former reign, ended in this by a sphism in the native power, by which two. equal sove reignties, were, established in the central districts 368 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. of. the island, the same arrangement which still subsists. Of all the civil wars which had been waged in Java for three centuries, this appears to have been the most destructive and most tedious, for twelve years' desolation hardly terminated it. It .may be said to have flown out of the Chinese re bellion, and the indiscreet and insulting violence of the Dutch. The principal agents were the Pangerans Mangkubumi and Mangkunagoro,^ two men of intelligence and vigour of character su perior to what the history of Java usually presents. Mangkubumi was possessed of great bravery, firm ness of purpose, and perseverance. Of the Dutch and Susunan he repeatedly beat the united forces. Mangkunagoro, with less discretion, had more per sonal enterprise. The Javanese describe him as " a man who carried on a war fifteen years without any wealth but his understanding ;" a sentiment which they have versified, and are fond of repeat ing. It is clear, however, that they owed less to the superiority of their own genius and resources, than to the imbecility of their adversaries. The persons entrusted with the conduct of the war on the part of the Dutch, appear always to have been deficient in military skill, and very frequently in common courage. We find them frequently de feated in the field, often surprised, and never pursu ing any advantage to a profitable result. Through ignorance and mismanagement their troops were ex- 11 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. 369 posed to the inclemencies of a tropical climate, and, consequently, swept off in numbers. Desertions were frequent even among the European troops, who were often found fighting, a strange spectacle in the history of Indian warfare, under the ban ners of the native enemy. The probability ^.is, that, had not their negociations and intrigues final ly accomplished what their arms were unequal to, Mangkubumi would have subdued all the valua ble part of the island, and established a powerful native sovereignty independent of their influence. After a series of abortive attempts to negociate with him, they at length succeeded, and in the year 1754 a treaty was concluded, by which the heir of the ancient sovereignty was compelled to yield to him one half of his dominions. Mangkubumi and Mangkunagoro had at first acted in concert, the latter receiving the daugh ter of the former in marriage, and serving as his minister. These ambitious chiefs, how ever, were soon estranged from each other, and Mangkunagoro parted with his father-in-law, and set up for independence. He held out long after Mangkubumi had made his great bargain, and was not pacified, in the end, until he obtained, as a hereditary possession, a great estate or prin cipality of four thousand families, (A. J. 1685, A. D. 1758.) VOL. II. a a 370 SEQUEL OF JAVANESE HISTORY. The Susunan Pakubuwono was succeeded by his son the reigning prince, in the Javan year 17 14, (A. D. 1787,) The fortunate rebel Mangkubumi established his government at Yugyakarta, and died in the Javan year 1718, (A. D. 179,1.) He was suc ceeded by his son, who was expelled by the Bri tish in the Javan year 1739, (A. D. 1812.) The son and successor of this prince died after a short reign of little more than two years, and was suc ceeded by the reigning prince, still a youth, A. J. 1743, (A. D. 1815.) For a period of more than sixty years Java may be said to have enjoyed one uninterrupted peace, for the vigorous and prompt military movements, deemed necessary by the French and British ad ministrations for the maintenance of the European supremacy, ,vhich seemed falling out of the hand* of their predecessors, was unattended with waste of life or property. * * The materials of the history of Java have been chiefly collected from a variety of Javanese historical compositions in the author's possession, which have been duly collated with such European authorities as have fallenjn his way. 10 CHAPTER VI. HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. Menangkabao in Sumatra, the original seat qf the Malayan Name and Nation — Malays emigrated to the Peninsula. — Native History qf the Emigration. — Strictures and re marks on the Native Narrative Origin qf the word Malay — and ofthe terms Windward and Leeward People, —Malay Language and Name diffused through the Archi pelago by the First Colony, and noiby the Parent Stock. — Why the Peninsula is denominated " the Land qf the Ma lays." — Details of the History of each Tribe referred to their particular heads. I he notices which we possess on this curious and interesting subject are meagre and unsatisfactory, for the Malays are still more ignorant of historical composition than their neighbours the Javanese, and Europeans have had far less intercourse with the primitive race. The country which Europeans denominate the Malay Peninsula, and which, by the natives them selves, is called "the land ofthe Malays,"*has, from its appearing to be wholly occupied by that people, been generally considered as their original coun try. The country of Menangkabao in Sumatra * " Tanah Malayu." 372 HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. is, however, beyond dispute, the parent country of the Malay race. Menangkabao, contrary to all other Malay states, is an inland countiy. Its original limits to the eastern side of the island were the great rivers of Palembang and Siak, and to the west those of Manjuta and Singkel. As the trans action does not pretend to a very remote antiqui ty, we may credit the universal assertion of the Malays themselves, though it would not be safe to trust to the details which they furnish, that all the Malayan tribes, wherever situated, emigrated, directly or indirectly, from this parent establish ment. We are at first view struck with the im probability of an inland people undertaking a ma ritime emigration ; but their emigration, it will per haps appear, on a closer examination, may really be ascribed to this peculiarity of situation. The coun try which the primitive Malayan race inhabits is described as a great and fertile plain, well cultivat ed, and having a frequent and ready communica tion with the sea, by the largest rivers within the bounds of the Archipelago. The probability, then, is, that a long period of tranquillity, secured by the supremacy which the people of Menangkabao acquired over the whole island, occasioned a rapid and unusual start in civilization and population,—- that the best lands became scarce, — and that, in consequence, the swarm which founded Singahpu- ra in the Peninsula, was thrown off'. HISTORY OF THE MALAYS* 873 Had the original tribe consisted of mere fishet- men and navigators, their numbers would not have increased so as to give rise to so striking an event in their history. The native details of the emigration, and which I give on the authority of Van der Worm, Valen tyn, and Mr Marsden, are briefly as follow, in the words of the latter, History of Sumatra, p. 327 — 329 ". — " Having chosen for their king or leader a prince named Sri Turi Buwana, who boasted his descent from Iskander the great, and to whom, on that account, their natural chief, Demang Lebar Daun, submitted his authority, they emigrated un der his command about the year 1 160, to the south eastern extremity of the opposite Peninsula, named TJjung Tanah, where they were at first distinguish ed by the appellation of Orang de*bawah Angin, or the Leeward people ; but in time the coast be came generally known by that of Tanah Malayu, or the Malayan land. " In this situation they built their first city, which they called Singapura, and their rising con sequence excited the jealousy of the kings of Mo jopahit, a powerful state in the island of Java. To Sri Turi Buwana , who died in 1208, succeeded Paduka Pikaram Wira, who reigned fifteen years ; to him Sri Rama Wikaram, who reigned thirteen, and to him Sri Maharaja, who reigned twelve* His successor, Sri Iskandar Shah, was the last king 374 HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. of Singapura. During three years he withstood the forces ofthe king of Mojopahit ; but, in 1252, being hard pressed, he retired first to the north ward, and afterwards to the western coast of the peninsula, where, in the following year, he found ed a new city, which, under his wise government, became of considerable importance. To this he gave the name of Malaka, from a fruit-bearing tree so called, (rnyrobolanum,) found in abundance on the hill, which gives natural strength to the situa tion. Having reigned here twenty-two years, be loved by his subjects and feared by his neighbours, Iskandar Shah died in 1274, and was succeeded by Sultan Magat, who reigned only two years. Up to this period the Malayan princes were pagans. Sultan Muhammed Shah, who ascended the throne 1 276, was the first Mahometan prince, and, by the propagation of his faith, acquired great celebrity during a long reign of fifty-seven years. His in fluence appears to have extended over the neigh bouring islands of Linggu and Bintan, together •with Je hor, Patani, Kedah, and Perak,^on the coasts of the peninsula ; and Kampar and Aru in Sumatra ; all of which acquired the appellative of Malayu, although it was now more especially ap plied to Malacca." I shall offer a few strictures and remarks on this narrative. We find in it the precise year of the emigration, and other dates, when no proof exists HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. 375 that the Malays were ever possessed of a national era or kalendar. Arabian and Persian names and titles are given to the Hindu sovereigns of a peo ple who had not yet embraced the Mahomedan re ligion. The reigns are unnaturally long. The new establishment at Singapura is stated to have excited the jealousy of the Javanese kingdom of Mojopa hit, before, according to Javanese record, Mojopa hit itself had any existence ; and the Malays are stated to have been driven from Singapura by the Javanese of Mojopahit, a transaction upon which Javanese story is wholly silent. Notwithstanding these suspicious ¦circumstances in the detail of events, the main points may be re lied upon, and we may conclude, — that an extensive emigration took place from Sumatra to the extremi ty of the peninsula ; — that some Javanese drove the settlers from Singapura to Malacca ; — that six sove reigns reigned before the conversion to Mahome danism ; — and that this event took place about the year 1276, in the reign of Mahomed Shah, for. now the Mahomedans may claim the prerogative of imposing their own names, and determining dates by their peculiar kalendar. From facts brought forward in the above narra tive, we are enabled to offer plausible conjectures respecting the name of the Malayan tribes. One of the four great tribes into which the parent race is subdivided is called Malayu. It was this, as Mr 376 HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. Marsden ingeniously observes, that probably fur nished the first adventurers to the peninsula, and who bestowed their name on the rising colony, the prosperity and greatness of which were destined to eclipse the fame of the parent state. This, I have no doubt whatever, is the true etymology of the word Malayu. It appears that the new colony was at first dis tinguished by the appellation of the Leeward peo ple, while the parent state were denominated the Windward people. This meteorological distinc tion appears to me to have reference to the wester ly or boisterous monsoon ; Barat, in the Javanese language, is the general term for wind. In Malay it is the west wind, or, as would be said in our more expressive language, the wind. The use of this correlative language to describe the parent state and the colony, was afterwards dropped, and used more comprehensively, the Windward coun tries being all those to the west of the country of the Malays, but particularly India and Arabia, those with which the Malays had most intercourse. It was from the colony, and not the parent stock, that the Malayan name and nation were so widely disseminated over the Archipelago. Singapura, Malacca, and Jehor, colonized the islands Lingga and Bintan, Kampar and Aru on Sumatra, Bor neo on the great island of that name, and all the states which exist on the Malay peninsula. This 4 HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. 377 last country was found by them almost unoccupied,* or inhabited scantily by two miserable races, who readily gave way to their superior power and civi lization. The peninsula is the only great country of the Archipelago wholly occupied by this race ; for, in a general view, the miserable tribes oi sa vages need not be considered, and it is therefore no wonder that it should have assumed the general name of the country of the Malays, and that stran gers should have naturally looked upon it as the primitive seat of the Malayan name and nation, t * There is one circumstance mentioned by the Portuguese writers, which would seem to throw considerable doubt on this circumstance. Albuquerque wanted stones to build the forti fication, and found near Malacca abundant materials in the tombs of ancient kings. But eight Malay kings only had reign ed at Malacca, whose tombs, even had it been the practice, which it was not, to erect splendid tombs to the Malayan kings, either Mahomedan or Hindu, would not have supplied materials for an extensive fortification. The supposed tombs were probably Hindu temples ; and if they were Hindu tem ples, there must have been a Hindu population. + The authorities quoted by Valentyn for the history ofthe Malays, are three works, one called Makuta segala Raja-raja, " the crown of all kings;" another, Panurunan segala Raja- raja, " the descent of all kings ;" and a third, called Hang Tuah. He calls these books "three jewels." Ofthe last he says, " I know not who is the author ofthe book Hang Tuah, but must declare that it is one of the most beautifully written works I ever perused." This favourite of Valentyn is the only one of the three which I have perused, and I haye seen several 378v HISTORY OF THE MALAYS. « As we are in possession of no full and connect ed narrative of the history of any of the Malay states, and as, since their first separation, all have been generally independent, it will be out of place here to attempt any narrative of their affairs, for the little that is known will be detailed to more advantage under the particular head of each state. copies of it. To my ta'sLe it is a most absurd and puerile pro duction. It contains no historical fact upon which the slight est reliance can be placed ; no date whatever ; and if we ex cept the faithful picture of native mind and manners which it unconsciously affords, is utterly worthless and contemptible. CHAPTER VII. HISTORY OF CELEBES. The Records qf the People qf Celebes more limited and im perfect than those ofthe Javanese. — Four hundred years, tlie utmost Umit qfproMble history among the Bugis, the principal tribe. — General Remarks on the early History of Celebes. — Celebes never united as one Empire. — People qf Celebes Hindus before they adopted the Mahomedan Reli gion. — Macassars begin to keep Historical Records.— Their • progress in the most vulgar within a few miles of the town, where he attempted to entrench himself, but was pursued and attacked by Albu querque, who drove him from his position, cap turing his baggage and elephants. The Por tuguese were thus left in tranquil possession of Malacca. Such is the detail of the first and greatest effort of the natives of the Archipelago to resist the in-? vasion of the European nations. The particu lars now given will supersede the repetition of any similar narrative, and will illustrate the cha racter of the unequal contest which the inhabitants of those islands maintained against the skill and courage of Europeans. Eight hundred Europeans, with six hundred Indian auxiliaries, arriving in an unknown country, capture an entrenched town, defended by thirty thousand native warriors, with the loss of eighty of their number, and surround ed by hostile tribes, maintain themselves in their conquest. This fact is decisive. Whatever the Por tuguese may tell us of the greatness and difficulty that the wealth obtained consisted of the spices brought to Malacca as the entrepot ofthe trade, articles of little' compara tive value in the country, but estimated by the Portuguese at their then extravagant price in Europe. Of jewels and precious stones it is not to be supposed that much would have escaped the rapacity of a licentious soldiery in the sack of a town. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 401 of the undertaking, the enterprise must have been one of comparative facility. The Malays, when they first encountered the Europeans, had some know ledge of fire-arms and artillery ; and the Portuguese writers have a fabulous story of there having been found in the town of Malacca three thousand pieces of cannon.* That they had the knowledge of gun powder and fire-arms, there can be no doubt, but the unskilful use of fire-arms with barbarous tribes, who always want the art of fabricating them to any useful purpose, and the discipline to use them ef fectually, inevitably renders them a more easy prey to an European enemy, than when they confine themselves to the weapons more natural to their, condition in society, which are always sufficiently well fabricated, and wielded with effect and dex terity. Having given ' a detail of the conquest of Ma lacca, I shall now render some account of the mea- * " A propos de quoi je ne puis me tenir de faire une re- marque, fort necessaire pour bien entendre les relations des pais eloignez. C'est que les mots de bon, de beau, de magni-. fique, de grand, de mauvais, de laid, de simple, de petit, equi voques d'eiix-memes, se doivent toujours entendre par rap port au gotit de l'auteur de la relation, si d'ailleurs il , n'explique bien en detail ce dont il ecrit. Par example, si un Facteur Hollandois, ou un Moine de Portugal, exagerent la magnificence,'' &c. Siam, parDe la Loubere, Tom. II. p. 10^. VOL. II. C. C 1402 PORTUGUESE HISTORY sures pursued by Albuquerque, the .greatest and wisest of the Portuguese conquerors of India, to secure this acquisition ; and from, the spirit of his regulations, we may-gather how little can be looked :for in the sequel 'from meaner agents. To secure his possession*, he built a strong citadel, and, with the religious zeal which belonged to his age, one tof his first cares was the construction of a church. Malacca, at the moment of the conquest,: consisted of a mixed population of Mahomedan natives, Pagan natives, Mahomedans , of Westem India, and Ma- homedasi Javanese. Of the first ; and third* c! asses, tthose who were not massacred in the sack of the itown, or did not follow the fortunesof their natu ral prince, were condemned, without exception, to -slavery. Albuquerque saw Malaccaan useless and dreary solitude, and resolved to repeople it with ¦strangers. He, .for this purpose, pursued the wise and salutary conduct of leaving the natives to their domestic laws and usages. He intrust ed Raja Utimutis, a Javanese chief, with the ad ministration of the Mahomedan part of the popu lation, and Ninachetuan* Over the Pagan portion, the former an ambitious chief, who long aimed at the sovereignty of Malacca, and the latter, one * These names are neither of them native, but Portuguese corruptions of genuine names, which are so altered' that caunot guess at them. OF THE ARCHIPELAGp. 403 who, befriended the Portuguese from his hatred tp the Mahpmedan religion. The, Portuguese prevpked their enemies, and dis gusted, or; persecuted their friends. Albuquerque gave the first example. Utimutis, on pretext ofa conspiracy, was, with his son, son-in-law, and ne- .phew, publicly and relentlessly executed by him. Ninachetuan, two years afterwards, was deprived of ^his office unjustly, and publicly sacrificed himself on a funeral pile,, a solemn ceremony, conformable, it seems, to the religion he professed. His suc- . cessor, the Raja of Kampar, with hardly a suspi cion , against his- reputation and fidelity, was put £0 4eath very soon after his accession to his office. By the same suspicious policy, Patiquiter, a Java nese chief, was driven into rebellion, andafterwards . proved one of the most formidable enemies of the Portuguese power. Albuquerque, = notwithstanding the violence pf his proceedings in the case of Utimutis, pursued some politic measures for repeopling Malacca, with strangers. He made a pompous ^display of mag nificence, coined a gold, silver, and tin coin, and, after the manner pf the East, dazzled the people by distributing money in a public processiqn, a juggle, not without its influence on the imagina^ tions ^ndopinians of. the , people for whom he was legislating. Thejtings of the surrounding countries, frpui 404 PORTUGUESE HISTORY fear, interest, or astonishriient at the novel event, sent Albuquerque ambassadors to congratulate him on his victory. In this manner came ambassa dors from Siam and Pegu, from the kings of Java, and from those of Sumatra. Albuquerque sent ambassadors, in return, to these different countries, but the spice trade was what chiefly excited his cu pidity, and Antonio D' Abreu was dispatched to the Moluccas. Among the princes who thus sent mis sions to Albuquerque, the king of Siam, from his power and vicinity, deserves particular notice. He thanked Albuquerque for his chastisement of a re bellious subject, a fact from which we learn that Malacca, like the rest of the Malayan Peninsula, was considered as tributary to Siam. All that can interest the reader in the story of Malacca, until it. fell into the hands of the Hol landers, a period of a hundred and thirty years, may be told in a few words. The Portuguese of Malacca, as they are painted bythe historians of their own country^ in dissoluteness of morals, in rapacity and faithlessness, were second only to those of the Moluccas. By their violence and perfidy they provoked the hostility of all the neighbouring nations. The legitimate possessors of Malacca, the Malays of Jehor, Bintan, or Ujung-tanah, be sieged or blockaded the city, during the one hun dred and thirty years of Portuguese possession six times, — the king of Achin seven times, — the Ja- OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 405 vanese three times, — and the Dutch twice. On many occasions it was reduced, by famine and epi demic disease, to the last degree of distress. Ma lacca scarce ever exceeded the limits which the first conquest established. This distant post . was ne glected by the viceroys of India, amidst the multi plicity of their engagements to the west. Notwith standing these disadvantages, and the pernicious exercise of commercial functions bythe sovereign au thority, the natural advantages ofthe place as a com mercial emporium, a considerable freedom of com merce in the place itself, and the active enterprise of the Javanese, the people of Celebes, the Chinese and Japanese, not yet compelled, by the violence of Eu ropean invasion and encroachment, to withdraw from commercial pursuits, Malacca continued to maintain its commercial reputation. After Or- mus and Goa,, it was still the first commercial city of the Indies. The revenue of the customs a- mounted annually, independent of the profits of trade, real or pretended, to seventy-thousand dol lars ; but, as the Portuguese writers assure us, that the crown was regularly defrauded by its officers of one- half the duties, the amount must of course have been one hundred and forty thousand crowns, — a large sum in those times. The particulars of the story of Malacca will be found, narrated at length, in the chronological ta- 4b6' PORTUGUESE HISTORY ble, and I shall riot' venture' to offer any particulars in this place." Having given this account of the first esta blishment ofthe Portuguese in the Archipelago, I shall take a rapid survey of their conduct in the Spice Isl'Aiids.' Albuquerque, while at Malacca in ¦ 1511', dispatched a squadfon to the Moluccas} wi de?' An tenia I^Abreu,' who touched at the island of Aiftboyria" only, - arid: from thence returned witli ohe'of his ships bearirig a cargo of spices. Fran cis Serrano, o'ne of the captains of D'Abreu's squa dron, waS'separatied ffb'rii'liis commander1, atld'sufi fered shipwreck on a desert island. Some hospi table fishermen, who observed' his situation; carried' hiiiiiii safety to Amboyna, where the Portuguese were" received with a friendship and humanity which dld; honour to the character of the natives, and which formed so cruel a contrast to the requit al' they received. * * Th'e'hosphaUty". of the' people of the Molucca's', towards every class of strangers, was remarkable. All tho European nations were received by them with a courtesy andgood faith which does honour to, their character ; and the malignant pas sions of barbarians never displayed themselves in their conduct until excited by insult and provocation. The following is tlie account of the reception of our countrymen by the Jfiilg'i of Terhatei' " The foureteenth of' November wee fell with the islands of Molucca : which day at night, (h'aving directed our co urse to run wilh Tydore,) in coasting along the island of Mo- 12 OF THE ARCHIPELAGO, 407 It was not, however, until the year 1521, ten years after their establishment at Malacca, that the Portuguese appeared in force in the Moluccas. Antonio de Britto commanded a squadron of nine ships, which appeared in the Spice Islands, for the tyr, belonging to the king of Ternate, his deputie, or vice-king, seeing us at sea, came with his canoa to us, without allfeare^ and came aboord ; and, after some conference with our Ge nerall, willed him in any wise to runne in with Ternate, and not with Tydore, assuring him that the king would be glad of His comming, and would be rcadie to doe what- he would re quire j for which purpose he himselfe would that night be with the king, and tell him the newes,,with whom, if hee once dealt hee should find, that, as hee was a king, so his wqrd should, stand. Inthe mean time the vice, king had been with the king, according to his promise, signifying into him what good things he might receive from us by traffique : whereby the king was moved with great liking towards us, and sent to our Ge nerall with' special message that he should have what things he needed and would require, with peace and friendship ; and, moreover, that he would yeeld himselfe and the right of his island, to be at the pleasure and commandment of so famous a' prince as wej served. In token whereof he sent our General a signet, and within short time after came in his owne person, with boats and canoas to our shippe, to bring her into a better and safer road than shee was in at that present. Our Gene- rail's messenger being come to the court, was met by certaine noble personages, with great solemnitie,, and brought to the king', at whose hands he was most friendly and graciously en* tertained." Drake's Voyage in Purchas, Vol, I. JJook IL p. 54j 56. 408 PORTUGUESE HISTORY purpose of taking possession qf them in the name of the king of Portugal, and he was invested with the government^ The simple sovereigns of the Moluccas received their treacherous guests with ca resses, and contended for the honour of entertain ing them, and giving them a military establishment in their country. Ternate finally obtained the dangerous preference ; and in that island, the seat of the most powerful chieftain of the Moluccas, the Portuguese commander established himself. De Britto, to his astonishment, found in the Moluccas the companions of Magellan, who had reached them in the Course of the first voyage round the world.*. These he seized upon and imprisoned, and the na tives no sooner knew Europeans, than they were presented with the odious spectacle of their hatreds and animosities. The very first governor ofthe Moluccas commen ced the course of violence, intrigue, injustice*, and perfidy, which, with little exception, characterized the whole of the Portuguese ascendancy in the Spice Islands. His intrigues deprived the widow of Boleife,, the first kind host of the shipwrecked Portuguese, of the regency ; he stirred up a civil war in the island of Tidor, and distributed the mer cantile adventure with which he was charged, in rewards for the massacre ofthe unfortunate natives. For sixty years, during which the dominion of the Portuguese in the Moluccas endured, the same OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 409 scenes of rapine and cruelty were exhibited. Kings were made and dethroned, executed and expatriat ed at the caprice of those petty tyrants of the Mo luccas. The natives were unwillingly driven to re sistance, and the long period in question was almost wholly one scene of hostility and anarchy. The two short years of the administration of the heroic and virtuous Galvan form the only ex ception ; for with this slight deviation, every succeeding governor was worse than his predeces sor. The Portuguese writers are ashamed of the crimes of their countrymen in the Moluccas, and would fain have us believe that these crimes had not their origin in the national character, but were confined to the "knot qf villains" who happened ac cidentally to represent their country in those distant parts ; but their uniform continuance during so long a period, and the successive depravity of every new chief, though nominated from the su preme seat of government, must convince us, that the vices which entailed misery on the Moluccas, were those of the age and nation ofthe Portuguese, - aggravated in this particular instance by the tempta tions which their distance from control, the weak ness and simplicity of the natives, and the seduc tions of avarice peculiar to the situation held out. * * Maifei, Historia Indica Lafitau, Histoires des deeou- vertes et conquetes des Portugais dans le "nouveau monde - Histoire General des Voyages. — Modern Universal History. CHAPTER IX, DUTCH HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. Causes which led to ihe Dutch Adventures to' India.---The First" Voyage tinder Houtman, dnd'the Conduct of that Ad^ venturer Causes which led to the formation qf a Joint* Stock [Company, and the pernicious consequences -of that early- example. — General Character of the Dutch Policy, in rela tion to the- Inhabitants ofthe Archipelago. — Conduct of ihe Dutch in Java'. — Native Princes qf the Island combine to expel the Europeans. — Combination broken bythe mutual jealousies ofthe Parties. — The Town qf Jacatra destroyed, and Batavia founded'. — The' Sultan qf Mataram' besieges Batavia twice, and is defeated. — The: most flourishing pe± riodqfthe Dutch History qf Java The Dutch take part with the Sultan qf Maiaram against his Subjects, and are involved in a long and expensive War. — War qf Bantam, imdJ expulsiVii ofthe English from Java — Rebellion qf Su- fapati, a' Slave, who founds an Independent Principality. — Dutch involve themselves in the War for th& Succession- te ihe Throne qf Mataram, and take part with the- Usurper. — > The Conspiracy qf Erberfeld. — Massacre of Ten Thour.. sand Chinese at Batavia.— Java enjoys a profound Peace for Fifty Years, and in spite qf Monopolies, and want of Foreign' Commerce, flourishes inconsequence. — Proceedings of the Dutch in the more Western Countries' of the Arcltr- pelago. — The Object of their- Policy in< those parts chfeffy (¦ommercial. — Conquest of Malacca, -^Decay qf Malacca^ DUTCH HISTORY, &C. ' 411 •wing to the Establishment ofthe Commercial Monopoly*— Transactions in Sumatra.'— Search for Gold and Pepper defeated. — Conduct of the Dutch in the Spice Islands. — They completely enslave them. — The Natives are scarcely acquainted with them, when they are desirous to be rid of them. — They inveigle the Native Princes into Treaties, conferring upon themselves the exclusive right qf buying Cloves* — Revolt ofthe People ofBanda in 1615. — Their se cond Revolt in 1620, and total subjugation.— Massacre qf the English at Amboyna. — Revolt ofthe People of Amboyn.a and Ternate. — Executions. — Revolt in 1650. — Conduct qf Vlaming, the Governor of the Moluccas. — Destruction qf Clove Plantations because too productive. — Execution of Twenty Nobles. — Execution of the gallant Terbile and cithers. — Execution qf John Pays, a Christian Chief.— Murder of the Prince Saydi. — Murder bf the King of Gi- lolo aud his Family. —Earthquakes and Epidemics afflict Amboyna.— The People of the Moluccas finally submit to the Dutch Yoke. — The Ruin of Celebes' involved in'the Fate of the Moluccas. Im! history of the Dutch empire in the Indian1 Archipelago illust be narrated at greater length than that of the Portuguese, as it is more import ant and better knowni and'as the influence of the Dutch nation has been not only more extensive; but of longer continuance. The inhabitants^ of the Low Countries, driven from the ports of Spain and Portugal^ and deprived, by the union of those kingdoms, of the beneficial commerce which they carried on in distributing thrbtiglidut Europe the' productions of the East, 412 -DUTCH HISTORY obtained at the mart , of Lisbon, resolved to pro ceed direct to the Indies in search of those pro ductions, and on the 2d of April 1595, a fleet of four ships sailed from the Texel for this purpose. The chief management of this" important expedi tion was entrusted to Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch merchant, who, without having visited the Indies, pretended to a knowledge ofthe Indian commerce obtained during a long captivity in Lisbon. On the 2d .of June 1596, after a voyage often long months, the Dutch fleet arrived at Bantam, then the principal trading port of the Indies, in those commodities which the habits of Europe demand ed. The adventurers, in their intercourse with the natives, behaved without judgment or modera tion. At Bantam they embroiled themselves with the inhabitants, and committed actual hostilities. At Sadayu, in Java, they committed a horrible massacre, and at Madura a still more atrocious one, in which the prince of that country and his famiy, coming to visit the Dutch fleet in a friendly man ner, lost their lives through the suspicious, timidity of these strangers. Houtman was little better than a presumptuous impostor, deficient in all the qua lities necessary to the delicate affair entrusted to his management. [ The Dutch, encouraged tp persevere by the sue? cess of their first adventure, though it was, not con siderable, sent a number of private , ships t0( India OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 415 from various ports of Holland down to the year 1602, when the parties conducting these enter prises united to the formation of V& joint stock com pany. The restricted income of a republican go vernment, and, at the same time, the necessity of combining for security against the hostility of Spain, naturally gave rise to this measure, one pro bably indispensable in that early and rude period of commerce and government ; but which, as well with the Dutch as other European nations, has since, by its example, had so pernicious an influence upon the commercial history of the East. The early period of the Dutch history of the In dies consists in a complication of their commercial transactions, — their wars with the Spaniards or Por tuguese, — their broils with the English, — and their aggressions upon the natives. Their conduct in their wars with the Spaniards always - did honour tottheir courage, and often to their moderation. In their transactions with the English, it is difficult to say which party was least to blame, unless we pro nounce in favour of that which had the smallest power of aggression. On both sides the mean "and bad passions which were excited by avarice, and by commercial and national rivalry, were carried to an unexampled extent. In their transactions with the natives, the Dutch, while restrained by prudential motives, by their weakness, and the competition of fo reigners, pursued a moderate course ; but as soon as 414 DUTCH HISTORY these restraints were removed, the sequel of their histoiy plainly showed, that that , moderation was only the result of expediency, and necessity. It may perhaps be admitted, that, in the measures they pursued, there was a less insolent,, daring, and open violation ofjustice than in those of the. Portuguese. ; but they were attended, by results still more perni cious, because the power which confirmed the thral dom of the natives was greater than that of their predecessors, and therefore embraced a larger field of desolation. I shall take a view of their conduct in the prin cipal seats of their authority, viz. in Java, in the Moluccas, and other neighbouring islands, and in Malacca, and the other seats of their power in the west, illustrating each subject by a rapid narrative of some of the most prominent events of their ad ministration. The eminent fertility of Java, the greatness of its resources, and the commodiousness of. the. port of Batavia, soon pointed it out as the. fit seat of an extensive and commercial empire. ; and as early as 1611, just a centuiy after the establishment ofthe parallel authority of the Portuguese at Malacca, the first Dutch governor-general . laid the founda tions of the future capital in Jacatra. By the year 1618, the ambition, rapacity, and abilities of the Dutch, French, < and English, the new adventurers from Europe, had convinced the OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 415 princes of the, Archipelagp, that these guests, whom, on their professions of amity and moderation, they had so hospitably entertained, were not less dan gerous than their first visitors the Portuguese. The princes of Java, too weak to remove them by open force, began secretly to conspire to rid themselves of them. The Dutch, whom they observed to be the most powerful, were the principal objects pf their hatred and alarm ; and they thought, if they got rid of them, the weaker, invaders might readily be disposed of. Of this conspiracy, as the Dutch are pleased to call it, tbe movers were, the Regent of Bantam, the Kings of Jacatra and Cheribon, and the Sultan of Mataram. These princes had the dex terity to dupe the English, whose animosity towards theDutch led, them to become the tools ofthe native princes. Conspiracies were at the same time form ed in Sumatra, in Celebes, and the Moluccas, to expel the Dutch, but their good fortune, and a cou rage and perseverance worthy of a better cause, saved them from all these impending dangers. The jealousies and animosities of the native princes, and that weakness and oscillation of, conduct common to them with all barbarians, broke and defeated in Java the combination against them. The Dutch fort was on the point of surrendering to the king of Jacatra, but the regent of Bantam, forgetting the primary object ofthe war, and becoming jea- » lous of the rich booty which would in this manner 41 6 DUTCH HISTORY fall into the hands of his ally, determined at all risks to" snatch the prize frorii him. With this view, he sent a force of two thousand men, under pretext of assisting the common cause. The bold leader who commanded these if oops, presenting himself before the king of Jacatra, drew his dagger, and dictated to him with the point to his breast, in con- sequerice of which his troops took possession of the town ; the Dutch retained their fort ; and the Eng lish, allies' of the king of Jacatra, unable to stem the progress of this strange revolution, unwillingly re tired. On the 29th May 1619, the Dutch appear ed in strength at Jacatra, and landing a military force, assaulted the town, and carried it. Some of the inhabitants saved themselves by flight ; the rest, with the exception of women and children, were put to the sword. The houses were burnt to the ground, and the walls razed, so that nothing remained of Jacatra but the name. The king and his family were among the fugitives, and the same unfortunate monarch, reduced to indigence and dis tress, is said to have passed the rest of his life in the humble and mean occupation of a fisherman, as complete an example of fallen greatness as the his tory of any nation or period can afford ; whether we consider the extent of the fall, or the meanness of the instrument by which it was brought about, — a band of rapacious merchants from a country of the second order in another hemisphere. - The OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 417 new town, founded by the Dutch, took the name of Batavia, which afterwards acquired such cele- " brity in the history ofthe Indian commerce. This narrative is an epitome of the whole history of Eu ropean aggression in the East. For ten years, the Dutch enjoyed tranquillity in Java, and their establishments at Batavia grew great and prosperous from the influx of European capital ; and, the resort and settlement of the more industrious nations of Asia, encouraged thereto^ by the comparative vigour and advantages of Euro pean government. The Sultan of Mataram, master of the richest and greatest portion of Java, and called by his coun trymen the Great, seeing his ambitious schemes circumscribed by the presence of the strangers, formed the scheme of expelling them from the island ; and, with this view, twice besieged the new city. The detail of these sieges is worth re cording, as, of any transaction of the history of these countries, it affords the best illustration of the genius and resources of the European and na tive character. The Sultan, agreeably to the character of a bar barian, resolved upon a treacherous attack on Ba tavia, hoping thus to take the place by surprise. He sent, for this purpose, his commander, Bahu Rakso, with six hundred chosen men in fifty war boats, pretending to bring the Dutch a supply of VOL. ii. u d 418 DUTCH HISTORY cattle. On the first attempt of the Dutch to use precautions against this force, hostilities commen ced, and the Javanese at once proceeded to the as sault of the fort, in which they persevered,. with ineffectual courage, for five hours. Numerous and frequent reinforcements arrived from Mataram, and the Javanese entrenched themselves. From the • beginning of August until the end of November, the Javanese army besieged the half-finished for tress of Batavia, defended by a handful of Euro peans, and by a few Indian soldiers. After a va riety of impotent attacks, the siege was raised, and a force, which it is pretended, from first to last, did not amount to less than one hundred thou sand men, was reduced by famine, sickness, deser tion, and the sword, to ten thousand. In the following year, the King of Mataram sent a second army against Batavia, which proved as unfortunate as the first. It is reported, though, in all probability, with exaggeration, to have amount ed to one hundred and twenty thousand men ; and, when it raised the siege in the month of No vember, before the commencement of the incle ment season, to have lost, by the common causes *of destruction in an army, to which, in the present instance, are to be added some horrible and exten sive executions, one half its numbers. The Dutch, in the defence of their capital, received the most effectual assistance in the zeal, and, what is less to 13 OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 419 be expected, in the courage of the Chinese inhabit ants. Their principal soldiery were natives of Japan, who, as usual, distinguished themselves by their forward courage. Such is a brief narrative of the two famous sieges of Batavia. The greatest and most powerful of the princes of Javanese history sends, in the zenith ofhis power, and in two successive years, armies of more than one hundred thousand men each against a half-finished fortress, defended by an insignificant body of perhaps undisciplined Europeans, and he is triumphantly defeated. From the year 1629 to the year 1675 may be looked upon as the most flourishing period of the Dutch history of Java, as well as of their settle ments elsewhere. Their transactions, during this period, were chiefly mercantile ; but, at the con clusion of it, they became involved in the politics of Java ; so that the epoch of their political great ness, of their own commercial ruin, of the humi liation of the natives, and the destruction of ge« neral commerce, may justly be considered as co eval. The Dutch, in the year 1675, took part with the Sultan ' of Mataram against his rebellious sub jects, and were fully committed in the expences, intrigues, and crimes which characterized, the con test, which ended in the year 1681 by the death of the rebel, Truna Jaya. Treaties were concluded 420 DUTCH HISTORY with the Sovereign of Mataram, which had for their object the acquisition of territorial power, but, above all, the plunder of his subjects, by restricting their commercial enterprise, and exacting the produce of their land and industiy at inadequate prices. The ruin and impoverishment of their subjects and allies were, by a strange perversion, considered in these engagements as paramount to their own en richment and aggrandizement. It was the evil genius of monopoly which also dictated the proceedings of the Dutch in the war of Bantam, which, almost immediately after ensued. The circumstances of this contest, so important to the other commercial nations of Europe, are as follow. The reigning Sultan of Bantam, at the age of sixty-three, resigned his crown to his eldest son ; but, dissatisfied with his successor, began, from his retirement, to intrigue in order to place the crown on the head of a son from whom he expected more gratitude. The chiefs and pebple of the country generally rose in behalf of the ex-monarch, — -an un equivocal testimony of the goodness of his cause, — and the English and Danish merchants at Bantam had the imprudence to take a share in the contest, and join him. The old Sultan, with fifty thou sand men, besieged Bantam. The young Sul tan claimed, and readily received, the aid of the Dutch, anxious only for an opportunity of extend ing their friendly protection on such an emergency. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 421 The result was what might have been expected from the superior power of the Dutch, and the use they were wont to make of their advantages. The old Sultan was defeated ; the young one confirmed; the English, Danes, and all other Europeans, ex pelled for ever from Bantam ; a monopoly secured to the Dutch ; and, qf course, the trade and pro sperity of the country annihilated. * The power of the Dutch was never equal to their ambition. They attempted, by intrigue, what their resources were unequal to accomplish by avowed conquest. Their counsels were often capricious, and commonly unjust, and the principles of commercial monopoly on which their acquisitions were governed, were sure to disgust the people. * Hamilton (New Account of the E.ist Indies, Vol. II. p. 127) gives the following flippant, but tolerably accu rate, account of the transaction, " The first place of com merce on the west end of Java is the famous Bantam, where the English and Danes had their factories flourishing till anno 1682, at which time the neighbourly Dutch fomented a war between the old king of Bantam and his son ; and, be cause the father would not come into their measures, and be their humble slave, they struck in with the son, who was more covetous of a crown than of wisdom. They, with the assist ance of other rebels, put the son on the throne, and took the old king prisoner, and sent him to Batavia; and, in 1&83, they pretended a power from the new king to send, the Eng-. lish and Danes a-packing, which they did, with a great deal <>f insolence, according to custom" 422 DUTCH HISTORY Constant anarchy, and frequent rebellions, were the certain results of this policy. One of the most memorable examples of the ef fects of this policy is afforded in the story of the celebrated Surapati, which is narrated at some length in the native history of Java. This person, a native of Bali, and the slave of a Dutch citizen of Batavia, goaded by domestic cruelty, and en couraged by the general anarchy which surrounded him) escaped from his slavery, and, favoured by circumstances, but not less by the ascendancy of a superior courage and genius, admirably suited to his situation, defied the whole power of the Dutch, and founded an independent principality, which he and his family, in defiance of the power of the Dutch, and ultimately ofthe Susunan, held for twenty years. While struggling with this formidable adversary, the Dutch involved themselves in the war of the succession to the throne of Java. They declared , in favour pf a rebel prince, and incurred all the expences and hazards of a five years' contest by this step. At length, by an act of treachery, they secured the person of their enemy, and banished him to a distant and foreign country. For ten years after this event, the island was in_ volved in a variety of wars and rebellions, which had their origin in the policy which I have attempt ed to describe, and in the busy, but unskilful am bition of the Dutch administration. It was the OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 428 same policy which gave birth to the extraordinary conspiracy of Peter Erberfeld, which I am now to describe.* Peter Erberfeld was the son of a gentle man of Westphalia, and citizen of Batavia, by a Javanese mother. His father had left Erberfeld great wealth. At the age Of fifty-eight or fifty- nine, he entered into a conspiracy to destroy the Dutch power in Java by the massacre of all the Christians, on which he was himself to have assum ed the government of at least all the portion of the island which was under the dominion of Euro peans. The manner in which the conspiracy was discovered remains unknown. It is only suspect ed that the Sultan of Bantam, who was engaged in a correspondence with the conspirators, began to fear that his own safety was involved in the success of their ambitious schemes, and became, in conse quence, instrumental in bringing it to light. * " We are the more astonished," says the record of the trial, " at this horrible contrivance, because this Company, under the auspices of their High Mightinesses the StatesXjene- ral, has never ceased to govern with all passible mildness and tenderness, all the people under their authority, whether Ma homedan or Pagan, without distinction of religion, and pro. tected them against all and every one who sought to trouble or molest them." Either this sentiment is a piece of the most revolting effrontery, or the authors of it must have been wholly blinded by the circumstances of their situation. The latter is most probable. '424 DUTCH HISTORY The principal evidence was extorted from the conspirators themselves on the rack ; and much of it, therefore, may well be discredited ; but, whether the particulars be real or imagined, they afford so curious an illustration of the character of the Dutch administration, that they ought not to be passed over in silence. After being frequently put to the question, the conspirators confessed to the following circumstances : The first object was to massacre the Dutch with all the Europeans, and the Christians of every denomination ; after which, the conspirators were to be joined by all the Asiatics in the island. Erberfeld, the chief con spirator, took the name of " Ywang Gusti," or JVhe Lord ; and Canfadia, "the second conspira tor, the title of Raden, or Noble. The plot was laid at the house of Erberfeld without the walls of the city ; and it appeared that the conspirators had been in the practice of holding frequent meetings at a country house of their leader, and there con ducting a correspondence with several native chiefs and princes, both in the island and in the neigh bouring countries. Some of the conspirators were engaged, according to the superstitious notions of the Javanese,, and, as always happens on similar occasions, in distributing charms and amulets to render the possessors invulnerable. The attack was to have commenced on the first day of tlie new year, and with the first opening of the gates ofthe OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 425 citadel in the morning. Each conspirator had his particular post and office assigned. The chief conspirator was to have governed in the city and citadel ; and the second to have administered the territory extending to the mountains. The infe rior conspirators, under the titles or official de signations of Pangeran, Tumanggung, and Mtin- tri, were to fill the subordinate situations. The conspiracy was wide spread, and the arrangement for its execution to have been supported by a force of seventeen thousand men. It originat ed with Cantadia, a native of Cartasura, who had, it appears, laboured for two years to seduce Erberfeld. The conspirators were mostly natives of Java, and almost all of them of mean origin. It was detected but three days previous to the time appointed for putting it in execution. Nine teen of the conspirators, among whom were the wives of three of the male prisoners, were tortur ed, found guilty, and sentenced to the most cruel and horrid punishments, which were carried into execution fourteen days after sentence was pas sed. * On Sunday, two days after the execution, * The following is the record of this abominable scnLencc: " We, the judges, having heard and examined the information preferred ex officio by Henry van Steel, drossard of thelow coun try, against the before-mentioned criminals, who have confes sed the whole, and submitted themselves voluntarily to this .3, -426 DUTCH HISTORY public thanksgivings were offered to God, say the Dutch writers, in the churches of Batavia, for the conclusion; it is therefore concluded, regard being had to the before-mentioned crimes, and all the circumstances relating to them, and we hereby conclude and decree in justice, in the name, and on the part, of their High Mightinesses the Slates General of the United Provinces, that we condemn the before-mentioned prisoners, with the approbation of the governor-general Mr Zwardekroon, and of the counsellors of the Indies, to be transported to the place before the citadel, where it is usual to execute criminals, there to be delivered in to the hands ofthe hangman, in order to receive their respec tive punishments in the manner following : The two crimi nals, Erberfeld and Catadia, otherwise styled Rading, shall be extended and bound each of them on a cross, where they shall each of them haye their right hands cut off, and their arms, legs, and breasts, pinched with red-hot pincers, till pieces of the flesh are torn away. They shall then have their bellies ripped up from bottom to top, and their1 hearts thrown in their faces ; after which, their heads shall be cut off, and fixed upon a post ; and their bodies, being torn in pieces, shall be expos ed to the fowls of the air without the city, in whatever place the government shall please to' direct. " The otherfour criminals, Maja Praja, SanaSuta, otherwise Wangsa, Suta Chitra, and Layeck, are to be each of them bound upon a cross, and have their respective right hands cut off, their arms, thighs, and breasts, pinched, their bellies rip ped open, and their hearts thrown in their faces, and their limbs exposed upon a wheel in the usual places, there to be come a prey to birds. The other ten criminals shall be each of them tied upon a cross on the scaffold, and, in case there be pot room on the scaffold i^elf, on a place near it? where-they OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 42?' discovery and defeat of this horrible conspiracy. The house of Erberfeld was razed to the grOund j and on the spot where it stood is still to be seen a rude death's head with a mimic spike through the scull, underneath which is an inscription in Euro* pean and native languages, which expresses the vindictive feeling of the moment, in a declaration, that no house shall ever again stand on the spot where was framed the wicked conspiracy of Erber feld ! The most atrocious of all the acts of the Dutch administration in Java, and the observation may be extended to all their possessions in the Indies, is the famous massacre of the Chinese. These people, encouraged to leave the crowded ranks of shall be broken alive, without receiving the coup de grace. They shall be afterwards carried to the ordinary place of exe* cution, and there exposed on a wheel, and guarded so long as they shall live there; and, after they expire, be left a prey to the birds. The other three, Tomboam, Grambiek, and Mitas, are condemned to be each of them tied to a stake, and there strangled, till they are dead. Their bodies shall be then car ried, like the rest, to the common place of execution, and there exposed on wheels for the nourishment of the birds. We like wise further condemn the said criminals to the costs and expen. ces ofjustice, and to the confiscation of half their effects : This being paid, renouncing all further pretensions. Done and de creed in the assembly of my lords the counsellors of justice, this Wednesday the 8th of April, all the judges, except Mr Craivanger, being present. "— Koggewein's Voyage, in Harris'. Collection, Vol, L p. 285. 4£8 DUTCH HISTORY their own > country by the fertility of Java, its commerce, and the comparative security which the vigour of European arms and legislation ensured to their properties, had settled and co lonized in the island in great numbers. The Conscious weakness of the Dutch rendered them jealous of the power, the numbers, and wealth of this class of their subjects. They goaded them by excessive taxations, arbitrary punishments, and frightful executiofis. The intelligence, num bers, and nationality of the Chinese, made this systematic oppression insupportable to them. Unlike the less civilized inhabitants of the country, though under local circumstances so much less advantageous, they felt their capacity of combining for resistance, and being once fairly committed, their ambition prompted them to look to the dominion of the island. Both Javanese and Dutch writers detail the circumstances of the mas sacre, and from their accounts, it is no difficult matter to collect the most instructive facts con nected with it. The persecution and oppression pf the Chinese took a more active character from the year 1730 ; but it was not until the year 1740 that the revolt commenced. The matter was brought to a crisis by the forcible seizure of a number of Chinese, and their deportation to Ceylon,, under pretext of their being en gaged in committing irregularities in the vicinity ef Batavia. On this event, the Chinese in the vi-' OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 429 cinity of the city, who were not restrained by the direct presence of a military force, flew to arms, assembled a large force, and, as usual in such cir. cumstances, and among such a people, committed acts of violence, excess, and cruelty. On this some of their countrymen in the city were tor tured, and on the authority so obtained, a story of a wicked and long-meditated conspiracy to de stroy the Dutch was got up by the European autho rities. Between the Dutch troops, and the armed mob of Chinese in the environs, several indecisive actions took place. On the 7th day of October it was discovered that the Chinese quarter of the town was on fire. This was construed into an ar tifice to mask an attempt to murder the European inhabitants, in the confusion of the conflagration. The habitual timidity of the Dutch colonists took the alarm. The massacre of the Chinese inhabitants of Batavia forthwith commenced, and was in a few hours formally authorized by an order of the Re gency, which directed that none but the women and children should be spared. A band of brutal sailors was landed from the fleet in the roads to carry this order into effect. The doors of the Chinese houses were burst open, and the inhabit ants dragged out and massacred, without offering the smallest resistance.* The city was in a state * " They mads no more resistance than a nest of young 430 DUTCH HISTORY of conflagration, and nothing was to be seen throughout but fire, murder,' and rapine, victims, and executioners. It was not until the twenty-se cond of the same month that an armistice was pro claimed. Those massacred in the tOwn of Batavia alone, on this occasion, are reckoned, bythe Dutch themselves, not to have fallen short of ten thou sand. The effects of this abominable act of ty ranny were felt from one extremity of Java to the other. The Chinese who escaped the slaughter marched to the east, leagued with the Susunan, not less willing than themselves tQ be rid of the common oppressor, and a series of revolts, wars, or rebellions, was the consequence, which conti nued, for a period of fifteen years, to desolate the fairest portions of the island, and to exhaust its resources. It would be superfluous here to dwell upon these transactions, which are narrated at sufficient length in the native history of Java. From the termination of these contests, to the year 1810, has been a period of almost profound peace in the Dutch annals of Java. From the mere negative advantages of tranquillity, — though with the privation of foreign commerce, — with the existence of injudicious and harassing monopolies, — and, in other matters, with a system of internal po- mice," is the homely, but strong expression of the Javanese annalist. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 4S1 licy and regulation, neither liberal nor judicious, the country has prospered to an unexampled de gree, its agriculture has greatly increased, and its population has been probably tripled. Here it eanuot escape notice, that the period of the de cline and weakness of the Dutch power, both in Europe and India, is just the same as the period of the prosperity of this great colony. While the ability to exercise a mischievous ambition, and to inflict the most grievous and absurd restrictions lasted, the island was in a perpetual state of deso lation and anarchy. -From the moment that that ability ceased to exist, order and tranquillity were restored, and prosperity was progressive and rapid. Having rendered this account of the policy pur sued by the Dutch in Java, I shall proceed to offer a short account of their proceedings in the more western countries of the Archipelago, chiefly con sidering Sumatra and Malacca under this head. These countries, less fertile, less improved, and less populous than Java, afforded them, from these causes, and the intractableness of the rude natives, the absence of resources, and the natu ral difficulties opposed to invaders, in extensive and almost inaccessible regions, covered by forests, no opportunity of making, permanent territorial conquests. The object of the Dutch policy- in these countries had more exclusively in view the interests of the commercial monopoly, by pursu- 4S2 DUTCH HISTORY ing which, the countries under its influence were exhausted, the natives estranged' or driven to re volt, and the most interested advocates of the sys tem convinced, though their reasoning respecting the causes of failure niay not have been accurate, that all the establishments of the Dutch in that quarter of the. Archipelago at least were burthen- some and useless. Malacca, from the strength of its fortifica tions, resisted the Dutch power long after it had been established in the other countries of the Archipelago, and it was not until the year 1641, after a siege and blockade of five months, and a gallant defence, worthy of the best days of Por tuguese heroism, that it was taken. The kings of Achin and Jehor joined in the league against the Portuguese, but the former receded on the dis covery that his interests were not the object of his European allies, and the reward of the king of Je hor, who contributed in an eminent degree to the success of the enterprise; was to be laid under the severest restrictions of the commercial monopoly. All the other princes of the Peninsula, whose sim plicity could be intimidated by a display of the Dutch power, or cajoled and deceived by the artifice of European intrigue, were treated in the same manner. From the cause already describ ed,' no territorial conquest was made, no inter nal improvement was any where effected, and, OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 438 down to the latest days of Dutch rule, the country and its inhabitants continued in the same rude and uncultivated state in which they were found,' Under the destructive influence of commercial restraint, the town of Malacca itself, from its happy situa tion a rich emporium, even under the rude legisla tion of the natives themselves, dwindled into insig nificance, and the monopoly of the Dutch appears to have proved more prejudicial to it than the ty ranny of the Portuguese, and the invasions of its territory by foreign enemies, to which their lawless ambition gave rise. The struggles maintained by the Dutch in Java and the Moluccas prevented them, for a longtime, from turning their arms to Sumatra, less inviting by its fertility, and the value of its productions, and more difficult to subdue. The most power- • fui, civilized, and commercial state of that island was Achin, and here the Dutch made repeated ef forts to insinuate themselves, and establish theircpm- mercial system. The prince of Achin, who, from the extent 'of his intercourse with the foreign na tions of Asia, had a thorough knowledge of the be nefits of commerce, alone, of all the potentates of the Archipelago, resisted the insidious attempts of the Dutch, and other European nations. In the year 1664, the Dutch had leisure to extend their ambitious views to Sumatra ; and, in , that year, they rendered themselves masters of the whole vol. n. e e 434 DUTCH HISTORY of the west coast of that island, from Sillebar to Barus. In the same year they captured and burnt .the town of Palembang, and forced upon the prince of that country, from the value of its productions, and the advantages of its situation, .one ofthe finest grading positions of the Archipelago, one of their commercial, or rather anti-commercial treaties. The .couiitry of the Lampungs they got possession of in virtue of their influence over the councils of the king of Bantam, who pretended a claim to it. In the same manner, they got possession of Landak and Succadana, in Borneo ; and their mercantile influence was in time established, with all its de structive influence, in Banjermassin. Whatever na tive state was, from distance, or natural strength of situation, incapable of being brought under this thral dom, was , proclaimed to be hostile, barbarous, and piratical, Their avarice was stimulated by two pro ducts, for which those two islands are distinguish ed, gold and pepper ; and to obtain these, under their compulsory regulations, constituted the whole objects of their administration, which, in every branch, was constantly subservient tp these con temptible and unattainable views. In their efforts to draw a profit from the gold mines, their cupidi ty was signally punished by a heavy loss in the pur suit, and their persecution of the industry of the natives, in regard to the pepper, was accompanied by the almost total annihilation of that important article of traffic. The weakness of their power in OP THE ARCHIPELAGO. 435' Sumatra prevented them from urging their pecu liar principles, to the extent to which they were carried in Java and the Moluccas, and the inhabit ants of that country continued generally more pas sive under their authority. Several revolts, how ever, took place. Within one year of tbeir possession, the inhabitants of Pao rose on the Dutch garrisons, and murdered them. A revolt took place in I67O, within six years of their conquest, and another in 1 680, which required the aid of large military for ces from Batavia to suppress them. I come to the third and last branch into which this chapter is divided, an account of the Dutch history of the Spice Islands. It was, perhaps, in these islands, that the most baneful influence of their policy was experienced. The spices were the most desired objects, of European avarice ; the peo ple were generally less powerful, less civilized, nu merous and warlike, than the western tribes, and their country, consisting of numerous small isles, could be more easily overrun and subjugated. The first of these causes prompted the Dutch to make the most vigorous efforts for their subjuga tion, and the rest facilitated the enterprise, so that the Spice Islands are more completely under Euro pean domination, than any other1 portion of the In dian Islands. The hatred of the people of the Moluccas to wards the Portuguese, made them readily join the Dutch i» driving them from the Moluccas; but 436 DUTCH HISTORY the rapacity ofthe latter was too open for their ar tifices, and the natives were scarcely acquainted with them, when they were as desirous of being rid of these new guests as of the former. As early ,as_the year I606, the king of Ternate attempted to league the princes of the Moluccas against the Dutch for their expulsion, but was baffled by the jealousy of his neighbours. In 16 13, the Dutch had the dexterity, in pursuance of their, exclusive system, to inveigle the greater number of the na tive princes of the Moluccas into treaties, confer ring upon themselves the exclusive right qf buy ing cloves. Whether any actual imposition was practised in framing these treaties is not certain,. but that the natives were wholly unaware of the ruinous consequences to their industry, comfort, and independence, which resulted from fulfil ling them, cannot admit pf a doubt. They had been long accustomed to a free traffic with all the commercial nations of Asia, and the unna tural restraints to which, under the mask of pro tection and friendship,; they were subjected, could not but be disagreeable to them. The infringe ment of the treaties was the obvious interest of the prince and his subjects. The Dutch insisted upon their fulfilment, and resenting every infraction of those iniquitous compacts, made them the pretext for all the wars, persecutions, and invasions, which desolated the country, with little interruption, down to the year 1681, embracing a period of seventy years. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 437 The unfortunate natives, in these contests, behaved with courage and perseverance, virtues which would have been successful in the expulsion of the invad er, but for the disunion and feebleness incident to their geographical situation, and to their want of ci vilization. To illustrate the characters of the contend ing parties, I shall nOw run rapidly over a few ofthe most prominent circumstances of the contest. The inhabitants of the Banda, or Nutmeg Isles, were the first to resist, and, in 1615, their destruction was resolved upon. A large fleet and military ex pedition sailed against them, but the Bandanese, conducting themselves with extraordinary courage, the Dutch were defeated on this occasion, and the governor-general, who accompanied the troops, died of chagrin on account of the failure. The following year the Bandanese were subdued and forced into treaties, more hostile to their commer cial interests and prosperity than ever. In 1620 the Bandanese had again revolted, if this expression can be applied to their resistance of foreign aggression. The direct charge made against them on this occasion was, that they sold the produce qf their country to strangers. The Spa niards, Portuguese, and English, fomented the quarrel between tlie natives ; and, blind to their own aggressions, could easily see the injustice of their rivals. At the period of this last revolt of the people of the Banda Isles, the Dutch and Eng- 438- DUTCH HISTORY lish were reconciled to each other, and the latter now saw no harm in subduing the inoffending Ban danese- The English commissioners only declared their inability, from want qf means, to join in a league for their subversion. Thp Dutch governor- general, happy at their excusing themselves, pious- ly declared that he would undertake the enterprise with the assistance of heaven^ which he boasted had hitherto been so favourable to him. This crusade ended m the total subjugation of the Banda Isles, iri the year 1621, in spite of the efforts of the Eng lish, who, keeping as little faith with their Euro pean allies as with the natives, assisted the latter against the former. The island of Lontar alone long resisted ; the natives betook themselves to the mountains, where in time they were starved and hunted down, until at length the survivors, a poor remnant of 800 persons, surrendered themselves, and were transported to Batavia. Such was the termination of the expedition, which a Dutch governor-general of the Indies undertook in reli ance upon the assistance of heaven ! The inhabitants of Amboyna, and the other Clove Isles, unable to endure the despotic commer cial arrangeriients of the Dutch, were in arms almost as early as the people of Banda, and, as they were more numerous and powerful, their resistance was more formidable and long continued. In the year 1623 took place the famous massa- OP THE ARCHIPELAGO. 43$* Cre of Amboyna, an affair of European history, which it is not my province to relate. In itself a transaction sufficiently execrable, and affording, per haps, the most revolting and hateful example ofthe consequences of the commercial rivalry of Euro pean nations, in enormity, it falls far short of many ofthe calamities inflicted by the European nations on the natives of the country. The insurrections of the people of Ternate continued down to the year 1638, when assuming a more formidable as pect, the presence of the governor-general was twice thought necessary* The Dutch used the king of Ternate, whOm they had in their hands, as the tool of their views ; and this prince, with an insincerity to be expected in his situation, secretly encouraged and abetted the resistance of his subjects. One of the bravest of these, Louhou, the governor of a distant pro vince, exhausted by long resistance, and deserted by his people, made his peace with the Dutch, and came over with his family. He, his mother, sis ter, and brother, were perfidiously seized and be headed ! From this time, until the termination ofthe re sistance of the people of Ternate, the noblest per sons of the country were seized in numbers, and executed without mercy. Tulukabassi, a chief of Amboyna who had made a long resistance, was at length induced to surrender himself. He was exe- 440, DUTCH HISTORY cuted, though he offered to embrace Christianity to save his life, an honour, says the Dutch historian, of which he was deemed unworthy 1 From the year 1650 to 1653, the insurrection of Amboyna assumed a more formidable aspect than ever. A monster of energetic character, called Vlaming, was governor, and wantoned in blood and executions. I shall give a few examples of his proceedings. The Dutch had agreed to take any quantity of cloves tendered by the natives at a fixed price, and although this fixed price was lower than the people had been accustomed to receive from the other strangers that resorted to their market, still the quantity brought in was too great for the re stricted consumption to which the abuses of the monopoly necessarily gave rise. Vlaming resolved upon the destruction of the cloves every where but at Amboyna, the immediate seat of the Dutch power, where he imagined production might be ^restricted to the limited demands of the monopoly market. The natives were exasperated to the last degree, by this iniquitous and unheard of invasion of property, and flew to arms to defend their just rights. Even the chiefs who owed their promotion to the Dutch influence revolted, and all the islands were involved in a general insurrection. On the 28th of August 1650, Vlaming ordered the execution of twenty nobles. Some were strang led, — others broken on the wheel, — and others cast OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 441 into the sea and drowned, by beating them with bludgeons. A Mahomedan priest leaped from a redoubt and fractured a limb. The brutal gover nor ordered him to repeat the leap, which cost him his life ! On his return to Amboyna, Vlaming ordered a new execution, as well of those who had surren dered at discretion, or promise of pardon, as of those taken prisoners. Fifteen chiefs were executed on this occasion, among whom were two petty kings. The most distinguished of the sufferers was the heroic Terbile, who, appearing on the scaffold with an undaunted countenance, which astonished his persecutors, hastened to present his bare ne«k to the axe. Even the natives converted to Christianity rose against their oppressors. The most remarkable of tbese was John Pays, a native of Amboyna, distin guished for his eloquence as a teacher of Christi anity, and adding to the effects of that eloquence, the authority of birth, office, and fine qualities. This nobleman, with many others, was executed at night, for fear the spectacle might occasion a tumult among the inhabitants. Next day the governor, having assembled the native troops, suddenly pro duced the bloody heads of the sufferers by way of striking terror into the survivors. The Prince Saydi, the chief of the patriot insur gents, was at length taken by the treachery of one 4*2 DUTCH HISTORY v of his companions. Before he was overpowered" he* made a gallant resistance, and when he fell was covered with wounds, and exhausted with loss of blood. In this situation he was brought before Vlaming, who insulted him with vulgar raillery,, and, pushing the shaft of his spear into his mouth, bid him wake from his sleep. The dying chief was neither able nor willing to reply, but had strength enough remaining to turn his head aside, and avert his eyes from the hateful spectacle ofthe enemy of his country. The governor abandoned him to the fury of the Dutch soldiers, who cut him to pieces, and threw his quivering members over the precipices of the mountain, in the fastnesses of which he was captured. The last act of Vlaming was the murder of the king of Gilolo, who was accidentally taken prisoner in passing from one island to another; He and five-and-twenty of his family, the women and children only being spared, were put to death, and, for fear of a commotion among the people, they were privately drowned at midnight ! The inhabitants of the Moluccas continued to carry on the war, though with less vigour, down to the year 1 67 1 , when, as generally happens in tropical climes, when the regular industry of man, and his natural pursuits, are interrupted by a long succes sion of wars and intestine convulsions, a violent epidemic afflicted the country, the effects of which OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 448 were aggravated by earthquakes in that year, jn I67S and 1674, which were also themselves the direct cause of the loss of many lives. The last insurrection of the people of the Mo luccas broke out in 1680, and continued during the whole of that and the following year. These were the last efforts of those islanders to maintain their independence. Enfeebled and broken-spirited by their ineffectual efforts, they submitted from this time. The Dutch were now enabled to carry their principles of commercial policy into the most rigid practice. The consumption of spices decreased as their price rose, and the Spice Islands hence forth ceased to be of value and importance. The monopoly of the spices was secured by the conquest of Macassar in the year 1669. It was the aVidity of the Dutch to secure the monopoly of the spices, and the natural hostility of the people of Celebes, towards those who unjustly and vio lently excluded them from a traffic in which they had so long and so extensively engaged, one which was so beneficial to them, , and so natural to their geographical and moral situation, which produced the long wars between them, the incidents of which are given in the native history of that island. It need hardly be remarked, that the commercial and political importance of Celebes ceased with the loss of its independence, and its subjection to the com mercial shackles of Dutch policy. 444 DUTCH HISTORY, &C It will be unnecessary to quote further examples ofthe consequences of the Dutch domination in the Archipelago, and enough has been said to illus trate the nature of the influence which it has pro duced upon the character and destinies of the na tive inhabitants. CHAPTER X. SPANISH HISTORY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. Spanish influence confined to the Philippines. — Policy pursued by the Spaniards, with all its vices, superior to that qf any other European government established in the Archipelago. — Sketch qf that Policy — Discovery of the Philippines by Magellan — Philippines neglected for the Moluccas First attempt io conquer the Philippines. — Conquest qf Zebu by Legaspi. — Luconia invaded. — Causes to which the facility of ihe early conquest of it is to be ascribed. — Foundation of the city qf Manila. — Causes which have proved a barrier to the progress ofthe Spanish conquests. — Effects which result from the proximity qf China to the Philippines Manila attack ed by the Chinese rebel Limahon, and nearly taken. — Chi nese employed as rowers, in an expedition against the Mo luccas, murderthe Governor qf the Philippines, who command ed, and the crew qfhis galley. — First Massacre ofthe Chi nese, when thirty thousand are cut off. — Emperor of China . demands an explanation, and is easily satisfied. — Second Massacre qf the Chinese, when twenty-three out of thirty thousand are cut qff. — The Philippines threatened with an invasion by Coxinga, the conqueror qf Fomosa, which they escape by the sudden death qfthat able and ambitious lead er. — Spaniards expel the Chinese from the Philippines.— Powerful causes springing from the principle qf population in China, and the locality of the Philippines have induced the inhabitants ofthe former country to settle in numbers ia 446 SPANISH HISTORY the latter.— Absurd arguments qf the Spaniards for the •' expulsion ofthe Chinese refuted. — Chinese return to. the Philippines. — A royal edict for their absolute expulsion not carried into effect by the local administration. — Royal edict carried into effect, and its consequences. — Chinese return by slow degrees, and are as numerous as ever. — Character of the Japanese, and their intercourse with the Spaniards qf ihe Philippines. — Emperor qf Japan sends a mission claim ing vassalage from the Philippines. — He meditates their con quest about the period qf his persecution of the Christians in the empire. — Emperor of Japan sends a friendly mission ta Manila. — A first and second revolt of the Japanese in the Philippines. — The intercourse with Japan finally terminated by the famous edict qf the Japanese empire, excluding itself from the intercourse of the world. — Political intercourse be tween the Spaniards and the independent nations ofthe Ar chipelago. — General reflections on the intercourse of Euro peans with the more powerful nations df the Archipelago, — Futile attempts of the Spaniards to conquer Sooloo and Mindanao. — Retributive measures of the inhabitants of those islands. — Ward of the Spaniards with European na tions in the Archipelago.— Conquest of the Moluccas five times attempted. — Conquest of Manila by the English- Plunder the object of those who planned the expedition, — Extravagant opinion of the wealth of Manila. — Narrative of the Conquest. — Animadversion on the conduct of the captors.— British conquest never extended beyond ihe neighbourhood of the city.— Population of the country de fend it after ihe destruction of the regular military force.-— Important and interesting conclusions to be drawn from this unusual circumstance. The influence of the Spanish nation in the. Mo luccas was of short duration, and limited extent ; OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 447 and, while the Indian possessions of Portugal were nnder the crown of Spain, they were wholly admi nistered by Portuguese, and on the Portuguese principles of government. The influence of the Spanish government on the fortunes and history of the inhabitants of the Archipelago, therefore, may be said, to be confined to the Philippines. In this extensive and important portion of the Indian islands, it has been peculiarly active ; and a histo rical sketch of its proceedings will prove interest ing and instructive. It is remarkable, that the Indian administration of one of the worst governments of Europe, and that in which the general principles of legislation and good government are least understood, — one, too, which has never been skilfully executed, — should, upon the whole, have proved the least inju rious to the happiness and prosperity of the native inhabitants of the country, This, undoubtedly, has been the character of the Spanish connection with the Philippines, with all its vices, follies, and illiberalities ; and the present condition of these islands affords an unquestionable proof of the fact. Almost every other country of the Archipelago is, at this day, in point of wealth, power, and civiliza tion, in a worse state than when Europeans con nected themselves with them three centuries back. The Philippines alone have improved in civiliza tion, wealth, and populousuess. When discovered, 448 SPANISH HISTORY most of the tribes were a race of half-naked sa vages, inferior to all the great tribes, who were push ing, at the same time, 5n active commerce, and en joying a respectable share of the necessaries and comforts of a civilized state. Upon the whole, they are at present superior in almost every thing to any of the other races. This is a valuable and instructive fact, and the cause deserves to be traced. This, I iriiagine, is no difficult task. In the first place, the Spanish government "has never, in the case of its Indian dominions, pursued, like other nations, the visionary and pernicious principle of drawing a direct profit from the commercial indus try of its colonies, by appearing in the character of the sole or chief merchant. On the contrary, private industry, though jnjudiciously shackled, has been permitted some scope, and the wholesome principles of competition have had some operation. The Spanish government has rested satisfied with deriving a revenue from a fixed capitation tax on its native subjects ; and, however heavy in amount, or iniquitous in the collection, it has, on the whole, proved less prejudicial to improvement than the restrictions of other European nations on the agri culture and industry of their subjects. But, above all, the prosperity of the Philippines has been ow ing to the freedom given to European colonization ; a freedom which it has been the idle glory of our nation, in particular, to withhold, or to restrict, un io OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 449 der the mask, or under the delusion, of benefit ing the natives. The Spaniards permitted to their countrymen a perfect, freedom of coloniza tion, and the unappropriated lands were freely dis tributed among them. They have mixed with the native inhabitants, and lived familiarly with them. The consequence has been, that, through the me dium of religious or other instruction, and general communication, the influence of the genius and manners of Europe has been felt by the native races, and produced corresponding benefits.. We can be at no loss to see to what circum stance in their situation the Philippines owe the superiority of the policy pursued in regard to them. Fortunately for them, they happened to produce none of the commodities for which the avarice of Europeans was in search. They produced neither the rich spiceries of the more western islands, nor the fine manufactures of the continental nations ; and were, therefore, saved from the usual depre dation upon industry. The Philippines, as is well known, were discover ed by the illustrious, but unfortunate Magellan, in the course of the first circumnavigation of the globe, in the year 1521, ten years after the conquest of Ma lacca by the Portuguese. It wasthe search for spices which led to the accomplishment of the circumna vigation of the globe, and the discovery of the Philippines, as well as to the more splendid achieve- VOL. H. F f 450 SPANISH HISTORY ments of Columbus and'Di Gama,,all of them the most, striking events in the history of mankind. The first land which Magellan made, after quitting the westprn shore of America, was the port of Batuan, . in the great island of ', Mindanao, from whence he sailed into the midst of the Cluster, and touched at Zebu. He was hospitably received, both at Batuan and Zebu, by the wondering na tives ; but this man of genius wanted prudence and moderation, and was strongly tinctured with the indiscreetest religious zeal, the vice of his age. By planting a cross in Zebu, and sprinkling a little water on the king and his family, with some of his subjects, he imagined himself establishing the Christian religion. The petty prince of the insig nificant islet of Mactan, which lies opposite the great island of Zebu, happened to be a man en dowed with a strength of mind above the fears of his countrymen, and saw in the Spaniards nothing but what was mortal. He challenged Magellan to combat, who, with the characteristic chivalry of his time, accepted the challenge. Fifty Spaniards in armour entered the lists against a host of nar tive adversaries, — they were decoyed into a marsh, and, fighting up tp their necks in water, the great navigator; with six of his companions, lost their lives. The rest saved themselves by a precipitate flight, and the result convinced the people of Zebu that their visitors were mere men, perhaps that OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 451 they were dangerous invaders, for the king sought, by treachery, to destroy those whom he had at first received with so much hospitality. The companions of Magellan sailed for the Moluccas, and, touching at Tidor, were en tertained by the prince of that island with the kindest hospitality, received a supply of refresh ments, and cargoes of the precious products of the country. Such was the first intercourse of the Spaniards with India and the Philippines. On the strength of the discovery of Magellan, the Spa niards founded their claims to the Philippines ; and, by virtue of the line of demarcation drawn by the Pope, though the Portuguese reached them more early, they asserted their claims to the country of the spices, the primary object of the search of both. For them, the Philippines were wholly neglected, and the emperor Charles the Fifth, fitting out a squadron in the year 1525, it reached the Mo luccas in the following year, and made a perma nent, but a feeble establishment in Tidor. The Spaniards and Portuguese now disputed the pos session of the Moluccas, and war was on the point of being declared between the two countries, when the needy emperor mortgaged his claim for the sum of 350,000 ducats. In the year 1642, the emperor made an inef fectual attempt to conquer the Philippines. The expedition never reached farther than the little 452 SPANISH HISTORY island of Sanagan, which lies off the southern coast of Mindanao, and the sole result of the expedi tion, according to the Spanish writers, was the baptism qf one child, and the bestowing the name ofthe Prince of Asturias upon the whole/ Archi- pelftgo. The fleet was scattered, and the whole armament almost annihilated. Such, indeed, with the navigators of those times, was the smallness and insufficiency of their barks, their own unskilful ness, their want of particular experience, and their general ignorance, that nothing short of the high est zeal, and most intrepid determination, could have insured success in the undertakings they a- chieved. It was not until the year 1 566, forty-five years after their first discovery, that the Spaniards conquered, or rather appeared for the purpose of conquering the Philippines. The person to whom this achieve ment was allotted was a noble Spaniard, whose name was Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. He made his first appearance in the southern island of Bohol, with one of the petty kings of which place he swore friend ship, by undergoing with his majesty the ceremony of hsing blood from their arms, each drinking the blood-qf the other, according to the strange practice of the country. From Bohol, where they were hos pitably entertained, the Spaniards proceeded to Zebu, which they determined to conquer; and the OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 453 pretext was the treachery of the people to the com panions of Magellan, forty-five years before. The inhabitants resisted the invaders ineffec tually, and finally were reconciled to them. Such was the poverty of the people of this island, and the little progress they had made in agricultural industry, that the arrival of the few Spaniards who accompanied Legaspi brought on a famine, which was scarcely relieved by the inadequate supplies brought by traffic, but oftener by plunder* from the neighbouring islands. For four years they strug gled with scarcity, and the attempts of the Portu guese to drive them from their acquisitions. In 1669, the establishment was removed to the island of Panay, and in 1571 the conquest of Manila was made. The people of this portion of the Philip pines were more improved than the rest, and had some knowledge of fire-arms, but the feebleness of their resistance is sufficiently declared, when we understand that two hundred and eighty Spaniards effected their subjugation. The people fled on the appearance of the Europeans, but by the discreet conduct of Legaspi; they were brought back, arid a reconciliation effected. Legaspi was* a man of conduct and talents, well fitted to the important duties he had to perform, and to his dexterous and prudent management, as well as the weakness of the opposition he met with, is to be attributed the success of the enterprise. The influence of reli- 454 SPANISH HISTORY gion had also a large share in it. The expedition was accompanied by a number of priests, who were actively employed in the pious office of converting the simple natives; and it may be safely asserted, that the benevolent influence of religion has had, from the earliest to the latest period of the Spanish authority in these islands, the most powerful ascend ancy in the civilization of the people, and in re conciling them to their conquerors. The Spaniards now founded the city of Manila, and by this measure, which took place in the year 1571, their power may be considered as es tablished. Resistance was frequently made to their arms, but its amount in any one place was trifling, for even the people of Luconia, the most civilized of the Philippines, divided, like all sava ges, into numerous petty communities, incapable of combining to resist an invader, proved but a feeble enemy. The same circumstance, the division of the peo ple into many tribes of different conditions of ci vilization, and speaking many languages, with the subsequent weakness of the Spanish nation, and the hostile and savage habits acquired by the tribes not at first subdued, are what have since opposed the greatest obstacles to the Span ish arms, and hindered the total subjugation of the country. A people united as one nation, with OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 455 , the same political institutions, and the same lan guage, accustomed to obey the same authority, would, in the first encounter, as in the case of the Mexicans, the Peruvians, and the Malays of Ma lacca, have made a respectable resistance, but when once overcome, would bow their necks to the yoke. The manner and principle on which the Spanish conquests were effected, being once described,. the history of their intercourse with the natives of Luconia, and of the other islands, which submitted directly to their authority, 'affords nothing suffi ciently prominent or interesting to deserve parti cular recital. The natives suffered endless oppres sions from private aggression, or the injustice of public measures, and lost no opportunity of attempt ing to get rid of the Spanish yoke. Many of the more savage tribes retired to the mountains, pre serving theh; national independence to this day, and bearing an implacable hatred -to the Spanish name. The most interesting portions of the his tory of the period of two centuries and a half, which has elapsed since the first permanent con quest, are, — the history of the wars and quarrels of the colonial government, with the Chinese, foreign or domestic, — with the neighbouring Ma homedan states, — with the Japanese, — and with European nations. Of all these the most striking incidents will be shortly narrated in their turns , The facts are curious in themselves, and tend in 456 SPANISH HISTORY every case to throw a strong light on the character of the Spanish influence on the destinies of the native inhabitants. Among the islands of the Indian Archipelago, one of the most distinctive characteristics of the Philippines, is their proximity to China. They owe to this situation their great commercial ad vantages, but they owe to it too, considering the weakness of the European nation which governs them, some political disadvantages. They are the only portion of the Archipelago in any measure assailable to the clumsy military force and imper fect naval power of the Chinese empire, or the de predations of its rebellious subjects. The eastern end of Luconia is little more than four hundred miles, or three days' sail from the coast of the Chinese province of Fokien, and scarce half the distance from the southern extremity of For mosa. This propinquity of situation excites the jealousy of both nations, and would be felt by the Chinese to a keener degree, were their European rivals a people of more enterprise and activity. The Chinese appear, in almost all ages of their history, to have carried on a traffic with the Philip pines, and to have been sufficiently aware of their situation*. Considering, however, the character of the Chinese and of the natives of the country, as Europeans found them, there is no good reason to credit the\ assertion of the former, that these OP THE ARCHIPELAGO. 457 islands constituted a portion of their empire, and that they colonized them.* Scarce were the Spaniards established at Manila, before they experienced the consequences of their vicinity to China. A powerful rebel ofthe empire, named by the Spaniards Lvmahon, had long infest ed the coasts of China, and now with a force of * The ignorance ajid feebleness of the Chinese empire, down to the most recent period of its history, before En- ropeans came into their neighbourhood, are unequivocally con firmed by the state in which the latter found the island of Formosa, and the Philippines, the first not 20 leagues from their coast, and the latter not above 150. By the Chinese ac counts, Formosa was not discovered until 1430, and then only by pure accident. It lay after this wholly unnoticed for one hundred and thirty-lour years. In fact, it was not peopled by the Chinese until after l66l, when Europeans had made it worth occupying, and showed them the way to it. The Philippines were, probably, a little better and earlier known, because more in the direct course of the monsoons, and be cause they afforded some of those commodities of their peculiar luxury, in quest of which they had been making still more dis tant voyages into the more abundant and richer islands of the west. That the Philippines formed no integral portion of the Chintse empire, any more than Formosa, is proved beyond the reach of doubt, by the absence of a Chinese population, or very decided admixture of it ; by the absence of any relics of the Chinese language, arts, or institutions. Scarce was the road pointed out by Europeans, and the jealousy ol the Chi nese excited, than they were anxious to possesss, what their supineness had neglected in all previous ages of their history. — Duhalde's Description' qf China, Vol. I. 458 SPANISH HISTORY upwards of sixty junks, and several thousand men, sailed to Manila, induced, perhaps, to this enterprise by the accounts he had received of the riches of the Spaniards, which he did not .doubt, considering their weakness, would easily fall into his hands. After a spirited attempt upon the new colony, in which he met a gallant, but not very skilful resistance, he was beat off; but permitted to make his escape, after ravaging the coasts of the island for many months. The neighbourhood of the Philippines to China afforded, at all times, so convenient and natural an outlet to the overflowing population of the latter country, that the Chinese, in spite of all oppres sion, constantly poured over. At an early period,' from the causes already enumerated, and the mo nopolizing spirit of the resident European colo nists, to whom the fair competition, occasioned by the industry of the Chinese, was odious ; the re sident Chinese became Objects of jealousy and ha tred. These, finding themselves persecuted and distrusted, became dissatisfied in their turn, and ria- turally not the most loyal' subjects. In the year 1593, the Spaniards from the Philippines fitted out an expedition against the Moluccas ;uand the governor, Dasmarinas, accompanied it. A hundred and fifty Chinese had been pressed as rowers into the governor's galley, and were urged to their la bour by stripes. The governor's ship was separat- OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 459 ed from the rest of the fleet, and had not got clear of the islands, when the Chiiiese rose on the crew and murdered the whole, the governor included. In the same year a great number of Chinese re sorted to Manila, and among others some men of rank, who excited the suspicion of the Spaniards. In the year 1603 took place the first massacre of the Chinese. In that year the Emperor of China sent three Mandarines on a mission to Ma nila, to ascertain the truth respecting a report which had reached him, that the fort qf Cavito was constructed qfgold. The Spaniards conclud ed them to be spies, and declared them to be the forerunners of an army of 100,000 men for the con quest of the Spanish possessions. No such army ever arrived, or probably was ever intended, but the apprehensions of the Spaniards connected this circumstance, with the insurrection of the Chinese, which soon after followed, but which was, in fact, brought on by their own jealous and oppressive mea sures. A rich Chinese of Manila, who had embraced the religion of the Spaniards, and lived on terms of great intimacy with them, undertook, as a work of munificence to gratify his countrymen, to build a stone wall round their quarter of the suburbs. The work was openly and unsuspectingly commenced upon, but the jealousy ofthe Spaniards was roused by it. They conjured the story of a conspiracy to murder the Christians, and the massacre of the 460 SPANISH HISTORY Chinese, already twenty-five thousand in number, was resolved upon. The Chinese retired into the country, and made a slender defence. Twenty- three thousand were massacred^ and the poor rem nant made their escape to China. The Chinese government does not appear al ways to have acted on the same principle of entire indifference respecting those who emigrate from China, as it is alleged to have done in the case of the Dutch massacre at Batavia ; for, after the pre sent pne, the emperor sent a mission to Manila to inquire into the cause of the slaughter of his countrymen. The Spanish writers assert, that, the governor of the Philippines was able amply to justi fy himself. He must, we may conclude from this* have made an ingenious defence, or his Majesty of China must have been content with slender satis faction. By the year 1639, the Chinese had *again in creased to the astonishing numbei* of thirty thou sand, most of them engaged in the principal occu pations of agriculture. They were again driven to revolt by oppression, and, after being hunted down for monthsj surrendered , at discretion, re duced to the number of seven thousand. Ma nila was reduced to the greatest distress by the loss of so large a portion of its most industrious subjects. In the year 1662 the Philippines' were alarmed OJ? THE ARCHIPELAGO". 461 by the greatest danger which ever threatened them. This was from the arms of Kwe-Sing-kong, or Coxinga, the fortunate rebel who conquered Formosa from the Dutch, and whose achievement affords the only great example in the east, of eminent success against European arms. Elated by his good fortune, he sent a Dominican friar to the governor of Manila, as his ambassador, demanding to be recog nized as sovereign of the Philippines, and claiming tribute. The Spaniards, on this summons, were thrown into the greatest alarm. The whole of the Chinese were ordered off the island, and these people, in their distrust of the fidelity of the. Spa niards, fearing their lives in danger, from their ex perience of the past, flew to arms. The Spaniards called in their outposts from Ternate and Min danao ; but they escaped this danger by the sud den death of Coxinga, and they had nothing to fear from his unenterprising and unwarlike son. Had Coxinga lived, the Philippines would at this day have been a province of China, and having gained such a footing, there is no saying how much farther to the west their arms might not have pene trated. Coxinga had conquered Formosa from a more powerful and skilful enemy than the Spa niards, and weak as these were in themselves, and surrounded by internal enemies, there can be no doubt but their possessions would have fallen an easy prey to an hundred thousand warlike Chinese ac- 462 SPANISH HISTORY customed to conquer, and led by so experienced and intrepid a chief as Coxinga. In the year 1709 the Spaniards of the Philip pines expelled all the Chinese from these islands. The pretexts for their expulsion were, — that they came under the mask of cultivating the land, but became traders ; — that, in their Occupation asAraders, they became monopolists; — and that they carried off the wealth of the country to China. The natural tendency of emigration from China to the Philip pines was so strong, that it is not surprising to see the Chinese use every means in their power to gain an establishment. That they should prefer the occupations of commerce to husbandry, is easily enough accounted for. The land was in possession of the Spaniards, who had a monopoly of it, and the Chinese were not so ignorant or inattentive to their own interests, as to labour for other men's advantage ; they refused to be servants where they could be masters. Their capital, in the form of intelligence, enterprise, and industry, was natural ly directed to commercial pursuits ; where those qualifications gave them a natural and legitimate monopoly over the supineness and ignorance of the Spanish colonists. They engaged not only in the pursuits most beneficial to themselves, but to the society of which they were members also. The epithet of monopolizers is used towards them by the Spanish writers, in the vulgar and popular OP THE ARCHIPELAGO. 463 sense, and they explain it, in terms which convey the highest compliment to the acuteness and in telligence of the Chinese, by accusing them of " watching narrowly the wants of the inhabitants, and the demand for the different articles of consumption, which they kept back until they rose to their price."* As to the charge of carrying off the public wealth, this is almost too vulgar and absurd for explana tion. It is needless to add, that, if they carried away to China the gold and silver of the Philip pines, they must have carried off what was too a- bundant -in the country, what it was of more ad vantage to the country to lose than to keep. The countiy was not plundered of what was taken away, for an equivalent was left in the produce of Chi nese industry ; and to have exported produce when money was of less value, and, of course, of less use, would have been an injury to the community. Arguments like these, however obvious, were little understood by those who legislated for the Philip pines, or, indeed, by any other of the European na tions, similarly situated, and down to the present period, the Chinese are unwisely looked upon with an envious and illiberal eye, by the government and colonists of every nation under whose admi nistration they reside. Notwithstanding their first expulsion, and the persecutions to which they were * * Zuniga, Chap. VI. 464 SPANISH HISTQRY subject, they slowly crept back to the Philippines, and in a few years were as numerous as ever. The outcry against the Chinese was always suf ficiently general in the Philippines, yet there were some whose interests were concerned in affording them protection, and by large gifts, they obtained from the avarice of those in power what their jus tice denied them. The court of Madrid, with its usual hostility to every sound principle of colonial government, sup ported public clamour, and sent repeated orders for the expulsion of the Chinese. In the year 1649, a royal edict for their absolute expulsion arrived, but was evaded by the interests of those in power, and by the wisdom of an archbishop, who at the time exercised the civil government. Two years after this order, a second was actually carried into effect, and the Chinese were expelled.* They were no sooner expelled, than the public began, from want of supplies, and want of trade, to feel.the * " One of the good things which Senor Arandia effected was the expulsion of the Chjnese. He dispatched all these h.eathens to theipown country !— The Spaniards who inte rested themselves in the residence of the Chinese in Manila, represented to the governor that there would be a want of people to carry on the trade with the islands if they were ex pelled; and to obviate this difficulty, he established a com pany of native Spaniards and. mastizoes for that purpose, which, however, was found very incompetent for the task.'' — Zuniga, Vol. II. Cap. xii. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 465 loss of this valuable portion of the population, and the governor who carried the measure into effect brought upon himself public odium. Such has been the nature df the intercourse be tween the Spaniards of Manila and the Chinese. On the arrival of the English, in 1762, their ani mosity was again excited, and in the sketch which I shall give of that affair, the present subject will be briefly renewed. The same circumstance of vicinity which has occa sioned so great an intercourse between the Philip pines and China, connected them also more intimate ly with the other great maritime nations of Eastern Asia, than the rest of the Archipelago, particular ly before the dangerous ambition of Europeans compelled those nations to have recourse to the re strictive and precautionary policy which is now so generally adopted by them. Among these, the most distinguished were the Japanese. Prior to their strange resolution to se clude themselves from the world, as the only prac ticable security against European invasion, they were found, like the Chinese, freely navigating and trading in all the countries of the Archipelago, and were chiefly distinguished from that race by a cou rage as remarkable as the pusillanimity of the latter. Almost from the establishment of Manila,. the Ja panese traded with it, and the richest articles for do mestic consumption, or for the more extensive mar- vol. 11. g g 466 SPANISH HISTORY ket of America, were of their importation. In the year 1590, the emperor of Japan sent a mission to the Philippines, claiming the vassalage of these islands, and desiring a more extended intercourse. The governor made a prudent reply, declining any discussion of the question of vassalage, but giv ing every encouragement to the proffered exten sion of commerce The emperor was not to be dissuaded from his scheme of acquiring the sove reignty of the Philippines, and with this view was assembling an army for the "conquest, when death arrested his ambitious designs. It was about this time that the dreadful persecution of the Chris tians commenced ; and, no doubt, the hostility of the emperor towards the Philippines was excited by the imprudence of the Spanish and Portuguese priests within the empire. •* In 1602 the reigning emperor of Japan sent ambassadors to Manila, entreating a continuation of the intercourse between the two countries, and begging the assistance of some Spanish shipwrights, which was declined, and in room of them a host of friars returned, whose imprudence contributed to the final expulsion of the Christians. In 1606 the Japanese, who appear to have had, a permanent residence in Manila, revolted. These people, of a more lively curiosity, and quick er imaginations than the phlegmatic Chinese, ap pear to have adopted the Catholic religion. Tho u OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 467 influence of the Spanish priests restored tranquilli ty, and the ringleaders were sent off to their own country. Of the causes which led to this revolt we are told no particulars. A second broke out in the same year, in which many of the Japanese, who defended themselves with their usual gallan try, lost their lives. Down to the year 1629, the intercourse witb the Japanese appears to have con tinued, for in that year an embassy arrived at Ma nila from the governor of the commercial province of Nangasaki. In the Philippines we hear no more of the Japanese, for, about eight years after this last event, the emperor of Japan issued that fixed decree, which has now for near 180 years secluded the empire from the commerce of the rest of the world. * * It is remarkable that, a,t the present day, we are unable, as far as my knowledge extends, to discover a single vestige of the descendants of those Japanese, who, in our early inter course with the Archipelago, were so numerous hi almost every country of it. Like the other great nations of the farther east, they tolerated the emigration of men, but absolutely and practically forbid that of women. After emigration was wholly put an end to, the race could not be continued as a dis tinct stock, but must have disappeared by mixing with some congenial class. Much similarity of manners in some respect* would, at first view, induce us to believe that the Chinese would have been that class, but the rancorous hatred which is known to subsist between the two nations forbids us from be- 468 SPANISH HISTORY I come now to say a few words respecting the intercourse which has subsisted between those parts of the Philippines conquered by the Spaniards, and those which did not yield to their arms, or the nations of the surrounding countries of the Archi pelago. The power of the Spaniards does not extend beyond the immediate reach of their arms, and the influence of their religion. That power exists in "the farthest corner of the Archipelago, at the greatest distance from native civilization, and over tribes whom they found in a half savage state. They have never established a dominion over any nation in a considerable degree civilized. The character of the nation, and of the principles on which they established themselves, seern to have been incapable of establishing, perhaps for want of forbearance or prudence, that singular empire of opinion, founded upon a supple management of the conquered, which the Dutch and English, with so little profit, have been enabled to establish in various situations. The Spaniards have either wholly conquered and colonized, or they have been entirely baffled. With the tribes of the Ar chipelago, their neighbours, whom they were in- ing satisfied with this conclusion, and it is far more probable, as most of them, I believe, were Christians, that they mixed with the half-race of Europeans. OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 460 capable, after many trials, of subduing, they have ever been in a state of almost perpetual hostility. The most considerable of these neighbours are the Malays of Borneo, — the people of the Suluk or Sooloo group, and those of Mindanao. As early as the year 1589, but 18 years after their establishment in Manila, the Spaniards made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Sooloo and Mindanao, but met with a complete defeat. In their turn the people of those islands fitted out predatory expeditions against the Philippines, and committed the mpst extensive ravages on their coasts. There is a passage in Zuniga, containing reflections on the subject of these expeditions, which, for its good sense, and the soundness of most of the opinions delivered in it, deserves to be quot ed. *' From that time to the present," * says he, " the Moors have not ceased to infest our colonies. It is incredible what a number of Indians they have made prisoners, what towns they have plun-> dered, what villages they have annihilated, and what ships they have taken. I am inclined to think that Providence permits this as a punishment on the Spaniards, for delaying the conquest for nq less a period than twp hundred years, notwithstand ing the expeditions and fleets that have almost an- * The period of the expedition just mentioned. 470 SPANISH HISTORY nually been sent to attempt it. On the first arri val of the Spaniards in these seas they conquered, in a short time, all the Philippines, excepting the small island of Sooloo, part of Mindanao, and a few other very insignificant islands near them, which, to this period, have not submitted. These Moorish Indians are certainly very valiant, and their enmi ty has been drawn upon us by our own conduct ; for, instead of following the laudable example of the first settlers in these islands, who brought the natives under subjection, principally by the mild interference of the priesthood, it seems of late years to have been the object of the Spaniards, since the great increase of the lucrative commerce of Manila, to acquire, by oppression and force, lands and establishments on these islands, without any view to conciliate the- natives. Those, there fore, who have been sent on different occasions to reduce the country, have, instead of attending to the object of their mission, been solicitous only to serve their own purposes, considering that as a pri mary, which ought to have been a secondary ob ject ; and the natives, profiting by constant ex perience in warfare, during which they discovered that the Spaniards were mortal like themselves, have at last beiome very formidable. There can be no doubt these Indians may be reduced by the same means employed with the others, that is, by sending missionaries amongst them, and a sufficient OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 4fjfl number of Spanish stations might be established to command respect. These garrisons ought to be independent of the governor of Manila, and ought to have a chief who should reside there, di recting his whole attention to the improvement of the settlement, by the extension in the country of Spanish influence, by temperate measures." * It were useless and endless to recount all the at tempts made by the Spaniards to subdue the neigh bouring islands, or the invasion and incursions of the inhabitants of these upon the Spanish territo ries. In 1628 and 16^9, two great expeditions were sent for the conquest of Sooloo, both of which utterly failed, and in the last the governor lost his life. In the year l6d7, the Spaniards made a tem porary conquest of Sooloo and Mindanao, which they were soon compelled to abandon. In 1645, the Malays of Borneo, and the people of Sooloo, ravaged the coasts of the Spanish islands, and the Spaniards committed reprisals, having burnt the city of Borneo, and carried off many of the inhabit ants as slaves. Inthe year 1751, the Spaniards made their last great attempts against Sooloo, and were disgracefully beaten. The natives of those islands being joined to their Mahomedan neigh bours, invaded the Philippines in > their turn, and successfully desolated and laid waste the Spanish - — ¦- ¦¦ •> ¦ ..i .— ¦¦¦,.,.,,-, * 2uniga, Vol. 1. Chap. XII, 472 SPANISH HISTORY provinces for a period of three years. This will suffice to give us a notion of the policy pursued by the Spaniards in their relations with the neighbour ing insulai; states. The wars of the Spaniards in the Archipelago with" the Dutch and Portuguese, produced little direct injury to the Philippines, except by the de predations upon commerce, which affected more remotely the internal prosperity of the country. But the contests for the possession of the Moluccas are to be ennmerated as among the great causes which contributed to the ruin and desolation of these islands. Spain and Portugal were at first rivals for the possession of the Moluccas, and when the former acquired the dominion of the lat ter, a new enemy sprung up in the Dutch and English. The native princes took part in their quarrels, hoping, in vain, to find in every new pre tender a protector from the oppression which in *' turn they were doomed to experience from all. The Spaniards were the weaker party in their con tests with the "Portuguese, and then feigned a soli citude for the welfare of the natives. When they got possession of the Country, no change was made in the condition of the native^, whose sufferings, indeed, were1;>daily aggravated to the. last moment of the continuance of their government. When the Dutch presented themselves, they began with professions still more liberal, and with censures the most unmeasured, on the tyranny of their prede' OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 473 cessors, and, as we have already seen, their sordid and cruel management produced a longer and more extended misery, than that of either of the nations which had gone before them. The Spaniards of the Philippines attempted the conquest of the Moluccas, from the Portuguese or Dutch, no less than five times. They sent their first expedition, as early as 1682, about ten years after the foundation of the city of Manila, and con tinued their efforts down to 1716, when the last great attempt was made against the whole com merce and possessions of the Philippines, by Don Juan de Silva. The Dutch supremacy was, after this, too firmly established to be shaken by the feeble power of the Philippines. It was the ambition of the Spanish court that prompted, and, for the most part, directly ordered these fruitless expeditions, to which the capacity of the Indian possessions of Spain was never equal, and which tended to exhaust the resources of the Philippines, to retard their improvement, and af forded the local governments, in one form or other, a pretext to oppress both the natives and the Spanish colonists. The only formidable attack ever made on the Philippines by an European power*, was that of the British in 1762 ; and as the circumstances and con sequences of it elucidate, in a very pointed and in- 'teresting manner, the nature of the Spanish admi- 474 SPANISH HISTORY nistration, in relation to the Asiatic population of the islands, I shall narrate shortly the most promi nent facts which attended this celebrated expedi tion'. It was planned and executed by the well- known Sir William Draper, who obtained a loose knowledge of the Philippines, enough for his pur pose, in a visit which he made to Canton, as a va letudinarian. When the history of the enterprise is fairly considered, it will' not be too much to as sert that the plunder of Manila was his leading object, and probably that of most who were con cerned in it. The East India Company, at least, are fully implicated in this charge, for they stipu lated before-hand for one- third ofthe booty. The British public absurdly imagined that Ma nila, an ill-governed settlement, and oppressed by all the devices of Spanish colonial restrictions, must be a place of great wealth. They were seduced into a belief in this mischievous phantasy, — by the dazzling and popular spectacle of the millions of dollars sent annually from America ; — by the daz- ling captures of Cavendish and Anson ; — and bythe imposing circumstance of seeing annually embarked, in a single speculation, the commercial adventures of a whole settlement, in itself one of the most ob vious sources of a poverty, which it would have been more reasonable to have predicted. In the month of Septeinber 1762, an expedition, , fitted out at Madras, and consisting of a land force OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 475 of two thousand three hundred men, partly Eu ropeans, and partly Sepoys, with nine men-of-war, appeared in the bay before the town of Manila. To oppose this force, the Spaniards had, by their own accounts, but five hundred and fifty regular troops, with a few militia, and by our's but eight hundred. In a few days five thousand Indians, by the Spanish account, and twice that number by the English, presented themselves, armed with ja velins, and with bows and arrows, for the re lief of the garrison, unprepared against an at tack by the slovenly administration of the Spa niards, and even by an ignorance of the exist ence of a war with Britain. All that is connect ed with the military and naval management of the expedition cannot be too much praised. The European troops, who were veterans dis tinguished in the wars of Coromandel, behaved with the most determined gallantry and resolution. They landed in open day in a heavy surf, with the water breast-high, carrying their cartouch-boxes and muskets on their heads. Struggling against the difficulties of a season, too far advanced for military operations in these climates, they raised works against the fortifications of the town, and with great spirit and success repelled the sorties of the besieged. On the 6th of October, but twelve days after the landing was effected, the English had made a practicable breach, and they stormed 476 SPANISH HISTORY and took the place. An archbishop, who was go vernor, retired to the citadel, which was not te nable, and he therefore came and delivered him self up to the conquerors, with whom he entered into a capitulation, surrendering the whole of the Philippines to the King of Great Britain, and se curing to the inhabitants their lives, liberties, pro perties, and domestic government, on payment of the enormous contribution of a million Sterling, or rather four millions of Spanish dollars, and an understanding that the town should be given up to pillage for three hours. The town was ac cordingly given up to plunder, which, by the 'Spanish account, lasted twenty-four hours. A contribution. on the rich city of Manila, which the sanguine avarice ofthe captors haji rated at four mil lions of dollars, wpuld never realize one-fourth the sum, though some of the church plate was melted down, and the unfortunate archbishop contributed his personal plate and jewels. This dignitary, in the power of the English, was compelled to give an order for the balance on the treasury of Ma drid, but his bills were most reasonably and justly protested, a treatment which the captors had the audacity to complain of as a breach of faith. It is difficult to conceive by what misapplication of lan guage the sum extorted was called a ransom, if, particularly, the town was given up to three hours plunder, and was kept possession pf, as well as a 10 OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 477 claim laid to the surrender ofthe whole Philippines. Our notions of the laws of war, and views of com mon justice, are much refined since the conquest of Manila. Such is now the strength of public opinion against such an abuse of the right of conquest, that no military commander of our day or nation would dare to commit so open and flag rant an act of plunder. An Indian city is never treated in such a manner, even when the conduct of the conquered, by the violation of the laws of war, so frequent in Hindustan, would appear to render such severity more justifiable. * The success of the English ended with the cap* ture ofthe town and suburbs of Manila, and a few * The Annual Register, the historical part of which is said, at the time, to have been conducted by Burke, eulogizes the whole conduct of the expedition. The following is the. very disgusting strain in which the affair of the ransom is spoken of: " Influenced by a generosity familiar to our commanders, and willing to preserve so noble a city from destruction," (they \yere already in full possession of it,) " General Draperand the admi ral, though able to command every thing, admitted the inha bitants to' a capitulation, by which they enjoyed their liberties, lives, and properties, and the administration of their domestic government. A ransom of a million Sterling purchased these terms." — Annual Register for 1763, p. 13. The virtuous Ju nius, torturing the public and private life of Sir William Dra per for matter of accusation, is so far from reflecting upon his extortion at Manila, that he is angry with him for being silent- respecting his own claim and that of the captors. 478 SPANISH HISTORY predatory incursions, made to no effect, in the neighbouring country, during a period of ten com plete months. This is the most remarkable cir cumstance connected with the whole transaction, and that for which it is chiefly worth mention ing. The . Spaniards were true to their allegi ance, and the Indians, influenced by the priests, and attachment to their religion, very generally continued to assist them, although the English had recourse to the unjustifiable means, — unjustifiable, because delusory, — -of promising a remission of the tribute paid by them to the European power. The Chinese alone, heartily and. universally, joined in the cause of the English, as might be expected from the cruelty and oppression with which the Spanish government had always treated them.* * "Although the Senor Arandiahad sent away all the pagan Chinese, others replaced them after his death ; and the aug mentation of their numbers, which took place in three years, was incredible. There were, besides, many Chinese Christians in Parian, and scattered over the provinces, and almost all of them declared for the English. The moment they took pos session of Manila, these Chinese gave them every aid, and ac companied them in all their expeditions." — " Senor Anda" (the military commander, who took charge of the government after the captivity of the archbishop) " gave orders that those who escaped should be tried for their conduct, in whatever part they were found ; but having found some letters, which proved that they had an understanding with those of Parian OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 479 These interesting results of the English invasion deserve the most serious consideration of all who legislate for Indian colonies. If the goodness of a government is to be judged of by the attachment of the great body of its subjects, the Spanish admi nistration of the Philippines stands higher than any other which was ever established in the Archipela go, and probably higher than that bf the British government of India, though regulated with so much greater care, skill, and moderation. In all previous invasions of the Indian settlements, of one European power by another, the moment the military strength of the invading party was over come, the whole colony yielded at once. The conquest of the Portuguese garrison of Malacca was immediately followed by the conquest of the territory attached to it. The conquest of the strongholds of the Portuguese in the Moluccas was equivalent, as far as the overthrow of the European power was concerned,, with the conquest or possession of the whole Moluccas. The defeat of the European army of the Dutch in Java, in 1811, was almost immediately followed by the on the subjeet of those commotions, he ordered that all the Chinese in the islands should be hanged, which orders were put in execution very generally, but when the "order hud been disregarded, he readily overlooked the omission." — Zuniga, Chap. XVI. 480 SPANISH HISTORY, &C peaceable submission of five millions of people, and with the tranquil surrender of all the outposts. Not a native arm was willingly raised, "in defence of those who held the supremacy of those countries for two centuries. All this requires no comment ; the Spaniards who did not directly obstruct the natural order of conquest and colonization, esta blished a local and permanent influence ; the vi sionary and factitious system of Pther European powers was in a moment subverted, when the mi litary power was destroyed which supported it. * * An historical view of the Philippine Islands, by Martinez de Zuniga. Relations des Isles Philippines, in the collection qf Thevenot, Vol. I. Voyage dans les Mers de l'Inde, par M. Le Gentil, Tom. II. CHAPTER X CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE HISTORY OF THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. N.B. — The letters C. S. j. and H. stand respectively for the Eras of Christ, of Salivana, of Java, and of the Hegira. C. 1160. S. 1082. H. 556. A Ma la yan colony, first from the original coun try of that people, and latterly from Palembang in Sumatra, settles at the extremity of the Ma layan Peninsula, under their leader, Sri Turi Buwana, and founds the city of Singhapura. A powerful king of Java repeatedly invades the territory of the new colony. C. 1195. S. 1117- H. 592. Jpyoboyo, king of Doho in Java, flourishes. C. 1208. S. 1130. H. 605. Sri Turi Buwana, king of Singhapura, dies, after a reign of forty-eight years, and is succeeded by Paduka Pekaram Wira. vol. ii. hIi X 4'82 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1223. S. 1145. H. 620. Sri Rama Wikaram, king of Singhapura, reigns. C. 1236. S. 1158. H. 634. Sri Maharaja ascends the throne of Singhapura. C. 1249. S. 1171. H. 647. Sri Iskander Shah reigns at Singhapura. C. 1250. S. 1172. H. 648. Colonies from Gilolo settle in the island of Ter nate. C. 1252. S. 1174. H. 650. The king of Java invades Singhapura, and drives the Malays from thence, who, proceeding farther west, found the city of Malacca. C. 1257. S. 1!79. H. 655. Chicho, the first Kolano, or king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1266. S. 1188. H. 665. The earliest of the temples of Brambanan in Java are built. C. 1274. S. 1196. H. 673. Sri Iskander Shah, who founded the city of Malacca, dies, and is succeeded by Sultan Magat. C. 1276. S. 1198. H. 675. Sultan Mahomed Shah ascends the throne of Malacca. He embraces the Mahomedan religion, and takes possession of the islands of Lingga and Bintan. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 483 C. 1277. S. 1199. H. 676. Poit, the second king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1284. S. 1206. H. 683. Siale, the third king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1290. S. 1212. H. 689. The celebrated traveller, Marco Polo, visits the Malayan Archipelago. C. 1296. S. 1218. H. 696. The latest of the temples of Brambanan in Java are constructed. C. 12g8. S. 1220. H. 698. Kalebata, the fourth king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1304. S. 1226. H. 704. Komala, the fifth king of Ternate, reigns. The Javanese and Malays visit the island of Ternate for cloves, and many of them settle there. The people of Ternate extend their conquests to some of the neighbouring islands. C. 1317- S. 1239. H. 717. Pacharanga Malamo, king of Ternate, reigns. The people of Ternate come to the extraordi nary resolution of adopting it as a principle, to no minate the nearest collateral male relation, instead of the lineal descendant of the reigning prince, to the throne. C. 1319. S. 1241. H. 719. The kingdom of Janggolo in Java, under Panji Ina Karta Pati, flourishes. 484 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C.1322. S. 1244. H. 722. Sida Aarif Malamo, nephew ofthe last king of Ternate by his sister, succeeds to the throne. A great number of Javanese and Arabs visit Ternate, and settle there. V The confederation ofthe four kings ofthe Mo luccas is formed. C. 1331. S. 1253. H. 732. Paji Malamo, king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1332. S. 1254. H. 733. Paji Malamo, king of Ternate, is assassinated, and succeeded by Shah Alam. Sultan Abu Shahid aspends the throne of Ma lacca. C. 1334. S. 1256. H. 735. The people of Ternate conquer the island of . Machian. Abu Shahid, king of Malacca, is murdered, and Sultan Mozassar Shah ascends the throne. C. 1338. S. 1260. H. 739. The magnificent Buddhist temple of Boro Bu dur in Java is constructed. C. 1340. S*. 1262. H. 741. The king of Malacca engages in a war with Siam, the sovereign of which country is killed in a battle which ensues. C. 1343. S. 1265. H. 744. Tulu Malamo succeeds to the throne of Ternate. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 485 C. 1347- S.-12C9. H. 748. Boheyat succeeds to the throne of Ternate. C. 1350. S. 1272. H. 751. Molomat Cheya, king of Ternate, reigns. An Arabian adventurer instructs the king of Ternate in the Arabian language, and in the art of ship-building. The people of Ternate conquer the Xulla Isles. C. 1357- S. 1279. H. 759. Momole, king of Ternate, reigns. C. 1358. S. 1281. H. 76O. Gapi Malamo, king of Ternate, reigns. By the assistance of the emigrants from Java and Celebes, who resorted in numbers to Ternate, the power of that country is greatly increased. C. 1366. S. 1288. H. 768. Laomasah, king of Boni in Celebes, ascends the throne. C. 1372. S. 1294. H. 774. Gapi Baguna the First, reigns in Ternate. The king of Ternate succeeds to the throne of Gilolo. C. 1374. S. 1296. H. 776. Sultan Mansur Shah ascends the throne of Ma lacca. C. 1377. S. 1299. H. 779. Kamala Pulu, king of Ternate, reigns. The king of Ternate acquires the first rank among the kings of the Moluccas. 486 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Kamala Pulu, king of Ternate, succeeds, after a long and prosperous reign, in establishing the suc cession to the throne in his own direct line. C. 1380. S. 1302. H. 782. The king of Malacca espouses the daughter of the king of Java, and receives, as her marriage por tion, the kingdom of Indragiri, in Sumatra. C. 1391. S. 1313. H. 794. An unsuccessful attempt to convert the Java nese to Mahomedanism is made by Raja Charmen. C. 1398. S. 1320. H. 801. Laomasah, king of Boni in Celebes, is succeeded by his son, Lasaliwah. C. 1412. S. 1334. H. 815. Maulana Ibrahim, who accompanied Raja Char men to Java, dies at Garsik in that island. C. 1432. S. 1354. H. 836. , Gapi Baguna the Second, succeeds bis father on the throne of Ternate, C. 1439. S. 1361. H. 843. The Hindu temples at Sukuh, in the mountain of Lawuh in Java, are constructed. C. 1447. S. 1369. H. 851. Sultan Ala ed-din Shah ascends the throne of Malacca. C. 1465. S. 1387. H. 870. Marhum, king of Ternate, reigns. Javanese, Malays, and Chinese, in great num bers, frequent Ternate in quest of the clove trade. , 10 GHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 487 The king of Ternate, towards the close of his reign, partially embraces the Mahomedan reli gion. C. 1470. S. 1392. H. 875. Lasaliwah, king of Boni m Celebes, dies, and is succeeded by his daughter, Ibri Gao, called also Daeng Marewa. C. 1477. S. 1399. H. 882. Sultan Mahomed Shah, the second of the name, ascends the throne of Malaeca. C. 1478. S. 1400. H. 883. The city and kingdom of Mojopahit are destroy ed, and the Mahomedan religion established in Java. C. 1480. S. 1402. H. 885. The people of the western end of the island of Java, or the Sundas, are converted to the Maho medan religion by Shekh Ibn Maulana, an Arab, and his family. C. 1486. S. 1408. H. 891. Zainalabdin, king of Ternate, reigns. The power of the people of Ternate is spread to the islands of Boeroe, Amboyna, and Ceram. C. 1490. S. 1412. H. 896. Ibri Gao, queen of Boni in Celebes, dies, and is succeeded by her son, Latang ri Suki. C. 1495. S. 1417. H.90I. Zainalabdin, king of Ternate, embraces the Ma homedan religion, and is properly considered the 488 , CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. first Mussulman sovereign.— The Javanese in num bers frequent the island, with the double view of obtaining- cloves for the market of the west, and of propagating the Mahomedan religion. - The king of Ternate visits Giri in Java, in order to receive instruction in the Mahomedan religion, and on his return is killed at Bima in a duel. Husen, a native of Java, arrives at Ternate, and becomes a principal instrument in propagating the Mahomedan religion in that island. C. 1500. S. 1422. H. 906. Bayang Allah ascends the throne of Ternate, and, being a prince of talents, busies himself in civilizing his people. - C. 1511. S. 1433. H. 917. The Portuguese conquer Malacca, and drive the king Mahomed Shah from his kingdom, on which he establishes a principality at Jehor and Bintan, — They arrive at Bantam in the reign of Husen Udin, king of that country. Ibrahim, a slave pf Pidir in Sumatra, , is ap pointed governor of Achin, a dependency of that kingdom, revolts, and renders himself independent. Albuquerque, sends from Malacca a squadron un der Antonio de Abreu for the discovery of the Moluccas. De Abreu touches at Amboyna only, from whence he returns with a cargo of cloves. —Francis Seran is separated from the squadron of De Abreu, and being shipwrecked on a desert CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 489 island, is carried with his crew by the friendly natives to Amboyna, the king of which island re ceives these insidious and dangerous guests with caresses and hospitality. C. 1512. S. 1434. H. 918. The Portuguese arrive in Celebes, in the reign of Tuni Jalu ri Pasuki, king of Goa Macassar, and are permitted by that prince to settle in the country. — They find some of the inhabitants con verted to the Mahomedan religion. The Malays, under the celebrated Laksimana, invest Malacca ; they are defeated ; but the Ma layan commander extricates himself with great skill. A famine takes place at Malacca, attended by an epidemic, and a truce is concluded between the Malays and Portuguese. Patiquiter, the Javanese ally of king Mahomed, is totally defeated by the Portuguese, and with his Javanese retires to his native country. C. 1513. S. 1435. H. 919. Pati Unus, a chief of Japara in Java, sails against . Malacca with a great fleet consisting of near three hundred sail, and is defeated near Malacca with the loss of eight thousand men and sixty ofhis large war gallies. — He escapes, himself, to Java with difficulty. Sultan Ahmed Shah, commonly called Aladin, (his name as hereditary prince,) ascends the throne of Jehor. 490 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1514. S. 1436. H. 920. . Ninachetuan, a Pagan Malay of Malacca, burns himself publicly on a funeral pile, on account ofthe ingratitude of the Portuguese. The Raja of Campar in Sumatra, exercising the functions of Bandahara, or first minister of Malac ca, is unjustly put to death by the Portuguese, in consequence of which they are execrated, and the city is deserted. C. 1516. S. 1438. H. 922. Mahomed, ex-king of Malacca, and king of Bintan and Jehor, blockades Malacca. C. 1517. S. 1439. H. 923. Mahomed, ex king of Malacca, attacks that place a second time — is beaten off, hut returns to the blockade. C. 1518. S. 1440. H. 924. Mahomed, ex-king of Malacca, continues the blockade of that city, which is defended successfully by seventy Portuguese. C. 1519. S. 1441. H.925. Mahomed, king of Bintan, continues his block ade of Malacca, but the garrison being reinforced by Garcia de Sa, they attack Mahomed's entrench ed camp, which they take, and that prince retires again to Bintan. The king of Achin, taking advantage of the dis tressed state of Malacca, attacks the Portuguese factories within his dominions, and makes prisoners or puts to death the Europeans. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 491 . C. 1521. S. 1443. H. 928. George Albuquerque, governor of Malacca, at tacks Passe in Sumatra, Jeinal the king of which is killed in the storm. — He restores to the throne the legitimate king who had fled to Hindustan, imploring the assistance of the Portuguese. George de Britto, with a squadron of nine ships, touching at Achin on his way to the Moluccas, is induced from avarice, and at the instigation of a shipwrecked Portuguese named Borba, who had in his distress been kindly treated by the king, to at tack a temple reputed to contain great riches, in which he is defeated and slain. Antonio de Britto succeeds to the command of the squadron destined for the Moluccas, and, pro ceeding to Malacca, unites with George Albu querque in an attempt against Bintan, with eighteen vessels and six hundred soldiers. They attack that place, and are disgracefully defeated by the ce* lebrated Laksimana, who pursues Albuquerque, after his coadjutor had proceeded in his voyage to the Moluccas, and takes one ship ofhis squadron. The Spaniards, conducted by Magellan, arrive in the Moluccas by the Straits bearing his name. That great navigator is killed in an affray with the people of the little isle of Maktan, one of the Philippines. Antonio de Britto, as governor ef the Moluccas, touches at Java on his way to these islands. He 492 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. reaches Banda ; where he finds Don Garcjo Hen- riques, sent thither by George Albuquerque, who gives him the surprising information of the arrival of two Spanish ships in the Moluccas by an eastern passage. De Britto seizes the twelve Spaniards, left at Tidor by the companions of Magellan, and one of the two ships of that great commander's squadron, being forced back into the Moluccas in distress, he sends her crew as prisoners to Portugal. The queen regent of Ternate, and Almanzor,king of Tidor, dispute the honour of having a Portuguese fort and garrison in their dominions, and the latter is mortified at the preference given to the former. De Britto intrigues at Ternate ; deprives the queen of the regency ; and stirs up a civil war there and at Tidor. He offers a reward of a piece of fine cloth for the head of every Tidorean which is brought to him, and has speedily to distribute six hundred ' pieces for such services. , The«king of Tidor declares open war against the Portuguese, and gains several advantages, but has his capital finally captured and destroyed. C. 1522. S. 1445. H. 929. Ibrahim, king of Achin, takes Pidir by strata gem, and subjects it to his power. C. 1523. S. 1445. H. 930. The king of Achin makes himself master of the CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 493 countries of Passe, Aru, and Pidir, and besieges the fortress of Passe, the Portuguese garrison of which, after a gallant defence, are suddenly panic- struck, and take flight, which puts an end for ever to the Portuguese dominion in Sumatra. The Portuguese are defeated in the river Muara near Malacca by the Malays. The king of Pahang, hitherto in friendship with the Portuguese, joins Mahomed, king of Bintan, and massacres the Portuguese wherever he finds them. The inhabitants of Java seize upon the Portu guese in that island, and massacre them. Malacca, surrounded by enemies, is cut off from supplies, and suffers from famine. The celebrated Laksimana, taking advantage of the circumstance, and the absence of the Portuguese shipping in quest of provisions, comes into the roads, and burns a Portuguese ship in presence of the garrison. .The Laksimana captures two ships sent against him by the governor of Malacca. The king of Bintan invests Malacca with a fleet and army, the former commanded by the Laksi mana, and consisting of twenty thousand men, and the latter by a renegade Portuguese, and consist ing of sixty thousand. Alphonso de Sosa arrives at Malacca, and re lieves the city; — he blockades the Laksimana in the river Muaru j — he sails for Pahang, wliere he de- 494 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. stroys all the merchant vessels lying there, among others numerous trading vessels of Java ; — he kills six thousand persons at that place, and takes prison ers in such numbers as to afford to every Portu guese six slaves. He sails, finally, to Patani, and commits depredations still more extensive, reducing the whole town to ashes. C. 1526. S. 1448. H. 933. Mascarenas, governor-general of India, sails from Malacca, against Bintan, with a fleet of twenty-one ships, and an army of four hundred Portuguese, and six hundred Malays. The Laksi mana attacks and boards one of his gallies, and is on the point of carrying her, when she is saved by the assistance of the governor-general. The Portuguese storm the entrenchments and town of Bintan ; and, though the Laksimana, who commanded in person, makes a gallant defence, they are taken, the town given up to pillage, and finally razed. King Mahomed retires to the main land, where he establishes himself. The Spaniards form their first establishment in the Moluccas, on the report of the companions of Magellan. C. 1527. S. 1449. H. 934. Don Garcio Henriques succeeds De Britto in the government of the Moluccas, and makes peace with the king of Tidor. Don Garcio Henriques, the Portuguese gover- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 495 nor of the Moluccas, poisons Almanzor, king of Tidor, through his physician, whose attendance the latter when sick had requested. The Portuguese governor, under pretext of non-fulfilment of the treaty on the part of the peo ple of Tidor, invades the island unexpectedly, and pillages and burns the town. The islanders, awak ened by these enormities, resolve to do all in their power to shut their ports against the Portuguese^ and if possible to exterminate them. The emperor Charles the Fifth, convinced of the goodness of his claim to the Moluccas,, fits out a squadron of six ships for these islands, two of which, with three hundred men only, arrive. The Tidoreans receive them with cordiality, but the weakness, both of the Spaniards and Portuguese, prevent the Europeans from coming to open hosti lities. Don George Menezes arrives as governor of the Moluccas, and his contests with the late governor give occasion to a civil war between the Portuguese of the Spice Islands. The Spaniards, reinforced from Europe, attaek the Portuguese, and gain some advantage over them ; but the latter, being in time also reinforc ed, drive them from the island of Tidor, and com pel them to a treaty, agreeing to quit the Moluccas. The young king of Ternate is accused by his aincle of sorcery and secret arts, and is compelled ' 496 , CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. to fly to the citadel, where, receiving no assistance from the Portuguese governor, he throws himself from a window, and kills himself to avoid a more ignominious death . Menezes, on the bare supposition of his having- killed a Chinese hog belonging to himself, causes the uncle ofthe king of Ternate, and head of the Mahomedan religion, to be seized and imprison ed, and, before discharging him, directs his face to be smeared over with the lard of the animal. The insulted prince, in consequence, flies from island to island, stirring up the people to resist their Euro pean oppressors. The people of Ternate refuse to bring provisions to the Portuguese fort. Menezes seizes three chiefs of Ternate for resist ance to the Portuguese, and directs the right hands of two of them to be cut off. The third, having his hanq^s tied behind his back, is left on the beach to be devoured by two mastiffs set upon him for the purpose. Menezes publicly executes the regent of Ternate for a pretended conspiracy, on which the native in habitants quit the country almost without excep tion. C. 1528. S. 1450. H.935. Simon de Sosa, proceeding as governor to the Moluccas, stops at Achin, where he is attacked by CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 40 > the king, his vessel taken, and himself killed, af ter a gallant resistance. A king of the Sundas in Java, (possibly Prabu Seda, the Hindu king of Pajajaran, conquered by the king of Bantam,) calls in the assistance of the Portuguese, who arrive under Francis de Sa ; but, finding their ally subdued, they retire, after los ing one of their ships, the crew of which were put to death by the natives. C. 1529. S. 1451. H. 935. The governor of Malacca discovers a conspiracy of the king of Achin to destroy the Portuguese, and take the city, and he executes the principal con spirators. Aladin Shah ascends the throne of Achin. The Spaniards renounce their claims to the Mo luccas for a pecuniary consideration of three hun dred and fifty thousand ducats. C. 1530. S. 1452. H.936. The king of Achin deceives the Portuguese, who, sending a mission tp him from Malacca, the ship which conveys it is treacherously attacked and taken, and the envoy, with all his people, put to death in cold blood, f The king of Achin, encouraged by his success * agafnst the Portuguese, meditates the conquest of Malacca, and intrigues .with the Shahbandar, or intendant qf the port, but the plot is discovered, VOL. II. i i 498 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. and the traitor put tb death, by being thrown head long from a window pf the castle. r Gonsalvo Pereira sails, as governor, for the Mo luccas, and touches at the port of Borneo in the island of that name, where he makes commercial arrangements with the king. Gonsalvo Pereira arrives in the Moluccas, and attempts to remedy the disorders brought about by the misgovernment of his predecessors. In con sequence of his measures, the Ternatians return to their countiy, and a good understanding is esta blished with the king of Tidor, - The Portuguese, dissatisfied with the conduct of Pereira, stir up a revolt of the Ternatians against him, and he is killed in an insurrection which takes place. — The conspirators seize the government, and dethrone the king of Ternate, who flies to the mountains to escape their persecution. — They raise to the throne in his room a son of the late king by a concubine. Fonseca, the usurping governor of Ternate, carries fire and sword into the island of Tidor, and pursues the king of that place and the king of Ter nate, forcing these unfortunate princes to take re fuge in the forests. % Tristari d'Ataida takes charge of the govern ment of the Moluccas, a worse man than any of his bad predecessors.— He dethrones the king ef CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 499 Ternate, and raises in his room the infant son of a Javanese concubine by the late king. — The mother refusing her consent to the ele vation of her son to this dangerous distinction, her reluctance is construed into a crime, and she is seized and thrown over the windows of the castle. C. 1531 : S. 1453. H. 937. The kings of Gilolo, the Papuas, and the prin ces of the Moluccas, join in a league to extermi nate the Portuguese, and succeed in massacring a great number. The Portuguese fortress in Ternate is blockaded by the Ternatians and their allies, and the garri son reduced by famine to the last extremity. The Portuguese receive several partial reinforce ments, but are confined for years almost to their fortifications, until they receive succours by the new governor, the heroic and virtuous Antonio Galvan. C. 1536. S. 1458. H. 942. Antonio Galvan arrives in the Moluccas, and reduces affairs to some Order. C. 1537. S. 1459. H. 943. Antonio Galvan proceeds to Tidor, and with four hundred men, one hundred and seventy of whom only are Portuguese, attacks the allied prin ces ofthe Moluccas, whose army amounted, bythe Portuguese computation, to thirty thousand, and £00 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE- defeats them, killing the king of Ternate, and los? ing but one Porttfgue^e slave. The lafe governor of the Moluccas attempts to form a party against Galvan ; a revolt takes place, and the conspirators quit Ternate for India, leaving their countrymen much weakened by their desertion. Antonio Galvan proposes to the kings of Gi- lolp and Bachian, to save the effusion of blood, by a single combat with each of them, which theyacr cept, but the meeting is prevented by the interces sion of the king of Tidor, and peace is concluded. Tabarija, king of Ternate, sent by Ataida to In dia, is there converted to Christianity, and sent back to be reinstated in his kingdpm, but dies at Malacca on his way to the Moluccas, Ferdinand Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, sends two Spanish ships to the Moluccas, which arrive in great distress, and are finally shipwrecked. ¦ — The crews being made prisoners, are treated by. Galvan with generosity and humanity. The merchants of Java, Banda, Celebes, and Amboyna, deprived of the spice trade, resolve to open a commerce by force of arms, and assemble an army for that purpose at Amboyna, which is de feated by a Portuguese expedition sent against it from Ternate. Galvan employs himself zealously in the task of converting the islanders to Christianity*; he instU Chronological table. 50l tutes a seminary for religious education, afterwards approved of by the Council of Trent ; and Chris tianity not only makes rapid progress in the Mo luccas, but is spread to Celebes and Mindanao. Galvan, after making himself beloved to such a degree, by his great qualities, as to cause the in habitants of the Moluccas to propose making him their king, is superseded in his government. The king of Achin besieges Malacca, and is driven from the place by a sortie of the besiegers. Paul de Gama is sent by the governor of Ma lacca to reduce Jehor, the new residence of Ala din, but is attacked by the celebrated Laksimana, and defeated, losing his own life, and having the greater part of his force destroyed. Don Estevan de Gama, governor of Malacca^ attacks the town of Jehor, reduces and sacks it. The king of Achin again attacks the city of Malacca. C. 1540. S. 1462. H. 947. Sultan Ala ed-din Shah the Second ascends the throne of Jehor. C. 1544. S. 1466, H.95L George de Castro renews the scenes of iniquity transacted by the Portuguese in the Moluccas, and sends another king of Ternate prisoner to Goa. C. 1547- S. 1469. H. 954. The celebrated Saint Francis Zavier, one ofthe 502 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. companions of Ignatius de Loyola, makes his ap pearance at Malacca, and the Portuguese ascribe to his presence the salvation of the place from a for midable attack ofthe king of Achin. Oct. 18. — The king of Achin sends an army of One hundred thousand men against Malacca, with a fleet of seventy large gallies, and having in his army five hundred Turkish janissaries. Dec. 24. — The Portuguese fleet go fti search of that of the king of Achin, and, attacking them in the river of Parks in Sumatra, gain a complete vic tory, the Achinese losing four thousand men. C. 1549. S. 1471. H. 956. Saint Francis, Zavier propagates Christianity in the Moluccas. C. 1550-51. S. 1472-73. H. 957-58. Aladin, king of Jehor, with the assistance of the neighbouring Malay princes, and the queen of Japara in Java, sends a powerful fleet and army against Malacca; which is greatly reduced by fa mine, but at last relieved by the retreat of the confederates. The heroic and veteran Laksimana, with hislpn -in-law, are killed in this expedition. C. 1556. S. 1478. H. 963. Husen Shah ascends the throne of Achin. C. 1557. S. 1479. H. 964. Edward Dec^, the Portuguese governor of the Moluccas, puts Aeiro, king of Ternate, in irons, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 503 and imprisons him ; in consequence of wliich there is a general insurrection throughout the island. C. 1559. S. 1481. H.966. Aeiro, king of Ternate, is released and restored } in consequence of which tranquillity is re-establish ed throughout the Moluccas. Sultan Abd-ul- Julil the First ascends the throne of Jehor. C/1565, S. 1487. H. 973. Raja Firman Shah ascends the throne of Achin, and is soori afterwards murdered. Raja Jawil ascends the throne of Achin, and is murdered soon after. Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, in the reign of Philip the Second of Spain, takes nominal posses sion ofthe Philippines. Zebu, one of the Philippines* is conquered by the Spaniards. C. 1567. S. 1489. H. 975. Mansur Shah, a native of the Malay state of Perah in the Peninsula, ascends the throne of Achin. The king of Achin joins in the league of the western powers of India against the Portuguese, and sends a fleet and army against Malacca. C. 1568. S. 1490. H, 976- The king of Achin in person goes against Malacca 504 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. With a great force, and is compelled to raise the siege,- after losing four thousand men, and his eldest son. C. 1569. S. 1491. H. 977- A single Portuguese man-of-war defeats the Achinese fleet, commanded by the king in person. C. 1570. S. 1492. H. 978. Aeiro, king of Ternate, is treacherously assassi nated by Lopez de Mesqflita, governor Of the Mo luccas, at his own house/ under pretext of a friend ly conference, and his body being refused to his friefids, who demand it for burial, is cut in pieces and thrown into the sea. The Ternatians under Baber, the late king's son, retire to the mountains, and for the rest of the period of the residence of the Portuguese in the Moluccas, continue to harass them by a predatory warfare. C, 1571. S. 1493. H. 979. The king of Achin sends a fleet to attack that under the Portuguese admiral Louis de Melo, and is defeated near Malacca with great loss. -fManila is conquered by the Spaniards, and a town built. C. 1572. S. 1494. H. 980. ;• The king of Achin, in consequence of a league entered into with the princes of western India, again attacks Malacca with a numerous army, but CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 505 his .fleet is defeated by Tristan de la Vega, and he is in consequence compelled to raise the siege. C. 1573. S. 1495. H.981. The king of Achin having formed an alliance with the queen of Japara in Java, again attacks Malacca. . C. 1574, S. 1496. H. 982. Manila is attacked by the Chinese rover Lima- lion, and*nearly taken. The queen of Japara, with an army of fifteen thousand men, and a fleet of forty-five great junks, attacks Malacca, and, after a siege of three months, is compelled to retire. C. 157r. S. 1497-. H.983. The king of Achin again besieges Malacca with a greater force than at any former period, and when on the eve of taking the town, which is defended by no more than one hundred and fifty men, is sud denly panic-struck, and retires with precipitation. ' Don Francisco la Sande, governor ofthe Philip pines. C. 1578. S. 1500. H. 986. Nov. 14th. — The English, under Sir Francis Drake, make their first appearance in the Archipe lago, touching at the islands of Ternate and Java. C. 1580, S. 1502. H. 988. Don Gonzalo Ronquillo, governor of the Philip.- pines. 50,6 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Bab Ullah, king of Ternate, visits Macassar* and recommends the Mahomedan religion to the inhabitants. » The island of Butung is subdued by Bab Ullah'; king of Ternate. C. 1581. S. 1503. H. 989. Baber, king of Ternate, captures the Portu guese fortress, and puts an end to the Portuguese dominion in that island. The kingdom of Portugal being united to that pf Spain, on the death of Don Sebastian and Don Henry, its Indian dominions fall under the power of the latter. C. 1582. S. 150*. H. 990. ¦ The king of Achin makes one more unsuccess ful attack upon Malacca. The Spaniards, from the Philippines, make an unsuccessful attack on the Moluccas. *C. 1584. S. 1506. H. 992. Don Santiago de Vera, governor of the Philip pines. - &.. C. 1585. S. 1507. H. 993. The Spaniards, from the Philippines, send an other unsuccessful, expedition against the Moluccas. Mansur Shah, king of Achin, his queen, and many of the principal nobility, are murdered by the commander-in-chief of the army. The grand- 10 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 507 son of Mansur Shah, usually denominated Sultan Bujang, (the Lad,) nominally succeeds to the throne, • C. 1586. S. 1508. H. 99*» The Senopati, first prince of the house of Ma taram, destroys Pajang. There is a great eruption from the volcanic range of mountains towards the eastern end of the island of Java, by which many lives are lost. C. 1588. S. 1510. H. 996. Tuni Jalluh, king of Macassar, is assassinated, and succeeded by his son, Tuni Paselu. Thomas Cavendish, in his circumnavigation of the globe, touches at Blambangan, a kingdom in Java, lying on the straits which divide that island from Bali; The usurper, who had murdered Mansur Shah, king of Achin, alsp puts his grandson to death, and takes formal possession of the throne. C. 1589, S. 1511. H. 997- Various attempts are made by the Spaniards to conquer Mindanao, which are wholly unsuccess ful. The people of that island, in their: turn, send, an expedition, and ravage the Philippines, C. 1590. S. 1512. H. 998, Lapatawa, king of Boni, dies, and is succeeded, by his son. Gomez Perez Dasmarinas, governor of the Phi-. lippines. 508 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. The emperor of Japan sends a letter and mission to the Philippines. The king of Camboja sends a mission to the go vernor of the Philippines, begging his assistance against the king of Siam. C. 1591. S. 1513. H. 999- * Tuni Paselu, king of Goa Macassar, is dethron ed, and succeeded by his brother, Turiiamenga ri Gaokana, called also Allah u Din. Sultan Abd ulah Shah ascends the throne of Jehor. C. 1593. S. 1515. H. 1001. The governor of the Philippines, Dasmarinas, having sailed on an expedition against the Moluc cas, his fleet is dispersed, and he is murdered by the mutiny of the Chinese portion of his creW, who had been cruelly used by the Spaniards. The licentiate Rosas, provisional governor of the Philippines. C. 1596. S. 1518. H. 100'4. The Dutch, under Hautman, arrive in Java, in the reign of the Panambahan Senopati of Ma taram, and Abdul Muf&ker, king of Bantam. The prince of Madura and his family are mas sacred by the Dutch in attempting to pay a visit of ceremony on board of Hautman's fleet, Don Francisco Tello de Gusman, governor of the Philippines, li CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 509 C. 1600. S. 1522. H. 1009. The Dutch visit Achin, and are perfidiously treated by the king. C. 1601. S. 1523. H. 1010. The king of Achin sends two ambassadors to Holland, one of whom dies there, but the other returns in safety. The Panambahan Senopati, prince of Mataram in Java, dies, and is succeeded by his son, Panam bahan Sedo Krapyak, The use of tobacco is introduced into Java, December 29th, — The Dutch, under Hermans- sen, defeat the Spanish fleet under Andrew Fur- tado de Mendoza, off Bantam. C. 1602. S. 1524. H. 1011. The English make their first appearance in the Archipelago, and reach Achin, under Sir James Lancaster, with a letter and presents from Queen Elizabeth, Don Pedro Brabo de Acuna, governor of the Philippines. The emperor of Japan sends ambassadors to the governor of the Philippines, requesting a continua tion of the commercial intercourse between Japan and those islands, and some Spanish shipwrights. C. 1603. S, 1525. H. 1012. The English under Lancaster establish a com merce with Bantam. The emperor of China sends an embassy to Ma, 510 CHR6N0L0GICAL TABLE. nila, for the object, real or pretended, of ascertain ing the truth respecting a report which had reach ed him, that the port of Cavito was formed of goldi The Chinese df the Philippines revolt against the Spaniards, and, after a long resistance, are ex terminated, to the number of twenty-three thousand. The emperor of China sends a mission to the Philippines, to inquire into the murder of his countrymen. He is satisfied with the explanation afforded by the governor, and the commercial in tercourse goes on on the old footing. C. 1604. S. 1526. H. 1013. Ali MaghayatShah ascends the throne of Achiri, after impfisoning his father. C. 1605. S. 1527. H. 1014. The Panambahan Krapyak, prince of Mataram in Java, suppresses the rebellion ofhis brother, the Pangeran of Pugar, by defeating him, and taking him prisoner. Datu ri Bandang, a native of the Malayan king dom of Menangkabao, converts the kings of Goa and Tallo in Celebes, by whose influence tne Maho medan religion is accepted by all the Macassar states. C. 1606. S. 1528. H. 1015. The Macassars force 'the people of Boni, and the Waju nations, to adopt the Mahomedan religion. Martin Alfonzo, a Portuguese commander, at tacks Achin, and is beaten off. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE* 511 The Spanish governor, of the Philippines sends an expedition against the Moluecas, and captures Ternate and Tidor, carrying off the king of the former place, and many of his nobles, to Manila. The Japanese residing in the Philippines re volt against the Spaniards, and their insurrection is suppressed. Don Christoval Telles de Almanza, provisional governor of the Philippines. Another insurrection of the Japanese takes place in the Philippines, C. 1608. S. 1530. H. 1017- The prince of Mataram in Java suppresses the rebellion of the Pangeran JogorOgo. Don Rodrigo Vivero, provisional governor of the Philippines. C. 1609. S. 1531. H. 1018. Don Juan de Silva, governor of the Philippines. The Spaniards defeat a Dutch squadron of six ships, off the Philippines. C; 1610. S. 1532. H. 1019. Iskandar Muda ascends the throne of Achin. Sultan Abd Ulah Shah ascends the throne of Jehor. C. 1611. S. 1533. H. 1020. Peter Both, the first Dutch governor-general, arrives at Bantam. He enters into a treaty with Widyak Rama, king 5 1 2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. of Jacatra, by which the Dutch are allowed to build a fort, and establish a factory at that place. C. 1613. S. 1535. H. TO22. The prince of Mataram dies, and is succeeded by his son, known by the name of Sultan Agung, or the Great Sultan, The young sultan sends an army under his general Surantani, and attempts the conquest of the eastern districts of Java, but fails. King James the First of England sends a letter and presents to the king of Achin, by Captain Best. The Dutch enter into treaties with the king of Ternate and other petty princes of the Moluccas, by which they endeavour to insure to themselves the exclusive trade in cloves. The Dutch capture the Portuguese settlements in Solor and Tidor. The Spaniards fit put an expedition against the Moluccas, which is repelled by the Dutch with a heavy loss to the former. ; The Dutch, with a squadron often ships, infest the coast of the Philippines, and burn and destroy- some towns and villages. The king of Achin writes a friendly letter to the king of England, and requests to have one of his countrywomen to wife, promising to make her son king of the pepper countries. The king of Achin conquers Siak, and plunders CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 513 the Jehor, carrying off a great many of the inha bitants as slaves. C. I6i4. S. 1536. H. 1023. The sultan of Mataram in person conquers the eastern provinces of Java as far as Wirorosobo in clusive. C. 1615. S. 1537, H. 1024, , Gerard Rpynst, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. Reynst compels the English to quit Am boyna. * An eruption of a volcano takes place at Banda. May 14th. — The Dutch commence hostilities with the Bandanese, and capture Pulo-ay, but are driven out of it again by the inhabitants. The king of Achin, with a numerous fleet, and an army of sixty thousand men, sails against Ma lacca* and is defeated by the Portuguese before ef fecting a landing. The English visit Macassar, and conclude a com mercial treaty with the king. The confederated chiefs of the eastern provinces of Java invade the territories of the sultan of Ma taram, but are reduced by famine and sickness, and ultimately defeated by the prince in person. Ele phants are described as having been used on this occasion. C. 1616. S. 1538. H. 1025. The sultan of Mataram conquers the district of Lassem. VOL. II. Kk 5 1 4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Don Juan de Silva, governor of the Philippines, sails with a powerful expedition against the Dutch settlements and commerce, but dying at Malacca, the fleet returns to Manila without effecting any thing, Don Andres Alearas, governor of the Philip pines. Speelberg, the Dutch admiral, arriving by the Straits of Magellan, blockades the harbour of Ma nila. Laurent Reaal, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. The Dutch capture Pulo-ay, one of the Spice Islands. C. 1617. S. 1539. H. 1026. April 14. — An action is fought between a Dutch and Spanish squadron, with partial loss on . both sides. Martolbyo, the commander of the Mataram forces, conquers the district of Pasuruhan, and car ries off all the women who fall into his hands. The chief of Pajang revolts, and is defeated. C. 1618. S. 1540. H. 1027. The sultan of Mataram in Java conquers the district of Tuban, and makes slaves of the female prisoners. The Dutch plunder and burn the town of Japara. July 2. — Don Alonzo Faxardo, governor of the Philippines. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. .5 1 5 .Jan Pietersz Coen, governor-general ofthe Dutch Indies. The kings of Bantam and Jacatra, with the Eng lish, enter into a plot to expel the Dutch from Java, and hostilities commence. C. 1619. S. 1541. H. 1028. The Dutch enter into a capitulation to surren der their garrison at Jacatra, but are saved by the secession of the king of Bantam from the league against them. The name of Batavia is bestowed on the Dutch fort at Jacatra. May 28. — Coen returns from Amboyna with a large force, and attacks and destroys the town of Jacatra. , The Dutch commence hostilities with the Ban- tamese, which last ten years. Tomamenanga ri Gaokana, king of Goa Ma cassar, lays the states of Bima, Tambora, Dompo, and Sangar, in the island of Sambawa, under con tribution. The king of Achin conquers Queda and Perah, in the Malayan Peninsula, and Dili in Sumatra. C. 1620. S. 1542. H. 1029. The Dutch and English East India Companies having entered into treaty, the former propose the reduction of the Banda Isles as a joint enterprise, which the latter decline, declaring their want of 516 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. means to be the sole reason. The Dutch by them selves achieve the conquest of these Isles. C. 1621. S. 1543. H. 1030. Sultan Mahomed Shah the Third ascends the throne of Jehor. The French, uader General Beaulieu, make their first appearance in the Archipelago, carrying a letter and presents from the king of France to the king of Achin, C. 1623. S. 1545. H. 1032. The sultan of Mataram conquers the island of Madura. — He conquers the province of Surabaya. A great revolt Of the native inhabitants of the Philippines takes place^ which is at length quelled with difficulty. . Peter de Charpentier, goyernor-gjHeral Of the Indies. The Dutch pretending to have discovered a plot of the English arid their Japanese soldiers to seize the fort of t Amboyna, put the supposed conspira tors to the torture, and execute them on their con fession on the rack. C. 1624. S. 1546. H. 1033. The Dutch commence hostilities against the in: habitants of the Moluccasj for selling their cloves to other strangers. Sultan Abd ill Jalil the Second ascends the throne of Jehor. n CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 5 ] 7 Don Geronimo de Silva, provisional governor of the Philippines. A Dutch squadron appearing off the coast of the Philippines, the Spanish governor goes out with a fleet to meet it, and is shamefully defeated. Tomamenanga ri Gaokana, king of Goa Macas sar, sails with a fleet, and subdues Butung, Bongai, the Xulla Isles, Baru, and Kute, and makes a treaty with Bali. He strikes a gold coifi, the first ever coined in Celebes. C. 1625. S. 1547. H. 1034, Mataram, in Java, is afflicted by a fatal epidemic disease. Don Fernando de Silva, provisional governor of the Philippines. The Spani^fds make a settlement on the east side of Formosa, and are successful in converting the native inhabitants to Christianity. C. 1626, S. 1548. H. 1035. Don Juan Nino de Tabora, governor of the Philippines. An expedition sails from the Philippines a- gainst the Dutch establishment in Formosa, but returns without reaching the place, or effecting any thing. The Spaniards of the Philippines fit out an expedition against the Dutch commerce, which sails to Siam, where the Dutch being protected by the king of that countiy, the Spanish com mander burns their junks, and takes prisoners the 5 1 8 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Siamese mission, proceeding on its annual voyage to China. Tanrepala, king of Boni, dies, and is succeeded by his sister's son, Lamadarama. C. 1627- S. 1549. H. 1037- Jan Pietersz Coen, govCrnOr-general of the Dutch Indies for the second time. The Javanese enter into a conspiracy to assassi nate the governor-general Coen, which is defeated. C. 1628. S. 1550. H. 1038. The governor of the Philippines sends an expe dition against the Sooloo Islands, to punish the in habitants for their depredations on the coast of Luconia. The king of Achin, for the last time, sends a fleet and army against Malacca, which are totally destroyed, and the Laksimana, or admiral, made prisoner. The sultan of Mataram suppresses the great re bellion of Pragolo, chief of Pati, his brother-in- law.— He attacks Giri, and takes it, making the Susunan prisoner, and carrying him off to 'Mata ram. August 28. — The sultan of Mataram sends a force against Batavia, and attempts to take it by surprise. Sept. 12. — The Dutch garrison makes a vigor ous sortie. CHK0N0L0GICAL TABLE. 519 Sept. 21. — The Javanese make another attempt to carry the fort by assault. Oct. 21.-— The Dutch, assisted by the Japanese and Chinese inhabitants, attack and destroy the Javanese camp. Oct. 25. — The Dutch again attack the Java nese, and put them to the rout, but the latter ral lying, the Dutch on their side are compelled to retreat with loss. Nov. 27. — The Javanese, being strongly rein forced, make another unsuccessful assault on the fort of Batavia. The Javanese raise the first siege of Batavia. C. 1629. S. 1551. H. 1039. The Spanish governor sails at the head of an ex pedition against the Sooloo Islands, and, attacking a fortified port of the islanders, is disgracefully de feated, and returns to Manila. THbe governor of the province of Nagaski in Ja pan sends a mission to the governor of the Philip pines. The king of Siam sends an embassy to Manila, claiming redress for the ravages committed by the Spaniards in the port of Siam, and the seizure of the ambassador of that country proceeding to Chi na. The king of Kamboju sends a mission to the Philippines, claiming the assistance ofthe Spaniards 5°20 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. against the king of Siam, and requesting ship wrights, who are sent to him. August 22. — The king of Mataram sends a fresh army to attack Batavia. Sept. 21. — The Javanese assault the fortress of Batavia, and are driven back with loss. Sept. 25.— The Dutch governor-general dying* James Specx is nominated in his room. Sept. 29.— The Javanese renew the assault on the fort, and are again defeated. Oet. 20.— The Javanese make a third and last attack on the fortress of Batavia. The Javanese raise the siege of Batavia, and re treat, having, it is alleged, lost by famine, death,. or desertion, one half of an army, amounting to from one hundred to one hundred and twenty thousand. men. C. 1632. S. 1554. H. 1042. July 22.-^-Don Lorenzo Olaso, provisional •go vernor ofthe Philippines. Henry Brouwer, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1633. J. 1555. H. 1043. The Dutch governor-general sends a fruitless embassy to the king of Bali, to claim his assistance against the sultan of Mataram. The sultan of Mataram directs measures to be taken for changing the kalendar ; and the lunar months are adopted instead of the solar. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 52 1 C. 1634. J. 1556. H. 1044. Amboyna and the rest of the Moluccas continue in a state of revolt. C. 1635. J. 1557. H. 1045. June 25. — Don Sebastian Hurtado de Cprcuera, governor ofthe Philippines. The king of Achin imprisons the Portuguese ambassador, and murders all the Portuguese about his court. C. 1636. J. 1558. H. 1046, Antony Van Diemen, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1637. J. 1559. H, 1047, The revolt at Amboyna still continuing, the go-* . vemor-general proceeds thither in person. A great mortality prevails all over the island of Celebes. Don Sebastian Hurtado, governor of the Philip. pines, sails against Sooloo and Mindanao, and after an obstinate struggle, reduces them, but is soon ob liged to recal his garrisons and abandon his coil- quests. C. 1638. J. 1560, H. 1048. Tomamenanga ri Gaokana dies, and is succeeded by his son, Tomamenanga ri Papang Batuna. The governor-general of the Dutch Indies re pairs to Amboyna a second time, and concludes a new treaty with the king of Ternate, but the in surrection still continues. 522 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1639. J. 1561. H. 1049. The Dutch arrive in Celebes, and make a com mercial treaty with the king of Goa Macassar. .The Chinese in the Philippines, now amounting to thirty thousand men, revolt against the Spanish authority ; heing attacked by a military force they are driven from post to post, and at length yield, after their numbers had been reduced to seven thousand. The sultan of Mataram achieves the conquest of Blambangan. He quells a rebellion of the dis trict of Sumadang, and orders the male inhabitants to be exterminated. C. 1640. J. 1562. H. 1050. The king of Achin sends twenty-five galleys to assist the Dutch in their conquest of Malacca. Lamadarama, king of Boni, institutes a religious persecution, and attempts to propagate Mahome danism by the sword. His subjects apply to the king of Goa Macassar, who invades the country, and defeats him. The Portuguese settlements in India are sepa rated from those of Spain, by the rise of the duke of Braganza to the independent throne of Portu gal. C. 1641. J. 1563. H. 1051. The queen, Taju ul Alum, ascends the throne of Achin. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 523 A great number of people are destroyed by the fall of a portion of the mountain Adiksa, in Java. C. 1642. J. 1564. H. 1052. Malacca is taken by the Dutch after a siege and blockade of five months. The viceroy of Goa sends a mission to the Dutch governor-general at Batavia, informing him of the succession of the duke of Braganza to the throne of Portugal. The Dutch, having taken possession of the island of Formosa, their vicinity occasions great consternation at Manila. C. 1643. J. 1565. H. 1053. The Macassars of Goa invade Boni, make the king and other princes prisoners, and subdue the whole countiy, reducing the people to a state of bondage or slavery. The supremacy of Macassar over all Celebes is thus established. The truce of ten years for India is concluded between the Dutch and Portuguese. Tasman discovers New Zealand and Van Die- men's Land. Van Diemen begins the compilation of the co lonial code of laws, called the Statutes of Batavia. The Adipati, or prince of Palembang, does ho mage in person at Mataram. The chief of the Ja vanese colony at Banjarmassir in Borneo sends a mission to the same place. 5f4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1644. J. 1566. H. 1054; Mataram is visited by a second great epidemic. August 11. — Don Diego Farado, governor of the Philippines. The Dutch make an attempt on Sooloo and Mindanao, but are defeated. C. 1645. J. 1567. H. 1055. The Dutch, with a squadron of eleven ships, make various attempts upon Manila and other parts of the Philippines, but finally retreat without effecting any thing. Salicala, son of the king of Soploo, and the Ma lays of Borneo, commit great depredations on the coasts of the Spanish possessions in the Philip pines. The. Spaniards of the Philippines send a retalia tory expedition against the Malays of Borneo, which destroys many of their villages, and carries off two hundred prisoners as slaves* A most formidable insurrection pf the natives takes place throughout the Philippines, which is, quelled with difficulty. A succession of earthquakes takes place during sixty days in the Philippine Islands, when th$ town of Manila is entirely destroyed, and many; liveliest! Cornelias Van der Lyn, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ' 525 April 26. — The Dutch send a mission to the sultan of Mataram, and copclude a, treaty of peacfe with him. The sultan of Mataram in Jaya sends a mission to the king of Macassar in Celebes. C. 1646. J. 1568. H. 1056, The sultan of Mataram dies, and is succeeded by his son, Tagalarum. C. 1647. J- 1569. H. 1057. The sultan of Mataram suppresses a revolt of the people of Blambangan, aided by the people of Bali. C. 1648. J. 1570. H. 105§. The Moluccas continue in a state of insurrec tion, and the inhabitants carry on a continual War fare with the Dutch. C. 1649. J. 1571- H. 1059. The sultan of Mataram issues an order to his subjects, enjoining all the men to marry each two •wives. ' C. 1650. J. 1572. H. 1060. Charles Reinerzoon, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1651. J. 1573. H. 1061. The sultan of Mataram constructs a palace at Plered, and removes his court thither. The Adi pati of Jambi, and the chiefs of Cheribon in Su matra, do homage at Mataram. C. 1652. J. 1574. H. 1062. Jan. 31.— The king of Ternate is carried off to 526 * CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Batavia by the Dutch, and compelled to signa treaty, agreeing to destroy all the cloves in his do minions. Aug. 28. — Vlaming, the governor of Amboyna, executes more than twenty of the nobles of the Moluccas by breaking some on the wheel, and strangling or drowning others. The king of Bantam declares war dgainst the Dutch, and proceeds against Batavia, with sixty thousand men, but does no more than lay waste the surrounding country and retire. C. 1653. J. 1575. H. 1063. Feb. 6. — The Dutch execute a great many no bles and princes of the Moluccas taken prisoners by them. The king of Macassar joins the people of the Moluccas in their league against the Dutch. March 6. — The Dutch and people of Macassar •fight a naval action at Ternate. May 18. — Jan Maatzuiker, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. May 21.— The Dutch order another execution of the Moluccan chiefs. An extraordinary fall of rain takes place in Java, when many parts ofthe country not usually flood ed are inundated. — In the month of Safar of the same year, a comet is seen. A mission appears from Sukadana in Borneo to do homage to the sultan of Mataram. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 527 Tomamenanga ri Papang Batuna dies, and is suc ceeded by his son, Hasan u' Din, called also Tomamenanga Bala Pangkana. Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara, governor of the Philippines. Corrolat, king of Mindanao, puts to death two Jesuits, and some other Spaniards sent to him as ambassadors from Manila. A formidable revolt of the natives takes place in the Philippines. C. 1654. J. 1576. H* 1064. Kraing Patingalong, first minister of Goa, de nominated " the Father of the Country," dies, and is succeeded by the able and renowned Kronrong. The war continues in the Moluccas. C. 1655. J. 1577- H. 1065. The Dutch defeat the Macassars in the Moluc cas, who make a gallant resistance. — Four hundred prisoners are made on this occasion, and assigned to the captors as slaves. A mission from the king of Siam appears at Mataram. The king of Goa Macassar conquers all Butung, overthrpwing the Dutch establishment there. ' C. 1656. J. 1578. H. 1066. The Dutch conclude a peace with the king of Macassar. The king of Gilolo is taken, and, with five and twenty of his people, privately drowned by the 528 . CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE* Dutch, lest his public execution might excite a tu mult among the people. C. 1660. J. 1582. H, 1070. The war still continues to ravagethe Moluccas. A copper currency ig substituted for tin coin by order of the sultan of Mataram .-^-The Pangeran of Surabaya, and forty of his family, are wantonly put to death by order of the sultan. The Dutch send a force against Macassar ; — they destroy six Portuguese ships, and capture the fort of Panekoka. - Peace is concluded between the Dutch and Macassars. C. 1661. J. 1583. H. 1071. The Macassars conquer the kingdom of Sopeng in Celebes. C, 1662. J* 1584. H. 1072, Kwe Sing Kong or Coxinga, having conquered Formosa from the Dutch, sends a mission to Mar nila, requiring the payment of tribute, and his ac knowledgment as sovereign of the Philippines. The governor of the Philippines, in consequence of the hostility of Coxinga, directs all the Chinese to quit the Philippines. Coxinga dies, and his unwarlike son succeeding, the Philippines are relieved from the danger of a Chinese invasion, C. 1663. J. 1585. H. 1074. The Spaniards finally quit the Moluccas. " Don Diego S&lcedo> governor ofthe Philippines, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 529 C. 1664. J. 1586. H. 1072. The Dutch reduce under their sway the princi pal portion of the west coast of Sumatra. A volcanic eruption of the mountain Marapi in Java takes place. The Dutch, under Admiral Vander Laen, send a fleet against Palembang in Sumatra, which they capture and burn. C. 1665. J. 1587. H. 1073. The inhabitants of Pao in Sumatra massacre the Dutch officers and garrison of the island of Chingo. The Macassars fit out a great expedition of seven hundred vessels, and twenty thousand men, for the conquest of Butung and the XuUa Isles, and eventually for that of the Moluccas. They con quer the people of Butung, who redeem them selves for seven hundred and. eighty katis of gold, , (about seven hundred ounces.) C. 1666. J. 1588. H. 1074. The Dutch send a great force, under Admiral Speelman, for the conquest of Macassar. They give the Macassars a complete overthrow at Butung, and, not knowing how to dispose of their prisoners, they leave five thousand on a desert island. C. 1667- J. 1590. H. 10/0. The Dutch reconquer the whole west coast of Sumatra, from Salebar to Barus. The people of Boni in Celebes, with auxiliaries from Ternate and Butung, join the Dutch, when vol. 11, L 1 530 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. these allied parties dictate terms to the Macassars, and the treaty of Bbnayo is concluded. C. 1668. J. 1591. H. 1077- The tureaty between the Macassars and Dutch is broken, and the war renewed through the intrigues of the minister Krongrpng, C. 1669. J. 1592. H. 1078. The Dutch and their allies take from the Ma cassars then; last fort, Sambaopo, and the war ends. The king of Macassar resigns the government of his kingdom to his son Mapa Samba. — Lamadara- ma, the captive king pf Boni, is restored. The pepple of the kingdom -of Dili in Sum«- fet?a throw off their allegiance to the Achinese. September 4, — Don Manuel de Leon, gover nor ©f the Philippines. C. 1671. J. 1594. H. 1080. Sultan Ibrahim Shah ascends the throne pf Jehor. C. 1672. J. 1695. H. 1081. Lamadarama, king of Boni, resigns the crown," and Raja Palaka, who had fled to the Dutch, and by whose instrumentality chiefly the Macassars were subdued, is elected in his room. He is known to his countrymen by the names of Tuni Sombaya, or " The Great," and Matinroa ri Bon- fcuajah, or " he who died at Bontualah." A numerous band of fugitives from Celebes ar rives in Madura. Truna, Jaya, a prince of that country, rebels and joins them. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 581 C. 1673. J. 1596. H. 1082. The fugitives from Celebes, who, in the preced ing year, had landed on Madura, land in the east ern end of Java, ravaging and subjecting several districts. They defeat an army sent against them by the sultan, under Kursulo, chief of the province of Japan.A letter from the Dutch council of the Indies directs the assassination or seizure of Krongrong, minister of Goa, and his party, but the order is not executed. C. 1674. J. 1597- H. 1083, Mapa Samba, king of Goa Macassar, dies, and is succeeded by his paternal uncle, Mapa Usung. Raja Palaka, king of Boni, and the Dutch, re duce the state of Mandar to subjection. The war in the Moluccas ends this year. Violent earthquakes take place at Amboyna itt this year, in 167 1 and 1673, in which two thou sand three hundred and twenty-two persons are destroyed. C. 1675. J. 1598. H. 1084. Craing Montemarano, a fugitive from Celebes, invades Java. Nittr-ul-Ahim, queen of Achha, ascends the throne. C. 1676. J. 1599. H. 1085. The sultan of Matairam claims the assistance of 582 ¦ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. the Dutch, who join him from Japara. The Dutch taking no share in the action which ensues at Pa- suruhan, the Javanese receive a complete over throw from the Macassar fugitives and Truna Jaya, and are dispersed. The Pangeran Adipati, or heir apparent, marches against Truna Jaya and the Macassars, and is beaten by them in a -battle fought near Surabaya. Truna Jaya assumes sovereign authority ; and, sending a great force, conquers the districts east of Mataram, which he at last enters. The sultan of Mataram flies, with his family, from his capital, and dies on his way to Tagal. He is succeeded by his eldest son, who takes the title of Susunan Mangkorat. — Pangeran Pugar, a young er son of the late sultan, defeats the Mandurese, and proclaims himself sovereign at Mataram. Susunan Mangkorat calls in the assistance of the Dutch, and marches with them to Japara. Raja Palaka, king of Boni, demands a free trade for his subjects, and threatens to quarrel with the Dutch for their evasion of it, but is finally pacified by their dexterity. December 29. — The Dutch send a force under Admiral Speelman to assist the Susunan Mang korat. The Susunan Mangkorat grants great commer cial immunities to the Dutch, the origin of his CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 533 humiliation, and of their political errors in the ma nagement of Java. Speelman captures Surabaya from Truna Jaya and the Macassars. C. 1677- J- 1600. H. 1086. Anayit Shah, queen of Achin, ascends the throne. The Dutch, at the instigation of the Bugis kings of Boni and Sopeng, make war on Macassar, and depose the king, raising in his room his brother, Mapa Dulang. The deposed king ef Goa Macassar is taken into custody, and transported for Batavia, but dies on his passage thither. C. I678. J. 1601. H. 1087- Ryklof Van Goens, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. The war which commenced in Java in 1675 still continues. The Dutch and Susunan attack Kadiri, the residence of Truna Jaya, and capture it, with much treasure. September 21. — Don Juan de Vargas, governor ofthe Philippines. C. 1679. J. 1602. H. 1088. Truna Jaya is taken prisoner, and put to death by the Susunan with his own hands, his courtiers joining in the murder. C. 1680. J. 1603. H. 1089. The western portion of the island of Madura is. 5$4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. given by the Susunan, on the death of Truna Jaya to Chakra Ningrat, and the eastern to Machan Wulan, Ihe people of the west coast of Sumatra rebel, and are subdued by a large force sent frOin Bata via. April 25.— The Susunan Mankg&rat and the Dutch attack Giri, , the principality of the spiri-' tual Chief of that name, defeat him, and puts him* sell andhis relations to death. The Susunan changes the seat of government, and fixes upon Cartasura for the new capital. November 17- — The Pangeran Pngur surrenders himself to his brother the Susunan at Ampel. C. 1681. J. 1604. H. 1090. The Dutch defeat and kill the rebel Nimrod, a fugitive slave from Batavia, who had long disturbed the peace of Java. The sultans of Cheribon place themselves and their country under the protection of the Dutch. A new war breaks out in the Moluccas, which ends in the seizure of the king of Ternate, arad his transportation to Batavia. Cornelius Speelman, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. The Dutch interfere in the quarrel of the ex- sultan and reigning sultan of Bantam* C. 1682. J. 1605. H. 109L Ambassadors arrive at Mataram from Jehor CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 585 and Palembang, presenting elephants to the Susu nan. Sultan Mahomed Shah the Fourth ascends the throne of Jehor. C. 1683. J. 1606. H. 1092. Various sharp actions are fought between the Dutch and the party of the old sultan of Bantam, in which the former are victorious. The ex-king of Bantam is taken captive, and im prisoned for life. The king of Bantam grants to the Dutch the exclusive trade in pepper, and the monopoly of the sale of cotton goods in his dominions, and expels the Danes and English who had taken part with his father. Shekh Yusuf, a Balinese slave, raises a rebellion in Bantam, is taken and banished to the Cape of Good Hope. The rebellion of Surapati commences by the flight of that person, a native of Bali, and the slave of a Dutch citizen of Batavia. He takes refuge with the Siisunan, who receives him favourably. q. 1684. J. 1607- H. 1093. The impostor Kyayi Agurig Gring raises a re bellion in Mataram. — A total eclipse of the sun js' observed at that place. The English send an embassy from Madras to 536 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE* Achin, requesting permission to build a factory, which is peremptorily refused. August 24.— Don Gabriel Curuzalegui, . gover nor of the Philippines. Jan Canphuis, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1685. J. 1608. H. 1094. June 25. — The English establish their settle ment at Bencoolen in Sumatra. Panambahan Kajoran, father-in-law to, Truna Jaya, raises a rebellion, which is not suppressed without difficulty. C. 1686. J. 1609. H. 1095. The Seur Tak is sent by the Dutch as ambas sador to the court of Mataram, to demand the head of Surapati, when he and his suite are mas sacred by the latter and his followers, with the con nivance of the Susunan. C. 1687. J. 1610. H. 1096. Surapati retreats to the eastern end of the island of Java, and establishes an independent principa lity over twenty-one districts. The Dutch, on the call of the king of Bantam, attack Succadana in Borneo, said to be a depend ency of Bantam, and conquer it, making the English who are found there prisoners. C. 1688. J. 1611. H. 1097- A nay et Shah, queen of Achin, dies, and is succeed ed by another queen, whose name is not mentioned. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 587 C. 1689. J. I6i2. H. 1098. April 27. — Senor Abella, provisional governor ofthe Philippines. C. 1690. J. 1613. H. 1099. Don Fausto Cruzat y Gongora, governor of the Philippines. ' C. 1691. J. 1614. H. 1100. Jonker, an Amboynese chief in the Dutch ser vice in Java, is driven to rebellion by an affront offered him by a certain General de St Martin. — He is killed himself in a skirmish which ensues, and one hundred and eighty of his followers are ex ecuted. C. 1694. J. 1617. H. 1103. An insurrection takes place in the Marianas, or Ladrones, against the Spaniards. C. 1696. J. 1660. H. 1106. The people of Blambangan in Java invade the more westerly districts, particularly Kadiri, laying the country waste, and murdering the inhabit ants. The tragical affair of Sukro, son of the first minister of the Susunan, and the repudiated wife ofthe heir-apparent, takes place at Cartasura. C. 1697. J. 1621. H. 1107. Raja Palaka, king of Boni in Celebes, after ren dering himself nearly independent pf the Dutch, and dictating to the smaller and tributary states of the island, dies, and is succeeded by his riephew, 538 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Lapatao, called after his death Matinroa ri Naga- wulang. C. 1699. J. 1623. H. 1109. Surapati attempts the conquest of the province of Pronorogo in Java, but is defeated. The queen of Achin is deposed, and the king, Beder al Alum, elected in her room. Sultan abd ul Juhl the Third ascends the throne of Jehor. C. 1701. J. 1625. H. 1111. The Susunan of Java sends a mission, with gifts, to Mecca. September 8.— Don Domingo Zabalburu, gover nor of the Philippines. C. 1702. J. 1626. H. 1112. Beder al Alum, king of Achin, afflicted with a severe malady, resigns his crown, and Perkasa Alum is elected in his place. The king of Achin having attempted to levy duties on the English trade at the port, the English traders of that nation at the place immediately pro ceed to offensive measures, and he is, by a threat ened insurrection of his subjects, compelled to re peal his decree. C. 1703. J. 1627. H. 1113. The Susunan Manghurat dies, nominating his eldest son, the Pangeran Dipati Anom, as his suc cessor, who sends ambassadors to Batavia, announc ing his accession to the throne. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 589 C. 1704. J. 1628. H. 1114. Jan Von Hoorn, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. The Dutch espouse the cause ofthe prince of Pu gar, and commence the war, which, for distinction sake, is called " the first war' of Java." Pangeran Pugar escapes from Cartasura to Sa- marang, and is proclaimed Susunan by the Dutch under the name of Susunan Pakubuwono. Perkasa Alum, king of Achin, is deposed, and Jemal ul Alum elected in his room. C. 1705. J. 1629. H. 111.-5. The Dutch general De Wilde takes the field with an army of eight thousand Europeans; and seven thousand Javanese and Madurese auxiliaries, under the Madurese prince Chakra Ningrat. The Dutch defeat the army of the Susunan near Cartasura, consisting of thirty thousand men. The prince of Pugar is proclaimed Susunan at Cartasura. Many of the nobles come over to him, some of whom he strangles, and others he stabs to death with his own hand ,— among the former a son ofhis own. October 5. — De Wilde concludes a treaty with the new Susunan, by which the latter yields the su premacy of Cheribon and Madura, and cedes many provinces on tiie north coast of the island of Java to the Dutch. 540 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1706. J. 1630. H. 1.116. The dethroried monarch the Susunan Mas flies to the eastern end of Java and joins Surapati. The Dutch and their allies, with an army of thirty thousand men, take the field against the de throned Susunan and* Surapati. Surapati surprises and defeats a detachment of the Dutch army near Bangil. October 16. — The Dutch attack the fort of Ban gil, in which Surapati commanded in person, and, after a brave resistance, carry it. — Surapati makes his escape, after receiving a wound, of which he dies three months thereafter. — The Dutch, instead of pursuing the advantage thus gained, retire to Su rabaya for the rainy season, and give the enemy time to recruit, who become in their turn the assail ants, insult Surabaya the Dutch headquarters, and burn and destroy the country around it. C. 1707. J. 1631. H. 1117. The sons of Surapati are defeated by the Dutch and their allies ; they are deprived of the princi pality which the family had held for twenty years, and the body of Surapati himself, with those of many of his followers, is disinterred, burnt, and the ashes scattered in the air. The prince of Sumanap Sudarma is poignarded by order of the Dutch government, for being im plicated in the rebellion of Surapati. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. • 34 1 C. 1708. J. 1632. H. 1118. August 24. — The Dutch commander of the for ces, Knol, makes offers to the dethroned Susunan, who surrenders himself on assurance of grace, and is sent to Batavia. The Pangeran of Surabaya is put to death by tbe Susunan at the instigation of the Dutch. The ex- Susunan arrives at Batavia, and claiming the indemnity on the faith of which he had surren dered, the pledge of indemnity is disclaimed, and after a month's residence at Batavia, he is banished to Ceylon, where he ended his days. C. 1709. J. 1633. H. 1119. The impostor Mas Dono raises a rebellion, is taken prisoner, and tortured to death by order of the Susunan. August 5. — Don Martin de Ursua-y- Arismendi, Count de Lizaraga, governor of the Philippines. The Chinese are banished from Manila, un der the absurd pretext of carrying off the public wealth. Mapa Dulang, king of Boni in Celebes, dies, and is succeeded by his daughter's son, Sapuale-e, king of Macassar. C. 1710. J. 1634. H. 1120. The Macassars of Goa having refused to deliver up Arung Palaka, son of the king of Boni, who had taken refuge with them, the king of Boni and 542 • CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE* the Dutch make war upon them, and reduce them to entire subjection. The Spaniards attempt the conversion of the in habitants of the Palaos, or Pelew Islands, but the priests sent with that view were never heard of af ter landing. C. 1712. J. 1636. H. 1122. Sapuale-e, king of Goa, is formally deposed by the national council, and Mapa Orange, king of Tallo, raised to the throne in his room. C. 1713. J. 1637- H. 1123. The king of Boni is inconsolable for the loss of a beloved concubine, and proposes, in his grief, to abdicate the throne, and undertake the pilgrimage, but is dissuaded by his courtiers. The Javanese chiefs of Surabaya, Madura, Blam bangan, and Kadiri, with the assistance of Dewa Agung, king of Bali, unite in a confederacy a- gainst the Dutch and Susunan. The Dutch banish the king of Tambora in Sambawa to the Cape of Good Hope. Christopher Van Zwol, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1714. J. 1638. H. 1124. The king of Boni, Mapa Orange, dies, and is succeeded by his eldest daughter, Batara Toja. The settlement of the English at Bencoolen is removed from its first station to Fort Marlborough. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 543 C. 1715. J. 1639. H. 1125. February 4. — Senor Torralba, provisional gover nor of the Philippines. Batara Toja resigns the crown in favour pf her half-brother, Lapadang Sejati, king of Sopeng. C. 1717. J. 1641. H. 1127. August 9. — Don Fernando Bustamante, gover nor of the Philippines. The governor of the Philippines sends a mission to Siam, to cultivate friendly and commercial rela> tions with that country, and the Spaniards obtain liberty to settle a factory ; but a ship of Siam having, in the mean time, come to Manila, and the crew being ill used by the Spaniards, the effects of the mission are frustrated. C. 171 8. J. 1642. H. 1128. Joyo Puspito, chief of Surabaya, defeats the Dutch and Susunan in a battle fought near Sura baya. The prince of Madura revolts, and, being defeat ed, takes shelter on board a Dutch frigate, where a muck taking place, he, his brother, and son, with the captain of the Dutch frigate, and others, lose their lives. Henry Zwardekroon, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1719. J. 1643. H. 1129. February. — The Susunan Pakubuwana dies, a£- 544 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ter a reign of sixteen years, and is succeeded by his eldest son, Susunan Prabu. The princes Blitar and Purboyo, brothers of the Susunan, rebel. — Nine of the principal persons concerned in their revolt are taken prisoners, and being ranged in order before the Susunan, he re quests his courtiers to show their attachment to his person by putting them fo death, when a number of them rush upon the prisoners, and poignard them on- the spot. The impostor, Pangeran Kudus, or Porichowati, raises a rebellion in Java, is defeated, wounded, and, on being taken, put to death. Aryo Mataram, uncle to the Susunan, revolts. Joyo Purpito, the head of the great rebellion in Java, dies a natural death. The natives of Sumatra, irritated by the miscon duct of the agents of the English East India Com pany, rise upon the Europeans at Bencoolen, and the garrison, panic-struck, abandons the fort. The natives of Bencoolen, alarmed for the en croachments of the Dutch, invite the English to come back, who return accordingly. The king of Boni becomes jealous of his sister, Batara Toja, or Datu Chita, and persecutes her and her husband. October 11. — The governor of the Philippines acts in a tyrannical manner, and loses his life in a CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 545 tumult ot' the citizens of Manila, who raise the archbishop to the government in his st§ad. C. 1720. J. 1644. H. 1130. Pangeran Blitar, one of the rebels in Java, who had taken the title of sultan, is defeated by the Dutch and Susunan, but the victory not being taken advantage of, he is soon again in a condition to take the field. The nobles of Boni in Celebes are disgusted at the conduct of their king, Lapadang Sajati. — They depose him, and re-elect his sister Batara Toja, who immediately resigns in favour of her half- brother, the deposed king of Goa, Sapuale-e. C. 1721. J, 1645. H. 1131. Aryo Mataram, uncle to the Susunan, is seized by a treacherous negociation ofthe Dutch, decoyed into the fort of Japara, and there, with his family, to the number of eighteen persons, massacred in cold blood. August 6. — Don Toribio Casio, Marquis de Torre Campo, governor of the Philippines. C. 1722. J. 1646. H. 1132. A famine and epidemic prevail among the bel ligerent parties in Java, and both the European and native troops are swept off in great numbers. The rebel sultan falls a victim to the disorder. April 22. — The conspiracy of Erberfeld is dis covered at Batavia, and the conspirators are broken on the wheel. vol. 11. M ra 546 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. The Dutch commodore. Roggewein performing his celebrated voyage of discovery round the world, has the mortification to find his squadron confis cated by the authorities at Batavia, on his arrival at that place, for a pretended infringement of the charter of the East India Company. The Javanese princes and chiefs, in revolt against the Dutch and the Susunan,- surrender themselves at Batavia to tlje number of forty-four persons, and are banished to Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope, — thus ending the first war qfjava, which, for a period of near twenty years, continued to de solate the finest parts of the island. C. 17*3. J. 1647. H. I i33. The culture of coffee is introduced into Java by the Dutch governor-general Zward^kroon. Jemal ul Alum, king of Achin, is deposed, and Ju- har ul Alum elected in his room. — Undai Tebang is raised to the throne, but is immediately deposed. — Ala ed-den Ahmed Shah Juhan ascends the throne.. C. 1724. J. 1648. H. 1134. The people of Boni in Celebes are dissatisfied with Sapuale-e, because he is in the hands of fa vourites, and they dethrone him. — Tapawawi, or Arnug Mampo, is raised to the throne, but de posed in four days, and his sister Batara Tqja e- lected for the third time. C. 1725. J. 1649. H. 1135. The prince Purboyo and the son of Surapati are CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 547 betrayed by a promise of pardon, and seized by the Dutch. Matthew de Haan, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1726. J. 1650. H. 1136. The Susunan Prabu dies, and is, through an intrigue of the Dutch, succeeded by his youngest son, Pakubuwono, to the exclusion of the elder, the prince Aryo, nominated successor to the crown by his father. Batara Toja, queen of Boni, marries for h'er fourth husband Arung Kayu, arid makes him joint regent with herself. C. 1727. J. 1651. H. 1137- Batara Toja, queen of Boni, attacks the king of Sopeng, her brother, defeats him, and puts him and his family to death.— She causes herself to be proclaimed queen of Sopeng. C. 1728. J. 1652. H. 1138. Arung Kayu, joint regent with his wife Batara Toja, conspires against and attempts to supplant her. r— His conspiracy is detected, and he is com pelled to fly to save his life. C. 1729. J. 1654. H. 1140. August 14. — Don Fernando Valdes y Tamon, governor-general of the Philippines. Diederick Thierry Durven, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. 548 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. , ¦J ., C. 1730. J, 1655. H. 1141. The Pangeran Aryo, elder brother of the Susu nan, is seized on pretext of a criminal intrigue with a concubine of the Susunan, and given over to the Dutch. C. 1732. J, 1657. H. 1143. Dirk Van Cloon, governor-general ofthe Dutch Indies. The governoiLof Ceylon, Peter Vuyst, is executed at Batavia for high treason and other crimes. C. 1733, J. 1658. H. 1144. Danurajo, first minister of the Susunan, having thwarted the ambitious designs of the Dutch, in curs their displeasure, is given over to them, and banished to Ceylon. C. 1734. J. 1659. H.J 145. Kraing Bontolangkas declares himself king of Goa, and joins the intrepid Waju pirate Sinkang, when they proclaim their intention of expelling the Dutch from Celebes. C. 1735. J. 1660. H, 1 146. The king of Goa Macassar flies to Tallo, in consequence of the intrigues of Bontolang kas, and his grandson Malawangao is elected in his room. Ala ed-din Juhan Shah ascends the throne of Achin. — A civil war, which afflicts that country for ten years, commences. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 549 Abraham Patras, governor-general ofthe Dutch Indies. C. 1736. J. 1661. H. 1147. The king of Goa Macassar, and the Waju pi rate, Singkang, subdue Bontaing and the northern provinces. The Susunan Manghorat Mas dies at Ceylon, and his family, with the regalia, are brought back to Java. C. 1737. J. 1662. H* 1148. Adrian Valckenier, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1739. J. 1664. H. 1150. Bontolangkas, joined by the people of Waju, and by the greater part of the Macassars, takes Goa, and invests Fort Rotterdam. — The Dutch garrison defeat them in three separate actions, and retake Goa with the regalia of Macassar. — The Macassars submit, and the war terminates. — Bontolangkas dies of the wounds received in the last action. Don Gaspar de la Torre, governor of the Phi lippines. The English admiral Anson captures the Aca pulco Galleon, with a million and a half of dollars in silver specie. C. 1740. J. 1665. H. 1151. The Dutch and people of Boni sail for Waju, and obtain two victories over the Wajus, but in an impolitic manner stop short of subduing the coun* try, and of making a final arrangement. 550 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. The Chinese, to the number of ten thousand, are massacred at Batavia by the Dutch, on suspi cion of a conspiracy. Valckenier, the Dutch gpvernor-general; arrests three counsellors of the Indies for opposition to his measures, and sends them to Europe. C. 1741. J. 1666. H. 1152, The Dutch governor-general proceeds for Eu rope, but is arrested at the Cape of Good Hope, and sent back to Batavia to be tried for the mas sacre of the Chinese, and the arrest of his asso ciates in the government. Jan Thiedens, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. The Chinese are driven from their entrench ments, eight miles from Batavia, and, retreating to the eastward, join the SusuHan in a league to exterminate the Dutch. The Susunan and the Chinese capture the Dutch fortress at Cartasura, and put to death' the Euro pean officers who had surrendered by capitulation. The Susunan and the Chinese march to Sama- rang, and lay siege to the fort; with, according to the Dutch statement, two hundred thousand men. The Dutch collect a force of twelve thousand men at Samarang, make a sortie, and defeat the besiegers. The Susunan forsakes his alliance with the Chi- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 551 nese, of whom he massacres a number, and then joins the Dutch. The Chinese retreat into the interior of Java, and raise to the throne a prince of the house of Mataram, commonly called the Susunan Kuning. November 29. — The Dutch celebrate their tri umph over the Chinese, by a public thanksgiving at Batavia. C. 1742. J. 1667. H. 1153. Malawangao, king of Goa Macassar, dies, and is succeeded by his infant brother, Mapa Bewasa. The Chinese, with the Susunan Kuning, attack the capital Cartasura, and take it. The Madurese retake Cartasura, and the Chi nese retreat with their Susunan. The Chinese are joined by Suryo Kusumo, bet ter known by the name of Mangkunagoro, and they fight a number of actions with the Dutch troops, and those ofthe Susunan. Cartasura is abandoned, and the seat, of govern ment is removed to Solo or Surakarta. C. 1743. J. 1668. H. 1154. The Chinese disperse, and the Susunan Kuning surrendering himself to the Dutch, is banished to Ceylon. Gustavus Willem, Baron dTmhoff, governor-ge neral of the Dutch Indies. C. 1745. J. 1670. H. 1156. The Dutch declare war against the prince of 552 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Madura, and defeat him in an erigagemerit which ensues. September 21. — Senor Arrechedera, provisional governor of the Philippines. C. 1746. J. 1671. H. 1157. The governor-general Van Imhoff visits Solo, the capital of the Susunan, and pursues such mea sures as disgust the Javanese princes. — The Pan geran Mangkubumi, in consequence, quits Solo at night, with his followers, and commences the re bellion which ended in the division of the native empire.— He is joined by Mangkunagoro. C. 1747. J. 1672. H. 1158. Pedro de la Sona Trinidad, provisional governor of the Philippines. A royal order arrives at Manila for the final ex pulsion of the Chinese, the execution of which is suspended. C. 1748. J. 1673. H. 1159- The Dutch East India Company instal the Prince of Orange as supreme director and gover nor-general of the Indies. C. 1749. J. 1674. H. 1160. The queen of Boni in Celebes, Batara Toja, dies, and is succeeded by her brother, Lama Sosrong. C. 1750, J. 1675. H. 1161. The Susunan Pakubuwono the Second, usually de nominated Sedo Laweyan, on his death-bed is induc ed to sign a deed, surrendering, for himself and his 11 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 553 heirs, the throne of Java to the Dutch. — He dies, and the Dutch raise his son, a boy of nine years of age, to the throne. The rebel prince Mangkubumi gives the Dutch and their Javanese allies a complete overthrow at Tidar, in the province of Kadu. Don Francisco Joseph, Marquis de Obanda, go • vernor of the Philippines. C. 1751. J. I676. H. 1162. June 13. — The Spaniards of Manila send a force against the island of Sooloo, and dictate terms to the people of it. — They declare war against the people of that island, and, sending a second expe dition thither, they are disgracefully beaten by the inhabitants, who, in their turn, with the assistance ofthe freebooters of the neighbouring countries, in vade the Philippines, and ravage and desolate the Spanish provinces. Mangkubumi and Mangkunagoro the rebel princes gain a succession of small advantages over the Dutch. C. 1752. J. 1677. H. 1163. The most considerable action of the war of Java is fought at Janar, inthe province of Baglen, when Mangkubumi gains a complete victory over the Dutch. — He invades after this the territory of the European power, and plunders Fakalongan, Ba tang, and Waleri. « 55i CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A volcanic eruption from some mountain of the neighbouring islands covers Java with ashes, accompanied by a total darkness, from seven in the morning until four in the afternoon.— ^ A dreadful famine and epidemic afflict the island pf Java. Jacob Mossel, governor-general of the Dutch Indies, The English establish a settlement at Natal in Sumatra., C. 1753. J. I678. H. 1164. The rebel Javanese princes, Mangkubumi and Mangkunagoro, quarrel and separate. — They fight a battle in Pronorogo, and Mangkubumi is defeated. The Dutch make overtures to MangkunagPro, sending him, as a bribe, the body of his father, brought, for that purpose, from Ceylon, where he had died in banishment ! Amasa Madena, called also Batara Goa, suc ceeds to the crown of Goa Macassar. C 1754. J. 1679-80. H. 1165-66. The inhabitants of Sooloo, and other natives of the surrounding states, invade the Philippines, and, entering with fire and sword, murder the religious orders, Indians and Spaniards, and carry off thou sands of the inhabitants of every description. Don Pedro Manuel de Arandia, governor ofthe Philippines. > December.— -A dreadful eruption of a volcano,, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 555 accompanied by violent shocks of earthquakes, takes place in the Philippines, by which a number of vil lages are laid in ruins, and many lives destroyed. C. 1755. J. 1680. H. 1166. January 1. — The governor-general of the Dutch Indies issues a code of sumptuary laws, in one hundred and twenty-three articles. The Spaniards of the Philippines, under the priest Ducos, are successful in checking the in roads of the neighbouring native states on the Phi lippines. * The Dutch and Susunan, despairing of any suc cess against Mangkubumi in the field, negociate with him to arrest his conquests, and cede to him one half of the kingdom of the latter, under the title of sultan. The Dutch, the Su,sunan, and the newly created sultan, pursue Mangkunagoro, and defeat him in a 'variety of petty actions. C. 1756. J. 168 1. H. 11 67. The new sultan of Java fixes his Capital at Yug- yacarta, in tlie province of Mataram. C. 1757. J. 1682. H. 1168. Mangkunagoro, eluding the pursuit of his ene mies, attacks the Sultan's capital in his absence, and plunders it. The confederated Dutch and Javanese find them selves compelled to negociate with Mangkunagoro, and he comes to terms on receiving an hereditary 556 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. estate of four thousand families, wliich event puts an end to a war of eleven years standing, which, for distinction's sake, is usually called the second war qf Java. The Chinese are finally expelled from the Phi lippines, in conformity to the royal edict, and the temporary residence ofthe traders from China only tolerated. C. 1759. J. 1684. H. 1170. June 1. — Senor Espeleta, bishop of Zebu, pro visional governor of the Philippines. ** C. 1760. J. 1685. H. 1171. Ala ed-din Mahomed Shah ascends the throne pf Achin. The French, under the Compte d'Estaing, de stroy the whole of the English settlements on the west coast of Sumatra. C 1761. J, 1686. H. 1172. Don Manuel Roxo, archbishop of the Philip pines, provisional governor of these, islands. Peter Albert Van der Parra, governor-general ofthe Dutch Indies. C. 1762, J. 1688. H. II74. September 22. — The British, under Brigadier- general Draper and Admiral Cornish, arrive at the Philippines, with a considerable naval and military expedition, and demand the surrender of the islands, which being refused, they commence mili tary operations, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 557 October 5. — The English storm the fortifications of Manila, and carry the town, which they deliver over to plunder, and on which they levy a heavy contribution, after a capitulation had been entered into. The military commander, Senor Anda, retires from the city of Manila, and, with the assistance of the different religious orders, maintains the authority of the king of Spain in the Philippines, so that the British authority never extends much beyond the confines of Manila. December. — The Chinese, who, in the course of three years, had increased in prodigious num bers in the Philippines, all join the English, and commit great excesses. Senor Anda, the Spanish military commander, orders all the Chinese in the Philippines to be hanged, which order is very generally carried into effect. The unconverted nations of the Philippines commonly join the English, and a very general rising of these people takes place. C. 1763. J. 1689. H. 1175. The English settlements on the west coast of Sumatra are re-established, arid their acquisitions there confirmed by the peace of Paris. The English settlement of Bencoolen, or Fort Marlborough, is erected -into an independent pre sidency. ^5$ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Ala ed-din Mahomed Shah, king of Achin, is driven from the throne, which is seized by the Maharaja, or first officer of state, who takes the name of Beder ed-din Juhan Shah. The English deliver over Manila to the Spa niards, in conformity to the conditions of the peace of 1763. C. 1765. J. 1690— 91. H. II76— 77. March.-— -The rebellion of the Indian inhabitants of the Philippines, occasioned by the invasion of the English, is finally quelled by the Spaniards, after a loss, on the part of the former, of more than ten thousand men. Beder pd-din Juhan Shah, king of Achin, is put to death, and Mahomed Shah restored to the throne. . C. 1766. J. 1692. H. 1178. Batara Goa, king of Macassar, abdicates the throne. C. 1768. J. 1694. H. 1180. Arung Mampo usurps the throne of Goa Ma cassar. C. 1769. J. 1695. H. 1181. Tumamenang ri Matuangi ascends the throne of Goa Macassar. C. 1775. J. 1701. H. 1187. Jeremiah Van Reimsdyck, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1776. J. 1702. H. 1188. An adventurer, called Sangkilang, raises ari in- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 559 surrection and formidable rebellion in Celebes, by which the country is kept in a state of anar chy for 1 6 years. C. 1777. J. 1703. H. 1189. October 3. — Reinier de Klerk, governor-general ofthe Dutch Indies. C. 1778. J. 1704. H- H90. Sangkilang captures the town of Goa and the regalia. C. 1780. J. 1706. H. 1192. September 1 . — Arnold Alting, governor-general of the Dutch Indies. C. 1781. J. 1707. H. 1193. Ala ed-din Mahomed Shah Jehan, son of the last king, ascends the throne of Achin. C. 1785. J. 1711. H. 1197- The English, directed by Mr Light and Mr Scott, establish a settlement on Pulao Pinang, called by them Prince of Waies Island, a barren and un occupied island of the principality of Queda, lying at the north-western entrance of the Straits of Ma lacca. The adventurer Sangkilang dies a natural death. C. 1788. J. 1714. H. 1200. The Susunan of Java dies, and is succeeded by his son the reigning prince. C. 1790. J. 1716. H. 1202. The war occasioned by the rebellion of Sangki lang ends in Celebes. 56> CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. C. 1792. J. 1718. H. 1204. The sultan of Java dies, and is succeeded by his son, Mangkubuwono the Second. C. 1795. J. 1721. H. 1207. The British capture the town of Malacca and its dependencies. • C. 1802. J. 1720. H. 1215, Bencoolen is, by an act of the British Parlia- inent, subjected to the presidency of Bengal. C. 1809. J. 1736. H;, 1222. Tumanenang ri Lambusuna ascends the throne of Goa Macassar. C. 1810. J. 1737. H. 1223; The Dutch moye a force to Yugyacarta and de pose the sultan of Java, raising his eldest son itt his room. C. 1811. J, 1738. H. 1224. The Dutch colonies of the Indian Archipela go, following the fate of the mother countiy, be come a portion of the French empire, and the ge neral of division Janssens, is appointed governor- general. August 4. — The British land a force in JaVa. August 10. — They take possession of the town of Batavia, and drive the Dutch and French troops, after a smart action, from the cantonments of Wel- tervrieden, August 26. — The British troops storm the en trenched position of the enemy at Cornelis, within CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 561 three miles of the city of Batavia, and take it in a very gallant manner. September 16. — The French governor-general Janssens, having retreated to the eastern part of Java with the remnant of his force, fights a petty action with the British force at the village of Se- iondol, within seven miles of Samarang, and is de feated. September 18. — The French governor-general enters into a capitulation with the British authori ties for the surrender of Java, and the other Dutch possessions. The ex-sultan of Java resumes the government, and puts his first minister, and the father of that officer, to death, for opposing his wishes. The authority of the Dutch in Celebes is trans^- ferred to the British, in conformity to the capitu lation entered into between the French goverrtor- general and the British authorities. C. 1812. J. 1739- H. 1225, May 17- — The British authorities in Java send an expedition against the sultan of Palembang, so vereign of the island of Banca, and dethrone him, raising in his room his brother, in consideration of which, the latter cedes to them the islands of Banca and Billiton. June 20. — The British march a force against the sultan of Java, and, declaring war against him, storm his fortified palace with less than a thousand vol. 11. N n 562 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. men, and take it without difficulty, though de fended by more than eight thousand. The sultan is made prisoner, and his son replaced on the throne, by the title of Mangkubuwono the Third. The Susunan and sultan of Java cede to the British government the provinces of Kadu, Blora, Jipang, Japan, and Gardbagan. C. 1813. J. 1740. H. 1226. The British government of Java, under the di rection of Sir Stamford Raffles, in a spirij of great liberality, effects a number of beneficial changes, commercial, fiscal, and judicial. C. 1814. J. 1739. H. 1227. A brother of the Hindu Raja of Blellingin Bali, having insulted the. post of Blambangan in Java, a British expedition, proceeding to Celebes, stops at Bali, and receives the submission ofthe Raja. The king of Boni in Celebes, refusing to ac knowledge the European supremacy, is attacked by a large force sent from Java and defeated, but escapes, and carries on a predatory warfare, until the surrender of the island to the Dutch. C. 1815. J. 1742. H. 1228. Mangkubuwono the Third, sultan of Java, dies, and is succeeded by his son, the reigning prince, the fourth of the same name. C. 1816. J. 1743. H. 1229. August 19.— Java is ceded by treaty to the Dutch, and taken possession of. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 563 The British authorities quit Celebes, and sur render it to the Dutch. The Spice Islands are surrendered to the Dutch. END OF VOLUME SECOND. Printed by George Bamsay & Co. Edinburgh, 1819. ' LIBRARY