DIVINITY SCHOOL TROWBRIDGE LIBRARY J GIFT OF The Reverend Prank R. Luckey SHORT HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH JOHN FLETCHER HURST, D.D., LL.D. WITH MAPS NEW YORK AND LONDON HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS Copyright, 1892. by Harper & Brothers. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PREFACE The present work has as its basis the series of five Short Histories by the same author, which appeared in the following order: The Reformation, 1884; The Early Church, 1886; The Mediaeval Church, 1887 ; The Modern Church in Europe, 1888 ; and The Church in the United States, 1890. Reversing the order of the first two volumes — The Short History of the Reformation and The Short History of the Early Church — the five volumes form a connected History of the Church nearly down to the present time. From this experiment of brief histo ries of the several periods, it has been illustrated anew that the popular taste for the condensed treatment of the secular sciences can be safely applied to the domain of Theological Science, and to no department with greater hope of success than to Historical Theology. These summaries have met with a reception far more generous than could have been expected, and the indications are not wanting that they have led students of Church History, and even general readers, into the broader paths laid out by Neander, Gieseler, Schaff, Hagenbach, Fisher, and other masters of this fascinating and growing science. What was done in the Short History for each period has seemed proper for all the periods taken together. The result is the present work — Short History of the Christian Church. All the matter contained in the separate Short Histories has been examined with care, and large portions in every period have been rewritten. Fundamental changes have been made, such as a summary of literature at the beginning of each chap ter, important additions to the part assigned the Reformation, IV PREFACE and especially such enlargement of the parts relating to the European Church in the Modern Period and the Church in the United States as to amount to an entirely new treatment. The method pursued in the Short History of these periods has been abandoned, and the result is practically a new History of each period. In these important departments — namely, the literature for each chapter, the survey of the later European Church and the American Church, and essential aid in every part of the work — I have had the valuable co-operation of the Rev. John Alfred Faulkner, B.D. This scholar has elsewhere given am ple proof of the true historical instinct. Among all the younger men who are digging in the rich mines of Historical Theology, I know of no one who is likely to bring to the light a gold of finer quality or richer lustre, or whose pen bids fairer to make the Church of the Past a wise instructor for the Church of the Future. The Index of Authors and General Index have been prepared by a friend in other labors, the Rev. Albert Osborn, B.D. For the important section of Ecclesiastical Statistics in the Appendix to this volume, obligations are due to Henry K. Carroll, LL.D., of the editorial department of The Independent, New York, and General Agent for the Statistics of the Churches for the present United States Census. No part of the treat ment has been so delicate, or conducted with so much misgiv ing, as that of the various American denominations. But fair ness has been uppermost in mind throughout. Yet it would be a great pleasure to welcome any suggestion, from whatever quarter, where there may seem the least lack of that high im partiality which is essential to any one who makes bold to pass, and would lead others, along the paths of History. It is earn estly hoped, however, that not even a seeming injustice has been done to any one of the noble Churches which have grown up amid the manifold ecclesiastical life of the United States, Washington, D. C, December 1st, 1892. CONTENTS ©art 1F THE EARLY CHURCH (a.d. 30-768) Chapter I. — The Church and its History Completion of Christ's Personal Ministry page 4 Preaching at Pentecost 4 Practical Life 5 Chapter II. — The Scene of the Labors of the Apostles Peter 6 Peter in Rome 7 Paul 7 John , 8 The other Apostles 8 Chapter III. — The Greek and Roman Conditions Paganism and Christianity 9 The Greeks 10 Philosophical Systems 10 Decay of Greek Philosophy 11 The Roman Empire 11 Obstacles to Christianity 12 Degradation of Women and Childhood 12 Slavery '. 13 Chapter IV. — The Attitude of Judaism towards Chris tianity Jewish Antecedents 14 Samaritans I5 Other Jewish Bodies 15 VI contents Dispersed Jews Page 15 Roman Jews 16 Jewish Colonies 16 Chapter V. — The Period of Universal Persecution Jewish Hostility to Christianity 17 Persecution of Christians 18 Grounds of Hostility 18 New Persecutions 18 Final Efforts to Destroy Christianity 19 Chapter VI. — Christian Worship Simplicity of Forms 20 Order of Service 20 Sacraments 21 The Sabbath 21 Chapter VII. — The Life of Christians Care of the Needy 22 Elevation of Woman 23 The Slave 23 Chapter VIII. — Ecclesiastical Organization Apostles and Prophets 24 Permanent Officers 25 Chapter IX. — Ebionism and Gnosticism Ebionites 26 Nazaraeans 27 Gnosticism in General 27 Jewish Gnosticism 27 Oriental and Pagan Gnostics , , 28 Independent Gnosticism 29 Place of Gnosticism 29 Chapter X. — The Pagan Literary Attack Growth of Christianity. 30 Grounds for Pagan Alarm 30 Strongest Assailants of Christianity 31 General Charges against Christianity 32 Christianity Triumphant 32 contents vii Chapter XI. — The Christian Defenders Two Classes of Apologists page 33 Greek Apologists 34 Roman Apologists 34 Line of Defence 35 Triumph of the Apologists 35 Chapter XII. — The Christian Schools Early Attention to Christian Learning 36 Alexandrian School 37 School of Antioch 37 School of North Africa 38 General Tendency 38 Chapter XIII. — Liberation under Constantine Constantine's Conversion 39 Constantine's Mixed Methods 39 Danger to the Church 40 Chapter XIV. — Reaction under Julian Early History of Julian 41 Julian's Reign 42 Julian's Opposition 42 Character of Julian 43 Chapter XV. — The Montanistic Reform Reaction against Loose Discipline 44 Plan of Montanus 44 Opinions 45 Later Fortunes of Montanism 45 Chapter XVI. — Controversies on Christ ^C. Rise of Arianism 46 Council of Nicaea 47 Later History of Arianism 48 Chapter XVII. — The Later Controversies X, Nestorianism 50 Augustine 51 Pelagianism 51 Spread of the Pelagian Controversy 52 Other Controversies 52 vm contents Chapter XVIII. — Ecclesiastical Schisms Schism of Felicissimus page 54 Novatian Schism 54 Donatist Schism 55 Meletian Schism 56 Chapter XIX. — The Scriptures and Tradition Old-Testament Canon 57 New Testament 58 Settlement of the Canon 59 Tradition 59 Chapter XX. — Apocryphal Writings Spurious Writings 61 Sibylline Oracles 61 Apocryphal Accounts of Jesus 62 Apostolical Constitutions 62 Chapter XXI. — Theology During the Early Period General Agreement 63 Divinity of Christ 64 Unity and Trinity 64 Christology 64 The Holy Ghost 65 Cosmology 66 Anthropology 66 Doctrine of the Church 66 The Sacraments 66 Eschatology 67 Effect of Nicene Council 68 Chapter XXII. — Ecclesiastical Government and the Roman Primacy Revolution in Church Government 69 Minor Clergy 70 Greater Clergy 7l Powers of the Bishop 71 Metropolitan Authority 72 Patriarchate 73 The Roman Bishop 73 Constantinople 74 CONTENTS IX Chapter XXIII. — Sacred Seasons and Public Worship Weekly Festivals ¦. page 75 Yearly Festivals t 76 Martyr Days 76 Church Buildings 77 Images 77 Chapter XXIV. — Ecclesiastical Discipline Training of the Young 78 Chapter XXV. — Christian Life and Usages Charity 81 Incentives to Knowledge 81 Domestic Life 82 Epistolary Writings 82 Travels of the Fathers 83 Chapter XXVI. — The Church in the Catacombs Roman Burial and Cremation 86 Discovery of the Catacombs 86 Bosio and Other Discoverers 87 De Rossi 87 Scriptures in the Catacombs 87 Doctrine in the Catacombs 88 Cheerful Representations 89 Historical Suggestions 89 Chapter XXVII. — Monasticism Early Monasticism 91 Christian Use of Monasticism 91 Notable Examples 92 Chapter XXVIII. — The Age of Gregory the Great : Growth of Roman Bishopric 93 Gregory 94 Chapter XXIX.— The Expansion of Christianity y Evangelization 95 Eastward 96 Africa 9' Balkan Peninsula 98 X CONTENTS Rome page 98 Germany " British Laborers " Chapter XXX.— The Close of the Early Period Rapid Extension of Christianity 100 Scholarship 100 Bede 101 Doctrines 101 Superstition 102 part AU THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH (a.d. 768-1517) Chapter I. — The Mediaeval Transition Significance of the Middle Ages 105 The Three Periods 105 Literary Transition 106 Universal Progress 106 Chapter II. — The Reign of Charlemagne New Order 107 Charlemagne's Methods 108 Preparations 108 Pope and Emperor 109 Later Relations of Charlemagne and the Pope 110 Chapter III. — Church and State under the Later Caro- lingian Rulers Charlemagne's Example 110 Successors of Charlemagne Ill Independent Episcopacy Ill The Extinction of the Carolingians 112 Chapter IV. — The Fictitious Isidore Papal Appeal to the Past 113 Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals 113 Contents of the Decretals 114 Influence of the Decretals 115 CONTENTS XI Chapter V. — Mohammedanism Mohammed page lid Career of Mohammed 117 The Koran 118 Mohammedan Conquests 118 Chapter VI. — The Schools of Charlemagne Charlemagne's Attention to Learning 119 Episcopal Seminary 120 Schools and Studies 120 Charlemagne's Cultivation of National Literature 121 Circulation of the Scriptures 121 Decline in Literary Activity 121 Chapter VII. — Theological Movements Procession of the Holy Ghost 122 Adoptianism 122 Anthropology 123 The Lord's Supper 123 Image Controversy 124 Chapter VIII. — The Rule of the Popes (Leo IV., a.d. 855, to Gregory VII., a.d. 1085) Fluctuations in the Papacy 125 Pornocracy 126 New German Power 126 Strife between Henry IV. and Gregory 127 Chapter IX. — The Gregorian Reform Moral Decline 129 Marriage of the Clergy I30 Chapter X. — Moral Life and Ecclesiastical Usages Penance 132 Reverence for the Virgin Mary 133 Relics 133 Saints' Days 133 Chapter XI. — The Public Services The Sermon 134 Music 135 xii contents Chapels page I36 Arts 136 Chapter XII. — The Writers of the Times Scholars before Charlemagne 137 Scholars of Charlemagne's Court 138 Chapter XIII. — New Missions Denmark 140 Sweden 140 Norway 141 Iceland and Greenland 141 Bulgarians 141 Moravia 141 Russia 142 The Wends 142 Poland 142 Hungary 143 The Finns 143 Chapter XIV. — Schism between the East and the West Early Differences 144 Doctrinal Divergence 144 Roman Primacy 144 Chasm widened by Ecclesiastical Laws and Usages 145 The Schism 145 Attempts at Reunion 146 Chapter XV. — The Anglo-Saxon Church Independence of the British Church 147 Points of Difference 147 Rome Victorious 148 Alfred the Great 148 Chapter XVI. — Arnold of Brescia A New Force 150 Arnold 150 Arnold's Return 151 Martyrdom of Arnold 152 Arnold's Influence 152 Chapter XVII. — The Waldenses and the Albigenses The Moral Reaction of the Laity 153 CONTENTS Xlll Waldenses page 154 Warfare on the Reformers 154 Foreign Sympathy 155 Chapter XVIII. — Thomas Becket Stephen and Henry II 156 Becket 157 Becket's Death 158 Chapter XIX. — The Monastic Orders K Eastern Monasticism 159 Bernard 160 Mendicant Orders 160 Obscure Orders 161 Knightly Orders 161 Chapter XX. — Monasteries as Centres of Intellectual Life Monte Cassino 162 Chapter XXI. — Christian Art ^/_ Art in Churches and Monasteries 163 Stagnation and Revival 164 Plastic Arts 165 Chapter XXII. — Christian Worship The Sermon 166 Sacred Music 167 Hymnology 167 Chapter XXIII.— The Crusades: a.d. 1096-1270 Peter the Hermit 168 Varying Fortunes of Crusades 169 Arrest of Mohammedanism 170 Benefits 171 Chapter XXIV. — Arabic Philosophy Literature of the Arabs 171 Averrhoes 172 Chapter XXV. — The Hohenstaufens in Italy Hohenstaufens 173 Fall of the Hohenstaufens iu Sicily 174 xiv contents Chapter XXVI. — The Jewish Philosophy Jewish Exegetes page 175 Maimonides 176 Chapter XXVII. — The Scholastic Philosophy Mysticism 177 Nominalists and Realists • 178 Fulbert and other Schoolmen 178 Thomists and Scotists 179 Lully 179 Decline of Scholasticism 180 Chapter XXVIII. — Abelard and his Fortunes Abelard 181 William of Champeaux 181 Abelard's Fame 182 Abelard's Misfortunes 183 Theology of Abelard 184 Chapter XXIX. — General Literature Literature and Religion 184 Historians 185 Religious Theatricals 185 Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio 185 Chapter XXX. — The Great Schools Rise of the University 186 Chapter XXXI. — The Divided Papacy The Outbreak 188 Removal of the Papacy to Avignon 188 Schism in the Papacy 189 Councils 189 Results , 189 Chapter XXXII. — Retrospect Condition of the European Church 190 Stages of Progress 191 Saxon and Latin Christians 191 contents xv part iririr THE REFORMATION (a.d. 1517-1545) Chapter I. — The Heralds of Protestantism '** The Reformation an Historical Crisis page 195 Pioneers of the Reformation 196 Two Kinds of Reformers 197 Peter d'Ailly 198 Gerson 198 C16manges 199 Cause of French Failure 199 Mystics 200 Germany the Central Scene 200 RUysbroek , 201 Henry Suso 201 John Tauler 202 School of St. Victor 204 Richard of St. Victor 204 Brothers of the Common Life 205 Friends of God 205 Goch 206 The Early Dutch Reformers 207 Chapter II. — The Humanism of Italy "j* Revival of Letters 207 Capture of Constantinople 7 208 Revival of Latin Classics 209 Religious Tendency of Humanism 2T0 Humanism elsewhere 210 Reuchlin, More, Erasmus 211 Chapter III. — The Reformatory Councils Various Councils 212 Double Papacy 213 Council of Constance 213 Council of Basel 214 Chapter IV. — The German Reformation : Martin Lu ther, from his Birth to the Retirement in the Wartburg Castle — 1483-1520 Early Life of Luther 215 Home and School 216 XVI contents At the University page 217 Luther in Wittenberg • 217 The Theses 218 Appeal to the German Nation 219 Diet at Worms. 220 Chapter V. — Luther : Further Labors and Personal Character — 1520-1546 Reformation Endangered by its Friends 222 Peasants' War 223 Luther's Literary Labors 224 Hymns and other Works 225 Luther's Personality 225 Luther's Faith 226 Organization of German Protestant Church 227 Luther's Private Life 227 Chapter VI. — Melanchthon and other German Re formers Philip Melanchthon 228 Melanchthon's Labors 229 Other Friends of Reform 232 Von Hutten and Von Sickingen 232 Chapter VII. — The Reformation in German Switzer land Political Condition of Switzerland 233 Zwingli 234 Zwingli's Rupture with Rome 234 Variations from the German Reform 235 Eastern Cantons 236 Basel 236 Chapter VIII. — The Reformation in French Switzerland Two Protestant Currents 237 John Calvin 239 Calvin in Basel 239 Return to Geneva 240 Calvin and Farel 240 Calvin and the Genevese Church , 241 Exile of the Reformers 241 Calvin's Recall to Geneva 242 Influence of Calvin 243 contents xvn Beza , page 243 Second Helvetic Confession 243 Chapter IX. — The English Reformation — First Period, 1509-1553 Wycliffe 245 Attacks on Wycliffe 245 Wycliffe's English Bible 246 Agencies of Reform 246 Henry VIII.'s Patronage of the Reformation 246 Colet and More 248 Cranmer 249 Publication of the Bible 249 Condition of the Reformation 250 Chapter X. — The English Reformation — Second Period, 1553-1603 Reaction under Edward VI 251 Queen Mary 252 Final Triumph of the Reformation 253 Independents 253 Puritan Pilgrims 254 Chapter XI. — The Scotch Reformation Scotch Reformers 255 Mary Queen of Scots 256 John Knox 257 Chapter XII. — The Reformation in the Netherlands Brothers of the Common Life 258 Inquisition 259 Erasmus 260 Erasmus in Basel 260 Erasmus and Luther 261 Chapter XIII. — The Reformation in France The Protestant Ferment in France 262 Measures against Protestantism 263 Activity of the Huguenots 263 Opposition to the Huguenots 264 Spread of the Huguenots 264 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 264 Huguenot Uprising 265 XVlll CONTENTS Chapter XIV. — The Reformation in Italy Soil Prepared by Savonarola pagfc 267 Protestant Books from the North 268 The Sceptical Humanism 269 Spread of Protestant Doctrines , 270 Woman's Work 270 Oppression of Protestantism 271 Council of Trent 271 Italian Protestants in Exile 271 Chapter XV. — The Reformation in Spain and Portugal Religious Despotism in Spain 273 Spanish Mystics 273 Spread of the Reformation 274 Suppression by the Inquisition 274 Causes of Failure 274 Chapter XVI. — The Reformation in Scandinavia The Petersens 275 Denmark and Norway 276 Chapter XVII. — The Reformation in the Slavic Lands Reform Movements 276 German Protestantism in Bohemia 277 Poland 277 Reform in Hungary and Transylvania 278 Chapter XVIII. — Survey of Results Advantages of the Reformation 279 Benefit to America 280 Learning Promoted 280 Literature 281 Chapter XIX. — The Four - Hundredth Anniversary of Luther's Birth Services in Memory of Luther 283 CONTENTS XIX part W THE MODERN CHURCH IN EUROPE (a.d. 1558-1892) Chapter I. — Recuperative Measures of Romanism Protestants and Catholics page 287 Council of Trent 287 Old Orders Revived 288 Smaller New Orders 288 Chapter II. — The Order of Jesuits Jesuit Order 289 Opposition to the Jesuits 290 Jesuit Missions 290 Xavier 291 The Americas 291 General Influence of Jesuitism 292 Chapter III. — The English Church under James I. and Charles I. James I. and the Puritans 293 Contrast with Elizabeth 294 Parliament the Hope of England 294 Authorized English Version of the Bible 294 Charles I. and the Revolution 295 The Westminster Assembly 295 Chapter IV. — The English Puritans Origin of Puritans 296 Grounds of Puritan Strength 297 The Habits Controversy 297 Puritans as Non-conformists 298 Chapter V. — The Quakers Causes of Quakerism 299 Fox and his Followers 299 Quaker Doctrines 300 Penn and the Quaker Emigration 300 Influence of the Quakers 300 Chapter VL — Cromwell and the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell 3°1 Charles II. in Search of the Throne 302 XX CONTENTS Policy of Cromwell page 302 John Milton 303 Chapter VII. — The Church During the Restoration Charles II. on the Throne 304 Act of Uniformity 305 Public Meetings 305 Effect of the Reign of Charles II ' 306 James II 306 William and Mary 306 Chapter VIII. — English Deism Sources of Deism 307 Bacon and Locke 308 Principles of Deism 308 Deistical Writers 308 Deism on the Continent 309 Apologetic Writers 309 Deism in America 310 Chapter IX. — The Protestant Church in Germany Varied Protestantism a Necessity 310 The Controversial Spirit 310 Special Controversies 311 Effect of the Controversies 311 Moral Results of the Controversial Period 311 Chapter X. — Mysticism in Germany Spiritual Reaction 312 Boehme and the other Mystics 312 Arndt and Gerhard 313 General Influence of the New Mysticism 314 Chapter XL— The Thirty Years' War Protestant Dissension _ 314 Roman Catholic Unity 315 Growing Antagonisms _ 315 Outbreak of War _ 316 Gustavus Adolphus _ 316 Results of the War 317 Chapter XII. — The Protestant Emigration to America American Asylum for the Oppressed 317 Colonial Currents 318 CONTENTS Xii Chapter XIII. — Arminius and the Synod of Dort ^ Holland a Scene of Controversy page 319 Arminius _ 319 The Remonstrants 319 Rival Parties 319 The Synod of Dort 320 Chapter XIV. — The Salzburg Persecution Germany after the Peace of Westphalia 321 Salzburg Protestants 321 The Exiles 321 The Georgia Colony 322 Chapter XV. — Spener and Pietism The New Opportunity 322 Spener 323 Spener's Relation to Religious Life 323 The Spener School 324 Halle University 324 Origin of Modern Missions 325 Decline of Pietism 325 Chapter XVI. — The Moravians ^ Hussites of Bohemia 326 Zinzendorf 327 Herrnhut 327 The Moravian Doctrines 327 Moravian Missions 328 Chapter XVII. — Swedenboeg and the New Church Swedenborg 329 Swedenborg's System 329 Later History of the New Church 329 Chapter XVin. — Rationalism in Germany The Sources of Rationalism 331 Rapid Growth of Rationalism 331 General Position of Rationalism 332 Chapter XIX. — The Evangelical Reaction Decline Wrought by Rationalism 333 Rationalism and Philosophy 334 XXII contents Fichte, Schelling, Hegel page 334 New Evangelical School 335 Chapter XX. — French Mysticism and Flemish Jansenism Mysticism in the Roman Catholic Church 336 French Quietists 337 Jansenism 337 Port Royal 338 Present Jansenist Community in Holland 338 Chapter XXI. — French Infidelity French Sceptics 339 Reyolution of 1789 340 Napoleon and the Church 341 Chapter XXII. — French Protestantism Sufferings of French Protestants 341 The Camisards 341 The Calas Family 342 Voltaire and Conciliatory Measures 343 *)*- Chapter XXIII. — The Russo-Geeek Chuech Origin 344 Government 344 Peter the Great 344 Monks 345 Statistics of Russian Monasteries 345 Theological Education 346 Sects 346 Present State of the Russian Church 347 "f- Chaptee XXIV. — Wesley and Methodism England at Beginning of the Wesleyan Movement 348 The Wesleys 348 Contact of John Wesley with the Moravians 348 Organizing Power of John Wesley 349 The Development of Methodism 350 Methodism at Wesley's Death 350 -L Chaptee XXV. — The Tractarian Movement The Leaders 351 Its Principles 352 Results 353 contents xxin Chaptee XXVI.— The Schools in the Chuech of Eng land The High Church page 354 The Gorham Case 354 The Low Church 355 The Broad Church 355 " Essays and Reviews " 356 Later History of the Authors 357 Publication of " Lux Mundi " 358 Chaptee XXVII. — The English Universities The Universities in English Life 359 Cambridge 360 Reforms 360 London 361 Chapter XXVIII. — Scholaes and Divines of the Eng lish Chuech Laud 362 Chillingworth 363 Jeremy Taylor 363 Barrow 364 South 365 Other Divines 365 Chapter XXIX. — Puritan and Presbyterian Scholars and Divines Cartwright 367 Baxter 368 Thomas Goodwin 369 Qwpn 369 John Goodwin 370 Howe 370 Bunyan 371 Characteristics of the Puritan Leaders 372 Chapter XXX. — Critical Peeiods in the History of the Scottish Chuech The War of the Covenants 373 The. Attempt to force Episcopacy on Scotland 375 Scotland and Charles I 375. The End of the Struggle 376 XXIV CONTENTS Chapter XXXI. — The Erskine Schism and the Haldank Revival The Ebenezer Erskine Schism page 377 The Revival under the Haldanes 378 Robert Haldane 379 James Alexander Haldane 379 Chapter XXXII. — The Great Disruption Causes 380 Consummation 381 Agents 382 Results 382 Chapter XXXIII. — Learning and Literary Culture in the Roman Catholic Church Learning and Literary Culture 383 Theology and Biblical Criticism 384 Chapter XXXIV. — The Growth of Mary- Worship Protests 387 Immaculate Conception 387 Chapter XXXV. — The End of the Temporal Power op the Papacy Growth of the Temporal Lordship of the Pope 388 A United Italy 389 Chapter XXXVI. — The Contest with Germany Bismarck and the Pope 390 The Liberal Leo 391 Chapter XXXVII. — The Survival op Superstition The House of Loretto 392 The Liquefaction of the Blood of St. Januarius 393 The Seamless Coat 393 Chapter XXXVin. — Roman Catholicism in England Roman Catholic Disabilities 394 First Measures for Relief 394 Complete Emancipation 395 Decay of the Catholic Church in England 396 contents xxv Chapter XXXIX.— The Vatican Council The Sessions page 393 Its Results _ 398 Chaptee XL. — The Old Catholics Hefele's Confession _ 399 Protests _ 400 Organization of the Dissentients 400 Growth 400 Articles of Convention of Utrecht 401 Chaptee XLI. — The Evangelical Alliance Founding of the Alliance 402 Doctrinal Basis 402 The Sessions 403 The Christian Conference in Washington 403 Chapter XLII. — The Sunday-School Origin 404 The Development 404 The Chautauqua Movement 405 Chapter XLIII. — The Revision op the Bible The Need of a New Translation 406 The Result 407 Chapter XLIV. — The Protestant Mission Field The First Protestant Missions 408 Other Early Missionaries 409 The Field in India 409 The Field in China 410 Burma 410 Japan 410 Western Asia 411 Turkish Missions 412 African Missions 412 The Congo Free State 413 Chapter XLV. — The Temperance Reform Temperance in Great Britain 414 Temperance on the Continent , 415 xxvi contents Chapter XL VI. — Philanthropy in England and Ger many The New Humanity. West India Emancipation page 416 Prison Discipline 417 Care of the Wounded 417 The Deaconesses of Germany 418 Chapter XLVII. — English Preachers The Effects of the Wesleyan Revival 419 Simeon and his School 420 Later British Preachers and Writers 420 Chapter XLVIII. — Literature and Religion in England The Byronic Tempest 422 Wordsworth and his School 422 Infusion of the German Spirit 423 Chapter XLIX. — The Salvation Army Origin 424 Progress 424 Theology, Methods, and Results 425 In Darkest England 426 Chapter L. — Survey op Religious Life on the Continent France 426 Italy and Spain _ 426 Germany , 427 Switzerland 427 Holland 428 Scandinavia 428 part D THE CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES (a.d. 1492-1892) I.— THE COLONIAL PERIOD (U9S-1783) Chapter I. — The New Christendom Europe in the Sixteenth Century 431 The Old Issues on New Ground 431 The Religious Impulse 432 contents xxvh Chapter II. — The Spanish Colonization The First Discoverer page 433 Mexico 434 The Evils of the Spanish Conquest 435 The Literary Result 435 " The Apostle of the Indies " 436 Chapter III. — The French Colonization French Navigators 437 The Jesuits among the Hurons 438 The Outcome of the French Colonial System 439 The English Conquest 440 Chaptee IV. — The English Colonization : Virginia and Massachusetts The First English Discoveries 441 The James River Colony 442 Plymouth Colony 443 Massachusetts Bay Colony 444 Union 446 Chapter V. — Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other Eng lish Colonies Maryland 447 Southern Colonies 448 Pennsylvania 449 The Scotch Quota 449 Chapter VI.— Continental Colonies: Dutch, Swedes, Huguenots, and other Protestants The Dutch 450 The Germans in Pennsylvania 453 Chapter VII. — The Providential Planting Favorable European Conditions 453 The Territorial Allotment 454 Chapter VIII. — Political Framework of the Colonies The Systems of Colonial Government 456 Religious Liberty 457 Chapter IX. — Church Government in the Colonies Church Laws 458 XXVIII CONTENTS The Cambridge Platform page 459 The Reforming Synod 459 Chapter X. — Education Educational Efforts 461 Elementary Education 462 Harvard 462 College of William and Mary 463 Chapter XI. — Intolerance in the Colonies Intolerance in New England 466 Banishment of Roger Williams 467 Rhode Island 468 Virginia 468 Maryland and New York 469 Reasons for the Universal Discrimination against Catholics. . 469 Chapter XII. — Religious Life of the Colonies Religious Zeal 470 Early Divines 471 The Great Awakening 471 English Books in New England 472 Chapter XIII. — Colonial Worship and Usages Sermon 472 Prayer 473 Singing 473 Thanksgiving and Fast Days 474 Church Edifices 474 Chapter XIV. — Missions to the Indians An Aim never Lost Sight of 475 John Eliot 476 His Literary Labors 477 Other Indian Missionaries 477 In the Lower Colonies 478 Chapter XV. — Theological Movements Theological Bent of the Puritan 479 The Hutchinsonian Controversy 479 The Half-way Covenant 480 Stoddard's Views 481 contents xxix Chaptee XVI. — Religious Literature Virginia page 483 Middle Colonies 484 Printing in New England 484 Religious Literature in New England 484 Chaptee XVII. — Eaely Leaders Whitaker 486 Blair 487 Bray 487 Dickinson 487 Hooker 487 Cotton 488 Edwards 489 Chapter XVIII. — The Influence of the Puritans *^~ Intellectual Life 491 Conscience 491 Religion 492 Progress 492 Chapter XIX. — The Episcopal Movement in Connec ticut Berkeley in America 493 Conversion of Cutler and Johnson to Episcopacy 493 New Hopes for the Episcopal Church 493 II— THE NATIONAL PERIOD (1783-1892) Chapter I. — The Church at the Founding of the Re- r- public Spiritual Decline 496 Growth of Scepticism 496 Chapter II. — The Separation of Church and State Change of Base in the Support of the Church 498 The Struggle in Virginia 498 The Gradual Emancipation of the Churches 499 Chapter III. — The French Infidelity The New Foe 501 Attitude of Public Men 502 XXX CONTENTS In the Colleges page 502 The Turn of the Tide 503 Chapter IV. — Revival at the Beginning op the Centuey The Revival of 1800 504 Revivals in the Colleges 505 Results 505 Chaptee V. — Expansion in the South and West Roman Catholics in the West 506 The Protestant Current 507 Significance of this Movement 508 Chaptee VI. — The Protestant Episcopal Church The Loyalists 509 Resuscitation of the Church 510 Chapter VII. — The Congregational Church Concessions to the Presbyterians 511 Theological Movements 512 Benevolent Zeal , 512 Chaptee VIII. — The Refoemed Chueches Organization 513 Theology 514 The German Reformed Church 514 Chapter IX. — The Baptist Church Beginnings 516 Persecution 517 Missionary Pioneers 518 Controversies 519 Chapter X. — The Peesbyterian Church Beginnings 521 Makemie 522 Settlement of the Creed 522 The First Schism 523 The Great Breach 523 Chapter XI. — The LutheEan Church Weak Beginnings , 526 The Asbury of Lutheranism 527 CONTENTS XXXI During the Revolution page 528 Later History _ 528 The Break during the Civil War 529 Education _ 529 Chapter XII. — American Methodism Beginnings 532 New Recruits 533 The Effect of the Revolution 534 Organization _ 534 Asbury 536 Later History 536 Union 537 Education 537 Epworth League 538 Chapter XIII. — The Roman Catholic Church The Effect of the Revolution 540 Bishop Carroll 540 The Russian Prince-priest 541 Protestant Outbreaks 542 Rapid Growth 542 Archbishop Hughes 543 Iiater Developments , 543 Chapter XIV. — The Unitarian Church Origin 545 The First Unitarians 546 The Break 547 Channing 548 Theodore Parker 549 Chapter XV. — The Universalist Church James Relly 550 John Murray 551 Pipneers 552 Hosea Ballou 552 Organization 553 Chapter XVI. — The M°kayian Church The Early Immigration 554 Zinzendorf 555 C XXXU CONTENTS Missionary Zeal page 555 Zeisberger 555 Progress 556 Chapter XVII. — Alexander Campbell and the Disci ples of Christ Alexander Campbell 557 A Break with his Former Associates 558 Leaves the Baptists also 559 Later Life 559 The Disciples of Christ 560 The Christians, so called 560 Chapter XVIII. — The Quakers George Fox in America 561 Persecutions 562 Increase 563 The Hicks Secession 563 Recent Discussions 564 Moral Enthusiasm 564 Chaptee XIX. — Othee Denominations The Cumberland Presbyterian Church 566 The Reformed Presbyterian Church 567 The Free Baptists 568 The Tunkers 569 The Swedenborgians 570 The Second Adventists 570 The Reformed Episcopal Church 571 The United Brethren Church 572 Albright and the Evangelical Association 573 Chaptee XX. — The Teanscendentalists Origin 575 Creed 576 Emerson 576 Affiliated Reformers 577 Brook Farm 577 Chaptee XXI. — Communistic Chueches The German Seventh-Day Baptists 579 Shakers . , ,,,,,. , , 580 CONTENTS XXXIII The Rappists page 581 The Zoarites 582 Oneida Community 582 Chapter XXII. — The Moemons Spaulding 584 Rigdon 584 Joseph Smith 584 The " Book of Mormon " 585 Varied Fortunes 585 Utah 586 Political Complications 587 A Rival Claimant 587 Doctrines 588 Chapter XXIII. — The Antislaveey Reform Origin 589 Early Protests 590 Early Action of Churchmen and Ecclesiastical Bodies 591 Period of Quiescence 592 Reformers 593 The End 594 Chapter XXIV. — The Temperance Reform Early Warnings 595 Revolutionary Protests 596 Rush 596 Early Ecclesiastical Action 597 The First Reformers 598 The Era of Organization 599 A New Phase 600 Reaction 600 Women to the Rescue 601 Chapter XXV. — Philanthropy and Christian Union The Philanthropic Spirit 602 The Freedmen 602 The Indians 603 Contract Schools and Training School 604 The Sick and Insane 605 Other Reforms .,..,.,.,, 605 XXXIV CONTENTS Christian Union page 605 Federal Union Demanded 606 Steps towards Organic Union 607 Chaptee XXVI. — Missions The Missionary Spirit 608 The North American Indians 609 Turkey 610 Sandwich Islands 610 Japan 610 India 611 Eastern Asia 612 Home Missions 612 Chaptee XXVII. — The Sunday-School American Beginnings 614 Growth 615 Development of Methods 615 Uniform Lessons 616 International Lessons 616 Chapter XXVIII. — Christian Literature Elementary Books 617 New England Primer , 617 Later Literature 618 Religious Periodicals 619 Literary Outgrowth of Missions 620 Hymnology 620 Chapter XXIX. — The American Pulpit The New England Sermon 623 Leaders in Reform 624 Revivals 624 Peter Cartwright 625 Great Preachers 625 Beecher, Simpson, and Brooks 626 Chapter XXX. — Theology of the American Church The Early Theological Tone 627 A Reaction 628 The Return to Controversy 628 Emmons, Taylor, Park 629 CONTENTS XXXV Unitarianism , page 630 Presbyterian Theology 630 The Irenical Period 631 Chapter XXXI. — Theological Scholarship Exegetical Theology 632 Stuart, Turner, Robinson 632 The Later Biblical Scholars 633 Influence of Germany on American Historiography 634 Fisher, Smith, and Schaff 634 Other American Church Historians 635 Systematic Theology 635 Pastoral Theology 636 General Subjects in Practical Theology 637 Christian Apologetics of the American Church 637 Territorial Difference in Religious Belief 637 Representative American Apologists 638 Appendix. — I. Statistics of Churches in the United States as gathered by the Census Office 639 " II. Statistics of Churches in the United States as gathered from Denominational Year Books and other Sources 642 Index of Authors 643 General Index 659 LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS The Roman Empire in the Fourth Century Facing p. 40 Europe in Time of Charles the Great England in the Ninth Century Early London Era of the Crusades Europe in the Thirteenth Century Universities of Europe in the Sixteenth Century Europe in Time of Reformation Extent of Revolt from Rome Germany in 1618 England The American Colonies South America 118146149170 180 206230278314 360440 540 THE EARLY CHURCH -A..D. 30-768 The Bibliographical Notes are intended for aid in the study of the special topics treated, not for general historical investigation. For more extended help on all the periods of Church History, consult Adams, Manual of Historical Literature (N.Y., new ed., 1889); Fisher, J. A., Bibliography of Ecclesiastical History in Methods of Teaching and Studying History, edited by G. S. Hall ; also reprinted in separate form (Boston, 1885); Hurst, Bibliotheca Theologica, (N. T., 1883); and the rich literary material in the histories of Schaff, Fisher, Kurtz, Guericke, and Gieseler. For the general history of the Church, consult Neander (Boston, 12th ed., 1881), who combines in a wonderful degree scholar ship, edification, and spiritual insight ; Kurtz(new ed., N. Y., 1889-90) ; Schaff, our American Neander, but superior to him in interest, and in having at com mand the latest researches (N. Y., rev. ed., 1882-89); Philip Smith (N. Y, 1881-89); G. P. Fisher (N. Y, 1888). On the early period of Church History in general the following hand-booka may be commended : The Church of the Early Fathers, by Alfred Plummer, D.D. (London and N. Y., 1887); The Church and the Roman Empire, by Rev. A. Carr (London and N. Y., 1888). The above belong to the useful series edited by Professor (now Bishop) Creighton. Epochs of Church History: Martyrs and Apologists, by the late Edward de Pressense (5th ed., London, 1889); His- tory of the Christian Church, from the Earliest Times to the Death of Constan tine, by F. J. Foakea-Jackson, with questions, tables, etc. (Cambridge and Lon don, 1891); The Church of the Fathers, by John Henry Newman (in Historical Sketches, vol. ii., pp. 1-210). This last work consists mostly of biographical sketches, with copious translations from the writings of the Fathers, written before the author became a Roman Catholic, in a pious and uncontroversial spirit, and is well adapted to reveal the inner life and moral earnestness of the ancient Church. CHAPTER I THE CHURCH AND ITS HISTORY [Authorities. — The following special works on the Apostolic Church are of value : Neander, Planting and Training of the Christian Church (N. Y., 1865); Pressense, Early Years of Christianity: Apostolic Age, 4th ed. (London, 1890) ; Farrar, Early Days of Christianity (N. Y., 1883).] The visible Church consists of the organized believers in Christ and the followers of his life. General history reveals the constant presence of a superintending Providence. The rise and fall of nations is not an idle play of human passions. Schiller's aphorism is a just recognition of God's constant watchfulness and justice : "The world's history is the world's judgment." The wild currents have never been permitted to flow on without divine control. When the hour came for the wrong to cease, the controlling hand intervened. The result was always the triumph of the right. In the history of the Church the divine superintendence has been far more promi nent. While in secular history the spiritual forces lay largely in the background, in the life of the Church they have come out boldly into the clear foreground. Though often in the wrong, and divided in opinion, the Church has been saved from fatal error and downfall by divine interposition. Even when it has been grossly superstitious, and the teacher of false doctrine, God has always raised up true servants, who became the heroes of a holy cause and the heralds of a brighter day. The champion of a wrong cause has always had his plans fail through the work of some brave and pure opponent. There has been an Athanasius to meet every Arius. To coun teract a Leo X. there has always arisen a fearless Luther. To show where the divine force has controlled all human events, and made them subserve the steady progress of God's servants, is the mission of him who treats the history of the Church. The office of the historian of the Church is not to untie a 4 THE EARLY CHURCH tangled skein, but to follow the golden thread of the divine presence in all Christian ages. When our Lord's passion had occurred, three important works were accomplished. He had communicated his gospel to men, he had set a spotless example before the Completion of wori^; ana he had achieved universal redemption wnafMinfstry by his' voluntary death. His subsequent resurrec tion and ascension were the visible proofs of the truth of his doctrines. They were more than this— they were the twofold assurance to his followers, then and in all later ages, that they who believe in him, and love him, shall enjoy his constant presence during life, and afterwards enter upon the inheritance of heaven. Christ, immediately before his ascension, commanded his disciples to remain in Jerusalem until they should be endued with power from on high. Here lay his promise of spiritual endowment for their ministry. It was, at the same time, a direct lesson that a special spiritual preparation and plenitude were, for all time, a requisite for the successful preaching of the gospel. Without the descent of the Spirit at Pentecost there would have been no impulsive power in Christianity. The Pentecost was the Jewish national thanksgiving day. It was the feast of weeks, or harvest feast-day, which com memorated the gift of the Law to Moses, and at Preaching at ^e same time gave occasion to return thanks for the annual products of the soil. Its observance was associated with the most touching memories connected with the founding of the theocracy, and with the subsequent preserving care of a bountiful Creator. Jews in all lands united with their brethren in Palestine in an annual visit to Jerusalem, to celebrate the day. The first Christian Pente cost came on the fiftieth day after our Lord's resurrection and the tenth after his ascension. There were Jews in the sacred city from all parts of the known world. On that day the promise of the Spirit's descent was fulfilled. Cloven tongues of fire flamed above the heads of the disciples. The miraculous gift of utterance was imparted. The multitude of Jews was attracted to the place where the disciples were. Each wor shipper, whatever his language, understood the preaching. Peter explained to the people the significance of the scene, and applied the descent of the Spirit to the work of our Lord. THE CHURCH AND ITS HISTORY 5 The result was the addition of three thousand to the body of believers. The organization of the Church took place immediately af ter the remarkable scenes at Pentecost. Measures were soon taken for a unifying ecclesiastical polity. Even before Pente cost a new apostle, Matthias, was chosen in place of the fallen Judas. Orders of ministers and lay members were estab lished for the preaching of the gospel, the care of the needy, and the building-up of the body of believers. Only a general organization, however, was effected. The most simple arrange ments were made for government, as the believers were as yet but few, and confined to a narrow territory. The more elabo rate polity was left for the future needs of the Church, to take its shape according to the expansion of the societies into all lands and nationalities, and their individual requirements. The practical life of the Christians was at once simple and beautiful. It was a type of all the essential qualities which Christ had taught, as requisite for pure living and final salvation. There were both a simplicity of faith and that intense brotherly love which had their practical demonstration in the equal distribution of temporal possessions. The community of goods did not arise from a divine command, but, "was merely the natural effect of thaT broad charity which arose from the love of Christ and the pos- sessionoftheSpirik The real majesty of the early Church lay in its spontaneous quality. All thoughts centred in the memory of Christ as a personal Saviour, and in theconscious- ness of'frngcontmuM presents: — To crown all, tnere was a fer- vor in communicating the gospel which knew no bounds. The whole world seemed small. Its farthest horizon alone was to be the limit of teaching. What the apostles had felt and known was now their sole passion. There was little differ ence between the apostle and the unlettered believer. Each, in his own best way, was to preach the new life in Christ, that all men might share its sacrifice here and its holy joy here after. Pentecost was the practical divine testimony to the universal adoption of the gospel. The removal of the natural limitations of language was a providential indication of the application of Christianity to every class and condition. It was the divine endorsement of the command to the disciples to preach and teach the Word throughout the world. THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER II THE SCENE OF THE LABORS OF THE APOSTLES [Authorities. — Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul (Lon don, 1853), often reprinted, is still invaluable. Farrar's more brilliant work ou the same apostle (N. Y., 1880) should be read along with it. Prof. Sal- mond has given in brief compass an excellent study of Peter, Life of the Apostle Peter (Edinb., 1884). On the life of John, see Macdonald's Life and Writings of St. John (N. Y., 1880), and Farrar's Early Days of Chris tianity, book v. chaps, xxiv.-xxxvii. ; also Paton J. Gloag, Introduction to the Johannine Writings (London, 1891), a work of great ability and schol arly insight.] The Acts of the Apostles is the chief source of informa tion concerning the fields of work of the different apostles. But the epistles of Paul and his associates contain frequent statements which serve to supply missing links in that more formal history. To these may be added the supplementary accounts of writers from the second century to the fourth; many of which, however, are only vague suppositions, or im pressions, which existed in oral form in the early Church. Peter represented the Jewish type of Christianity. He was slow to learn that Christianity was designed for all men. Peter Pentecost should have been enough, but even this great lesson did not satisfy his intensely Jewish character. After important labors in Palestine, extending as far north as Antioch, he came to the council in Jerusalem. Here, at the moment of supreme test, he wisely changed his position, and united with Paul in removing all Jewish ceremonials as a con dition of entrance into the Church. Henceforth all bonds with Judaism were broken, and Jews and Gentiles became Chris tians on precisely the same terms. There are good reasons to suppose that Peter made an evangelistic tour through portions of Asia Minor, for his first epistle intimates previous labors in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia (the province), and Bi thynia. He also says that at the time of writing he was in Bab- THE SCENE OF THE LABORS OF THE APOSTLES 7 ylon. If this was the Babylon on the banks of the Euphrates —and we believe it was— he was, no doubt, attracted thither by reason of the large Jewish population resident there. It seems to have been understood by him and Paul that he should confine his labors to the East, while Paul should occupy him self with the West. There is no historical proof that Peter founded the Church in Rome, or that he was ever there. His residence there is Peter in Rome not menti°ne^ by tne earliest writers in their lists of the first bishops of the Western metropolis. The first mention was by Dionysius of Corinth, a.d. 170, who speaks of Peter's death in Rome. The concurrent later testi mony of the early Christian writers as to his residence and death there is worthy of credit. But while we are without definite proof of Peter's presence in Rome, it is not impossible that he did spend a brief period there, and that he died about the year 67, in the persecution under Nero. There is, how ever, not the least foundation for the belief that Peter was ever bishop of the Church. Paul towers far above all the apostles in the majesty of his character, the scope of his genius, the depth of his learning, pau( and the sublime quality of his labors. Educated in both Jewish and pagan learning, after his miraculous conver sion he became an apostle, in every sense able to cope with the antagonism of the combined foes of his age. His call was to the Gentiles. He made three great missionary tours. The first was begun a.d. 44, and embraced Cyprus, and then Asia Minor, where he visited Perga, Pisidia, Antioch, Iconium, Lys tra, and Derbe. Paul's second missionary journey began a.d. 48. He went northward through Syria into Asia Minor, and visited Cilicia, Phrygia, Galatia. He then crossed the iEgean Sea into Mace donia. He began his European ministry in Philippi, and went thence southward into Greece as far as Corinth. From thence he went to Ephesus, and returned to Jerusalem. He entered upon his third tour a.d. 52. He went again into Asia Minor, taking Galatia, Phrygia, and Troas on the way. He then crossed into Macedonia and Illyricum. He returned to Troas, and, passing by the ^Egean islands, proceeded back to Jerusa lem. Here he was arrested, and taken a prisoner to Caesarea, where he was two years in confinement. He appealed for 8 THE EARLY CHURCH justioe to Csesar, and was taken to Rome. He remained there from a.d. 59 to 61. He was now released, and, as we believe, entered on a fourth tour, embracing a visit to Crete, Macedo nia, Corinth, Nicopolis, Dalmatia, and Asia Minor. He was a second time arrested, and taken to Rome. He suffered mar tyrdom in Nero's reign, a.d. 66.* John represented the mediating element between Judaism and paganism. His attachment and scene of labor seem to have been, for the first twenty years after Pentecost, chiefly in Palestine. He was present at the council in Jerusalem, a.d. 50. For twenty years, or until a.d. 70, we lose sight of him entirely. The probability is, that he labored in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, with Babylon as the centre, and returned to Jerusalem, whence he fled to Ephesus on the capture of that city by Titus. We find him now in Ephesus. His residence was intermitted by his exile to the island of Patmos. He died in Ephesus about a.d. 98, when about one hundred years old. The labors of the other apostles are largely matter of con jecture, derived from the writings of Hegesippus, Eusebius, and Nicephorus, who framed their suppositions from Apostle" *^e fl°atinS oral traditions in the Christian commu nities. James the Elder suffered martyrdom in Jeru salem, about a.d. 44. James, our Lord's brother, preached in Jerusalem, and finally died there a martyr. It was believed that Philip labored in Phrygia; Simon Zelotes, in Egypt and the neighboring African coast ; Thomas, in India ; Andrew, in Scythia, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Greece ; Matthias, in Ethio pia; Judas, called Lebbaeus or Thaddeus, in Persia; and Bar tholomew, in Lycaonia, Armenia, and India. The uncertainty as to fields of labor of most of the apostles is one of the marvels of the Scriptures. One fact is clear, however, that the trend of the world's Christian life was west ward. On the distribution of the gospel into the more stable * Historians differ as to these dates of Paul's tours. Lewin places the first tour a.d. 45; Schaff (rev. ed., vol. i.), a.d. 50 ; and Conybeare and Howson, a.d. 48. The second tour is placed by Lewin, a.d. 49 ; by Schaff, Conybeare, and Howson, a.d. 51. Lewin and Schaff, for the third tour, give a.d. 54. These writers give the date of his residence in Rome a.d. 61-63. THE GREEK AND ROMAN CONDITIONS 9 parts of the Roman Empire we have full light in the accounts of Paul's labors. All the just and vital interests of Christian ity centred in that one man's work. Rome was to be the point of departure for the sowing of the truth in the north and farther west. Here Paul brought his life and labors to a triumphant close. But with his martyrdom he had only begun his work. His example and writings — and the two are inseparable — have been, ever since, the permanent and necessary treasures of the Church. The present current of the truth is a reversal of the old order. It is from the fields then barbarous, and largely unknown to the geography of those times, towards the old East. What the apostles could only begin will be completed, in the Eastern countries, by the laborers sent out from the warm heart of Western Protestantism. CHAPTER III THE GREEK AND ROMAN CONDITIONS [Authorities. — For a fine survey of the preparations of Christianity, and of the conditions of the Greek and Roman world, see Fisher, Beginnings of Christianity (N. Y., new ed., 1887), chaps, i.-vii. William Ralph Inge, as sistant master at Eton, has given us a scholarly and helpful study, Society in Rome under the Caesars (N. Y., 1888).] The pagan literature, in the earliest period of Christianity, was a beautiful piece of human workmanship. No temple in stone was so symmetrical and elaborate as that of Christianity d Greek and Roman letters. From rude beginnings, it had grown into such majestic and firm propor tions that, to this day, it challenges the admiration of the world. The classic achievements in the whole field of litera ture, art, philosophy, and legislation are the common inheri tance of man. When Christianity came forward with its strange claims upon the confidence of men, there was but lit tle in its exterior which could awaken sympathy. The most despised land had produced it. Its founder had suffered death on the ignominious cross. Its first apostles were of humble origin, and, with the exception of Paul, not one had drunk at the classic fountains. That a new faith, with such multiform 10 THE EARLY CHURCH disadvantages, should venture upon such a hostile field, where the literature and traditions of many centuries held firm ground, seemed a hopeless task. But the heroism of the first preachers of Christianity was not disturbed by the number or strength of the enemy. The promise of success was the basis of their faith. They wrought on, and expected triumph over every foe. Which should win — the obscure Christian, who had never fought a battle, or the cultivated pagan, who had never lost one? The path of the Greek to mastery had been through all fields of intellectual development. Out of the old Pelasgic cradle he had grown to the full grandeur of Attic The Greeks . manhood. The blood of many tribes flowed through his veins, and he had absorbed the strongest and best elements of all. In epic and dramatic poetry he produced Homer, He siod, iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The Greek was a lover of form and color. He caught his inspiration from the wild and beautiful scenery of his islands and broken coast. Apelles and Phidias became the incarnation of his passion. In his long battle for federation he had produced such great law-givers as Solon and Lycurgus. He was of fervent temper ament, and, living always in a feverish political atmosphere, he had developed Demosthenes, iEschines, and Isocrates — orators who have swayed audiences in all later ages. In philosophy, the Greeks labored with great industry. The growth of their systems was contemporaneous with their na tional prosperity. The dealing with the funda- Phls°ystemsCal mental questions of human being and destiny by Socrates and Plato reveals a deep moral purpose. There are two great periods of Greek philosophy, separated by the downfall of Alexander's empire. The former extends from b.c. 600 to b.c. 324. Within this short space arose all the best thinkers, who founded the Ionic, the early Pythago rean, the Eleatic, the Atomistic, and the Sophist schools. The culmination was reached in the three systems of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The second period extends from b.c. 324 to a.d. 530. The schools of the decadence rose and fell at this time — the Stoics, the Epicureans, and the Sceptics. To this was added Neo-Platonism, founded by Plotinus. The most spiritual of the entire circle of Greek philosophers was Plato. In many departments of his philosophy, such as the THE GREEK AND ROMAN CONDITIONS 11 unity and spirituality of God and the immortality of the soul, he made, though unconsciously, very near approaches to the truths of revelation. It was the habit of early Christian teachers to regard his system as kindred to Christianity. Eu sebius said : " Plato alone, of all the Greeks, reached the ves tibule of truth, and stood upon its threshold." Justin Martyr, Clemens of Alexandria, Origen, and Augustine, in the early period, and Schleiermacher and Neander in the recent period, were led to Christ through Plato as their guide. The best systems in the group declined with the political supremacy of the Greek confederation. Those which suc ceeded the loss of national independence were the DephUosoGheek systems °f despair. When Christianity arose, the prevailing Greek philosophy was sceptical. The mythology had lost its firm hold ; while philosophy, which was the substitute offered by the profoundest thinkers, proved its own inability to satisfy the cravings of the soul for salvation, and to be the solution of its great problems. Pagan faith and thought were unavailing to meet the spirit ual wants of man. The soul could not live on the triumphs of art, or literature, or eloquence, or legislation. Christianity came forward with its sublime truths, and made proffer of them to the world. Paul, preaching Christ on Mars Hill, looked back upon a long pathway of dead systems of Greek genius, and forward upon the rise of Christian creations in their place. Great as had been the thinkers of the Stoa and the Academy, greater still was the messenger of Christ. His system was the permanent truth. When Christianity began its career for the world's posses sion, the Roman rule was universal. The literature and re ligion were shaped from Greek models. But the The Roman R0lnang gave to everything a practical direction. m,"re Law was the Roman habit, and to govern was the Roman passion. The Romans had no sooner conquered a rude tribe than they converted the territory into a new province, and gave it all the qualities of a firm part of the empire. Palestine was an integral part of the great domain, governed by Ro man deputies, who were closely watched at the same time that they were intrusted with large authority. Paul, the Greek preacher, enjoyed and asserted the rights of Roman citizen ship. Great highways, built at great expense for the rapid 12 THE EARLY CHURCH movement of armies, connected all parts of the broad terri tory. These made easy the rapid dissemination of the gospel. The apostles could move along these stone roads with ease, and so convert paths for soldiers into highways for the tri umphant march of the messengers of the peaceful gospel. The difficulties confronting the Church throughout the Ro man Empire were, however, of formidable character. The en tire body of the people was hostile to any spirit- Christianity0 ual religi°n- What did not appeal to the senses had no attraction to them as an object of worship. The hold of the old mythology was lost, and a general scep ticism as to all beliefs prevailed. But the emperors regarded the preservation of the ancestral faith as the great bulwark of the throne. Political government and fidelity to the pre vailing mythology were held to be inseparable. Hence, Chris tianity was bitterly opposed, so soon as its antagonism was discovered. It was seen to be hostile to the elaborate temple service. The emperor, who was also Pontifex Maximus, or supreme priest, was held responsible for the support of the state religion. The temples and pagan rites must be sustained. The more closely Christianity came into view, the more strin gent became the measures for its suppression. The Christians made no concealments. They absented themselves from the temples, threw off all faith in the ruling mythology, and open ly declared their hostility to it. When Christianity appeared, the moral depravity of the Roman Empire was at its lowest ebb. The stricter morals of the republic had disappeared in the wild licentiousness of the empire. It was an age of excesses, which the satirists, with Juvenal and Persius at their head, held up to universal con tempt. The degradation of women was complete. Even in Athens the wife was a slave, and possessed no legal rights. She could bequeath only a measure of barley to her off- ''wome^'and0' sPrinS- Her present depression in Turkey is a Childhood fair picture of the old pagan conditions. Her mental endowments were declared to be of in ferior grade. She was supposed to excel in duplicity and treachery. Marriage was a loose bond, with only the shadow of political institution. A low estimate was placed on child hood. In Sparta the maimed children were a burden to the THE GREEK AND ROMAN CONDITIONS 13 state, because useless as soldiers. Only boys had an impor tance in the eye of parents. Stealing was a virtue in a boy, provided he could do it so cleverly as not to be detected. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle never went so far as to enforce the element of religion in education. Children were not taught reverence for their parents. Jupiter, the son of Saturn, hurled his father from the throne, shut him up in Tartarus, and par celled out the universe between himself and his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto. With this picture of filial brutality as the basis of the pagan mythology, what better estimate could be expected of childhood? All the types of parental love were based on admiration of heroic deeds. When Xenophon was told that his son had died in battle, he replied : " I did not request the gods to make my son immortal or long-lived, for it is not clear that this was suitable for him ; but that he might have integrity in his principles, and be a lover of his country, and now I have my desire." Children, according to the pagan thought, were only machines for fighting future battles. Christ achieved no greater revolution than when he elevated childhood into equality with manhood. His one dec laration: "Of such is the kingdom of heaven," was a fatal blow at the world's prevailing estimate of children. Slavery was universal. It underlay the whole political and social structure. In Attica, as early as b.c 309, according to Demetrius Phalereus, there were twenty thousand citi- very zens and four hundred thousand slaves. Among the Romans the slaves were not regarded as persons (persona?), but as things (res). The doors of the wealthy Romans were guarded by ostiarii, or slaves in chains, who lay like dogs be fore their kennels. When a gentleman was murdered, and his assassin could not be found, the crime was supposed to have been committed by a slave, and all the slaves, with their wives and children, were put to death, to make sure of the offender. Tacitus says that when Pedanius Secundus was murdered, as many as four hundred innocent slaves were put to death. Slavery extended to all parts of the empire, and the number in Rome was constantly kept up by the inflow of captives in the wars. 14 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER IV THE ATTITUDE OF JUDAISM TOWARDS CHRISTIANITY [Authorities. — Consult Schiirer, History of the Jews in the Time of Christ (Edinb., 1887), an unimpeachable authority; also Prof. Stapfer's useful book, Palestine in the Time of Christ (3d ed., N. Y., 1889). Prof. Pick has given a magnificent sketch of the after-history of the Jews (N. Y., 1887.)] The Jews regarded themselves as the world's teachers and law-givers. They alone, of all peoples, believed in the unity of God. Their history was a long chapter of splen- Antecedents dor and defeat. When they escaped from Egyptian bondage, and reached Palestine, their first form of government was theocratic. God raised up judges to meet special emergencies in their history. From this they degener ated into a monarchy, which, after the death of Solomon, was divided into two kingdoms— Israel and Judah. Unity in both government and faith was gone. Israel was overcome by the Assyrians, and Judah by the Babylonians, and both nations were led off into exile to the valley of the Tigris and the Eu phrates. Only a small portion of Israel, or the ten tribes, re turned. The captives of conquered Judah were cured of their polytheistic tendencies, and, preserving their identity under Cyrus and his Persian successors, returned to Palestine. After the dissolution of the empire of Alexander the Great, who had conquered Palestine B.C. 332, the Seleucidse ruled in Syria and the Ptolemies in Egypt. Between these two the Jews led a subject and timid life, and finally submitted to the Seleucidse. The Greek religion was foisted upon them, but they rebelled, and determined to preserve their old faith and to conquer their rulers. Mattathias and his three sons led the revolt. For a time they were successful, and hoped to restore the old Davidic splendor. Pompey was at this time in Asia, at the head of the Roman army. He was invited to settle the dis pute. He entered the country, besieged Jerusalem b.c. 63, and, as was the Roman wont, took possession of the country, THE ATTITUDE OF JUDAISM TOWARDS CHRISTIANITY 15 and united it with the Roman Empire. The Jews had now lost all independence. Their later revolts had no other effect than to tighten the Roman hold, and to disperse small bodies of colonists around the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. The Samaritans were a mongrel religious body. They con sisted of returned Jews from Assyria, who brought with them Samaritans *^ose elements of pagan worship which they had ab sorbed during their captivity. They settled in the valley of Shechem, and built their temple on the top of Mount , Gerizim. The sect still exists, and consists of about one hun dred and fifty people. Their city is Nablus, which lies in the valley between Mounts Gerizim and Ebal. They have a high- priest, and are still in possession of their revered copy of the Pentateuch, believed to be the oldest in the world. The Pharisees were the most educated of all Jewish classes. Their teachers were versed in the law, and represented the hopes, the narrowness, and the ritualism of the peo- 0thBordiesV'Sh Ple- They taught a national revival. They orig inated as a class about b.c. 144, and aimed to re store the waning faith to its old Mosaic strength. Inclined to allegorical interpretation, and devoted to traditions, they aimed to supplement the Scriptures by traditional accretions. The Sadducees originated, according to some, with Zadoc, who lived about b.c. 250. They strove to restore Mosaism, but rejected tradition. They absorbed some of the elements of pagan thought, especially the doctrines of Epicurus. They rejected angels, the resurrection of the body, the immortality of the soul, and the divine interference in human affairs. The Essenes originated about b.c. 150. Their belief was Jewish, with Persian elements. They prayed towards the sun, and held that virtue and vice inhered in matter. They led a mo nastic life, and practised community of goods. All of these sects were in full strength at the time of Christ. The Essenes were retired, but the Pharisees and Sadducees were strong and prominent. But all the sects disappeared with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a.d. 10. The Jews are the wanderers of all history and all conti nents. From the time of their captivity in Assyria and Bab ylonia down to the present day, they have held Dispersed Jews ^^ pilgrim gtaff in hand About B.C. 350 we find a large colony on the shore of the Caspian Sea. Syria, 16 THE EARLY CHURCH under the reign of Seleucus Nicator (b.c. 312-280), received a vast Jewish population. In the insecure interval between Alexander the Great and a.d. 70, they had gone, in colonies, into Assyria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Asia Minor, Crete, Cy prus, and the iEgean Islands. In Lydia and Phrygia there was a colony of two thousand families. They generally pre served their identity. The most concentrated Jewish popula tion outside of Palestine was in northern Africa. Egypt, Ly bia, and Cyrene abounded in Jews. Alexandria was their «hief centre. Even under Alexander, the founder of the city, large numbers settled there, while he assigned eight thou sand Samaritans to the Thebaid. Extensive privileges were granted the Jews. They not only thrived in commerce, but developed thorough and broad scholarship. Philo, who at tempted to harmonize Jewish theology and Greek philosophy, was a Jew, whose learning was profound, and worthy of high praise. The Greek version of the Old Testament, the Septua gint, was a great triumph of Jewish learning. The first Jewish colony in Rome consisted of captives brought by Pompey from Palestine. They were assigned a distinct part of the city, which they have occu- Roman Jews . _ \ , .-,, T ,. „ pied ever since — the present Ghetto. Julius Csesar granted the Jews special favors. They were declared freed men (libertini), had their synagogues, observed their festivals, and held the Sabbath as a sacred day. The cultivated Ro mans, however, always despised them. They were the usual objects of raillery and satire. Juvenal held them up to con tempt by saying that they prayed to nothing but the clouds and the empty heavens. The apostles observed a common plan in preaching the gospel. They went first to the Jews, and then appealed to Jewish Colonies the outlying populations. Paul's success among them was often signal, but from them came also his most bitter foes. There were great advantages in making the Jews his first auditors. They were already familiar with the sacred history antecedent to Christianity. They had heard of the marvellous career of Jesus. Their annual visits to Jerusalem, to attend the festivals, had made them acquainted with the popular estimate of the new gospel. " To the Jew first," was his invariable plan. But there was no long pause. "Also to the Greek," was the next step of the tireless preacher. THE PERIOD OF UNIVERSAL PERSECUTION 17 CHAPTER V THE PERIOD OF UNIVERSAL PERSECUTION [Authorities.— Dr. Gerhard Uhlhorn's interesting and suggestive work, Con flict of Christianity with Heathenism (N. Y., 1879), is of much service here. Paul Barron Watson has made a new study of Aurelius's attitude in his Marcus Aurelius (N. Y., 1884). The Persecutions of Diocletian have been ~-">* treated in a book of that title by A. J. Mason (London, 1876).] The political prostration of the Jews embittered them against the Christians. There was nothing in common be tween the Jewish sects and the early Church. ^Christianity' The scepticism of the Sadducees and the disap pointed hopes of the Pharisees combined to in tensify the popular hate. The council in Jerusalem cast Peter and John into prison, and put Stephen to death. A general persecution, under Herod Agrippa, a.d. 44, broke out, and James the Elder fell a victim to its rage. The Christians took refuge in Pella, beyond the Jordan. Bar-cochba led a final popular Jewish revolt against the Roman authority, a.d. 132, but was defeated by Julius Severus, and Jerusalem became a heap of ruins. The Roman emperor Hadrian tried to destroy the attachment of the Christians to the sacred associations of the city by erecting on Calvary a temple to Venus, and, over the Holy Sepulchre, a statue to Jupiter. But his efforts, while pleasing to the Jews, had no material effect. The Jews, now that all hope of national independence was gone, established a school at Tiberias, where they tried to achieve with the pen what they had failed to accomplish by the sword. Their mis representations of Christ and his doctrines formed an impor tant element in the general literary attack on Christianity during the first three centuries. Christianity soon extended beyond Jewish bounds, and be came a thing which might well arouse the fears of the whole Roman Empire. In Rome the Christians were regarded aa 18 THE EARLY CHURCH simply a new Jewish sect. And when, in the middle of the first century, a disturbance arose among the Jews o^Cnrtstians °^ R°me> both Jews and Christians were banished by the Emperor Claudius. Nero represented the popular hostility to Christianity. He was believed to have set fire to Rome, where the flames had full sway for nine days. He threw the blame, however, on the Christians, and resorted to the most barbarous methods to show his rage. He even had some Christians smeared with pitch and burned alive, while he caused others to be sewed in the skins of wild beasts and thrown out to the dogs. The persecution continued until his death. Under Domitian (a.d. 81-96) a milder policy of hostility was observed, the oppression of the Christians being chiefly confined to exile and the seizure of their property. The Twelve Tables of the Roman law forbade the existence of foreign faiths within the dominions, but the habit had been to conciliate the conquered provinces by toleration hostility0 °^ tne existing religions. The appearance of the Christians, however, was the signal for revival of the old prohibition. The bonds uniting the Christians were close. Their separate services were declared an act of hostil ity to the country. They were accused of disobedience to the laws, and of a spirit ripe at any moment for insurrection. They were charged with immoral practices in their services. All popular calamities, such as earthquakes, inundations, pes tilence, and defeat in war, were attributed to them. A popu lar proverb ran thus : " Deus non pluit— due ad Christianos !" "It does not rain — lead us against the Christians!" Tertul lian has left this record of the Roman habit of charging the disciples of Christ with all possible calamities : " If the Tiber overflow its banks, if the Nile do not water the fields, if the clouds refuse rain, if the earth shake, if famine or storms pre vail, the cry always is, 'Pitch the Christians to the lions !' " Trajan (a.d. 98-117) continued the policy of his predeces sors, but in milder form. He gave orders to the Proconsul Pliny, in Bithynia, not to seek out the Christians, cutions but' wnen charges were brought against them, to give them opportunity to recant, and, in case of re fusal, to sacrifice them to the gods. The persecution under Trajan extended to Palestine and Syria. Under Hadrian (a.d. 117-138) and Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-161) the popular fury THE PERIOD OF UNIVERSAL PERSECUTION 19 against the Christians increased to great violence. While these emperors granted the Church no favor, their attitude was less hostile than that of some of their predecessors. Mar cus Aurelius (a.d. 161-180) was thoughtful and calm. He was a Stoic by profession, and, while he had no warm reverence for the national religion, he showed no sympathy with the Christians. He was repelled by their devotion to Christ and their readiness to suffer. He tolerated violence, and under him the persecutions at Smyrna, where Polycarp suffered mar tyrdom, and at Lyons and Vienne, in Gaul, took place. There was now a slight relaxation of violence, but under Septimius Severus (a.d. 193-211) the Christians were treated with cruelty. The persecution was wide-spread, and the mar tyrdoms were numerous. Alexander Severus professed to be an Eclectic in faith, and regarded Jesus as one of the gods. He placed a bust of Christ beside those of Abraham, Orpheus, and Apollonius of Tyana. He instituted no active measures of hostility. Decius had but a short reign (a.d. 249-251), and yet he improved his time industriously by endeavoring to ex terminate the Christians. His persecution was general, and as violent as that under Nero. The reign of Decius was succeeded by a brief interval of peace, which was brought to a close by the hostile attitude of Valerian (a.d. 253-260). Under Aurelian, Diocle- Fjna' Efforts tian, Galerius, and Maximinus, the persecution raged Christianity with varied fury. Great political complications arose. The changes in the imperial succession were frequent, and new methods of repression of the Christians were constantly adopted. During the whole time, however, the Christian Church grew in numbers and aggressive force. From a.d. 64 to 313, when Constantine granted an edict of toleration to the Christians, persecutions prevailed about sev enty years. All forms of torture and violent death were adopted. There was no security at home. The exiles were numerous, but the Christians carried their faith and life with them to their new places of abode, where they built up socie ties, which in turn became centres for the wider dissemination of the gospel. Christianity had conquered in the realm of political life. It was now safe from the hand of any Roman ruler. 20 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER VI CHRISTIAN WORSHIP f Authorities.— See Schaff, vol. i. §§ 62-57 (new ed.), for an admirable discussion of the points mentioned in this chapter. The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (best eda. : Schaff, 3d ed. rev.,N. Y., 1889; Hitchcock and Brown, rev. ed., N. Y., 1885 ; J. Rendel Harris, with autotype plates, Baltimore, 1888), throws needed light on the worship of the Early Church.] The Christians were at first greatly attached to the temple in Jerusalem. They met within its precincts. There was no disposition to erect separate sanctuaries, and, had simplicity of ^here been, the means to meet the expense were too limited. In time, however, the hostility of the Jews made it impossible to convene in either the temple or any room near it. The Christians were, therefore, driven to pri vate houses, where one room served the purpose of a sanctuary. A small platform (cathedra) served for the speaker or reader, while a table (ara) was used for the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The services consisted chiefly of reading selections from the Old Testament, the apostolical epistles, and, latest of all, the gospels. The reading was attended with copious Order of Service b r . . „, , 6, t, . , . , r ., exposition. Ihe day of the elaborate homily, with a short scriptural passage as a mere motto, had not yet arrived. All that was said was meant to give to the hearer a deeper knowledge of the divine word. Singing of psalms and hymns was an important part of the service. It might be led by an individual, but the music was by the whole congrega tion. The Psalms of David and the rhythmic parts of the prophecies furnished the favorite basis. Prayer was connect ed with the singing, and the congregation responded " Amen " at the close. The concluding part of the service was the Lord's Supper. Until about a.d. 150, the agape, or love-feast, was connected with the communion service, but, because of its CHRISTIAN WORSHIP 21 abuse, was afterwards separated from it. After the prayer the kiss of charity was given, and the apostolical benediction was pronounced. There were two sacraments in the early Church — the Lord's Supper and Baptism. After the council at Jerusalem, which abrogated the Jewish initiatory ceremonial as neces- Sacraments ° -, . . „, * , . , , -, sary tor admission to the Church, baptism was held to be the only visible condition of reception. The formula, " In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost," was observed from the beginning of the Apostolic Church. With respect to the mode of baptism, on which there has been much dis cussion, there can be no doubt that, in the age immediately succeeding the apostolic, immersion in water was nearly, if not quite, the universal custom. This is now established beyond question by the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," one of the earliest remains of post-apostolic literature. At the same time, it is now equally indisputable that sprinkling or pouring was allowed when immersion was impracticable, and some of the earliest frescos represent this as though it were a common mode. But it was not till much later that the Church entered into her full liberty, and restored what many consider the apostolic mode, and the one most accordant with the spirit of Christianity as well as with the symbolism of the ordi nance. The Sabbath, or seventh day, continued to be observed btf tlToJpVJRtiigj^-gft" riprl PTvtPTPd_thp. Chyrr-.H^xoTO--JndaiHmJ But the Sunday, or first day of the week, was alsol The Sabbath , , . J ' <¦ t j> *• observed, in memory of our Lord's resurrection. Gradually the Sunday became more prominent, and, finally, the observance of the seventh day was discontinued entirely. Those members of the Church who had been Jews were in clined to regard with reverence the festivals to which they had been accustomed in their former communion. These, however, they relinquished, with the exception of two, Easter and Pentecost, to which also the Gentile Christians adhered, as these festivals commemorated two great events in Chris tian history — our Lord's resurrection and the descent of the Spirit. 22 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER VII THE LIFE OF CHRISTIANS [Authorities. — Uhlhorn has opened an inviting field of study in his Chris tian Charity in the Ancient Church (N. Y., 1884). He gives also a sober view of the place of slavery in the view of primitive Christianity. See also the excellent book of the late Charles Loring Brace, Gesta Christi : A History of Humane Progress under Christianity (4th ed. enlarged, N. Y., 1885).] Every part of Christian life was in direct antagonism to that of the pagan Greeks and Romans. The Christians oblit erated all social and national differences. No sooner was a new member received than he found himself in the midst of a brotherhood. " These Christians," says Bunsen, " belonged to no nation and to no state ; but their fatherland in heaven was to them a reality, and the love of the brethren, in truth and not in words, made the Christian congregation the foreshad owing of a Christian commonwealth, and a model for all ages to come." The relief of the poor and suffering received early atten tion. Paul collected contributions from the Greek Christians in Asia Minor for the poor in Jerusalem. All his CaNeeayhe epist^es Prove that the poor in each society were constantly in his mind. No needy body of believ ers was forgotten in its silent sorrow. When, later, persecu tions became violent and wide-spread, the spirit of apostolic sympathy was sustained in all its fervor. The pagans neg lected their needy. Their religion had no heart. But the Christians sought out the suffering, and helped them with lavish hand. During the pestilence in North Africa, in the middle of the third century, the pagans deserted their sick and dying, and stripped their bodies of valuables, while the Christians divided their means with the suffering, cleared the streets of decomposing bodies, and nursed the sick with ten derness and devotion. THE LIFE OF CHRISTIANS 23 The early prominence given to woman was an important factor. Elizabeth, Anna, and Mary, the mother of Jesus, be came early witnesses, however unconscious, to the Woman ° dignity and worth of woman in the Christian sys tem. The women mentioned by Paul in his epis tles were examples of devotion and wisdom in the spread of the gospel. In times of persecution women presented a sub lime spectacle of readiness and composure in the hour of death. Perpetua and Felicitas, who cheerfully welcomed martyrdom, became types of womanly heroism in every part of Christendom. Christianity triumphed not only in the broad field of territorial expansion, but in the more subtile department of the whole structure of social life. Paganism was only a whited sepulchre. Its splendor was an exterior thing alone. It created no happy homes, for woman was without worth, and children were no blessing. Wherever the Christians lived they built up happy households. There was no attempt made to emancipate slaves. Obe dience on their part was inculcated. Spiritually free and equal to their masters, their religious prerogatives did not elevate them above their station. Ignatius (died about 115) counsels slaves to serve the more zealously, that they may have the greater reward. Not till Chrysostom, in the fourth century, do we find any discussion of the evils of slavery, and proposals for a gradual emancipation. At the same time, Christianity applied its humane spirit to the slave. Paul's chart of freedom ran thus : " There is neither bond nor free." The slave, the moment he became a Christian, became a brother with his master. As Christianity expanded, its tendency was to bring the oppressed and the oppressor to gether, upon a common plane of brotherly equality. Paul's appeal to Philemon, to show kindness to the slave Onesimus and receive him back again, was an index of the power of Christianity to soften, and even obliterate, all the asperity attendant upon bondage in man. 24 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER VIII ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION [Authorities. — Bishop Lightfoot in his Commentary on Philippians (7th ed., London, 1885), excursus on the Christian Ministry, has traced the origin and development of the offices in the Early Church. His conclusions are now accepted by impartial scholars. Read also Hatch's Organization of the Early Christian Churches (3d ed., London, 1888), for the influence of the guilds and other societies of the Greek world. The Croall Lectures for 1886, The Growth of the Church in its Organization and Government, by Dr. John Cunningham (London, 1886), are discussions of these vexed ques tions at once interesting and satisfactory.] The constitution of the early Church was in part of divine ordering. But this was only in outline. The apostolate was fundamental and original, but temporary. It was designed as the great introductory force, which should cease so soon as it had served its purpose. From this, as a basis, the per manent orders of presbyter and deacon developed. A large measure of liberty was left to the judgment of the Church, as new exigencies and larger growth might demand. To the temporary officers belonged the apostles. The con dition was that the apostles must have seen Christ in the flesh or in his risen state. Their work was evangelistic * Pp°roiehetasnd and organizing. Then came the prophets. They were inspired by the Holy Ghost for the special work of teaching higher revelations. Foretelling events was not their controlling function, but the revelation of God's will, especially in the choice of persons for great service in the Church. The prophet was not necessarily an apostle, but the apostle was a prophet. Paul, Agabus, Simeon, Barnabas, Manaen, Judas the Evangelist, and Silas belonged to the pro phetic class. After them came the evangelists. They were preachers without defined limits, and were aids to the apostles, or, as Rothe says, " apostolic delegates." Their work was pre paratory—the preaching in new societies until organization ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION 25 was established. Philip, Timothy, Titus, Silas or Silvanus, Luke, John, Mark, Clement, and Epaphras belonged to the evangelist class. The bishops or presbyters were the highest permanent offi cers. The word bishop (episcopos) was of Greek origin, and was in common use among both Greeks and Romans ^Officer's"' as a Political supervisor. The societies of the West, which consisted of members from paganism, used the word for the chief or superintending pastor, as they were al ready familiar with it. The converts from Judaism naturally took the synagogue as their model, and as the elder pastor (presbuteros) was the chief or superintending pastor of the synagogue, they applied it to the chief pastor of the Chris tian Church. There was not the least difference in the orig inal duties of the bishop and the presbyter. In each case he was the spiritual head of one church or society. Later, when churches increased, and the supervising office was of wider scope, the Western word supplanted the Eastern, and the term bishop was used, while that of presbyter went into the back ground. But the bishop, in the early and pure period of the Church, was of no higher order than the presbyter. The du ties of one were those of both : " To feed the flock of God . . . taking the oversight thereof " (1 Peter v. 2). The deacons were both an order and an office. The duties are minutely described in the Scriptures (Acts vi. 1-8). They aided the apostles, had care of the poor and sick, assisted in administering the Lord's Supper, and preached. The deacon esses were a special office, designed for caring for the sick, the agedj the female poor, and the instruction of orphans. 26 the early church CHAPTER IX EBIONISM AND GNOSTICISM [Authorities. — On the Ebionites, see the excursus in Lightfoot's Commentary on Galatians (8th ed., London, 1884), and on the strange phenomena of Gnosticism see the same writer's essay in his Commentary on Colossians (8th ed., 1886), and Dean Mansel's Gnostic Heresies (London, 1875). C. W. King has published an admirable book on Gnostic symbols and works of art, The Gnostics and their Remains (new ed., London, 1887).] Christianity was making steady progress in every field. (Borne of the more advanced thinkers in both Judaism and pa- Vganism saw in the Christian system so much that commended itself to universal confidence that each proposed to adapt it to his own faith and philosophy. This was a new plan, more dangerous to Christianity by far than outward opposition. In each case the overture was strengthened by people within the Christian fold, who responded to the flattering proposi tion, though without representing the spirit of the whole body. After the council in Jerusalem which settled the great Pau line principle of the freedom of Christian converts from the _u. .. Mosaic law, there remained a body of Christians who Ebionites . n J would not accept the conclusion. Jerusalem was their centre. They were of two classes — those who saw in Christian ity the fulfilment of all that was worthy in Judaism, and those who were more conservative, and refused to acknowledge the new faith as the culmination of Mosaism. Out of these two tendencies sprang Ebionism. It held that the Mosaic law was still in force ; its close observance was a necessity for sal vation ; Christianity fulfilled the law, but did not abrogate it; Christ was the prophet of Israel's deliverance'; he was a mere man ; his generation was natural ; the Divine Spirit entered him at baptism ; Christ was a good Jew ; his piety was his claim to Messiahship ; he performed miracles ; and he supple mented the law by his own commands. The Ebionites rejected Paul's writings, as not Jewish enough. They had communi- EBIONISM AND GNOSTICISM 27 ties in Asia Minor, Cyprus, and in Rome, and existed down to the fourth century. The Nazarseans more nearly approached Christianity. They accepted Paul's writings, and held that Christ was the Son of Nazarseans ^0<^' an<^ *^at *"8 generation was divine. • They dis appeared in the fourth century. The Elcesaites, or Sampsseans, were of similar Jewish proclivities, but had a stronger Oriental element in their faith. They kept the Jew ish Sabbath, retained sacrifices, held that oil and salt are em blems of spiritual communication, and prayed with their faces towards the sun. The Gnostic system was a combination of the new Platonic philosophy with Oriental theosophy, the two proposing to ap propriate certain Christian elements. Philo^a learned ^nGeneraT Jew of Alexandria, born about b.c. 20, furnished the most decided contribution. He aimed to unite Ju daism and Platonism. He regarded God and the world as forming a dualism, both finite and infinite. He believed that God could not assume visible form, but can reveal himself to the soul. The Logos is a divine emanation, which the Holy Spirit, the Divine Wisdom, imparted directly to the first men, and to all who have since striven after likeness to God. From the fundamental ideas of Philo the great Gnostic system de veloped into special systems, but all of them were strained accommodations to Christian ideas. Cepntbus (a.d. 100) was the earliest representative of the Jewish form of this strange philosophy. He held that Juda ism was the world's preparation for Christianity ; Jewish tnaf. jesus was the natural son of Joseph and Mary, Gnosticism . . . L -,,,. and arrived at his pure state at baptism and by his holy life ; that his death was not a mediatorial service ; but that he would come again, and establish a vast earthly king dom. Basilides taught in Alexandria about a.d. 130. He held that the universe is a dualism — deity and matter. Between these there is a great multitude of Eeons, or emanations from God, who record his glory and make it fruitful. Each nation is ruled by an aeon. The Jewish seon taught by means of Mo ses and the prophets. But truth was universal — Greeks, Jews, and Persians shared it. The highest ason was accorded to Je sus at his baptism. Basilides was cautious, not committing himself to any of the extremes which constituted the body of 28 THE EARLY CHURCH the Gnostic system. Valentinian (a.d. 138) first taught in Al exandria, but afterwards removed to Rome. He was at first a Christian, but withdrew from the Church. He borrowed his chief ideas from Plato. His fundamental doctrine was ema nation. The supreme God lives in silence and solitude. But, to be perfect, he must love, and in order to love there must be an object. So he began to emanate. The aeons are personalities, which emanate from him. Man, the Logos, and the Church, are divine emanations. Man is redeemed through the Logos. The crucifixion represented the divine might by which the world is purified from sin. Valentinian was the founder of the largest Gnostic school. His chief disciples were Herac leon, Ptolemaeus, and Bardesanes. The Ophites (serpent-worshippers) were the first of this class. They existed as a small sect in Egypt at the time of Christ, and afterwards adopted a perverted type of Chris- PagT^Gnostics ^nity) Dut retained a large measure of Oriental theosophy. The pleroma, or highest spirit, de velops itself in aeons ; and from the fourth one there floats a ray of light, which combines with matter, and becomes the world-soul. Man is created. To defeat his elevation the ser pent is prepared. The serpent becomes the type of all wis dom, and is worthy of worship. Man, by his fall, first arrives at the consciousness of freedom and mastery. There were two minor Ophite sects — the Cainites and the Sethians. Carpocra- tes built his system out of fragments of Buddhism and Neo- Platonism. He placed all faiths on the same plane — Orpheus, Pythagoras, Plato, and Christ were quite the same, according to him. His sect degenerated into wild libertinism. In Mani and the Manichaeans we reach the limits of Oriental Gnosti cism. Mani made the faith of Zoroaster the basis of his sys tem, but added a superstructure of Buddhism and Christianity. Fatalism pervaded the whole structure. The sect continued down to the end of the third century, when Diocletian issued an edict for its suppression. The Ophites elevated man to su preme importance. Their estimate has been characterized in the following lines : " O thou citizen of Heaven 1 Thou much-praised Man I From thee comes Father, Through thee comes Mother,— EBIONISM AND GNOSTICISM 29 Those two immortal names, The parents of the ^Eons." Saturninus, who died about a.d. 174, held that the supreme Father has produced, by intermediate archangels and powers, seven angels, who are the sovereigns of the material Gnosticism world. Among them is the God of the Jews. Man was created, but with infirmities. The Saviour came to aid him towards final development. Tatian was a native of Assyria, but emigrated to Rome. His chief tenet was an tagonism to marriage. He died a.d. 174. The Encratites and Hydroparastatai were followers of Tatian. The tendency to de cline was manifested in all the Gnostic schools. Marcion, who lived about a.d. 150, and his followers represented the reforma tory movement. He avoided all the extremes of his predeces sors, but leaned towards Christianity. He recognized Paul as the only veritable apostle, admitted one Gospel, a distortion of Luke, and rejected all tradition and esoteric doctrines. In his later years he is said to have regretted his Gnostic vagaries, and to have sought readmission to the Church. Of all Gnos tics he was the nearest approach to the true Christian. The service which Gnosticism rendered to the Church was\ to make the pagan mind acquainted with some fundamental Christian truths, to disintegrate the fabric of the Place of pagan philosophy, and to prove, by its own fruit less . end£avorSj_the_jimjDOssibility of combining any system1 with Christianity. It also stimulated to theological in vestigation and to the study of the Scriptures. Basilides and Heracleon were the first to comment upon the whole Gospels. Gnosticism helped towards the elevation of the bishops, and to a higher regard for the rites and doctrines received from the apostles. The Gnostics were a proud class. They set out with claims to all knowledge, approached Christianity as they would any other faith, and proposed to weigh it in their own small bal ance. They made reason the test of religion, and were devoid of all appreciation of the spiritual life. The danger to Chris tianity of all the Gnostic systems was in winning Christians to the adoption of them. But the Christian teachers were prompt in giving warning of their dangerous nature, and no great seces sion to them ever occurred. The Christians, as a body, regard ed the Gnostics with aversion, because of the claim of many of them that they believed in the best part of Christianity. 30 THE EARLY CHURCH While Marcion was the nearest approach to the Christian, the interview of Polycarp with him one day, as the two met in a street in Rome, indicates the Christian hostility to all Gnos tics. Polycarp was stopped by Marcion, who said : " Do you not recognize me ?" The father replied promptly : " Certainly I do. I know the first-born of Satan !" CHAPTER X THE PAGAN LITERARY ATTACK [Authorities.— Uhlhorn's Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, book ii., ch. ii. ; Dr. Donaldson's article on Celsus in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition.] The growing importance of Christianity, in the mind of the pagan world, became very apparent in the attempts now made in literature to destroy its very foundations. By Chr""tlhnitv tne begmning °f tne second century it became evi dent to the cultivated Romans that something more than imperial opposition was necessary to arrest the new faith. Every persecution left Christianity more solid, aggressive, and hopeful than it found it. During the second and third centuries the two hostile forces proceeded together — the sword and the pen. Each pursued its own path, and each hoped to win by help from the other. The Christians met the imperial opposition by non-resistance but ceaseless evangelization. They met the antagonism of literature by such bold and mas terful logic, and by such strong appeal to facts, that the whole structure of paganism was shaken by their arguments. The Greek and Roman writers saw in Christianity certain peculiarities well calculated to give them alarm. They had to deal with a new historical phenomenon. They Pa'gan Alarm saw' ^rst' tnat the new religion was based upon certain writings, reaching back to the dawn of his tory, and culminating later in the life of the Founder and in the exposition of his doctrines ; second, that there was an his torical basis for Christianity ; third, that it dealt with funda mental moral themes ; fourth, that the people professing faith THE PAGAN LITERARY ATTACK 31 in the doctrines never grew weary of them ; fifth, that the doctrines developed pure and heroic lives ; sixth, that the Scriptural cosmogony was more reasonable and consistent than that of Hesiod ; seventh, that the character of Christ was without a blemish ; and, eighth, that his death had im parted to his followers a zeal which nothing had been able to arrest. To overcome such a system was a serious problem. But both Greek and Roman writers, with much self -conscious ness, did not hesitate to undertake the task of demolition. The wise methods by which their work was met by Christian writers, and the fearless spirit in which the latter wrought, was a great surprise. It is one of the wonders of all literature. The hostile attitude of even general historians can be seen in mere allusions. Tacitus dismisses the subject by saying that Christ was the founder of a new sect, that he had been crucified by Pontius Pilate, that his system was a deadly su perstition, and that the Christians were obnoxious to the hu man race. Antoninus says that the soul must be ready to leave the body by a mere wilful rejection of the evils of ex istence. Juvenal sneered at the Christian adoration of the heavens. Arrian reports Epictetus as protesting against the Galilean fearlessness of danger, and the doctrine that God created all things. Lucian was as severe on Christianity as on the other religions, all of which he cast into a common vortex of worthlessness. He called Christ a magician, and parodied the career of Jonah, our Lord's walking on the Sea of Galilee, and John's description of the New Jerusalem. The literary men of the Roman Empire looked upon Christi anity as a miserable superstition, too contemptible for candid consideration. When Tacitus called it a "pernicious super stition " (exitiabilis super stitio), he represented the sentiments of the haughty intellectualism of paganism. Celsus, Porphyry, and Hierocles were the strongest assail ants of Christianity. Celsus lived about a.d. 150. He held strongest to a cnief deity, a superintending providence, and Assailants of the immortality of the soul. These views he de- Christianity riyed from tne piatomc philosophy. But when he examined Christianity, he lost sight of the parallel of these fundamental truths with the Christian system. His antag onism was bitter. He assailed the Old Testament, but lev elled his attacks chiefly against the alleged weaknesses in the 32 THE EARLY CHURCH career and character of Jesus. Porphyry, born about a.d. 233, aimed to show that the pagan world presented higher magical characters than Jesus, and that the gospel history abounds in hopeless contradictions. His " Candid Treatise against the Christians" was an attempt to show a parallel between the sorcery of Apollonius of Tyana and Jesus, with a large bal ance in favor of the former. Obscurer writers followed willingly in the footprints of the leaders. Satire, fiction, poetry — indeed, all forms of literary General Charges effort — were employed to hold up Christianity to against contempt. The principal grounds of hostility Christianity were . 1. The alleged contradictions in the Scriptures. 2. The uselessness of Christians to the existing state of so ciety. 3. The philosophical absurdity of the Christian system. 4. The claim of the humanity of Jesus at the same time with that of divinity. 5. The immorality of Christians. This charge was based upon the secret meetings of Christians. It was never serious ly believed. On the contrary, the moral life of believers stood out in beautiful contrast to the pagan immorality. That se crecy should be confounded with bad morals was natural to the pagan mind, familiar with the nameless licentiousness and wild communism connected with the Eleusinian and other mysteries. This and all the other charges were summed up by Tertullian in a single sentence, which he placed in the mouth of universal paganism, as its final argument against the Chris tians : " You have no right to exist !" The most which the pagan writers could hope from their attack was to prevent new accessions to the Church. They wrote for the pagan mind, not with any view to dis- Triumphant turDing the Christian's faith in his own religion. This they were not so foolish as to imagine possible. The Christian body was too firmly knit to give ground for such a delusive expectation. No serious defection ever oc curred because of the pagan attack. On the contrary, the numbers steadily increased. But the main object also failed completely. Paganism was in process of disintegration ; and while the assailants flattered themselves that they were achiev ing a literary success, the result was a total disappointment. THE CHRISTIAN DEFENDERS 33 The pagan walls were falling too rapidly to be propped up. It was an effort for the impossible. Even the well-timed at tack of Celsus owes its preservation to the pen of Origen. CHAPTER XI THE CHRISTIAN DEFENDERS [Authorities. — George A. Jackson, The Apologists, in Patristic Primers (N. Y., 1880) ; Neander, vol. i., pp. 157-178. See also Frederick Watson, The Ante- Nicene Apologies : their Character and Value (Cambridge, 1870). The same writer has made an excellent survey of this literature in his De fenders of the Faith, or the Christian Apologists of the Second and Third Centuries (London, 1878), in series of Fathers for English Readers.] We now come to a brighter picture. The writing in de fence of Christianity is called the apology, and the writer an apologist. It is from the Greek word apologia, Two Classes of wn;cn meant a work written for resistance. But Apologists the apologies of the early Church were more than this. They were not only counter-arguments, but aggressive weapons. It was a fierce warfare upon the enemy's camp, fol lowed by a hot pursuit. There were two classes of apologists, the Greek and the Latin, according to the territory which they occupied, and the language in which they wrote. But there were further differences. The Greeks belonged mostly to the second century, and their writings exhibited a profound intimacy with the Greek philosophy. Some of them had stud ied in the Greek schools, and entered the Church only in ma ture life. They endeavored to prove that Christianity was the blossom of all that was valuable in every system. They stood largely on the defensive. The Latins, on the other hand, were aggressive. They lived mostly in the third century, were more argumentative, wrote in a clearer and more methodical style, and carried the warfare into the hostile ranks with an energy equal to the Roman soldier on foreign battle-fields. Their per spective of Christianity was that of universal conquest and permanent dominion. The principal Greek apologists were Aristo, Quadratus, Aristides, Justin, Melito, Miltiades, Irenaeus, Athenagoras, Ta» 3 34 THE EARLY CHURCH tian, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus, and Origen. Aristo's dialogue between Papiskos and Jason was an attempt Greek ^Q prove the truth of Christianity and the messiah- Apologists r /~. m ship of Jesus as the fulfilment of the Old Testament. Quadratus addressed an apology to Hadrian (a.d. 131), with a view to stop the persecutions of the Christians. Aristides proved Christianity the culmination of the best systems in the classic world, and the one which should supersede all else. Justin wrote two apologies (a.d. 136 and a.d. 162), showing that the Christians were not responsible for public calamities; that they were true Roman citizens; that pagan philosophy and mythology abound in falsehood and contradiction; and that the only source of truth is the Scriptures. Athenagoras, in his " Embassy of the Christians," applied a philosophical method to Christian defence. Tatian, who died about a.d. 176, wrote an Address to the Greeks, showing the ridiculous origin of the Greek religion and science. Clement, in his "Pedagogue," and the " Stromata," exposed the emptiness of the whole pa gan fabric. Hippolytus wrote against the pagans, the Pla tonic philosophy, and the Jews. Origen, born a.d. 185, wrote a work consisting of eight books against Celsus, in which he exposed the weakness of the whole pagan structure. Tertullian stands at the head. His "Apologeticus," written about a.d. 200, is the most brilliant piece of apologetic writing in the early Church. He showed that persecution Apokmists was no fina* damage to the Christians. His other writings covered nearly every contested point. The supernatural element in Christianity was brought by him into great prominence, and defended with masterly skill. Cyprian wrote about the middle of the third century. His attack on pagan idolatry was merciless, and could not be answered. Ar nobius (about a.d. 303) surpassed all the apologists in his use of the miracles of Jesus as a weapon of Christian attack. Lactantius, the Christian Cicero, wrote his "Divine Institu tions " a.d. 320.* His strength lay less in the force of his argument than in the purity and beauty of his style. The objection that Christians were disloyal to the State was met by the answer that they were true to the emperor; obeyed * The date here, a.d. 320, is of the second edition, addressed to Con- Btentine. It was written 307-310, or perhaps earlier. THE CHBISTIAN DEITMNDHRB 36 all laws which did not interfere with Christianity; never con spired against the government; and never produced Defence roDbers, assassins, or traitors. Purity of life was proven as the outgrowth of pure doctrines. Tertullian said: "We live a life free from reproach. We live among you. You can see us every day." To the charge that national ca lamities were produced by the Christians, he replied: " Why do you suffer too? Why do your gods let you have these trials ?" The inspiration of the Scriptures and purity of doc trine were fundamental arguments in all the apologetic writ ings. To these came the divine character of Jesus. When the assailants repelled the miraculous power of Jesus, the apolo gists replied : " Do you not say that your JEsculapius restores the lame and the halt ; that your Orpheus, Zeno, and Klean- thes knew the Logos ; and that Plato, in a letter to Hermeas and Koriskus, speaks of a son of God ?" The purity of Chris tian morals was held up by the apologists in striking antago nism to the sensuality of paganism, which could produce only caricatures of good morals. The origin of the pagan gods was exposed with fearless skill. The apologists said, with Ta tian, " What has become of your Juno, that she produces no more gods?" Arnobius said, defiantly: "Your gods abound in passion ; some are drunkards, others are murderers, and multitudes are licentious." When this battle of three centuries was over it was easy to see that the victory of the Christian writers was complete. It began with the pagan expectation of destroying "JJ"!*^ the logical basis of Christianity, but ended by the exposure of the corruption of the Greek and Ro man faith and the weakness of the boasted philosophy. Every department of Christian truth was defended by the apologists. Their arguments broke down the opposition, while they con stitute a storehouse of Christian defence to which all later Christian writers have appealed with success. The indirect service of the attacks to the Church was great, in that all Christians were compelled to study the groundwork of Chris tianity, on every side. The laity were driven to read their Bible. The private member, over all Christendom, could give a reason for the faith that was in him. By the end of the fifth eentury the conflict was over. The apologists were the last to leave the field. The Christian now lived in a larger place. 36 THE EARLY CHURCH He was marching on to universal conquest. The words of one of the apologists expressed the attitude of all believers : " Every country is the Christian's fatherland, and e^-ery father land is the Christian's country." CHAPTER XII THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS [Authorities. — A. T. Drane, in Christian Schools and Scholars (London, 1889), has made an exhaustive historical study of an interesting field. The dis cussion is carried from the earliest times to the Council of Trent. It is written, however, from the Roman Catholic standpoint.] From whatever side the Christian convert came, he brought with him the love of the school. For ministerial training the Early Attention Jews had, from distant times, the prophetic schools, to Christian under the care of their wisest teachers. In Ath- Learnmg eng^ rpargus^ an(j Alexandria the Greeks possessed celebrated universities, which even Roman students attended, for the completion of studies pursued in Italy. The proper dealing with both Jewish and pagan thought made a thorough ministerial culture necessary. The preacher of the Early Church lived in an atmosphere of opposition, and, to succeed, he must be well acquainted with not only the truth he would defend, but with the false system he would combat. The life of St. Paul furnished a remarkable illustration of this. The whole tendency of his character, career, and acquisitions was on the side of careful training. Timothy and Titus represented a group of young men who were inducted into Christianity through the labors of that apostle, and, by personal attendance on his journeys, were prepared to succeed him and the other apostles. It was a beautiful legend of the whole period that the aged John stood at the head of a theological school in Ephesus, whither young men flocked from all quarters to gather from him memorabilia of our Lord's ministry and per sonality. By the middle of the second century there were three great Christian schools. The most important was that of Alexan- THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS 37 dria. This city was the chief seat of philosophical culture in the world after the destruction of the literary pres- fl'eschoo|an tiSe of Athens. All currents of thought, from both East and West, flowed thither for two centuries. Plato, because of the sway of Neo-Platonism, was a familiar name. Here Christianity and pagan learning came into close conflict, and finally the Christian school took the place of the pagan university. The catechetical, or Socratic, element pre vailed at first. The most active period of this school covered two centuries, a.d. 200-400. Pantsenus was the founder. He and Clement stood at its head in the second century; Origen, Heracles, and Dionysius, in the third ; and Didymus the Blind, in the fourth. In addition to these, we may reckon Gregory Thaumaturgus, Petrus, Pamphilus, and Eusebius, who, though not formally connected with it, yet sympathized with its ten dencies. The theological characteristics were sympathy with the better Greek philosophy, an emphasis on intuition and the subjective life, and a disposition to allegorize the Old-Testa ment narratives. Origen, though brilliant, was an unsafe guide, especially in his adoption of an indefinite series of creations, the soul's pre-existence, a pre-Adamite apostasy, and a final universal restoration. The school of Asia Minor consisted less in a formal educa tional centre than in a group of theological writers and teach ers. The whole region had been a scene of active theological thought since Paul's day. In the second century it leaned towards a literal and Judaistic type of Christianity, but in the third it assumed a broader character. It opposed Gnosticism and suppressed Montanism. Polycarp, Papias, Melito of Sar dis, and Hegesippus were its leaders in its first period, and Irenseus, Hippolytus, and Julius Africanus in the second. The chief pursuit of the school of Antioch, in Syria, was the criticism of the sacred text and the statement of doctrinal theology. Its founders were Dorotheus and Lukia- Schooi of nus _A^t f[rst it sympathized with the Alexandrian school, but was alienated on the rise of the Origenis- tic and Nestorian controversies. Its most prosperous period was a.d. 300-342. Theodorus, Eusebius of Emesa, Cyril, Apol- linaris, Ephraem, Diodorus, John Chrysostom, and Theodore of Mopsuestia belonged to it. The centre of the school of North Africa was Carthage. To this place, and not to Rome, Latin 38 THE EARLY CHURCH Christianity was indebted for its prevailing type. Cyprian, Tertullian, Minutius Felix, Commodianus, and Ar- Schooi of nobius were its leading representatives. It was North Africa , . , . ' distinguished for its heroic zeal for the unity of the Church, for aversion to Gnosticism, for an exact and literal Biblieal interpretation, for an abhorrence of theological spec ulation, and for energy in developing the practical and evan gelistic side of the Church. Its period of greatest prosperity was a.d. 200-330. The general tendency of the schools was to lead the Church in its doctrinal and general literary development. They were rallying-points for Christian defence, and for broader General pians 0f Christian work. Their influence extended Tendency I throughout the Christian world. Many men were drawn towards them from the most distant regions, imbibed their spirit, and either went back as preachers and teachers into their own country, or far away, into new regions, to ex tend Christianity. Some of the teachers, as Origen, were of wonderfully magnetic spirit, and imparted both their energy and doctrines to younger minds. CHAPTER XIII LIBERATION UNDER CONSTANTINE [Authorities. — E. L. Cutts has prepared a useful Life of Constantine (London, S. P. C. K., 1881). Milman has given a sound estimate of Constantine, and an excellent account of his work for the Church, in his History of Christian ity (new ed., N. Y., 1881), book iii., chaps, i.-iv. Consult also Merivale's Conversion ot the Roman Empire (N. Y., 1865).] We now come to consider the outward relations of the Church. What was the bearing of the empire upon Christian ity ? The period of persecution was passing away. The Church, meanwhile, was not despondent, but making full plans for future triumph. A revolution in the imperial pol icy was close at hand, and the forces were in full play which should soon bring about the liberation of all Christendom. This was effected by the military successes of Constantine, who, a.d. 306, was called from the command of the army in LIBERATION UNDER CONSTANTINE 39 Britain to succeed his father as Roman emperor. But, before getting securely in place, he had to conquer five competitors- three in the East and two in the West. It mattered not that some were blood relatives. Kinship was only a trifle in those days, and soon Constantine had disposed of all contestants to his claim to his father's crown. Constantine declared himself a Christian, in sympathy, early in his reign. Before the decisive battle of the Rubra Saxa with Maxentius, which should secure his rule, he ^on'version'8 claimed to see in the sky the sign of the cross, with the words "En touto nika" — "By this con quer." He accepted the token as an argument in favor of Christianity, gained the battle for the crown of the Roman Empire, and henceforth avowed his belief in Christianity. His vision, though in the line of his sympathies, was probably only a shrewd method to attract the Christians to his support. He carried the labarum, a standard inscribed with the cross, in all his subsequent wars. His policy was at first to make all Chris tians the supporters of his rule, and, by granting concessions, to heal the alienation from the empire which the repressive policy of his predecessors had produced. He published (a.d. 313) an edict tolerating Christianity as one of the legal relig ions of the empire. But in the year 323 he enlarged the scope of his favor, and made Christianity the established faith of all his dominions. Among the chief special acts of Con stantine in favor of the Church may be mentioned his order ing the civil observance of Sunday, his confiscation in the East of pagan temples for Christian churches, his emancipation of slaves, his exemption of the clergy from military ana munici pal duty, and his ardent promotion of Christian education among his subjects. The good and the bad were employed in the imperial sup port. It was a happy day when the Christians could walk abroad without fear of persecution. But there Constantine's were grounds for concern. Constantine left but (Mixed Methods & , _,, , _ . little for the Church to do for its own govern ment. He claimed the right to supervise religion, as the em peror had always done in the case of paganism. He accounted himself still the great high-priest, or Pontifex Maximus, and claimed the prerogative to compose differences, decide ques tions of religious policy, call ecclesiastical councils, and ap- 40 THE EARLY CHURCH point the leading officers. Then, again, he retained many pagan institutions. The heathen temples were supported out of the State treasury, certain respect was paid to the national divinities, and even soothsayers were still used for help in battle. Constantine was a mixed character, not willing to lose the sympathy of the pagan citizens, and yet clear-headed enough to see that further hostility to Christianity would be fatal to his rule. He had no faith in paganism, but would not suppress it. His line of conduct was, to allow it to go on as he found it, and yet to help the Christians to conquer it. He was, of all successful rulers, the most successful trimmer. The course of Constantine was attended with serious danger to the Church. This did not arise from the assumption of guardianship over its affairs, but from making the .^"p3" t0. whole Christian body a part of the machinery of the State, and employing the State as the supreme judge of its inner and outward life. Hitherto the Church had been a grand moral unity, held together by ties of love and doc trine. But now it was absorbed by the State. Its framework was lost in the body politic. Freeman says : " The Church conquered the State." This is a great error. Constantine's adoption of Christianity as the State religion was the conquest of the Church by the State. All the moral forces of the Church were now impaired. The bondage of the Church to the State, thus early begun, produced the great evils of the following twelve centuries — superstition, the purchase of office, the angry controversy about theological trifles, the moral corruption of the clergy, and the ignorance of the masses. Milton, in his translation of a passage of Dante's " Inferno," thus character izes the evil of Constantine's favor : "Ah, Constantine, of how much ill was cause, Not thy conversion, but those rich demains That the first wealthy pope received of thee !" Pepin, and not Constantine, was the first to confer ten> poral power on the papacy. Dante was not far astray, how ever, for Constantine's patronage was the entering wedge for Pepin's donation. Neander says, with truth : " The reign of Constantine bears witness that the State which seeks to establish Christianity by the worldly means at its command may be the occasion of more injury to the holy cause than the THE ' ROMAN EMPIRE . EASTERN & WESTERN IN THE 4™ CENTURY Showing the Positions of tlie NORTHERN BARBARIANS. 30 REACTION UNDER JULIAN 41 earthly power which opposes it, with whatever force." Con stantine could have helped the Church greatly by simply re moving all political disabilities, and permitting the Chris tians to develop their polity and spiritual forces as God might lead. CHAPTER XIV REACTION UNDER JULIAN [Authorities. — On the character and career of Julian, nothing surpasses the masterly delineation of Gibbon (best edition by Dr. Wm. Smith, with notes by Milmau and Guizot: Harper's Library Edition, 1880), chaps, xxii. -xxiv., vol. ii, pp. 877-424, 565-715. Gerald H. Rendall has given an exhaustive study of his philosophy, and of his attempted religious revolution, in his The Emperor Julian, Paganism and Christianity : Hulsean Essay for 18*76 (Cam bridge, 1879).] The three sons of Constantine divided their father's empire among themselves. Not one was his equal, on the battle-field or in government. But each pursued his father's policy of fa voring the Christian religion. The Christians were uncertain as to what would be the result when Constantine's immediate family should have passed away. The outlook was far from flattering. When Julian came to the throne there were grave apprehensions that he would renew the old war upon the Chris tians. For a time he was silent, but after a while he exhibited a spirit of refined opposition to all Christian institutions and doctrines. Julian's antecedents were calculated to prejudice his mind against Christianity. He was a nephew of Constantine, and was practically imprisoned in Cappadocia, because Early History 0£ SUpposed danger to the rule of Constantine's sons. He was educated in the languages and sci ences under the oversight of the Arian bishop Eusebius, and was prepared for clerical service as a lector. But he regarded himself a victim of Christian persecution. In time he ac quired liberty, by his brother Gallus becoming emperor in the East. He visited Constantinople, became acquainted with the pagan philosophy, and studied and adopted divination. On the death of Gallus (a.d. 354), he was carried a prisoner to 42 THE EARLY CHURCH Milan. On his release he went to Athens, and was initiated into the mysteries of Eleusis. The reign of Julian began a.d. 355. At first he shared the empire with Constantius, but on the latter's death Julian was . , _ . declared by his soldiers the supreme ruler of the Roman Empire, on the bank of the Seine, where the Hotel Clugny, the heart of old Paris, now stands. He early developed great military skill, and was successful in war. He here disappointed every one, for he had been supposed to be only a recluse, and a man of books. He regarded Constan tine's family as fair Christian representatives, and hence he rejected Christianity, and revolutionized the imperial policy. He took up his abode in Constantinople, and adopted imme diate measures to convert it into a pagan city. His one great object was to suppress Christianity, and restore paganism to its old grandeur, but with such improvements as might be de rived from Oriental or any other sources. He issued no formal edict against Christianity, but raised barriers on every hand. He claimed that his philosophy taught him toleration of all faiths. But this was a thin disguise. He was bitter towards the religion of Christ. The principal measures by which Julian sought to suppress Christianity were: 1, His encouragement of schism and strife among Christians ; 2, the prohibition of Christian Opposition scaoo's °f learning, and the study of classic authors by Christians, in the belief that Christianity could not exist without the classic basis ; 3, his removal of disabili ties from the Jews, and his proposed, but abortive, restoration of the temple at Jerusalem, that he might prove the falsity of Christ's prediction (Matt, xxiii. 38, xxiv. 2) ; 4, his require ment that the soldiers should attend pagan worship; 5, his withdrawal of existing immunities from the clergy ; 6, his failure to punish his heathen subjects for deeds of violence against Christians; 7, his punishment of Christians for the slightest offences ; his support of pagan services, and the re building of the temples at public expense ; and, 8, his author ship of a work, now lost, in defence of paganism. Julian's sole reign was short, lasting only twenty months. He died while on a campaign against the Persians (a.d. 363). It was currently believed by the Christians that his last words were : " Tandem vicisti, Galilcea " — " Thou, O Galilean, hast REACTION UNDER JULIAN 43 conquered, after all."* He was a compound of elements not Charact °ftGn found in one individual. He was fanatical in "unan' ° his treatment of the Christians, shrewd in political plans, brilliant as a military commander, cultivated in all the learning of his age, vain in the extreme, and wildly superstitious. He not only believed that Christianity was sure to die, but that he was the destined instrument to kill it. He had the egotism to believe that he excelled in literary work, an infirmity for which royal authors have generally been dis tinguished. Like Frederick the Great, he was never so weak as with pen in hand. His proposed new eclectic religion was heterogeneous beyond description. It was a mixture of Neo- Platonic speculation, the arts of jugglery, the moralizings of Rome's best Stoic thinkers, and the wild dreams of Persian fire-worshippers. Here and there a grain of the golden truth of the Bible was dropped in, but not enough to cover the glaring shallowness of the general scheme. His god was the Mithra, or sun-god of the East, beneath whom were numer ous tutelary divinities, derived from Grecian paganism and Alexandrian Gnosticism. His methods of rehabilitating pagan ism were on the Christian plan. He re-established the priest hood on the basis of the Christian ministry ; his pagan bishops preached to the people, and expounded the pagan mytholo gies ; he foisted into pagan use the constitution of the Church ; provided for penance, excommunication, absolution, and res toration ; twisted Christian psalmody into the heathen rites, where choirs chanted and congregations responded after the most approved ecclesiastical mode ; and provided hospitals for the sick, destitute, and orphans, and gave alms after the man ner of the Christian diaconate. But all failed. Even an em peror could not mix Christianity and paganism. He was the last ruler on the Roman throne who was hostile to Christian ity. He passed into history as Julian the Apostate. The epi thet is probably a misapplication, as it is not likely that Julian was ever a real disciple of Christ. Two of his teachers, Mar- donius and Ecebolius, were strongly tinged with the spirit of paganism, and he early imbibed a profound hatred to the re ligion of his persecutors. * Theod. , Ec. Hist. , iii , 25. This is a legend for which there is no foun • dation. 44 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER XV THE MONTANISTIC REFORM [Authorities. — John de Soyres has given us a useful book on Montanism and the Primitive Church (Cambridge, 1878). It belongs to the same series as Rendall's Julian, and reaches substantially the same conclusions as Bon- wetsch's great work, Die Geschichte des Montanismus (Erlangen, 1881). In his Marcus Aurelius, chap, xiii., Renan has treated the subject with his usual brilliant suggestiveness and originality. Prof. A. H. Newman has some instructive remarks in the Baptist lievieiv, 1884, pp. 527-530.] During the persecutions of the first three centuries some of the Christians relapsed into paganism. A portion of these afterwards regretted their apostasy, and wished Reaction against ^0 re^urn i0 the Church and be received as peni- Loose Discipline r tents. Within the Church there prevailed two sentiments concerning them — a lax view, which exacted but little more of the penitent than a pledge of future fidelity; and a severe view, which kept the applicant for readmission on a long probation, and, in many instances, would not receive him at all. These two views, however, took a wider range than the readmission of the lapsed into the Church. The im perial favor was already bringing in disorders of many kinds. Many Christians, both East and West, protested against them, while the more wealthy saw no real danger to vital Christian ity by making certain social concessions. The former and stricter class found expression in the life and career of Mon tanus, a native Phrygian. Montanus, a.d. 156, like the people among whom he was reared, was fond of the marvellous and ecstatic. The old na tional worship was that of Cybele, who was here hon- vT'ntanus ore<^ as nownere else- Divination and clairvoyance were believed to be priestly endowments. Political disaster only fanned the flame of devotion to Cybele. In time, Christianity made its way among the people, and here grew up some of those churches of Asia, such as Laodicea and Co- THE MONTANISTIC REFORM 45 losse, to which John addressed epistles. But the natural tem perament remained undisturbed, and the people carried into Christianity the same firm fidelity to their new faith which they had entertained towards paganism. The followers of Montanus demanded a return to the apostolical life of the Church. He had been a priest of Cybele, and, when he be came a Christian, he was as warm for his new faith as he had been for his old one. There was not a trace of idolatry left in him; but his nature was quite the same. He remained the visionary and the prophet. He proposed to regenerate the life of all Christendom. He saw departures from the old sim plicity and purity, which he regarded himself as the chosen in strument for removing. His place, therefore, was that of the reformer. It was an obscure region to produce a man of such superior claims. But he stood out before the whole Christian world as the representative of the old and pure faith. Montanus combined the practical and visionary to a remark able degree. He claimed that there are three persons in the „ . . Godhead— Father, Son, and Spirit — and that, through Opinions the third person, the Paraclete, God prophesied to the world. The world will speedily end, and then the millennial reign of Christ will begin. The real Church is the pure Church. Nothing but absolute purity must be allowed in it. There is a universal priesthood of believers. Penitence must take place after sin, but sacrificing again to idols should ex clude from total restoration to the Church. But God may still forgive. The expansion of Montanism went rapidly on. Commu nities sprang up, not in Phrygia alone, but in many other regions. They were small societies in the general Church — ecclesiolae in ecclesia — like the Pietistic organizations within the bosom of the German Protestant Church in the seventeenth century. The bishop, Julianus, tried to win them back, but, failing, adopted severer methods. Two councils were held, at both of which the Montanists were condemned. Rome favored their cause at first, but afterwards settled down into a sentiment of firm opposition. The looser dis cipline of the Western Christians was not likely Later Fortunes %Q harm0nize with it. But in Gaul there was a cl0Se sympathy, where the bonds between the Christians and those of Asia Minor had always been very 46 THE EARLY CHURCH close. In North Africa the views of Montanus gained new favor and great prestige, through the support of Tertullian. He advocated the universal necessity of a stricter discipline, and eliminated some of the vagaries of original Montanism. His name gave it new respectability ; but, with even this great advantage, the system was doomed. The condemnation by the councils ; the visionary speculations of Montanus ; and the prominence of ecstasy, vision, and chiliasm in the move ment, were as millstones about its neck. Its stronger quali ties were overlooked in the vigorous warfare upon it. The episcopacy found it an inconvenient thing, as its tendency was to curtail the episcopal prerogative. Montanism was bitterly opposed to all centralization of authority. The Roman em perors opposed it everywhere. At last it disappeared, even in Phrygia, and was found only in a sect in North Africa, bearing the name Tertullianists. Justinian issued two edicts against Montanism, a.d. 530-532, after which it sank beneath the waves of more exciting questions. CHAPTER XVI CONTROVERSIES ON CHRIST [Authorities. — John Henry Newman was the first English writer to give a sep arate treatment of the Arians — The Arians of the Fourth Century (5th ed., London, 1883) — at once popular, sympathetic, and scholarly. It should, however, be read in connection with Gwatkin, Studies in Arianism (Lon don, 1882), or the same writer's Arian Controversy, in Epochs of Church History Series (N. Y., 1890).] The principal scene of this important controversy was Alex andria, Palestine, and Constantinople. The question was con- .... cerning the divinity of Christ. Both Jews and Rise of Arianism ° ,"'.-. . , . pagans very early united in opposing this doc trine, believing that it was vital to the Christians. John's Gospel, the inspired apology, proves how early our Lord's di vine character was assailed. Later, there came, as accessories towards a low Christological view, the vague teachings of the Antiochian school and the incongruities of the theology of Origen. The period during which the controversy lasted is divided into two parts — a.d. 318-361 and 361-381. Arius was CONTROVERSIES ON CHRIST 41 a presbyter of Alexandria. He derived his theological ideas from the Antiochian school, which emphasized the unity of the divine nature, and looked with great alarm on any doc trine which would seem to destroy it. The outbreak in Alexandria took place a.d. 318. Alexander, \ Bishop of Alexandria, advocated the eternal Sonship of Christ, and his equality with the Father. Arius opposed him, hold ing that there was a time when the Son did not exist ; that, having a beginning, he cannot be of the same essence with the Father ; that he was a creature, and not Creator ; that he was divinely illumined, and therefore the Logos ; that he is j subordinate to the Father, and that the Holy Ghost is subordi nate to the Son. The issue was clearly defined. For a time Alexandria was the sole scene of the controversy, and the par ticipants were the bishop and his presbyter. Alexander called a synod in Alexandria, when Arius was deposed. But violent opposition arose to this summary dealing with a man of the pure life of Arius. The scene now widened. Constantine, the em peror, ordered the contestants to stop the quarrel. But no attention was paid to the command. The strife raged with increased bitterness. When the emperor was informed by Hosius, Bishop of Cordova, whom he had sent as a special messenger to Alexandria to inquire into the state of affairs, that the controversy was no trifling matter, and would not cease at a mere order, he convened a council. The Council of Nicffla, a.d. 325, was the most important as sembly of the early Church. It was attended by representatives from every part of Christendom. Even India sent its Council of bishop. There were about three hundred bishops, be sides many of the inferior clergy. Constantine ar rived during the session, and presided over the deliberations. Athanasius stood at the head of the orthodox party. The re sult of the council was the condemnation of Arius and the passing of the celebrated Nicene Creed. Arius now became an exile in Illyria. Constantine, influenced by the persuasions of certain bishops, but particularly by the entreaties of Con stantia widow of the Emperor Licinius, invited Arius to his court ordered Athanasius to receive him back into the Church, and threatened deposition and banishment in case of refusal. Athanasius replied that he could not acknowledge as Chris tian those whom the whole Church had condemned. The em- 48 THE EARLY CHURCH peror then ceased his importunities. But the Arians made Constantine believe that Athanasius was a political enemy, charging him with preventing the sailing of the Egyptian fleet with supplies for Constantinople. He was thereupon ban ished to Treves, in Gaul, a.d. 336. The subsequent history of Arian opinions was checkered. Athanasius and Arius stood before the Christian world as, the representatives of orthodoxy and heterodoxy. Lof fllrianSis°inV ^he c^anges m imperial sympathy were frequent, the Arians enjoying quite as much the sunshine of the palace as their orthodox adversaries. The General Coun cil of Sardica, in Illyria, a.d. 343, renewed the conclusions of Nicaea. But Arian opinions still gained ground in the East, while in the West the opposition was only tacit and negative. When Julian gained the throne he recalled Athanasius from exile, but afterwards banished him again. That ruler was ready for any measure by which Christians could be pitted against each other. The Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381, condemned the Arians once more, and two years later the Em peror Theodosius issued an edict against them. In the re moter parts of the empire they gained strength. Some of the ruder tribes adopted their view. Ulfilas was a Gothic bishop of Arian views. The celebrated Codex Argenteus, now pre served in the University of Upsala, Sweden, was his transla tion of the four Gospels into the Mseso-Gothic language of the end of the fourth century. The Vandals and Moors of North Africa became Arians, but were conquered, because of a re bellion during the reign of Justinian. Gradually the heresy disappeared alike from the centres and the outlying provinces. By the end of the sixth century the only Arian people left were the Lombards, of Italy. The Arian controversy was remarkable for its wide extent, and the number and character of the men engaged in it. Some laughed at it as a fight over a Greek letter, but it in volved the very heart of Christianity. It prevented Chris tianity from ever dwindling away into a mere religion of culture, a philosophy without saving power, by bringing it into the full consciousness of its divine origin. Many of the Arians were men in thorough sympathy with the Christian faith, but they did not, and probably could not, see the full logical result of their views. THE LATER CONTROVERSIES 49 CHAPTER XVII THE LATER CONTROVERSIES [Authorities. — On Nestorius, Pelagius, and their heresies, Milman, Latin Chris. tianity, vol. i., chaps, ii. and iii., may be consulted. Many interesting par ticulars concerning the Nestorians are given in Anderson, History of Amer ican Missions to the Oriental Churches (Boston, 1872). For Augustine, let his inimitable Confessions be read (Andover, 1860, with an Introductory Essay by Shedd), and Schaff's admirable little book, Augustine and Chrys ostom (N. Y., Whittaker, 1890). In his Church History, vol. iii. (rev. ed., 1884), §§ 152-160, 178-180, Schaff is particularly happy in his treatment of Augustine and his system.] The new issues were largely related to the person of Christ. The Arian strife turned entirely upon his divine nature, but questions connected directly with this doctrine arose which absorbed universal attention, and continued long after the Arian controversy had ceased to divide the Christian world. T^hfigg^new issues rekat£d_JflJ^_per^oiijof-C^ I natg_jxistence. The singular characteristics of these collat eral controversies, which were separate currents flowing out of the Arian fountain, lie in the fact that they became perma nent factors in the Church. For, from them have come the present Coptic and Nestorian churches, with some smaller sub divisions of Oriental Christianity. Apollinaris believed that the prevalent Christian view of the two natures in Christ savored of both Judaism and pagan ism. He held that the divine Logos first attained a personal existence in the man Jesus ; that full divinity and humanity in one were impossible ; and that the human is only the organ for revealing the divine. By ignoring the essential features of our Lord's humanity, and involving it with the divine to such an extent that it became a mixed essence, Apollinaris subjected himself to the charge of heresy. His opinions were condemned by the synods of Rome, a.d. 375 and 378 ; by the Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381 ; and by the imperial de- 50 THE EARLY CHURCH crees, a.d. 388, 397, and 428. Apollinaris withdrew from the Church in a.d. 375, and died a.d. 390. The Nestorian controversy raged over a broad territory, and excelled all others of the time in its vigorous vitality, and its power to project itself into the later ages. It was another product of the restless and inventive Anti och. Nestorius became Bishop of Constantinople, a.d. 428. He saw the danger of Arianism, and, in his zeal to defend the full divinity of our Lord, went so far as to do injustice to his humanity. He went beyond Apollinaris, and yet was in a measure of sympathy with the Pelagians, because of the total absence of fatalism in their system and the large place which they gave to the freedom of the will. His opinions were, that Christ possessed two natures, the divine and human ; that there are not two persons, however, but only one ; that there is a perfect union between the perfect God, the Word, and man, which is expressed by the word sunapheia (conjunction); that the divine so far transcends the human as largely to ab sorb it; and that God the Son did not endure human suffer ing, or go through human experiences. Instead of regarding Christ as the God-man, Nestorius held that he was the God- bearing man. The body of our Lord was simply the vehicle of the divine, the temple of the Logos. These views attract ed profound attention. They were advocated with so much warmth and ability, not only by Nestorius, but by many who rallied to his support, that they spread with marvellous ra pidity, and extended from the shores of the iEgean Sea to the boundaries of India. They were condemned by several coun cils. The Emperor Zeno (a.d. 489) dissolved the Nestorian school of Edessa, and hoped in this way to arrest the heresy. But here he failed. It was a system which could live without a theology. The Nestorians can still be found, even in name as well as doctrines, in Koordistan and the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Humboldt bears witness to their contribu tions to the arts and sciences in the East, while their schools and hospitals have been of benign influence during all the intervening centuries. Augustine, born in Tagaste, Numidia, a.d. 354, was led to adopt Christianity while young through the example of his devout mother, Monica. He afterwards became worldly, and wandered far from the principles and example of his early THE LATER CONTROVERSIES 51 life. When thirty-three years of age he was restored to a pure and happy state, and was baptized by the aged Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. His mother, who never lost faith in him, and who had followed him in all his wander ings over many lands, had the great joy of witnessing his res toration to the Church. He became a presbyter in Africa, a.d. 391, was appointed Bishop of Hippo Regius, in Numidia, a.d. 395, and died there a.d. 430. The theology of Augustine was as follows : Man was created pure, in God's image, and possessed of a free will. He was tempted and fell, and in him all humanity sinned. But man was capable of restoration, not of himself, but of God's grace. This grace comes not because man believes, but precedes faith, and is given that he may believe. From this grace all the stages of repentance, con version, and final perseverance are reached and passed through. Now, as grace is a free gift of God, and precedes all acts of faith on man's part, and as experience shows that not all men become converted and are saved, it must follow that God ab solutely predestinates a certain number to salvation (decretum absolutum), and that the rest are left to their merited damna tion. There were many departments of this new system, and Augustine defended them all with fervor and logical skill. His purity of life and noble character added great force to his theology. Out of the Augustinian theology sprang the Pelagian con troversy. It marked the entrance of the Anglo-Saxon into the broad domain of the general theology of the e agiamsm Christian Church. Pelagius was a monk of Britain, who resided in Rome, and about a.d. 409 began to propagate his doctrines. He attacked the Augustinian system on every side. He controverted the innate depravity of man, and held that man was created mortal ; that Adam's fall has made no change in human nature, and has exerted no influence on his posterity ; that the heart is a tabula rasa, or blank, and has no inclination to virtue or vice ; that man's will is perfectly free' to choose virtue or vice ; that Christ became man, not to save by his atoning blood, but *to~ai?l'"us by his doctrine and ex-j ample"to attain to everlasting life ; that baptism is" a necessi-j ty ; and that children dying unbaptized reach a lower grade} of salvation than the baptized. Pela A-D- 393' un which> in Greek, constituted the monogram of Christ : 'IX0TS (Iesus Christos, Theou Uios, Soter — Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour). But no word or picture has been found in these silent passages which calls up any of the violent con troversies which swept over the Church. Neither has there been found a suggestion of an heretical vagary. Sometimes pagan pictures were given, but always to teach with greater force the Messiah's kingdom. Three representations of Christ as Orpheus have been found, two by Bosio, in the catacomb of Domitilla, and one by De' Rossi, in that of St. Callista. In the two former he sits between two trees, crowned with the Phrygian cap, and playing on a lyre. Beasts come throng ing about him, and hear his notes, and are charmed and tamed by the melody. Doves, peafowl, horses, sheep, serpents, tor toises, a dog, and a hare at a lion's feet, hear the music, and mingle together in Edenic simplicity and peace. The whole is a symbol of our Lord's peaceful empire, and also an indica tion of the disposition of early Christians at Rome, as in the theology of Alexandria, to make paganism bring its offering to our Lord's altar. Theseus slaying the Minotaur was made a type of David slaying Goliath. One beautiful figure, gilt on glass, and dating from the end of the fourth century, rep resents our Lord with radiated head. He holds the globe of universal sovereignty in his hand, while at his feet stands the THE CHURCH IN THE CATACOMBS 89 cistus, containing the gospel scroll. The Trinity was always represented in such a way as to indicate an equality of per sons. De .Rossi furnishes examples of firm faith in this doc trine, where the monogram of Christ is combined with the triangle. The representations of Christ were all of the cheerful, hope ful, and triumphant type. Only twice, among the sculptures of the Lateran Museum, is he represented during sentations"" n^s Fassi°n- He everywhere appears as the Good Shepherd. The catacombs received the bodies of martyrs in many a bitter persecution, but the relatives and friends of the departed uttered no syllable of sorrow. The word death is always avoided. " In Pace " was the universal legend. Rest and triumph were uppermost in the mind. The dead were, at last, at peace. The grave was surrounded with images of beauty, peace, and joy. It was only after the per secutions were over, and the authors had taken their places in oblivion, that any symbol of suffering was placed in a Roman catacomb. The record of martyrdom was studiously avoided, and not only that the Christian might give no indication of disputing the " divine pre-eminence of the Man of Sorrows,"" but that the Christian was not willing to show, even by fig ures on the wall of a tomb, that he remembered the agony which a persecuting hand had produced. Death had no terroi to him, and the persecutor only hastened the day of peace. From the symbolism in the catacomb one would think that the Christians were living in palaces, and that kings were their servants. The hare feeding on grapes, the luxuriant palm-tree, the vase of flowers, the loaf of bread, and the dove with the olive-branch, are met with on tablets taken from all the catacombs. The historical suggestions are sometimes very rich. An epitaph in the cemetery of St. Domitilla, dating from the first century, shows the early entrance of Christianity Historical jnt0 tne imperial household. The clank of the slave's chain was never heard in a Christian home. So completely and promptly did slavery disappear that of the eleven thousand epigraphs from the catacombs, only six, and two of these doubtful, contain any allusion to the evil, and then only in brief and simple language. There is not a trace of Mariolatry in any early inscription or symbol of a 90 THE EARLY CHURCH catacomb. The wor(l Maria never occurs until a.d. 381, and then only after the word Livia. The earlier inscriptions were brief, like the breathings of the stricken soul, such as, "To the dearest mother," " To the sweetest child," " God raise thy soul," or "Peace to thy spirit." Later, however, when the cat acomb was used only as a cemetery, and not also as a place of refuge from the destroyer, the epigraphs were more fulsome and rhetorical. A beautiful epigraph, "Received to God," dat ing from a.d. 217, but frequently repeated afterwards, proves that the poor soul had passed through its ordeal here, and need ed no purgatory. In De Rossi's compilation, comprising 1374 different epigraphs, there is no example of prayer for the dead. Clerical celibacy finds no support in the catacombs or any early tombs. An inscription, found on the Ostian Way, to the wife of a deacon, or subdeacon, ran thus : "LevitEE conjunx Petronia forma pudoris His mea deponens sedibus ossa loco. Pascite vos lacrimis dulces cum conjuge natse." The word " puer " occurred frequently in connection with ma ture men. It was an index of the association of perpetual youth with the life of the blessed. Hence the surviving daughter or widow or son could well call the deceased father or husband " boy," in view of the immortal youth on which he had now entered. The old Hebrew names had passed away, and the epitaphs show a transition, as in the Puritan depression in England, and in New England history, where a firm faith in God, and a recognition of his special deliver ances in sore need, blossomed out beautifully in the names which rejoicing parents gave their children. Hence, in the epigraphs of the catacombs we find such names as the follow ing : Diodorus (God's gift); Fructuosus (Fruit - bringing) ; Renovatus (Renewed); Anastasia (Risen); Irene (Peace); Sabbatia (Holyday); and Concordia (Harmony). But all words in the catacombs abounded in hope and joy. MONASTICISM 91 CHAPTER XXVII MONASTICISM [Authorities. — Dr. R. F. Littledale has given an elaborate and fair survey in the article " Monachism" in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed. Prof. J. H. Worman, in three articles, " Monastery," " Monasticism," and " Monk " (31 pp. in all), in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, has gone into the subject with much spirit and thoroughness, but with a strong partisan bias. Gibbon (chap, xxxvii.) writes in the spirit of lofty philosophical contempt.] Traces of monasticism can be found in all the great Orien tal lands. Long before Christianity, and even before the con quests of Alexander in India, the monastic idea had Monasticism gamed great strength. Buddhism and Brahminism made large use of it for extending their doctrines and holding their adherents. The idea of the inherent evil of matter lay at the basis of the monastic principle. It was sup posed that contact with society diverted the mind from relig ious contemplation, and made it less worthy to be the abode of the worshipful spirit. Hence the only safety was to get far from men and their deeds. Nature must be found in her sim plicity. The rude elements must be made familiar. Besides this, there must be scope for the exercise of self-denial and for the growth of Christian perfection, which it was thought could not be found in society. These were the thoughts which lay at the bottom of that Christian monasticism which played an important part in the early Church, and extended down to the Reformation, and still holds undisputed sway in the Roman Catholic Church. Christianity found monasticism already prevalent in the Nazarites of Palestine and the Therapeutse of Egypt, and it is not strange that, in an age of great social cor- Christian Use of ruption, which overspread all pagan territory, Monasticism f ' , ;, . /6 . ,., J' many Christians should see in the separate hie a relief from danger. Persecution favored the tendency towards 92 THE EARLY CHURCH monasticism. Exile was only another name for a secluded life. Many Christians went voluntarily into remote regions ; dwelt in caves or groves ; spent the day in works of charity, and much of the night in vigils; and courted nature in her wildest moods. The first monastic stage was voluntary solitude, with out any movement towards a separate order. It was the indi vidual mind, looking for spiritual relief, but with no purpose to introduce a new departure in ecclesiastical practice. The next stage was a habit of removal to certain regions, where the monks lived within reach of each other. The third stage was the sanction and regular organization of orders, which took full shape in the Benedictines and similar fraternities. The monks took three vows upon themselves : perpetual fidel ity to the life and order; obedience to the abbot or head of the monastery; and chastity and poverty. A number of the fa thers and writers led a monastic life, but without advocacy of a separate order. The tendency grew with the times. The Old Testament was searched for support. Elijah and kindred spirits in Jewish history, and John the Baptist, were brought in to support the monastic tendency. Egypt became a favorite place for the monks. Rufinus declared that there were nearly as many monks in the deserts as people in the cities. Monta- lembert says: "It was a kind of emigration of towns to the desert, of civilization to simplicity, of noise to silence, of cor ruption to innocence. The current once begun, floods of men, women, and children threw themselves into it, and flowed thither during a century with irresistible force." Paul of Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was the first Christian her mit. He lived during the persecution under Decius. He is said to have withdrawn to a distant Egyptian cave Notable Examples when twenty-two years of age, and to have lived there until a.d. 340. Anthony, who followed in Paul's footsteps, lived for a long time in extreme poverty in the Egyptian desert. The fame of the life of these two men went into distant lands, and their self-denial was imitated by many people in the countries lying around the eastern end of the Mediterranean. The Pillar Saints constituted a separate class. St. Simeon was the founder of the group. After spending ten years in a monastery and a short time in a hut as an anchoret, he mounted a pillar seventy-two feet high and four feet in di ameter, where he is reported to have spent thirty years. He THE AGE 0E GREGORY THE GREAT 93 died at Telamessa, near Antioch, a.d. 459, and was buried with all possible ecclesiastical and military pomp. Tennyson puts in his mouth the following confession, after he had spent many years in this life of torture : "O Lord, Lord, Thou knowest I bore this better at the first, For I was strong and hale of body then; And though my teeth, which now are dropped away, Would chatter with the cold, and all my beard Was tagged with icy fringes in the moon, I drowned the whoopings of the owl with sound Of pious hymns and psalms, and sometimes saw An angel stand and watch me, as I sang. Now I am feeble grown; my end draws nigh — I hope my end draws nigh : half deaf I am, So that I scarce can hear the people hum About the column's base; and I am almost blind, And scarce can recognize the fields I know. And both my thighs are rotted with the dew, Yet cease I not to clamor and to cry, While my stiff spine can hold my weary head, Till all my limbs drop piecemeal from the stone: Have mercy, mercy; take away my sin!" CHAPTER XXVIII THE AGE OF GREGORY THE GREAT [Authorities. — For Leo the Great, see his Life by Charles Gore (London, 1880). For Gregory, see Barmby's Life (London, 1879) and F. W. Kellett, Gregory the Great and his Relation with Gaul (Cambridge, 1889). The development of the papal power can best be read in Milman's History of Latin Chris tianity, book ii.— iv., who has also an excellent chapter on Gregory (book iii, chap, vii.).] . The march of the Roman bishop towards priority through out the Christian world was steady. The divisions of the Eastern Empire, the decline of moral life, the uni- Growth of Ro- yersai spread of controversy, and, particularly, the manBishopnc .? •" '/ •" pre-eminent ability of several ot the bishops ot Rome, were calculated to advance the claims of that patri archate above all others. The bishop Leo I. (a.d. 440-461) was a man of strong intellect, and he did much to clothe himself 94 THE EABLY CHURCH with power and prestige. But the most eminent incumbent of the Roman episcopate was Gregory, who was called the Great, and ruled a.d. 590-604. Under him every department of the priesthood and the episcopacy advanced in strength. His claims, artfully disguised, were of the most lofty kind. Gregory's character was of a striking quality. He was ver satile, and strong in everything he touched. In the develop ment of the hierarchical idea, in theology, liturgical Gregory n. , . , ' ..•",. literature, pastoral oversight, monasticism, and mis sions, he was a master. His hand was felt in the whole field of the ecclesiastical life of his day. Born at Rome (a.d. 540) and descended from an ancient patrician family, he had all the advantages which wealth and education could bring. His pa rents designed him for service in the State. But he turned his attention to the Church, and advanced rapidly. Yet he showed no disposition to hasten matters. He possessed the virtue of patience in a high degree. Gregory, after his father's death, founded six cloisters, and occupied one himself. He dedicated himself to a life of self-denial. He became deacon of the bishop Pelagius, and was sent as his representative to the court of Constantinople. He wrote a commentary on the Book of Job, and pursued his studies with great energy. He was also a brilliant preacher, and wrote a book, " Regula Pas- toralis" (the Pastoral Rule), full of lofty spiritual instruction to his clergy. On his return to Rome, and the death of the bishop Pelagius, he was chosen to succeed him. He declined the office at first, but afterwards accepted it, but apparently by pressure. Towards the emperor he manifested the profound- est respect, probably with a view to gaining by yielding. He called himself "servus servorum Dei" — "servant of the Lord's servants." He devoted himself to the purification of the life of the Church and the enforcement of monastic discipline. He fixed the term of the novitiate to two years, forbade youths un der eighteen to enter a monastery, and ordered all ecclesiastical officials to seize those monks who wandered about the country like tramps, and to deliver them to the nearest monastery for punishment. He was especially active in his encouragement of missions. He organized the Anglo-Saxon and other mis sions, and sought to send the gospel into every part of Europe. He took the greatest interest in the English mission, and sent to Augustine very detailed instructions for his work. Under THE EXPANSION OP CHKISTIANITY 95 him the authority of the Roman bishop advanced far beyond its former dimensions. He created the papacy of history. He preserved amicable relations with the emperor, though all the while holding firmly his ecclesiastical independence. CHAPTER XXIX THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTIANITY [Authorities. — The territorial conquests of the Church are the subjects of the series, The Conversion of the West, edited by C. Merivale. I. The Conti nental Teutons, by C. Merivale ; II. The Celts, by G. F. Maclear ; III- V. The English, the Northmen, the Sclavs, by the same (London and N. Y., 18*79). Ou Columba, see Prof. A. F. Mitchell, in the Schaff-Herzog Ency clopaedia, s. v., and his Life, by Adamnan, with notes, etc., by Dr. Reeves (Edinb^lS'n). For the Early Church History of Britain, the best authority is Canon Bright: Early English Church History (Oxford, 1818). For the interesting but obscure personality of St. Patrick, let the reader first con sult the article by President Sullivan, of Queen's College, Cork, in the En cyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., that by Robert W. Hall, in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, and the excellent article in McClintock and Strong's Cyclo paedia, by the Rev. Daniel De Vinne, who has made a careful study of Irish Christianity, and then turn to the Life of St. Patrick, by Rev. E. J. Newell (London, 1890), The Life of St. Patrick, with an account of the Sources (4th ed., London, Burns and Oates, 1890), and History of the Irish Primi tive Church, by Daniel De Vinne (N. Y., 1870), which also gives the Con fession of St. Patrick in Latin and English.] The evangelization of the nations continued with unabated zeal. Whether in persecution, or after the liberty given by Constantine, the work of missions was carried on vange iza io wj^jj equai fervor. There were three such fields : 1. The poor within the central regions of the empire; 2. The population of such farther provinces as were a firm part of the dominions ; and, 3. Those more remote tribes which were hostile to Rome, and were awaiting a good opportunity to sat isfy their hunger for conquest by feasting on the dying em pire. The Church extended its boundaries by exile, and all the other means employed to destroy it. Both in Rome and in the larger provincial towns, the conflict between the gospel and pagan literature was intense and uninterrupted. The doc trines of Jesus gained steadily on the most finished products 96 THE EARLY CHURCH of pagan thought. Wordsworth's description of the conquest of the missionary over the Druids of Britain applies equally well to the whole battle-field of three continents : " Haughty the Bard— can these weak doctrines blight His transports ? wither his heroic strain ? But all shall be fulfilled. The Julian spear A way first opened ; and, with Roman chains, The tidings come of Jesus crucified ; They came — they spread — the weak, the suffering, hear ; Receive the faith and in the hope abide. " When Athanasius was banished from Alexandria to northern Gaul, a.d. 335, not only did the young society in the latter country enjoy the presence of an heroic example, but the exile himself began his organizing work, and established the diocese of Treves, at that time the capital of Gaul. The powerful ex pansion went on rapidly everywhere. Indeed, during the pe riod of suffering the only safety to the Christians lay in their distance from the persecuting centres. Tertullian said defiant ly to the whole Roman world : " We are of yesterday, yet we have filled your empire, your cities, your islands, your castles, your towns, your assemblies, your very camps, your tribes, your companies, your palaces, your senate. Your forum and your temples alone are left you !" Antioch was the centre from which the light of the gospel radiated eastward into the distant parts of Asia, and west ward through Asia Minor. The pathway reached from the shore of the iEgean Sea to the west of China — a longer line of march than Alexander had made. Jerusalem lost its hold as a centre of ecclesiastical power, and its spirit ual dominion was divided between Antioch, in the north, and Alexandria, in the south. Cappadocia, and the entire coast of the Euxine Sea east of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, were early a mission field. Colchis, Iberia, and Georgia were overspread with missionary laborers. Armenia was Christian ized by Gregory the Illuminator, in the beginning of the fourth century. He provided that country with monasteries and sem inaries, and was consecrated Primate of Armenia by Leontius, Archbishop of Caesarea. The Bible was translated into Arme nian, and a large Christian literature was created. In the third century, Persia had so far become evangelized that Ctes- iphon became the seat of a flourishing society, and a point of departure for the expansion of Christianity farther east. The THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTIANITY 97 doctrines of Zoroaster, it has been claimed, were attacked by a converted magian, Mobed, who, in a special work, held up to his countrymen the excellence of Christianity. He suffered martyrdom, a.d. 300, but was followed by laborers of equal ardor. Edessa, in Persia, became an important centre of Chris tian learning. The Nestorian Christians, who were compelled to leave the Roman Empire, took refuge here, and laid the foundations of a rich and influential Syrian literature. Mis sionary operations were carried on along all the lines of East ern travel. From the valley of the Tigris and the Euphrates the indications are strong that missionaries went far into the interior of India. Bitter persecutipns befell the Persian Chris tians in the fourth century, but they remained faithful. The Church in Africa developed with amazing rapidity. Alexandria was the literary centre for the evangelization of the entire delta of the Nile. Missions were planted along either bank, and soon extended far up towards the first cataract, at Philae, and to the oases on either side of the river. Carthage, the ancient Punic capital, was intimately connected with Western Christendom. Many Christians came to both these cities, but in larger numbers to Alexandria, from distant regions, where they became acquainted with the theology and life of the Church, and bore back again the fruits of their study and observation. The whole of proconsular Africa, including Getulia, Mauritania, and Numidia, whose western bounds were washed by the waves of the Atlantic, was evan gelized by Roman and Carthaginian Christians. The great number of bishops in the third century -dependent on the pa triarchate of Carthage furnishes strong evidence of the extent to which Christianity had been propagated in the whole of Western Africa, and of its strong hold upon the people. At the Synod of Labes, near Carthage, a.d. 240 or 242, ninety bishops were present, while two hundred and seventy bishops signed the conclusions of the Council of Carthage, a.d. 308. Abyssinia was converted through two young men, Frumentius and Nedesius, who alone survived the massacre of the mem bers of a scientific expedition conducted by Meropius, a Syrian philosopher. About the end of the fourth century a transla tion of the Bible was made from the received Greek Testa ment of the Alexandrian Church into the old language of Abyssinia. The Abyssinian Church has always remained in 1 '9S THE EARLY CHURCH connection with Alexandria, its boast being, " We drink from the fountain of the Patriarch of Alexandria." Feeble as Abys sinian Christianity is, it has preserved its existence, through an unbroken succession of Christian governors, from the fourth century to the nineteenth. With all its error, it may in truth be called the Waldensian Church of the Switzerland of Africa. The central field of interest was the continent of Europe. Christian missionaries continued the labors of Paul, and car ried the gospel through Moesia to the Danube. Mace- PeSnsuia donia nad numerous Christian societies, while even Illyricum had two dioceses. By a.d. 310 three bish ops lived in Philippopolis, in Thrace. The contact of the Goths north of the Danube, in Dacia, with Christianity, was a most important event. It was the opening of a new field of evangelistic labor, and had the important effect of bringing the gospel into relation with the many Teutonic tribes which constituted the Eastern Germany of those times. A Gothic bishop, Theophilus,. was a member of the Nicene Council. It was, however, through the labors of Ulfilas, a Gothic convert to Christianity, that the gospel spread widely among his peo ple. He invented the Gothic alphabet, brought the Goths into literary relations with Roman culture, and opened up the path way for Christian truth into all parts of the Ostrogothic terri tory. In Greece, it was not Athens, but Corinth, which be came the ecclesiastical centre of operations. Athens, however, constituted a diocese, and the third bishop resident there suf fered martyrdom a.d. 179. Aquileia, at the head of the Adri atic Sea, became a point of influence for the propagation of Christianity among the peoples of the eastern Alps. Rome was the heart and hand of a vigorous and aggressive Christianity. The entire Italian peninsula had grown into episcopates. The first provincial synod was a.d. 303, but before this there had been seventeen smaller synods and councils, attended by bishops of all Italy. Rome converted all Spain and Gaul into a missionary field. The Roman bishop was supreme. As early as the end of the second century Christian societies existed throughout Spain, and by the be ginning of the fourth century churches had been established in all the Gallic provinces. Vienne was an episcopal residence, a.d. 118; Lugdunum (Lyons), about a.d. 179; and Treves, in the first half of the fourth century. THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTIANITY 08 Christianity was at first communicated to Germany, most likely, by soldiers in the Roman army. Where colonies were planted, as provincial centres of Roman authority, the gospel soon acquired a foothold. Colonia (Cologne) became a bishopric about the end of the third century. At the same time the gospel was introduced into Rhoetia by the bishop Narcissus. Christianity was also planted far in the North, along the coast of the North Sea. The apostle tc Scandinavia was Ansgar, who was born a.d. 801, and whose remarkable triumphs belong to the mediaeval period. It cannot be doubted that the gospel entered Britain at an early period, or about the middle of the second century. „.,.., u Rome, under Julius Caasar, had conquered the British Laborers . ' , ' , . country, and brought it into close relationship with Italy. In the Council of Aries, a.d. 314, three bishops from Britain signed the decrees — Eborius, of Eboracum (York), Restitutus, of Londinium (London), and Colonia Lon- diniensium (Lincoln). The location of these bishops proves that the whole of England was organized into a complete ecclesiastical system. Succat, the original name of St. Patrick, or Patricius, was born in Scotland, about a.d. 400, of Christian parents of high rank. At the age of sixteen he was taken cap tive by the pirates of the Scots, and carried to Ireland, where he was employed as a shepherd. His Confessions, written in rude style, reveal his remarkable religious history. He de voted himself to the evangelization of Ireland. Through his influence societies were planted, schools were organized, Chris tian literature was cultivated, and missionaries went out from that island to the Continent. Columbanus, with twelve com panions, went to France, a.d. 580, and began a thorough evan gelistic work in the neglected parts of Gaul. He maintained independence of Rome, and would not submit to her authority with respect to Easter. When people quoted to him the name of the great Leo (lion), he replied, "Perhaps in this case a living dog may be greater than a dead lion." Gallus made Gaul the field of his labors. Willibrod, an Englishman, went to Ireland for his Christian education, and then gave his life to missionary labors among the Frisians, along the coast of the North Sea. Boniface, born near Exeter, about a.d. 680, went to Germany and spent his life in that country. J 00 THE EARLY CHURCH CHAPTER XXX THE CLOSE OF THE EARLY PERIOD [Authorities. — Green gives an attractive picture of Bede in his History of the English People (book i., chap ii.), as does Neander iu his Memorials of Christian Life and Work (London, 1852). G. F. Browne has written a monograph on Bede (London, S. P. C. K., 1879).] This rapid extension of Christianity was the most notable characteristic of the border-land between the early Church and the mediaeval period. Missions were pro- Ro7chrEistiannit°n moted hJ the veiT growth of the papacy. The bishops saw that their hopes of territorial power could be realized in the West and North rather than in the East, and each strove to surpass his predecessor in the good work. Missionaries and Church officers were sent out from Rome with authority to plant missions, build up a literature, and indoctrinate the people in the truths of Christianity. In many instances these attempts failed, the missionaries were killed, and the old heathenism of the provinces triumphed over the young Christianity. But the tide of religious truth was too strong for final resistance. New efforts were made, and finally the old idols were removed, the temples were destroyed, and Christian chapels were erected in their place. Christianity carried with it the disposition to create a liter ature. The missionary was often a man of ardent theological tastes, and immediately began to adapt the growing literature of Christianity to the new people. Schools, as at Fulda, in Germany, were at once organized. Here the Scriptures were copied, elementary books were written, and small libraries were collected. Centres of theological learn ing were thus formed. The development of a literary taste was never interrupted, even amid the convulsions of the Mid dle Ages. The Christian pen and school were never disturbed by the storms of warfare with false faiths. THE CLOSE OF THE EARLY PERIOD 101 The Venerable Bede represented the patient and scholarly class of his whole age. He was born in Durham, England, about a.d. 673, spent his laborious life of a century at the monastery of Wearmouth and Yarrow, and reared a lit erary monument of forty different works, twenty-five of which were on Biblical subjects. History and kindred topics were treated in the remaining fifteen. He died in great joy, sing ing psalms with his pupils, immediately after concluding his Anglo-Saxon translation of John's gospel. Wordsworth, in a beautiful fancy, thus rebukes the idler by presenting the pict ure of the toiling Bede : "But what if one, through grove or flowery mede, Indulging thus at will the creeping feet Of a voluptuous indolence, should meet Thy hovering shade, O Venerable Bede ! The saint, the scholar, from a circle freed Of toil stupendous, in a hallowed seat Of learning, where thou heardst the billows beat On a wild coast, rough monitors to feed Perpetual industry. Sublime Recluse 1 The recreant soul, that dares to shun the debt Imposed on human kind, must first forget Thy diligence, thy unrelaxing use Of a long life ; and, in the hour of death, The last dear service of thy passing breath." Christian doctrines assumed, by the close of the early period, a settled condition. The Church had elaborated its theolog ical standards, while its creeds were now repeated from oc r nes ^e <3eserts 0f Africa to the forests of Britain and the shores of the North Sea. The larger heresies had still a con stituency, but were in rapid process of disintegration. They throve only in the remoter provinces, more especially in the East, and were alienated from the sympathy of the great body of Christian people in all lands. When the Middle Ages began, other controversies arose, which were largely specula tive, and had but little relation to the Arian and other great struggles. Roman centralization constantly gained strength. Church offices multiplied rapidly, and the close of the early period was the signal for larger measures for Roman primacy. The bish ops of Rome were the real rulers of Southern Europe, from the Constantinian dynasty to the reign of Charlemagne. The great 102 THE EARLY CHURCH wealth which had been at the command of the empire was now largely diverted into ecclesiastical channels, and was used to build large churches, organize missions, support a rapidly growing clergy, found schools, and create a literature. Superstition was the darkest color in the picture of the Church at this transitional period. Miraculous powers were attributed to the dust of the saints. The places where they died were hallowed, and were regarded as most fit sites for stately sacred buildings. The saintly cal endar increased rapidly. Festivals were organized in memory of each one who had risen above the surface of his times as an exemplar of piety, devotion, and sacrifice. The condition of the people may account in large measure for the prevalence and force of the tendency towards superstition. When Con stantine made Christianity the State religion the many millions of the Roman Empire were thrust upon the Church for train ing and development. The burden was altogether too great. The people of the centres were still beneath the spell of the pagan traditions and gross superstitions which had grown out of polytheistic systems. The populations of the provinces were in even worse plight. Their ancestral faiths were a rude conglomeration of fetichism. There was not even a social ele vation on which to build. It is not a matter of wonder, there fore, that when such heterogeneous and untrained multitudes were thrust suddenly upon the Church, for its care, the super stitious habit should be slow to yield to the new Christian con ditions. When the Church passed into the darkness of the Middle Ages the question was, could it endure the ordeal of vast wealth, superstition, and clerical assumption ? When the Reformation came the question was answered. Much was lost during the long night, but light came at last. The power of the Church to purify itself is the greatest proof of its divine origin, and the clearest prophecy of its certain conquest of the world. THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH &..T>. 788-1517 On the Middle Ages in general the following works can be highly commended : R. W. Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages (N. Y., 1878); Hallara, State of Europe during the Middle Ages (London and N. Y., 1st ed., 1818, last revised ed., 1848, often reprinted) ; Hardwick, History of the Christian Church : Middle Ages, new ed., edited by Prof, (now Bishop) Stubbs (London, 1872), an excel lent manual, with invaluable notes ; Philip Smith, Student's Ecclesiastical His tory, vol. ii. (N. Y., 1885) ; Trench, Lectures on Mediaeval Church History (N. Y., 1878), a spirited, devout, and scholarly portraiture of the period. For an ade quate knowledge of the Middle Ages, reference must by all means be made to the great histories of Milman, Gibbon, Neander, Gieseler, and Schaff. CHAPTER I THE MEDLEVAL TRANSITION [Authorities. — For an estimate of the historical significance of this impor- tant time, see Prof. Allen's chapter on the Middle Ages in Continuity of Christian Thought (Boston, 1885), and Prof. Emerton's Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages (Boston, 1888).] The significance of the Middle Ages lies in their transi tional character. The Ancient Period was the time of the planting, organization, and doctrinal establish- tne M?dCdTeCAg0es ment of Christianity. The Modern Period was to witness the application of Christianity to the social, intellectual, and moral needs of the world. Between these two lay the Middle Ages. It was the far-reaching mis sion of this remarkable period to test the power of Christianity for meeting the wants of new nations ; to withstand the shock of philosophical schools ; to sift and preserve the best that remained of the ancient world, and pass it safely down for modern use ; and, above all, to prove the ultimate power of Christianity to rise above the infirmities of those who pro fessed it, and to lay the foundations of a new spiritual life by a return to the pure apostolic example. The office of the Mediaeval Church was to conduct man from the narrow limits of the Pagan to the Protestant world. The scattered threads of the eighth century were caught up and combined into uni ty. Baur says : " This whole period can only be regarded by the observer as one of transition, at the close of which the varied elements which appeared in different quarters concen trate into unity, and thus show forth the Church of the Mid dle Ages in the full significance of their universal grandeur." The first period of the Mediaeval Church extends from Charlemagne to the papacy of Gregory VII. — Ihe Three Periods .„„ *„ „,. r L\lf .. °.u J . „ a.d. 768-1073. This was the time of the full ap propriation and unification of the Germanic and other Northern 106 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH elements. Mohammedanism, lying at the border-line between the ancient and the mediaeval time, arose as a counterforce to Christianity. Papal supremacy in Church and State culminated. The second period extends from Gregory VII. to the re moval of the papal see into France — a.d. 1073-1305. Here the absolutism of the papacy was broken, and the freedom of the people dawned. The monastic orders assumed larger proportions. Speculative science was introduced into theo logical inquiry. This was Scholasticism. It perished in the same age which produced it. The Crusades were organized during this period. The third period continued from the removal of the papal see into France to the Reformation — a.d. 1305-1517. The papal unity was shattered. Humanism arose, which reacted upon the old order, and made possible the revival of vital Christianity and a momentous activity of mind. With the thorough break-up of the pagan conditions there arose a new order. The introduction of Christianity among the rude nations of the North had the effect Literary Transition . . . ,. . . . T ., ot increasing a new literary spirit. JNo depart ment of thought was left in its old stagnation. The quicken ing was intense. With the beginning of the Middle Ages there was a departure from the old modes of historical state ment. The old Frankish chronicles had been monosyllabic, and the roughness continued in the successors of Tredegar. But with the ninth century there came a smoothness and beauty, in which one can see the effect of the close and fin ished masterpieces of the Greek and Roman period. Scientific inquiries arose, in part original, and in part de rived from the introduction of Arabic science through the Moslem invasion of Spain. Monasticism pre served the great works of the fathers, and saved to the world, by patient copying, the richest produc tions of the masters of Greek philosophy and the drama, and Roman history and poetry. The knightly poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries attained to beautiful forms, and be came the foundation and inspiration for much of the poetry of the most recent centuries. New and bolder types of archi tecture were applied to sacred buildings, and the most im pressive edifices of modern times here took their origin. The plastic arts were developed for the first time in Christian di- THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE 107 rections. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio were at once chil dren of mediaaval thought, and prophets for all the future. The Italy of to-day is not less their creation than it is that of Garibaldi and Victor Emanuel. Political solidification was in progress. The love of liberty, and its certain possession by the world's numberless millions, were born in the time which has passed by the name of the Dark Ages. Looked upon in retrospect, there is almost no priceless intellectual or political treasure of the nineteenth century whose precious seeds were not cast in the ready soil between the ninth and sixteenth centuries. CHAPTER II THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE [Authorities. — The best work on Charlemagne is J. Isidore MomV>ert's His tory of Charles the Great (N. Y., 1888), a complete and worthy histori cal memorial. For this and the subsequent reigns in their ecelesiastico- political relations, Bryce, Holy Roman Empire (London, new ed., 1889), is indispensable.] The process of centralization north of the Alps began with Charlemagne. His rule was the signal of death to the totter ing Roman Empire. It was also the first prophecy ew r er ^ ^e ascendency of the new Gothic nations of the North and of their firm place in the later life of Europe. In him the old classic conditions disappeared, and the new po litical life began its career. Charlemagne, called by the Ger mans Karl der Grosse, ascended the throne on the death of his father Pepin, in the year 768. He divided with his brother Carloman the Frankish Empire, Charlemagne taking Austra- sia, Neustria, and other parts of the eastern Frankish domin ions, while Carloman ruled over the western parts, or France, and a large part of Germany. Carloman died in 771, and Charlemagne united his own empire with that of the rest of the family, and claimed rule over all, without regard to the rights of his brother's family. The soil was now prepared for the new European life — the Church and the State work ing hand in hand for universal dominion. 108 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH Charlemagne's methods were the creations of a masterful shrewdness. He regarded himself as a theocratic lord. His notion of himself was not that he was a mere Char^'J1ha9ne's successor of Constantine or Augustus Caesar, but of David or Solomon — the head of a vast theoc racy. But the Roman bishop must not be offended. He must be outwardly treated as high-priest, though Charlemagne secretly regarded himself as the real possessor of the highest religious functions. But the pope must be made to feel that his rights were respected ; yet, at the same time, must remem ber that kings and conquerors have their rights, and that with out temporal rulers there can be no successful and safe Church. Towards the pope, Leo III., he acted with unfailing respect, and was at the same time constantly receiving from him such favors as strengthened his hold upon both his subjects and the Church. Charlemagne's motto was : " The Church teaches ; but the emperor defends and increases." To Leo 111. he made "The followrf!g~neclaratioh of "their mutual relations : " It is my bounden duty, by the help of the divine compassion, every where to defend outwardly by arms the holy Church of Christ against every attack of the heathen, and every devastation caused by unbelievers ; and, inwardly, to defend it by the recognition of the general faith. But it is your duty, holy father, to raise your hands to God, as Moses did, and to sup port my military service by your prayers." Leo III. accepted this declaration in the most complaisant manner. The preparations had been laid in the preceding move ments. Rome was constantly at the mercy of the bold and ferocious Lombards. They threatened to sack Preparations ,, TT , „., n ,, , the Holy City, and possess themselves of its vast wealth. In 734 Gregory III. induced Charles Martel to help him against the attacks of Luitprand, King of the Lombards. Again, when Charlemagne's father, Pepin, was aspiring to destroy the Merovingian dynasty, Pope Zacharias gave bis official approval to the deposition of the Merovingian king, Childeric III., and in this way caused Pepin to be placed upon the throne, and to become the founder of the Carolin- gian dynasty. This obligation of the Emperor of the Franks to the pope was never forgotten during Pepin's reign. Later, Pope Stephen II. personally visited Pepin, in France, and se cured his pledge to come down with his army, and defend him THE REIGN OP CHARLEMAGNE 109 against tho new Lombard chief Astolph, who had invaded the Greek Exarchate — a group of five cities and the interly- ing territory along the eastern coast, extending from Rimini to Ancona. Astolph was also besieging Rome. Pepin de feated the Lombards, a.d. 754, took possession of the Exarch ate himself, and appointed the pope as patrician of the Ex archate, a.d. 755. The pope was thus made a temporal ruler. It mattered not that the Exarchate was a part of the Byzan tine Empire, and that protests were made against it. Pepin gave, and Stephen II. took. This was the beginning of the temporal sovereignty of the papacy, which only came to an end after a reign of eleven centuries, or in 1871, when Gari baldi and Victor Emanuel marched into Rome. The final and complete cementing of papal and imperial in terests took place under Charlemagne. Desiderius, the new Lombard king, invaded the pope's territory and laid Pope and 8jege £0 Romei Adrian I., the now reigning pope, appealed to Charlemagne for help. It was given, and Charlemagne invaded Italy with a great army, and defeated the Lombards. He confirmed and enlarged the previous gifts to the pope, went to Rome, and was received with great pomp by Pope Leo III. By a clever piece of stage management, in the midst of the magnificent Christmas festivities of the year 800, Leo III, advanced towards Charlemagne, and placed upon j his head a golden crown, with these wor3s : "Life and victory ! to Charles Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacificl emperor !" It was a well-laid plan, and faithfully carried out j The bells from the many domes of the Eternal City preached the new gospel of the brotherhood of pope and emperor ; the multitude shouted their glad acclaim ; and the city ran wild with new joy. The meaning of the coronation was clear enough. Charlemagne had lacTeT^^jndorsement of the Church. He haTIbng coveted TC"" Such an attestatiqn of his imperial rights would forever silence the claims of his brother ^Carlornan'j3 chil- dren^ and"give film such prestige as would defy all opposition. Then, as compensation for his vast papal service, he enlarged the papal territory and placed the papacy itself, as a temporal sovereignty, on a plan entirely new to history. The later relations of Charlemagne and the pope were fra ternal—always a part of the general policy of mutual advan tage. The emperor was no sooner crowned than he threw off 110 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH his Northern costume, and put on the tunic, the chlamys, and the sandals of the Roman. When he came to of Charlemagne leave Rome, and Leo III. exchanged kisses with and the Pope jjjm) an(j ne was \ost to sight behind the hills of the Champagne, Europe entered on a new career. The Northern em pire was to strengthen and protect the papacy in every emer gency. On the other hand, the papacy must give its spiritual approval to the empire. Beautiful as this management ap peared, it had its dangers. Each was slave to the other. The papacy could only be upheld by imperial arms. The empire would be in constant danger of strifes of succession without the participation and coronation of the papacy. The time came, later, when it would have been convenient for both par ties if Charlemagne had never seen Rome, and no pope had put upon his head the crown of the Caesars. CHAPTER III CHURCH AND STATE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIAN RULERS The example of Charlemagne was on the side of imperial predominance. He never meant the least surrender to the pope of absolute control over the Church. He "xamp?"6 S knew the ancient power of the Roman emperors over the religious affairs of the State, and adhered to his notions of theocratic responsibility. It was convenient to have a pope crown him, but the august ceremony produced no restraints. He regarded himself the full suzerain of Rome, and of Rome's pope. How little importance Charlemagne at tached to the papal coronation may be seen in the fact that, in 813, when he wanted to associate his son Louis with him, in the government of the empire, he, with his own hands, placed the crown upon the young man's head. The Carolingian successors to Charlemagne were a group of steadily dissolving lights. The family intellect diminished to a lamentable degree. But there was no relaxing of imperial claims. Each ruler asserted his sovereignty over the religious functions of Europe. All the Carolingians adhered to the ap- CHURCH AND STATE UNDER LATER CAROLINGIAN RULERS 111 pointment of bishops, as their father and his predecessors had done. The civil rulers frequently sold the episco- Slmagne1 Pal office to the niSnest t^der. The Council of Orleans, in 549, and that of Paris, in 557, had pro tested against such methods. But the evil continued. Dag- obert I., in 631, appointed his treasurer, a layman, to the see of Cahors. All the barbaric rulers ignored the authority of the Roman bishop. Even Boniface was made Archbishop of Mainz by royal hands. Charles Martel rewarded his soldiers with the best sees in his realm. The brightest dream of many a bronzed warrior was to spend his last years with the peace ful crosier in his scarred hand. As the Carolingian line con tinued there was a rise of papal prerogative. No exception was taken to Charlemagne's appointments, because of his pres tige and of his service to the Church. But his weaker descend ants had no such claims, and were regarded with no such awe. The result of the imperial appointment of Church officers was that the incumbents should feel that, their authority com ing from the civil ruler, they were not directly sub- EpUco'pacy* Ject to PaPa^ mandate. The trend was to create an independent episcopacy. This was of the greatest concern to the popes. The bishops would not obey orders. They had direct contact with the people, and the matter must be changed. The popes, during the later Carolingian rulers, succeeded in good measure in getting the episcopal appoint ments dependent on Rome rather than on the civil ruler. The effect was to strengthen the papacy at the expense of the em pire. Why not? No Charlemagne now wore the crown. The government of the Church was, under the Carolingi- ans, a part of the general machinery of the State. Under both Pepin and Charlemagne the body which legislated for the State did the same for the Church. The clergy were rep resented, but they only served ornamental purposes, just as the bishops now do in the British Parliament. Charlemagne divided his general legislative assembly into three bodies — bishops, abbots, and counts. The first two attended to eccle siastical matters, while the last regulated political affairs. The showing was fair. There was the appearance of political lib erty. The fact was, the emperor controlled all three orders. Charlemagne required the bishops and abbots to furnish a con tingent of soldiers for bis armies in proportion to the amount 112 THE MEDIAEVAL CHUECH of property which they held officially. In 801 he forbade the clergy all direct participation in military life. The extinction of the Carolingians was simultaneous with the complete ascendency of the papacy. For about a century The Extinction tflere na<* Deen pleasant understandings, which ol the were of great mutual advantage. Charles the Fat Carolingians wag a 8]en(jer shadow of the great Pepin and the greater Charlemagne. In 855 we find the Neustrian bishops declaring to Louis the German that they were not obliged to do homage, or swear fidelity, to their sovereign. Synods, councils, and popes were now growing clamorous for the prim itive mode of electing bishops. By the time the last descend ants of the great Charles were spending their closing days as mere weak functionaries in the palace of Laon, the Church found herself proprietor of more than all her old prerogatives, and holding her new territory with a grasp which only relaxed when she reached farther for a larger slice. She paid back the princely gift of land from Pepin and Charlemagne by an inde pendence and haughtiness quite new even on the bank of the Tiber. CHAPTER IV THE FICTITIOUS ISIDORE [Authorities. — See the article by Wasserschleben, Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, in Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia; Newman, Essays, Crit. and Hist., vol. ii., pp. 271-275, 320-835. Mr. William Frederick Hunter, in his article Canon Law, in the EncyclopEedia Britannica, 9th edition, holds that the Decretals were compiled by a single author, a Frankish ecclesiastic, between 840 and 860, that they included many authentic Decretals, while others embody the traditional contents of actual but lost Decretals, that the old idea that they were fabricated by the author's brain for the purposes of papal ag grandizement is now exploded, that the compilation was produced for the benefit of the bishops, and that their influence in the subsequent develop ment of the papacy has been greatly overrated.] Evert period of religious ferment exhibits a disposition to fortify the opinions of the present by an appeal to the past. The tendency applies to the evil as well as the good. During the first period of the Middle Ages there prevailed in the whole of Latin Christendom a calm and subdued desire for THE FICTITIOUS ISIDORE 113 papal elevation, which, notwithstanding the outward frater nity between emperor and pope, was preparing to PtoPthleApastl assert itself whenever the ™gnt hour struck. The papacy had advantages over the imperial rule of a family. The son might be a poor and weak successor to his father ; but no man could seat himself on the episcopal chair of Rome without at least some measure of ability. There was a division within the narrow rule of the ecclesiastical govern ment. The metropolitan bishops were appointed by the em peror, but the bishops in general were supposed to be appoint ed by the pope. The classes were thus arrayed against each other. By a shrewd manipulation of public sentiment the episcopal and papal interests received a strong support in a skilful forgery. A Spanish archbishop of the seventh century, Isidore of Hispalis, performed for the German Church the distinguished service of making: it acquainted with a number of im- Pseudo- .1-1 •• i ttti- Isidorean portant classical and patristic works. He died in 636, Decretals an^ left behind a name of great repute for mental and moral endowments. His services and fame were used as au thority for a forgery, in favor of Roman authority as against the political ruler. The entire Church was deceived. But it was a most welcome deception. The secret lay concealed long enough to fortify every branch of ecclesiastical author ity, to make political rulers tremble, and to make Rome ready, when the Carolingians ran out, to extend her spiritual sceptre over all rulers. The pseudo-Isidorean Decretals combined all the qualities of a perfect deception. They represented a class, and yet were the best of their order. A collection of canons and epistles of Dionysius Exiguus, for example, had been gener ally used in the West. Isidore of Hispalis had written a col lection of important canons not found in that of Dionysius Exignus, and by his work had contributed greatly to the cen tralization of ecclesiastical authority in Rome. How could this same work be carried further, now that the Carolingian empire had gained such great prestige and threatened to eclipse the Roman bishop, and had been implored to come and help him fight his battles against the Lombards? Isidore, now in his grave, was, therefore, used to build up this en dangered cause. It was pretended that he had left behind a 114 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH set of Decretals — the doings of former councils — which had never seen the light. Now, thanks to good-fortune, they had been discovered. They were soon scattered as widely as rapid copyists could multiply them. No compiler had dared to go back further than the authority of Siricius, whose pontif icate extended from a.d. 384 to 398. But this forger was no timid character. He boldly rushed back to alleged decrees of unknown councils, and to letters claiming to be written by Clement and Anacletus — bishops of Rome contemporary with the Apostles — and by nearly thirty of the apostolic fathers themselves. The contents of the forged work were enough to condemn it. It was divided into three parts. The first contained, in addition to the authentic fifty apostolical canons, J?on'ents.°! fifty -nine spurious decretal writings of Roman bishops from Clement I. to Melchiades, or from the end of the first century to the beginning of the fourth. Even the reputed donation of territory by Constantine to the papacy — a thing which never took place — was brought in to help the common interest. The second part comprised only authentic synodal canons. The third presented some real De cretals, but, besides these, there were thirty-five spurious ones, which were held to have been written at various times from Pope Sylvester I., who died in 335, to Gregory IL, who died in 731. The one purpose pervading the entire work was to prove, by early authority, the independence of the bishop. The Church must protect herself and her priesthood. Tlie bishop must be made independent of his metropolitan. When a bishop is tried, it must not be before a metropolitan or a secular tribunal, but before the pope alone. Even a clerk must be tried before an ecclesiastical court. An offence against a priest is an offence against God himself, for a priest is very dear to God, the very apple of his eye. No charge against a bishop can be declared sustained unless supported by seventy-two witnesses. The court must consist of twelve other bishops. Only the pope can convene provincial synods, and his approval is necessary for the efficiency of their de crees. The former opinion that the Decretals were intended to prop up the primacy of Rome is now abandoned by the majority of scholars. The opinion is at present divided between two THE FICTITIOUS ISIDORE 115 views : the first is that the purpose of the publication was to form a general code of Christian discipline and government necessary at a time of general insecurity in society, and of con fusion in Church affairs. The second and, perhaps, the better view is that the real meaning of the Decretals was to free the bishops from their dependence on the State and on their metro politans and provincial synods. The authority of the pope was recognized and emphasized, but only for the sake of the bishop. The authorship of the Decretals has remained a secret. That Isidore never wrote the collection can be seen in the barbarous Latin of the ninth century, citations from works of late authorship, clumsy anachronisms throughout the collec tion, the absence of all testimony to the authority of the more ancient portions of the Decretals, and the attempts to meet contemporaneous prejudices. Never in the whole history of literature was a fabrication obscured by more doubt or per mitted to pass so long without challenge. The date of publi cation ranged between a.d. 844 and 857. It was probably writ ten in the Frankish Empire of Rome, but the evidence is not decisive. The most plausible theory of authorship is, that Archbishop Riculf (a.d. 786-814) brought the genuine Isidore from Spain ; that this was enlarged and corrupted by the Archbishop Autcar, and published at Mainz, and that the copving was done by the Benedictine monk Levita, who may have had no suspicion of the fraud he was perpetrating. The influence of the false Decretals was such that popes, councils, synods, and minor ecclesiastical officers appealed to them as final authority. They were brought out Influence of t0 decide questions which shook the Christian the Decretals l . world. After the year 864 they were habitually used in papal rescripts as having binding force. Their genu ineness was never questioned until the twelfth century. The first doubts were raised by Peter Comestor. But the fraud was never proven until the sixteenth century, when the first Protestant Church historians, the authors of the " Magdeburg Centuries," exposed the successful trick. Since then the better Roman Catholic historians have abandoned the Decretals as authentic, but hold them to be a pious fraud. Moehler calls their author a "Romanticist." Cardinal Newman, however, goes further, and with his characteristic candor calls the De cretals a " forgery." 116 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH CHAPTER V MOHAMMEDANISM [Authorities. — The following are, perhaps, the best works in handy form on Islam and its founder : Muir, Mohamed and Islam (London and N. Y., 1884) ; Muir, The Coran (London and N. Y., 1878) ; Principal J. W. H. Stobart (of La Martiniere College, Lucknow), Islam and its Founder (London and N. Y., 1876, 1884) ; R. Bosworth Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism (N. Y., 1875, new and rev. ed., London, 1890). Compare the elaborate articles in the last ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, by Professors Wellhausen (Mohammed), Guyard (Eastern Caliphates), and Noldeke (Koran), all under Mohammedanism.] Mohammed, the founder of the faith which bears his name, was born in Mecca, Arabia, about a.d. 570. He sprang from the Coreish tribe, who were the rulers of Mecca and the surrounding country, and protected the Kaaba, an ancient temple and the centre of the old national worship of Arabia. His parents died when he was young, and he was left to the care of his grandfather. He exhibited his warlike taste when twenty years of age. Of these first experiences he afterwards said : "I remember being present with my uncles in war. I shot arrows at the enemy, and do not regret it." He followed the vocation of a shepherd, and said : " Truly no prophet hath been raised up who hath not done the work of a shepherd." His youth was spent in better ways than was the case with most young men about him. He avoided the pre vailing licentiousness, was reserved, and very early showed signs of hostility to the usual idolatry. Khadija, a rich widow, put him in charge of her caravan, which was about to start for Syria. On his return he married her. He was at this time twenty-five years of age, and she was forty. The wealth which was at his disposal gave him opportunity for meditation, and for carrying out his plans as the founder of a new religion. Mohammed claimed that he fell into rhapsodies, during MOHAMMEDANISM 111 which he had his alleged revelations. His wife was one of the first to accept his claims to the prophetic call- Mohamined *nS- Forty or fifty others rallied about him, even before he made public his claims to special revela tion. He called his religion " Islam," or " surrender" to the will of God. He despised idols of every kind, and appealed to his countrymen to return to the old Abrahamic faith. He preached the fundamental doctrines of Judaism — the resurrec tion of the human body, the final judgment, and rewards and punishments according to the life on earth. Great opposition was soon developed, and he, with fifteen adherents, went across the Red Sea to Abyssinia. This was the first Hegira, and he was forty-seven years of age at the time. In three months he returned. In a moment of weakness, or for pur poses of the final success of his new faith, he yielded to the popular idolatry so far as to say of the three idols, Lat, Ozza, and Manat : " These are the exalted goddesses whose inter cession with the Deity is to be sought." But he soon recov ered from this position, and denounced idolatry, root and branch, more bitterly than ever. He made a second flight into Abyssinia, where the Christian king, Negus, gave him a favorable reception. In fact, the religion of Mohammed, so far, was not antagonistic to Christianity, but friendly to it. But in due time the difference could be seen, and when once Mohammedanism was on its full career of conquest there was no further friendship. There are traces, however, in the Koran, of Mohammed's acquaintance with the main facts of the life of Jesus. He probably acquired it when on his cara van journeys in earlier life to Syria. There were, also, Chris tians living in various parts of Arabia, and probably in Mecca, through whom he must have become thoroughly conversant with Christian doctrine. After Mohammed arrived at his fifty-second year his suc cess was more decided than before. Mecca was slower to ac cept his creed than the distant places. At Medina the new faith gained great strength. Mohammed removed thither a.d. 622, and shared in building the Grand Mosque, which after wards occupied an important place in Mohammedan history. Mecca and Medina were at swords' points, the former being opposed to Mohammed, and the latter favoring him. The battle of Bedr was the result. Mohammed was victorious. 118 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH Though the first blood was not shed here, this was the real beginning, on a large scale, of the sanguinary career of Mo hammedanism. Mohammed gained steadily on his enemies. He conquered one tribe after another, until he became feared throughout Arabia. He sent legates to foreign courts, and received answers and gifts in return. He died, while making preparations for a campaign on the Syrian border, when sixty- three years of age. The Koran contains the system of Mohammed. He claimed to have received his communications miraculously, and that they should be the law of faith and practice for his followers for all time. "This day," said Mohammed, at his Farewell Pilgrimage, " have I perfected your religion unto you." And from that day to this the Koran has never undergone any change, and is the standard of faith and life of the one hundred and seventy-three millions who constitute the Mohammedan world. It is a medley of legend, history, Jewish patriarchal traditions, and sensual doctrine. It permits polyg amy, and awakens the courage of Mohammedans by promises of worldly pleasures in the future life. It is severe on idola try, and declares the unity of God. There is a great confu sion of chronology. Many of the moral precepts were mere accommodations to Mohammed's infirmities. Polygamy is al lowed by the Koran, at the mere whim of the husband. Divorce takes place with equal ease. Slavery is recognized as a civil institution. The Mohammedan is obliged to fight for the ex tension of his cause. The Church and the State are one and the same. Fatalism abounds throughout the system. Under Abu Bekr and the later successors of Mohammed, the new faith was propagated with amazing rapidity. Arabia was conquered by the prophet himself. The caliphs "conquTsts" who came after him subdued Egypt, all North Af rica, Syria, Persia, Asia Minor, Northern India, Spain, the south of France, and the Danubian principalities. The progress in Western Europe was arrested by the victory of Charles Martel, at Tours, a.d. 732. The conquests in the countries around the eastern portion of the Mediterranean Sea were more easy, because of the strifes of rulers and the dissen sions of Christians. The progress of the Mohammedans into Central Europe was not arrested until 1683, when John Sobi- eski, the Polish king, defeated the Turks, with great slaughter, at Vienna. EUROPE time of Charles the Great 771 -814. THE SCHOOLS OF CHARLEMAGNE 119 CHAPTER VI THE SCHOOLS OF CHARLEMAGNE [Authorities. — J. Bass MuUinger has given us a standard work, The Schools of Charles the Great (London, 1877). Compare Newman, Historical Sketches, vol. hi, pp. 150 sq. ; Laurie, Rise and Early Constitution of Universities (N. Y., 1887), ch. iii. ; Charlemagne and the Ninth Century.] The rulers immediately before Charlemagne were of bar barian origin, and had no sympathy with the classic treasures. .. , , They could not appreciate the literary wealth of Charlemagne s J . ,rr J Attention to the countries which they conquered. They even Learning na(j little respect for the poetic literature of their own countries. Theodoric could not even write his own name. Charlemagne introduced a new order. He was the first of the barbaric rulers to see the importance of learning, and, while not educated himself, he knew the value of education as a source of prosperity for his dominions. He surrounded him self with learned men. Alcuin, of England, was his adviser in all literary matters. Charlemagne intrusted him with the or ganization of schools, and had him report constantly concern ing the state of education among his subjects. Guizot calls Alcuin the "intellectual prime - minister of Charlemagne." Longfellow draws the following picture of Alcuin in the Pal atine School : "In sooth, it was a pleasant sight to see That Saxon monk, with hood and rosary, With inkhorn at his belt, and pen and book, And mingled love and reverence in his look ; Or hear the cloister and the court repeat The measured footfalls of his sandalled feet, Or watch him with the pupils of his school, Gentle of speech, but absolute of rule." But Charlemagne had other scholars about him, such as Clement of Ireland, Peter of Pisa, Paul the Deacon, Eginhard, 120 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH Paul of Aquileia, and Theodulph. These were the " true pal adins of his literary court." The old universities of the classic world had been located in the lands overrun by the Saracens, and were now blotted out of existence. Their place was occupied by sem- semTnar"' maries> where only theology was taught. The edu cation of the better part of Europe was in the hands of the Church. The episcopal seminaries had been seats of clerical learning from the primitive period, but these had been interrupted by the onslaughts of the barbarians. Charlemagne saw their value, began to restore them to their old importance, and enlarged the curriculum of study. Out of these episcopal seminaries grew, four centuries afterwards, some of the great universities of modern Europe. Charlemagne took pains to establish grammar and public schools. Those were purely secular, and were of popular character. They were prepara tory to the seminaries and to all the secular profes- SCstuoiesnd sions- Theodulph, Bishop of Orleans, was deputed to establish village schools for all classes. Then, for the first time in Europe, learning was made free for all. For the children of his court, Charlemagne had schools connected with his palace, or the School Palatine. To enrich the more ignorant portions of his empire, he provided endowments for the support of schools. England, Italy, and Greece were drawn upon to furnish manuscripts for the new libraries. A special imperial constitution was adopted, which regulated the course of study and all other matters connected with the schools. The old trivium and quadrivium arrangement was adopted. Under the former were embraced philology, logic, and rhetoric ; under the latter, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Here the average monk, like Eginhard, "Grew up, in Logic point-device, Perfect in Grammar, and in Rhetoric wise ; Science of numbers, Geometric Art, And lore of Stars, and music knew by heart ; A Minnesinger, long before the times Of those who sang their love in Indian rhymes.'' A strong theological bias was given to all the studies. Music was largely limited to chanting, and astronomy to the calcula tion of Easter. The emperor took great pains to locate his schools in proper THE SCHOOLS OP CHARLEMAGNE 121 places. That he was wise in his selection can be seen in the fact that some of these schools have existed ever since. He established about fifty schools of high grade. Italy, Germany, and France were most favored. Among the schools which he organized are the following: Paris, Tours, Corbie, Orleans, Lyons, Toulouse, Clugny, Mainz, Treves, Cologne, Utrecht, Fulda, Paderborn, and Hildesheim. The cultivation of national literature by Charlemagne was a favorite pursuit. He ruled over a heterogeneous people. Charlemagne's Some of the tribes were advanced, and already Cultivation of Na- had a taste of the classic fountains. But the ona i era ure mogj. were jn dense barbarism. The emperor caused grammars to be compiled in the languages of his Teu tonic subjects, and collected the bardic lays of Germany. He required that the sermon should be preached in the vulgar tongue, and that the common people should have the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer in their own languages. Stripes and fasts were the penalty of neglect. Special measures were taken for the circulation of the Script ures. Copies were multiplied by the monks, and were distrib uted among the schools. Many found their way ^Scriptures into Private hands. Theological literature received a strong impetus. The monasteries became busy places, and many of the monks became authors. Their works were largely reproductions of the Fathers, but occasionally the quiet atmosphere was disturbed by an original manuscript. The decline in literary activity began immediately after the death of the great Charles. The Church fattened on his edu cational beginnings. The bishops and other cler- . Decline in too]£ e in 381> that the Holy Ghost is equal in es sence with the Son, and that both are consubstantial with the Father. The Western teaching, guided chiefly through the clear and logical intellect of Augustine, held that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. In 589, the Toledo Council, in accordance with this view, added to the symbol of Constantinople the term Filioque. Roman primacy was also a ground of violent antagonism. The Bishop of Rome held that his decisions should apply to the entire Christian Church. The growth of the papal pRimacv Prmiacy was rapid, and subject to only temporary in terruptions, and was therefore looked upon by the Eastern Church with grave suspicion. The Eastern Church held that the Patriarch of Constantinople was equal in rank to the Roman bishop. But this was not only not admitted in SCHISM BETWEEN THE EAST AND THE WEST 145 Rome, but indignantly rejected. There was no dependence upon Roman approval of the decisions of Eastern councils and synods. What was regarded as orthodox on the Bosphorus might be promptly decided very heterodox on the bank of the Tiber. Here was a large field for bitter antagonism. The entire political and ecclesiastical life of the two regions grew more discordant with the years. Often the animosity was as intense between them as though neither East nor West pro fessed the Christian religion. The ecclesiastical laws and usages were also calculated to widen the chasm. The Greek Church accepted eighty-five of Chasm widened *^e aP0St°li° canons, while the Latin Church by Ecclesiastical acknowledged but fifty. The controversy on Laws and Usages images jn tne sacred buildings fluctuated with great violence and during a long period. The result was that the Greek Church rejected them, while the Roman endorsed them, and gave the type for the abuse throughout Western Christendom. The Latin Church declared against the mar riage of the clergy, while the Greek Church permitted all its clergy, excepting bishops, to remain in the marriage relation, provided that at the time of their ordination they were al ready married. The eating of animals strangled, the use of the figure of a lamb to represent Christ, and fasting on Satur day were permitted by the Latin Church, but rejected by the Greek. The second Trullan Council, in 692, so sharply de fined these differences that its action was a violent factor towards the great schism. Photius, Patriarch of Constanti nople, invited all the Eastern patriarchs to a council, which convened in 867. Here he formulated the points of difference between the Greek and Latin Christians, and gave a catalogue of the doctrinal and other alleged vagaries which the West ern Christians had committed. The pope was even declared deposed, and the information extended to the Western Church. The complete schism took place in 1054. Constantine Mo- nomachus, the Byzantine emperor, having in view a war, ap- pliecl to the Roman pope for friendly support. This The Schism oyerture awakened the wrath of Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and of Leo of Achrida, Metropol itan of Bulgaria. They wrote a letter to the bishops of the Latin Church, charging it with grave doctrinal errors, and urg ing it to renounce them. This letter reached Pope Leo IX. 146 THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH He was intensely excited, and bitter letters passed between Rome and Constantinople. The pope sent three delegates to the latter city. But only a fiercer animosity ensued. The clos ing signal of an open and final rupture was given by the issuing of a public excommunication of the patriarch by the legates, in the Church of St. Sophia, and their withdrawal to Rome. Attempts at reunion were subsequently made. But the divergence increased with time. The doctrinal differences became more prominent, while the constant growth Attempts £ ^ papal authority in the Latin Church made at Reunion r r J conciliation impossible. During the Crusades, which united all Christendom, strong attempts to restore the unity of the East and the West were made, but in the end proved fruitless. The Council of Lyons, in 1274, declared the reunion complete. The Eastern delegates accepted the Roman con fession of faith, and acknowledged the primacy of the Roman pope, while the Roman delegates agreed that all the existing usages of the Eastern Church might in future be conceded to it, while the Nicene Creed, without addition or comment, might remain in permanent use. This pacification was brought about by the Eastern emperor, Michael Palseologus. But when he died, and another took his place, the old schism reappeared in full force. Efforts at restoration continued to be made until the middle of the fifteenth century. But when the Byzantine Empire went down, in 1453, all serious and gen eral attempts ceased. CHAPTER XV THE ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH [Authorities.— See Hunt, The English Church in the Middle Ages (London, 1888), in Creightou's Epoch Series ; C. Arthur Lane, Descriptive Lectures on English Church History (London, 18S9); R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of England (London, 1878, seq.); A. H.Hore, Eighteen Centuries of the Church of England (Oxford, 1881). On Alfred see Pauli, King Alfred (London, 1853), and the article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Freeman, in his Old English History (London, 1871), gives a sketch of this king.] The conflict of tribes and races in Britain was violent dur ing all the early Christian centuries. There was nothing in ENGLAND in the NINTH CENTURY Scale of Miles SO 40 60 THE ANGLO-SAXON CHURCH 147 the condition or pursuits of the people to give the least indi cation of the later controlling influence of the Anglo-Saxon race in modern civilization and the evangelization of the world. There was enough of booty in the land to attract warring tribes and freebooting sailors from the western part of the Continent. The native races in Britain were at war with each other. An invasion made the conflicts only more intense. Scandinavia and Germany furnished the chief assail ing elements. Probably no place has ever been the scene of more bitter tribal warfare, or contained a greater number of tribes to the square mile, than the British Isles. The ten dency was towards unity. Alfred succeeded in conquering the Danes, and driving them into the territory about the pres ent London. Harold, the last Saxon king, was defeated at the battle of Hastings, 1066, by William, Duke of Normandy. This was the great historical event which first gave unity to the English people. There are no positive data as to the means by which Chris tianity was propagated throughout Britain. But the evidence .is clear that it secured a strong footing in many of the British parts of the country during the domination of the Church Romans. During the early centuries the relations between British Christianity and the churches of Gaul and Rome were very intimate. But the Saxons, in their great in vasion, in 449, destroyed the Christian worship practised in the eastern parts of Britain. Christianity, therefore, was pro fessed chiefly along the western coast. The relations between this limited type of Christianity and the Continental churches became sundered for a time. There was little communication between them. In the meantime, the British Church devel oped on an independent basis. Its Christianity was a con tinuation of the apostolic type, and exhibited but little har mony with that of Rome. In the year 596, the Church of Rome sent legates to Britain, to resume the old relations of daughter and mother. There was strong opposition on the part of Britain to accept any overtures. The divergence of the British Church from that of Rome consisted more in usages and details than in fundamental doc trines. The British clergy did not adopt the tonsure Points of f their Roman brethren, but shaved the forepart of UiTi6r6ncc the head instead of the crown. The Church of Brit- 148 THE MEDIAEVAL CHUECH ain did not acknowledge the primacy of the Roman pope, or the confessional, or purgatory, or the Easter Cycle of nineteen years adopted by Dionysius Exiguus, or the sacramental char acter of marriage. Whether the Briton or the Roman would conquer in mat ters ecclesiastical depended largely on the native princes. By the year 660 the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy was . j0n?e overspread by the Christian religion. This entire ter ritory was intensely British in its profession. Kent alone was favorable to Rome. The kings of the whole coun try, with all their preference for a native Church, without any control from the Continent, were induced by Oswy, King of Northumbria, to accept the sympathy and protection of Rome. The diplomacy in behalf of Roman ascendency was managed with great shrewdness. Oswy called the Council of Whitby in 664. Both interests were represented by able ad vocates : Rome by the gifted Wilfrid, and Britain by Col- man, Bishop of Lindisfarne. The result, however, was easy to foresee. The king was intent on affiliation with Rome. The council decreed accordingly, and Oswy took care to see that the decrees were rigidly enforced. The union of the British kings under the Roman banner led Scotland and Ireland in the same direction. Scotland surrendered to Rome in 700, and Ireland in 704. The monks of Iona were the last to yield. They finally surrendered in 716, and thus passed away the last remnant of the early British National Church. Alfred the Great was the most powerful agent for build ing up and extending Christianity during the early period of the British Church. He was King of the West Sax- the'Great ons> and was Dorn *n 849- After ms conquest of the Danes, he made it one of the conditions of their sur render to him that their chiefs should receive baptism. Fear less in battle, Alfred was not less wise in government. He reduced the Saxon laws to a code, encouraged commercial ac tivity, and spared no pains to educate and elevate his people. He saw the necessity of spreading good books among his peo ple, and composed several himself, for the special purpose of contributing what he could towards their intellectual develop ment. He deplored the ignorance of his subjects, and de clared that almost no one living north of the Thames could translate a Latin letter or comprehend the Church ritual. He 150 THE MEDIJEVAL CHURCH fostered clerical education. He rebuilt the old monasteries, founded schools, gathered books from every possible quarter, and invited learned men from abroad to settle within his do minions, and aid in the educational and ecclesiastical develop ment of his people. In the Christian works which proceeded from his own pen, less regard was paid to original thought than to the reproduction of Christian classics. The chief of these were the translations of Boethius's " Consolations of Philosophy " and of Gregory's " Pastoral Care." To the Eng lish of all later times, Alfred remains the ideal ruler — " the wisest, best, and greatest king that ever reigned in Eng land." CHAPTER XVI ARNOLD OF BRESCIA [Authorities. — Neander and Milman give excellent and appreciative estimates of the work of Arnold.] The long quarrel between Henry IV. and the papacy gave rise to a new force in Italy, which was now felt far and A New Force w^e- "^he claims which the pope made to supreme authority awakened the alarm of certain serious minds, who saw here an element of great danger to the spirit ual interests of all Christendom. In addition to this, a desire for local independence was awakened. A process of violent disintegration went on, especially in the Italian cities. The people arose against the high claims of an ecclesiastical rule, and cities vied with each other in an attempt to cut loose from these restraints. That the clergy should hold such power, not only in Rome, but throughout Italy, was considered a curse which must be done away with, and the sooner the better. It requires but little time for a great popular aspiration to find its incarnation. The strong desire of many thousands in Arnold Italy t0 reduce the prerogatives of the clergy and the papacy to the primitive status of voluntary poverty and purely spiritual life and government, found its representative in Arnold of Brescia, born about the end of the eleventh cen tury. He had been taught in a good school. Though an ARNOLD OF BRESCIA 151 Italian, he had gone to Paris, and placed himself under the care of Abelard, whose spirit he had imbibed. He possessed rare gifts of eloquence and popular leadership. He returned to Italy, where he boldly proclaimed against the excesses of the priesthood, and, indirectly, against the bold claim of the pope to secular authority. He was guarded in his expressions concerning the papacy, and entered no theological protest ; but against the universal life of the clergy he proclaimed in veterate hostility. He held that the priests should renounce all holding of property, and live on the free-will offerings of the people. His fearless method and defiant exposure of the prevailing vices of the time rallied to his standard a multitude of adherents. Among them were many cultivated people and nobles, who saw in him a safe and a pure leader. But when the awakening which he produced became alarming to the exist ing authorities, he was opposed by the pope, Innocent IL, who banished him from Italy. He fled to France, and then to Switzerland, and in both countries continued to preach the need of a universal reform, and the return of the Church to its original simplicity. Arnold had accomplished a great work in Rome. The pop ular sentiment was in his favor. The needful reform which he had preached gathered strength during his absence, and the people whom he had influenced now revolted against the pope. Arnold came back to Italy, went to Rome, and stood at their head. He was not only the spiritual leader of the city, but, in a certain sense, also the po litical head. In the Eternal City he was what Calvin was four centuries later in Geneva — the " administrator of civil and ec clesiastical affairs." Arnold's eloquence was overwhelming. The multitudes gathered about him with increasing enthusi asm. He "forgot his religious standpoint, and, inspired by the remembrance of the grandeur of old Rome, he became a political reformer. Rome should stand free, independent of the pope and emperor, ruled by no single man, but by the Senate and people." Then the old greatness would be restored. The citizens revolted against the rule of the pope, established a Senate, drove the pope out of Rome, passed laws requiring the pope to live on voluntary offerings and throw off his tem poral authority, and invited the German emperor to come down to Italy and re-establish the old imperial rule on the banks of 152 THE MEDIJGVAL CHURCH the Tiber. Lucius II. led an army against the Romans, but was killed during the siege of the city by a paving-stone. Eugenius III., who succeeded him, fled to France, and placed himself under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux. Euge nius was brought back to Rome by Roger, King of the Nor mans. But he was helpless. Arnold was still supreme, and the Romans were devoted to him. A young Englishman, who commenced life as a beggar, turned his attention to the priesthood, advanced through all subordinate stages until he became Bishop of Albano, and, on the death of Eugenius III., succeeded to the papacy as Hadrian IV., 1154. He hit upon a novel method of opposing the revered Arnold. He prohib ited all public worship in Rome. This one act produced a powerful impression, and the people could not say that it was not within his province and a purely ecclesiastical deed. The pope was now in the ascendant. Arnold was compelled to flee from Rome a second time, and was afterwards seized by the Emperor of Germany, Frederic Barbarossa, who 'o? A'notdT aave flun UP to ms enernies iQ Rome. No mercy was now shown him. He was hanged in Rome, the scene of his greatest triumphs, in 1155. To give additional indignity to his memory, his body was afterwards burned, and his ashes cast into the Tiber. During all the latter part of Ar nold's career, the most powerful enemy he had to contend with was Bernard of Clairvaux. The latter not only opposed his doctrines and the general drift of his teachings in political matters, but shaped the policy of the papacy. He was the real adviser of the popes who, one after another, had to con tend with Arnold, and, because of his weight with the Catho lic masses, probably did more than all of the popes to under mine the influence of Arnold. To study the career of Arnold, and its unhappy end, one would conclude that it was simply a revolutionary episode in the turbulent age in which he lived. But we must influence i3^e a ^roai'< 'oud <£? yl Sia^M/rf C- HazarijitiSM % JopP»i £}& BeIf'e/J ?ilrosalem Gaza> \g ARABIC PHILOSOPHY 171 healthy terror of the Christian soldier from which he has never been relieved. The positive benefits of the Crusades towards the develop ment of the people are numerous. The old feudal system of private warfare had long been a curse to the empire. The knight, with his retainers, could make war on his brother knight* All of Central and Western Europe was torn up by this feudal and predatory system. The Crusades broke it up, and bound the people together by a common law. When the last Crusader came home from Palestine he found himself the member of a broad commonwealth, and not the head of a clan. The cruelty of rulers was arrested. The voice of the people was heard for the first time, and kings learned that there was a limit to their authority. Commerce took larger and freer shape. The far Eastern countries were brought into close relationship with the Western. Some new sciences, such as medicine and astronomy, were introduced into Europe. As a field for literature, the Crusades have in spired many writers in all subsequent times. As an aid for comprehending their spirit and the age in which they were or ganized, we may reckon Sir Walter Scott's novels " The Talis man," " The Betrothed," and " Count Robert of Paris," the scenes of which are laid in those heated times. CHAPTER XXIV ARABIC PHILOSOPHY TA ,*¦- —See Fisher, Universal History, pp. 231-232 ; Freeman, History 1 fJC„-to °f the Saracens (I;'ondo^• mo); Draper' IntellectuaI De" velopment of Europe (N. Y., rev. ed., 1876); Milman, History of Latin Christianity, book xiv., ch. iii.] T literature of the Arabs developed in an extraordinary HB ^urincr the eleventh and twelfth centuries. With the manner thii°eentn century it went into decline. There was Literature 3 strong bond of unity between the Jew and the of the Arabs ^rab> Thej were both alike hostile to Christianity, A the monotheism of the Jewish system was a fundamental 172 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH factor in the Mohammedan creed. When the Arabs con quered Spain they gave prompt attention to education. The universities of Cordova, Seville, Toledo, and Salamanca be came, through them, centres of thought, which affected not only the whole Iberian peninsula, but extended to the remotest learned circles of Europe. The Aristotelian philosophy was peculiarly attractive to them. The Arab scholars caught up its threads, interwove them with their own Oriental specula tions, and produced a system of dialectics which Christian scholars were not slow to utilize. The Platonic system, with its warmth, had also its charm, and was interpreted with great vigor and skill. Algazel, who died in 1127, in Bagdad, was a learned Arab, who gave proof of the speculative power of the Arab mind even without the quickening influence of contact with Euro pean thought. In his " Destruction of the Philosophers " he showed the glaring inconsistencies of philosophical systems, vindicated supernaturalism, and defended the inspiration of the Koran. His work was a skilful putting of the Moham medan case, perhaps as plausible a plea for it as has ever been made. The Spanish transplantation of Arab speculation is to be found in the work of Tophail, who died in Seville in 1190. In his " Life of a Young Yokdan " he undertakes to show that true philosophy is not the product of education, or of any force from the external world, but of an effort of the mind from its own resources. Averrhoes, who died in 1198 (by some, in 1206), was the most gifted of all the Arab thinkers resident in Spain. He wrote against Algazel's work, calling his own book the "Destruction of the Destruction of the Philoso phers." He brought the Arab speculation out of the narrow affiliations with the Mohammedan system, and gave it a uni versal application. He held that true religion and a thorough ly logical speculation belong together, for the reason that the divine and human reason are naturally united. At the same time, he held that an affirmative might be theologically true and philosophically false, and vice versa. He was strongly opposed by Aquinas, and he was generally regarded with sus picion. His theories were provocative of scepticism. He ex pounded the philosophy of Aristotle, and gave it a Neo-Platonic THE HOHENSTAUFENS IN ITALY 173 coloring. His system was a grouping of the better elements in both Plato and Aristotle. The systems of Christian scho lasticism were based largely on his speculations. CHAPTER XXV THE HOHENSTAUFENS IN ITALY [Authorities. — We have an excellent monograph by Hugo Balzani, The Popes and the Hohenstaufen (London and N. Y., 1889). Archbishop Trench has an illuminating lecture (xii.) on the same subject in his Mediaeval Church History (N. Y., 1878).] The Italian rule of the Hohenstaufens is one of the most romantic episodes in European history. Frederic I., otherwise called Frederic Barbarossa, or the Red Beard, was Hohenstaufens , , . _,. , ' a man ot remarkable genius. Since the time of Charlemagne he was the most gifted occupant of the German imperial throne. He sought, at the expenditure of much blood and treasure, to restore the imperial power over the Lombard cities. His whole aim was to crush out the uprisings of Ital ian freedom. He had fierce conflicts with the popes over his rights in Italy. He was a man of earnest piety, and he finally became a martyr to the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre. He was drowned in the Calycadnus, in Cilicia, 1190, while leading one of the armies of the third Crusade. His son Henry married Constance, heiress of the Norman kingdom of Lower Italy and Sicily, often called the Two Sicilies. Thus the Hohenstaufen sceptre shadowed the whole of Italy. Twice this Henry (VI., 1190-97) tried to conquer this inheritance for himself. After several vicissitudes, his son, Frederic n., was crowned emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1215. On account of his extraordinary attainments and fine natural gifts, he was called the " Wonder of the World." He was far ahead of his time in the liberality of his sentiments. He gave profound attention to his dominions in Sicily. He had advised the set tlement there of a colony of Saracens. The little affair was an outgrowth of the Crusades. Here he had a small army which stood ready to defend his cause. When he was crowned at 174 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH Aix-la-Chapelle he took upon himself the vow of the Crusader. His wife, lolante, was heiress of the crown of Jerusalem, and in 1228 he set sail for Palestine. Here he was crowned King of Jerusalem. His possessions in Italy were, meanwhile, in danger of being blotted out, through the vigorous manage ment of Pope Gregory IX. Gregory had excommunicated him, ostensibly for delaying his departure for Palestine, but really, as we believe, to make him so unpopular with his peo ple in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies that his rule could be terminated. But here Gregory failed. He was compelled to acknowledge Frederic as rightful ruler over the Two Sicilies. However, the struggles between Frederic and the popes con tinued from year to year. The popes used their utmost influ ence to weaken the force of the emperor, not only among his Sicilian subjects, but in Germany as well. The fall of the Hohenstaufens in Sicily was only a question of time. When Frederic died, the case was hopeless. Pope f n ol the Innocent IV. declared that Sicily was really a part Hohenstaufens of the States of the Church, and so took posses- m Sicily gjon 0£ jt Conrad IV. left Germany to take care of itself, and undertook to regain the hold on Sicily. Conrad died before the struggle was over, and his son Conradin found not only a slender hold on Sicily, but simply a mere tithe of the ancestral possessions in Germany as his inheritance. At first, Manfred, a natural son of Frederic, took possession of the Two Sicilies, and held them against the forces and manipulation of the Roman pope. What should the popes now do ? They followed one another in rapid succession, but each one kept a careful eye on Sicily. They gave up the struggle at last, be cause of the fidelity of the Sicilies to the Hohenstaufens, and sold their alleged right to the Sicilies first to England and then to France. Pope Clement IV. aided Charles of Anjou to take possession of the Sicilian kingdom. Charles was crowned king, after the battle of Benevento, in 1266, when Manfred was slain. Conradin now came down from Suabia, and appeared upon the scene. He was defeated in the battle of Tagliacozzo, and taken prisoner and put to death in 1268. This put an end to the German rule south of the Alps. The popes were once more at ease, so far as Italy was concerned. It had been a bitter struggle. Though their rule was restored, the intense hostility which it had engendered on the part of THE JEWISH PHILOSOPHY 175 Germany did not die out. The German rulers never forgot the affair, and, in the later centuries, lost no opportunity to put their bitter memories into practical form against the papacy. It was well, however, for the future unification of Italy that the progress towards nationality was not complicated by the presence of Germany on her soil. In their opposition to the Hohenstaufens the popes were working for a higher end than they had in mind. CHAPTER XXVI THE JEWISH PHILOSOPHY [Authorities. — Besides the Histories of Philosophy, see Milman, Hist, of Jews (rev. ed., 1863), vol. iii., book xxx.; Graetz, Hist, of Jews (London, 1891); Prof. H. P. Smith, " Mediaeval Jewish Theology," in Presbyterian Review, vol. ii. (1881), pp. 720-737, in which are given the conclusions of David Kaufmann's Geschichte der Attributenlehre in der Jiidischen Religions- philosophie des Mittelalters von Saadja bis Maimuni (Gotha, 1877).] The development of Jewish speculation was contempora neous with the Arabic, being confined to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It was the old neo-Platonism of Alexan dria coming to life again, and reappearing with intense vigor in Spain. There was no special attachment to the Old Testa ment, but a gathering into one of the various threads of Plato and other Greek thinkers, and their interweaving with Jewish theology. The result was a heterogeneous theology made up of the Old-Testament Scriptures and the philosophical sys tems, but with a warm sympathy with Mohammedanism. It was of so complex a nature that neither Moses, Plato, nor Mo hammed would have recognized himself in any one of its fun damental principles. Grammatical exegesis was one of the main departments of Jewish philosophy. The leading representatives were Solo mon Isaaki, of Troyes; Aben Ezra, of Toledo; Jewish Exegetes ^ ^ three Kimchij of Narb0nne. These men flourished between a.d. 1075 and 1232. There was nothing brilliant in the achievements of any of them, or of those who imitated them. But their critical tastes and the application 176 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH of exact methods to the expounding of the Scriptures were of great influence upon Christian scholars. There is reason to suppose that this school of Jewish thinkers, though far removed from the great centres of Christian learning, were influential on the later rise of Humanism and the general awakening of a taste for the philological examination of the scriptural languages. Philosophical speculation was the other wing of the Jewish eagle in the mediaeval period. Here the Jewish thinker dwelt with greatest pleasure. His field was broad. All systems and lands were combined. Christianity, Greek philosophy, and Mohammedanism were a confused molten mass. T«hese ele ments produced the later cabalism. Jehuda Levi, of Andalusia (died 1153), had less sympathy with other systems than with the Jewish. His "Book of Cosri " was a romance. It represents a king of the Cosarseans and a rabbi, Isaac Sangar, who conduct a dialogue. The out come is a vindication of the Jewish religion. Is is one of the ablest defences of Judaism ever written. It has been trans lated into several languages, and has been circulated in modern times. Its author was the greatest Jewish poet of the Middle Ages, and father-in-law of the greatest grammarian, Aben Ezra. Jehuda Levi was at once a poet, philosopher, and scholar. Maimonides was the most gifted Jew of the whole mediae val period. He stands related to Jewish speculation as Aver- rhoes does to Arabic — each supreme in his own field. There was a close bond of sympathy between them. The Jew was the disciple of the Arab. Maimonides was born in 1135, in Cordova. He mastered the Greek and Arabic systems of philosophy, and became an industrious author and profound thinker in many fields. Besides his devotion to phi losophy, he was skilled in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and Talmudic lore. He was an earnest and serious moral and religious character. His works were very numerous, in both Arabic and Hebrew. But his most influential book was of popular character — " The Guide to the Perplexed." It was a well-planned attempt to reconcile Jewish theology and heathen philosophy. It has exercised a powerful influence on that lib eral development of Judaism which has had such scope in mod ern times. THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY 177 CHAPTER XXVn THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY ^Authorities. — We are indebted to Prof. A. Seth, of Edinburgh, for an admi rable resume of this intricate and interesting subject : article, " Scholasti cism," in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.); see also Landerer in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia; C. J. StilI6, Studies in Mediaeval History (Phila., 1882), chapter on Scholasticism ; and Harper, Metaphysics of the School (London and N. Y., 1881). The best single work on Aquinas is Archbishop Vaughan's Life and Labors of, abridged and edited by Jer. Vaughan (2d ed., London, 1890). The author's unabridged work was pub lished in two volumes in 1872. Neander, in his Memorials of Christian Life in the Middle Ages (London, 1852), gives an eloquent and sympathetic sketch of the noble life of Lully.] Scholasticism derived its name from the monastic and catholic schools — scholae. It was a system of philosophy which emanated from those schools, and gave color to the thought of Europe from the tenth century down to the six teenth. It was based on the dialectics of Aristotle, and aimed to prove the truth of Christianity by the process of logic. Its history was varied. At one time scholasticism was scep tical, refusing to admit as truth what could not be proven by dialectics. Again, it became orthodox, and was a stout de fender of the supernatural element. In the thirteenth century it reached its highest stage. Mysticism appeared in the twelfth century as the compet itor of scholasticism for the attention and endorsement of Christian thinkers. The two represented opposite Mysticism ten(jencjeSi Scholasticism declared that the intellect must be the umpire of truth, while mysticism held that the feelings are our highest judge of the truth. Scholasticism was to the Middle Ages what rationalism is to the modern period what cannot be proved must not be believed. Mysti cism bore to the same period the relation which Schleierma cher's philosophy of religion does to the German theology of the present century — the heart is the seat of all true theology. 178 THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH Scholasticism had but slight bearing on the great spiritual movement which culminated in the Reformation, while the Mystics were among the most powerful agents in preparing the way for Luther. The Nominalists held that general conceptions, such as man, horse, and the like, are abstractions of the intellect, derived from the properties of the intellect, and possessing amTReaiists no existence beyond the intellect; that they are logical conveniences of expression — nomina mera, voces nudae, flatus vocis (mere names, simple sounds, the breath of the voice). The system has its modern supporters in Hobbes, Berkeley, Hume, Adam Smith, Stewart, and Ham ilton. The Realists held that general conceptions have an ex istence beyond the mere intellect of man ; that such general terms as man, horse, and the like have a real existence apart from the manifestations to our senses. The Nominalist be lieved, for example, that, taking man as a general conception, " humanity existed only in Socrates, Plato, Phaedo, and other individuals ; that the term was only an intellectual device for indicating the common properties characteristic of Socrates, Plato, and Phaedo, by giving them the general name Man, and thus embracing them in one class." The Realist, on the other hand, believed that, "before Socrates, Plato, and Phaedo, or any other individual men existed, Man, as an abstract idea, had an essential and immutable reality, and that Socrates, Plato, and Phaedo were men solely in consequence of possess ing this ideal manhood." Between these two classes, the Nominalists and the Realists, the whole scholastic system was divided. Fulbert, who was Bishop of Chartres after 1007, was the first notable Schoolman. His disciple, Berengar of Tours, Fulbert started a controversy on the Lord's Supper. He held and other that the elements were changed, that Christ's body Schoolmen jg presentj but only in the form of hre^ and wJnej and not in substance. The participant must have faith, for by this alone can the elements become effective. Berengar was opposed by Lanfranc, whose views were condemned by the Church at the Synod of Rome, 1050. Anselm, in his " Why the God-Man ?" held that Christ made an active vica rious sacrifice for the sins of the world. But Anselm does not declare that Christ endured the actual punishment for men's THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY 179 sins. Abelard represented the critical and sceptical element in scholasticism. As to the schools, he was a Nominalist, rather than a Realist. Bernard arrayed himself against Abe lard, and triumphed. A moderate compromise was effected between mysticism and scholasticism by Peter Lombard. But the elements were too antagonistic to be of large or per manent influence. The Thomists and Scotists were two culminating schools within the broad domain of scholasticism. Thomas Aquinas, the " Doctor Angelicus " of his age, taught in the and Scotists University of Paris, and died in the Cistercian Con vent of Fosca Nuova, near Terracina, in 1274. His " Summary of Theology " was an attempt to represent the ology as a complete science. He held that revelation is nec essary ; that the knowledge of God is, in a measure, intuitive in man ; that redemption is relatively, not absolutely, neces sary; and that baptism has regenerative power. He claimed that true theology is derived from the union of religion and philosophy. His system represented the orthodox element of the scholastic philosophy. The Scotists derived their name from the founder, John Duns Scotus, the "Doctor Subtilis" of his time. He died 1308. While Aquinas represented the Augustinian Theolo gy, and was a defender of the established doctrines of the Church, Duns Scotus followed in the footsteps of Pelagius, and represented the free-thinking wing of scholasticism. He held that by our natural powers we can know the Trinity ; that it was God's own good pleasure that there should be a re demption through Christ ; but that God does not command good and forbid evil because they are good and evil ; they are good and evil because he has commanded and forbidden. Nothing is sinful or righteous in itself. Duns Scotus gives large place to human merit, after the semi-Pelagian example. Johnson, in his English Dictionary, suggests that our word dunce is derived from Duns — an achievement of his opponents, the Thomists. Raymond Lully (died 1315) was called by his contempo raries the "Doctor Illuminatus." He saw in the course of scholasticism only injury to the general cause of truth, lMy and aimed at a thorough reform. He devised a plan for teaching the truths of the gospel, and called his method the 180 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH ars magna, or great art. He used certain letters to represent certain ideas. His plan was a mechanical one, and was de signed not only to retain knowledge, but to prove the truths of Christianity. He endeavored to construct a universal sci ence which would prove an irresistible argument for Chris tianity to heathen minds. But he misconceived the emptiness of scholasticism, and he could never get the Church to carry out his projects. He was of devout spirit and led a pure life. Neander says of him, that he possessed "the enthusiasm of a most fervent love to God, a zeal equally intense for the cause of faith and the interests of reason and science." Lully had a consuming ambition for the conversion of the Mohammedans and heathen, and it was while preaching against Islam in Bugia, a town in Algiers, that he was stoned out of the city by the Arabs, and left dying on the sea-shore. He was picked up by a pious sea-captain, but on a June day, 1315, he "sealed with his death the great idea of his life — to conquer Islam, not by the sword, but by preaching." Some clear thinkers, seeing no prospect of advantage to the Church from the Scholastics, declared for the teaching of re ligion by the Scriptures, and not by pagan dialectics. Roger Bacon, of Oxford (died 1294), held that the only relief from the wretched quibbles of the speculations of the times lay in a thorough study of the word of God. Robert, founder of the Sorbonne, in Paris, wrote in defence of the same neces sity for a close study of the written word. Hugo a Santo Caro (died 1263) likewise insisted on the stu< / of the Bible as the only solution for the evils of the times. He wrote a Postilla or Commentary, and " Concordance " of the Biblical books. To him we owe the present division into chapters and verses. The philosophic strife of the times had long been bitter, and productive of little good. Both the Nominalist and the Realist had sought to find in the ancient philosophy some Decline of supp0rt, but had leaned on a broken reed. The air Scholasticism ri\, ', .., T, . . . **" was filled with war-cries. Ihe universities fought each other with a spirit not less hostile than that of the Crusader when he marched to the rescue of the Holy Sepul chre. Heated authors hurled books and pamphlets at each other with relentless fury. Towns and villages, circles of the learned and the ignorant, and court and camp, were divided ABELARD AND HIS FORTUNES 181 by bitter quarrels on the force of logical definitions. Not since the theological controversies of the fourth century had Em-ope seen such a picture of the warfare of syllables. The only relief to the waste of words lay in the fact that it gave proof of the awakening of the European mind. Even scholas ticism was better than inertia. In time it had done its work. Luther, with his strong besom, swept away the thick mass of Aristotelian dialectics, and sowed, instead, the seeds of Chris tian doctrine. CHAPTER XXVIII ABELARD AND HIS FORTUNES [Authorities. — We have in English no good work on the life and teaching of Abelard such as the French have in De Remusat and Bonnier, and the Ger mans in Deutsch. 0. W. Wight's Abelard and HeloYse (N. Y., 1853) is now out of print. Abelard's relations to the universities is the subject of a chap ter by Newman (Hist. Sketches, iii., 192 sq.). His philosophy is treated by Deberweg, History of Philosophy (London and N. Y., 1872), vol. i., pp. S86-397. The Church Histories should be consulted, and Prof. G. Croom Robertson's article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.] Of all the leaders in the great scholastic movement there is no one to whom so great a personal interest attaches as to Ab elard (1079-1142). He gave promise at an early age of the remarkable abilities which distinguished his en tire career, and attracted the profound attention of all Europe. His first plan for life seems to have been the career of a soldier, but he soon devoted himself to theological studies, and here achieved such success as to astound alike his preceptors and companions. He left his home, where he had enjoyed the teaching of the famous Roscelin of Compiegne, and repaired to Paris. William of Champeaux was at this time at the head of the Abbey of St. Victor, which he himself had founded, and stood in the front of the theological and philosophical move- wniiam of ment which had concentrated in that city. He was ampeau ^g grgt tQ gjye tQ ^ scnoois 0f paris a university character, and to admit the laity as well as the clergy, and 182 THE MEDIjEVAL CHURCH foreigners as well as natives, to the privileges of the highest education within the walls of a school of the Church. His liberal movement in this direction was the death-knell of ex- clusionism in education, and the real preparation for the recog nition, in all later time, of the rights of the poorest and hum blest to all the wealth of science. Abelard placed himself under the charge of William, and developed with amazing rapidity. But in two years' time the young student differed so essentially from his master that he broke off his connection, and established the Abbey of St. Genevieve close beside his master's renowned Abbey of St. Victor. Abelard emptied the walls of St. Victor. The multitudes gathered about him. The eloquence with which he taught, the mastery of language, the u skill in logic, and the magnetism of his person- Abelard's Fame ,. -, , • . ^. ahty, attracted a constantly increasing audience. To the multitudes who came from various countries all Paris was as nothing. He was the one man for whose wisdom and example students from all parts of France, England, Spain, and even Rome itself, had come with eager search. The suc cess of his teaching, and the decline of William's school through that success, awakened the opposition, not only of William, but of his friends and sympathizers. To get away from the per secution Abelard left Paris, went to Melun, and began to teach with the same success which he had enjoyed in Paris. He went thence to Corbeil, and taught as before. Here his health failed, and he retired for several years to his native place, Pal ais, near Nantes. He then returned to Paris. From this time he devoted himself entirely to the study of theology. He left Paris, and went to Laon, where he had as his preceptor Anselm of Laon, the pupil of the celebrated Anselm. This man soon became unable to withstand the boldness of Abelard's ideas and the power of his eloquence, and secured his expulsion from Laon. Then Abelard returned to Paris and established a new school, ' which was overwhelmed, in a short time, by throngs of stu dents. He was now at the head of the theological world of Europe. His students were devoted to him, and his opinions were accepted by his admirers as final. This school became the very centre of education for such of the clergy of Europe as desired a thorough scientific training. Guizot says of its success : " In this celebrated school were trained one pope ABELARD AND HIS FORTUNES 183 (Celestine II.), nineteen cardinals, more than fifty bishops and archbishops, French, English and German, and a much larger number of those men with whom popes, bishops, and cardinals had often to contend— such men as Arnold of Brescia and oth ers. The number of pupils who used at that time to assemble round Abelard has been estimated at upwards of five thousand." This man was now at the zenith of his power. He was em ployed by Fulbert, a canon of the Cathedral of Paris, to be ... , ^ tne Private teacher of his niece, the rarelv sifted Abelard s TT'i •• tt i -i . Jo Misfortunes heloise. lie had an improper relation with her, and his name was stained by the crime of which not even his bitterest foe could have had a suspicion. "Desire of wine, and all delicious drinks, Which many a famous -warrior overturns, Thou couldst repress ; nor did the dancing ruby Sparkling outpoured, the flavor or the smell, Or taste that cheers the hearts of gods or men, Allure thee from the cool crystalline stream; But what availed this temperance, not complete, Against another object, more enticing ? What boots it at one gate to make defence, And at another to let in the foe, Effeminately vanquished ?" Abelard married Heloise, but the affair was kept a secret, at her request. She was willing to suffer disgrace that his preferment might not suffer. He now took the vows of a monk, and entered the Convent of St. Denis, while Heloise took the veil as a nun in the Convent of Argenteuil. He con tinued to teach and to write, with broken spirit, but with a multitude of admirers. He was charged with heresy for cer tain remarks in his "Introduction to Theology," and at the Council of Soissons, in 1121, he was compelled to burn his book with his own hands. He afterwards returned to his mon astery of St. Denis, but left it, and built an oratory in the name of the Holy Trinity, which he called the Paraclete. At his death, in the year 1142, he left his oratory to be conducted by Heloise. He gave a strong blow to the supremacy of the Church Fa thers by his book " Sic et Non " (Yea and Nay), in which, by parallel quotations, he shows their irreconcilable contradic tions. But he gave no concessions to sceptical writers. Here 184 THE MEDIJBVAL CHURCH lay the most difficult point in the opposition by the ecclesias tical authorities to the direct teaching of Abelard. Nothing could be proved, save by inference, against his ortho- of^beiard doxy. While he assumed the unity of the Divine Be ing, he held that there were diversities of his relations, in which the Divine Persons consist. He also affirmed a knowl edge of God to be arrived at by the reason. But he never claimed that this was either complete, or accurate, or inde pendent of the full scriptural revelation. His works consist of "Letters to Heloise," "Exposition of the Lord's Prayer," " Exposition of the Apostolic Creed," " Exposition of the Atha nasian Creed," " Book against Heresies," " Commentary on Romans," "Sermons," "Introduction to Theology," "Epit ome of Christian Doctrine," and various works of correspond ence. The general effect of his teaching was to promote a critical and thorough method in the investigation of truth. CHAPTER XXIX GENERAL LITERATURE f Authorities. — See the appropriate sections in the Histories. On the religious plays, see Karl Hase, Miracle Plays and Sacred Dramas (London, 1880), and the article by Wm. Binns, " The Religious Drama," in Modern Review, Oct., 1880, pp. 792-819. The Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau will be found described in the last-mentioned essay, and also by Archdeacon F. W. Farrar (London and N. Y., 1891). By far the best work on the Passion Play, combining both descriptions and illustrations, is by John P. Jackson (4to, Munich and London, 1873). The Dante literature is immense. Most helpful, perhaps, will be found the late Dean Church's masterly essay, Dante (new ed., London, 1890), Prof. Botta's Dante as a Philosopher, Pa triot, and Poet (N. Y., 1865), Prof. Schaff's treatment in his forthcoming (2d) vol. on the Middle Ages, Prof. Vincent (a profound Dante scholar) in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, and Oscar Browning in the Encyclopae dia Britannica, 9th ed.] The example of Charlemagne in rescuing the elder popular myth of the Franks from oblivion became very influential upon the popular taste. Poets vied with each other andRei'Sion in tracinS back the legends to their sources, and re casting them in their own style. The tendency was GENERAL literature 185 towards the marvellous and exciting. A decidedly religious character was added, in many instances, to the purely heathen thread. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the poets used the religious factor to a remarkable degree. Wolfram of Eschenbach added religious poetry to his romantic verse. His " Parceval " contains frequent allusions to the efficacy of the atonement and the excellence of the Christian life. The Church had its warm eulogists in the troubadours of Southern France. Walter of the Vogelweide sang panegyrics to the Holy Virgin. Gottfried of Strasburg celebrated the glories of voluntary poverty and the longings of the soul for heav enly joy. The taste for legend was closely allied to the historical spirit. The treatment was far from orderly or philosophical. The best of the histories were mere chronicles. The whole of Historians ,,. , i- • ¦ i t ,- • 1 • the thirteenth century was distinguished lor its his torical spirit. Arnold of Liibeck (died 1212) wrote the " Chron icles of the Sclaves," a work continued to 1241 by Alberich of Liege. An important larger history was produced by Mat thew Paris, of England, who died in 1259. Chronological works were written also by Martin Polonus and William de Naugis, of St. Denis, France. Religious theatricals were employed to divert the people, and at the same time to instruct the popular mind in some of the more dramatic portions of the Scriptures. The Religious passion of Jesus was represented with a realism which produced great popular effect. Multitudes thronged from distant parts to witness, in the open air, all the details of the crucifixion. These have disappeared, with the single ex ception of the " Passion Play," which is still performed, every decade, in the Bavarian village of Ober-Ammergau. These theatricals were likewise used for a different purpose — to hold up the weaker side of the priests, and even of bishops and popes, to popular ridicule. The Feast of the Innocents was modelled after the heathen December festivities. The three Florentine poets, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, introduced a severer taste, and elevated poetry to a dignity entirely new to mediaeval Europe. Dante's soul Dante, Petrarch, wag stjrre(i by the theological disputes and papal and Boccaccio . , . /¦,¦-, T? A j „* +t,„ misdoings of his day. He saw the needs ot the people, and was their champion. He regarded the Church as 186 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH utterly fallen, its doctrines thrown into the background, and its holy functions performed by unworthy hands. He believed in God's final justice, and in his "Divine Comedy " portrayed the certainty of rewards and punishments according to the deeds done in the body. His whole life was a tragedy, due to his heroic espousal of the cause of justice in Church and State. He led the people away from the dark present to a beautiful future. Without knowing it, he was the real prophet of the better day of the great Reformation. CHAPTER XXX THE GREAT SCHOOLS [Authorities. — In the article " Universities," in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, J. Bass MuUinger traces the development of all the great mediaeval schools. Stille has an excellent essay in his Studies in Mediaeval History (Phila., 1882). See also Contemporary Review, Feb., 1867. Cf. works mentioned at Chap. VI., above.] The decline after Alfred and Charlemagne was very marked. The latter established fifty great schools throughout his domin ions. Alfred organized Oxford, and spared no pains to make it the centre of Anglo-Saxon thought. He enriched the foun dations by securing from the Continent the best possible teach ers and the richest literary treasures. But schools suffered a fearful decline throughout the tenth century. With the elev enth century, however, there came a revival of literary taste, which continued until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Some of the monastic schools now assumed larger propor tions, and became, like Paris and Oxford, full-fledged univer sities. But the most of the universities seem to have UMvers'ty taken tneir oriSin independently of both Church and State. They were the popular creation of a taste for learning. Great teachers appeared in certain cities, and their fame attracted students from every quarter, and even distant countries. The teachers and the students were united by a common bond. The term Universitas Magistrorum et Scho- larum, or the Community of Masters and Pupils, became the THE DIVIDED PAPACY 187 origin of the general word University. At first, each great school was distinguished for its devotion to one science, as theology at Paris and Oxford, law at Bologna, and medicine at Salerno. In time the university divided into the four great faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. This division arose first in Paris, where the mendicant orders were proscribed by the other teachers in the university, and consti tuted themselves a separate faculty. This division in the fac ulties tended to increase the attendance of students. So great was the number that they constituted an important part of the population. The number ranged from ten thousand to twenty thousand in some of the universities. They were divided, not according to the studies which they pursued, but the national ities which they represented, and were called Nations. Traces of this mediaeval division into nations and languages can be seen in the present German universities, especially the more provincial, where some of the clubs of students bear the names of the old tribal divisions. CHAPTER XXXI THE DIVIDED PAPACY [Authorities. — For this darkest age of the papacy, Milman (book xii.) is very useful. With it Creighton begins his monumental work, History of the Papacy during the Reformation (London and Boston, 1882). Compare Reichel's See of Rome in the Middle Ages (London, 1870). For a Roman Catholic view of Boniface VIII. read the paper in Wiseman's Essays on Various Subjects (London, 1888).] The first great blow against the solidarity of the papacy was struck by France. Germany was now submissive to Rome. Eng land was likewise brought into a docile attitude. Of all the great powers France alone remained independent, and continued dis obedient. The traditional independence of the Gallican Church was a rich inheritance of the kings, and, while some were less ex acting others brought it into a prominence at once troublesome and threatening to Rome. Philip IV. of France (1285-1314) was of the latter class. He claimed to be head of the French Church,and rejected all interference with his royal prerogatives, 188 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH Pope Boniface VIII., who ruled 1294-1303, resolved on a vigorous policy towards France. He determined to humble that country, and make it fall into line with all the other nations of Europe. He found his match in Philip IV. The two were not unlike. Each was ambitious, selfish, and intent on perfect independence. France was at war with England, then under the rule of Edward I. Each of those countries had its strong and interested allies. On the side of England were the German king, Adolf of Nassau, and the Count of Flanders. On the side of France was the King of Scotland. Boniface saw in this great conflict an op portunity to follow in the great Gregory's footsteps, and play the role of umpire. Edward, in order to carry on the war, had burdened his people with heavy taxes. Boniface boldly issued, in 1296, a special Bull, the Clericis Laicos, in which he threatened Philip with excommunication if he levied such taxes. Philip replied indignantly with the words : " The Church does not consist alone of the clergy, but also of lay men ; the freedom of the Church is divided between the clergy and the laity." The pope saw that the subjects of Philip were in sympathy with their king. He was, therefore, powerless in his threats. He found himself deprived of his revenues from France, and feared most serious consequences. He accord ingly resolved on mild measures. He hoped to conquer Philip by flattery. He even canonized Louis IX., the grandfather of Philip. A truce was patched up between the two, each mak ing concessions. Philip accepted the arbitration of Boniface, but as a friend, and not as pope. Boniface decided against Philip, and in favor of Edward. This was the final blow to peace. France was defiant. Boniface, already advanced in years, now died. He was succeeded by an Italian pope, who reigned but a short time. _ , , ,. He, in turn, was succeeded by Bertrand de Got, Removal of the ' ' J . ' Papacy who ruled as Clement V. This man, though he to Avignon na(j \yeen a favorite of Boniface, was already in secret relations with Philip, and had made pledges to support his policy against that of Rome. Clement, of his own choice, removed the papal see to Avignon, in France, 1309.* The * Some authorities place the beginning of the Avignon residence in 1305. THE DIVIDED PAPACY 189 papacy remained in France until 1377, or a period of nearly seventy years. In Roman literature it is called the " Babylo nian Captivity." Gregory XI. restored the papacy to Rome. The papacy during its French residence was frivolous and cor rupt. It was the mere tool of the French court. Gregory dying, Urban VI. was elected in his place, 1378. He was in the Roman interest. The French electors declared Schism in tlle election illegal, and chose an anti-pope, Clement the Papacy VII., who ruled in Avignon. This singular picture was now presented — two popes, each independent of the other, one ruling in France and the other in Rome, each hurling anathemas at the other, and each surrounded by a court, a full quota of cardinals, and an obedient clergy. It was a disgrace to all Europe. The quarrel was violent. Immorality increased. The only hope lay in general councils. But the popes wanted no gen- Councils era^ coun°ils- Their hope to restore peace and pres tige to the papacy lay in a personal government. But the reformatory spirit in the laity and a large part of the cler gy demanded the general voice of the Church, as it might ex press itself in a council. A council was accordingly ordered to meet in Pavia, in 1423. The place of meeting was changed, on account of a pestilence, to Siena. But there were only a few sessions. The representation was ridiculously small, and on account of the plea that so small a number of delegates could not represent Christendom, the pope dissolved it. Seven years later another council was called, to meet in Basle. It was of a highly reformatory character. The pope dissolved it by direct order. But enough delegates remained to carry on its work. The pope afterwards recognized it, but removed it, first to Ferrara and later to Florence. The delegates, how ever, acknowledged no removal. On the contrary, they con tinued their work, for which the pope excommunicated them. The council, in return, deposed the pope, and chose another in his stead, Felix V. This measure was fatal to the council. The delegates grew tired and disbanded. The outcome of all these troubles was the triumph of the papacy and the restoration of the old solidarity. The immo rality continued the same as before. The last popes before the Reformation were no improvement upon their predecessors. The decrees of the reformatory councils 190 THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH were condemned. Superstition was the order of the day. Clerical offices were at the option of the highest bidder. In dulgences were sold throughout Germany. The people were neglected. The clergy seemed to think the Church existed for their use and convenience. But the clock now struck for a new life. A strong voice from Wittenberg was heard. The old issues were dead. A new order was now established, and Europe had something else to think about besides the wrangles of schoolmen and the counterblasts of rival popes. CHAPTER XXXII RETROSPECT The condition of the European Church at the close of the mediaeval period was in marked contrast with that at the be- „ . . . ginning. The uncertainty as to whether Christian- Condition of *» ,, , • / . . . the European ity could adapt itself to the universal spiritual needs Church Qf Europe was now solved. The East and the West changed places. The East, overridden by internal divisions, and trampled by the Saracen conquerors, passed into an obliv ion which has lasted until modern times, and has been only in part relieved by the rise of the Russo-Greek Church. Had the Eastern Church adhered to orthodox standards, and preserved its spiritual unity, it is not at all likely that its vast territory would have been overrun by the Saracens. On the contrary, there is every reason to believe that from Constantinople, Je rusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, and other centres, the whole of India, China, Japan, and other Oriental countries would have been evangelized many centuries ago, instead of just now be coming great mission-fields for Western Christianity to rescue from paganism. The transfer of universal interests to the Western Church was complete at the close of the Middle Ages. No questions were asked of the Eastern patriarchs. Rome held the power in its own hands, until a stronger force, the Reformation, appeared in Germany. The stages of progress are well defined. From the eighth RETROSPECT 191 century to the middle of the eleventh the German peoples be came evangelized, and gave full promise of their future large place in universal Christian thought and life. From Proq'ess ^e middle of the eleventh century to the thirteenth the papacy grew into enormous proportions. There never floated before the mind of Julius Caesar or Trajan a larger empire than that to which Gregory VII. and other oc cupants of the Roman see aspired. The Saxon and the Latin Christian, at the end of the Mid dle Ages, confronted each other. The Latin represented the Saxon and Pa8t > the Saxon, the future and the permanent. The Latin force which destroyed the old and strong Roman ns ians oon(jition8 was titanic. The Saxon hammer was ir resistible. The Germans of the North were kinsmen to the Saxons and the Angles of Britain. Wycliffe and Luther were from a common cradle of Teutonic honesty and liberty. The Norman conquest of Britain was political ; the spiritual con queror, in all later history, was still the Saxon. Every triumph of religion and liberty in the England of modern times can be traced back to the Teutonic element in the English race. In the great advance of modern peoples the Latin is inferior to the Saxon in all spiritual upbuilding. The sad moral condi tion of South America, Mexico, Spain, Italy, and the Jesuit missions in India and other Eastern countries, is a striking proof of what the world would be to-day had not the Saxon been at the head of the world's greatest affairs. The tree must be tested by its fruits. We have only to examine the map of the conquests of the Saxon Christian, and compare it with that of the Latin Christian, in order to see where the honor of all great modern advancement belongs. THE REFOEMATION A..T). 151V-1545 The best general survey of the Reformation within easily managed limits is the work of Prof. G. P. Fisher, The Reformation (new ed.,N. Y., 1885). The Lectures by Ludwig Hausser, The Period of the Reformation (N. Y., 1874, new ed., 1884), are the products of high scholarship and excellent insight into men and events, and are especially valuable for their portrayal of the political relations of the events. The famous History of the Great Reformation, by Merle d'Aubigne (13 vols, in all, N. Y., 1846-79), has had an immense circulation in England and America, exceeding even its sale on the Continent, and has done more to make popular the Reformatory heroes than any other work. While it is written with reference to the sources, and is therefore not altogether with out value, it is of intense Protestant partisanship, and is of no authority on disputed questions. The Era of the Protestant Revolution, by Frederic See bohm, 2d ed., with notes on books in English relating to the Reformation, by Prof. G. P. Fisher (K Y., 1875), is a little work admirably well done. Prof. T. M. Lindsay's The Reformation (Edinb. and N. Y., 1882, in Handbooks for Bible Classes) is a faithful and pleasing account by a competent scholar. Prof, (now Bishop) Creighton's forthcoming treatment of the German Reformation in his Epoch Series will be awaited with interest. Prof. Schaff has given the best view of the brief period, 1517-1530, in the 6th vol. of his Church History (N. Y., 1888), which carries the life of Luther, however, to its close in 1546. It is writ ten by an ardent son of the Reformation, but in an impartial and catholic spirit, with full knowledge of recent researches, and is at once scholarly, sympathetic, and eloquent. It is especially fine in its full and just treatment of Luther. The lamented English scholar, Charles Beard, has given a noble tribute to the intellectual influence of the Reformation and its bearings on human progress in his Hibbert Lectures for 1883, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (London, 1883). CHAPTER I THE HERALDS OF PROTESTANTISM [Authorities. — See ch. i. of Beard's Hibbert Lectures, " Reform before the Ref ormation.'' For Suso, Tauler, and the Brothers of the Common Life, see the third book of TJllmann's Reformers before the Reformation (Edinb., 1855), where the whole German mysticism is treated elaborately and with sympa thetic appreciation. Neander, Hist, of the Church (vol. v., pp. 380-412), has given an excellent summary of the opinions and work of the Friends of God, Ruysbroek, Tauler, Suso, and others. See Miss Winkworth, Life of Tauler, in her translation of Tauler's Sermons (London and N. Y., 1858), and the article on Tauler in the Baptist Review, April, 1882. S. Kettlewell has given a thorough study of one phase of the pre-Reformation movements in his Thomas a Kempis and the Brothers of the Common Life (Lond., 1882).] The Reformation, like all great historical movements, was of slow and unattractive development. Long in coming into notice, it was equally long in finding its champi- The Reformation ' ^ J °. , ° r .. an Historical ons. The cause was waiting for its men, and Crisis when the need was supreme they appeared, with heroic spirit, great organizing genius, and amazing power of endurance. Protestantism was an oak of young and vigorous growth in the first quarter of the sixteenth century, but its roots lay deep in the soil of the fourteenth. The Reforma tion possessed two characteristics — one national, with all the individuality that might be expected of race and land ; the other cosmopolitan, having general fibre and color, always the same, whatever the country or people, from Norway to the Alps, and from Transylvania to the Bay of Biscay. The Reformation has proved to be the chief turning-point in mod ern history. It is that great religious and intellectual revolu tion which marks the boundary -line between the Middle Ages and the modern period. The call for regeneration was deep and loud. Superstition had become interwoven with the pure doctrine of the gospel. The morals of the clergy, from the papacy down to the humblest monks, had become corrupt. The 196 THE REFORMATION highest ecclesiastical offices were reached by vicious means. The common people were purposely kept in ignorance. Against these evils, ruinous at once to intellect and soul, the Reformers made their bold protest, and called upon the people to rally to their standard. Their -rdm was, at first, a purification of the Church within itself, and by its own servants. This proved a total failure. The next step was to withdraw from the fold, and establish an independent confession and a separate ecclesi astical structure. This succeeded ; and the result is that vast and aggressive sisterhood of Protestant churches which exists to-day in all the advanced countries of the world. The pioneers of reform in religious life and doctrine were obscure, and some of the very names have not become known to history. But their work was heroically per- Pjoneers of the forme(j_ Protestantism, when it emerged from its seclusion, and became a thing of the noonday, had the great benefit of a slowly-laid and solid basis. But not all the predecessors of the successful reformers of the sixteenth century were unknown men. Some of them, a few in each country which took its place in the community of Protestant nations, have become familiar names, and belong in the same front line with the Reformers themselves. It is not difficult to account for the failure of those first workers for the relig ious regeneration of Europe. More than one generation is always needed to achieve a moral revolution. A work that shall last for the ages requires a larger and longer sacrifice than a few calm toilers through a few decades. The heralds of the Reformation trod in new paths. They labored steadily on, without a single encouraging precedent, and ran the con stant risk of losing their heads. An archbishop's voice could silence behind the bolted doors of the London Tower the loud est protesting voice in Britain, while the mere roll-call of the Council of Constance could hasten even Huss to the stake. When the real Reformers came upon the scene of action, es pecially in Germany, the risk of losing life was not so great. Charles V. aped towards the Protestants the charity of Julian the Apostate towards all the faiths of the later Roman Em pire. Hence, while Charles V. was Emperor of Germany, he openly favored moderate measures towards the Protestants ; that is to say, all repressive methods must be adopted except death itself. THE HERALDS OP PROTESTANTISM 197 In Holland, however, Charles V. dealt out death with merci less hand. In his commands to his son, Philip II. , in whose favor he abdicated, he urged him to spare no pains to uproot the new heresy. But there was a difference between his rela tion to Germany and to Holland. Of the former he was only emperor by election. Each country had its separate ruler, and the civil relations were in charge of the rightful princes. But Charles V. was king over the Netherlands, having received that country by inheritance. Therefore, when the Dutch re belled against the civil authorities, and declared themselves Protestants and republicans, it was a revolution against his personal authority. He, accordingly, put to death the Prot estants of that country without the least hesitation, while in Germany he never went so far as to claim such rights. In England the condition was still more encouraging for Protes tants. Henry VIII. not only professed their faith, but pro tected his subjects against all interference on the part of the priesthood and the management of the pope. In sharp con trast with this general improvement in personal safety, during the progress of the Reformation, was that previous insecurity. The herald of reform was not safe an hour. He had no pro tector. There was no organization of sympathetic minds. Each earnest individual who longed for the better day be came an object of suspicion, and, in due time, of bitter perse cution. The shedding of blood for a slight offence, especially against the Church, was an easy thing to bring about. The secret methods of silencing honest speech had long since grown into a fine art. The two kinds of Reformers were happily blended in the foreground of the Protestant picture. The herald who cried "in the wilderness" was a fit companion of him Two Kinds of whoge coming he proclaimed. The former, because silenced for the moment, appeared to fail. The her alds of Protestantism taught their successors, by their own ex perience, what dangers to avoid, and what were the true forces of success. Luther, for example, in the most delicate and diffi cult part of his career — his relation with the princes of Saxony learned from the indiscretion of Savonarola, in his dealing with the Medici and the temporal government of Florence, that the Reformer is never fully master of himself, and can never be the finally successful leader, unless he hold severely 198 THE REFORMATION aloof from all political management, and confine his labors to the one work of religious reform. Luther saw that the mo ment the Reformer turns aside from his work he is in danger of forfeiting his entire mission. He has, in any event, lost his crown — the sublime unity of moral purpose. The Paris Reformers planted the first seeds of Protestant ism in France. In the reformatory councils they spoke strong words for universal regeneration. The University of Paris, where they taught, was the scene of their hard, hotly -contested, and unrequited labor. Peter d'Ailly, born 1350 and died 1425, contributed largely towards awak ening a desire for a thoroughly new religious life in priesthood and people. His genius ripened early. He saw the vanity of the prevailing scholasticism, and applied its better qualities to Biblical interpretation. He laid before the Council of Con stance a plan for the reformation of the Church, which proved of no avail. He nullified his own work, however, and stained his otherwise fair fame by voting for the condemnation of Huss. He never withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church, and died in discontent with the evils which he failed to rem edy. His great service lay in the distrust which he created towards the papal authorities, and in the dissatisfaction with the Church which pervaded his sermons, lectures, and writ ings, and which in time became a dangerous factor against the Romanism of the land. D'Ailly made several excursions into the field of science, and Columbus was indebted to him for his idea of a western passage to the Indies. He stood high in the estimation of the Church. John Charlier Gerson, born 1363 and died 1429, was a dis ciple of D'Ailly. He rose to great prominence in the Uni- versity of Paris, and, withdrawing from scholasticism, Gerson J .,..»¦•«¦ aimed at the reconciliation of Mysticism with Christian ity. He laid great stress on the necessity of a pure religious experience, protested against the corrupt state of the Church, and declared that the two rival popes, in Rome and Avignon, should be removed, rather than that Christians should be com- pelled to endorse either the one or the other. His sermons, after he became pastor of a church in Paris, attracted large audiences, because of his eloquence and his bold position for ecclesiastical reform. He became an exile, because of the op position of the Duke of Burgundy, and only in his later life, THE HERALDS OF PROTESTANTISM 199 in 1419, returned to France. He resided in Lyons, and died in the Roman Catholic fold. He saw but little fruit of his reformatory labors, and passed away with only the hope that others might possess what he had striven, in much sorrow and disappointment, to attain. He was a transitional character, possessing the qualities of both the Romanist and the Re former. For example, he did not recognize the Church and the papacy, but the Bible, as the only rule of faith, and the one to which, all final appeal must be made. At the same time he opposed the reading of the Bible in the popular language in the rural churches, and believed that all should submit un conditionally to the Church. Nicholas Clemanges, born 1360 and died about 1440, was a disciple of both D'Ailly and Gerson, but he marked a great advance beyond them in reformatory spirit. He de clared that the councils were superior authority to the papacy, that the pope was inferior to the Council of Con stance, and that the Bible had authority even over the council. He boldly advocated the doctrine of the invisible Church, and held that the Church can only exist where the Holy Spirit is present. He was an eloquent defender of the independence of the Gallican Church against the absolute rule of the papacy. The Paris theologians failed in their work, and from very ob vious causes. They never withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church, or took steps to establish a separate eccle- CausRof gjastical organization. This has been a general French Failure ° „ ., ,.-¦-, i si ., ,. » cause of the failure of French Catholic reform atory movements, even down to our own times. When the final hour came, the Paris Reformers hesitated to revolt. They halted, and did not take the one last step of departure from the communion which they could not love or approve. Besides this fatal mistake, the attack of the Paris theologians was not a steady, earnest, and specific progress. It was a sudden blast, and often repeated, but not an onward march. Some of the weakest points of Romanism were entirely overlooked by them. They expressed, for example, but little sympathy with reform atory measures in other countries. They belonged to the learned class, moved in that circle alone, and, unlike the Ger man Reformers, who also arose in a university, were without popular tastes and affinities, and had only a limited, though cultivated, constituency during their whole career. On the 200 THE REFORMATION other hand, they planted the seeds of a permanent popular dis like of the prevailing order of things, and were the real and direct precursors of the brave Huguenots. The Mystics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries arose as a spiritual reaction against the supremacy of the scholastic philosophy. Remotely, they were an opposing school to all the immorality and spiritual oppression of the times. They saw the injury inflicted on the Church by the long and fruitless discussions of the schoolmen, and aimed to call back the Christian mind to the sense of dependence on God, the need of a profound religious experience, and a con templative and receptive attitude of the soul, which awaits constant communications of the Holy Spirit. The Mystic at tached too little importance to the written Word, and magni fied the worth of merely spiritual impressions. He was con templative and rhapsodical, and held himself constantly ready for new revelations. Intuitions were his second Bible. He did not regard monasticism as the solution for the spiritual dearth of the times ; neither did he think the best way to build up a new religious life was to separate from the Church. His thought was, to preach to the people, and awaken them to a sense of their needs, and thus, from the centre, to reform the whole body of the Church, without disturbing the existing economy and order. The Mystic cared not who might be the pope of the hour, or whether there was a pope at all. He considered that personage a fine piece of ornamental work, like a marble saint in a cathedral chapel, but having no rela tion to the general architecture of the edifice. The one con cern of the Mystic was the condition of the individual heart, the religious life of the private believer. Germany was the central scene and native country of the most notable reformatory Mystics. Master Eckart, who died about 1329, belonged to the Dominican Order of c\"trainscene monks> and produced a strong impression by his writings and preaching in favor of a purer relig ious life. The general drift of his teaching was that the doc trines of the Bible are the only truth, and that this truth has its proper effect in the purity of the heart. We reach purity by introspection. God is in the soul. We look outwardly when we should look within. But purity must be deeply rooted in the soul, for God will not enter where there is an unholy THE HERALDS OF PROTESTANTISM 201 thought. Many of Eckart's order pronounced him a heretic, because of his fearless speech. The three fundamental objec tions to him were, his bold charges of immorality in the clergy, his strong language against the worship of Mary, and against the power of purgatory to purify a corrupt soul. John Ruysbroek was born in 1293. He became prior of the monastery of Griinthal, near Brussels, and was the founder of Ru ^e -Dutcn Mysticism. He saw a universal sinfulness in his age, priests and people alike overwhelmed and whirled on by the current of sin. The prime source of the prevailing corruption was the impurity of the Church, and its incapacity to resist the temptation of gold and lust. It was too far gone to save itself. Even the popes, said Ruysbroek, bowed the knee to the god of gold. The Church had no heal ing power. Only God in the soul could deliver from sin. Ruys broek was a twofold character, contemplative and mystical on the one hand, and, on the other, the practical and every-day Reformer. He had two constituencies. His voice reached pal ace and hut with equal force. Henry Suso, born in Suabia, in 1295, took his name from that of his mother's family, Suess, or Seuss, which he Latinized into Suso. His early religious life was spent in self- ..anry u torture an(j contemplation. He lived in thick gloom. His thought was, that only by the suffering of the flesh could God be pleased. His close-fitting shirt of one hundred and fifty nails, with points turned towards his flesh, was his favor ite and royal robe. He loved it better than the purple. For sixteen years he tortured both soul and body. By the hearing of Tauler, in Cologne, he was admitted into larger liberty. He became less ascetic, and more a citizen of the world. He called himself " the Servant of the Eternal Wisdom," to whom he paid a lover's homage, as to a radiant May-queen. He was passionately fond of music, and, when in ecstasy, fancied him self in the midst of angelic ministers. Of his book, " The Hor ologe of Wisdom," he said that it came to him in moments of supreme joy, when he lay passive in the power of the high inspiration. He summed up his whole theology in the follow ing : A meek man must be deformed from the creature, con formed to Christ, and transformed into the Deity. The entire tendency of Suso's teaching was in favor of religious reform. His life was one long lament over the evils of his times, for 202 THE REFORMATION which he held the Church responsible. He declared of the popes that good government had departed from them, and that they thought more of gold, and the putting of their rel atives into power, than of the Church of God ; and that the cardinals, bishops, abbots, teachers, monastic orders, and sec ular clergy were corrupt and debauched, and unworthy their places of honor. He believed that his whole generation was so depraved that a reformation would be a very miracle of divine mercy. He feared the miracle might never come. His pleas were lamentations. He was the Jeremiah of the four teenth century. John Tauler, born 1290 and died 1361, was a devoted dis ciple of Eckart. He was more a man of the people than his master. He spoke in plain language, and often aroused the sensibilities to the highest pitch. He excelled all the mediaeval Mystics in his burning zeal, his pop ular sympathies, and his profound adherence to the doctrine of justification by faith. In this last sense Luther followed only in his footprints. He was the most eloquent preacher of his times. Strasburg was the chief scene of his ministry. There was such realistic power in his preaching that, often, people were overcome, and became insensible during the de livery of his sermons. He taught that there are three stages possible to the heart — nature, grace, and the direct shining of the Divine Spirit. When this last and highest stage is reached, the soul forgets itself, and God possesses it wholly. The hu man spirit is as molten wax, in which the Holy Spirit makes its image. Tauler rebuked the priestly pretensions of his times, and cried aloud for each man to think and feel for himself. He declared "the true priesthood of every Christian man," and insisted that the Christ should dwell within us. Like some of his mystical predecessors, whose language was too strong for the fashion of the times, he was threatened with excommuni cation. But he continued his preaching against the prevail ing sins of the Church without serious interruption, and the authorities in Rome were finally compelled to let him proceed, as a person more dangerous to interfere with than to be at lib erty. The Black Death, a violent plague, together with the papal interdict, rested upon Strasburg. But Tauler's preachy ing attracted the entire population, diverted their thought, and THE HERALDS OF PROTESTANTISM 203 veas the only relief to the sorrow and suffering of the people. He declared that the troubles were a divine visitation because of the sins of the people, and that only by repentance and a pure life could relief come. His principal work was his " Im itation of the Poor Life of Christ." Of all the Mystics, Tau ler was the nearest approach to a universal character. Real goodness, like genius, is at home in every age. Tauler was not only reverenced by the devout and zealous Christians of his own time, but stands out as a grand and towering figure in the spiritual world of all later periods. He was a striking example, in a dark age, of how far one man can lift up his gen eration, and furnish light for even later ones : "A voice as unto him that hears, A cry above the conquered years, To one that with us works." When the Reformers arose they immediately discovered in Tauler a kindred soul, one in whom they found great joy, and who had contributed largely to herald their approach. He was but an elder brother to the groups in both Wittenberg and Oxford. Luther himself edited the "Theologia Germani ca," supposed by some critics to have been written by Tauler. Luther's own words would not suit Tauler, when he says, in his Preface to the "Theologia Germanica," that it was written by a " German gentleman, a priest and warden in the house of the Teutonic Order at Frankfort." But whether by him or not, it reflects his pure spirit, and that of all the better Mys tics, and is singularly in harmony with Tauler's preaching. Luther communed with Tauler's writings as with a living and present friend. To John Lange he wrote : " Keep to Tauler." He gave to his friend Spalatin the advice : " If you would be pleased to make acquaintance with a solid theology of the good old sort in the German tongue, get John Tauler's ser mons ; for neither in Latin nor in our own language have I ever seen a theology more sound, or more in harmony with the Gospel." The school of St. Victor was one of the marvels of the times. It represented, in organized and compact form, the aspiration of the age for purer thinking, for spiritual absorption, and for revolt against the prevailing ecclesiastical evils. Within eighty years of its founding, in the eleventh century, it could 204 THE REFORMATION count its thirty abbeys and eighty priories. Its two most not able members were Hugo and Richard. They were at once speculative thinkers and spiritual Mystics. They School of amae(j t0 harmonize mysticism with scholasticism. St. Victor J These were but terms of the day for the two old, and still ever new, names of revelation and science. Both Hugo and Richard saw no antagonism, but held that each was the complement of the other. Hugo aimed to solidify and clarify spiritual thinking by logical methods. He disdained the rigid uniformity of the traditional creed of Romanism, and called for freedom and faith, and freedom in faith. He declared that there is an "eye of the soul," by which we contemplate and see new truths, and by them attain to a blessedness of the soul and a peaceful trust in God. The common and natural faculties cannot see deeply. The spiritual sense alone is far- sighted, and able to apprehend, in the distant spaces, the spir itual truth. But we must guard against delusion. Not the fancy, but faith, can reveal it to us. Richard of St. Victor was a native of Scotland. In 1162 he became prior of the abbey. Ervisius was the abbot, and there fore responsible for the discipline. The morals in the st^victo"/ aDbey had been at a very low ebb, and Richard saw in them a picture of the moral prostration of his times, and the need of a new spiritual life. He regarded mys ticism as the only hope of relief. But it must be a carefully adjusted, firm, and well-rounded system; none of the wild and absurd fancies of a disturbed brain. Build up mysticism on logical scholasticism, and you have what you need to cure the evils of the day. Thus Richard reasoned, and wisely enough ; but when he came to touch the revealed truth he lost his balance. He converted all Scripture into a string of shining allegory and metaphor. He surpassed all the fancies of Origen and the Alexandrian school, and found in the Bible an illimitable realm of truth. No history or incident existed that did not mean far more than the letter said. He made medita tion the great theological basis. Contemplation was a height which could be reached by six steps, the uppermost of which is penitence. When the soul once stood on that, it was above the low steps of imagination and reason, and was lost in sub lime ecstasy. The age was corrupt, thrice dead, and plucked up by the roots, and nothing could save it but purer morals, a THE HERALDS OF PROTESTANTISM 205 return to better thoughts, and the coming back of the Church to an unselfish and zealous spiritual life. The Brothers of the Common Life were an association of mystical minds who made it their aim to reform the Church by a purification of the heart. They placed more Common °Lifee emphasis on the regeneration of the soul than the outward organization of the Church. They held that, if once the heart is right, the outward forms will soon as sume right shapes. The whole life must be centred in the love of God, and then the heart will be sanctified. Thomas a Kempis belonged to this fraternity. His " Imitation of Christ " has always been a favorite among both Romanists and Protes tants, and has had the largest circulation of any book except the Bible. It has been translated into all the principal lan guages, and is known to have passed through three hundred editions. The Friends of God were an organization of laymen, which flourished in the latter part of the fourteenth century. They were warm in their attachment to the Roman fold, and yet were alarmed at the evils which they saw about them in both clergy and laity. This society was a strong proof that the moral declension of the times was seen and un derstood by devout minds among the laymen as well as by ministers of the Gospel. Its members extended throughout western Germany and the larger part of Switzerland, and con tributed largely to prepare the way among the people for Lu ther and his coadjutors. Nicholas, a layman of Basel, and a convert through the preaching of Tauler, wrought in connec tion with them, and was their most conspicuous representa tive. Among their members must be reckoned Conrad, abbot of Kaisersheim ; the nuns of Unterlinden, in Colmar and Ba sel ; the sisters of Engelthal ; the knights of Rheinfeld, Pfaf- fenheim, and Landsberg ; and the rich merchant Rulman Mers- win. The love of God was the one universal law which the Friends of God insisted upon. They declared that the Church had closed its doors to the truth, and that the only hope for their opening was a higher spiritual life. Tauler called the Friends of God the pillars of Christendom, and the protectors for a while from God's just cloud of wrath. Holland was one of the earliest and most forward countries in which the spirit of reform was manifested. The universi- 206 THE REFORMATION Goch UNIVERSITIES OF EUROPE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY (Those founded before 1400 are underlined.) ties were the great fountains whence the Protestant stream arose, and from which it descended into the less educated masses. John Pupper, born about 1401, took the family name of Goch from the place of his birth, a town near Cleves, and called himself John of Goch. He founded the Pri ory of the Canonesses of St. Augustine, in Mechlin, in 1451, and for twenty-five years occupied the office of Rector or Con fessor to the nuns. He combined, in rare harmony, the spir itual and practical. He held that faith must precede reason, for reason without faith is a blind and a false guide. Scholas ticism is a mere logical play, and must be fought by sound theological logic, which draws its power from the written Word of God. The scholastic philosophy is false, because it is not based upon the Bible, but on Aristotle. His whole theology has been strikingly summarized into : Of God, through God, and to God. We derive all from him. He is our Father, the Giver and Teacher of all good. We should give to him our deepest love and supreme confidence. All freedom is based on love, and love is our best assurance of future blessedness. John of Goch's entire system of doctrine was reformatory, a protest against the usual modes of laying down doctrine, and a holding up of mere good works to contempt. In practical life, he hurled his strong lance against the sale of indulgences and the personal corruption of the clergy. THE HUMANISM OF ITALY 207 The mission of the early Dutch Reformers was very impor tant. They caught the spirit of the times, and were bold and defiant in their protest against the immorality of T" ReformeDrstCh their daF- If We ask> Wh^ WaS i4 that Holland gave such a prompt and cordial reception to the doctrines of Luther and Calvin? the answer is, The soil was fully prepared for the precious seed. The Dutch people had been taught, by these early preachers of a purer morality, that the time was fully come for a new spiritual order. They did not know whence the light would break, but the whole land was astir with a longing for it, and an expectation of its speedy dawn. Hence, when they heard the strong words from Wittenberg and Geneva, they rejoiced in them as the fulfil ment of their hopes. To them the new truth was no surprise. They had listened to their own prophets, and believed their burning words. CHAPTER n THE HUMANISM OF ITALY [Authorities. — Archbishop Trench has a brief treatment of this theme in his Lectures on Mediaeval Church History, lect. xxvi. C. J. Stills has an ad mirable article on the Renaissance in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia. Draper's Intellectual Development of Europe and the works of Symonds on the Italian Renaissance may also be consulted. See Burckhardt's Civ ilization of the Renaissance in Italy (London, 1890), and Beard's 2d lecture, "The Revival of Letters in Italy and Germany," in his Hibbert Lectures. The latter opens well the work and character of Erasmus.] Important general movements, without connection with prominent characters, were likewise in progress to hasten the approach of reform. Chief of these, in the field of in- Revivai of tenectual progress, was the revival of literature, which took the name of Humanism. The studies were pure ly human and literary, as distinguished from the theological themes which had long held sway in all the universities and learned circles of Europe. Great attention was given the Greek and Latin classical writers. Even down to our time, in some places, the literature and languages of Greece and Rome 208 THE REFORMATION are denominated The Humanities. This is especially the case in the Scotch and English universities. In the Italian renais sance of learning, however, Hebrew also came in for its share of attention. Political events had a large share in producing this new turn in the world's thought. The great Italian poets of the fourteenth century had written on topics suggested by classical writers. Boccaccio depended on Greece for his mate rial, while Dante and Petrarch drew their inspiration from Ro man sources. As notable public teachers in Italy, who contrib uted largely to the development of Humanism, not only in that land, but in the countries north of the Alps, Chrysoloras taught Greek literature in Pavia and Florence, and John of Ravenna instructed in Latin literature in Padua and Florence. A fur ther impulse was given to Greek studies by the fruitless at tempt made at the Council of Florence to secure a formal union of the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, when the Byzan tine emperor, John VII., Palseologus,* was present in person, and Bessarion, Archbishop of Nicsea, brought his plan for the union of the long-separated churches. The points at issue were of too serious a character for any return to a common communion. The most serious one was the papal primacy, which the Roman Catholics insisted upon, and which the Greek delegates accepted, but which the Greek Church repudiated. But these negotiations, however vain so far as union was con cerned, were exceedingly fruitful in sowing in Italy, and es pecially in the Roman fold, an ardent love for Greek letters — not only for the Greek of the Church writers, but also for the productions of the purest Attic authors. Greece became, even to ecclesiastical scholars and students, an enchanted land, whose treasures were suddenly thrown open for the enjoy ment of the whole learned world. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453, was the culmination of the great movements which brought about a love for the classic studies in Italy. It was, in Castantinop?e°n" fact' of more weignt tnan all other agencies com bined. The flight of Greek Christians westward amounted almost to a national migration. Large numbers fled to Italy, settled along the Adriatic coast, swarmed into all the interior cities, and soon began to be felt as a political and * Kurtz says John VII., Palseologus ; others say John VI., Palaeologus. THE HUMANISM OF ITALY 209 spiritual force throughout the peninsula. Rome, Florence, Siena, and all of the larger cities became the home of learned Greeks, who brought with them the classic treasures of their former country, and cultivated them in their new home with such zeal that the Greek writers, who had been in obscurity for a thousand years, were soon familiarly known to the Ital ians. Even before the capture of Constantinople, Greek schol ars from the Eastern Empire had entered Italy. Between 1420 and 1430 George of Trapezium, Theodore Gaza, and John Argyropylus had taken up their residence in Italy ; and, after the capture, there came a multitude, represented by such men as Constantine Lascaris, Demetrius Chalkondylas, and Eman uel Moschopylus. No branch of Greek letters was overlooked. Poetry, eloquence, art, and philosophy came in for full recog nition. Each department had its enthusiastic representatives. What Bessarion and Gemistius Pletho accomplished, in infat uating large numbers of Italians with the new mania for the Platonic philosophy, was achieved by others in every sphere of Greek culture. The revival of the Latin classics came in as a competing factor with the Greek. The Italians were too jealous of the triumphs of their own immortal ancestors to per- ReV'cuiss'icsa,in n"t tae Greeks to monopolize attention. Hence we find a great school of learned Italians labor ing earnestly for the re-enthronement of their writers of the Augustan age. Gasperinus, John Aurispa, Guarinus, Poggius, Laurentius Valla, Nicholas Perothes, Christopher Laudinus, and Angelo Politianus were representatives of this class. The Italian princes favored the revival of both Greek and Latin letters. The Medici of Florence, from 1429 to 1492, gathered about them the most learned men of Italy, and patronized every department of classic science and art. Their court was the most splendid literary centre of modern times. In their 1 gardens the princes of thought convened, and held communion on all the great themes of science, literature, and art which were then agitating Europe. From the Medicean gatherings many young minds, like Raphael, derived an inspiration for great work, which afterwards took form in art and poetry and philology. They constituted the literary exchange of the century. The religious tendency of Humanism in Italy was purely 210 THE REFORMATION negative. The general spirit was not alone indifferent to . . Christianity, but positively hostile to it. The in- Tendency fluence of the Medicean court, and even of the of Humanism papaCy; wa8 exerted simply to revive the classics, and so put an end to the theological discussions which had absorbed attention. There was no disposition to resort to the Bible, but, rather, to make the famous writers of the pa gan times a substitute for the inspired authors of the Script ures. Scepticism was the craze of the hour. Even learned hierarchs considered it well enough at once to hold office in the Church and observe a suspicious silence on the divine ori gin of Christianity. The expression is ascribed to Leo X. : "What little use the fable of Christ is to us and our people has been known to all centuries." Whether the charge be true or not, it is a fact that it expresses the theology both of Ital ian Humanism and the papal court of the fifteenth century. Erasmus, who resided for a time in Rome, wrote in lamenta tion over the blasphemous expressions which he constantly heard from prominent ecclesiastics. Humanism elsewhere in Europe was very different from that of Italy, so far as sympathy with evangelical religion was concerned. North of the Alps the taste for the clas- I'lsewhere s*c languages and masterpieces spread with great rapidity, but it was turned into a theological and re ligious channel, and served to hasten the Reformation. The Scriptures were studied with all that new interest which came from the revival of philological learning. Panzer relates that one hundred editions of the Latin (Vulgate) Bible were print ed between the years 1462 and 1500. The first edition of the Greek Testament, however, which was printed was not edit ed by a sceptical Humanist, but by Erasmus, and appeared in 1516. Hebrew received profound attention, and hence the Old Testament became a book of minute and laborious study. This new attention to the Bible led immediately to a compari son of its high standard of morals and doctrine with the pres ent fallen state of the Church in both these fundamental de partments. The invention of the art of printing was highly favorable to the new intellectual departure, and Humanist works soon spread throughout Western Europe. Heidelberg and Erfurt became centres of German Humanism. Maternus Pistorius, of Erfurt, stood at the head of the German poetic THE HUMANISM OF ITALY 211 group. Konrad Muth, of Gotha, led in the same direction, and assailed the prevailing scholasticism with irresistible satire. Rudolf Agricola, of Heidelberg, was a profound scholar, and turned his attention chiefly to the promotion of Greek criti cism. He was a versatile character, and was well worthy of Guizot's eulogy: "A good painter, a good writer, a good poet, and a learned philologist." He died in 1485. John Reuchlin, of Germany, Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and Thomas More, of England, were champions of the new Hu- Reuchiin, manism- Reuchlin's service lay in the department More, of Hebrew studies. He issued a strong protest Erasmus agamst tne prevailing neglect of the study of the Old Testament in the original Hebrew. His Hebrew Gram mar, 1506, was a masterpiece of learning, and long remained the favorite text-book in that field throughout Europe. Eras mus confined his philological labors chiefly to the Greek, and was the principal promoter of New-Testament studies for the first generation of Protestants in every land. He turned the New Testament, as one would a powerful piece of artillery, against the whole fabric of the ignorance, superstition, and immorality of his times. His Greek edition of the New Tes tament, enriched with notes and paraphrases, constituted a scriptural arsenal for fighting the battle of the Reformation. Thomas More was the friend of Erasmus, and became, late in life, an earnest literary worker for the cause of reform. The chapter in his " Utopia " which is entitled " The Religion of the Utopians " is a shrewd and correct picture of the corrup tion of his times, and of the demand for a new order of morals and learning. 212 THE REFORMATION CHAPTER III THE REFORMATORY COUNCILS [Authorities. — Milman, Latin Christianity, book xiii., chaps, v., viii.-x., xii., tells the story of these Councils. Prof. Fisher gives an excellent account of the Council of Constance in his Discussions in History and Theology (N. Y., 1880). Hardwick, Middle Ages, chap, xiv., may be read for an instructive view.] The Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel were formal acj knowledgments, on the part of the Roman Catholic Church, of the evils within its pale, and the necessity of relief Councils from them. The fourteenth century opened with a bitter controversy between the Church and the leading civil rulers. It was the old question of authority- — -whether pope or king was the supreme head. The struggle centred in Pope Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair of France. In a bull issued in 1302, Boniface condemned Philip's declaration that the civil ruler is independent of papal authority. Thereupon Philip caused the arrest of the pope, on the ground of his Bhameless life. The pope was rescued, however, by his Italian supporters, and died shortly afterwards. His successor lived but a short time, and, in 1305, the French Archbishop of Bordeaux was chosen pope, and bore the name of Clement V. He was thoroughly identified with the French policy, and, in 1309, removed the papal see from Rome to Avignon, in France. This was the beginning of the Avignon papacy, popularly called by the Romanists "The Babylonian Captivity," from the light in which it was held as an ecclesiastical calamity, and from its continuance of nearly seventy years (1309 to 1377). The whole period was one of great spiritual decline. At no time have the morals of the papacy been at a lower ebb. Meanwhile the German rulers came into angry collision with the popes. Ludwig of Bavaria was a bitter opponent of the claims of THE REFORMATORY COUNCILS 213 the papacy. In Rome, and even throughout Italy, the divisions were very violent, and the whole papal structure was threat- Double Papacy ene<^ w^ destruction. Gregory XI. put an end to the Avignon papacy in 1377. Immediately after his death the Romans elected an Italian pope, but the French elected a pope of their own, who resided in Avignon. There were, therefore, two popes, one in Rome and another in France, each claiming the supreme authority, and each surrounded with his court and a college of cardinals. This papal schism lasted thirty years. Its effects were widespread, the entire Roman Catholic world being drawn into the strife. The only possi ble relief seemed to lie in a general council. The Paris theo logians, with Gerson in the lead, were the principal agents in securing it. This council convened in Pisa, in the year 1409. The rival popes were summoned to attend it, in order to have their competing claims adjusted. Each feared for his position, and both refused to attend. Another pope was accordingly chosen, Alexander V. There were, therefore, at this time, three rival popes, all regularly elected, all claiming infallibil ity as the Lord's anointed vicegerents, and each fulminating maledictions upon his rivals and their supporters. The Coun cil of Pisa failed of its end, for it was wrested from its original intent — that of reforming the Church and healing its dissen sions — into a contest of parties. The Council of Constance, 1414-18, was called to heal the scandal of the three-headed papacy, which still continued, and to bring about reforms. All the three popes were called to the council, but only John XXIII., the successor of Alexan der V., responded. John was a dissipated and accomplished rascal, but shrewd and full of makeshifts. He hoped to win his point by filling the Council with Italians, but the Council of councQ resolved to vote by nations, each nation hav ing but one vote. Through the influence of D'Ailly, the decision was reached that all three popes should be com pelled to abdicate, and that a new election take place. This programme was carried out, and on Nov. 11, 1417, Odo Co- lonna was elected as Martin V. This Council is famous for passing the decree that an oecumenical council, rightly consti tuted, has its authority immediately from Christ, and that therefore even the pope himself is subject to it. It was also famous, or, rather, infamous, for condemning Huss to death. 214 THE REFORMATION In the face of D'Ailly's and Gerson's hopes for reform, Martin, with true ecclesiastical prudence, prorogued the Council. The Council of Basel, 1431-49, was convened by Martin's successor, Eugene IV. It took the Constance programme of re form as its basis of operations, and aimed at a thorough Council of regeneration of the Church, from its papal head to the secular clergy. The pope was alarmed at the per sistency and depth of the reformatory spirit, and declared the Council dissolved, and called another, first at Ferrara and then at Florence. But the Basel Council would not break up, even with the disadvantage of a rival council and the absent pope. The pope therefore issued his ban against the Council, where upon the latter removed the pope, and elected a new one, Felix V., in his stead. But the disadvantages were too great for the Basel delegates to resist. They lacked cohesion, and too many of them were open to overtures from Rome. One by one its members slipped off, and in time it was compelled to cease for lack of numbers. It performed, however, an im mense service. Its place of session, just across the Rhine from Germany, made it an object of profound attention throughout the freer Europe north of the Alps, while the evils which the Council labored in vain to remove became more than ever a source of sorrow and of heroism in dealing with the universal spiritual declension. All these three councils failed of their prime object, but they revealed to the world the fact that no prospect for reform could exist in any new council. The only way open for improvement was now clear — the independence of the individual reformer. The personal conscience was com pelled to fight, with single lance, for the revival of truth and virtue. It was the hour when the fate of modern times de pended on the one man. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 215 CHAPTER IV THE GERMAN REFORMATION: MARTIN LUTHER, FROM HIS BIRTH TO THE RETIREMENT IN THE WARTBURG CASTLE— 1483-1520 [Authorities. — Besides the histories of the Reformation, where full information can be had, the story of the life of Luther has been often told. Julius Kostlin's shorter biography has appeared in English (N. Y., 1883), with authentic illustrations from old documents and prints. Kostlin is the best modern authority on Luther, and it were well if his larger Life and his The ology of Luther were also translated. Peter Bayne, an ardent admirer, has written an extensive work in two volumes, The Life and Times of Lu ther (London and N. Y., 1887). Dr. Wm. Rein's admirable Life of Luther has been translated by G. F. Behringer (N. Y., 1883). Froude has paid his respects to Luther in his comparison of Luther and Erasmus in his Short Studies, vol. i., and in his Sketch of Luther's Life (London and N. Y., 1883). Edwin D. Mead has given a Study of Luther from the Unitarian point of view — Luther : a Study of the Reformation (Boston, 1884). Charles Beard left a valuable book, published after his death: Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany until Close of Diet of Worms (London, 1889).] All the Teutonic countries had been getting ripe for the great ecclesiastical revolt, and Central Germany now became the theatre for the Reformation. The popular mind was so fully ready that the only great need now was a man of suffi cient courage, ability, and singleness of purpose to become the representative of his generation. Martin Luther respond ed to the universal aspiration for a leader, to guide into new and safe paths. Luther was born in Eisleben, Saxony, November 12th, 1483, and died in the same place, February 18th, 1546. His father — first a slate-cutter in Mohra, and then a miner in Eis- E*r,y 1-l,e leben — was a man of humble tastes and scanty means. He belonged to the peasant class. The boy Martin, in later life, recalled the fact that his mother used to carry on her back the wood necessary for the comfort of the humble home. In this son were combined the characteristics of both the northern and the southern German. There were the calm 216 THE REFOEMATION judgment, the solid sense, and the sturdy valor of the colder blood of the North. But with these he possessed a gentle, cheerful, and tuneful nature, a sympathetic and social feeling, which stood him in good stead in his later struggles. As a boy, he was fond of the village sports, had an ardent love for his friends and as keen an antipathy towards his foes, possessed a quaint and grotesque humor and innocent wit, and to the day of his death took pride in his lowly ancestry and modest home. His nature seemed to derive its very grandeur and ruggedness from the neighboring Harz Mountains, and its depth from the mines beneath his father's thatched cottage. When the burden of his great mission was upon him, and he was the trusted friend of princes and the learned, he was accus tomed to say : " I am a peasant's son ; my father, grandfather, and remote ancestors were nothing but veritable peasants." But little liberty was granted to the boy of genius and des tiny. His parents made free use of the rod, and thereby nearly spoiled their child. The least indiscretion brought school" severe castigation. His mother once punished him, because of some trouble about a nut, until the blood flowed. In the years of his strong manhood, when looking back upon this harshness, he saw the mistake of his parents, and said : " My parents' severity made me timid ; their stern ness and the strict life they led me made me afterwards go into a monastery and become a monk. They heartily meant it well, but they did not understand the art of adjusting their punishments." But, with all the severity of the home, these parents seemed to recognize the genius of their son. They determined that he should have an education, and designed him for the law. In 1497 he was sent to Magdeburg, in order that he might prepare for the university. But the expense was too great for the means of his parents, and he was re moved to Eisenach, where he could live with relatives and attend school at less expense. It was then the custom of the poorer scholars in Thuringia to go about the streets and sing at the doors of the people for alms. Young Martin needed such help, and a wealthy lady, Ursula Cotta, was so charmed by his singing that she took him to her own home, where he had the advantages of an excellent teacher. In 1501 he went to the University of Erfurt, one of the cen tres of Humanistic learning in Northern Europe. He here THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 217 oame in contact with the advancing learning of the times, and was captivated by it. Neither mind nor heart had rest. With great nervous power, he went from one science UnVversitv *° anotQer> an(^ mastered each with a thoroughness and despatch which amazed the professors. The de partment which he made his specialty was philosophy. On finishing his course, and taking his degree as master of arts, he bade the world farewell, and in 1505 entered the Augus tinian cloister as a monk. The resolution seemed to be instan taneous, but his later confessions reveal the fact that he had been led gradually, by certain providential experiences, such as the death of a friend at his side by lightning, to take this step. He now subjected himself to severe discipline, denied himself all comforts, tortured his body, and fasted and prayed to a degree that almost proved fatal to his life. But he kept at his studies, in this respect differing from his brethren, who said : " If this brother studies, he will rule us." The words were a prophecy which was literally fulfilled. In 1508 Luther was called to Wittenberg as professor. While in Erfurt he had come to a knowledge of the Bible, and had seen the difference between the simple gos- Luther in j n(j tfie life and practice of the Church of his Wittenberg ' times. His mind was in doubt. He continued his ascetic life, and waited for the light. The University of Wit tenberg had been founded by Frederick the Wise in 1502, and, like Erfurt, was now alive with the new learning of the age. Here Luther had a field, the first in his life, for his remarkable powers. He carried with him the timidity of the monk, but the fire and magnetism of the master mind. He was so diffi dent that only the greatest persuasion could induce him to preach. "You will kill me," he said to Staupitz, who had been the cause of his call to Wittenberg ; " I shall not go on with it for a quarter of a year." Luther had been in Wittenberg two years, when he start ed on a journey to Rome. To one of his thirsting mind and religious fervor such an opportunity was hailed with inex pressible delight. He had been doubting the practices of the Church but no thought of keen criticism had arisen in his mind. He was still the devoted servant of his order, the Augustines, and a firm and full believer in the one Roman Catholic Church. When he caught his first view of the Eter- 218 THE REFORMATION nal City he fell upon the earth, and, with uplifted hands, cried out : "I greet thee, Holy Rome, thrice holy from the blood of the martyrs which has been shed in thee !" The scenes which now passed before his eyes had but little influence in strengthening his love for the Church. He saw too much os tentation and pride to satisfy his self-denying nature. While ascending the Scala Santa, or Pilate's Staircase, as a reverent and penitential pilgrim, the words came to him, "The just shall live by faith." He descended the steps, left Rome, and betook himself back to Germany. But he did not repudiate the authority of the Roman Church at that time. Kostlin says : " The exhibition of ecclesiastical corruption which he saw did not at the time occasion any revolt in his mind." Luther was still a devoted monk, but had felt the power of a new life. He did not dream of separation from the Church. He continued his lectures on the Biblical books, and The Theses fascinated his hearers by the boldness and novelty of his views. His life now moved on without excitement or serious change for seven years. All the while he was growing in the confidence of the students and in fame abroad. His lectures were attractive beyond those of any one else, while his sermons, differing, by their plain speech and direct presen tation of the truth, from the current preaching, were heard with an intensity of interest new in Wittenberg, or any other part of Germany, since the Mystics. During this quiet in terval a new indulgence was published in Germany, and the tickets of pardon were sold in the public places of the land. Between 1500 and 1517 no less than five indulgences extraor dinary had been published, and put up for sale to any buyer. They were wonderfully successful. The money flowed in from every quarter. The cause of the indulgences was alleged to be for defence against the Turks, but it was a singular fact that it had to go by the very circuitous way of Rome and the papal treasure-box. The bishops cried out, half in joy and half in complaint, against the weight of the silver : "Hundred weights of German coin fly light as feathers over the Alps, and no bearer of the heaviest burdens, not even Atlas himself, can drag such heaps of money." The sale of the indulgences aroused Luther's nature to a high pitch of excitement. He was now ready for his mission. He went over the whole case against Rome, as he saw it, and THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 219 arraigned the Church in a bill of charges which he called his Ninety-five Theses. They were directed principally against the sale of indulgences, but they included the whole burden of Luther's soul. He insisted that the Church taught the truth, but that there were excrescences which must be re moved. On October 31st, 1517, he nailed his Theses to the door of the Schlosskirche of Wittenberg. Now began the storm which lasted until the day of his death. The Theses were soon heard from in Rome, where the pope wrote of him to the Elector of Saxony as that notorious " son of wicked ness." He was ordered to recant, but replied, "I cannot re call." He was ordered to Rome, but only wrote a respectful letter in reply to the command. He was summoned to a dis putation in Leipzig, in 1519, with Eck, where he attacked the doctrines of the primacy of the pope, indulgences, and purga tory. The Humanist Mosellanus thus described the young monk on this first great appearance before the world : " He was of medium height. His face and whole body were as thin as a skeleton, caused by long study and much care. His voice was clear. His address bore every mark of great learning and acquaintance with the Bible. His bearing was friendly and attractive. He was full of vitality, and calm and joyous amid the threats of his enemies, as one would be who under takes great things with God's help. In controversy he was defiant and incisive, as a theologian ought to be." Luther left Leipzig with a deeper determination than ever to continue his work. He still had no thought of leaving the Church. He would be an obedient son and servant, Appeal to . . the German and thought only of ever remaining in fellowship with Nation j.ne received faith. But he was carried on by the force of his convictions, and by some providential occur rences, in which, indeed, he seemed to have little part. He now struck the most vital blow of all. He attacked Rome in a new department. He wrote an " Address to the Nobles of the German People," in which he advocated the suppres sion of nunneries, abolition of the interdict and ban, indepen dence of the temporal power, and the denial of transubstantia tion and other false teachings of Rome. This was rebellion, and shortly afterwards brought its natural punishment from Rome — excommunication. Luther said: "I would regard the pope as pope, but they want me to regard him as God." 220 THE REFORMATION He posted a notice on the church door, inviting the people to go out with him, in solemn procession, through the Elster gate, and, in presence of the citizens, professors, and students, pub licly burn the papal bull. This notice was observed, and, in presence of the multitude, Luther burned the bull on Decem ber 10th, 1520. But Rome was even worse off without him than with him. Charles V. had been elected Emperor of Germany on June 28th, 1519, and it was now a serious question what position he would take as to the Reform. He was a Haps- Diet at Worms .,, -.-it-. ^ i t i burg, and therefore a rigid Roman Catholic ; but he was also diplomatic, and was determined to do nothing that would endanger his political strength. He turned the matter over carefully in his mind, and, as at the Diet at Worms, April, 1521, his election contract was to be signed, and such additional business transacted as related to the affairs of the Church, he resolved, before the Council met, that he would give Luther a hearing, and condemn his doctrines. Luther was summoned to Worms, and promised a safe-conduct. Be fore starting he wrote to Spalatin : " If his majesty calls me to account, so that I am ruined, and am looked upon, on ac count of my answer, as an enemy to the empire, still I am ready to come. For I have no intention of fleeing, nor of leaving the Word in danger, but I mean to confess it unto death, so far as Christ's grace sustains me. But I am certain that the bloodhounds will not rest until they have put me to death." His friends reminded him of Huss's death at the Council of Constance, but their remonstrance had no influ ence. He would go to Worms though "the devils were as many as tiles on the house-tops." Every argument was used ; threats were multiplied ; but all to no avail. When he had finished his defence, he said: "Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise. God help me ! Amen." Carlyle describes the historical significance of this occasion, and the importance of Luther's firm attitude, in the following words : " It was the greatest moment in the modern history of men. English Puri tanism, England and its parliaments, Americas and vast work these two centuries ; French Revolution, Europe and its work everywhere at present : the germ of it all lay there ; had Luther in that moment done otherwise, it had all been other wise !" The decree of the Diet at Worms against Luther THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 221 was as follows : " Thus this individual, not a man, but one like the devil in human form, under a monk's cowl, has gathered into one noxious mass a number of heretics who have been long concealed, and hold most damnable heresies ; and he has even devised some fresh ones, under pretence of preaching faith, which he has industriously made every one believe, in order that he may destroy the true faith, and, under the name and guise of evangelical doctrine, put an end to all evangelical peace, and love, and all good order." The sentence of bam and double ban was pronounced on him and every friend and adherent to his heresy, and, after a certain date (May 14th), all persons were cautioned against harboring or protecting him, and he was ordered to be delivered up to the officers, wher ever found. When Luther was returning from Worms, and before the publication of the ban against him, some knights, at the in stance of Frederick the Wise, took him to the Wartburg Cas tle, on the heights above Eisenach, lest he might be captured by his enemies, and possibly suffer death. He here lived as " Junker Georg " (Squire George), a sobriquet given him by the jovial knights. He used his pen vigorously during his eight months "in Patmos," as he called his sojourn. No day was without its line. While here he translated the New Testament entire, and parts of the Old. The New Testament was printed in September, 1522, and did more than anything else to make the Reformation per manent. It went through sixteen original editions in ten years, so great was the thirst for the Word ; and the reprints in the same time amounted to fifty-four. Luther's Bible was trans lated directly from the Hebrew and the Greek, with wonder ful clearness and force of style, and is a fairly faithful ver sion. It almost created the German language, crystallizing it in forms of strong, pithy, and expressive speech. 222 THE REFORMATION CHAPTER V LUTHER: FURTHER LABORS AND PERSONAL CHARACTER— 1520-1546 [Authorities. — See bibliography to preceding chapter. For able and intelli gent estimates of Luther's personality, work, and influence from different points of view the reader should consult Mozley, Essays (London, 1878); Tulloch, Leaders of the Reformation (3d ed., enlarged, Edinb., 1883) ; Hedge, Martin Luther and other Essays (Boston, 1888). Luther's con tributions to Hymnology have an adequate memorial in Leonard Woolsey Bacon's The Hymns of Martin Luther set to their Original Melodies, with an English Version (N. Y., 1884). Luther as a Bible Translator is the 3ubject o£ an article by Dr. Edward Rhiem, translated for the Baptist Review, Oct., 1884. A thoroughly sound estimate of Luther and a most interesting view of special aspects of his career are given by the late Principal Tulloch in the Nineteenth Century for June, 1884. Carlyle found in the great Reformer a character in which his sombre and rugged genius could take delight, and he has paid a noble tribute in his Heroes and Hero-Worshippers. The four-hundredth anniversary of Luther's birth brought out some fine additions to the Luther literature.] Luther was now compelled to pay the penalty of every great reformer. He had to shield his work from the errors of his „ , ,. friends. Caristadt, a firm adherent of the Protes- Reformation ' Endangered tant cause, began to think that Luther did not go by its Friends far enougni jje declared that the Reformation was still tinged too strongly with Romanism, and, at the head of a fanatical band, the Zwickau Prophets, he made a fierce fight against Luther. Luther wrote to them from his "Patmos," in December, 1521, as follows: "This business has been un dertaken in a harum-scarum fashion, with great rashness and violence. I do not like it at all ; and, that you may know it, when it comes to the point, I will not stand by you in this business. You have set about it without me, and so you may see how you can get out of it without me. Believe me, I know the devil well enough. It is he alone who has set out to bring disgrace on the Word." The fanatics would tear LUTHER : LABORS AND CHARACTER 223 down every reminder of Romanism — the ornamentation, pict ures, and everything else but the bare walls of the churches. They would make such a thorough work with Rome that not a trace would be left of the old order. They would destroy every work of Christian art, in sculpture or on canvas, wher ever found. They turned prophets, and saw visions. Luther, from his watch-tower, saw the danger that threatened the whole Protestant cause, and was ill at ease. He could stay no longer in the Wartburg. Duke George was ready to ar rest him, wherever he could be found at large, but Luther was willing to take the risk. His true friend, the Elector, cau tioned him of his danger from Duke George, but the Re former wrote back : " One thing I can say for myself : if things are at Leipzig as they are at Wittenberg, I would still go there, even if it rained Duke Georges for nine days, and every one of them were nine times as fierce as he." He plainly told the anxious Elector that he did not want his protection, that there was no real protection in a ruler of such faith, and that he, Luther, would go under God's protection to Wittenberg. He kept his promise. On March 3d, 1522, he left the Wartburg, and, proceeding without a guard, reached Wittenberg in safety. The condition of things was alarming. The Zwickau Prophets had fright ened the Reformers. Melanchthon was too weak in nerve to withstand their boldness. He could not resist them, and trem bled for the whole Protestant fabric. The Prophets declared that they had received special revelations from God to go even further than religious reform, to resist all civil author ity, and set up a temporal kingdom. When Luther appeared in Wittenberg it brought confidence to his friends, and to Protestants. He was wise in every movement, and did not even mention the names of the fanatics. For a week he pub licly preached against them, but with consummate tact, and, as a result, they left the city a disorganized mass. The German peasantry had long been oppressed by the princes, and had several times risen in revolt. In the years 1476, 1491, 1498, and 1503 they had rebelled against Peasants' tfjgjr rulers, but were overcome, and yet were kept down only by violent means. The peasantry saw, in the present religious convulsion, another opportunity for revolt. A league was formed in 1514 ; by 1524 the insurrec- 224 THE REFORMATION tion broke out publicly ; and by the spring of 1525 it was general. The peasants were largely in the Protestant inter est. They pleaded the Bible as their justification in demand ing liberty of conscience and freedom from civil oppression. Luther was now put upon trial in a new direction. He stud ied the matter closely, and then took the side of law and or der, but in an address to the princes told them of the wrong of oppression, and cautioned moderation in dealing with the fanatics. The peasants were fully conquered, and their lead er, Miinzer, was beheaded. Luther now addressed himself more than ever to severe literary labors. He saw that his work needed consolidation. He must instruct the people, who were looking to Literary Tabors ^^m ^or spiritual guidance. The Mtinster fanati cism was proof of the great need of Protestantism for the most judicious and safe instruction. So, by pen and speech, he wrought with prodigious vigor. Through the kind ness of friends, his sermons and lectures were published im mediately after delivery. They were robust in style, and con sisted of strong and often homely speech. The people read each word with the gladness that came from an immediate understanding. His translation of the Bible, the strongest and most nervous and comprehensible ever executed, went all over the land. His principle in translation was contained in his own words : " For translating the Bible, we must have a pious, true, industrious, reverent, Christian, learned, experi enced, and disciplined heart. We must ask the mother in the house, the children in the alley, the common man in the mar ket-place, how to speak German, and put the language they speak in his own jaws." As a specimen of Luther's care that he might translate the Bible into a language which the people might understand, he had a butcher "kill some sheep for him," and tell him the names of every part, in order that he might translate accu rately those parts of Leviticus relating to the Jewish sacrifices. He wrote his friend Spalatin a request to give him the names and minute descriptions of all the precious stones mentioned in Revelation xxi., as constituting the walls of the celestial city. Luther's works multiplied rapidly. About one hundred and twenty separate writings appeared from his pen. His Smaller LUTHER : LABORS AND CHARACTER 225 and Larger Catechisms became a household possession through out German Protestantism. His thirty hymns were Other" Works Bun& m Palace an an<^ vet was always sighing for peace. His element was the smoke and flame and violence of the hot battle-field. Yet, strangely enough, he thought him self very mild in language. When a friend once expostulated with him on the harshness of his language against the papacy, he replied, in all seriousness, " On the contrary, I complain that, alas ! I am too mild. I wish that I could breathe out lightning, and that every word were a thunder-bolt !" ,A hair-splitting theologian once quoted to him St. Augustine's reply to the 15 226 THE REFORMATION question, " Where God was before heaven was created ?" that he was in himself ; and then asked the Reformer what his an swer would be. Luther replied, "He was building hell for such idle, presumptuous, frivolous, and inquisitive spirits as you !" His opinions were very decided concerning some phy sicians : " Alack for him that depends on physic ! When I was sick at Smalcald, the doctors made me take as much med icine as though I had been a great bull. 'Tis these wretches that people the graveyards ; though able, cautious, and ex perienced physicians are the gift of God, those without fear of God are mere homicides. I consider that exercise and change of air do more good than all their purgings and bleed ings. When I feel indisposed, I generally manage to get around by a strict diet, going to bed early, and keeping my mind at rest." In faith, Martin Luther was as fervent as any crusader in the heat of conflict. The time of prayer was his supreme hour. Every prayer was an importunity. He would not think of silence, much less refusal. He argued with God, and showed him how unlike himself it would be not to grant his petitions. He caught hold of the very robe of the Master, and would not let it go. Or, rather, he vio lently grasped the divine arm with both hands, and held it until his prayer was answered. He had the habit of record ing his wants in the form of a catalogue, and taking them to God in order, as petitions which God could hardly be true to his own honor if he failed to answer. He was overheard to offer the following prayer just before his appearance in the presence of the Council at Worms : " Almighty, Everlasting God, how terrible this world is ! How it would open its jaws to devour me ! And how weak is my trust in thee ! O thou my God, help me against all the wisdom of this world ! Do thou the work ; it is thine, not mine. I have nothing to bring me here. I have no controversy to maintain — not I — with the great ones of the earth. I, too, would fain that my days should glide along, happy and calm. But the cause is thine. It is righteous ; it is eternal. O Lord, help me ! Thou that art faithful, thou that art unchangeable ! It is not in any man I trust. O God, my God, dost thou not hear me ? Art thou dead ? No, thou art hiding thyself. O Lord my God, where art thou ? Come, come ! Thou hast chosen me for this work. LUTHER : LABORS AND CHARACTER 227 I know it. O, then, arise and work ! Be thou on my side, for the sake of thy beloved Son, Jesus Christ, who is my de fence, my shield, and my fortress. I am ready — ready to for sake life for thy truth — patient as a lamb. Though the world should be full of demons ; though my body should be stretched on the rack, cut into pieces, consumed to ashes, the soul is thine. For this I have the assurance of thy Word. Amen. O God, help thou me ! Amen." . . . (and then, as if in solilo quy) "Amen, Amen — that means, Yes, Yes, this shall be done !" When Luther saw the great need of sustaining and build ing up the people who were following his leadership, he de- Organization of vised wise plans for ecclesiastical organization. German Protes- In 1527 he and Melanchthon, at the instance of the Elector John, drew up a plan of general visi tation. An order of doctrine and service was established. Parochial schools were instituted, catechetical service was enjoined, and full arrangements made for a complete ecclesi astical life. At the Diet of Augsburg (1530) the Augsburg Confession, drawn up by Melanchthon, was adopted for the Protestants of Germany. In the Convention at Smalcald the Protestants formed a compact, which was the basis of their subsequent civil and ecclesiastical unity. The theological standard of the Protestants was the "Loci Theologici" of Melanchthon. Luther never undertook a systematic treat ment of doctrine, but committed this work to his nearest friend, Melanchthon, who was a complement to him in many other respects. Luther's private life was of a piece with his public career. His labors before the world drew all their inspiration from his pure and simple home-life. In 1525 he mar- Luther's rje(j Catherine von Bora, a nun of the cloister of Private Life ' Nimptchen, and henceforth his home became the centre of his labors and the rallying-place of friends. His children were his loving companions. In the intervals of his engrossing labors he would sing, and, getting new inspiration, would again take up his pen. Walther, the electoral chapel- master, who was deputed to assist Luther in the arrangement of music for public worship, thus wrote of him : " Many a precious hour did he sing. I have often seen him, the dear man, become so happy and transported in spirit that he could not get enough of it. He knew how to say wondrous things 228 THE REFORMATION of music." Luther was especially fond of having the students visit him, and sit at his table. He was always thinking of others, and how he might instruct and comfort. His engross ing labors wore heavily upon him. His early ascetic life left an impaired constitution, which he was never able fully to re store. He went on a journey to assist in reconciling a diffi culty between the Mansfeld counts, and died from home, but in the place where he was born. He breathed his last, after thanking God for the revelation of his Son, and for having given him the privilege of testifying for him before the world and the pope. CHAPTER VI MELANCHTHON AND OTHER GERMAN REFORMERS [Authorities. — We are indebted to Dr. F. A. Cox, a devout and scholarly Bap. tist minister of London in the first half of the nineteenth century, for first making English readers familiar with the Life of Melanchthon (2d. ed., London, 1817). Ledderhose's Life was translated by Krotel (Phila., 1855). Dr. Schaff gives an interesting and valuable sketch in his Three Biogra phies : Augustine, Melanchthon, Neander (N. Y., 1886). A full and excel lent article (6 pp.) by Landerer, revised by Herrlinger, appears in the Schaff- Herzog Encyclopaedia. D. F. Strauss's Life of Ulrich von Hutten has been translated by Mrs. G. Sturge (London, 1874). Compare the Rev. G. W. Kitchen, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition. In the same work J. A. Crowe traces the influence of the Reformation on the work of Cranach. It is an interesting fact that the Duke of Saxony conferred on Cranach the monopoly of selling medicines in Wittenberg, and that his chemist's shop existed till destroyed by fire in 1871. He also gave him exclusive privilege as to copyright on Bibles. Luther used his presses.] The friends and helpers of Luther came from every class. Of all these, Melanchthon was destined to be of most service, „,.¦,¦ .. , un. not omY as an immediate co-laborer with Lu- Philip Melanchthon ^ ther, but as a promoter of the general cause of Protestantism. He was born in Bretten, South Germany, in 1497,* and was educated at Pforzheim, Heidelberg, and Tiibin gen. When only seventeen years of age he became a pro fessor in the Tubingen University, and began to attract atten- * Some say 1498. Landerer, Fisher, Hardwick, say 1497. MELANCHTHON AND OTHER GERMAN REFORMERS 229 tion by his remarkable knowledge of the classic writers. He edited Terence and other authors, and threw a new light upon both Greek and Roman writers. His fame spread abroad into other countries. Erasmus wrote of him the following: "What hopes may we not conceive of Philip Melanchthon, though as yet very young, almost a boy [he was only eigh teen], but equally to be admired for his proficiency in both lan guages ! What quickness of invention ! What purity of dic tion ! What vastness of memory ! What variety of reading ! What modesty and gracefulness of behavior ! And what a princely mind !" To QScolampadius the same man, Erasmus, wrote : " Of Melanchthon I have already the highest opinion, and cherish the most magnificent hopes ; so much so that I am persuaded Christ designs this youth to excel us all. He will totally eclipse Erasmus.''' He was called to Wittenberg as professor in 1518, and the same week began to lecture. He produced a profound impression immediately. Luther heard him, and was charmed by him. A friendship immediately sprang up between them, which was never broken until death terminated the union of twenty-eight years. The annals of literature and theology do not furnish a more beautiful illus tration of the manner in which a great work can be performed by the combined action of two men than we find in the case of Luther and Melanchthon. There was no resemblance be tween them in quality of mind or temperament. The one thing which they had in common was the great cause of re form, and to that all other interests and gifts were made sub ordinate. The labors of Melanchthon were directed at once to the im provement of the methods of study in the university. His students increased rapidly, and soon rose to about Meianchthon's twenty -five hundred. He insisted that the old Labors ' . . . . scholastic philosophy was ridiculous and consisted of terms rather than ideas. He urged the students to the fountain-heads of truth, and placed before them the Bible as the only source of real knowledge. He then entered into the strife concerning indulgences, Luther going before him, and Melanchthon following closely with his philological lore, his fine logic, and his marvellous unfoldings of scriptural truth. The life of Melanchthon was now so thoroughly identified with that of Luther that it is difficult to separate the two. 230 THE REFORMATION They lived in the same town, Wittenberg. They were in con stant consultation, each doing what he was most able to do, and both working with unwearied zeal for the triumph of the cauge to which they gave their lives. During Luther's stay in the Wartburg, Melanchthon was sorely grieved. He needed Luther's martial spirit, his strong will, his quick intuitions as to the best measures to win new victories. Hence he wrote such words as these : " I feel the need I have of good advice. Our Elijah is confined at a distance from us, though we are expecting and anticipating his return. What shall I say more? His absence absolutely torments me." On the other hand, Luther felt the need of Melanchthon's calm spirit, and, among many other words of the same character, he wrote him from the Wartburg: "For the glory of the Word of God and the mutual consolation of myself and others, I would rather be consumed in a blazing fire than remain here half alive and utterly useless. If I perish, the prophet of Christ will not perish, and you, I hope, like another Elisha, will succeed Eli jah." Luther, however, was sometimes out of patience with Melanchthon's great infirmity, despondency, and wrote him the following, in reply to Melanchthon's gloomy picture of the Protestant outlook: "Let those who please talk against us. But why are we to be always looking on the dark side of things? Why not indulge hopes of better times?" He com pared Paul's appearance with Melanchthon's in the following words : " Paul must have been an insignificant-looking person, with no presence ; a poor, dry, little man, like Master Philip." While Luther was still in the Wartburg, he, nevertheless, longed for the society of his " poor, dry, little man " more than for all the robust men of the Fatherland. So, when he returned to Wittenberg, and put the fanatics to shame and flight, he wrote with great joy to a relative : " I am in Amsdorff's house, with my beloved friend, Philip Melanch thon." Melanchthon's regularity in work was a marvel. He was seldom known to miss a lecture from any cause. On the day, in 1520, when he was married to Catharine Crappin, the bur gomaster's daughter, he departed for once from his inflexible punctuality, and posted on the roster the following release of his students from hearing him on Paul's Epistle to the Ro mans - EUROPE at the time of THE REFORMATION 30 - 0 51) 100 English Miles Longitude C DrinH W V: B , DuraizoA I y V'\ £rindisi ]Jr^-' Salome* S^CV^-' * °^> --^ if ^ %*» 4'1 MELANCHTHON AND OTHER GERMAN REFORMERS 231 "A studiis hodie facit otia grata Philippus, Nee nobis Pauli dogmata sacra leget." "Rest from your studieB, Philip says you may; "We'll read no lectures on St. Paul to-day." _ Tear after year passed by, and Melanchthon was always at his post, lecturing to the many students who had come from different countries to hear him. If, in the interests of the good cause of reform, he was absent for a day or two, he al ways returned to his post with renewed vigor. His lecture- room was his throne. He was devoted to theological students, and made them his trusted friends. In his last illness he thought of them, and wished, when too weak, to be dressed, and deliver a lecture to them. He died in 1560. A short time before his death he wrote his reasons why it is better for the Christian to die than to live, the column on the right contain ing the blessings gained by dying, and that on the left the evils avoided : Advantages Gained. "Tou come to the light. You will see God. Tou will contemplate the Son of God. Tou will understand those won derful mysteries which you cannot comprehend in this life : namely, why we are made as we are, and the union of the two natures in Christ." Evils Bemoved. " Tou leave your sins. Tou are delivered from contro versy and the rage of theolo gians." No man appreciated Melanchthon's character and work more highly than Luther. Of his "Theological Commonplaces" (Loci Theologici), Luther said : " For theological study it is the best book, next to the Bible. Melanchthon has no ground for fear." Of Melanchthon's books, as a whole, he said: "I love his books better than my own. He ploughs and plants and sows and waters with joy, while I am only a coarse for ester, digging up the roots and tearing out the thorns." Melanchthon was the theological builder for the German Reformation. He wrote the two symbols of the Lutheran Church, the Augsburg Confession (1530) and the Apology for the Augsburg Confession, both admirable statements of doctrine ; and he presented the so-called Saxon Confession, a 232 THE REFORMATION declaration of the Protestant faith, to the Council of Trent (1551). The friendship between Luther and Melanchthon, as a pow erful factor towards the success of the Reformation, was only an illustration of a general fact. There were other attach ments not less charming. The whole period of the 0toferReforrndS planting °f Protestantism abounds in remarkable adjustments and surrenders of individual tastes and capacities for the achievement of a great end. Each man was as necessary to the rest as their joint work was necessary to the success of the whole movement. It was a harmony of op- posites, and as complete a providential blending of diverse natures as the world had seen since the days of the apostles. All temperaments and all classes of society were drawn upon to make the one harmonious picture of a young and vigorous Protestantism. Some of Luther's first and strongest friends were of the princely and noble class. Of the rulers, we count no less than six who were devoted friends of the new move ment for the liberation of the conscience, and followed the leadership of Luther, namely : George, Maurice, Frederick the Wise, John, and John Frederick, all princes of Saxony, and Philip of Hesse. While enjoying the full confidence of these men, Luther never faltered in the assertion of personal inde pendence. He never compromised a principle. In fact, he gained the confidence of the princes not merely by his valiant defence of the truth, but by his candor towards them. With the princes, we must not omit to join two fearless knights as friends of Protestantism — Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen. These men offered Luther Tn^ck.ngen'1 the use of their swords and a home in their cas tles, but he declined them both, saying that his was a spiritual conflict. In Luther's immediate circle, as co workers with him, the scholars Justus Jonas, George Rorer, Cruciger, Forster, and Bugenhagen stand next to Melanch thon. These men were mostly won to the cause of reform by the reading of Luther's writings, or the hearing of his lect ures, or by his hymns ; and, having once come within the charm of his person, became his willing co-operators in the various departments for which each was fitted. Bugenhagen was elected pastor in Wittenberg through Luther's influence, and was a powerful organizer of the new Protestant Church GERMAN SWITZERLAND 233 in North Germany. Jonas was a professor in the university, and through his eloquence the city of Halle was led to adopt the Protestant cause. Lucas Cranach, the most celebrated German painter of his times, was an intimate friend of Lu ther, and through him we have accurate portraits of the par ents, the entire family of Luther, and nearly all his friends and fellow-workers. Cranach had a keen sense of the gro tesque and satirical, and it was his pleasure to furnish wood cuts as adjuncts to Luther's stinging words against the abuses of the times. CHAPTER VH THE REFORMATION IN GERMAN SWITZERLAND [Authorities. — An excellent article on Zwingli, by the Rev. Henry S. Burrage, calling special attention to his relations with the Anabaptists, appears in the Baptist Review, Jan., 1884. Gttder has a comprehensive treatment in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia. His Life has been written by Grob (N. Y., 1883), Blackburn (Phila., 1868), Christoffel (Edinb., 1858), and Mrs. Hardy (Edinb., 1890).] The political condition of Switzerland was highly favorable to the introduction of Protestant ideas. The country was divided into cantons, or districts, an arrange- Poiitlcai Condition ment that had existe(j from ear]y times. Each of Switzerland , . J canton was, in a measure, independent of the rest, and yet was connected in a federation with all the others. While the Roman Catholic Church held sway over all, the people of each canton claimed the right of deciding what their confession should be. The spirit pervading all the cantons was that of civil liberty; and so, when the Protestant doctrines de scended from the North the Swiss saw in them a system of re ligion closely allied to their political traditions and preferences. Freedom in the State, as the Swiss mind saw it, was inseparable from freedom of conscience. In Zurich, the largest city in East ern Switzerland, the doctrines of the German Reformers, and especially the works of Luther, took strong hold. The people, speaking the same language with the Germans, read the earliest 234 THE REFORMATION Protestant writings with interest, while correspondence with the Reformers fanned the flame. Ulric Zwingli was the leader of the new movement in Switz erland. He was born in Wildhaus, in 1484. In his ninth year he went to Wesen, where he enjoyed the instruction of his uncle, the dean of that place. He was designed by his parents for the priesthood, and no pains were spared to fit him for his calling. In 1494 he went to Basel, and for three years was a student in the St. Theodore School. He then went to Berne, where the celebrated Humanist Heinrich Wolfin in troduced him to a profound knowledge of the classics. He then went to Vienna, where, having Latinized his name, he appeared as the student Cogentius. In 1502 he returned to Basel, and, in addition to prosecuting further studies, taught in the Latin school of St. Martin. Wyttenbach came to Basel as professor, and he entered a bold protest against indulgences. Zwingli came under his influence, and from that time onward it is likely that the seeds of Protestantism lay in his mind. In 1506 he became priest in Glarus, and remained there ten years. All the while he was an ardent student. He was enraptured with the new Humanism, and yet he regarded it only as an aid to the study of the Bible. He wrote at this time : " Nothing but God shall prevent me from acquiring Greek ; not for fame, but for the sake of the Holy Scriptures." In 1516 Zwingli went to the celebrated Abbey of Einsiedeln, which is situated on a lofty mountain on the north side of Lake Zurich, and is still visited annually by many thousands of pilgrims. Zwingli, see ing the blind idolatry of the worshippers of the miraculous image of the Virgin Mary in that abbey, began to preach against the superstition. Zwingli awakened violent opposition in Einsiedeln. He was branded as a heretic, and yet was made by Pucci, the pope's agent, the object of great attention and flattery. " wVrAome11" ^e noPe was> to conquer him by dissimulation. But Zwingli saw through the deception, and kept steadily on in his course. He did not remain, however, any longer in Einsiedeln, but removed to Zurich (1519), where he was priest in the cathedral. Here his sermons created the greatest sensation for their freedom of utterance and evangeli cal tone, and were attended by multitudes from all parts of the country. Indulgences were just now sold in public in that GERMAN SWITZERLAND 235 city, and Zwingli proclaimed against them. Zurich was ready for the Reformation, and was only waiting for a leader. The Humanist circles were tired of the old darkness, and were eager for the light of the gospel. The uneducated masses were over whelmed with the oppression of the Hapsburgs and the priest hood. "I wish," said Zwingli, "that they had bored a hole through the pope's letter, and hung it to his messenger's back, that he might carry it home. If a wolf is seen in the country, you sound an alarm, that it may be caught, but you will not de fend yourselves from the wolves that ruin the bodies and souls of men. How appropriate their red hats and cloaks ! If you shake them, out fall ducats. If you wring them, out flows the blood of your sons, brothers, and friends." Such language could not be tolerated. Maledictions were hurled against Zwingli. But he continued to preach, and the people thronged to hear him. He was fearless, scriptural, and discreet. He was now drawn within the circle of Reform ers, and at once became their head among the Swiss. He preached strongly against indulgences, Mariolatry, clerical celibacy, and, indeed, the whole cluster of those perverted doctrines against which Luther was warring in the North. Mass was abolished in Zurich, and, one by one, the institutions of Romanism fell to the ground. Zwingli's "Sixty-seven Ar ticles" committed him so thoroughly to the Protestant cause that no retracing of his steps was supposable. He was very busy with his pen. His " Choosing and Freedom of Foods," his "Christian Introduction," and "True and False Relig ion " were masterpieces of polemical literature. The simplicity of Zwingli's views of worship was a funda mental quality. His repugnance to Romanism was so strong „ , ., , that he resolved on a complete renunciation. He Variations from r . the German would have no pictures or organs or bells in the Reform churches, or any reminder of the old faith. He was morbidly intense in his dread of all materialistic elements. He differed radically from Luther on the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, the German Reformer holding to consubstantiation, while Zwingli regarded the bread and wine as only symbols of the body and blood of Christ. The two Reformers came into open difference. A discussion was arranged, and they met in the Castle of Marburg, October, 1529, where each de fended his views. No compromise was reached. Luther, with 236 THE REFORMATION a piece of chalk in his hand, wrote in great characters on the table, " Hoc est corpus meum " (this is my body), and with this appeal to Christ's own words by which to defend his belief in consubstantiation, the discussion closed. Hencefor ward there was no agreement between German and Swiss the ology on the Lord's Supper. Luther and Zwingli returned to their fields of labor, each as firmly intent upon the one work of reform as though he did not differ from his brother on non-essentials in theological interpretation. Bucer tried very hard to harmonize the Swiss and German differences, but failed completely. The Helvetic Confession, adopted in 1536, became the final standard of doctrine for the Protestants throughout Eastern Switzerland. The religious conflict in the eastern cantons became so bit ter that it grew into an appeal to arms. Zurich, which had been included in the bishopric of Constance, threw Cant'ons °^ a^ episcopal allegiance, banished Latin from its churches, and burned the time-honored relics. Some of the eastern cantons followed the lead of Zurich, while oth ers remained firm to Catholicism. The result was a civil war. The Roman Catholic cantons were aided by the pope, the Austrian empire, and even by Spain, while France and Eng land helped the Protestant cantons. In the battle of Cappel, near Zurich, October 11th, 1531, the Protestant army was al most annihilated and Zwingli was killed. Vet a moral vic tory remained with the Protestants, inasmuch as they were allowed by the Treaty of Cappel the free exercise of their re ligion in their own cantons, while restoring Catholicism in the five cantons. Basel was an important centre of Protestant movements in German Switzerland. The council which had been held there in the preceding century had left a strong desire for re form among the people. The university was a rallying- place of minds intent upon the liberty of science. Erasmus lived in its cloisters for a time, and gave his scholarly ener gies to the good work. Hedio, Capito, and Roublin preached the new doctrines with energy and success. GScolampadius, though a German by birth, became pastor of St. Martin's Church, and was the acknowledged leader of the cause in the city. In other parts of Eastern Switzerland the Ref ormation spread with amazing rapidity, and, in addition to FRENCH SWITZERLAND 237 Zurich and Basel, the cantons of St. Gall and Schaffhausen renounced allegiance to the Roman Catholic faith, and in troduced Protestant worship and doctrines throughout their territory. CHAPTER VIII THE REFORMATION IN FRENCH SWITZERLAND [Authorities. — There are numerous monographs on Calvin. The elaborate Life by Paul Henry (London and N. T., 1852) is valuable for its materials. The author was an ardent admirer of Calvin. Dyer's Life is valuable and impartial (London, 1849 ; N. Y., 1851). Bungener has written, in a sympa thetic spirit, Calvin (Edinb., 1863). Bungener was a native of Geneva, an enthusiastic Protestant, and a man of wide historical and literary learning. Thomas McCrie has written a book on The Early Years of John Calvin (Lon don, 1880). Principal Tulloch, with his usual lucidity and impartiality, dis cusses Calvin in his Leaders of the Reformation (Edinb., 1883). Renan has a brilliant essay in his Studies of Religious History and Criticism (N. Y., 1864). He calls Calvin " the most Christian man of his genera tion." Guizot wrote a fine essay on Calvin, in which he gives a sober and fair estimate of the man and of his theology (London, 1869 ; N. Y., 1880). For the relations of Calvin and Servetus see Dr. R. Willis, Servetus and Calvin (London, 1877). Compare Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1877. There are admirable articles in the Cyclopaedias — by Dr. McClintock himself in McClintock and Strong, by Dr. W. L. Alexander in the Britannica, and by Herzog and Jackson in the Schaff-Herzog, the latter especially valuable for its bibliography. The Life of his friend Beza was translated for the Calvin Translation Society (Edinb., 1844). On Farel, see Kirchhofer, Life of Farel (London, 1837); Blackburn, Life of Farel (Phila., 1865). For the Life of Beza consult the long and well-written article in McClintock and Strong, and Cunningham's Reformers and Theology of the Reformation (Edinb., 1862), essay vii.] The influence of the German Reformers was felt more slowly among the French-speaking people of Switzerland than among those who spoke German. The difference in Protestant language made the work of indoctrination no easy Currents procegs_ The course of Protestant evangelism in French Switzerland was simple — an eastern current setting in from German Switzerland, and a western one coming directly from France, and entering by Geneva as a door. The two met in Berne, which city at once became a centre for the dis- 238 THE REFORMATION semination of new doctrines throughout the French cantons. After the battle of Cappel the movement spread rapidly, and went as far as Geneva, where it allied itself with the forces already in operation there. Very soon a strong Protestant party arose in that city, which was firm in the beginning, and never wavered until it gained a complete victory. Geneva had been long an object of the ambition of the dukes of Savoy, an historical struggle later commemorated by Byron in the incident which suggested his "Prisoner of Chil- lon," an historical poem, in which Bonnivard tells the sad story of a long period of persecution for conscience' sake : " My limbs are bow'd, though not with toil, But rusted with a vile repose ; For they have been a dungeon's spoil, And mine has been the fate of those To whom the goodly earth and air Are bann'd and barr'd — forbidden fare ; But this was for my father's faith I suffer'd chains and courted death : That father perish'd at the stake For tenets he would not forsake ; And for the same his lineal race In darkness found a dwelling-place. We were seven — who now are one. Six in youth, and one in age, Finish'd as they had begun, Proud of Persecution's rage ; One in fire, and two in field, Their belief with blood have seal'd ; Dying as their father died, For the God their foes denied ; — Three were in a dungeon cast, Of whom this wreck is left the last." A religious convention was held in Geneva in 1534. Farel who was the representative of the new doctrines, labored by speech and pen for their introduction. As in Eastern Switzer land, so here, the people were their own rulers, and had resist ed all attempts at absorption by ambitious princes. Popular meetings were held, where both Romanism and Protestantism were discussed freely. The doctrines of the Reformers spread however, until the majority of the citizens declared in favor of them. Anton Froment and Peter Viret co-operated with Farel in prosecuting the one work which lay near their hearts. FRENCH SWITZERLAND 239 All the great Reformers had a prompt and subtile perception of character. They seemed to recognize their helpers by un erring instinct. One July evening, in 1536, a French stranger called on Farel, asked advice, expressed sympathy with the Reformation, and was about to take his leave and proceed on . .. r. . , tis journey. But Farel was so attracted to him that John Calvin .J . ^ . , . he invited him to spend a few days. This stranger was John Calvin. He was born in Noyon, France, 1509, and died in Geneva, 1564. He received an excellent education, and was thoroughly prepared for the practice of the law. His acquaintance with the classics was intimate. His first work, written when a young man of twenty-three, was a crit ical edition of Seneca's essay on "Clemency." He studied in Paris, Bourges, and Orleans. While in the last place, and about the year 1532, he came in contact with a German Re former, who told him more fully than he had known the great doctrines of the Protestants of Germany. Calvin resolved to turn his attention to theology, and to accept the doctrines of the new reform. In due time we find him going abroad. There was no peace for his soul, nor any rest for his body. He went southward, and for a time stayed in Angouleme, where, for a century, there lingered certain pleasant traditions of the quiet stranger, who studied hard by day and night. He left Angouleme, and knew not whither to go. In the preface to his " Psalms " he spoke of this period of early uncertainty and anguish of soul : " God led me about by so many circui tous paths that I could nowhere find rest." During 1534 he wandered about in many directions, conversing with the most cultivated people, and doing all that lay in his power to com municate a knowledge of Protestant doctrines. We now find him suddenly in his native Noyon, now publishing a little book (the " Psychopannychia ") against the French Anabap tists, now halting awhile in Paris, and now — with a good pros pect of being cast into prison with the rest of the outspoken foes of the papacy — resolving to go "to some hidden corner" in Germany, where he could study theology in quiet. Of all Calvin's friends, only one accompanied him — Louis du Tillet. He was in full sympathy with him, and the two resolved to travel together and share each other's Calvin in fortuneg- The two fugitives had no easy task to reach the limits of France. A servant stole all their 240 THE REFORMATION money and ran away. They reached Basel in 1535 in a pen niless condition ; but the Protestants of that hospitable city had welcomed Farel ten years before, and also, later, both Cop and Courault, and now they welcomed with the same cordial ity both Calvin and his friend. While here he devoted him self with passionate eagerness to Biblical studies, for he knew that the Bible underlay the entire Protestant fabric. He heard unfavorable news from France. The Protestants were thrust into prison, and their lives were in constant danger. They were without cohesion, guidance, or intention. Calvin resolved to write a theological system for their special benefit. He now conceived the idea of his " Institutes of the Christian Relig ion," which he published in 1536, and which became the doc trinal standard for all the Reformed churches of the Conti nent and Great Britain. Calvin had no great sense of relief when his book was com pleted. His work was published under the assumed name of " Martianus Lucanius," and so retired had been his "Geneva0 manner of living, and so timid his nature, that no one knew of his plan or who this new author might be. Probably to avoid discovery, as much as for any other reason, he determined to leave Basel. He, in company with his friend Du Tillet, journeyed to Italy, and stayed awhile in Ferrara, where Renata, the Protestant daughter of Louis XII. of France, was duchess. He then quietly returned to his na tive town, Noyon, and arranged the affairs of his now broken home, and left it forever. He took with him his brother An ton, who was in full sympathy with his views. He now turned his face towards Germany again, intending to make Stras burg, or perhaps Basel, his permanent home. The war of this time, 1536, made his journey a dangerous undertaking ; and, the way to Strasburg being closed against him, he was com pelled to go southward through Savoy. One evening, about July 1st, he arrived at Geneva. He expected to stay one night, and in the morning to proceed northward. Farel was fasci nated by his scholarship and spirit. Farel invited Calvin to settle in Geneva, and take charge of the new Protestant Church of that city. Calvin refused. He Calvin and Farel Ple^ded his vouth> inexperience, constitutional timidity, and the need of continuing his studies in a place where he could have perfect quiet. He begged to FRENCH SWITZERLAND 241 be spared. But Farel saw in all these reasons only the bet ter ground why Calvin should stay in Geneva. He said, in great excitement, to him : "You plead your studies. But, in the name of the Almighty God, I say to thee, God's curse will overtake thee if thou deprivest God's work of thy help, and seek thyself more than Christ !" Farel's threat accomplished what his persuasion could not do. The call of an hour length ened into a visit, and the visit into a whole lifetime. The acquaintance between Farel and Calvin ripened into one of those beautiful friendships with which Christianity has always abounded in its periods of throe and agony. By a natural gravitation of his genius, Calvin assumed the direction of the Protestant movements from Geneva as a centre. He was soon in charge of the civil administration of the city, and re mained identified with the interests of its citizens until his death. Without knowing it, the group of Genevan Reform ers were rather waiting for guidance than following a settled policy. They were pausing for a leader, and now they found one in Calvin. To a man of less nerve and wisdom than Calvin, the work of organizing the Protestants of Geneva into a compact and aggressive Church would have been a hopeless Calvin and the &° . , . „ ., , ,, „ , , r Genevese Church undertaking. He saw that the first need was a common platform of faith — a Confession. In three months' time the Genevese possessed their Confession, in twenty-one articles. Farel's name stood as the responsible author, but Calvin's exact style and strong spirit pervade ev ery part. On November 10th it was placed before the city council for adoption, and was accepted. Then came new meas ures, one after another, in rapid succession — a plan for pop ular education, a scheme of organization of the Church in Geneva, measures of discipline and support, and a catechism. Civil regulations were shaped according to the new ecclesias tical constitution, and some of the regulations were severe and exacting in the extreme. The theologians were novices at civil legislation, but there was no want of Spartan inflexibility. The Libertines, a political party of Geneva, who were op posed to the strict life of the Reformers, and saw in the Ref ormation a restraint on the morals of the people, Exile of th« arose against both Farel and Calvin, and secured Reformers & . ' their banishment, rarel, after a stay ot seven 242 THE REFORMATION weeks in Basel, went to Neuchatel, and thence to Metz, where, and in the neighboring Gorze, he labored zealously for the gospel. Calvin went to Strasburg, where he had once found a refuge from persecution at home. The two Reformers were at once brought into close relations with the Strasburg cir cle of Protestant leaders — Bucer, Capito, and Hedio. It was a happy company. Calvin calculated on a permanent stay there, for they saw little hope of the early rise of Protes tant authority in Geneva. He took papers of citizenship as a Strasburg resident, and, later, in 1540, was married to Ide- lette von Buren, a lady in every way worthy of his confidence and affection. He became pastor of the French Emigrant Church, and, with his practical duties, was absorbed in his studies. In due time the people of Geneva repented of their error in banishing the two Reformers, for they found they needed them for the government of the city. Calvin was CatVonGe"eevaa" recalled, but, with true nobility of soul, refused to accept the offer unless Farel, his early benefactor, was also permitted to return. The same liberty was there fore granted Farel, though it is not known that he accepted the privilege.* But Calvin was welcomed back to Geneva amid the rejoicings of the whole population. Henceforth Cal vin stood at the head of affairs, and continued in that relation until his death. He " belonged to Geneva henceforth, and Ge neva to him." The organization of the Genevese Church was perfected in directions where it had proved to be weak ; Cal vin preached repentance, that the entire population should repent of their sins of many years, and begin to serve God anew. Viret became a powerful aid to him, and there was no want of strong and wise leadership. Laws relating to the clergy, the church, divine service, and schools were enacted, and there was no department passed by in the new administra tion under the direction of Calvin. A Protestant university was established in that city, where young men were trained in the new doctrines of Protestantism. A theological semi nary was organized in Lausanne, under the direction of Viret, and strongly aggressive measures were employed to extend the work throughout the French cantons. * According to Hagenbach and Kurtz, Farel did not return to Geneva. FRENCH SWITZERLAND 243 The work left unfinished by Calvin at his death was taken up by Beza. His nature was different from that of Calvin. The latter had a broader mind, was stronger in purpose, and could have ruled a kingdom had he been born to an earthly crown. He was a master in the management of men, less by accommodating differences than by inducing men to of "caivin accePt his own views. His theology found its way into Germany, where it produced the Reformed Church was taught in the University of Heidelberg ; extended to Hoi land ; formed the basis of the prevailing confession there crossed the Channel into England ; exerted a marked influ ence on the new Anglican Church ; ascended into Scotland became the theological foundation of the Scotch National Church; came over to this country with the Pilgrims in the Mayflower in 1620 ; and has had no small share in moulding the faith of the people in the colonies, and the states and ter ritories which have grown from them. Beza (1519-1605) carried on the incomplete labors of Cal vin. He was a man of noble birth, trained for the law, of fine gifts, a scholar and a poet. In 1549 he was appointed professor of Greek in the Academy of Lausanne. He revived the sacred dramas of the Middle Ages, wrote a suc cessful one himself, in which he cleverly contrasted Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, aided Calvin in his "Commen taries on St. Paul's Epistles," and completed a metrical version of the Psalter. He made a notable defence of Protestantism before Charles IX. and a brilliant assembly of nobles and clergy in the Abbey of Poissy, near Paris, September 9th, 1561. His great service to the Reformed faith, however, was rendered in his Latin version of the New Testament (1556) and his edi tion of the Greek Testament (1565), both fully annotated. The later editions of his Greek text were the main basis for the Authorized Version, and his Latin version also exerted a great influence upon the King James translators. The second Helvetic Confession, adopted in 1566, became the formula of faith for the Protestants of all French Switzerland. It was in general harmony with the Augsburg Second Helvetic Confesgi0n, but with more emphasis on the doc- Confession ' . r trine of election. The Protestantism ot (ieneva and other parts of French Switzerland exerted a strong influ ence on the cause in France. The intercourse was constantly 244 THE REFORMATION maintained. The works from the Genevan press, and espe cially the tracts, were carried by tradesmen and others into most of the southern provinces of France, and aided largely in creating a French sentiment and giving courage to the rising Huguenots. Thus Geneva, which became a refuge for the fugi tive Calvin and other French Protestants, became a fort which, for generations, and, indeed, down to the present time, has dis charged its Protestant artillery against the very country which produced and drove out its best sons and daughters. CHAPTER IX THE ENGLISH REFORMATION— FIRST PERIOD, 1509-1553 [Authorities. — On the reform of Wycliffe, among many first-class works, the three following will be sufficient : R. Lane Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform (London and N. Y., 1889) ; G. V. Lechler, Life of Wiclif (Lon don, 1878) ; T. L. Wilson, Life of Wycliffe (N. T., 1884). From the copi ous literature of the English Reformation it is hard to make a selection. For the general reader, these works can be cordially commended, as at once popular, scholarly, and sympathetic : Perry, History of the Reforma tion in England (London and N. Y., 1886, in Creighton's Epoch Series) ; Perry, Student's Manual of English Church History (London, 3d ed., 1885) ; Williams (Bishop of Connecticut), Studies on the English Reformation (N. Y., 1881); Geikie, The English Reformation (N. Y., 1879); W. H. Beckett, The English Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, with chap ters on Monastic England and the Wycliffite Reformation, with maps and portraits (London, 1890). On Colet, Erasmus, and More, see Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers of 1498 (London, 1869). T. E. Bridgett has published an exhaustive study, from a Catholic standpoint, of the Life and Writings of More (London, 1891). On the disputed character of Cranmer, let the Histories of Macaulay, Green (the larger), and Gardiner (London, 1890-91), also Hume and Froude, be compared. The best book on the English Bible Translations is Dr. J. I. Mombert's Handbook of the English Versions of ihe Bible (N. Y., 1883), who has given much original research to the theme, especially on the work of Tyndale. Moulton's Hist, of the English Bible (London, 1878) and Westcott's General View of the History of the English Bible (London, 1868) are also admirable works. See Demans's Tyndale : a Biography (London, R. T. S., n. d.).] The early attempts at reformation in England were in ad vance of those in any other part of Europe. To that country belongs the honor of having discovered the need of a univer- THE ENGLISH REFORMATION 245 sal religious regeneration in Europe. The beginnings of re form centred in Wycliffe, born about 1315. He was a student, and afterwards professor, in Oxford. His first position of hostility to the prevailing doctrines was his declara tion against the mendicant monks, who went up and down the land, extorting money from the people, and preaching against learning and progress in every form. He issued several pam phlets against them, and called loudly to his countrymen to get rid of them. So signal was his service that he was pro moted to a wardenship in Oxford— namely, of Balliol Hall, or College. Four years later, in 1365, he became master of Can terbury Hall, or the Christ College of a later day. Schemes were soon in progress on the part of Langham, Archbishop of Canterbury, to eject Wycliffe, and the pope is sued a bull to that effect in 1370. Wycliffe replied ^ycHHo" kv a tract against the papal policy arraying itself in hostility to the nation. The king, Edward III., was already in revolt against the pope, and took up the cause of Wycliffe, who was appointed a royal chaplain and rector of Lutterworth. Wycliffe gained a clearer view every year of the corruptions of the Church, and preached boldly against them. He was summoned by the authorities of the Church for trial for heresy, but the meeting ended in a violent dispute between the Bishop of London and the Duke of Lancaster, and nothing was done. He was indicted before the pope for nineteen al leged heresies, and in 1377 the pope issued no less than five bulls against him. A second time he was tried, and escaped through the sympathy of the people. The court, which was held in Lambeth Palace, broke up in disorder, but not without commanding Wycliffe to stop preaching and writing. But he was, if possible, more industrious than ever. He spared no evil that he saw about him, and hurled anathemas against wil ful pope and deluded priesthood. He died a natural death in his own house in Lutterworth. The same council which exe cuted Huss, that of Constance, in 1415, condemned the writings of Wycliffe, and in 1428 his dust was taken from the grave and cast out upon the Avon. The event gave rise to Fuller's lines : " The Avon to the Severn runs, And Severn to the sea ; And Wycliffe's dust shall spread abroad, Wide as the waters be." 246 THE REFORMATION Wycliffe's greatest service to the coming Reformation was, first, his translation of the New Testament, and afterwards the whole Bible, into English. It was the first attempt EngMsh'Bibie at reproducing any considerable portion of the Scriptures into the popular tongue, and was a new revelation to the English people. The original of his trans lation was the Latin Vulgate, a very faulty source, but yet good enough to create a thirst for better things and prepare the way for the pure Word. Between Wycliffe and the Re formers of Henry VIII.'s reign lay a period of nearly two centuries. But through all those years the seeds planted by Wycliffe never died. No great interval passed without some bold spirit arising, and saying strong words of protest against the errors of the times. The age was not ripe, as yet, for or ganized effort. The herald's mission must first be wrought out. The political character of the English Reformation was a striking feature from the outset. In this regard the new movement differed from that in all other countries, of9Reforrn exceV^ Holland. While the people were fully ready for religious revolt, the first organized rupture with Rome came from the king, Henry VIII. The influence of his court was favorable to the cause, not as a spiritual necessity, but as a means of national independence. Then came the in flow of Protestants from the Continent. Many learned men crossed the Channel, and settled in Oxford and Cambridge, and conducted discussions in favor of the Reformation. Among them may be mentioned Ochino, Peter Martyr, Mar tin Bucer, Paul Fagius, and Tremellius. But greatest of all the men from abroad was Erasmus, whose Greek New Testa ment found a ready entrance into England. He settled in Cambridge, and taught there. Henry's grievance against Romanism was purely personal. He wanted more wives than Rome was willing to grant him. Henry viii 's ^ ^ad ^een marrie(l, while his father was yet Patronage of king, to Catharine of Aragon, the daughter of the Reformation Ferdinand and Isabella, and the widow of Henry VIL's eldest son, Arthur. The king, for political reasons, chose Catharine as wife for his second son and successor on the throne, Henry VIII. After a marriage of nearly twenty years, Henry VIII. resolved on a divorce from Catharine, and the disinheriting of their daughter Mary. His object was to THE ENGLISH REFORMATION 247 marry Anne Boleyn. But the question was, how to get the pope's consent. Wolsey was deputed to do this work, and to proceed in person to Rome. Should the pope consent, he would offend the Emperor Charles V., who would be insulted by the divorce of Heniy from Catharine. Should he refuse, he knew that it would be an affront to England. He chose . the latter, as by that course he thought he would have less to lose. What should Henry VIII. do ? He had made public his determination. The religious revolt in Germany proved to him that rebellion against the papacy was in the air of the age. His own people were eager for reform. So he deter mined to put away his wife, disavow his daughter, and make Anne Boleyn his queen. This brought about an open rupture with the pope. Henry's real purpose was a National Roman Catholic Church, with himself as head. But this proved an impossibility. He saw there could not be two independent Catholicisms, one on the Tiber and the other on the Thames. He was borne along by the current of his people, and found himself finally compelled to link himself ostensibly with the new Protestantism, and yet, in reality, deeply in sympathy with the old Romanism. Henry VIII. was a Roman Catholic in all but name and endorsement of the papacy. He despised the Lutheran doctrines, and even wrote against them. His book against Luther was so fully Romanist that it was hailed in Rome as a powerful attack on Protestantism, and it even secured to Henry VIII., from Leo X., the title of " defender of the faith." Luther, however, went on stead ily. He was master of his theme, and, besides refuting the positions of Henry, paid him the compliment of saying : " When God wants a fool, he turns a king into a theological writer." There was no positively settled policy on the part of king or Parliament. One day the Roman Catholics, under the lead of Cardinal Pole and Bishop Gardiner, had the confidence of the king, and on another Thomas Cromwell and Cranmer were the stronger. Parliament was the willing servant of a capricious tyrant, and at one hour was ready to revoke its work of the preceding one. As a proof of how nearly Eng land remained Roman Catholic under Henry VIII., we may mention the fact that, at his dictation, in 1537, Parliament established the following six articles of faith : 248 THE REFORMATION 1. Transubstantiation, or the real presence of Christ in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. 2. Sufficiency of communion in one kind only. 3. Illegality of the marriage of priests. 4. Obligation of vows of celibacy. 5. Propriety of retaining private masses. 6. Necessity of the confessional. It must be remembered, however, that, notwithstanding all these attachments to the old Romanism, the country was grad ually drifting away from it. The old order was breaking up. The Bible was publicly distributed, and Protestant doctrines were gaining more friends every day. Colet (1466-1519) and Sir Thomas More (1480-1535) were of great influence in bringing about the revolution in the pop ular mind. The former had studied the classics Colet and More ._. .,, , .,,. ^ * -, in Italy, and brought with him to Oxford an ar dent love for the new Humanism. He introduced expository preaching, and a perpetual divinity lecture three days of each week in St. Paul's Church. His great object of attack was the profligacy of the Church, from the papacy down, through all grades of priesthood, as he had witnessed it in Rome. He cried aloud for the redemption of bis beloved England : " Oh, Jesu Christ, wash for us not ' our feet only, but also our hands and our head.' Otherwise our disordered Church cannot be far from death !" Sir Thomas More was a student in Oxford when he imbibed the new learning and became intimate with Erasmus and Colet. He was made Lord Chancellor of Eng land on the fall of Wolsey, and was held in high esteem by the king. He strongly opposed Protestant doctrines, however, and could never bring his conscience to assent to the suprem acy of Henry over the Church. He incurred the king's dis pleasure by disapproving the latter's divorce from Catharine of Aragon, and absented himself from the coronation of Anne Boleyn. He refused to take the oath of allegiance to her as queen, and was sent to the Tower of London, and afterwards beheaded. He was a model of eloquence, purity of heart, do mestic virtue, simplicity, and tenderness. After kissing his ex ecutioner, he said, "Thou art to do me the greatest benefit that I can receive ; pluck up thy spirit, man, and be not afraid to do thine office. My neck is very short ; take heed, therefore, that thou strike not awry, for saving of thine honesty." THE ENGLISH REFORMATION 249 Cranmer was, of all men of his time, most powerful in hast ening the English reform. He erred in favoring the divorce of Henry and Catharine. He was rewarded by the Cranmer .•;,,._ , . . • , . king with the highest ecclesiastical preferment in his gift, the archbishopric of Canterbury. But Cranmer was a pure and unselfish man, and expressed only his real convic tions. When he afterwards yielded to Henry so far as to pro nounce his marriage with Anne Boleyn void, he was still the same pure man, but unwisely and irresolutely submitted to the pressure of the king. Cranmer became one of the regents of the kingdom after Henry's death. The young Edward, who succeeded Henry, was a Protestant, but he died early, and was succeeded by Mary, a rigid Roman Catholic. The court was at once filled with men in sympathy with her. The Reformers were now in danger. Cranmer, Latimer, and Rid ley were thrown into the Tower. Cranmer, in a moment of weakness, signed a recantation, but soon withdrew it. He, with Latimer and Ridley, was burned at the stake in 1556. His last words were, as he held in the flames the hand with which he had written bis recantation, " This unworthy hand ! Lord Jesus, receive my spirit !" The publication of the Bible in the language of the people was the most powerful single agency in bringing about the English Reformation. Tyndale translated the Publication of -^ew Testament, which was printed in Worms the bible in 1526, and introduced into England, and cir culated quietly over the country. Miles Coverdale's transla tion of the entire Bible appeared in 1535. This was the first complete English Bible ever printed. Without bearing any imprint of place or printer, the evidence is strong, founded on the resemblance of types, that it was printed in Zurich, by Christopher Froschover. Coverdale also published several of the Psalms in verse, with musical notes. The date is not known, but it was probably before 1538. The following was the way in which he sent out his little book on its singing mission : "Be not ashamed I warande the Though thou be rude in songe and ryme, Thou shalt to youth some occasion be In Godly sportes to passe theyr tyme." The following is his first stanza of Psalm cxxxvii. : 250 THE REFORMATION "At the rivers of Babilon there sat we doune ryght hevely Even whan we thought upon Sion we wept together sorofully for we were in soch hevynes y' we forgat al our merynes and left of all our sporte and playe on the willye trees yl were therby we hanged up our harpes truly And morned sore both night and day." Matthew's Bible appeared in 1537, with the royal sanction. Cranmer's translation of the Bible had, likewise, the royal ap proval, and was powerful in gaining many minds to the cause of reform. In addition to the Scriptures, other writings were circulated, as formularies of doctrine and the public services. Among these must be mentioned " The Ten Articles," " The Bishop's Book," " The King's Book," and " The King's Primer." Then comes Erasmus's " Paraphrase of the Scriptures," which, in 1547, was placed in the parish churches. In the same year the first "Book of Homilies " went out, with the royal approval. In 1549 the "First Communion Office," "Cranmer's Cate chism," and the " First English Liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer," were issued. In 1552 the "Second English Liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer," was ordered for use, while, in 1553, the "Forty -two Articles of Religion" and the "Larger Catechism " were approved and enjoined. At Henry's death Protestantism in England still continued to be an uncertainty. Much had been done, but no fixed state of things had been reached. Protestant CORneforniat|,onh6 mfluences were permeating the masses, and this was the most hopeful sign. Both the king and his subjects had rejected the pope's supremacy. The people had become acquainted with the Bible, and many now pos sessed copies in their own tongue. The monasteries had been suppressed, and their vast wealth secularized. A visitancy, to arrange services and preach Protestantism, was ordered throughout the kingdom. Religious formularies were made binding upon the people, and all the ecclesiastical offices were filled with Protestants. But Rome was still watchful for the opportunity of restoration in England. It was too fair a land to lose. Besides, there was a powerful party at home which was eager to restore the old order, and, by so doing, to bring itself to power and wealth. THE ENGLISH REFORMATION 251 CHAPTER X THE ENGLISH REFORMATION— SECOND PERIOD, 1553-1603 [Authorities. — See bibliography of preceding chapter. For works on the Puritan and Pilgrim Fathers, see later chapters.] There was great uncertainty as to the succession to Henry VIII. On the occupant of the throne depended largely the question of Protestantism in the British Isles. "e Edward" vi." lienrJ had left three children— Mary, whose mother was Catharine of Aragon ; Elizabeth, whose mother was Anne Boleyn ; and Edward, whose mother was Jane Seymour. It was now a question as to whether Mary, Elizabeth, or Edward should rule. The result proved that each one wore the crown. But who should first wear it ? Henry VIII. and Catharine had been divorced, and hence that ruled out Mary. Anne Boleyn was condemned to death, and that was a declaration that her child, Elizabeth, was illegiti mate. Against Edward no such objection could be made. His mother died a natural death, too early and too young to be cast away by the king. All England was divided into parties. The friends of Edward were shrewd and bold. They won at last, and seated the boy on the throne, in 1547, when he was only ten years of age. There was a protector ate over him, the first protector being the king's uncle on his mother's side, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset ; the sec ond, Dudley, Earl of Warwick. In addition to these men, who were Protestants, and gave a Protestant direction to the administration, Cranmer was the constant and practical ad viser of young Edward. In due time England was brought into strong Protestant sympathies, and special efforts were employed to indoctrinate the people in Protestant principles. An improved catechism was used for popular instruction ; the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds ; and the mass, clerical celibacy, the worship of images, and the invocation 252 THE REFORMATION of saints were abolished. The Protestant ascendency was marked by cruel repression. Many Catholics, and the more radical Protestants as well, were put to death. Edward VI. died in 1553. There now arose new troubles about the succession, and it was a question as to whether a Protestant or a Romanist should wear the crown. The strongest party would again win, and this time it was Mary's friends. Mary had been a sufferer on account of her Roman Catholic faith. The daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon, she carried to her new position the bitter memory of the injustice done her, and a determination to restore the land to the faith of her mother and her remote Spanish ancestors. A formal alliance with Spain was brought about through her marriage with Philip II. of Spain. No pains were now spared to bring into force the old order. Par liament hesitated ; but its members, finally fearing for their heads, tamely submitted. Power was restored to the ecclesi astical courts to depose and punish as they might judge best. No less than sixteen thousand clergymen were deposed from their positions. Strict celibacy was enjoined on every pastor. The oath of royal supremacy was no longer required. The English language was banished from the public services, and the Latin restored to its old place. All the old ceremonies in use before Henry were brought back again. Protestant teach ers were ejected from the universities. A commission was ap pointed to suppress heresy, and martyr-fires were kindled in various parts of England. A low estimate of persons burned places the martyrdoms at two hundred.* The number would have gone to thousands had not many leading Reformers fled to the Continent. Strasburg, Zurich, Geneva, and other places became their homes, where they established services in the English language, and waited until the time might come when they could return home. * Most of the authorities do not give any number. Worman, s. v. "Mary" in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, says that " most Prot estant writers reckon that about two hundred and eighty victims per ished at the stake " during Mary's reign. Lingard, on the other hand, puts the number at "almost two hundred." Green, Short History (Lon don, 1875, p. 361), at three hundred. Massingberd (Engl. Reformation, p. 423, quoted by Archdeacon Hardwick, Hist, of the Reformation, re vised ed. by Stubbs, p. 218, note 4) gives the same number. THE ENGLISH REFORMATION 253 Elizabeth succeeded Mary in 1558. She was gifted with rare caution, strong will, and a quick and accurate perception of character. She was a devoted Protestant, and t'he Reformation' immediately set to work to complete the inter rupted fabric of reform in her dominions. The country was desperate because of material reverses. England was losing at home and abroad, and the people were ready for any change. Roman Catholic rule had proven its inability to make them prosperous and happy. The queen at once recog nized Protestantism as the national faith. The "Articles" and second " Book of Homilies " were adopted in parliament and convocation in 1563, and Protestants were placed in charge of all the churches. The exiles came home from the Continent, and were among the most zealous in promoting the work of reform. The Independents were a growing class of people, who be lieved that neither Henry nor Elizabeth had broken fully from Rome. They looked upon the elaborate ceremo nial, the episcopacy, the use of robes, and the mild observance of the Sabbath as wretched remnants of the evil times, and would do away with all such reminders of Anti christ. They refused to adopt the new order, and would es tablish one of their own, in harmony with the example of the Genevan Church. Elizabeth took strong ground against the Independents. Variation from the established order, either to the side of Rome or of Puritanism, was punished with torture or death. The Act of Uniformity was enforced in 1563, and this was the first stroke of separation. By this act two thousand clergymen, some of them the most learned and pious in the kingdom, were driven out of their churches and homes. Lords Burleigh and Walsingham endeavored in vain to secure a compromise. The first English presbytery was organized at Wandsworth, and was the practical beginning of all the non-conforming bodies of England. But, despite all the internal divisions of English Protestantism, the Reforma tion became a fact under Elizabeth. Her long reign brought to England material prosperity ; but, still more, a strong and enduring Protestantism. The most important event of the English Reformation, in its relation to America, was the rise of the Brownist sect. Robert Brown, born about 1550, was a student in Cambridge. 254 THE REFORMATION While there he adopted Puritan views, and became a warm advocate of them. His followers went by the name of Brown- ists, and were alike firm in their hostility to the Church Pilgrims °^ England and to Romanism. The Brownists were persecuted, not so much by royal order as by the ec clesiastical courts. Unable to circulate their writings or hold public services, they fled from England, and organized a Church in Amsterdam, and afterwards in Leyden. In the latter place John Robinson was their pastor. They resolved on leaving Holland, and set sail for the New World. They landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620, and became the chief factor for the civil and religious development of the colonies and the United States. Holmes, in his " Robinson of Leyden," thus pictures the hour of their departure : ' ' No home for these ! Too well they knew The mitred king behind the throne ; The sails were set, the pennons flew, And westward ho ! for worlds unknown. " And these were they who gave us birth, The Pilgrims of the sunset wave ; Who won for us this virgin earth, And freedom with the soil they gave." THE SCOTCH REFOEMATION 255 CHAPTER XI THE SCOTCH REFORMATION [Authorities. — The best biography of Patrick Hamilton is that by Lorimer (Edinb., 1857). Lorimer was a faithful historical student, and his work is based on a careful study of the sources. Prof. A. F. Mitchell has a fine article on Hamilton in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia. A fresh review of the time has recently been made by J. Herkless, Cardinal Beauton, Priest and Politician (Edinb., 1891). The life of Mary, with the burning disputes which it has occasioned, can best be read in the History or Scotland by Burton (London, 1867-70), on the one side, and in Hosack's Mary Queen of Scots and her Accusers (new ed., Edinb., 1889) on the other. The reader will then have the whole evidence before him. An excellent summary of the situation, with the opinions of historians, is given in Prof. Fisher's His tory of the Reformation, chap. x. The latest book, T. F. Henderson's Casket Letters and Mary Queen of Scots (Edinb., 1889), concludes that, on the whole, the letters were written by Mary, yet admits that " up to the pres ent time her guilt has been more manifest than the genuineness of the letters." Froude's discussion, in his History of England, has been trav ersed by James F. Meline in his Mary Queen of Scots and her latest Eng lish Historian (N. Y., 1872). For John Knox, McCrie's Life is still valua ble (Edinb., 1841). Later works are Lorimer's John Knox and the Church of England (London, 1875); Wm. M. Taylor's admirable biography, John Knox (N. Y., 1885). For a general view of the Scotch Reformation, Lori mer's The Scottish Reformation (London, 1860) and the late Prof. J. C. Moffat's The Church in Scotland (Phila., 1884), both works which display the true historic temper, may be consulted. Dr. Moffat has done good work in tracing the constitution of the early Scotch Church, as well as in his treatment of the later periods.] The Scotch Reformers were of sturdy type, like their own rugged hills. Their country was not as yet under the English crown, but was a separate kingdom, divided into fierce Reformers and warlilie clans> and ruled by the Stuarts, a royal family in full sympathy with Rome. The bishops and the rulers were in close league to resist all Protestant en croachments. The new doctrines, however, did cross the Tweed, and were adopted there in various parts of the coun- 256 THE REFORMATION try. Cardinal Beatoun was appointed leading inquisitor, and he did not hesitate to kill heretics, and even to burn at the stake George Wishart, one of the most celebrated preachers and devout Christians of the time. Patrick Hamilton was the first Protestant leader. He was for a time on the Continent, and, though the movement was hazardous, he returned to Scot land, to carry out the cause that lay near his heart. He was not long permitted to preach and teach the new doctrines. He suffered martyrdom, and his followers were left without a guide. Mary Stuart was the daughter of James V., King of Scot land. Her father said of her : " The kingdom cam' wi' a lass [daughter of Robert Bruce], an' it wull gae wi' a ""ofscots6" Jass-" His words became a correct prophecy. The country was under a protectorate during her minor ity, about nineteen years. Through this period the drift was constantly towards Protestantism. The Scotch had imbibed the Calvinistic doctrines, and were growing firmer in their at tachment every year. Mary, on her reception as queen, caused great offence to them. Her French confessors and courtiers gave extreme Roman Catholic color to the very first days of her reign. Knox expressed the deep feeling of the people when he prayed: "Purify, O Lord, the heart of the queen from the poison of idolatry. Release her from the bondage of Satan in which she was brought up, and in which, from want of true teaching, she still remains." Mary's life was not blameless. In 1565 she was married to the Earl of Darnley. A disagreement took place between them, and, the queen be ing attached to an Italian, Rizzio, Darnley headed a conspiracy which murdered him. Darnley himself, according to the gen eral opinion of the Scotch at the time, was put to death by Bothwell, at Mary's instance, through the combined method of strangling and the explosion of the house in which he lay ill. Shortly afterwards Mary married Bothwell. The people had endured her rule as long as possible. The illustration of Romanism in the rule and life of their queen was enough to make the whole land thoroughly Protestant. The revolution broke out with great violence, and Mary fled to England. She had been invited by Elizabeth, and, when the invitation was accepted, Elizabeth showed her hospitality by throwing her into prison. Mary hoped that, Elizabeth having once been THE SCOTCH REFORMATION 257 declared illegitimate, she might lead the Roman Catholics af the country to revolt against Elizabeth's rule, and herself he- come queen of England. But Elizabeth was too shrewd to allow such a plan to succeed. Mary was tried, and put *io death in 158V, and Elizabeth became practically queen of both England and Scotland. Mary's revenge came, however, after her death, when her son succeeded Elizabeth, as James VI. of Scotland and James I. of England. John Knox was Hamilton's natural successor. He began just where his predecessor had left off, and very soon the Scotch John Kn Protestants felt the power of his genius. He was born in 1505, and in 1542 publicly proclaimed him self in Edinburgh as a Reformer. His studies had been lead ing him thither for some time, but from the moment of his public renunciation of Romanism he never wavered. His her oism was as intense as that of Luther. He felt, and there fore he spoke. He was, while preacher in St. Andrews, taken prisoner and sent to France, where he was subjected to near ly two years' bard labor in the galleys. As soon as he was released he promptly returned to England, and preached the doctrines of the Reformation with great eloquence. When Queen Mary ascended the throne, he fled to Germany, where he established himself in Frankfort-on-the-Main, as one of the three hundred Protestant exiles. He became pastor of the little colony of English refugees. From there he went to Geneva, where he imbibed from Calvin himself the Calvin- istio type of Protestantism. He was burned in effigy in Scot land by Mary's order — a very harmless proceeding on her part. In 1558 he published his "First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women." The Protestants formed an organized body, and bound themselves to resistance by a covenant. The country became involved in civil war, and, when peace was restored, Mary Queen of Scots had six interviews with him, and, though moved to tears by his elo quence, afterwards caused his arrest on the charge of treason. But the court acquitted him. He was fearless in all his work. His life was in constant danger, but he at no time hesitated to preach and teach the Protestant doctrines. He died in Edin burgh in 1572. By the time of his death the triumph of the Scotch Reformation was complete. It was the victory of the people, under the leadership of a brave and true man, against 17 258 THE REFORMATION the combined forces of a queen, a court, and a powerful nobil ity. The Scotch Reformers did their work so thoroughly that it was never necessary to do it over again. They had written their protest with their own blood, and it stands to this day. CHAPTER XII THE REFORMATION IN THE NETHERLANDS [Authorities. — The Dutch Reformation is the theme of a thorough work by "W. Carlos Martyn (N. Y., 1868). See also M. G. Hansen, The Reformed Church in the Netherlands (N. Y., 1884). The fascinating subject of Erasmus has been treated most fully by R. B. Drummond (London, 1873). An excellent sketch is Pennington's Life (London, 1875), the author of a work on Wycliffe. Froude has drawn the comparison between Luther and Erasmus in a keen and interesting way, and with general fairness, in the first volume of his Short Studies (London and N. Y., 1873). He is one of the three men taken up in Seebohm's Oxford Reformers (London, 1869).] The union of the Netherlands under the Spanish crown was a firm bond with the old order of monarchical and hierar chical despotism. Charles V., King of Spain and BCommo$n0Lifhee Emperor of Germany, received the country as an inheritance from his grandmother, Maria of Burgundy. The Dutch had always been distinguished for their love of freedom, and, even as far back as the Roman period, Julius Csesar was compelled to annex Batavia to his dominions, less as a conquered than as an affiliated province. The same love of independence still prevailed through all the mediaeval period, and expressed itself in both civil and re ligious life. The Brothers of the Common Life, a society which was founded in 1384, made it their chief aim to im prove the morals of the people, and looked intently upon a thorough reform. Gerhard Groot and Florentius Radewin represented the order, and the Brothers' House, in Deventer, was a centre for both laymen and preachers to teach and preach, and send their evangelists through the country. In the two schools of Deventer and Herzogenbusch alone there were, at one time, as many as twelve hundred students in attendance. When the news of the Wittenberg revolt from Romanism came, the whole country was eager for co-opera- IN THE NETHERLANDS 259 tion. In fact, in no land was there such a complete and pop ular preparation for the Reformation as in the Netherlands. Luther's writings were caught up with avidity, while his hymns were sung with fervor along the Dutch dikes, in the boats, and in the cottages of the whole country. The Ref ormation assumed a political character. The people were prohibited from adopting Protestantism, and were slaugh tered for disobedience. Charles V.'s measures were cruel and unremitting — a course which he continued until his abdica tion. Even among the last words spoken, in the far-off Span ish monastery of Yuste, to his son, Philip IL, he urged no leniency to his heretical subjects. So violent was the oppo sition to Protestantism that the people were driven to revolu tion, and the Spanish army marched thither, under the cruel Duke of Alva, to reduce the people to submission. The Edict of Worms, the cruel order against all sympathy with the Protestant cause, was made binding upon the Neth erlands. The Inquisition was established, and the "s ' " fires of martyrdom blazed all over the land. To be known as a Protestant was certain death. Not less than one hundred thousand people are computed to have been put to death for professing the new doctrines. After Charles V. ab dicated, and Philip II. , his son, succeeded him, there was even greater cruelty. After 1555 not a vestige of civil or religious liberty remained in the country. The Protestant nobility formed themselves into the Beggars' League, otherwise called the Compromise, by which they made it their object to over throw the Spanish authority and establish Protestantism and national independence. They were derisively called " Beg gars " by their oppressors. They adopted the term for their entire league, wore plain clothes made of the coarsest cloth, and carried a wooden bowl, bung to a wooden chain, as an emblem of their simplicity, and of their readiness to be called poor for conscience' sake. The Duke of Alva, at the head of / the Spanish army, succeeded in conquering the Beggars. But the peace was of only short duration. The seven northern provinces united in a league, the Utrecht Union (1579), and in due time conquered the Spanish army. William of Orange stood at the head of the movement for national independence, and he was succeeded, in 1584, by his son Maurice, who com pleted the work begun by his father. 260 THE REFORMATION Erasmus, of Rotterdam, belongs in the front rank of Re formers. He was the one cosmopolitan character of the times, and was Holland's greatest gift to the ecclesiastical scholarship of Europe. He did more than any man of the period of the Reformation to disseminate a knowledge of the New Testament. His pen touched all the lands which showed signs of awaking to the new life, for it was he who handed over to the Protestant cause the best and purest philological learning awakened by the Humanists. He was born in 1467, and died in 1536. After a thorough training in the University of Paris, he went to Oxford in 1498, through the influence of Lord Mountjoy, one of his pupils, where he taught privately for a short time. Here began his attachment to Sir Thomas More, which was only interrupted by the lat ter's death. Erasmus went to Italy for further studies, and took his doctor's degree in Turin. He stayed for a time in Bologna and Venice, at which latter place he published his first books. Henry VIII. invited him to England, and while on his way thither he wrote his " Praise of Folly," the most satirical work of the times. In this he makes Folly speak her own mind, and boast of her silliness. The work is a picture of priestly superstition, ignorance, and corruption. Erasmus returned to the Continent, and dwelt a long time in Basel, where he enjoyed the friendship of CEcolampadius and Beer, then prominent Reformers. He divided his time ¦nBasei cmeAy between Basel and England, all the while writ ing with great industry, and spreading a knowledge of the New Testament. His chief works were his "Colloquies," his edition of the Greek Testament, his Paraphrase on the same, and his " Praise of Folly." He was a profound and versatile scholar, and it was alone as such that he was important as a Reformer. He was always hesitant about withdrawing from Rome, allowed himself to come into opposition to Luther, and had no clear conception of that firm and strong theological basis which underlay the Protestant structure. He placed much faith in a compromise, and had not that clear vision to see that such a course was an impossibility in a grave crisis of principle. One of the most unpleasant chapters in the history of the Reformation, abundant as it is in beautiful and lasting friend ships, is the unfraternal relationship between Erasmus and IN THE NETHERLANDS 261 Luther. There was a time of cordiality, but this gave place to coldness, and even to bitterness. At the first Erasmus held that Luther's course was right, only that he was too an^Luther vehement; but he came to differ radically from his old friend. Doctrinally, they differed on the freedom of the will, Luther taking the Augustinian view in almost its full force. Besides, Erasmus hesitated to break openly with Rome, and so the distance between them widened. In the latter part of his life, in fact, Erasmus looked upon the Ref ormation as a calamity, and broke off all communication with the Reformers. Luther wrote the following of Erasmus, a proof of how unable men of genius often are to appreciate each other : " I have cracked many hollow nuts, which I thought had been good, but they fouled my mouth and filled it with dust : Erasmus and Caristadt are hollow nuts. Eras mus is a mere Momus, making his mows and mocks at every thing and everybody, at Papist and Protestant, but all the while using such shuffling and double-meaning terms that no one can lay hold of him to any effectual purpose. His chief doctrine is, Hang the cloak according to the wind. He only looked to himself to have good and easy days, and so died like an Epicurean, without any one comfort of God. I hold Erasmus of Rotterdam to be Christ's most bitter enemy. I leave this as my will and testament." This was harsh lan guage, unjust towards Erasmus, and not at all in harmony with Luther's generous nature. But it was called out by the Dutchman's profound estrangement from the new reforms. Erasmus's great services to the Reformation consisted in his breaking the spell of priestly influence by the bitterness of his satires, and in the increased Bible study which resulted from the publication (1516) of his fine edition of the Greek Testament. 262 THE REFORMATION CHAPTER XIII THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE [Authorities. — The bloody annals of early French Protestantism can be read in the great work of Prof. Henry M. Baird, History of the Rise of the Hugue nots of France (N. Y., 1879), and in De Felice's History of the Protestants of France (4th ed. N. Y., 1851). See also the general histories of France. On the Bartholomew slaughter, besides the above, see Henry White, The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, preceded by a History of the Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. (N. Y., 1871), a work written in a judicial spirit and after the most painstaking investigation. It is highly commended by Prof. Baird in an elaborate account of the massacre in the Methodist Quarterly Review, July and October, 1869, where he gives the conclusions stated later in his History. Prof. Fisher has an essay in his Discussions in History and Theology (N. Y., 1880), where the events are set forth with his usual clearness and impartiality. In one of the latest monographs, Vor der Bartholomausnacht (Strasburg, 1882), Hermann Baumgarten supports the view of Ranke, Soldan, and White, that the massacre was not premedi tated, but that the treaty with the Huguenots was sincere and their assem bling at the marriage in good faith ; that the queen mother brought about the attempted assassination of Coligny on account of his increasing in fluence with the king and her insane jealousy, and that this precipitated the wholesale slaughter. For the noble Coligny, read Besant, Coligny and the Failure of the French Reformation (N. Y., 1879), and Eugene Bersier, Coligny (London, 1884).] The outlook for Protestantism in France was very favorable at the beginning. The conditions were such that no violent The Protestant opposition could be expected, especially along the Ferment Seine and in the southern provinces. The seventy years' residence of the popes in Avignon had in flamed the people with a desire for a national Roman Catholic Church, and a corresponding hostility to Rome. The " Gal- lican " as against the " Papal " Church had long been a hope of French kings and people. There was abroad a spirit eu dissatisfaction with the existing order, and an ardent craving for religious liberty and freedom from the despotism of pro vincial princes. There were six principal causes which led to IN FRANCE 263 this desire for Reformation : the remaining influence of the early Paris Reformers, which was still powerful in private circles ; the religious fervor of the inhabitants of the Ce- vennes Mountains, in the south ; the example of the heroic Waldenses in the Vaudois Alps ; the example and force of the Genevan Reformers, with Calvin at their head ; the great work of the German Reformers, with Wittenberg as their centre of life and force ; and the literary spirit, or free ten dency towards inquiry, which radiated from the university into every part of the kingdom. Nothing was more dreaded by the Romanism of France than the work which was done by the German Reformers. The Measures books of Luther found their way into France, and against were translated and read extensively. By an or- Protestantism der of the Sorbonne they were publicly burned in the year 1521, and violent threats made against any French person reading them. Francis I., who succeeded to the throne in 1515, was a mixed character, now half Protestant, and again thoroughly Roman Catholic. In 1535 he was lenient enough to invite Melanchthon to a conference on religious af fairs in Paris — a bait which that calm German was too shrewd to accept, gladly replying that the Elector of Saxony re fused permission to leave Wittenberg. It will add emphasis to the real meaning of this generous patronage of German scholarship when we remember that, in that very year, Francis I. burned to death from twenty to thirty of his own subjects, because they were Huguenots. The real danger to the Protestants came from a firm alli ance between the authorities at Rome and the French throne. Francis I., whatever pleasant exterior he presented, Activity of remained, at heart, a bitter advocate of oppressive the Huguenots ' . ' . . rr measures against Protestantism in his own domin ions. But the Protestants, who in France were called Hugue nots, proceeded to the work of evangelization and organization. In 1553 their first church was established and recognized, and the first pastor installed, in Paris. They also had fifteen other societies in various parts of the kingdom, those in Meaux, Ano-ers, and Poitiers being among the chief. But there was no cohesion between them. They were simply isolated Chris tian bodies, tired of Romish supremacy, and in thorough sym pathy with the great Protestant cause in other lands. How- 264 THE REFORMATION ever, the scattered Huguenots soon coalesced, and in 1559 the General Synod of Paris met, and the Gallic Confession was adopted as the creed of French Protestantism. The Huguenots possessed a martial spirit. Many of them had a military education, and their fundamental error was their hope that, by political and martial measures, the" H^'ueno'ts theJ migbt succeed in the end. The royal family was divided between Huguenots and Romanists. The Bourbons were with the Huguenots, and the Guises with the Roman Catholics. The subdued opposition came to vio lent outbreak. The appeal was to arms, and in 1561 the land was convulsed by a civil war, which lasted thirty years. Three wars were carried on, and three times a peace was patched up. The third peace, that of St. Germain, in 1570, guaranteed lib erty of doctrine and public worship to the Huguenots, with the exception of the residence of the court and the city of Paris. Catharine de' Medici became regent in 1560, her son, Charles IX., being only ten years old. She professed profound sym pathy with the Huguenots, but was only playing a shrewd game of deception. She was waiting for an opportunity to deal destruction on every side. The increase of Protestantism at this time was remarkably rapid. The Synod of 1559 had not only adopted a Confession, which bore every mark of Calvin's hand, but had ^ug^enot's16 also thoroughly organized a Protestant Church, with a provision for provincial synods throughout the kingdom, and a complete system of Church discipline and litur gical order. When the war began, in 1561, there were, accord ing to Beza, four hundred thousand Huguenots throughout France, and Conde's list of their churches, presented as an ex hibit to Catharine de' Medici, comprised two thousand one hun dred and fifty names. They were distributed chiefly through the south and west. Normandy also possessed many of their societies, but in the north the Huguenots were less repre sented. It was arranged by Catharine that the semblance of a thor ough reconciliation between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics should take place. Charles's sister was stSho'iomew to marl7 Henry of Navarre, the leader of the Hu guenots. Brilliant festivities were arranged, and the whole land was alive with new joy that, at last, the Hu- IN FRANCE 265 guenots and Roman Catholics could live henceforth in peace, and each worship with equal rights before the law. The mar riage was celebrated August 18th, 1572, but on the night of the 24th a bell in the palace belfry gave the signal for general slaughter. This was the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Eve. The Huguenot chiefs were all in Paris, and their whereabouts was known. Admiral Coligny, an intrepid warrior and a firm Huguenot, was murdered in cold blood, and cast out of the window into the stone court below. For seven days and nights the streets ran with Protestant blood. Outside of Paris the massacre was sudden and overwhelming. The Loire and the Rhone ran red and thick with the blood and bodies of victims. The cities of Meaux, Orleans, Bourges, Lyons, Rouen, Tou louse, and Bordeaux were centres of the persecution. Not less than thirty thousand Huguenots fell beneath flame and sword.* The pretext for the universal murder was, that Coligny had concerted a secret conspiracy against the crown. There is not, and never was, a vestige of authority for even the suspicion of such a thing. At Rome there was great re joicing over the bloodshed. Pope Gregory ordered the ring ing of the bells of the city, and a special medal to be struck in honor of his triumph. The Huguenots were not willing, even yet, to surrender. They had lost immense numbers, but were eager to renew the conflict. The struggle began again, and in 1576 the Huguenot peace 0f Beaulieu guaranteed the Huguenots once more the liberty of worship and doctrine. Henry of Navarre ascended the throne in 1589 as Henry IV. He re nounced his Protestantism, as the price of his crown ; but, by the Edict of Nantes, in 1598, he gave full liberty to the Hu guenots to worship in places where they had established ser vices, and to stand equal with Roman Catholics before the law. Protestants now increased very rapidly. Henry IV. granted them personal safety and the right of worship in one hundred and fifty places throughout the kingdom, the chief of * The number is variously estimated from 20,000 to 100,000. Prof. Fisher (Reformation, 2d ed., pp. 276, 277) puts the number at " not less than 2000 in Paris, and as many as 20,000 in the rest of France." Jervis, in Student's Hist, of France, p. 343, quotes De Thou, as an authority for 30,000. 266 THE REFORMATION which were Bordeaux, Poitiers, and Montpellier. By the year 1628 they possessed six hundred and eighty-eight churches, and by 1637 these had grown to seven hundred and twenty. For nearly a century they enjoyed comparative peace, and rapidly multiplied in every department of ecclesiastical prosperity. When Louis XIV. came to the throne he strongly opposed them. No wrong was spared to make France an unwelcome home. There were at this time about two million Huguenots throughout the country, though at one time they had num bered at least one third the entire population of the country. In the quarter of a century preceding 1685, not less than five hundred and twenty of their churches were destroyed. They were permitted to leave the country, and the exile began in 1666. It continued not less than half a century, during which time a low estimate of the number of Huguenots who forsook France places it at one million. But still many remained, and, to give a finishing stroke to them, the Edict of Nantes was re voked in the year 1685. This act destroyed the last vestige of civil and religious rights now remaining to the Huguenots. There were still about one thousand of their pastors, and of these one hundred were sent to the galleys or put to death, six hundred fled the country, and the other three hundred disap peared in unaccountable ways. For a century Protestantism was almost blotted out of the country. Only at the close of the eighteenth century was there a comparative revival of the old Protestant spirit. IN ITALY 267 CHAPTER XIV THE REFORMATION IN ITALY [Authokities. — The notable work of Villari, The Life and Times of Savonarola (rev. ed., enlarged, London and N. Y., 1889), remains the best authority on the great Florentine. Prof. Wm. Clark, of Toronto, has written the best short Life (Chicago, 1890). It interprets his relation to his times in a very satisfactory manner. See Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence (London, 1881). George Eliot's portraiture in Romola (1863) is founded on studies prosecuted in Florence. Roscoe, in his Life of Leo X. (London, 1805, 6th ed., 1846), opened up to English readers the hollowness of the Italian revi val of letters. This, as well as his greater work on Lorenzo de' Medici (London, 1795), is still indispensable for a knowledge of this movement. See further at Chap. II. above. For the Reformation itself, the work of McCrie, Hist, of the Reformation in Italy (Phila., 1856), has had no successor. See, however, Stoughton, Footsteps of the Italian Reformers (London, 1881). The history of the Italian Reformation can best be read, however, in the lives of its heroes. For this we have these noble works : Wiffen's Juan Valdez (London, 1865), Young's Paleario (London, 1860), Bonnet's Paleario (Paris, 1862), Benrath's Ochino (London, 1876), Strack's Renata of Este (translated by Catherine E. Hurst, Cincinnati and N. Y., 1873), and Bon net's Olympia Morata (Edinb., 1854). The literature of the Trent Council will be noted in the next part (Chap. I.).] The Italians were prepared by Savonarola to give hearty credence to the new doctrines. He was born in Ferrara in 1452, and was executed in Florence in 1498. In Soil Prepared 14g4 he wan to preach in Brescia on the Book of by Savonarola . ° r Revelation. In 1489 he removed to Florence,* and became a monk in the Convent of St. Mark. He was an elo quent pleader for reformation in the Church, and showed no mercy in declaring against the corruptions of Rome. His great * The date of Savonarola's removal to Florence is an illustration of singularly discordant voices by the historians. Kurtz (last ed.) says 1481 ; Philip Smith, Student's Ecclesiastical History, a work written with constant reference to the best authorities, 1482; and Schaff, 1490. Con sult Villarls iiife, revised edition, 1889. 268 THE REFORMATION error lay in having interfered with the political convulsions of Florence. Not for his bold protest against immorality alone was he compelled to suffer : he became an object of political hostility on the part of Lorenzo and Pietro, of the Medici family, who had stood in charge of the republic of Florence. Savonarola was at the head of a revolution against them. The people of Florence, who were witnesses of his pure and sacri ficing life, believed in him fully, and supported him by their sympathy. Pietro de' Medici, unable to resist Savonarola alone, called to his aid the pope, Alexander VI., who was already eager to suppress the Florentine monk. The brave Reformer fell beneath the power of Rome. Savonarola had wrought alone. He held a free lance, and the power of his speech and the heroism of his life long survived his death. For the moral greatness of the man there was not, and could not be, a mar tyrdom. Venice was at this very time in the throes of the religious revolution. The works of Luther and his coadjutors were not only circulated, but even printed, along the 7r0omSthe'NBo0rthS Grand Canal Some little ski11 was needful to es cape papal interdiction. For example, the "Loci Theologici " of Melanchthon — the Greek term into which he translated his name, after the usage of scholars, from his German name of Schwarzerd, or Black Earth — was translated into Italian, and published under the almost undistinguishable, but accurately Italianized, name of " I Principii della Theo logia di Ippofilo de Terra Nigra." This work reached Rome, and was sold and read for a whole year with enthusiasm. When the copies were exhausted an order was sent to Venice for a new supply. A Franciscan friar discovered the identity of the author with the German Melanchthon, and exposed it. Of course, Rome was not long in seeing the heresy and order ing the burning of the dangerous book. Chardon de la Ro- chette wrote : " My hostess, the good mother Coleti, says her prayers every day before a beautiful miniature, which repre sents Luther on one side and Melanchthon on the other." Zwingli's works were circulated under the name of " Coricius Cogelius," and Bucer's "Psalms" went abroad in Italy and France as the commentary of "Aretius Felinus." Melanch thon was not astray when he wrote to George, Prince of An- halt : " What libraries have been carried from the late fair TN ITALY 269 into Italy, though the pope has published fresh edicts against us !" The war between the German Empire and Italy broke out in 1526, and in 1527 the imperial army sacked Rome itself, and for a long time occupied Naples. With this army there was a large number of Protestants. They carried the Reform south of the Alps, and the contagion spread among the Italian peoples. We have positive proof that Melanchthon corre sponded with the Venetian Reformers in 1529, and that Modena was a Lutheran city. Italy was the native country of Humanism. But the new scholarship was so negative, and manifested itself in the culti vated circles by such positive indifference towards Humanism a^ religious life, that the land, though rising in in telligence, drifted far from the gospel. The poems of Pontano, Sanazzaro, and Marcellus were nothing but ful some praises of the gods of Greece and Rome. The clergy introduced the whole dead mythology of the pagan times into their sermons, and drew parallels between Jupiter Maximus and God the Father, Apollo and Jesus, and Diana and the Virgin Mary. The people were left in profound ignorance. Dante said of the preachers of his day : " E'en they whose office is To preach the gospel, let the gospel sleep, And pass their own inventions off instead." In another place he became still more bold : " The preacher now provides himself with store Of jests and gibes ; and, so there be no lack Of laughter, while he vents them, his big cowl Distends, and he has won the meed he sought. Could but the vulgar catch a glimpse the while Of that dark bird which nestles in his hood, They scarce could wait to hear the blessing said, Which word the dotards hold in such esteem." Of the moral condition of Rome, Petrarch exclaimed : " Foul nest of treason I Is there aught Wherewith the spacious world is fraught Of bad or vile — 'tis hatched in thee ; Who revellest in thy costly meats, Thy precious wines and curious seats, And all the fruits of luxury." 270 THE REFORMATION The Protestant doctrines spread rapidly through every part of Italy. In the extreme south, or Calabria, where the de scendants of some Waldensian emigrants lived, ^aM^DocWnes tDe symPatliy with the new doctrines was prompt and strong. In the north every important town numbered among its people some disciples of the German Re formers. Ferrara, Modena, Florence, Bologna, Padua, Verona, Brescia, Milan, Lucca, and Venice had large numbers of de voted Reformers, who were reading, praying, and consulting, hoping that the same good providence which had favored their spiritual fathers in Germany would bless their country. Lucca had, perhaps, more adherents to the Reform than any other city. But Venice excelled all others in the distribution of the Scriptures. To Florence belonged the great honor of having three of its sons — Brucioli, Marmochini, and Teofilo — prepare, each, an Italian translation of the Scriptures. The version of Brucioli became the favorite. Among the firmest Reformers were Ochino, Peter Martyr, Paleario, Paschali, and Vergerio. None were more fully the objects of suspicion than the two former, both of whom succeeded in leaving the coun try before the officers could arrest them. In no country of Europe were women so prominent in the advocacy of the Reformation as in Italy. There was one court, Ferrara, where the duchess, Renata, was a Woman's Work „ ,, ' -i , . . firm adherent, and her court was in a quiet way a rallying-place for all Protestants. Calvin visited her once, and afterwards kept up a correspondence, until the poor woman was banished for her loyalty to Protestantism. Other women were none the less true, and, either socially or by their writings, did all in their power to advance the new measures. Olympia Morata, Isabella Mauricha, Lavinia della Rovere, Madonna Maddelena, and Madonna Cherbina (both of the Or- sini family), the learned duchess Julia Gonzaga, and the brill iant Vittoria Colonna, were representatives of a large class of noble and heroic women, who were among the first to welcome the doctrines from the North, and also among the first to suffer for their devotion to them. The cause of the Reformation advanced just far enough to be recognized as an opposing and dangerous religious factor, when the orders went out from Rome for its forcible suppres sion. There was nowhere sufficient momentum to the new IN ITALY 271 cause to organize a Church or establish a formulary of doc trine. But there were indications enough to begin the work of resistance. In 1542 the Inquisition, which was Protestantism already in operation in Spain, was ordered to be gin in Italy. Caraffa was put in charge of the work, and a more competent man could not be found. In every city where Protestants could be found they were pub licly executed, and without delay. Antonio Paleario, a prom inent Humanist, but of intense religious convictions, was burned. The powerful little treatise, " The Benefit of Christ's Death," was formerly attributed to him. It had an immense circulation, but was suppressed, and every copy, as was sup posed, destroyed. A copy was discovered in Cambridge, Eng land, in 1853, and it has been sent back to Italy to shed its light again in sweet revenge. The book issued from the re formatory circle at Naples, and was written by a disciple of Valdes. Paschali suffered a like fate. As a result, by the end of the century nearly every trace of Protestantism was sup pressed. The Council of Trent was the papal method of dealing with Protestantism outside of Italy. It was a recognition by Rome of the necessity of adopting a new course to arrest reform. It convened in December, 1545, and adjourned in 1547. One of its first acts was to revoke the old method of the rule of the majority, and to order that the pope's consent was necessary to every decree. Reforms in a small way were ordered. The two principal reformatory measures were, that better teachers and preachers should be provided by the bishops, and that bishops should be punished for neglect of their duties. But, with these concessions, the work of reform ended. The general spirit of the council was relentless in its opposition to Protestantism. Many Italians escaped death. Owing to the difficulty of detecting them, so soon as they reached the Alps they were generally safe from arrest. Italy was an aggre- italian Protes- g^ion of little duchies and republics, which were tants in Exile & r ' . often at war with each other, and this want ot civil connection favored their escape. The larger Swiss towns and cities had little groups of fugitive Italian Protestants, who received a cordial welcome, and to whom avenues of trade and industry were opened. The canton of the Grisons, 272 THE REFORMATION in the Eastern Alps, was almost populated by them. Its pop ulation consisted of three folk-stems — the old Rhetian, the Italian, and the German — and when the Protestants from the south took their place among them, they gave their impress to the faith and language of the whole people. A body of exiles from Locarno settled in Zurich, and established a Protestant service and organization there. Peter Martyr accepted an in vitation of Cranmer to go to England, and became a professor in Oxford. Ochino also went to England, and preached in London. Exiles from Italy, likewise, among whom may be named Paolo di Colli, Grataroli, Corrado, Teglio, Betti, Celso, and Curio, went to Basel, and settled there. All these men were talented, some being authors who had made themselves objects of suspicion at home because of their heroic devotion, by pen and speech, to the new Protestantism. CHAPTER XV THE REFORMATION IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL [Authobities. — Prescott's History of the Reign of Philip II. (Boston, 1855-58; Phila., later editions) is the best authority for the Reformation struggle in Spain. The Scotch historian McCrie, who did such good pioneer work in writing the history of the Reformation in countries where the Reform proved abortive, as well as in Scotland, where it did not, haB had no succes sor for Spain. His History of the Progress and Suppression of the Ref ormation in Spain (Edinb., 1829, new edition, 1855) is still about our only available work. The work of De Castros, The Spanish Protestants and their Suppression by Philip II., was translated and published in London in 1851. The interesting work of Stoughton should not be overlooked: The Spanish Reformers, their Memories and Dwelling-places (London, 1883). Our American historian, Henry Charles Lea, has put a great deal of research into the by-paths of history in his Chapters from the Religious History of Spain Connected with the Inquisition (Phila., 1890), the prelude to his forthcoming History of the Inquisition in Spain.] No country in Europe was under a more complete despotism than Spain. It was too far removed from the life and heart of Europe to respond aggressively to any profound move ment elsewhere. The Church and the State were attached together as by hooks of steel. Charles V., and later his IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 273 son, Philip n., ruled in harmony with the spirit of mediaeval oppression and superstition. There was no need of counsel from the pope, for they carried out every extreme potismT^Spain measure which could be acceptable to Rome. The completeness of the hierarchical rule in Spain can be seen from the statistics of the clergy and minor priesthood of this time. There were 58 archbishoprics, 684 bishoprics, 1 1,400 monasteries, 23,000 brotherhoods, 46,000 monks, 13,800 nuns, 312 secular priests, and over 400,000 ecclesiastics of other grades. With such a machinery as this, it can easily be imag ined that to introduce Protestant ideas was no easy task. Still, in spite of the distance of Spain from the general intel lectual activity of Europe, so powerful was the Protestant movement in the north and east that a sympathy with it was awakened even among the people of the Spanish peninsula. Spanish Mysticism, a peculiar phenomenon, indicative of coming religious life, had already permeated many classes. The new prosperity that came from discoveries Spanish Mystics . . , , . . ,, , . . , . , in America created an intellectual activity which took note of every new movement in other countries of Europe. The writings of Erasmus, and even of Luther, found their way south of the Pyrenees, and were read in secret by many persons of the more cultivated classes. A taste for them had been awakened by the Mysticism, which was a popular aspiration for purer morals and ecclesiastical government The officers of Charles V., and other members of his military court, came in contact with Luther's doctrines while in the German wars, and when they returned they brought this new attachment with them. As representatives of this class may be mentioned Alphonso de Virves and Ponce de la Fuente. Translations of the Bible into Spanish were a powerful aux iliary. Francis Enzinas, of Burgos, issued the first Spanish Bi ble in Antwerp, in 1543. Knowing that his emperor, Charles V., was a patron of learning — some kinds — he had the sim plicity to dedicate his version to that ruler. His reward was a confinement of fourteen months in a Brussels prison, on the ground that he had printed in capital letters the passage, " Where is boasting then ? It is excluded. By what law ? Of works ? Nay, but by the law of faith." (Romans, iii. 27.) Entire cloisters, such as San Isidoro del Campo, threw off the authority of Rome and adopted the Protestant doctrines. 274 THE REFORMATION Valladolid, Seville, and Medina del Campo became centres for the distribution of Protestant writings. Rodrigo de Valero, Juan iEgidius, Augustine Cazalla, and Diaz were Spread of the representatives of the new measures. Small socie- Reformation c . . ties were organized in many places, and public wor ship was held. Just as soon as the Spanish people expressed sympathy with the Reformation in an organized and public way, violent means were employed to arrest the work. The Suppression by inquisjtion was ordered from Rome. Fernando the Inquisition ^ Valdez was appointed Grand Inquisitor. He was the very man for the work, having an indomitable will, blind zeal for Roman Catholicism, and intense hostility towards the cause of Reform. Autos da Fe (Acts of Faith), or pub lic burnings of heretics, were kindled in twelve cities. All spectators of these scenes were granted plenary indulgences. The first prominent martyr was Carlos de Seso. Then came Domingo de Roxas, Garcia de Arrias, Montanos, and Hernan dez, as leaders of a great host of victims. Even women were not spared, whether from the nobility or lower classes. Maria Gomez, Maria de Boborguez, and Eleonora de Cisneros were noble representatives of their sex, in joyful readiness to endure martyrdom for their faith. Englishmen temporarily in Spain were likewise executed when known to be in sympathy with Protestantism. Portugal was much less affected by the reformatory move ment than Spain. Still, there were indications enough to excite alarm. Diego de Silva was appointed Grand Inquisitor. He performed his work thoroughly, and soon all Protestant traces were destroyed. The causes of failure in the whole Spanish peninsula are not difficult to find. Protestantism was largely a measure of scholars and thinkers. No Spanish Protestant was CFafiuSre°f gitte The lighter - stroked portions indicate the countries which revolted from Home. The darker portions represent those which remained iD alliance with the Roman power. SURVEY OF RESULTS 279 CHAPTER XVIII SURVEY OF RESULTS The fruits of the Reformation are not difficult to find. Hitherto there had been but little liberty granted the common people. They were oppressed both civilly and th^ReT^rnatio'n ecclesiastically, and all the political convulsions were of little fruit for them. The Hanse or Free Cities constituted a confederation of powerful centres, extend ing from the North Sea down to the Alps. They arose as a reaction against despotic measures, but no sooner did they gain independence than they were as repressive as their mas ters had been. The effect of the Reformation was to elevate the people to a thirst for liberty and a higher and purer citi zenship. Wherever the Protestant cause extended, it made the masses more self-asserting. Social respect and order were intro duced, and subjected to firm regulation. Nations were taught a higher regard for each other's rights, and kings learned that their subjects were no longer mere playthings or serfs. In some countries the aspiration for independence took organized shape. The Reformation became the mother of republics. The Dutch Republic was born of the efforts of the Protestants of the Netherlands to secure liberty of conscience. No thought of civil independence animated the Dutch at the outset. They simply fought for liberty of doctrine and worship. But once in the current, they were carried on. They builded more wise ly than they knew, and so founded a nation whose commerce covered every sea, whose discoveries reached the antipodes, and whose universities became the pride and wonder of Eu rope. The American Union owes a large measure of its genesis to the European struggle for reform. The Germans who came with Penn to this country were strongly attached to the doc trines of Luther, and immediately began to build churches 280 THE REFORMATION and establish schools in that interest. The Dutch who settled in New York and the adjacent country brought with Benefit to tnem a fervent love of Protestantism, which had been America , . ' , the creative force of their nation at home, and which their fathers had bought at the price of their treasure artd blood. The Swedes of New Jersey and Delaware were ani mated with the same attachment which they had enjoyed in Scandinavia. The Huguenots, who came here and settled in many places along the coast, from Massachusetts down to Georgia, found that safe asylum which was denied them at home because of their fidelity to their conscience. The Pil grims who came over in the Mayflower, and became the strong est nucleus in the development of our Northern colonies, were fugitives from oppression in their native England. All these elements, the finest wheat from the trampled harvest-fields of Europe, combined on these shores, and became a unit in this western planting of evangelical Christianity. Villers says with truth, after speaking of the debt which the United States owes to the Reformation : " Powerful republics are based on the Reformation. Republican principles, more powerful than weapons of steel, have been introduced among all nations. Great revolutions have come from this source, and those yet to come are innumerable." The promotion of learning was not the least benefit con ferred upon the world by the Reformation. Cultured men were its first advocates. The universities were the Promoted cra(^les °f Protestantism. Wherever superstition and other abnormal tendencies appeared, the Reformers promptly rebuked them. The translation of the Scriptures had the effect to formulate and solidify the languages as no other literary movement had been able to do. Wycliffe's Bi ble preserved the Saxon tongue, and our Authorized Version, or King James's version, shows its constant dependence upon his translation. Luther found the German a mere conglomera tion of rude and coarse dialects, and, in his translation of the Bible, he grouped the best and purest idioms, and, for the first time, made the German language a unit. Universities sprang up throughout Germany as an imme diate fruit of the Reformation. The University of Leyden was the first creation of the new nation which was born after the siege of that city was raised and the Spanish troops left FOUR-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF LUTHER'S BIRTH 281 the land. Not until now, and only as a fruit of the Reforma- Lite at tiorj) was the gospel generally preached in the pop ular language. When CEcolampadius, in 1522, be gan to preach in German, in the castle of Franz von Sickingen, even the friends of the reform regarded it as a dangerous pro cedure. His friend Caspar Hedio, for example, thought it hurrying matters too rapidly. In 1515 Leo X. issued his pro hibition against the printing and publication of all books trans lated from the Greek, the Hebrew, and the Arabic languages; but when the Reformation was once in progress the printing- press was free. The study of all the languages became a new fascination, which no edict could destroy. Public schools were introduced, though crudely at first, in Germany, directly through Luther's labors. The intermediate schools, between the lower and highest education, were established. The Ger man gymnasium of our times owes its real origin to the period of the Reformation. During the centuries since the Reforma tion over twenty universities, three fourths of which are Prot estant, have been founded in Germany alone. Holland has built up, in addition to the University of Leyden, five other universities, and all are the direct result of her Protestantism. Everywhere, where the Reformation triumphed and became a permanent force, the cause of education, good morals, and po litical liberty advanced securely and rapidly. CHAPTER XIX THE FOUR-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF LUTHER'S BIRTH [Authorities. — Dr. Schaff has a few words on the Celebrations of 1883 in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, appendix to art. on the Reformation. It was the occasion of a very extensive literature. See the Bibliographie der Lu- ther-Litteratur des Jahres 1883 (Frankfort, 1883); Reading Notes on Lu ther, by John Edmunds (Phila., 1883); W. E. Foster, of Providence, R. I., Luther bibliog. in Monthly Reference Lists (literary News office, N. Y.), November, 1883.] The memories of the Reformation have been renewed by the celebration on November 11th, 1883, of the four-hundredth anniversary of the birth of Luther. The day was observed with becoming festivities in all the Protestant countries of the 282 THE REFORMATION world. In Germany, as might be expected, the enthusiasm was more intense than anywhere else. In Berlin there was a pro cession of children, numbering nearly one hundred in Memory thousand, to whom the Emperor William distributed of Luther COpies 0f the works of the Reformer. Services were held in all the Protestant churches, and eulogies were pro nounced on Luther and his achievements in behalf of all Teu tonic peoples. In anticipation of November 11th, the Crown- Prince of Prussia, Frederic William, proceeded to Wittenberg, taking with him a laurel wreath, which, amid the silence of the multitude, he laid upon Luther's grave, in the floor of the Castle Church. Immediately afterwards the people sang Lu ther's martial hymn, which was caught up by the throngs in the streets and along the country roads. In Eisenach, which claimed the honor of having discovered Luther's genius when a choir-boy singing for his bread, the festivities were such as to attract people from every part of the Thuringian Forest. In Eisleben, where he was born and died, there was a popular re joicing not excelled in any part of Germany. The entire day was devoted to the celebration. The nobility and peasantry vied with each other in doing honor to the miner's son. Scenic representations, in which all the leading participants of the Reformation were personified, and marched at the head of a great procession through the streets, constituted the chief feat ure of the ceremonies by which the quaint town did honor to its own child. Even the Old Catholics of Germany, through the example and encouraging words of DoUinger, paid a trib ute to Luther's memory, because of the service he had done to the language and spiritual life of the Fatherland. In all the Slavic and Scandinavian countries the same regard was paid to the memory of Luther. Even in the very lands where his writings had been burned, wherever a little Prot estant society exists, by whatever denominational name it may be called, religious services were held and tributes to the Reformer pronounced. Such celebrations were observed in Spain, where the Protestants in Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Bilboa, and other cities united with their brethren in Ger many and the whole world in honoring Luther's name and memory. In Paris and other parts of France, where his doc trines had been despised, and from which Calvin, and, later, hundreds of thousands of Huguenots, had been driven, the FOUR-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF LUTHER's BIRTH 283 same rejoicings took place. In Italy there was a thoroughly organized plan to celebrate the Reformer's birthday wherever Protestantism had gained a foothold. In Florence there was first an immense children's meeting, which was followed by a general gathering, where missionaries from foreign countries united with the Waldenses and other native Protestants, each making an address in his own language, and the people sing ing Luther's hymn in Italian : "Forte Rocca e il nostro Dio." In Rome a large memorial service was held, where a sermon was preached, addresses made, and hymns sung. In Naples there was a similar celebration, where representatives of the Protestantism of many countries united in doing honor to the memory of Luther. Even as far south as Sicily, where, in the sixteenth century, it was certain death to profess sympathy with the Wittenberg heretic, there was a large meeting in Pa lermo, under the presidency of the venerable patriot, Emmanu- ele Sartorio. In the United States all Protestant denomina tions united in doing honor to the memory of Luther. Every department of his great work and character was made the subject of special consideration, in churches from the Atlantic across to the Pacific Ocean. It is a striking proof of the grow ing interest, even in secular circles, that, on the morning fol lowing this unique celebration in Eisleben, all the details ap peared, in both English and German, in the New York daily papers. History nowhere furnishes a higher tribute to the recognition of the worth of the worker for his fellow-men than in the fact that multitudes of Americans gathered in the churches and public halls to recall in gratitude and love the life and service of a miner's son, who was born when there was not a Christian on this Continent, and nine years before Columbus set out on the voyage that led to its discovery. THE MODERN CHURCH IN EUROPE A..D. 1558-1898 We have no single work on Modern Church History that covers the ground in a satisfactory manner. The General Church Histories, however, of Alzog [Roman Catholic], vol. iii. (Cincinnati, 1878), Gieseler, vol. v. (N. Y., 1879), Mosheim, vol. iii. (London, 1863, edited by Stubbs, who has brought the history down to the present time), and Blackburn (N. Y., 1879) bring the modern period into their view. The German historians are meagre, and not of great value when treating of affairs out of their own country, and especially of the evan gelical movements of the last two centuries. The last volume of Gieseler, as well as of Kurtz (N. Y., 1890), can be read with advantage, but also with caution. For the religious and theological movements of the Continent (but particularly of Germany) see Hagenbach, History of the Church in the Eighteenth and Nine teenth Centuries, translated, with additions, by John F. Hurst (N. Y., 1869). CHAPTER I RECUPERATIVE MEASURES OF ROMANISM [Authorities. — For Histories of the Council of Trent, see Buckley (London, 1852), Bungener, edited by McClintock (N. Y., 1855), Littledale (London and N. Y., 1889). An excellent edition in English of the Canons and Decrees, with a History of the Council, is furnished by Waterworth (Lon don, 1848).] The territorial expansion of Protestantism, combined with its rapid organization, in various confessional forms, produced great alarm in Rome. Even lands which had been Protestants and gUpp0Se(j to be firm in their old attachments had Catholics 1 r become intensely Protestant. There was no cri terion by which to determine where or when the moral revolu tion would cease. The division of the German Protestants into the two great bodies of Lutheran and Reformed did not seriously diminish the aggressive power of the Protestants in the heart of Europe. But there was little thought taken of the propagation of the gospel in heathen lands. Had the Prot estants on the Continent adopted measures for the evangeliza tion of heathen countries, especially the East and West Indies, they would have achieved a task which has been left for their successors in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to under take. Even meagre beginnings would have been an expression of confidence and heroism. The Roman Catholics, in this re spect, were controlled by greater wisdom. It is natural, how ever, that, the work of conquest being so new, the Protestant bodies should think the consolidation of their work at home their most serious work. The Roman Catholics looked, first of all, to a general coun cil as the best measure to arrest the increasing force of Protes tantism. But a council was known to be always Council of Trent n Ti , , a dangerous experiment. It was never adopted except as a last resort. It never failed to have two parties — ¦ 288 THE MODERN CHURCH radical and conservative. Still, so serious was the issue that Paul III. called one. It met, in 1545, in Trent, a town on one of the eastern Alpine passes between Italy and Germany. The most of the delegates were Italian, and were devoted to the conservative interests of Rome. But the Spanish and French bishops favored reformatory measures. They declared that the Church must take advanced steps, and adapt itself to the new needs of the times. The pope found the council trouble some, and removed it to Bologna in 1547, and dissolved it in 1549. Pius IV., however, convoked it again in 1562, in Trent, and dissolved it in 1563. The result was the condemnation of all Protestant doctrines, and the assumption of an aggressive attitude in every country. The doctrines of purgatory, the in vocation of saints, and the worship of images and relics were reaffirmed. At the same time the Council abolished some cry ing abuses, and brought in disciplinary reforms in regard to sale of indulgences, morals of convents, and education of cler gy. In this and other respects the Reformation produced a beneficial effect upon the Roman Catholic Church. There was no disposition on the part of the Roman Catholic Church to withdraw from even the countries whose govern ments had boldly committed themselves to the Protestant faith. The more devout minds in the Roman Catholic Church looked to the revival of the monastic orders as the most promising source of strength in counteracting Prot- Revive , '. . ' tic Provinces, Sweden, and Great Britain. But these home missions were not of the striking character of the for- THE ORDER OF JESUITS 291 eign ramifications. The lands of the long-prostrate Eastern Church received early attention. Pius IV. authorized Chris topher Roderic, in 1562, to establish a mission among the Copts of Egypt. The Armenians also received prompt atten tion. The Nestorians had been divided, and their unsettled condition was an attraction to the order. Syrian scholars es poused their cause, but the mission failed, despite all efforts. Abyssinia was also visited, where a mission under Barretas, with two bishops and ten Jesuits of inferior orders, was be gun in 1554. This endeavor also failed, because of the oppo sition of the Abyssinian kings. The commerce of the Portuguese in Eastern Asia led to an important Jesuit mission on the new lines of trade. Francis Xavier landed at Goa, in India, in 1542. Bassein in the north and Goa in the south became the great distribut ing centres. Many churches were built around the western coast of India, and many thousands of the natives were bap tized. Japan became an important field of Xavier's labors, where forty thousand natives were baptized in six years. China was also visited, and became a strong mission, under Xavier's successors. The conditions for baptism were easy. A slight disposition for renouncing heathenism was required. Many idolatrous practices were still permitted. Educational facilities for indoctrinating in the new faith were liberally provided. The Jesuits were successful in the Philippine Isl ands, but failed in the Carolines. The beginning of the Jesuit mission to Brazil was made by King John III. of Portugal, who sent over Emanuel de No- brega and four other priests. Peter Clave labored The Americas .,„ ., . . „ . . . , in the Spanish provinces oi South America, where three hundred thousand negroes were baptized by him alone. The Paraguayan missions were very successful. Whole tribes were grouped into missions. The Guaranis were brought in by multitudes. From thirty thousand to forty thousand fam ilies of these were organized into thirty-two towns. The order now moved northward, but with no loss of energy. It had a mission in Florida in 1566, and by 1570 had another on Chesa peake Bay. Florida was abandoned, Mexico offering a more inviting field. Here Kuno began in 1683. The French pos sessions of Canada were overspread with a network of Jesuit laborers. The whole line of the St. Lawrence was followed 292 THE MODEEN CHURCH westward, which met the missionaries following the Mississippi River from its mouth to its head-waters. From Mexico a chain of missions was extended northward along the Pacific coast, which extended as far as the Columbia River. But all known lands felt the impress of the tireless Jesuit missionary feet. An admiring poet, Levi Bishop, thus describes the bound less map of his labors : " With all his faults, from pole to pole He spreads the truth and feeds the human soul. In Ethiope, on Chilian mount sublime, In Paraguay, in Congo's sunny clime, In Bactriana, and in China far, In Japan's thousand isles, in Caff rara, In California, on the Amazon, In Australasia, by the Oregon, In Nouvelle France, in Aztec Mexico, In Iceland chill, and wheresoe'er we go, To earth's remotest bounds, we find him there." As a propagating force, the Jesuit order is the most pow erful piece of ecclesiastical machinery ever organized by the Roman Catholic Church. Its methods have va- Generai Influence j d ith th environment. The members have of Jesuitism operated apart from diocesan limitations. The authority for their work, and for their field of operation, comes directly from the pope. No bishop can interfere with the ex ercise of their work. The recuperative power of the order is an historical marvel. Banished or imprisoned to-day, to-mor row it is again on the march, and powerful alike in the audi ence-halls of kings and emperors. The repressive measures adopted by Germany, under the lead of Bismarck, after the close of the Franco-German War, in 1871, were in due time revoked. The full favor now enjoyed by the Roman Catholic Church in the German empire is, most likely, due largely to the careful and untiring labors of this order. The present sympathy between the imperial court in Berlin and the papal court in the Vatican is an anomaly in ecclesiastical history. The Roman Catholic members in the German Parliament were needed to secure a majority for larger military armaments. The price to be paid was the old liberty to Romanism in Ger many. The bargain was made, and has been kept. Among the most conspicuous objects of the jubilee celebration of the THE ENGLISH CHURCH 293 present pope's entrance into the priesthood was the new tiara, resplendent with precious stones. It was the gift of the Protestant Hohenzollern, the late Emperor William, to the friend of the Jesuit order and the representative of Roman Catholic authority, Pope Leo XIII., and was worn by the lat ter on this memorable occasion of his official career. CHAPTER in THE ENGLISH CHURCH UNDER JAMES I. AND CHARLES I. [Authorities. — For this period see the thorough and important work of Dixon History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the Roman Juris diction (London, 1878 sqq.,) ; Perry, History of the Church of England from the Death of Elizabeth to the Present Century (London, new ed., 1881) ; and Stoughton, History of Religion in England, vol. i. : The Church and the Civil Wars (new ed., N. Y., 1881-82). The two best books on the Westmin ster Assembly are Hetherington, History of the Westminster Assembly of Divines (4th ed., revised, Edinb., 1878), and Mitchell, The Westminster As sembly: its History and Standards (London, 1883). Compare a valuable article by Prof. Briggs, the first American authority on the Assembly, " The Documentary History of the Westminster Assembly," in Presbyterian Re view, January, 1880.] James VI. of Scotland became James I. of England (1603- 1625). The destiny of English Protestantism had appeared so often to be dependent on the caprice of the ruler, thePuritans that both the dissenting bodies and the Church of England were anxious about the probable policy of the new king. It was understood that James, being a Calvin- ist in theology, would exhibit little sympathy with either the Roman Catholics or the new Church of England. But no man was ever wise enough to forecast the policy of James or of any other Stuart. With all his Calvinism, which he had brought down with him from Scotland to London, he was never known to show any favor to either the Puritans or the Pres byterians, but pursued the policy of conciliation towards the Roman Catholics in England and on the Continent. When ever there was any way to injure the dissenting bodies, he did not hesitate to do it. 294 THE MODERN CHURCH When Elizabeth was queen the whole weight of her influ ence was given in favor of the struggling Protestants on the Continent. Her aid to the Dutch, in their strug- with^Euzab'eth S^e to throw on= tne Spanish yoke, was one of the most brilliant deeds in English annals. But James I., the " wise fool " of English history, courted the favor of Catholic Spain, and was willing to make any reasonable sacri fice in that corrupt political interest. Whatever would crush the Puritans at home, and help the Catholics abroad, and aid in thrusting on Scotland an episcopal government, was his supreme pleasure. The only hope of the nation lay in Parliament. The dis senting bodies were protected by it against the constant schem ing of James I. The majority of its members HopeiofmEng|,a'nd were Puritans> and were distinguished for intel ligence and an unconquerable devotion to the lib erties of the people. They knew how to watch the king with keen vision. The Puritans had little to hope from James I. The Presbyterians, however, had been his devoted friends. But for their uniting with the Established Church in aiding towards his securing the English crown, it is not at all likely that he would ever have sat upon the English throne. They were willing to accept a moderate episcopacy, and had full faith in James I. But he betrayed them. When on English soil he showed no regard for them, and never seemed to re member his obligation to their loyalty. The work with which James's name will be forever and hon orably associated is the so-called Authorized English Version Authorized or tne Bible. This was a revision of the Bishops' English Version Bible (1568), and was begun in 1607, finished in of the Bible 161Qj aj]d pubiisned in 16n It wag the work of forty-seven scholars (fifty-four were originally appointed), di vided into six companies, of which two met at Westminster, two at Oxford, and two at Cambridge. The work of these separate committees was afterwards supervised and brought into regularity by six persons, two from each company. Al though it bears on its title the words "Appointed to be read in Churches," there appears no record of any royal or exclusive authorization. It won its way at length, though against much opposition, on the strength of its own intrinsic merits. It finally superseded the Genevan Bible, which had hitherto been THE ENGLISH CHURCH 295 the most popular English version, and it has ever since been the Bible of the English-speaking race. The purity and sim plicity of its style, the beauty, vigor, and charm of its diction, and its general accuracy, have endeared it beyond measure to the hearts of the people. The crisis of religious oppression was reached in the reign of Charles I. (1625-49). His policy towards Catholicism was little better than that of James I. No one the^volutlon knew what a da^ would brinS fortL The wife of Charles was a devoted French Catholic, and she controlled his foreign policy. His claims of extreme royal power increased with his years, and his measures became op pressive to both the conscience and the political liberty of the people. The Court of High Commission and the Star Cham ber were tyrannical measures to carry out his will against the voice of the people. He saw no need of a parliament. He persecuted the Puritans at home, and, in his sympathy with the Catholics of France, sent help to Louis XIII., in 1625, to aid him in wresting Rochelle out of the Huguenot hands. When parliaments were called which would not obey him, they were dissolved. Between 1625 and 1629 three parliaments were con vened, and, because disobedient to the behests of Charles I., were disbanded. His cruelty to the Puritans, his despotic measures to raise money without authority of Parliament, his violent efforts to enforce the liturgy of the Established Church on Scotland, and the invasion of England by the army of Scot land, led to an extended civil war. In the battle of Marston Moor, in 1644, where Oliver Cromwell commanded the left wing, the Loyalists were defeated. In 1645, at the battle of Naseby, where Charles I. commanded in person, and Cromwell commanded the left wing of the Parliamentary army, the king was overwhelmingly defeated. He was tried by Parliament, and was executed in 1649. The successive failures of Absolu tism and Catholic alliances augured well for the full establish ment of Protestantism and religious liberty in England. One of the most notable events of the reign of Charles was the convening of the Westminster Assembly. The Parlia ment, proceeding in its independent course, and The ^*fmnbi|l}s,er without regard to the wishes of Charles I., or dered an assembly to meet, in 1643. It contin ued in session until 1647. It is known as the Westminster 296 THE MODERN CHURCH Assembly. The Presbyterians were in the majority. The ob ject of the convention was to reach some doctrinal formula which should express the Presbyterian doctrines, and also to aid in securing the adoption of the Covenant, by which both England and Scotland should adopt the Presbyterian polity. The Westminster Confession, the Longer and Shorter Cate chisms, and the Directory of Worship were adopted, and Par liament endorsed these measures. As an assembly for the statement of Christian doctrine, the Westminster divines per formed acts which have had, ever since, a most important bear ing on the whole subsequent history of the Church. But as a political force, the effort to introduce the Presbyterian polity throughout England was a failure. CHAPTER IV THE ENGLISH PURITANS [Authorities. — Neal, History of the Puritans (London, 1837; N. Y., 1844), is a thesaurus of information gathered and interpreted by a friendly hand. The brilliant articles by Bayne, The Puritan Revolution (London, 1878), are more popular, yet scholarly sketches from a similar standpoint. For short histories, see Stowell, History of the Puritans in England (London, new ed., 1878), and Marsden, History of the Early Puritans (London, 1850). Green's eloquent and interesting chapters on the Puritans should be read. He has a far keener and truer insight into the Puritan character than Ma caulay.] The early English revolt against Rome was the real origin of the later Puritans and all the non-conforming bodies of England. In the fourteenth century there had been Puritans strong tendencies among the more devout to protest against all superstitious and ritualistic practices. The movement crystallized in the Lollards, under Wycliffe as lead er. When the Reformation on the Continent was in full force, these people, who seemed to see in the new Protestant Church which Henry VIII. would give to England but little improve ment on that of Rome, organized themselves into a society which bore the name of the Christian Brethren. They did not break with the Established Church, but held themselves in THE ENGLISH PURITANS 297 reserve, to await events. Cambridge became their chief cen tre, but the movement soon extended to Oxford. The sources of Puritan strength were very important, and were to be found for the most part on the Continent. The writings of Luther and Melanchthon were trans- Puritan'sttength lated mto English and read with avidity. Cal vin, by an industrious correspondence, was of most valuable service. He boldly wrote to the king, and to the protector Somerset, and to Cranmer. His letters furnished powerful artillery for the Puritan campaign. Erasmus lived some time in Cambridge, and the weight of his influence, though without purpose, was with the Puritans. The pres tige of foreign Reformers led to their being called to both the English universities. Peter Martyr, the Pietro Vermigli of Italy, became a theological professor at Oxford ; Martin Bucer, of Switzerland, at Cambridge ; and Ochino, of Italy, a canon of Canterbury. The indirect result of all these foreigners in England was against all the prelatical and ritualistic tenden cies in the Church of England as organized by Henry VIII. and wrested from Rome by him as king. Edward VI. gave all promise of favoring a simple ritual and granting to the Puritans a full recognition. But he died after a short reign. Mary succeeded him. She aimed at the total overthrow of Protestantism. Death or banishment of all leading Protestants was the new order. Elizabeth succeeded her, and followed closely in the path of Henry VIII. The return of the exiles was a powerful accession to the Pu ritan party. Banishment had taken them to Geneva, Frank fort, and other Continental cities, where their asso- Ih*tHavblls ciations were with the Reformed, and where they adopted all the tastes of Calvin. Fuller says : " They brought nothing back with them but much learning and some experience." They no sooner landed in England than they began a vigorous fight against what they believed to be the fearful formalism of the Church of England. The thing which they attacked with most vigor was the robes, or habits, worn by the clergy. The strife bears the name of the Habits Con troversy. The Protestants declared that the compulsion to wear a certain kind of vestment was a violation of true lib erty, and was nothing less than a continuance of Romanism. The strife was bitter. But the term was a misnomer. Behind 298 THE MODERN CHURCH the protest against a certain robe was the entire mass of cere monials which the Puritans opposed. In 1662 the Act of Uni formity was passed, which gave the Puritans no chance. Ac cording to this act all ministers must use the Book of Common Prayer, and must declare their public assent to the same book. A like assent was required of all heads of colleges and school masters. It was a bold attempt to banish all dissent and lib erty of worship in the kingdom. As a consequence, more than two thousand ministers were turned out of their parishes.* They were thenceforward called, in many cases, by the broad er term of Non-conformists. In 1566 they formed themselves into a separate body, and boldly advocated the Nonconformists throwing off of surplices and all the ceremonial reminders of the Church of England. The queen and her Parliament resisted every measure adopted by the Non-conformists. A Presbyterian Church was organized, in Surrey, near London, in 1572, but was suppressed. The new High Court of Commission was the government's formal meth od of dealing with all Puritan measures. Their meetings were broken up, their books were prohibited, and imprisonment be came the order. Robert Brown was one of the most ardent Puritans. His followers were called Brownists. They were driven out of the country, settled in Holland, and became the nucleus of the Pilgrim Fathers who landed in New England in 1620. * There were three Acts of Uniformity, 1549, 1559, and 1662. They were all similar in their provisions. See Low and Pulling, Diet, of Eng lish History, p. 1024. THE QUAK-KRS 299 CHAPTER V THE QUAKERS [Authorities. — Available books on the early English Quakers are : Cunningham, The Quakers from their Origin (new ed., Edinb., 1 871) ; Frances Anne Budge, Annals of the Early Friends (London, 1877) ; Evans, Friends in the Seven teenth Century (Phila., 1875); Hodgson, Historical Memoirs of the Society of Friends (Phila., 1867). See Chase, in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, art. "Friends."] The rise of the Quakers was due to a latent spiritual desire to return to the primitive Christian, faith. The long conflict between the Episcopalian and the dissenting bodies OiTatferlsm promised little for the growth of Christian life among the people. They labored in the same general direc tion with the Puritans and Presbyterians. All alike were non conforming. But they had no visible connection with any re ligious body, and kept aloof from all political relations. They increased with great rapidity. Their heroism was of the lof tiest type. The persecutions visited upon them nerved them for more daring deeds of faith and patience. George Fox, born 1624, was the founder of the Quakers, or Friends. He was profoundly convinced that the office of the Holy Spirit was largely neglected, and that, in this F°* and his regard, the Church had wandered from its original faith. He began to preach his doctrines through out England, and many flocked to his standard. He gathered his followers from every class. The beautiful and calm life of his disciples, their devotion to the fundamental Christian doc trines, and their heroic meeting of persecution, gave them an additional charm. Soon there were Quaker preachers on the Continent as far east as Hungary. They spent but little time in answering the slanders of enemies. Their chief concern was a spiritual reformation of all Europe. While the principal part of the theological system of the Quakers related to the offices of the Holy Spirit, they laid 300 THE MODERN CHURCH emphasis on other doctrines. The divine sovereignty, the need of constant prayer, the duty of meditation on divine things, the certain general judgment, the necessity Doctrines of Peaoe and good-will, the refusal to take up carnal weapons, the impropriety of oaths, and the choice of the ministry without regard to sex, were matters of funda mental importance. The persecution of the Quakers in England was violent. No class of dissenters was visited with such gross treatment. _ . Even the women were not spared. Many Quak- the Quaker ers were driven out of the country. Many who Emigration remame(j were imprisoned and persecuted. A strong reinforcement came to the body by the accession of Will iam Penn. He was the son of an English admiral. He se cured the right to a large tract of land in America, which still bears his name — Pennsylvania. The settlement in Penn sylvania under Penn occurred in 1682. Many of his co religionists in England, with others from Germany, came to America. But even here they met with cruel oppression every where, except in Penn's colony. Their experience in two towns in New England was of a piece with their tribulations elsewhere : " Old Newbury, had her fields a tongue, And Salem's streets, could tell their story Of fainting women dragged along, Gashed by the whip accursed and gory." Though small in numbers, the Quakers have exerted a strong influence on the development of Christian civilization. Never were the rights of conscience more bravely the Quakers asserted than by the original Friends, and they have constantly labored for the amelioration of suffering and the abolition of injustice. They have been the bitter enemies of the slave-trade, and the great trials of Penn and Mead in 1670 at the Old Bailey courts " will forever remain as noble monuments of their resistance to the arbitrary pro ceedings of the courts of judicature and the violent infringe ment of the privilege of jury." Many reforms in the treat ment of the prisoner and the insane may be traced to their enlightened and uncompromising advocacy. They were the first to set on foot many movements, the beneficent results of which have spread far beyond themselves. CROMWELL AND THE COMMONWEALTH 301 CHAPTER VI CROMWELL AND THE COMMONWEALTH [Authokities. — The second volume of Stoughton's work on Religion in Eng land deals with this period. It is readable and reliable. An excellent Life of Cromwell has been written by J. Alanson Picton (new ed., London and N. Y., 1889). A very favorable view is that of Paxton Hood, Oliver Crom well: His Life and Times (London and N. Y., 1883), and a less favorable one is given by R. F. D. Palgrave, Oliver Cromwell : an Appreciation Based on Contemporary Evidence (London, 1890). Palgrave reverses all the fa vorable estimates of the Protector, and claims that his investigation " dis closes a Protector so unlike the image that modern fancy has set up, that he will deservedly be put to his purgation." With these books and the literature mentioned in the preceding chapters the reader should be able to form his own judgment on the much-abused and much-lauded Crom well. The greatest work on Milton is that of David Masson, Life and Lit erary History of John Milton (London, 1859-80). Better for all but the special student are, Richard Garnett, Life of Milton (London, 1889) ; Patti son, Milton (in Morley's English Writers, London and N. Y., 1879); and Masson, article " Milton," in Encyclopaedia Britanuica, 9th ed. ; also Ma caulay's famous essay.] Cromwell was born in 1599, being connected by blood with the family of Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, prime min ister to Henry VIII. He was educated at Sid ney Sussex College, Cambridge, and on his fa ther's death settled down to farm his own lands. He appeared first in public life as a member of Parliament, as early as 1628. He had been much with the Puritans, and imbibed their principles, and shared their hostility to Romanism. His appearance was plain and ungainly. He was clad in rustic and unfashionable attire. Sir Philip Harwick says of him, that he was inclined at first to treat him with contempt, but "I lived to see this gentleman, by multiplied successes and by more converse with good company, appear in my own eye of a comely presence, and a great and majestic deportment." Another of his contemporaries speaks of him in this pictu resque language : " He was a strong man in the dark perils of 302 THE MODERN CHURCH war ; in the high places of the field hope shone in him like a pillar of fire, when it had gone out in all others." The execution of Charles I. was not the destruction of the Royalist cause, nor was the new Parliament a unit in sup port of Cromwell. Though he repeatedly refused Charles II. ^ , & . * J in Search of a crown, even the simple authority which he exer- the Throne cise(j ag Protector of the Commonwealth was in constant danger. Charles IL, son of Charles I., fled to the Continent, and joined his mother in Paris. The Scotch Par liament was devoted to the house of Stuart, but the Scotch were still more attached to liberty. They were willing to have Charles II. back again, and so put an end to the Common wealth, but they wanted to be sure of his conduct. Charles II. was proclaimed king by the Scotch Parliament in 1649, but it was only " on condition of his good behavior," while the Covenanters required him to sign " articles of repentance." He was willing to submit to indignity, provided he could gain his father's crown. The army which gathered about him was defeated by Cromwell's army at Worcester in 1651. Charles escaped to France. Cromwell was now supreme in the land. In 1653 he entered the House of Commons, and dissolved it in these words : " You are no longer a Parlia ment." In 1654 he was formally proclaimed Protector of the Commonwealth. England's position was now entirely new. While Cromwell was intensely Puritan, the Puritans did not know how soon the day of retribution would come to them. All classes Policy of locked Upon the period of his protectorate as a mere armistice in the hot warfare. But the six years which elapsed between the proclamation of Cromwell as Protector and the entry of Charles II. into London as king, or from 1654 to 1660, was a period of intense fermentation. Never, in the annals of the world, have events moved with more astounding despatch or the seeds of liberty ripened with greater rapidity. The colonies in America were rejoicing in their first lessons in religious liberty. The Protestants on the Continent, who had ceased to look to England for sympathy and help, now turned again with confidence. Cromwell's great name commanded respect from Calais to Constantinople. Catholic kings feared to maltreat their Protestant subjects, for they knew not at what hour an English army, by Cromwell's order, might invade CROMWELL AND THE COMMONWEALTH 303 their realms. Foreign rulers craved alliance with him. When Spain applied to become an ally, Cromwell demanded as a condition that the Inquisition should be suppressed. No ruler was ever more unjustly censured by his contemporaries. But no hero ever moved more steadily in the path of duty to his own conscience and to the oppressed of all Britain. Milton, who knew him on all sides of his majestic character, paid this just tribute to him : "Cromwell, our chief of men, who through a cloud, Not of war only, but detractions rude, Guided by faith and matchless fortitude, To peace and truth thy glorious way hath ploughed ; And on the neck of crowned fortune proud Hast reared God's trophies and his work pursued, While Darwen stream with blood of Scots imbrued, And Dunbar field resounds thy praises loud, And Worcester's laurel wreath. Yet much remains To conquer still ; peace hath her victories No less renowned than war." Milton served Oliver Cromwell four or five years as his Latin secretary. While he is known to the world as the great est epic poet produced by England, and the author John Milton „ ,? r _f J s ' , , . ot "Paradise Lost, he was distinguished during the stormy period in which his life was passed (1608-1674) as the strongest defender of liberty in the land. His words for lib erty were as powerful as Cromwell's sword-strokes. His " Are- opagitica, or Plea for Unlicensed Printing," was the blast of a trumpet in favor of political and religious liberty. Some of his other prose works were of hardly less value as an edu cational force for the future of the Anglo-Saxon race in all lands and for all times. Of his prose writings Macaulay says : "They are a perfect field of cloth-of-gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery." Grave doubt was manifested on the appearance of the "Paradise Lost." In 1667, when fifty- nine years of age, he sold the copy of this immortal work to Samuel Simmons for five pounds, but with the provision that the sum should be doubled after thirteen hundred copies should have been sold. He received the remaining five pounds, how ever, but it required eleven years for the publisher to dispose of three thousand copies. At the Restoration his prosecu tion, as a defender of the Protectorate, was ordered. But he 304 THE MODERN CHURCH escaped by the passage of the Act of Oblivion. He died in 1674. ' ' What was of use to know, What best to say could say, to do had done. His actions to his words agreed, his words To his large heart gave utterance due, his heart Contained of good, wise, fair, the perfect shape." Milton had been a sufferer in many ways, and blindness was added to his other afflictions. His supreme ambition was to help the English people to larger liberty. We know him best as poet, but the world will love him most as an heroic defender of human rights. CHAPTER VII THE CHURCH DURING THE RESTORATION [Authorities. — Macaulay, who was the first to make English history popular, here begins his work, which is nowhere more interesting and suggestive than in his treatment of ecclesiastical matters. There has been a tendency of late to call in question the value of his historical judgments. There is no doubt that he is often too confident, and expresses himself without the reserve and qualification of a judicial mind, because, as Pattison says, his " was the mind of an advocate, not of the philosopher." But his history is still of inestimable value, not only for its entertaining narrative and life like portrayal of men and events, but also for its substantial accuracy and general trustworthiness. Read here, Bayne, as above, and Stoughton, vols. iii. and iv. : The Church of the Restoration.] In 1660 Charles II. was welcomed to London. The people gave him a cordial reception. Once more the religious uncer tainty appeared. The contrast between the sim- on't'he'Tnrone P^ity an<^ seriousness of the Protectorate under Cromwell and the kingdom under Charles II. was great. The new king married Catherine of Braganza, the daughter of the King of Portugal. This being a Roman Cath olic alliance, all the old fears of sympathy with that commun ion were aroused. The people did not have to wait long for royal developments. Among the most powerful agencies in bringing Charles II. THE CHURCH DURING THE RESTORATION 305 to the throne must be reckoned the Presbyterians. The Scotch were devoted to his interests. They could not believe that . , , ,, the time would ever come when their loyalty Act of Uniformity ,¦,¦,» ..-,.. ' J would be forgotten or visited with stripes. But they were dealing with a treacherous Stuart. Charles II. placed them and the Puritans in the same category for con demnation. As the sworn head of the Church of England, he was compelled to give open favor to it. But it would seem that in heart he was, during the most of his reign, a Roman Catholic. He confessed, towards the end of his life, that he had been secretly received into that Church. In 1662 an Act of Uniformity was passed which required all ministers of English churches to receive episcopal ordination, to adopt the use of the Book of Common Prayer, to pledge support to the Church of England, to discontinue to support the Covenant, and to profess adherence to the principle that under no cir cumstances was it lawful to take up arms against the king. ' The enforcement of episcopal ordination drove two thousand preachers out of their pulpits immediately. The episcopal form of Church government was forced upon all England. Scot land was compelled to submit to the same yoke. The Presby terians were persecuted without mercy. A Mile Act was passed by which no minister, refusing to be episcopally ordained, could live within twenty miles of his former parish or within three miles of a royal borough. The Conventicle Act, which was adopted in 1664, was the culmination of violent proceedings. It was hoped that if a ¦ m »¦ ^aw cou^ De enacted by which non-conformists could be prevented from assembling for worship the whole population might be made conformists. The Con venticle Act forbade the assembling for worship of more than five persons. The slightest pretexts were adopted for impris onment. No clergyman refusing to sign the Act of Uniform ity could even come within five miles of a borough or corpo rate town. A system of espionage was adopted which for rig idity and minuteness could hardly have been surpassed by the ingenuity of an Oriental prince. The hostility of the classes during this reign increased in intensity. The non-conformists were divided among them selves, one party hoping for the best and willing to compro mise, with a view to even the least advantage. The other 306 THE MODERN CHURCH party, headed by the Puritans, were determined to accept no moderate concessions. They were ready to go to prison, but .-«. . . not to surrender to corrupt masters. The king had Effect of 11., , , i- i the Reign of proved unworthy of the crown he wore, and or the Charles il. pe0pie over whom he ruled. His court was cor rupt. His alliance with Louis XIV. was bought at the price of a promise that England should become a Roman Catholic country, and that Parliament — always an inconvenient thing for absolute rulers — would seldom be called on for its valu able services. The war with the Dutch was a failure. With out honor abroad, and with dissension at home, and the most conscientious people in the land in prison, or in danger of it, England was a pitiable spectacle. Her king was her curse. Charles II. had made some concealment of his Roman Cath olic sympathy. But his brother, James II. , on coming to the throne in 1685, had nothing to conceal. He was an outspoken Romanist. He was true to England, as against the French, but this was the only commendable char acteristic of his foreign policy. He spared no pains to punish the non-conformists for their attitude of defiance. The mem bers of the Church of England had no confidence in him. They knew he had no friendly feeling towards them, and would willingly surrender every church in the land to the Roman priesthood. His Court of High Commission was organized to carry out his plan to crush every sign of dissent throughout the land. Here the infamous Lord Jeffreys, impaled for all the future by Macaulay's pen, was called to preside. His name has become a synonym for cruelty and injustice, and must ever remain a foul blot on English history. His admin istration was destitute of a single mitigating element, and hastened James II. to his merited ruin. James II. in due time lost all his supporters. There was no class of Protestants which had the least affection for his person, or respect for his authority, or confidence in his jus- Wi"j^ryand tice. The people, in this wretched condition, turned towards Holland. William, Prince of Orange, had married Mary, the daughter of James II. He was an intense Protestant, and represented in his own person the traditional Dutch love of liberty and devotion to Protestantism. The revolution of 1688 took place. William and Mary were in- ENGLISH DEISM 307 vited to assume the throne, and accepted the invitation amid the rejoicings of a redeemed and loyal people. England, for the first time, was a Protestant land. Of the devotion of all later sovereigns to Protestant interests there has been no serious question asked or doubt expressed. CHAPTER VIII ENGLISH DEISM [Authorities. — See Farrar, Critical History of Free Thought (N. T., new ed., 1883), lect. iv; Hurst, History of Rationalism (9th ed., N. Y., 1875), ch. xix. ; Leland, View of the Principal Deistical Writers (new ed., London, 1837) ; Tulloch, Rational Theology in England in the Seventeenth Century (Edinb., 1872); Cairns, Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century (Edinb. and N. Y., 1881).] Early traces of unbelief in England can be found as far back as the beginning of the thirteenth century. When the Middle Ages came to a close there was a strong sym- of°Deisrn Patnv witn the free-thinking of Italy. The Humanism which was patronized cordially by the Medici of Flor ence and by the papacy, and which elevated the masterpieces of Greek and Roman literature above the Scriptures and the ological writings, found its strong supporters on the banks of the Thames. Cambridge and Oxford were busily engaged in utilizing the results of the new Italian love for classical learning. When the Reformation came, all other interests fell into the background. The people divided into two great k0clies — the new Protestant Church of England and the old Roman Catholic Church. Then the Protestant dropped into two great divisions — the Independents, or non-conformists, and the conforming Church of England. When these adjustments had taken place, the great bodies began to move on in a regu lar career. The new philosophy of Bacon and Locke, while abounding in practical strength, was not without injurious effect upon evangelical Christianity. It was without proper safeguards ; otherwise it might have become a tower of strength to Chris- 308 THE MODERN CHURCH tianity. It gave great prominence to nature and to natural laws, and allowed too small a place for the operation of the divine. By his doctrine of ideas and by the absence BaLockend °^ spiritual elements in his philosophy, Locke, though himself an earnest Christian, stimulated the sceptical reasoning of Voltaire and Condillac, and is charged by some with being both logically and historically the forerunner of Hume. English Deism was characterized by an absence of mystical and speculative elements. God was recognized as existing, but not immanent in nature and government. The P0rjnp^^s following was its creed, so far as it had one : When the natural order of the universe was first established, everything was in force which was necessary for human devel opment. Christianity is not at all a necessity. All the good which we find to obtain in Christianity existed originally. It is only a republication of the first order. Revelation is not only not a divine thing, but is positively superfluous. There is no such thing as a recreation of the moral nature of man. His highest development is the result of the happy growth of his native forces. The Deistical writers were a remarkable group. They were distinguished for rich talents, wide and varied learning, and for a large measure of moral earnestness. The "writers ^rst °^ ^e grouP> Lord Herbert of Cherbury, was a devout and earnest Christian. He claimed to have received a special divine communication authorizing him to publish his plea for a Deistical faith. With Herbert, however, we find the last trace of an intense spiritual element in Eng lish Deism. Not one of the entire group was of that satirical and flippant spirit for which the French school, beginning with Voltaire, was distinguished. The period of Deism extended from the middle of the seventeenth century to the last quarter of the eighteenth. After Herbert came, successively, Blount, Shaftesbury, Collins, Mandeville, Woolston, Tindal, Morgan, Chubb, Bolingbroke, Hume, and Gibbon. Of all the Deists, Hume exerted, perhaps, the most pernicious influence. In hia " Essays " he made miracles the object of his special attack. His " History of England," which, as he had prophesied, was "read like the newspapers," gave him a wide celebrity, and created a broad field for his opinions on miracles. ENGLISH DEISM 309 Many of the writings of the Deists were translated into the Continental languages, and circulated widely. They were cordially welcomed in Germany, where, owing to Continent 6 *^e general religious decline, there was an atmos phere ready for their reception. The English De ists, on this new field, exerted a great influence in preparing the way for the reign of Rationalism. Between the Deists of England and their brethren in France there was a profound sympathy. Much of the material which had been published by the English writers had been borrowed from the French, but had undergone a process of filtration by passing through the serious English nature. The evangelical opposition was by no means wanting. There was an array of Deistical learning, a persistence in the methods of attack, and a sanction of the aristocracy of the "writers0 oountry, which gave to the new movement a remark able degree of strength and success. So soon, how ever, as the evangelical mind of England awoke to the danger from this new foe, it adopted measures of defence. Deism was attacked on every side. The work of evangelical resist ance had to be shaped according to the assault. Where the Gospels were assailed, their inspired origin was urged and proved. Where Hume endeavored to pull down the fabric of miracle, Paley, in his "Evidences" (1794), strove to furnish a new support. Baxter, Boyle, Sherlock, Leland, Warburton, and Lardner may be regarded as representative writers in re ply to the Deists. The most powerful argument, however, and the one against which the Deists never rallied, was " But ler's Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion" (1736). The new Wesleyan movement, lying in the twofold depart ment of practical life and theological discussion, excited a strong influence towards the final arrest of Deism. The masses had become thoroughly saturated with the unbelief, which con stantly grew grosser, and more after the French type. The preaching of the Wesleys, Whitefield, and their adherents, reached the popular mind, and proved a powerful factor in leading it back to a taste for spiritual life. The North American colonies very promptly responded to all the intellectual movements of France and England. The Deists had their sympathizing friends in the new land. Many of their works were promptly republished in the obscure towns 310 THE MODERN CHURCH of the colonies, and awakened an interest in the subject, if they did not win adherents. Tom Paine gained a wide popularity by his tracts in behalf of the indepen- »!!!T:J.n dence of the colonies. He was a Deist, but reflect- Amenca ' t . ed rather the coarse and bald French infidelity than the circumspect and learned Deism of England. CHAPTER IX THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GERMANY [Authorities. — See the Church Histories mentioned in Chap. I., especially that of Hagenbach, and Hurst, Hist, of Rationalism, chaps, i., ii.] The charge which Bossuet made against Protestantism had all the semblance of truth, so far as the German Protestants varied were concerned. But he overlooked one thing : Protestantism That when a great system of superstition and false a ecessi y teaching js tj0 fog attacked, the assailants do more effective work when they attack on different sides and with a combination of varied views. The Reformers differed fun damentally, as a result of varied spiritual experiences and men tal characteristics. But in all essentials the Reformers were a unity, from Geneva in the south to Stockholm in the north, and from Dresden in the east to Scotland in the northwest. The curse of the varied Protestantism of Germany lay not in the thing itself, but in the wretched abuse. That Luther and Zwingli should differ seriously on the doctrine Thsiai°Spiriter" of tne Lord's Supper was not a serious factor. The truth would have been found by patience and devout study on the part of their successors. That the doc trine of election should excite antagonism among the Reform ers was most natural. But the spectacle was pitiable when those who inherited the great work of the Reformers lost sight of the spirit, and wrangled wildly over the letter. The controversies which arose within the Lutheran fold were as numerous as they were trivial. The Antinomian Controversy arose with John Agricola, while Luther was yet alive. He held that the laws of Moses THE PROTESTANT CHURCH IN GERMANY 311 were intended chiefly for the Jews. The Adiaphoristic Con troversy began immediately before Luther's death. It turned upon what might be brought over from the Roman Catholic Church — the use of candles, gowns, holidays, and the like — and proposed concessions on several doctrinal Controversies P°ints- The Synergistic Controversy had refer ence to the relations of divine grace and human liberty in the salvation of the soul. The Osiandric Contro versy, arising with Osiander, was a strife on the relation of jus tification to sanctification, or the meaning of justification in re lation to the righteousness of Christ. The Crypto- Calvinistic Controversy turned upon the proper interpretation of the Lord's Supper. The Syncretistic Controversy was the best of all. It was a warfare, with George Calixtus as the leader, in favor of harmonizing all disputants on the basis of the Apostles' Creed. The Lutherans were the chief losers by these violent dissen sions. The sections were arrayed against each other. There was no opportunity to make new advances against Controversies R°manism. The most of the vital force of German Protestantism was consumed in undesigned efforts towards suicide. With the Reformed, or Calvinistic, body, the case was different. The disciples of Calvin moved steadily on in their course. They followed the line of the Rhine, plant ing their doctrines on either side, and, after giving Holland their theology, proceeded to England and thence to the New World. There could be but one moral result to the prolonged strife - — a great spiritual decline. For about one century, or down Moral Results to tne close °f the Thirty Years' War, in 1648, the of the contro- strife of words and terms had been in progress. versiai Period Au the f unctions of the Church had been neglected. The pulpits were occupied by warriors, who fought as though the fate of the world depended upon the verbal form of a doc trinal statement. Practical religion was forgotten. The press teemed with angry theological diatribes. When the Thirty Years' War closed, with all its waste of life and treasure, the land was ill-prepared to meet the spiritual or material needs of the crisis. Even to-day, the slow process of orthodox regen eration in the German Church is one of the dark legacies from the wild controversies of three centuries ago. 312 THE MODERN CHURCH CHAPTER X MYSTICISM IN GERMANY [Authokities. — Robert A. Vaughan was one of the first English writers to interpret the German Mysticism, which he did with sympathetic insight and yet with a keen sense of its grave defects, in his delightful volumes, Hours with the Mystics (3d ed., London, 1879). Martensen has written a Life of Boehme (London, 1885), to which must be added Hartmann, Life and Doctrine of Jacob Boehme (London, 1891). A good English work on Mysticism and Pietism, written in view of the latest authorities, is a desider atum. Read the fine article by C. H. A. Bjerregaard in Jackson's Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1891). An appreciative esti mate of Mysticism is given by Faulkner in Southern Methodist Review (Jan., 1886), in which he defines its elements and traces its influence on Methodism.] There had been indications, even during the Reformation, of the reappearance of the old mystical spirit which had been so beautifully illustrated at an earlier day in the career Reaction and sPirit of Joiin Talller and Heinrich Suso. But the animation and excitement of such a period as wit nessed the genesis of Protestantism was not favorable to the calm and meditation of the typical Mystic. Mysticism, how ever much it may wander from safe paths when fully mature, begins its career with the purest motives. In its childhood it is always on the side of truth and wisdom. One of the strong est protests during the controversial age was the rise of a new group of Mystics. They declared against the universal cor ruption and the eclipse of the spirit through the wild search for the letter. They advocated the need of a new revival of faith in the invisible, a firm reliance on spiritual guidance, and a bringing-back of the Church to its purest conditions. Jacob Boehme, born 1575, and died 1624, was a plain Saxon shoemaker. He was not furnished with the culture of the uni- Boehme and versities, and yet by his original thought, pure life, the other and remarkably clear perception of the useless char- y cs acter of the controversies of his times, commanded MYSTICISM IN GERMANY 313 the respect of learned and spiritual circles. In his indignation at the theological rancor which he witnessed, he came to regard the letter with too little favor. He looked upon the inspira tion of the Bible as little different from that of the good man of all times, to whom God makes also special revelations. His " Aurora " was his masterpiece. He declared that God made revelations to him in such way that his motive to write was irresistible. He explains God's communications to him in these words : " I have never desired to know anything of divine mystery ; much less have I wished to seek or find it. I sought only the heart of Jesus Christ, that there I might hide myself from the anger of God and the grasp of the devil." Schlegel says that, compared with Klopstock, Milton, and even Dante, " Boehme almost surpasses them in fulness of emotion and depth of imagination, while in poetic expres sion and single beauties he does not stand a whit behind them." John Arndt, the author of "True Christianity," was less mystical and more practical than Boehme. They were ranked together. In a general spiritual influence the classi- fl'nd'a"n 'an^- The great original leaders left no successors equal to their task. The second generation of Con tinental Protestants were men who could see differences better than points of unity, or even of resemblance. All the sharp antagonisms of the first half of the sixteenth century became still sharper during the latter half. All possible energy was needed for the work of building up the new cause, but much of it was wasted on internal strife on election, consubstantia- Ecclesiastical States in i 1 the hands of Protestants I 1 D9 in the hands i — =-^i of Catholics I J Protestant Lay States [ZU Dominions of the two Branches , r Catholics D° CH of the House of Austria I I THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 315 tion, and other doctrines. Even the Protestant princes joined in the bitter struggle. The Reformed prince in the Palatinate felt the throbs of his theology so keenly that he persecuted his Lutheran subjects, while a Saxon prince visited the same harsh measures on his Reformed subjects. In Sweden all Protestants who would not accept the Augsburg Confession were banished the country. In striking contrast with the division of the Protestants was the unity of Roman Catholicism. The great Reformation had Roman thrown it on the defensive. From Rome, as a centre, Catholic to every part of the vast domain of the old Church, " the word was given to combine, and to keep in perfect harmony. Well was the command obeyed. From the hum blest mendicant monk to the pope himself, there was one solid front against the new Protestantism. But, despite the divi sions of the new generation of Protestant leaders, and the unity of Romanism, the Protestants were yet strong enough to threaten the possession of the larger part of Central and Southern Germany. The larger part of Bavaria was Protes tant — a tide which later turned, and left that country, ever since, one of the strongholds of Romanism. The antagonisms between the Protestants and "the Roman Catholics grew more obstinate every day. In due time the issue was clearly seen. The combat could not be Growing COnfined to books, and pamphlets, and councils, and Antagonisms , . . ' J ' the universities. The field of politics was entered. The rulers saw in the heat of the times opportunities for larger territory, and, at the same time, the risk of losing what they had. Every political question had to take on a religious character. The strife went so far that the soldier was now ready to take up the cause where the theologian left it. The Roman Catholics looked after the thrones, and succeeded here where Protestants failed from either inertia or want of vision. The Elector of Saxony furnishes an example. " The natural head of the Protestant party in Germany," says Macaulay, " he submitted to become, at the most impor tant crisis of the struggle, a tool in the hands of the Papists." The same author gives the following terse description of the fidelity of the Roman Catholic rulers to their cause : " Max imilian of Bavaria, brought up under the teaching of the Jesuits, was a fervent missionary wielding the powers of a 316 THE MODEEN CHUECH prince. The Emperor Ferdinand II. deliberately put his throne to hazard over and over again rather than make the smallest concession to the spirit of religious innovation. Sigismund of Sweden lost a crown which he might have possessed if he would have renounced the Catholic faith. In short, every where on the Protestant side we see languor ; everywhere on the Catholic side we see ardor and devotion." The Thirty Years' War opened in 1618, and closed in 1648. In 1609 the Emperor Rudolf II. granted liberty to the Prot estants of Bohemia, but his successor, Matthias, pro- °oftwark fruited tlie erection of a Protestant church. The Bohemians declared the act a violation of the impe rial liberty, and resorted to violent measures. The result was a victory over the Protestants. The war was now in full force. The Roman Catholic rulers combined against the Prot estant. The time during which the war lasted, the number of contestants involved, the countries devastated by it, and the strong element of religious feeling which pervaded the whole struggle, made it one of the most consuming and ter rible wars in all history. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, took the lead of the Protestant forces. Wallenstein, the greatest general on the Continent, was at the head of the Catholic League. Ado'nhus Gustavus Adolphus was intensely religious, and re garded the war as holy. His soldiers were accustomed to march to victory while singing Luther's martial hymn: "Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott," and that beautiful hymn, composed by Gustavus Adolphus himself, beginning : ' ' Fear not, O little flock, the foe Who madly seeks your overthrow, Dread not his rage and power ; What though your courage often faints His seeming triumph o'er God's saints Lasts but a little hour !" Gustavus died on the field of Ltitzen, in the hour of victory, in 1632. The war came to a close by the Peace of Westpha lia, which was concluded by a double congress, in Munster and Osnabriick, 1648. The territorial gains lay with the Roman Catholics, but the Protestants of Central Germany secured re- THE PEOTESTANT EMIGEATION TO AMEE1CA 317 ligious freedom. In Bavaria and Bohemia Protestantism was blotted out, while in Hungary only one half the Protestants remained. The Palatinate, later, in 1685, was turned over to the rule of the Catholic house of Neuburg. Both sides claimed the victory, such as it was. There was no direct parcelling of the territory or changing of dynasties. It had been a war of extermination, and where the pop- tehseuwsa^>, ulation was Catholic or Protestant, and was extin guished, the territory seemed to lie in the main with the conquerors. The South remained Catholic, while the North was Protestant. The Protestant rulers were granted rights as electors, and both the Lutheran and Reformed bodies had the right of public worship and the exercise of all the functions of great religious bodies. The territorial frontiers of Prot estant and Roman Catholic countries were so firmly defined that they have remained nearly the same down to the present time. CHAPTER XII THE PROTESTANT EMIGRATION TO AMERICA In no European country was the Reformation effected, and Protestantism permanently established, without the bloody or deal of persecution. In some instances the pen- American r . i -i , ,. Asylum for the alty was imprisonment ; but death olten came Oppressed t00 promptly to admit of escape to another coun try. Whenever a little time was allowed the persecuted, it was industriously used to get out of the country. The perse cution always took the form of both political and religious oppression. The rights of person were destroyed. The thin pretext was zeal against a false religion. The underlying charge was disloyalty to the ruler and treachery to the laws. In all cases the great hope of the oppressed in the Old World was to find a safe and final home in America. The Spaniard bad opened the country to the world. All Europe was filled with glowing accounts of the vast wealth on the western con tinent. The wars between England and Spain made England 318 THE MODEEN CHUECH an enemy on every sea. Many of the long voyages of English captains were only a diligent search for Spanish galleons laden with the treasures of the mines of Mexico and South America. But the persecuted Protestants saw in the new lands of the North a larger field, and indulged a greater hope than had inspired the Spanish conqueror and ecclesiastic in the South. When the English furnace of persecution was thrice heated, there came out to this new continent Puritans, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Quakers. From France there emigrated Currents Huguenots- From Sweden there came many to the banks of the Delaware, who built up a flourishing col ony bearing the name of New Sweden. The religious interest prevailed in this important settlement. The Dutch, now in the first glow of relief from Spanish oppression, settled on the banks of the Hudson, the Passaic, and the Mohawk. The principal Roman Catholic currents of immigration were to Canada, Maryland, Florida, Mexico, and South America. In South America the colonies proceeded from Spain and Portu gal, while the Roman Catholic immigration to Canada was from France. CHAPTER XIII ARMINIUS AND THE SYNOD OF DORT [Authorities. — Caspar Brandt, son of the historian of the Dutch Reformation, Gerhard Brandt, wrote the only Life of Arminius which is worthy of the name (1724, translated by Guthrie, with Introd. by Summers, Nashville, 1857). It is hardly creditable to Arminians that this Life has never had a rival. Bangs compiled a short Life (N. Y., 1843). Hopkins gives an ex cellent historical view of the Synod of Dort, though from a pronounced Cal vinistic standpoint, in the Princeton Review, March, 1878 : " The Opening of the Synod of Dort." A very valuable account of the Synod, as well as a history of the times, is given in Calder, Memoirs of Episcopius (N. Y., 1837). The reader should not neglect an indispensable aid to the study of this period : Motley, The Life and Death of John of Barnereld (N. Y., 1879).] Holland became an important scene of theological activity. No more certain was the flow of the Rhine from Basel to the sea than was the theological current from Geneva to the Neth- ABMINIUS AND THE SYNOD OE DOET 310 eiiands. Calvin ruled as thoroughly the theology at the mouth of the Rhine as on the shore of Lake Geneva. But there arose Holland among the Dutch strong evidences of divergence. a Scene of During the last thirty years of the sixteenth cen- nuoversy tury tjjere were decided premonitory symptoms of an approaching storm. James Arminius headed the reaction against extreme Cal vinism. He was born in 1560, studied theology under Beza Arminius a* Geneva, an(i returned as preacher at Amsterdam. He became professor at the new University of Ley den, where he came into controversy with Gomarus. Gomarus represented the Calvinistic theology, while Arminius opposed election, and gave a large place to the operation of the human will. Soon the entire country was involved in the controversy. The Arminians and the Gomarists divided the Church and the country between themselves. Theological terminology was bandied about with amazing zeal. The quiet Dutch burgher talked theology with as much ease as he rowed his boat, or watched his windmill, or smoked his pipe. After the death of the powerful disputants the animosity lost none of its heat. It was now not a question of the university or the quiet homes within the dikes, but of the States-General. The terms Arminians and Gomarists were now too limited. They disappeared beneath the broader ones of Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. The Arminians were _ Th,e . charged with being disturbers of the public peace. • They presented to the States - General a protest against the Five Articles of the Gomarists, which had been passed for their acceptance. Wytenbogart and Episcopius, after the death of Arminius, stood at the head of the Remon strants, and fought their battle bravely. The States-General ordered a discussion of the points at issue in 1613, but the ef fort at conference was fruitless. The field of politics was now invaded by the rival parties. Maurice of Nassau thought he saw that by identifying himself with the Contra-Remonstrants he could gain su preme power. The Remonstrants saw very early his ambitious designs, and opposed him with all their power. John Olden Barneveld and Hugo Grotius opposed him. But they failed, the former being executed and the latter impris oned. It was now a question of suppressing the Remonstrants. 320 THE MODEEN CHUECH They had strength among the people, but the whole machinery of the government was turned against them. The Contra-Remonstrants saw that the day of peace was still far distant. They therefore succeeded in calling a synod, through which it was hoped the Arminian theology Thof Dortd m'gnt at *ast De Put t0 rest forever. The Remon strants were at a disadvantage from the very start, and were summoned as defendants. They were denied seats in the Council, and were treated throughout as accused par ties. The synod began November 13th, 1618, and continued until May 9th, 1619, holding one hundred and eighty sessions. The main point at issue — election — was not permitted to be discussed at all. The most able Reformed theologians of Eu rope were in attendance — fifty-eight from Holland, twenty- eight from England and Scotland, and others from the Palati nate, Hesse, Nassau, Switzerland, East Friesland, and Bremen. Episcopius represented the Remonstrants. At the twenty-sec ond session be, with twelve others, appeared, by request, to defend their tenets. He gave an eloquent and vigorous ad dress, explaining the Remonstrant positions. A protracted dis cussion followed, continuing to the fifty-seventh session, the Remonstrants being all the time excluded from the floor. The Contra-Remonstrants were victorious. The result was that the government abided by the decision of the synod, when the Remonstrants were condemned and banished from the country. Under Henry Frederic, however, the successor of Maurice, milder measures were adopted. But the Dujch the ology remained strongly Reformed. THE SALZBUBG PERSECUTION 321 CHAPTER XIV THE SALZBURG PERSECUTION L Authorities. — See Spiers, " The Salzburgers," in the English Historical Review, Oct., 1890; Lacroix, art. " Salzburgers," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclo paedia ; Koster, art. " Salzburg," in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia.] The lapse of the German Church, because of the controver sies, was deplorable. The Palatinate presented a dark picture Germany after °^ coimict between the Protestants and Roman the Peace ot Catholics, while the Protestant bodies were almost Westphalia as bitterly arrayed against each other. In East Prussia and Poland the Jesuits were very aggressive, and per secuted the helpless Protestants. But the age of martyrdom had passed. The free spirit of the new age had so far advanced that only in secluded places could persecutions be perpetrated. In the Austrian province of Salzburg, in the Noric Alps, there had existed for a long time a quiet and earnest little body of Protestants. The surrounding population Protestanu was intensely Roman Catholic. Repressive meas ures were adopted, and the Salzburg Protestants, in due time, found the alternative presented — either to undergo absorption into the Romanism about them, or to leave the coun try. The heroic Protestants took the covenant of salt, and resolved on no surrender. The Archbishop of Salzburg showed no leniency. The result was banishment. The Protestant Salzburgers now began to leave their be loved homes in the Alpine mountains and on the broad and romantic plains of the valley of the Salaa. They gathered their wives and children, and set out on a pilgrimage (1731-32) they knew not whither. They went northward. Their progress was slow, for they proceeded on foot. Their few possessions were left behind them. It was a wonderful picture of fidelity to religious convictions. When ever they passed through a Protestant region they Were hos- 21 322 THE MODEEN CHUECH pitably entertained. The sick were cared for, and all were supplied with the necessities of life. When fully recuper ated, they again set out on their pilgrimage for liberty. In Berlin they were kindly received by the Prussian elector. In time they separated. Some remained in Prussia, others went, to England, and some emigrated to America. The emigration to America was the most notable result of the Salzburg oppression in Austria. A company settled in Geor gia, near Savannah, and established themselves in a The Georgia keautiful and industrious colony. Their chief pas tor was Bolzius, and Urlsperger was their historian. The latter kept a journal of the development of the colony, and his account, still preserved, but very difficult to procure, is one of the most remarkable records of a patient, pure, and uncomplaining religious body in the whole history of the Christian Church. When John Wesley went to Georgia, to labor as a missionary among the Indians, he found these Salz burgers among his warmest supporters, while Whitefield, in his efforts to build an orphan-house, derived important help from their kindly sympathy and active aid. CHAPTER XV SPENER AND PIETISM [Authorities. — See the general Church Histories and the authorities mentioned at Chaps. IX. and X. We have in English no history of Pietism. The best work on the subject, Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus (Bonn, 1885), ought to be put into English. See Tholuck's article on Spener in the Schaff- Herzog Encyclopaedia, and Wildenhahn, Life of Spener (Phila., 1881).] When the Thirty Years' War closed, the people seemed as far off as ever from all true appreciation of their spiritual need. Most of the great national visitations have resulted Opportunity in a return to a deeper religious life, but in this case there were no traces of compensation. The bitter controversial spirit which preceded it had produced its nat ural harvest of worthless tares. Besides, there was a univer sal material waste. The cities of Germany lay in shapeless SPENEE and pietism 323 heaps. Churches, castles, and private mansions had fallen a prey to a war in which all the passions had full play. Many towns were as though ploughed and sown with salt. The peo ple were decimated. The men of middle life had never come back from battle. The most of the population now consisted of the young, the old, and the women. These were sadly neg lected. The pastoral care throughout Germany was now, in the main, only a delightful memory from the olden time. The clergy of the period had no conception of the sanctity of their calling. When the guns of war had ceased to fire, the artil lery from the Lutheran and Calvinistic camps was again drawn out, and made to do the same service which it had done down to the outbreak of the war. The leader in the spiritual quickening of Germany was Philip Jacob Spener, who was born in Alsace, in 1635. He began his career as preacher in Strasburg. His eloquence was re markable, such as to both multiply his hearers and to lead them to a higher religious life. He denounced the spiritual decline of the Church, and called the people back again to the old religious life which had marked the first stage of the Ref ormation. He depicted the wickedness of the generation, not withstanding the severe devastations of a terrible war, with an eloquence which bordered on the fervor of a Peter the Hermit and the lofty spiritual enthusiasm of a Tauler. In 1666 he removed to Frankfort, where he became pastor of the oldest Lutheran Church. He now began to influence the public mind in new directions. He organized his Collegia Pietatis, or meet ings for instruction in the Bible and a general religious life. He published a book, the "Pia Desideria," or Pious Desires, in 1675, which exerted a powerful influence, and led many to become Christians. He removed from Frankfort to become court preacher in Dresden, and died in Berlin in 1705. Spener's relation to the religious life of Europe was very important. Here was one who followed closely in the path of providential guidance. When at Strasburg as Spener's Relation stu(jent he had no distinct notion of his later to Religious Life . . career. His tastes and time were absorbed in the study of heraldry. But he was deeply spiritual, and held himself ready for any path into which the divine hand might lead. From his entrance upon the ministry his sympathies were tender and deep towards children. He saw the great 824 THE MODEEN CHUECH possibilities of their nature, and spared no pains, as he gained in influence, in building them up in the knowledge of the Script ures and an intense religious life. The Bible classes which he organized at Frankfort spread into other parts of Germany, and became the greatest force of the times in leading back the German Church to a knowledge of the Scriptures. Spener was a man of such magnetic nature that, apart from the originality of his .methods, it is not strange that a school should arise to follow him. From his writings and general work The Spener ^ Pietists arose. The name was given in derision — School & as Brownists, Methodists, Quakers, and the rest — but was accepted most readily, and is retained until the present time. The Pietists never seceded from the Lutheran Church. They were simply an ecclesiola in ecclesia — a little church in the large one. They consisted of small devout circles, who gave themselves completely to works of practical piety and the study of the Bible. The most important organized result of the Pietistic move ment was the founding of the Halle University (1694). It was the educational response to the demand for a new spiritual life throughout Protestant Ger many. The theological faculty were representatives of Spe ner. Of the three members composing it, Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt, the first was by far the most influential. Halle became a great Pietistic centre. The students were devout, and were thoroughly educated in Biblical knowledge. Francke taught that without works faith is dead. He gave himself to the religious education and physical care of children. He founded the Orphan-house at Halle. He made no direct ap peals for help, but threw the care of the institution on the voluntary offerings of Christian people. Gifts came in from all directions. From the lowliest appointments at first, the institution took shape, and finally became one of the most re nowned humane organizations in the world. Large buildings Were erected, such as lodging-places for the students, while a publishing and printing house was established, to aid in the ¦support of the orphanage. From this place the celebrated of the present life are to be continued in the future, but with increased enjoyment or suffering, according to the deeds done in this life. He rejected the doctrine of divine satisfaction. His view of the Scriptures was, that they are a gross representation of the divine will. Here Swedenborg was a Mystic, for he claimed that there was a spiritual insight which could largely supplement the Bible. Swedenborg prophesied that between the years 1780 and 1790 there would be a great enlargement of the New Church. Here he was correct. Many followers grouped * "f the themselves about the new theories. Dr. John New Church Clowes exerted a great influence in their favor, and sundry societies arose in their interest. The writings of Swedenborg were translated into German, and gained a good 330 THE MODEEN CHUECH number of adherents in various parts of Germany. In Poland and Hungary societies were organized. However, in all these countries there was no common bond of unity. Each society was left to develop itself as it saw best, and the result was that there was no general unity of faith, each interpreting the matter as it pleased, and wandering at will from the original standard. Some societies have arisen in the United States, especially in Boston, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. The " Book of Worship and Liturgy of the New Church" is used by all of them, but the theology is varied. The Swedenborgian adher ents in the United States deviate widely from the evangelical confessions, and belong to the group of Liberal Christians. They are distinguished for their humane sympathies and ad vanced culture. CHAPTER XVIII RATIONALISM IN GERMANY [Authorities. — See Farrar, Critical History of Free Thought (N. Y., new ed., 1883); Lecky, History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rational ism in Europe (N. Y., 1865) ; Hurst, History of Rationalism (9th ed., N. Y., 1875). For an exposition of this phase of thought in brief compass, see Fisher, Discussions in History and Theology (N. Y., 1880), pp. 439-68.] The open door for sceptical theology in Germany in the early part of the eighteenth century can be clearly seen. Pie tism had failed to produce any general impression on the relig ious life of the people. It had so declined as to lose the favor of many of its warmest admirers. It ceased to attract even the pious. There was, besides, a decided disposition on the part of the more orthodox to ignore the progressive character of theology, and to neglect its adaptation to the advance of mod ern science. Again, many who loved the sanctities of religion, and believed firmly in the supernatural origin of Christianity, saw a lamentable stagnation in the theology of the period, and were thereby alienated from sympathy with the Church. Be sides, they were disgusted with the controversies between the Reformed and the Lutherans, and saw in the intense confes sional spirit no hope for a brighter day. The result was a re ligious indifference — the ready soil for a sceptical sowing. EATIONALISM IN GEEMANY 331 There was a singular combination of negative tendencies. All the sceptical currents of Europe seemed to concentrate upon Germany. The philosophy of Leibnitz, es- RationaTism0' pecially as carried forward by Wolf, was of the mathematical type — truth must be proved to be truth. If the proof is wanting, the proposition may be reject ed. What cannot be demonstrated may not be true. This philosophy was reverent, and had its good side, but, applied to the Scriptures, has a most dangerous character. Wolf, who taught in Halle, and had a large following, popularized Leib nitz, carried his premises to unwarranted conclusions, and made the mathematical proof of all spiritual truths the de mand of the common people. The very peasant soon talked of the new Illuminism, and proclaimed loudly that what the reason cannot accept need not be accepted. The Deism of England was rapidly transferred to Germany, and, with Ger man adaptations, soon became incorporated with the new Ra tionalism. The philosophy of Des Cartes, combined with the more decidedly negative system of Spinoza, found each its warm admirers east of the Rhine. French Atheism had but a short march to the heart of Germany. Frederick the Great represented in his own person the German craving for French models. He had no respect for his own language, and wrote in bad French rather than in good German. He surrounded himself with the leaders of the new sceptical tendency of France. Voltaire was a member of his court, and gave tone to the thought of the nobility of Germany. The chief agent for introducing the new Rationalism directly into the domain of theology was Semler. He was a devout man, and in his life represented a pure type of f aR 't'tntaiism Christian experience. He propounded the Accom modation theory, which represented the gospel his tory as an adaptation to the times of our Lord, and, therefore, that due allowance must be made in accepting the Gospels for mistaken conceptions of real occurrences. Lessing, in his " Wolfenbiittel Fragments," denied the authentic character of much of the Mosaic narrative. He, more than any other writer, was the pioneer of the revival of German literature, and, be cause of his negative view of inspiration, contributed largely to the committing of the new and aspiring literary circles of Germany to a sceptical interpretation of the Scriptures. Ni- 332 THE MODEEN CHUECH colai, an enterprising publisher of Berlin, issued a series of works, called the "Universal German Library," in which he gave full play to the rationalistic writers. The whole tendency of his " Library " was to undermine the supernatural character of Christianity. The Weimar celebrities of a somewhat later date, Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe, were justly ranked in the same category. Herder, also one of the Weimar magnates, was a clergyman, and did much to clothe the Old Testament with a living reality. But, Herder excepted, the influence of the Weimar school was negative. The general position of the rationalists was antagonistic to the orthodoxy of the period. There was no subject, however General sacred, which was not treated by them. The Bible Position of was the centre of attack. The reason was made the a iona ism umpjre m avj matters of faith. The very existence of God was subject to its iron method of deciding the truth. Inspiration was reduced to impression. The fall of man, mira cle, the person of Christ, and even rewards and punishments came in for the severe decision of human reason. The whole land was covered with the new literature. It became a pas sion of the times. The universities were arsenals for the war fare on the sacred standards. So industrious were the apos tles of Rationalism in propagating their opinions that it was not long before the very peasantry were indoctrinated. The mechanic and the ploughman were made familiar with the sov ereignty of reason, and, for the first time since the Reformation began, the Bible was laid aside in palace and in hut. THE EVANGELICAL EE ACTION 333 CHAPTER XIX THE EVANGELICAL REACTION [Authorities. — See at Chap. XVIII. Smyth gives an able and eloquent dis course on the course of thought which issued in the triumph of supernat- uralism in Schleiermacher, in the Boston Lectures for 1870 : Christianity and Scepticism (Boston, 1870), lect. viii. — " From Lessing to Schleiermacher, or from Rationalism to Faith." Lichtenberger, of the Protestant Faculty of Paris, has expanded the theology of Schleiermacher, of the Mediating School, as well as the later currents of German Rationalism, in his notable book, History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century (Edinb., 1889), which can be heartily commended, though its judgments must not be received as infallible. One of the best treatments of the doctrine and influence of Schleiermacher is that by Hoppin, in his Homiletics (N. Y., rev. ed., 1883), pp. 155-165. The new book by Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany and Great Britain since 1825 (London, 1890), can be read with advantage, as the studies of an able scholar and thinker of rationalistic sympathies.] The need of reaction can be best seen in the extent to which Rationalism has rednced all the strongholds of aggres- Deciine s've Christianity. The preaching had undergone a wrought by sad degeneration. The most of the pulpits were a iona ism 0CCUpje Dut 0I i -r ¦ -• , to the House oi Stuart. Robert Leighton (1611- 84), the holy Archbishop of Glasgow, was a peaceful and angelic spirit in a troubled age. Archbishop Ussher, of Ar magh (1581-1656), gave us the chronology of the English Bi ble. Joseph Bingham (1668-1723) first opened up the archae ology of the Church in a work of immense research that has never been superseded. John Lightfoot (1602-75) was one of the fathers of Hebrew scholarship in England, and his fame was only excelled in Europe by the younger Buxtorf. George Bull, Bishop of St. David's (1634-1710), defended the doctrine of the Trinity, as also did Daniel Waterland (1683- 1740). Bishop William Warburton, of Gloucester, threw much new light on the Mosaic dispensation, in his celebrated work, "The Divine Legation of Moses" (1737-41). Bishop Joseph Butler, of Durham, turned the tide of infidelity in his " Anal ogy of Religion" (1736), a work still studied for its severe, logical, and impregnable reasoning. Joseph Hall, who was called the " English Seneca " by Sir Henry Wotton, is still read for his devout yet bright and racy " Contemplations upon the Principal Passages of the History of the New Testament " (1612-15). Bishop Robert Lowth, Professor of Poetry at Ox ford, was, perhaps, the first Englishman to apply the principles of the Higher Criticism to the Bible. His " Praslections on He brew Poetry," published first in Latin in 1753, and afterwards in English in 1787, as an illustration of a true and fruitful method, has had a vast influence on the cause of Biblical study. His idea of an inspired Bible as yet a national literature, to be understood and interpreted by literary canons, came to men with the glory and freshness of a discovery. William Law, whose sturdy Jacobitism made him refuse the oath of alle giance to the House of Guelph, wrote a devotional classic, "Serious Call to a Holy Life" (1729), of which Samuel John son says : " When at Oxford I took up Law's ' Serious Call,' 366 THE MODEEN CHUECH expecting to find it a dull book (as such books generally are), and perhaps laugh at it. But I found Law quite an over match for me ; and this was the first occasion of my thinking in earnest of religion after I became capable of rational in quiry."* This book also deeply influenced Wesley, Venn, and other leaders in the Evangelical Revival of the middle of the eighteenth century. Joseph Milner (died 1797) published a history of the Church in 1794, continued after his death by his brother Isaac, which was once widely in vogue. Thomas Scott (died 1821) wrote a " Commentary on the Bible" (1792 and foil.) which has had a larger circulation than any other work of the kind. If we come down to more recent times it is indeed an invidious task to select names. Dean Alford gave us the best " Commentary on the New Testament " ever written in English by one man. Dean Howson and the Rev. W. J. Conybeare illuminated the life of St. Paul with the side-lights of contem porary annals and monuments. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, first a member of the Plymouth Brethren, afterwards of the Church of England, and like Kitto — also worthy of eternal honor for his advancement of Biblical learning — a layman, en riched the whole world by his labors on the original text of the New Testament. Dean Milman wrote a " History of the Latin Church," a splendid record, learned, eloquent, and, for the most part, impartial. Milman might be called the Gibbon of ancient and mediaeval Christianity. Bishop Lightfoot, of Dur ham (died December 21st, 1889), by his studies of the Apostolic Fathers and of some of the Pauline Epistles, threw much new light on the early documents of our faith, and placed on im pregnable foundations the belief in the supernatural origin of Christianity. His death was an irreparable loss to historical scholarship. On historical lines wrought Dean Stanley — saint, scholar, poet — one of the most liberal-minded of men, whose books combine in a rare degree a lucid and captivating style with learning, insight, and sympathy. Canon Liddon (died September 9th, 1890) was the greatest preacher of the present age. His "Bampton Lectures on the Divinity of our Lord" (1867) has gone through twelve editions, and is already a clas* sic in the religious literature of England. It cannot be denied that the English Church has put the * Boswell, "Life of Johnson," chap. i. PUEITAN AND PEESBYTEEIAN SCHOLAES AND DIVINES 367 world under a vast debt for her many and illustrious scholars and divines, who in their several ways have labored for the progress of truth and the kingdom of the Redeemer. CHAPTER XXIX PURITAN AND PRESBYTERIAN SCHOLARS AND DIVINES [Authorities. — Baxter : His Autobiography, with additions, comments, etc., by Edmund Calamy (2d ed., London, 1713) ; Life, in Leonard Bacon's edition of Select Practical Works (New Haven, 1844) ; Dean Boyle, Life of Baxter (London and N. Y., 1884). — Owen: Life, by Wm. Orme, in Thos. Russell's edition of his Works (London, 1826). — Howe: Life by Calamy, in his ed. of his Works (new ed., N. Y., 1869, 2 vols.); Rogers, Life of Howe (London, 1836). — Thomas Goodwin : Life by Robert Hall, in Works (Edinb., 1861-66, 12 vols. ). — John Goodwin: Life by Thomas Jackson (Lon don, 1839). — Banyan : The best authority is his own inimitable Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. Of his Lives, the best are by Southey (1839); Philip (1839), an elaborate piece of work; Froude (London and N. Y., 1880), a. most interesting biography, but superficial and mislead ing in its comments on religious matters ; and John Brown, of Bedford, England (London and Boston, 1885), a most conscientious piece of work, embodying the latest researches, and which will long remain the standard life of Bunyan. Macaulay's brilliant essay, which still keeps its place in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, should by all means be read. He did more than any other man to vindicate for Bunyan his place among the great masters of English prose.] Undee the name Puritan can be included all who were stanchly Protestant in their convictions, who emphasized the Bible as the only rule of faith, and who were strenuous for holiness of life and simplicity of public worship, whether they were within or without the Established Church. Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603) is the greatest name in the early history of English Puritanism. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge, and in 1569 was chosen a w"s Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, and began to lecture on the Acts of the Apostles. His lectures became ex ceedingly popular, and aroused the attention of the High- Church party. They precipitated a conflict which he had to wage all his life. He was deprived of his professorship in 1570. He was compelled to spend part of his life in exile on 368 THE MODEEN CHUECH the Continent, as the only safe retreat from his enemies. He published many works in defence of his views, of the greatest learning and ability. He is said to have been the first preacher in England who practised extemporaneous prayer before the sermon. Richard Baxter (1615-1691) was reared in poverty, and, thoup-h he never saw a school, became one of the most learned men of his time. He entered the ministry of the Church of England, and was called to Kidderminster (1640), where he exemplified a ministry of apostolic godliness and zeal. " He found the place a desert, and left it a garden." No one came nearer than himself to the ideal of the Re formed Pastor which he makes the subject of one of his books. After the passing of the Act of Uniformity (1662), he had to leave Kidderminster, and the rest of his life was passed in the midst of manifold sorrows. In 1685 he was brought up before the cruel Judge Jeffreys on the false charge of sedition, and he was sentenced to pay a fine of five hundred marks and to be imprisoned for eighteen months. Through the exertions of Lord Powis, a Roman Catholic nobleman, the fine was re mitted, and he was released from prison November 24th, 1686. Baxter was far in advance of his age. He labored for Chris tian union when that word was not understood. " He was an advocate of Christian union at a time of fiercest partisanships, of Christian liberality at a time of stiffest creeds, of Christian philanthropy at a time of the narrowest sympathies." On July 28th, 1875, a statue representing him in the attitude of preaching was erected at Kidderminster, and it was inscribed with the words: "Between the years of 1641 and 1660 this town was the scene of the labors of Richard Baxter, renowned equally for his Christian learning and for his pastoral fidelity. In a stormy and divided age, he advocated unity and com prehension, pointing the way to everlasting rest. Churchmen and non-conformists united to raise this memorial, a.d. 1875." He was a most prolific writer. Orme enumerates one hun dred and sixty-eight treatises. His " Saint's Everlasting Rest " (1650) and his "Call to the Unconverted" (1657) have had an immense circulation, and have been translated into many tongues. Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians, translated the "Call" next after the Bible. Thomas Goodwin (1600-1679) has been called the "Patri- PUEITAN AND PEESBYTEEIAN SCHOLAES AND DIVINES 369 arch and Atlas of Independency." He resigned his church in Cambridge, as he could not stand the high hand of Laud, and went to Holland. After the archbishop's downfall he re turned to London, and from 1650 to the Restora- Thomas Goodwin , .' ^ tion he was president of Magdalen College, Ox ford. He is supposed to be the Puritan president described by Addison in the Spectator, No. 494. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly, and was a rigid Calvinist. He was a preacher of great power and originality. John Owen (1616-1683), the prince of the Puritans, was ed ucated at Oxford, which he left (1637), as Goodwin left Cam bridge, on account of Laud's discipline. Going up to London, he one day attended worship at Aldermanbury church, hoping to hear Calamy. But a stranger occupied the pulpit, and his sermon, from these words, " Why are ye fear ful, O ye of little faith?" resulted in his conversion. After serving two churches he was made dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1651, and the next year vice-chancellor. He car ried out vigorous reforms at the university, and raised it to a high position as a school of learning. In 1660 he was dis charged from this office, and lived ever after in retirement. Owen, a stanch Calvinist in theology and a born controver sialist, was a man of liberal spirit, and in advance of his time on questions of religious freedom. He remonstrated with the Congregationalists of New England on their tyrannical spirit, and in many ways he labored for liberty of conscience. Yet he could not go so far as Baxter in the matter of Christian union. After the Restoration he was treated with much cour tesy by Charles, and he seems to have been held in profound respect by the Church party. His learning, his many writ ings (eighty in all) of great power and ability, his piety and high-minded devotion to principle, caused him to be held in high esteem. Just before his death he wrote to Charles Fleet wood: " I am going to Him whom my soul has loved, or, rather, who has loved me with an everlasting love — which is the whole ground of my consolation. I am leaving the ship of the Church in a storm ; but while the great Pilot is in it, the loss of a poor under-rower will be inconsiderable." He was engaged in re ligious debate all his life, but he had time to write some devo tional works which are not excelled in the literature of that time. It waB while one of the best and most refreshing qI 370 THE MODEEN CHUECH these, "Meditations on the Glory of Christ," was passing through the press that Owen lay dying. Mr. Payne, a non conformist minister, told him that this book was about to be published. "I am glad to hear it," said Owen, " but, O broth er Payne ! the long-wished-for day is come at last, in which I shall see that glory in another manner than I have ever done, or was capable of doing, in this world." John Goodwin (1593-1665), the "Wycliffe of Methodism," a Cambridge scholar, became vicar of St. Stephen's, Coleman Street, London, from which he was ejected, in 1645, for refusing to administer baptism and the Lord's supper promiscuously. He was an eloquent and courageous divine, an Independent in Church government, and a zealous Arminian in theology. His " Redemption Redeemed " (1651), written with great learning and with admirable spirit, caused a flutter among the divines of that time. The press groaned with sermons, pamphlets, and books written against it. Top- lady thought it was fully answered by Kendal. " If it was," says Sellon, " I will eat it, as tough a morsel as it is." Dr. Owen came out against it. Goodwin had also advanced views on the nature of the Church and on religious toleration. In this he went further than his great opponent, Owen. The latter excepted Romanists, Socinians, and heretics, while Goodwin pleaded from the first for the fullest liberty of conscience as the inalienable right of human nature. John Howe (1630-1705), one of the greatest of the later Puritan divines, had not the learning of Owen nor the versa tility of Baxter, but he was a broad and cultured divine, the choice flower of Puritanism. In 1662, like many of the best ministers in England, he was driven from his parish at Great Torrington by the Act of Uniformity, and led a wan dering life. Eventually (1676) he settled in London as pas tor of a non-conformist congregation, which position he held till 1685, when the growing severity towards dissenters com pelled him to leave for the Continent. In 1687, when James II. published a declaration of liberty of conscience, he returned, but never after held a charge. He was friendly with several men of eminence in the English Church, and was a man of catholic spirit and large tolerance. His greatest work, " The Living Temple" (1676), is a monument of splendid thought and diction. PUEITAN AND PEESBYTEEIAN SCHOLAES AND DIVINES 371 We should not fail to mention here John Bunyan, the im mortal dreamer of Bedford Jail. He was born in November, 1628, at Elstow, near Bedford, and was brought up to the trade of his father, a tinker. In his " Grace Abound ing to the Chief of Sinners," written with wonderful simplic ity and charm, he- tells the story of his youthful sins, of his hard repentance, and of his late-won peace and joy. There is no doubt that Southey and Macaulay are perfectly correct in laying the severe charges with which he criminates himself to a vivid imagination inflamed by a morbid conscience. "The four chief sins of which he was guilty," says Macaulay, "were dancing, ringing the bells of the parish church, playing at tip cat, and reading the history of Sir Bevis of Southampton. A rector of the school of Laud would have held such a young man up to the whole parish as a model." In 1653 he was baptized in the Ouse, and soon began to preach as a deacon in Mr. Gifford's Baptist Church in Bedford. But the High-Church party was now in power. It revived the intolerant acts of 1549 and 1559; and soon the best minis ters in the kingdom, and of all denominations, churchmen and dissenters, were either in prison or in exile from their homes. For twelve years (1660-1672) Bunyan languished in Bedford Jail, " compared with which the worst prison now to be found in the island is a palace." But it was here that he wrote the most of his books, and especially one which he considered the least important of all, and therefore only worked at it at odd moments snatched from his other labors and writings — the " Pilgrim's Progress " (1678). This allegory of the Christian life is written in the purest and most vigorous English, with the keenest insight into the human soul, and with large sympathy with the frailties and weaknesses of human nature. It was a long time before it gained the position of a classic which it now occupies. Its cir culation was confined almost exclusively to the lower classes, and it is only within recent times that the educated classes have yielded their homage to the subtle charm and power of Bunyan's immortal parable. "The ' Pilgrim's Progress,' " says Macaulay, " is perhaps the only book about which, after the lapse of a hundred years, the educated minority has come over to the opinion of the common people." Besides being a liter ary masterpiece, it contains the essence of the whole evangeli- 372 THE MODEEN CHUECH cal theology, and it depicts the experience of the Christian with the greatest accuracy and delicacy. The Second Part was published in 1684. It lacks the power and originality of the First Part, but is a beautiful work. " The Holy War " (1682) would probably have made Bunyan's fame if he had not written the "Pilgrim's Progress." The last part of Bunyan's life was spent in active labors in preaching at Bedford and throughout the country, and in look ing after the interests of the churches. He attained the high est authority among the Baptists, and was called Bishop Bun yan. He got his death through a heavy cold contracted while riding in a pouring rain to London to reconcile a father and a son. He died in London, August 31st, 1688. Of the Puritan divines it may be said that they were learned, pious, and consecrated men, who strove for religious freedom Characteristics *n a tyrannical age, and who held their conscience of the Puritan and their convictions of truth above all price. In Leaders a ucenti0us and demoralized age they held up lof ty ideals of righteousness ; and if they reacted to a too great severity and strictness, they were sterner in judging them selves than others. Never can the English nation repay the debt which it owes to the illustrious names mentioned in this chapter, and to many others equally worthy of remembrance. CEITICAL PEEIODS IN THE SCOTTISH CHUECH 373 CHAPTER XXX CRITICAL PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF THE SCOTTISH CHURCH [Authorities. — There is an abundant literature on the ecclesiastical history of Scotland. The student will find ample materials in the older historians : Calderwood (died 1650), published by Wodrow Society (Edinb., 1842-^9, 8 vols.); Spotiswood (died 1639) (Edinb., 1847-51,3 vols.); Row (died 1646), published by Wodrow Society and by Maitland Club (Edinb., 1842) ; Wod row (died 1734) (Glasgow, 1829, 4 vols.). The more recent historians are more available; Cook (Edinb., 1815, 3 vols.); Russell (London, 1834, 2 vols.); Hetherington (Edinb. and N. Y., last ed., 1853); Stanley (London and N. Y., 1872); St. Giles Lectures, First Series (Edinb., 1881), which called out a reply from Bishop Charles Wordsworth (Edinb., 1881) ; Nor man L. Walker (Edinb., 1882) ; Moffat (Phila., 1884). The works of Heth erington, Stanley, and Moffat, read in connection with the best secular histories, Tytler, Burton, Robertson, and Laing, will give a good general knowledge of Scottish Church history. Principal Rainy's Lectures agaiust Stanley should be read, as well as Principal Lee's Lectures on the History of the Scottish Church (2 vols., 1860). Professor Moffat's work is a fine example of historical criticism, and Walker's Scottish Church History is excellent for a brief view. ] It was an old Scotch custom for those who believed in a cause to band themselves together by a sacred oath to support it to the death. Into such a covenant the barons entered, ThCoveanantsthe in 155V> to suPPort the first preachers of Reform. In 1581, when there was a dread of the revival of popery, the first formal and written covenant was drawn up by John Craig, chaplain to James VI., which entered into a full description of the religious errors which were to be com bated, and was signed by the king and by the people in all ranks. Prelacy was one of the things it denounced. In 1596 this covenant was renewed. In 1638, when Charles I. tried to force the English liturgy on the Scotch people, a bond was again drawn up, condemning all episcopal innovations, and was sworn to with the wildest enthusiasm in the Greyfriars church yard, Edinburgh. It bound its subscribers " to adhere to and 374 THE MODEEN CHUECH defend the true religion, and forbear the practice of all inno vations already introduced into the worship of God; and to labor by all means lawful to recover the purity and liberty of the gospel as it was professed and established before the afore said innovations." Some signed with tears on their cheeks, and it is even said that some wrote their names with their blood. And when Charles, greatly exasperated, tried an appeal to arms, the Scotch troops went forth under the gallant Leslie, with these words stamped in gold on their colors, " For Christ's Crown and Covenant." Charles, however, wisely retired before coming to blows. Another document, drawn up by commissioners of the Eng lish Parliament and the Westminster Assembly, and by com mittees of the Scotch Estates and the General Assembly, was called " The Solemn League and Covenant for Reformation and Defence of Religion, the Honor and Happiness of the King, and the Peace and Safety of the Three Kingdoms of Scotland, England, and Ireland." This covenant was especially explicit in repudiating the episcopal form of government. It was ap- •proved by the General Assembly and by the Scotch people ; by the Westminster Assembly in 1643; by the Scotch Parliament in 1644; and by Charles II. at Speyin 1650, and at Scone in 1651. With his usual hypocrisy, Charles, at the Restoration (1660), denied his oath to the Scots, which led to another war, in which the Covenanters were crushed after suffering the most cruel oppressions and persecutions. It was only after the accession of William of Orange (1689) that adherence to the Covenants ceased to be a crime. Even after the full recognition and es tablishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland, many of the more fanatical Covenanters refused any sanction to a government which upheld episcopacy in England, and did not conform all its acts to the gospel. This stricter party formed themselves into what is now called the Reformed Presbyterian Church. The jealousy of the Scotch for their Covenants is a remarkable evidence of the extreme rigor and conscientiousness of their religious opinions. The Scotch Reformers were trained at Geneva, the fountain of Presbyterianism, and the Scotch Reformation was not a state policy, as in England, prompted by the selfish ambition of tho rulers, but was a radical renewal of the Church on the basis of Holy Scripture. The Scotch people became strongly CEITICAL PEEIODS IN THE SCOTTISH CHUECH 375 attached to the Presbyterian form of government, and asso- The Attempt to c*ated — with a good deal of justice — prelacy force Episcopacy with absolutism in Church and State. But they on Scotland had many hard struggies before all danger of the re-establishment of episcopacy was passed. When James VI. reached manhood and got the reins of the government in his own hands, he strove with great bitterness to overturn the constitution of the Scotch Church. In 1600 he secured the appointment of three bishops, who, however, were not recog nized by the Church. Then he prorogued the meeting of the General Assembly, and when nine presbyteries met in defiance at Aberdeen, he banished eight ministers to remote charges and six to France. " Next followed the alienation of Church lands and revenues and their erection into temporal lordships, the re-establishment of seventeen prelacies, and the restoration of the bishops. The immense step was taken of recognizing the king as ' absolute prince, judge, and governor over all es tates, persons, and causes, both spiritual and temporal.' " Thus James drew the chains tighter and tighter round the Church, packing the presbyteries and General Assembly, until, in 1618, under threats of violence, the General Assembly of Perth passed Five Acts, which enforced kneeling at communion, observance of holydays, episcopal confirmation, private baptism, and pri vate communion. These acts were confirmed by Parliament on Black Saturday, August 4th, 1621. When Charles I. came to the throne, in 1625, he relentlessly pursued the policy of his father. He pressed the claims of the crown even further than James ; forced through SCCh^r7esa"d the convention an " Act anent His Majesty's Pre rogative and Apparel of Churchmen " (1633), which greatly enraged the people ; erected diocesan courts ; circulated the "Book of Canons" (1636), which gave to the Church a complete episcopal organization, besides containing many in sulting references to Presbyterianism, and, under the influence of Laud, ordered the adoption of the English Prayer-book.* This was the last straw. The anger of the people knew no bounds. Sunday, July 23d, 1637, was the date announced for * The Prayer-book -which Charles attempted to force on Scotland was the English liturgy modified by Laud, mainly in the direction of the Ro man ritual. 376 THE MODEEN CHUECH the new liturgy at St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. No soon er did the dean arise to officiate than Jenny Geddes or Anne Mein threw a stool at his head, which was the beginning of an uproar, in which Lindsay, the bishop, was with difficulty saved from the violence of the mob. A similar riot took place in Greyf riars Church when the Bishop of Argyll attempted to use the book. Protest after protest was sent to the king, the nobles join ing the ministers in asking for redress. Then (1638) was drawn up the Solemn League and Covenant mentioned above, in which the subscribers pledged themselves to recover the purity of the gospel as it was professed before the episcopal innovations. An assembly met in Glasgow, November 21st, 1638, which, though dissolved by the king's commissioner, con tinued in session until it annulled the acts of the assemblies between 1606 and 1628 ; condemned the Service Book, Book of Canons, High Commission Court ; deposed the bishops ; de clared episcopacy to have been abjured in 1580 ; condemned the Five Articles of Perth, and fully restored Presbyterian government. The king was obstinate, but finally, in 1641, yielded to the wishes of his Scotch subjects. But the war between prelacy and Presbyterianism was re newed under Charles II. , who had not learned wisdom by the failure of his father. This was the second eclipse thestruggie of the Scottish Church. From 1661, when episco pacy was restored by proclamation, to 1689, when William III. (of Orange) brought religious liberty to the British nation, the Presbyterian Church ceased to exist as the national Church of the Scots. Her ministers were ousted from their parishes, persecuted, and exiled — put to death even with accompaniments of cruel torture, and their spirits cowed and broken by interminable assaults and indignities. In 1690, under William (the very soul of tolerance and wise statesman ship), and his adviser, Carstares, the first General Assembly was held since 1653 ; the rejected ministers were replaced, prelacy declared an insupportable grievance, the Act of Supremacy rescinded, and the Presbyterian government of 1593 restored. The episcopal ministers who intruded into the parish churches were allowed to remain by acknowledging tbe Confession of Faith, and the Covenants were not made a part of the settle ment. These concessions were far from pleasing the extreme THE EESKINE SCHISM AND THE HALDANE EEVIVAL 377 party — the heroic Covenanters, as they came to be called — who held out as a separate body till their union with the Free Church in 1876. Presbyterianism seems engrained into the very heart of the Scotch people, and they have gone through sufferings un told rather than be deprived of their favorite polity. It has made them self-reliant, firm, independent ; it has stimulated every energy of their minds, and wherever they have gone they have carried with them that rare union of intelligence and piety which is the characteristic of the race. CHAPTER XXXI THE ERSKINE SCHISM AND THE HALDANE REVIVAL [Authokities. — For Ebenezer Erskine consult Donald Fraser, Life and Diary of (Edinb., 1831) ; Andrew Thomson, Sketch of tbe Secession Church (Edinb., 1848) ; and for a briefer view, the lecture in the St. Giles Lectures, Third Series : Scottish Divines, 1505-1872 (Edinb., 1883). The Lives of the Hal- dane Brothers have been written by Alexander Haldane (Edinb. and N. Y., 1854) ; see also The Haldanes and their Friends (Phila., 1858).] Pateonage has been the bane of the Scotch Church. It consists in the appointment of ministers to parishes by pa trons, or those who are supposed to have rights The Ebenezer f ownership in ecclesiastical affairs. At the time Erskine Schism r _ of the Reformation the lords and gentlemen of Scotland, in their insatiable avarice, kept the revenues of the parishes in their own hands. From this arose interminable conflicts between the Church and the patrons. In 1649 pat ronage was abolished, but restored in 1660. In 1690 the Church again triumphed ; but in 1712, by the act of Queen Anne, the right of the lay lords to nominate ministers was reasserted. No matter how unworthy the appointee was, nor how unwilling the people were to receive him, there was no redress. In 1733 Ebenezer Erskine, minister at Stirling, preached a sermon as moderator of the Synod of Perth and Stirling, wherein he protested against the action of the Church in ref erence to patronage, and declared that the " Church was the 378 THE MODEEN CHUECH freest society in the world." For this the Synod suspended him, and on his appeal to the General Assembly of that year he and three other pious and worthy ministers who had placed themselves at his side were summarily cast out. Besides this grievance, Erskine held that, as revealed in the trial of Pro fessor Simson, of Glasgow, the Church was not sufficiently strict in doctrinal points. The expulsion of these eminent ministers led to the formation of the Secession Church, first called the Associate Presbytery. Their numbers rapidly mul tiplied until 1747, when an unhappy division occurred in their ranks over the nature of the oath administered to burgesses, requiring them to maintain the religion of the land. In 1820, the divided churches came together again under the name of the United Secession Church, and in 1847 a union was ef fected with the Relief Synod,* and the consolidated bodies took the name of the United Presbyterian Church, which is one of the largest and most aggressive bodies in Scotland. Religion had reached a low ebb in Scotland in the latter part of the eighteenth century. The curse of patronage, the aridity and severity of the extreme ortho- Ththe Haidanenser dox section of the Church, the factional fights and intense sectional bitterness, and the indif ference of Moderatism (as the policy of the mild and con servative men who controlled the Church of Scotland was called) had led to wide -spread religious declension and re laxation of moral tests. Some of the brightest geniuses of Scotland were repelled from the Church. The reverent spirit of Robert Burns, who was never an unbeliever, received a shock by the hypocrisy which he saw around him, and he has revealed the condition of the Church in. some of the most ter rible and biting satires in literature. It was at this time that the brothers Haldane arose to infuse a new evangelical spirit in Scotland. * Founded in 1752 by Thomas Gillespie, minister of the Church of Scotland at Carnock, who was deposed for refusing to take part in the installation of a pastor whom it was determined to thrust into the parish of Inverkeithing against the will of the people. The extreme conscien tiousness, independence, and tenacity of conviction of the Scotch mind have given birth to many sects and schisms which the more tolerant and liberal sentiment of the present time finds it hard to appreciate. THE EESKINE SCHISM AND THE HALDANE EEV1VAL 379 The elder, Robert (1764-1842), after a distinguished career in the navy, became a convert to religion, and, shut out of _ , India by the East India Company, formed the Robert Haldane ,,„.*', „ r „ , „ " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home," which was supported almost entirely by his own con secrated wealth. He sent out preachers and missionaries who greatly quickened the religious life of the Churches. The General Assembly (1800) forbade field-preaching and discour aged the revival. Then he built tabernacles, as they were called, throughout all the large towns of Scotland, and to sup ply them with ministers he had hundreds of young men in training at Gosport, Glasgow, and Dundee. The zeal of this great philanthropist was not confined to Scotland. He went to France and Switzerland, and labored so earnestly to spread evangelical principles that the fruits appear to this day. The rich labors of Malan, Monod, and Merle d'Aubigne were largely the result of the influence of this learned and enthusiastic lay man. At Geneva and Montauban he gathered theological students around him, and inspired them with his faith and zeal. His brother, James Alexander (1768-1851), also followed the sea. While in command of the Melville Castle (1793) he was led to a careful and profound study of James Alexander th Bible, which determined a new bent to his Haldane ' life. In 1796 he made a tour throughout Scot land with Simeon, of Cambridge, and the next year he set him self to those itinerant evangelistic labors which, if they do not entitle him to be called the Wesley of Scotland, yet were in strumental in the regeneration of his native land. James Hal dane preached and established societies and Sunday-schools, and Robert built the churches. And when the Church of Scotland forbade lay-preaching, field-preaching, and all revival efforts, James received ordination as an independent minister, and continued his labors. He at length settled as the pastor of the large congregation at Leith Walk, Edinburgh, and he there served without salary, but with the utmost zeal and fidelity, for fifty years. He did not discontinue his itinerant preaching, however, till late in life. He announced his conver sion to Baptist views in 1808. The revival under the Haldanes had a most beneficial effect on Scottish Christianity, and although it was far less exten- 380 THE MODEEN CHUECH sive in results than the similar Methodist movement in Eng land fifty years before, it nevertheless gave an impetus to re ligious and missionary zeal which has lasted to this day. The Haldanes were godly and devoted men, and their names stand high on the roll of Scotch saints. CHAPTER XXXII THE GREAT DISRUPTION [Authorities:. — The history of this memorable time is best read in the lives of the chief actors. Hanna, Life of Dr. Chalmers (Edinb., 1849-52), is the best source. Mackenzie and Rainy, Life of Wm. Cunningham (Edinb., 1871); Wilson, Life of R. S. Candlish (1880); Walker, Life of Robert Buchanan (1877), and especially Buchanan, Ten Years' Conflict (Edinb., 1849), should be read. This last tells the Free-Churchman's story of this crisis, and Bryce, Ten Years of the Church of Scotland, 1833-43 (Edinb., 1859), gives the establishment's version of the same facts. The latest au thority [Church of Scotland side] is Niven, The Church of Scotland, from the Revolution to Present Time (Edinb., 1891), being the third vol. of Story's series on the Church of Scotland.] The immediate cause of the Great Disruption in tbe Church of Scotland, in 1843, was the unsuccessful attempt to get rid of the rule of the lay patrons — the right of lay nomina tion to vacant churches. The Scotch Reformers held lofty views of the independence of the Church in all spiritual matters. These views were acknowledged by Parliament in 1592, and confirmed by the same authority in 1649, after the lay fight with episcopacy. Tbe Revolution Settlement of 1690 reasserted, with slight modifications, the principle of an independent spiritual jurisdiction. In 1711, shortly after the abolition of the Scottish Parliament, an act in the British Par liament, against the most earnest protests of the Scotch people, restored patronage to its ancient footing. At length, under the reign of Moderatism, the Church itself became indifferent to the rights of its congregations, and suffered in consequence the secessions of Erskine and Gillespie. About the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, under the influence of the Haldane revival, determined efforts were begun to shake off the incubus of patronage on the free life of the Church. These THE GEEAT DISEUPTION 381 efforts culminated in the Veto Act of 1834, by which the Gen eral Assembly decided that a non-acceptable pastor, intruded by a patron on a church, should not be installed, providing a majority of the heads of families of the parish dissent. In 1838 Lord Kinnoul, patron of Auchterarder, presented Rev. Robert Young as the minister of that parish. The peo ple almost unanimously refused his endorsement. The patron carried the case to the civil courts, which decided in his favor, and instructed the Presbytery to proceed to the ordination of Mr. Young. The same year the General Assembly retaliated by declaring that " in all matters touching tbe doctrine, dis cipline, and government of the Church, her judicatories pos sess an exclusive jurisdiction, founded on the Word of God, which power ecclesiastical flows immediately from God and the Mediator, the Lord Jesus Christ, and is spiritual, not hav ing a temporal head on earth, but only Christ, the only spirit ual King and Governor of his Kirk." The decision of the Court of Session in the Auchterarder case was confirmed by the House of Lords in 1839. Finally, after various petitions and protests, a final appeal was made to the English Govern ment to redress the grievances of the Scotch Church, which was rejected in March, 1843, by a majority of one hundred and thirty-five. Every hope, therefore, of recovering the an cient status of the Church as a self-governing body in matters of her own concern having passed, one step only remained. On the 18th of May, 1843, at the meeting of the General Assembly in Edinburgh, and before it was organized, Dr. Welsh, the moderator, arose and read a protest Consummation . ' . . ,, . . signed by two hundred commissioners, that, inas much as it was impossible any longer to hold a free assembly of the Church of Scotland, it should be " lawful for us, and such other commissioners as may concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting, for the purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to us — maintaining with us the Confession of Faith and standards of the Church of Scot land as heretofore understood — for separating in an orderly way from the establishment, and thereupon adopting such measures as may be competent to us, in humble dependence upon God's grace and the aid of bis Holy Spirit, for the ad vancement of his glory, the extension of the gospel of our Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the affairs of 382 THE MODEEN CHUECH Christ's house according to his holy word." It was a sublime moment. Would these men leave the old Church, which they loved as their own life, its livings, manses, pulpits, professor ships? When Dr. Welsh had read this statement he bowed to the royal commissioner and walked towards the door. Dr. Chalmers and the entire non-intrusion party followed. The immense crowd outside gave way, and with cheers sent them on their way. Then was organized the Free Church of Scot land. More than a third of the clergy and laity of the Estab lished Church adhered to the new movement. On the 23d of May an Act of Separation was drawn up, in which the signers — whose numbers ultimately rose to four hundred and seventy- four — voluntarily resigned all the benefices they had held and declared them vacant. There are few events in the history of the Church more heroic than this. When some one rushed in upon Lord Jef frey with tbe news, " What do you think ? More than four hundred of them have gone out !" he sprang to his feet and exclaimed, " I'm proud of my country. There is not another land on earth where such a deed could have been done !" Some of the most godly and learned men of the old Church took part in this Great Disruption. Dr. Welsh, the moderator; Dr. Thomas Chalmers, who carried through a scheme Aqents for the evangelization of the poor and lapsed classes of Glasgow when he was pastor of the Tron Church (1815-23) — a scheme which was the forerunner of many similar home mis sionary operations — and who left his professorship of theology at Edinburgh (1828-43) to cast in his lot with the seceders; Dr. Thomas Guthrie, the golden-mouthed preacher ; Dr. Cand- lish, the great debater and leader ; Dr. Cunningham, the emi nent theologian ; Robert Gordon, minister of the old Chapel of Ease, Edinburgh ; Robert McCheyiie, one of the most saint ly men of modern times ; Macfarlane, Buchanan, McCosh, and many other devoted and high-minded ministers, were willing to suffer the loss of all things rather than submit to the dicta tion of the State in the field of the Church. The Great Disruption shook Scotland from centre to cir cumference, and its vibrations were felt all over the civilized Results wor^* Churches, schools, colleges, were speedily built all over Scotland ; the English dissenters sent their sym pathy and money, and, by the advice of Chalmers, a Sustenta- LEABNING IN THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 383 tion Fund was raised, which soon guaranteed a support of one hundred and fifty pounds to each minister. The Free Church became the most aggressive and spiritual body in Scotland, and has since been an important factor in the religious history of the world. In 1863 negotiations were begun with the United Presbyterian Church, looking towards union. Thus far noth ing has come of this. But in 1876 a union was formed with the Reformed Presbyterian Church. All the missionaries of the Church of Scotland in the foreign field in 1843 — including Dr. Wilson, of Bombay ; Dr. Duff, of Calcutta ; and Dr. John Duncan, of Pesth — adhered to the Free Church, which has al ways claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Reforma tion Church. CHAPTER XXXIII LEARNING AND LITERARY CULTURE IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH [Authorities. — By consulting such works as Wetzer und Welte's Kirchen-Lexi- kon, 2d revised ed. by Hergenrother and Kaulen (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1880 sqq.), and The Catholic Dictionary (London and N. Y., 1889, 6th ed. revised and enlarged) by Arnold and Addis, both of whom have since be come Unitarians, and by consulting the files and current issues of such pe riodicals as the Dublin Review, the Tablet, and the American Catholic Quar terly Review, we can get a good idea of the learning and literary productive ness in the Catholic Church.] One effect of the Reformation was to stimulate scholarship in the Roman Church. The Reformers appealed to history and to the ancient records of Christianity, and Learning and tn catholic scholars were compelled to a thor- Literary Culture £ ough and extensive literary defence. Cardinal Baronius, the librarian of the Vatican, who died in Rome in 1607, at the age of sixty-nine, was the pioneer in tbe field of history. His "Annales Ecclesiastici," the fruit of thirty years' labor, is a storehouse of vast learning, and with the crit ical notes of Pagi and the continuation of Theiner, who has published the best edition (Bar-le-Duc, 1864-83, 37 vols.), is still of value. It was written to counteract the destructive in- 384 THE MODEEN CHUECH fluence of the " Magdeburg Centuries," the first attempt to apply historical criticism to the mass of conjecture and legend which passed for fact in the Mediaeval Church. Tillemont (died 1698) and Dupin (died 1719), two French scholars of liberal views, wrote histories which are invaluable records of learned and industrious research. Later historians are Hurter, the Abbe Rohrbacher, Ritter, Alzog, and Hergenrother. Dr. Lin- gard (died 1851) wrote a "History of England," which wor thily ranks with the great works of this century, though it cannot always be relied on. Rather than give up his studies and quiet life, Lingard refused the cardinal's hat. In theology and Biblical criticism, the Roman Church has not been inactive. Bellarmine (died 1621), a man of humble Theoioqy an<^ pi°us spirit, re-stated the Roman Catholic the- and Biblical ology in view of the Protestant objections. Peta- Crlticism viug ^ied 16g2^ iithe eagje of the JesuitS)» pub. lished his great work on "Dogmatic Theology "in 1644-50, and made the first attempt by a Catholic to write a history of theology disenthralled from scholasticism and in sympathy with the modern spirit. Perrone, an Italian Jesuit, who died in Rome in 1876, published a system of theology which has been widely used, and fairly expresses the prevailing teaching of the Church. John Adam Mohler (died 1838) in his "Sym bolism" (1832) made a singularly acute criticism of the Prot estant theological position, and by a liberal and idealizing treat ment of the theology of his own Church created a profound impression. This book " electrified men's souls and awakened a new movement of men's minds within and without Catholi cism." It exerted a remarkable influence on the English Trac- tarians, and it is still an armory both for liberal Catholics and High-Church Episcopalians against Protestantism. DoUinger resigned his chair of ecclesiastical history to Mohler, and was on terms of the closest friendship with this brilliant young scholar, who was less than three years his senior, and who; had he lived, would doubtless have joined him in the Old-Catholic movement. Hefele and Werner are living divines of profound historical learning. What Count de Montalembert did for Western Monasticism, Professor Goerres (died 1848) did for Mediseval Mysticism — authors who have given us the bright side of these remarkable phenomena in a gorgeous and elo quent style. LEARNING IN THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 385 In the field of Biblical exposition, the Roman Church is far behind the Protestant. Yet she has done some respectable work. Professor Hug (died 1846), of Freiburg, wrote an excel lent " Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures," which was introduced to American readers by Professor Stuart, of Ando ver. The labors of Dr. Leander Van Ess in the Vulgate, the Septuagint, and the Greek text of the New Testament were very valuable. Tbe great works of Jahn (died 1816) on "Bib lical Archseology " and the " Hebrew Commonwealth " were also published at Andover ; and the famous "Bible Dictionary" of the learned Benedictine Calmet also owes its use by Eng lish readers to Protestant scholars. The " Commentaries on the Gospels " by Maldonatus, a Jesuit whose expository lectures in Paris created an enthusiasm never known there since the days of Abelard, have been translated by a Church-of -England member of Exeter College, Oxford. The " Commentaries on the Epistles of Paul " by Bernardine a Piconio are also wor thy of mention. The work of Movers, of the University of Breslau, on the Phoenicians, is a classic ; and Wilke, a convert — like Hurter — from Protestantism, was one of the first to open the field of New-Testament lexicography. Herbst (died 1837), in Old-Testament introduction ; Anton Scholz, of Wiirz- burg, in Old- Testament exposition ; Schanz, in the New Tes tament; the Abbe J. P. P. Martin, of Paris, in New-Testament textual criticism ; Dr. Joseph Grimm, in his voluminous " Life of Christ ;" tbe Jesuits Comely, Knabenbauer, and De Humme- lauer, in their " Commentaries ;" and the late lamented Francois Lenormant, of Paris, in Old-Testament history — these have all done work of which any Church might well be proud, and for which the Catholic Church, on account of the meagreness of her contributions to Biblical scholarship, should be specially thankful. On disputed points, Catholic scholars, as a rule, take very conservative positions. In the literary and scientific progress of modern times the Roman Catholic Church has taken, relatively, a very small part. She has not been without her poets and novelists and men of science ; but in the departments of art, science, literature, and general learning she has had to yield to the more progressive churches of Protestantism. 25 386 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XXXIV THE GROWTH OF MARY-WORSHIP [Authorities. — The Church histories and theological encyclopaedias may here be used; also the popular Catholic manuals of devotion. There is in Eng. lish no single work giving the historical aspect of this singular cultus. The best we have is in the first and second volumes of Pusey's Eirenicon (London and N. Y., 1865, first part; Loudon, 1869, second part). He treats the whole subject dispassionately and with great learning.] The establishment of the doctrine of the divinity of Christ reacted in bringing glory to Mary, his mother. When the Synod of Ephesus, in 431, condemned Nestorius for denying that Mary was the mother of God (SsoroKoe), they were only falling in line with the increasing reverence of the people. When the Fathers left the Council they were accompanied through the city with torch-lights and incense-burning. From that moment, says Steitz, the worship of Mary may be consid ered as established, and it increased with every century. Jus tinian prays to her for the restoration of the Roman Empire, and Narses expected that she would tell him the right moment for making an attack.* In the Middle Ages this worship be came notorious for its fulsomeness. Candles and incense were burned in front of her images, and angel-painted pictures of her were shown. Peter Damiani (eleventh century) in his ser mons describes her, not as a humble maid, but as a queen en dowed with celestial beauty. Poet and artist joined in the enthusiasm of preacher and monk. Her relics and miracles were numberless. The Jesuits helped forward the movement mightily. New female orders sprang up in honor of Mary, and it looked much as if the worship of Mary should super sede entirely the worship of Christ. But there were not lacking those who called a halt. When the canons of Lyons introduced the festival of the conception * Evagrius, "Historia Ecclesiastica,"iv. 24 THE GEOWTH OF MAEY-WOllSHIP 387 of the Immaculate Mary, December 8th, 1139, Bernard of Clairvaux, the greatest saint of his time, inveighed strongly against the innovation. On the same ground, he said, they might appoint festivals for the conception of the mother, grandmother, and great-grandmother of Mary, and so on back to the beginning. Many of the schoolmen were also opposed to the growth of the Mary-cultus. This is true of Anselm, Aquinas, and Albertus Magnus. Later, Adrian Baillet (1693) said that it was simply flattery to worship the Virgin, and he called for large modifications in the prevailing customs. Muratori (1723) admits that the worship of the Virgin may be useful, but he denies its necessity. "In 1784 the emperor Joseph II. ordered all the hearts, hands, and feet of gold and silver which had been presented on the altars of Mary as vo tive offerings removed from the churches. But by a singular coincidence, which shows how close by each other light and darkness may lie, Alfonzo da Liguori published at Venice his ' Le Glorie di Maria,' which probably goes further than any other book on the subject in fantastical assertions and vision ary fictions." In the fourteenth century, chiefly through the influence of the " Subtle Doctor," Duns Scotus, the doctrine of the Immacu late Conception — that is, that Mary was born with- Conceptio'n out t'3e tamt °^ original sin — was embraced by the Franciscans. The Dominicans, however, with great heat and animosity, opposed them, and the orders often passed the charge of heresy back and forth. The Jesuits, whose dis interested labors and absolute devotion to the Holy See gave them a preponderating influence, lent their persistent and pow erful support to the new doctrine, so that in recent times it came to be held universally throughout the Church. On Feb ruary 2d, 1849, Pope Pius IX. invited the opinion of the Catholic bishops on the subject. He received six hundred answers affirming belief in the doctrine ; fifty-two agreed as to the doctrine, but did not think it wise to define it ; and only four dissented. This showed that the Church was thoroughly im pregnated with a cultus which would have been indignantly repudiated by Augustine and the ancient Fathers. On De cember 8th, 1854, in the Church of St. Peter, in Rome, in the presence of two hundred cardinals, bishops, and other prelates, Pius IX. proclaimed the doctrine to be of faith in these words : 388 THE MODEEN CHUECH " That the most blessed Virgin Mary, in the first moment of her conception, by the special grace and privilege of Almighty God, in virtue of the merits of Christ, was preserved immacu late from all stain of original sin." There is no doubt that Mariolatry more than anything else has checked the progress of the Roman Church in modern times. It was this which played such an important part in keeping Pusey and many other High-Churchmen out of that Church. Newman never felt any enthusiasm for this remark able tendency in modern Romanism, and he tried in every way to minimize its importance. It should be remembered, of course, that, according to Ro man Catholic theology, the worship paid to Mary is not divine worship, and that all her powers of intercession are due solely to ber unique relation to Jesus Christ. CHAPTER XXXV THE END OF THE TEMPORAL POWER OF THE PAPACY [Authorities.- — See the recent secular and Church histories. Crispi gives a full account of the settlement with the papacy in two articles in the North American Review, Nov. and Dec, 1891. Geffcken, a Protestant, the author of the best History of the Relations of Church and State (Lond., 1877, 2 vols.), has a fair discussion of the present position of the pope in Italy in the Forum, Jan., 1892.] The old fable of the gift by Constantine of temporal do minions to the pope was repeated as a veracious story for Growth of the centuries. In the fifteenth century Laurentius Temporal Lordship Valla riddled it through and through, and Ro- o e ope maQ Qatno]jc scholars have long since given it up. The real foundation of the pope's worldly power was laid by Pepin the Short (reigned 752-768), who conquered the Lom bard king Aistulph, and ceded the whole exarchate of Ra venna and the PentapoHs (the cities of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia, and Ancona, with the lands adjacent) to the pope, Stephen III. (755). This donation Charlemagne solemnly con firmed in 774 ; and in spite of various vicissitudes and lapses, THE END OF THE TEMPOEAX POWEE OF THE PAPACY 389 the temporal sovereignty continued in the hands of the popes till within the present century. The Reformation shook the hold of the pope on the world, and he vainly raged when the Peace of Westphalia (1648) officially recognized a Christen dom outside of the Roman Catholic Church. The principal eclipse was suffered in the latter part of the eighteenth cen tury, when many of the pope's favorite cities were taken from him, and a republic declared (February 15th, 1798) in the Ro man Forum. Thanks, however, to the Congress of Vienna (June, 1815), the Papal States were restored and those old divisions, which were the curse of Italy, perpetuated. Italy became, as Prince Metternich said, only a geographical expression. Even before Louis Philippe was cast out of France, Italy was moved by that revolutionary spirit which, like resistless leaven, was working throughout Europe. A United Italy had been the fond dream of Italy's best pa triots. The yoke of the old despotisms galled. Even Pius IX. at first shared the new liberal feeling, and on ascending the papal throne, in 1846, promised many reforms. The demo cratic ferment at length carried everything before it in Rome. The pope fled, disguised as a common priest, to Gaeta, near Na ples, in 1848, and a republic was declared. And although he was restored to his temporal throneby the bayonetsof Napoleon in 1S50, this was prophetic of the end. The papal govern ment became intolerable, and Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna, of the Papal States, sent representatives to Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia and Lombardy, imploring him to annex them to his kingdom. In a happy moment Cavour, the noble statesman of Italy's new era, suggested to Napo leon that these communities be allowed to appeal to the polls as to their political relations. The French emperor assented, and, in return for Nice and Savoy, allowed his protege, Pius IX., in spite of his tears and frantic protests, to see his fairest dominions become a part of the growing territory of the house of Sardinia. Events ripened rapidly. In 1860, the States of the Church were in the hands of Victor Emmanuel, the Roman Campagna alone remaining. France still furnished support to what frag ment of power was left to the pope. But in the great death- struggle with Germany in 1870 she withdrew her troops. On the fall of Napoleon, Victor Emmanuel marched into Rome, 390 THE MODEEN CHUECH and asked the Romans to decide by popular vote whether their city should again take its historic place as the capital of Italy. By an overwhelming majority the citizens overthrew the old papal government, and on July 1st, 1871, the seat of government was removed to the ancient capital.* Sic transit gloria mundi. So passed away forever the tem poral authority of the Roman Church. The Vatican palace, with its eleven thousand rooms, was given to the pope, and his ample revenues and his spiritual headship guaranteed. In spite of the wailings of Pius over his loss, continued with little abatement by Leo, and repeated everywhere by Catholic bishops and congresses, there can be no doubt that this revo lution is really a blessing to the Catholic Church. Disencum bered of the affairs of state and entangling and annoying political alliances and schemes, it can now devote itself with increased vigor to the vast religious, educational, and mission ary enterprises which it has on foot. CHAPTER XXXVI THE CONTEST WITH GERMANY [Authorities. — Besides the histories, see the article " Kulturkampf " in Jack son, Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1891); "Falk Laws," in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia (new ed., 1891) ; " Shall the Keys or Sceptre Rule in Germany," by Charles A. Salmond, M.A., of Edinburgh, in Prince ton Review, March, 1878 ; and the addresses of the German delegates in the Evangelical Alliance since 1873.] The Roman Catholic Church in Germany is officially con nected with the State. In return for this State endowment, a certain supervision has always been exercised over "tta'Kp*"- the clerSF- Some Catholic teachers in Germany who refused, in 1871, to sanction the new dogma of infallibility were removed from office. Bismarck strongly * The story of the events which led to the unification of Italy is one of the most fascinating pages of modern history. But it belongs rather to the secular field, and is here passed over. It is full of romance and pathos, of suffering and daring. THE CONTEST WITH GERMANY 391 resented this. He began a conflict with the clerical party which involved him in many difficulties. The first step was the ab olition of the Catholic branch of the government bureau of Worship and Instruction. This was followed by the expul sion of the Jesuits, and the climax was reached by the severe Falk Laws, so called because proposed by Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Public Worship and Instruction. They were passed between 1872 and 1875, and provided that all the Roman cler gy should be educated in State universities ; that all school- inspectors should be laymen ; that no members of religious orders should teach in the schools ; that all ecclesiastical ap pointments should be sanctioned by the civil authorities ; that a royal court should be the final arbiter in ecclesiastical ques tions ; that civil marriage is obligatory; and that all bishops and clergymen should make a declaration of obedience to the laws of the State before entering upon office. These laws were bitterly resented by the Catholics of Ger many as arbitrary infringements upon their liberties. De vout bishops and scholars soon found themselves in prison. Sees became vacant. It was inevitable that such repressive measures would create opposition. Under the leadership of Windthorst, a statesman of remarkable acuteness and persist ency, a party was consolidated in the Reichstag which an noyed and crippled the power of Bismarck. In 1879 Falk was compelled to resign, and on January 1st, 1882, a bill was passed which opened the way for the filling of vacancies. Bis marck saw the need of conciliating the Catholic party in order to carry through his army bills, so that, with the more concil iatory spirit shown by Pope Leo, mutual concessions were made, and as a result all the more offensive of the Falk Laws were repealed. Leo XIII. has always shown a desire to bring the Catholic Church into more amicable relations with states and into har mony with great popular and philanthropic move- The Liberal Leo •_ tt t. t 3 n j- 1 t • • ments. He has supported Cardinal Lavigerie in his o-reat crusade against African slavery, and in 1891 issued an encyclical on the labor question, breathing a liberal and en lightened spirit. He says the Church must take an interest in the wrongs of the poor, and steadily work for the amelioration of unjust dealings, while firmly holding to the right of private property against Communists and radical Socialists. In his 392 THE MODEEN CHUECH encyclical of 1885 he boldly proclaimed liberty of conscience and the right of governments to tolerate different forms of re ligion. This utterance would have scandalized Pius IX. In spite of the harsh manner in which the French government has treated ecclesiastics, Leo has given notice to the clergy that they must support the republican government of France, and assume a more cordial and friendly attitude to national affairs. All this shows the determination of the Catholic Church to make terms with the modern spirit, and, by observing the signs of the times, to seek for leadership in the New Age. CHAPTER XXXVII THE SURVIVAL OF SUPERSTITION [Authorities. — The best account of the Lourdes affair is found in Vincent, In the Shadow of the Pyrenees (N. Y., 1883). Compare "The Canadian Lourdes," by J. E. Learned, in Tlie Christian Union, Jan. 2d, 1892. On the Holy Coat, see Magazine of Christian Literature (N. Y.), Oct., 1891.1 In spite of the growth of intelligence in the Roman Catholic Church and the silent influence of Protestantism, there are yet many indications of superstitions and semi-pagan ob- of^Loretto servances. Offerings are still made to Mary in the Holy House of Loretto, near Ancona, in Italy — the room in the cottage of Mary, at Nazareth, in which she was born and in which Jesus was brought up, transformed into a church by the apostles, and, during the Turkish occupation of Palestine, carried through the air by the angels and deposited at Tersato, in northern Dalmatia (1291), whence it was taken, three years later, across the Adriatic, and placed where it now stands. Pope Sixtus IV. confirmed the truth of the legend by a bull, 1471, and so late as 1721-24 Innocent XIII. instituted a special mass in honor of the Holy Virgin of Loretto. On February 14th, 1858, the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared to a peasant girl in a cave at Lourdes, near Tarbes, in the Department of Hautes-Pyrenees, France. A large church was built above the grotto in 1876. Vast multitudes from all quarters of the world annually visit the holy spot, and miracu- THE SUEVIVAL OF SUPEESTITION 393 lous cures are alleged to take place. The apparition has been the making of the town. An immense trade in rosaries and Other " objects of piety " has sprung up. Twice a year, at Naples, the dry clotted blood of St. Janua- rius, a martyr of the third century, is alleged to liquefy and fhe Liquefaction Dubkle UP- If it does this in a vigorous manner, of the Blood it is a good sign for the city, and no eruptions of St. Januarius of yesuvius are feared. The miracle is watched with intensest interest, and if the blood fails to liquefy, the people are seized with consternation. An American Catholic bishop (Lynch, of Charleston) wrote an essay to prove the re ality of this phenomenon. The seamless coat of Christ (John xix. 23) is said to be pre served in the cathedral at Treves, and during the summer of 1891 three million people paid their homage to Seamless Coat *t- ^ts exhibition caused much disgust among the more enlightened Catholics of Germany, and sev eral Catholic societies sent up protests. The coat is first men tioned in the eleventh or twelfth century, and was first ex hibited at the consecration of Archbishop Bruno, October 23d, 1121. Twenty other seamless garments are also claimed to have been discovered, and the one at Argenteuil, near Paris, puts in especially strong claims of authenticity. The persist ence of other fictions and fetich -worship in the Roman Cath olic Church has helped not a little the growth of religious in< difference and infidelity in Catholic countries. 394 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XXXVIII ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN ENGLAND [Authorities. — The recent history of the Roman Church in England is given as follows : " A Sketch of Anglo-Romanism," a series of articles in The Churchman (N. Y.) in the summer of 1890; Newman, Present Position of Catholics in England (London and N. Y., 6th ed., 1889; 1st ed., 1851); Quarterly Review, Jan., 1888 ; R. Buddensieg, " The Roman Catholic Church in England," in Magazine of Christian Literature, Nov., 1891 ; art. " Eng lish Catholics "-in The Catholic Dictionary (6th ed., 1889). The standard Roman Catholic Histories of England, Lingard (6th ed., London, 1854, 10 vols.) and Dodd (new ed. by Tierney, London, 1839-43), go no further than 1688. For later history see Charles Butler, Historical Memoirs (London, 1819); Milner, Supplementary Memoirs (1820); and Husenbeth, Life of Dr. Milner (Dublin, 1862).] Foe over two centuries the lot of the Roman Catholics in England was a hard one. As late as 1780 tbe law of England made it a capital crime for a native priest to per- B0D.Mb?mihes iC form the rites of his Church. Catholics could not acquire land by purchase, and persons educated abroad in tbe Catholic faith forfeited their estates to the next Protestant heir. No Roman Catholic could be a guardian or a lawyer, and it was a crime punishable with death for a priest to celebrate the marriage relation between a Protestant and a Catholic. These rigorous laws prevailed not only in England, but also in Ireland ; and in Scotland they were, if possible, even more severe. It was not possible for liberal-minded statesmen to look upon these harsh burdens carried by loyal citizens, from whom harm could no longer be suspected, without seek- FirforMRSreS inS measures for relief. In 1780 Sir George Sav- ille introduced a bill repealing some of the more notoriously unjust provisions of the laws against the Catholics, providing they would sign a carefully worded test. In spite of George III.'s inveterate prejudices, and the opposition of EOMAN CATHOLICISM IN ENGLAND 395 the rank and file of the people, this bill became law. But it occasioned an outburst of religious fanaticism which for a time swept all before it. In Scotland, where like proposals of re lief were brought forward, a "Committee for the Protestant Interests," very similar to the " Committee of One Hundred " now guarding American liberties in Boston, was formed, which so stirred up the populace of Edinburgh that they attacked and set fire to Roman Catholic churches and parsonages, as well as the houses of those who were suspected of favoring the Relief Bill. In England a veritable Protestant Reign of Ter ror ensued. So inflamed was the public mind at the mention of any concessions to the Catholics that monster petitions were soon signed, given to Lord George Gordon, a member of Par liament and a gloomy fanatic, who, followed by an immense mob, proceeded (June 2d, 1780) to the Houses of Parliament, to awe that assembly by such a manifestation of stalwart Protestantism. But the devil of bigotry once raised is not easily laid. Tasting the sweets of power, moved by the ha rangues of pulpit and press against the Catholics, the mob became uncontrollable, and proceeded to a feast of riot and pillage. Catholic churches and the houses of Catholics were gutted and burned; Newgate Prison and the mansion of the chief -justice, Lord Mansfield, were destroyed ; the Bank of England and several other public buildings were attacked, and for days London was at the mercy of the ruffians. Charles Dickens, in his strongest novel, "Barnaby Rudge," has told the tale of this reign of carnage from a study of the contem porary records, and with exactest historical justice as well as with terrible dramatic interest. But these measures were only tentative. Neither the bill of 1780 nor that of 1791 struck the civil fetters from the Cath olics. They were still not only excluded from Par- Emanclpa'tlon liament, but from numerous minor offices, fran chises, and civil rights. To enjoy any privileges whatever they must forswear belief in transubstantiation and the invocation of saints. A growing liberality of feeling, how ever, prepared the way for complete emancipation. This was helped by the influence of the eloquent Daniel O'Connell. On March 5th, 1829, Sir Robert Peel introduced into the House of Commons the celebrated Relief Bill, which swept away the remaining Catholic restrictions. This was the year after the 396 THE MODEEN CHUECH disabilities had been removed from the Protestant dissenters, who, however, still opposed granting the same rights to the Catholics. But Peel's bill became law, and gave to a long- suffering people their tardy dues. Several of the higher of fices of the realm were excluded, however, from the range of the bill.* With better chance for growth, the Roman Church antici pated a recovery of her former position. It had long been the Decay of the fond dream of the pope to recover the lost island Catholic Church of Albion. In 1840 England was divided into m England ejgnt vicariates. More vigor was put into Cath olic evangelism. In 1850, by a special bull, Pope Pius IX. re stored the hierarchy, and formally instituted the Church in England, after three hundred years of lapse, as an organized body. The country was divided into one metropolitan (with Dr. Wiseman, Archbishop of Westminster) and twelve episco pal sees. But in spite of these hopeful steps, in spite of the splendid promise of the Oxford movement, with its hundreds of converts, the Roman Church in England is on the decline. Its apparent gains have been due to Irish immigration. A writer in the Catholic journal the Month (London), July, 1885, gives some discouraging figures. In 1841 the Roman Cath olic population of England and Wales was 800,000 ; the total population, 18,845,424. In 1885 the population of the coun try had increased 62 per cent. A like rate of increase on the part of the Catholics, adding 1,000,000 immigrants from Ireland, should make 2,396,000 souls. In reality the Catholics only had, in 1885, 1,362,760, and in 1887, only 1,354,000. This means the Church has lost, in round numbers, one million souls in these years. The Tablet, May 21st, 1887, confesses that the " annual losses of Anglo-Romanism vastly exceed its gains." The Month declares that " not only are converts fewer, but our own people are in great numbers falling away." The remark of St. George Mivart, that the divine blessing has never rested upon the effort to bring England back to the Roman obedience, is abundantly justified. As a power in modern religious life, * Sydney Smith, in his "Peter Plymley Letters," on the subject of the Catholics (1807), one of the raciest books ever written, with its wit, irony, and noble argument, mightily helped along this movement. THE VATICAN COUNCIL 397 the Roman Church is falling back, not only in England, but in all countries— the Nemesis of the dearly purchased victory of Ultramontanism. CHAPTER XXXIX THE VATICAN COUNCIL [Authorities. — The condition of the Catholic Church at the eve of the Vatican Council is depicted by De Pressense, Rome and Italy at the Opening of the Vatican Council (N. Y., 1870). The Council itself is described by Quirinus (pseudonym for Dr. Friedrich and others), Letters from Rome on the Council (London, 1870) ; Bacon, An Inside View of the Vatican Coun cil (N. Y., 1872); Arthur, The Pope, the Kings, and the People (London, 1877, 2 vols.) ; and by Littledale in his excellent article in the Encyclo paedia Britannica, 9th edition, "Vatican, Council of." The Old-Catholic scholar, Friedrich, has an invaluable collection of documents, Documenta ad Illustrandum Concilium Vaticanum (Nbrdlingen, 1873), and has written two other most important works on the Council. Schaff has written a, History of the Council, with text of its decrees in Latin and English (also given by Arthur, as above), in his Creeds of Christendom (N. Y., 6th ed., 1890), which is also printed in Harper's American edition of Glad stone's Vatican Decrees (N. Y., 1875).] Not for three hundred years had a General Council been held. The gathering of five hundred bishops at the eighteenth centenary of the anniversary of the martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul seemed to suggest to Pius IX. the possibility of a larger gathering to settle matters that were vexing the Church. That prelate was bent on advancing the prerogatives of the Holy See. In 1864 he sent out a Syllabus of Errors, a list of condemned teachings appended to his famous encyclical Quan ta Cura, in which he held up to reprobation free thought, free speech, free education, and the dearest attainments of the mod ern spirit. There were many, especially of the party of the Jesuits, who favored a distinct avowal of papal infallibility. To test the pulse of the Church, the pope addressed a circular to the bishops assembled in Rome at the above festival, mak ing certain inquiries. On the 29th of June, 1868, a bull was sent out calling for the convening of the Twenty-first CEcu menical Council in the city of Rome, December 8th, 1869, 398 THE MODEEN CHUECH On that day the largest assemblage of the kind ever known in history met in the basilica of St. Peter's, in a room especial - ly prepared for the purpose. The pope appointed five cardinals as presidents, and Bishop Fessler as secretary. There were present in all seven hundred and sixty- four members, of whom fifty-seven were abbots and generals of monastic orders. The strictest secrecy was maintained as to the discussions, and the whole assembly was so manipulated by the pope that his will was law. Most of the bishops had been created by him. Three hundred members of the council were his personal guests. One hundred and twenty were arch bishops or bishops in partibus infidelium — paper bishops — who had no sees, the historical traditions of which they were there to attest. The council continued in session ten months and twelve days. It is still nominally in session, as it was never definitely dissolved. Aside from important decrees on the faith, in which the Catholic truth was defined as against rationalism, infidelity, and various forms of modern error, the chief result Its Results . , ., , . . . , - of the council was the promulgation of the new dog ma of tbe infallibility of the pope. In spite of the protest of the most learned members of the council, this question was in troduced.* The greatest scholars and theologians of the Church were opposed to the dogma. Of the members of the council, Hefele, Rauscher, Strossmayer, Kenrick, and Clifford were in the opposition. But the matter was forced, and when the first vote was taken, July 13th, 1870, with six hundred and seventy- one members present, 451 voted in the affirmative, 88 voted against it, 62 voted placet juxta modum, meaning that they would accept the decree if it were modified, and 70 did not vote at all. That made a virtual negative of 220, which, of course, voided the decision of the council. But, unfortunately, before the second vote was taken a panic seized the dissenting * In January, 1870, forty-five German and Austrian bishops, thirty-two French, three Portuguese, twenty-one Orientals, twenty-seven from na tions of English speech, and seven Italians presented to the pope a peti tion begging him not to allow the question of infallibility to come before the council. This request of the prelates was seconded by the French Minister, Daru, the Austrian Von Beust, and supported by the Bavarian, Portuguese, Prussian, and English cabinets. THE OLD CATHOLICS 399 party on account of threats of violence, and, after lodging a protest against the proceedings, nearly all the bishops in the opposition left Rome. When the final vote was taken, there were 535 in the affirmative and only two in tbe negative. On that very day Napoleon III. declared war against Prussia, and in two months after the last meeting of the prelates in St. Pe ter's the temporal power of the pope was at an end. Except the feeble movement to be noticed in the next chap» ter, nothing stood in the way of the universal reception by the Church of the new doctrine. The bishops and scholars swal lowed their scruples, and published the celebrated bull Pastor JEternus. The meaning of the infallibility dogma has been, however, so explained by Roman Catholic theologians that away.: CHAPTER XL THE OLD CATHOLICS [Authorities. — The Old-Catholic movement is described by Theodorus (pseu donym for J. Bass MuUinger), The New Reformation : a Narrative of the Old-Catholic Movement from 1870 to the Present Time (London, 1875). John Hunt, in Contemporary Essays in Theology (London, 1873), throws very much light on the beginnings of the Old-Catholic protest and the ideas which dominated it (essays iii., xiii.-xvii.). Charles C. Starbuck has some excellent remarks in the Andover Review, April, 1884, p. 451. Prof. Mayor treats the troubles into which the Old Catholics have been plunged, Facts and Documents (London, 187B). See the article by MuUinger in the Encyclo paedia Britannica, and § 190 of the last edition of Kurtz, Church History.] We have seen that the bishops who stood so firmly against the new papal-infallibility doctrine made their peace with the ruling party. One of these, Bishop Hefele, had writ- Hefeie's t t friend in Bonn, on June 25th, 1871 : "I be- Confesslon ' ' lieved I was serving the Catholic Church, and I was serving the caricature which Romanism and Jesuitism had * See Bishop Fessler's "True arid False Infallibility of the Popes" (London, 1875), where ap authoritative and most liberal interpretation may be found. 400 THE MODEEN CHUECH made of it. Not till I was in Rome was it perfectly clear to me that what they pursue and practise there has only the false sem blance and name of Christianity — only the shell ; the kernel is gone ; everything is utterly externalized." * After such words as these — and they voiced the feelings of many — the speedy submission of the protesting bishops is hard to be explained. It was not so, however, with many of the brightest minds in Germany. Dr. Van Schulte, professor at Prague, the eminent authority in canon law, published a formal protest. A meeting of Catholic professors and scholars convened at Nuremberg (August, 1870) sent out a like appeal. On the 28th of March, 1871, Dr. DoUinger, the most eminent Catholic scholar in Germany, published a letter in which he gave his reasons for rejecting the new dogma as a " Christian, a theolo gian, an historical student, and a citizen." An address to the king to the same purpose received the signatures of twelve thousand Catholics. The Old -Catholic Church was speedily formed. A free council was held at Munich in September, 1871, attended by Organization ^ve hundred delegates from all parts of the world, of the but its proceedings were largely provisional. A sec- Dissentients -, X /~l 1 .1 -L 1 ¦ ond congress at Cologne the next year, so graphi cally described by Dean Stanley (who was there) in his letters to the Times, fixed the organization more definitely. As the result of the third conference, held in Bonn, in 1874, it was decided to abolish compulsory confession and fasting, to em ploy the vernacular in public worship, to recognize the mar riage of priests as lawful, and to administer the Communion in both kinds to members of the Church of England. Dr. Reinkens had previously been consecrated bishop by Bishop Heykamp, of Deventer ; and Dr. Herzog, in 1876, was made bishop for Switzerland. The Old-Catholic movement has never taken hold of the heart of the German people. It appeals not to the Bible, but Growth t0 nist0I7- It arose from the protests of scholars, and not from a spontaneous religious revival, fed by the deep springs of God's word. And while it has placed itself upon solid foundations, it has had but slight effect in weaken- * Quoted by George P. Fisher, "History of the Christian Church" (N. Y, 1897), p. 588. THE OLD CATHOLICS 401 ing the Roman Church. There are in Germany and Austria 107 Old-Catholic congregations, with 38,507 adherents and 56 priests (1887). They make a deeper impression upon Switzer land, where there are 62 congregations and 75,000 adherents (1890). According to the latest official statistics, Germany alone has 13,190 Old Catholics. The following articles were adopted by the Convention of Utrecht in 1889, and were signed by the Old-Catholic bishops Articles of Reinkens and Herzog, and by the Jansenist bish- Convention of ops of Harlem, Deventer, and Utrecht. They give Utrecht ^he precise doctrinal position of the Old Catholics. The formula agreed upon was substantially as follows : 1. We adhere to the old Catholic principles which Vincentius of Le- rin (died a.d. 450) has uttered in the words, Id teneamus, quod ubique, semper, quod ab omnibus creditur, hoc est etenim pro- prieque Catholicum ; we adhere to the faith of the old Cath olic Church as this finds expression in the earliest synods and the dogmatic decisions by the undivided Church of the first ten centuries. 2. We condemn as being in contradiction to the faith of the ancient Church and as destructive of the old Catholic Church the Vatican decrees of the 18th of July, 1870, concerning the infallibility of the pope and the universal epis copacy of the Roman Bishop. 3. We condemn, as not founded in the Scriptures and in the documents of the first centuries, the encyclical of Pius IX. of 1854 concerning the immaculate conception of Mary. 4. In reference to the other papal de crees, promulgated by the Roman Bishop — namely, the bull Unigenitus, the Syllabus of 1864, and others — these we con demn as contrary to the doctrines of the ancient Church. 5. We do not accept the decrees of the Council of Trent in the matters of discipline, and in the dogmatic decisions only in so far as these agree with the teachings of the old Church. 6. In consideration that the Holy Eucharist in the Holy Script ures is regarded as the central matter of divine worship, we do not deem it wise to declare that we change the old doc trines of the sacrament of the altar, but rather that we believe that the sacrament should be administered in both forms. 7. We hope the endeavors of the theologians will be successful, while maintaining the faith of the undivided Church, to effect an understanding concerning the points of difference arising since the separation. 402 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLI THE EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE [Authorities. — The Evangelical Alliance receives an excellent treatment by Schaff, in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia. The proceedings are published annually, and may be obtained at the head office, 7 Adam Street, Strand, London. Among the more valuable volumes are the Evangelical Alliance Conference, 1873, edited by Schaff and Prime (N. Y, 1874), and The Re ligious Condition of Christendom, described in a Series of Papers presented at the Basle Conference, 1879, edited by J. Murray Mitchell (London, 1880). The American Branch (office, 5 Bible House, New York) publishes valua ble documents from time to time. Josiah Strong, D.D., is the General Secretary.] In 1846 the first session of the Evangelical Alliance was held in London. It was of American origin, but soon found sympathy in England and on the Continent. It was th"1 Am9 °' an attemP* to bring together all the evangelical Protestant churches upon such a platform as they agreed to without the sacrifice of their denominational individ uality, with a view to oppose existing social evils, to counter act the influence of political Romanism, and to become a com mon brotherhood of Christians in all lands. The doctrinal basis of the English Alliance is the divine in spiration, authority, and sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures ; the right and duty of private judgment in inter- Doctrinal Basis . & ., Q . ,J r. , .J £.,/-,,, , preting the Scriptures ; the unity of the Godhead, and the trinity of persons therein; the natural depravity of man; the incarnation of the Son of God, his atonement for sin ners, and his mediatorial intercession and reign ; the work of the Holy Spirit in the regeneration and sanctification of the sinner ; the immortality of the soul ; the resurrection of the body; the world's general judgment by Christ; the reward of the righteous and the punishment of the impenitent ; the divine institution of the Christian ministry; and the obligation and perpetuity of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper. THE EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE 403 The Evangelical Alliance has held its sessions in various cities of the Continent, and in London and New York. The intervals between the sessions have not been uni form, but have generally been three or four years. The New York session, in 1873, was the most successful. The last session was in Copenhagen, and was attended by mem bers of the royal Danish family. Striking illustrations of the active interference of the Alliance in behalf of persecuted Protestants are not wanting. For example, at the Basle ses sion of 1879 the Emperor of Austria was petitioned, and suc cessfully, to relieve the persecuted Protestants of his domin ions from oppression. A like protest has not yet been com pletely successful in securing from the Czar of Russia liberty for the oppressed Protestants of the Baltic provinces, who have been recently deprived of many of their privileges. In December, 1887, the American branch of the Evangelical Alliance held a session of three days in Washington. It was The Christian caUe , the successful prosecution of Sunday-school work. There are many departments, all of which are conducted with great energy and skill. The Chautauqua Literary and Scien tific Circle is the most important. It has a course of study covering a period of four years. The Chautauqua movement has extended into other countries, and even into the mission fields of Japan and India. The Rev. Dr. Vincent, in " Chau tauqua Movement" (N. Y., 1886), has given a minute history of the development of this important work. He has himself been the chief agent of its growth, and is, most fittingly, its historian. The influence of the Chautauqua workers has been felt upon every department of our American religious life. 406 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLni THE REVISION OF THE BIBLE [Authokities. — A full account of the Anglo-American Revision will be found in Schaff, Companion to the Revised Version of the English New Testament (N. Y., 1882). An excellent chapter is given by Mombert, Handbook of English Versions of the Bible (2d ed., N. Y., 1890). See also the prefaces and introductions in the various editions of the Revised Version.] The King James version of the English Bible contained so many antiquated expressions and incorrect translations that the necessity for a revision was felt alike in Eng- New6 Translation ^an<^ an<^ America. The need became more ap parent because of the recent powerful impulse imparted to the study of the Scriptural text through the dis covery of a priceless manuscript on Mount Sinai, in 1859, by Tischendorf, a professor in the Leipzig University. This Sina itic Codex dates from the fourth century, and contains the principal portions of the Old Testament, a large part of the Apocrypha, and the entire New Testament, with the Epistle of Barnabas and parts of the Shepherd of Hermas. In fact, none of the most valuable manuscript authorities was in the possession of King James's revisers. The Alexandrian Codex, of the fifth century, was not known in England till 1628, and was not printed until 1786. The Vatican Codex, fully as im portant as the Sinaitic, and of the same age, was never collated till 1669, and was never accurately printed until 1868. The Codex Ephraemi was restored by Librarian Hase, of Paris, in 1834 and 1835, by the application of prussiate of potash, the original writing having been washed off in the twelfth cen tury. Not one of these four great manuscripts was availa ble in the early part of the seventeenth century. Immense progress in Biblical research and exploration had also thrown much light on the Bible, and scholars everywhere were be coming dissatisfied with the glaring errors of the so-called THE REVISION OF THE BIBLE 407 Authorized Version. Besides this, many words had lost their original meaning since 1611, so that the English Bible, like Shakespeare, needed a glossary to make itself understood. The Church of England led in the revision. In 1870 the Convocation of Canterbury appointed a committee of scholars of the Church of England, with power to appoint The Result . B ' . f /* ... others from various communions to co-operate with them in preparing the new version. In 1872 the American committee was organized. The English committee consisted of fifty -two members, and the American of twenty-seven. The Rev. Dr. Philip Schaff, professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, was the chief agent in producing co operation between the two committees. The new version of the New Testament appeared in 1881, and that of the Old Testament in 1885. The former received a very cordial wel come from all the evangelical bodies, both of Great Britain and America, and in many churches has taken the place of the former version. The Old-Testament revision has not been received with equal readiness. But the version, as a whole, is a great advance on the former, and has been the most nota ble recent contribution to Biblical science in the English lan guage. The German version by Martin Luther has had a similar sway in the Fatherland to that of King James in Eng land. It excels all others by its marked personality and pun gent force. But even that version is yielding to the march of Biblical scholarship, and has already been revised by a com mittee of Biblical scholars. The American revisers are now at work on a new edition of the Revised Version, which will incorporate in the text the recommendations which they submitted to the English com pany, and which were printed as an appendix. When this is done we shall have the best English version extant. It will take a long time before the Revised Version supplants King James's, as it was a generation before that began to make any effect on the Genevan ; but the best will ultimately win. 408 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLIV THE PROTESTANT MISSION FIELD [Authorities. — We mention a few works which cover the whole field : George Smith, Short History of Christian Missions (Edinb. and N. Y., 1884) ; Christ lieb, Foreign Missions of Protestantism (London and Boston, 1880); War- neck, Outline History of Protestant Missions (Edinb., 1884); Warneck, Modern Missions and Culture (Edinb., 1883); Young, Modern Missions their Trials and Triumphs (rev. ed., London, 1882) ; Tucker, Under His Banner (7th ed„ London, 1877); Japp, Master Missionaries (N. Y., 1881) Hodder, Conquests of the Cross : Records of Missionary Work (London, 1891). An indispensable work, which should be in the hands of every stu dent of missions, is the Encyclopaedia of Missions, edited by Bliss (N. Y. 1891). It contains a complete bibliography, prepared by the Rev. Samuel Macaulay Jackson, who published, in the Report of the Missionary Con ference, London, 1888 (N. Y., 1889), an invaluable list of books on mis sions, besides appendices of Bible Versions, missionary societies, stations, and statistics. See also S. H. Kellogg, Special Catalogue of Works on Missions (Toronto, 1889).] The first period of Protestant Christianity was largely oc cupied in controversy, and in adjustments to the new condi- The First t^ons °f Europe. With tbe beginning of the seven- Protestant teenth century we find the first movement towards Missions carryiug the gospel into heathen lands. Missions followed immediately in the line of Eastern trade. The Dutch vied with the Portuguese in sailing over the distant seas and discovering new lands. But while the Portuguese carried with them the Jesuit missionaries, the Dutch bore to the far-off lands the open Bible and the Protestant doctrines. A theo logical seminary for the training of missionaries was estab lished in Leyden in 1612. In 1636 a mission was established in Ceylon, and subsequently in Java, Africa, and other coun tries. In England the Society for the Propagation of the Gos pel was founded, in 1701, for the benefit of the Indians in the American colonies. In 1706 the Danish king, Frederic IV., sent Ziegenbalg, THE PEOTESTANT MISSION FIELD 409 with two helpers, to establish a mission in Southern India. Ziegenbalg and his successors, Plutschau, Kiernan- Missionaries *^er> an<^ Schwartz, who were touched with the beau tiful spirit of Pietism, labored in Tranquebar, Ma dras, and Calcutta, and achieved wonders in the midst of great difficulties. " Send me the Christian ; he will not deceive me," said Hyder Ali of Schwartz, when he was negotiating with the English government. In 1721 the Danes sent missiona ries to Greenland. This mission, started by the heroic Hans Egede and his equally heroic wife, resulted finally in tbe Chris- tianization of the whole country. The Moravians founded mis sions in Africa, Ceylon, the West Indies, Pennsylvania, and other places. All these efforts were important in awakening a missionary zeal, but were, in this respect, only preparatory forces. The close of the eighteenth century and the begin ning of the nineteenth constituted the period when the great missionary societies of the Protestant churches took their rise. By 1830 there were about twenty of these societies in Europe and America. India is the largest field. The work, begun in 1706, was slow during the whole of the eighteenth century. The great success began with the early part of the present cen- Tn'indfa1 tulT- The tnree greatest names in the history of Protestant missions in India are Schwartz, Carey, and Duff. Carey, whom Sydney Smith sneered at as the con secrated cobbler, landed at Calcutta in 1793. He threw all his energies into learning the languages of India ; and before he died, in 1834, he had translated the Scriptures, in whole or in part, with or without the help of others, into twenty- four Ind ian languages. Duff, who was sent out by the Church of Scot land in 1830, was the pioneer of the English-language school system in missionary work, which was at that time an entirely new idea, but which has wrought wonders, and has abundantly justified the wisdom of the bold Scotchman. The year 1878 was distinguished above all others for accessions from the Hindu faith. As many as sixty thousand converts were added in that one year. There are approximately at present in India, exclu sive of Burma and Ceylon, 791 ordained foreign missionaries, 137,504 communicants, and 449,755 native Christians. The first missionary to China was Dr. Morrison, of England, who arrived there in 1807. After fourteen years of toil, Mor- 410 THE MODEEN CHUECH rison had made a Chinese Dictionary and a translation of the Bible. It was not till 1844 that the five treaty ports The Field were open to missionaries. Important missions have been established all along the vast coast and on the banks of the great rivers, while a chain of stations is being quietly extended to the westward, to meet a like line coming eastward from India. The Chinese missions, conducted by the Protestants of both Europe and America, now number 37, with a total foreign missionary force, men and women, of 889, and 134 native ordained ministers and 28,119 adult communi cants. In 1891 and 1895, in outbreaks of anti-foreign fanati cism, fomented by secret societies which desire, for political reasons, to embarrass the present dynasty, mobs destroyed mission premises and put several missionaries to death. Burma, now a prosperous field, was made a missionary field by the American, Judson, who went there because he was not permitted to commence operations in India. Judson was one of the saintliest characters in the his tory of the Church. His missionary career lasted from 1788 to 1850. His principal achievement, shared by his brother Bap tist workers, was the conversion of the Karens, the interior Bur- mans, who were said to be as " untamable as the wild cow of the mountains." The Burman Church is now one of the strongest native Christian bodies to be found in the pagan world. For the past twenty years Japan has been the most promis ing missionary field on earth. This ancient empire has been leaping into life again. After a baptism of blood and a long eclipse, Christianity's day dawned for Japan in 1854, when the Perry expedition excited a longing for West ern science and knowledge. In 1859 the London Missionary Society and a few American churches began operations, but could do little till 1873, when the anti-Christian edicts were removed. Every large island of the empire has now churches of the Protestant, Greek, and Roman communions. In 1877 the Presbyterian and Reformed churches formed themselves into a "Union Church of Christ," the first step of the kind ever taken. Negotiations for the union of all the different Methodist denominations have not as yet resulted success fully. These union efforts in Japan are among the most prom ising indications of modern times. In 1890 Japan adopted a new liberal constitution, which recognizes Christianity as one THE PEOTESTANT MISSION FIELD 411 of the legal religions of the state. There are now (1891) in Japan eighteen missionary societies, having 403 missionaries and 32,380 native converts. Corea has also been entered, but as yet only educational and hospital work is allowed there. In Western Asia the chief centre for the propagation of the gospel is Beirut, Syria. Here the American Protestant Syri- We t rn A i an ®°^ege> nri&er the presidency of the Rev. Dr. Bliss, is giving a Christian education to many young men, who come from all the adjacent region, and carry back with them to their homes the light of the gospel and Christian science. The population of Western Asia are of mixed faith and nationality. They are a Babel in religion. Mohamme dans ; the semi-pagans, such as the Druze, the Nusairy, and the Yesidee ; and the semi-Christians, such as the Armenians, Jac obites, Copts, Abyssinians, the Nestorians, and the many Ori ental papal sects, form a heterogeneous mixture, and in some cases exhibit a bitter opposition. But Protestant missionaries keep steadily at their work, preach in the towns and villages, organize schools, and distribute the Scriptures and religious lit erature. In this way the pure gospel is penetrating the dense mass of false faiths. Prejudice is giving way, a strong and pure native Christian population is gradually taking the place of the deluded people who have inhabited these lands ever since the overthrow of the Eastern Church by the Mohamme dan conquerors, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Levi Parsons, of the American Board, was the first Protestant missionary in Jerusalem (1821). William Goodell and Eli Smith are, perhaps, the most eminent names of the Syrian mission field. The record of the American Church in both European and Asiatic Turkey is one of the brightest pages of missionary history. In 1840, much to the disgust of the High-Church party, England joined Lutheran Germany in establishing an Episcopal see in Jerusalem. Dr. Blyth is the present bishop, and he has entered severe protests against the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society in Palestine making proselytes from the Greek Church. At present (1892) his relations to that society, which has established promising stations in many of the principal towns of the Holy Land, are very strained.* * See Dr. H. H. Jessup, " The Greek Church and Protestant Missions " (N.Y.,The Christian Literature Co., 1891). 412 THE MODEEN CHUECH Constantinople is the centre of Turkish Missions. At the house of the Rev. Dr. A. L. Long, in that city, in 1871, 1 count ed nearly one hundred guests, engaged as missionaries, Turkish teachers, editors, and others employed in various forms Missions ' ' r J of aggressive Christian work. Bulgaria has been a difficult field. From 1390 to 1878 it had been a Turkish pos session, but the erection of the principality of Bulgaria in the latter year gave a freedom for missionary work not before en joyed. The American Board, with headquarters at Philip- popolis, is cultivating the Bulgarian field (now called Roume- lia) south of the Balkans, while the Methodist Episcopal Church is laboring in Bulgaria proper, or among the Bulgarians be tween the Balkans and the Danube. Robert College, founded on the banks of the Bosphorus by Christopher Robert, an American, is a very successful institution, and has contrib uted largely to extend Christian science in both Asia Minor and the Danubian principalities. The Moravians were the first to begin missions in the Dark Continent. They established one on the western coast in 1736, and, later, one in South Africa. The Methodist African Missions „ . n „, , . . . . T ., . Episcopal Church has a mission m .Liberia, on the west coast. The first foreign missionary of that Church, Melville B. Cox, fell a victim to disease here after four months' service (1833). The Wesleyan Methodist Church of England may be considered the martyr Church of Africa, on account of tbe hundreds of its missionaries who have been swept away by African fevers on the unhealthy west coast. The Ameri can United Presbyterian Church has an important mission in North Africa, with Cairo as a centre. The Rev. Dr. Lansing has given his life to this important field, and the missions along the Nile, with the schools under his charge in Cairo, will remain as monuments to tbe zeal and judgment of himself and tbe noble band associated with him. The late Miss M. L. Whately, daughter of Archbishop Whately, did a noble work by her schools in the same city. To Livingstone belongs the great honor of being the first to awaken the interest of the whole Protestant world in the civilization and evangelization of Central Africa. His achievements are equal to the triumphs of the most devoted bearers of the gospel in any Christian age, while his discoveries place him in the front rank of the world's great explorers. The father-in-law of Dr. Livingstone, Robert THE PEOTESTANT MISSION FIELD 413 Moffat, was the first to go into the wild tribes of Bechuana- land (1820), and under his gospel savage chieftains became pure and docile servants of Christ. The Universities Mission, and other English and Scotch missions on Lake Nyassa and at other points in the heart of Africa, have lost some of their best workers by outbreaks of barbaric butchery. Here Bishop Hannington was killed, and here the noble Mackay of Uganda gave up his life. Tbe Congo Free State, founded by King Leopold of Bel gium, is the direct result of the marvellous career of Henry M. Stanley as his representative. The Rev. Will ie stlte iam Tay!or, °£ the Methodist Episcopal Church, Mis sionary Bishop for Africa, has organized a large move ment for planting missions along the banks of the Congo. His plan is to establish mission stations, and make them the points for distributing the gospel throughout the entire valley of the Congo. He has proven already that, with proper regards to the climatic conditions, missionary work can be conducted there as successfully, and with as good hope for longevity, as in other parts of the pagan world. Thus far he has advanced rapidly with his work. He is untiring, of burning zeal, and fertile of resources. He comes to this new task, by far the most gigantic undertaking of his remarkable career, with all the rich experience derived from labors in California, South Africa, Australia, and India. In this rapid survey of the modern mission field — and we have taken no account of the marvellous results in Madagas car, the Sandwich Islands, and the South Sea Islands — it would have been easy to speak of the devotion of individual mission aries, and what has been achieved by their enterprise. Lan guages have been reduced to writing and scientific form ; na tive literatures have been created ; philology, ethnology, botany, and every other science and art, have been enriched ; new ter ritories have been added to human knowledge ; whole tribes and nations have been civilized ; and for the reign of cruelty and brute force has been substituted the reign of law and order under the sceptre of the Prince of Peace. Though pursued under o-reat difficulties, and with many apparent defeats, the missionary enterprise stands forth as the surpassing achieve ment of the modern age. 414 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLV THE TEMPERANCE REFORM [Authorities. — The best works on the historical aspects of the temperance re- form are these : Gustafson, The Foundation of Death (London and N. Y., 1884), a thorough and impartial study of the greatest value and timeli ness; Dorchester, The Liquor Problem (N. Y., 1884), full in its history; Dawson Burns, Temperance History (London, 1890) ; Centennial Temper ance Volume (N. Y., 1877). The life of Father Mathew has been written by J. Francis Maguire (London, 1863 ; 2d ed., 1865 ; abridged and re-edited by Miss Rosa Mulholland, 1890). The works of John B. Gough are of fas cinating interest, and are full of historical reminiscences.] The first great movement in Europe towards abstinence from the use of intoxicating liquors was made by Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic priest of Cork. He Temperance in bore the name of Father Mathew, and travelled Great Britain > extensively throughout the British islands. His method was to secure pledges for total abstinence, and multi tudes flocked to his standard. His style of oratory and pleas ing address were of irresistible influence over his auditors. So keen a critic as Mrs. Jane Welsh Carlyle was fascinated by his appeal, and signed his pledge. His work has been taken up by others. In Scotland, John Dunlop, of Greenock, formed the first temperance society (1829), and Mr. William Collins greatly helped the movement. In the North of Ireland, about the same time, the Rev. Dr. Edgar and the Rev. Dr. Cook threw their influence with all their might into the good work. John B. Gough greatly helped the reform in the old country as well as in America. Dr. Frederick R. Lees has also done yeoman's service in the English battle. Cardinal Manning exerted in his later years a vast influence in Great Britain. Canon Farrar is a strong advocate for the same great cause. Within the last twenty-five years such has been the progress of temperance that much of the grossness and public drunken ness have disappeared from the British islands. The introduc- THE TEMPEEANCE EEF0EM 415 tion of coffee-houses and of cheap and clean lodging-places has been very helpful in furnishing some approach to a sub stitute for the all-devouring saloon. Restrictive measures have been multiplying in various Con tinental countries. Switzerland has been a leader in this re spect. In Germany associations have been organ- TtheCorntinen°tn ized in benalf of tfle temperance cause. In Scan dinavia the most progress has been made. Norway and Sweden have been overspread with a network of temper ance associations. Special meetings are held to promote the movement, while journals are established in the same interest. The great need now is, throughout Europe, to distribute intel ligence concerning the physical ruin wrought by alcoholic drinks. One long-lived fancy has already been exploded — that the European liquors are pure. In the art of introducing poisonous ingredients the European makers of beer and the owners of vineyards are masters to a high degree. The progress of the temperance cause is well illustrated by the habits of the clergy. In the last century drunken minis ters were by no means uncommon, but to-day such a sight would cause a sensation. Very many of the clergy are total abstainers, and where this is not the case a sound sentiment prevents any public scandal. Even such a beautiful character as Addison was not free from the vice of intemperance, but it would be hard to find a literary man in England now, much less a moralist, given to hard drinking. Sir Wilfrid Lawson's resolution favoring local option was passed in the British Par liament, April 27th, 1883, by a majority of 87 ; 263 votes for, 176 against; but no English ministry has ever yet dared to submit any legislation looking to a restriction of the liquor traffic. 416 THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLVI PHILANTHROPY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY {Authorities. — The story of English Emancipation is told in the recent His tories of England as well as in special works. See F. W. Newman, Anglo- Saxon Abolition of Slavery (London, 1889). The fullest account will be found in the Life of William Wilberforce by his sons, R. I. and Samuel (London, 1838, 5 vols.), and his Correspondence, edited by same (1840, 2 vols.). In more available form are the lives of Wilberforce by Samuel Wilberforce (London, 1868) and by J. C. Colquhoun (London, 1866). For the noble life of John Howard excellent biographies have been written by Hepworth Dixon (London, 5th ed., 1854), Field (London, 1850), and Stough- ton (London, 1853). Florence Nightingale is still living [1892] in England. See the encyclopaedias and biographical dictionaries. The deaconess move ment has been described by Wheeler, Deaconesses, Ancient and Modern (N. Y., 1889); Miss Jane M. Bancroft, Deaconesses in Europe, and their Lessons for America (N. Y, 1889) ; and Mrs. C. M. Mead, " European Dea conesses," in Andover Review, ix., 561, June, 1888.] The new religious interest in the British churches quick ened every humane force. Tbe most striking need from the „, „, ,, point of view of social reform was the freedom The New Human- r ity. West India of the slave. The group which created public Emancipation sentiment, and worked against great opposition, was confined to a few, who had only scanty means, and held their humble meetings in a house on Clapham Common, a few miles from London. Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Clark- son, Sharp, and a few others had the sentiment of all nations against them. But by steady purpose and a sublime faith they labored on, and at last, by the passage of Wilberforce's bill in Parliament, in 1807, after thirteen years of failure, the eight hundred thousand slaves owned by England in the West Indies were emancipated. That was the real death-blow to slavery in the United States. There was no arresting the movement of universal emancipation. The prison reform of recent times seems to have been antic ipated by Pope Clement XL, who, in 1704, established the pris- PHILANTHROPY IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY 417 on of St. Michael for boys and youths, on the plan now often called the "Auburn system," viz., separate cells at night and silent associated labor by day. Within its walls. Prison Discipline ,, , , ., - ¦ ¦ ,- ¦ T • „T on a marble slab, was this inscription in Latin : " It is of little use to restrain criminals by punishment unless you re form them by education." The first great prison reformer was John Howard, who in 1758 began his career of thirty-one years in visiting the jails of England and of every country on the Continent, and when the pestilence was raging in the East he went on the ground to study the means of relief. " No man has united more remarkably the zeal of a martyr with the calm intelligence of a statesman in the service of philanthro py." He fell a victim in Cherson, in the Crimea, 1790, to his zeal in this great cause. Through his labors the prisons of the whole civilized world have been improved. A purer atmos phere, more light and cleanliness in the cells, an improved ar chitecture, and rudimentary instruction have been employed, which had never been suggested, in any aggressive way; until done by John Howard. The prison discipline of England, in particular, has been severely attacked by the late Charles Reade in fiction, in his " Never Too Late to Mend," and Dick ens gives it a blow in his " Pickwick Papers." This work has not been without its good effect in relieving many of the gross er practices in the prisons of the British islands. This great reform began with the labors of Florence Night ingale, of England. During the Crimean War, in 1853-56, she was impressed by the extreme suffering of the Brit- CWoundede isn armY> and went to Constantinople to minister to the relief of tbe wounded, the sick, and the frost-bit ten. Others came to her aid. In all the European wars which have taken place since then there has been a new attention paid to this important cause. In the American civil war there was a great advance over all previous methods of relief, while in the Franco-German war of 1870-71 there was a still larger and stronger organization in behalf of all who suffer on fields of carnage. Here women have taken the lead. The names of these heroes are not gazetted as achieving great conquests; but they are satisfied with the meed of saving life rather than adding to the world's record of slaughter. Through the labors of Theodor Fliedner a system of dea coness ministration has been adopted which has produced good 27 418 THE MODEEN CHUECH results in every part of Europe. The home for training the deaconesses was established at Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine, in 1 833. Such has been the success that other train- ThofDGermanSSeS ing-scnools have been established, and Christian nurses trained in them have already gone out into the more distant parts of Europe, and into Eastern coun tries. Not only are the deaconesses carefully trained in a skilled knowledge of the proper treatment of disease, but they are so instructed as to be at home, by their social adaptation, in any household. Their influence has been so elevating, and in all things helpful, that other churches besides the State Church of Germany are introducing the same system. The Kaiserswerth deaconesses take no vows and wear a simple but not necessarily uniform dress. They are presided over by men. The range of their activities is very wide. This insti tution has under its control hospitals and schools in different parts of the world. Miss Nightingale herself took a thorough training under Pastor Fliedner. Several sisterhoods in the English Church have also done noble work. The late Sister Dora, whose life (London, 1880) is a fascinating biography of a beautiful soul, is one of the best known of these bands of humble workers. For over twenty years, sisters, so called, wearing a uniform, have been associated with the Rev. Dr. T. B. Stephenson, president of the English Wesleyan Methodist Conference, 1891-92, in the working of his Children's Homes. A Deaconess Institute has been founded (1890), of which Dr. Stephenson is warden. The principles of the new order are : Vocation without vow, discipline without servility, and as sociation without excluding freedom. The candidates must be single, twenty-three years of age or over, but they take no vow of celibacy. The Sisters of the People is another order established under the auspices of the Rev. Hugh Price Hughes's West London Mission (Wesleyan Methodist). In 1888 the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church made provision for the institution of an order of Deaconesses, and there is already a Deaconess Home in Chicago, another House in Washington, D.C., and many deaconesses at work in the great cities. The introduction of a similar system of deacon ess instruction and ministration in the entire American Church is one of the great advances yet to be made. Not a day ought to be lost by any Church in the United States. ENGLISH FEEACHEES 419 CHAPTER XLVn ENGLISH PREACHERS [Authorities. — In no way can the reader get a better idea of the recent relig ious history of Great Britain than by the study of the lives of men of em inence in this history. Some of these biographies are of special impor tance from an historical point of view, besides their quickening and broadening influence on the mind. The following are among the more important: Memoirs of Chalmers, by Hanna (Edinb., 1849-52), and by Fraser (N. Y., 1882); of Hall, by Hood (N. Y„ 1882); of McCheyne, by Bonar (Phila., 1844); of Norman Macleod, by his brother, Donald Macleod (Toronto, 1876) ; of Guthrie, by his sons David K. and Charles Guthrie (London and N. Y., 1873) ; of Thomas Arnold, by Stanley (London and N. Y., 1844, often reprinted) ; of F. D. Maurice, by his son, Frederick Mau rice (London and N. Y., 1884); of Bishop Wilberforce, by his son, R. G. Wilberforce, and by A. R. Ashwell (N. Y., 1883, new ed., 1891) ; of Dean Alford, by his widow (3d ed., London, 1874) ; of Jabez Bunting, by his son, T. P. Bunting (London, 1859, vol. i. ; 1880, vol. ii.) ; of Frederick W. Robertson, by Brooke (London and N. Y., 1865, many subsequent editions) ; of Charles Kingsley, by his widow (London, 1876 ; abridged, N. Y., 1877 ; new ed., London and N. Y., 1891); of R. S. Candlish, by Wilson (Edinb., 1880); of Wm. Cunningham, by Mackenzie and Rainy (Edinb., 1871); of Simeon, by Carus (London and N. Y., 1847); of Punshon, by Macdonald (London and N. Y., 1888) ; and of Dean Stanley, by Bradley (London and N. Y., 1883).] The close of the eighteenth century in England witnessed one great advance in the religious life of the people. The ,.. -= . « dominant infidelity of France was powerless to af- The Effects of ¦? r . the Wesleyan feet the public mind any longer. English Deism Revival ka(j keen arrested and crushed through the great Wesleyan revival throughout the British islands, and Anglo- Saxon Christianity now began to exhibit an unwonted strength and independence. All the Protestant churches began to vie with each other in strenuous efforts to reach the people, and to develop the religious spirit and supply their great wants. There was a marked decline in denominational asperity. The missionary spirit received a new impulse, largely through Mar- 420 THE MODEEN CHUECH tyn, Carey, Marshman, and Ward. When the nineteenth cen tury began, the entire British Church gave evidence of that aggressive spirit which has grown with the years of the cen tury, and which has won unparalleled triumphs at home and in heathen lands. The leading representative of the Church of England in la.- bors for the spiritual good of the masses, during the transi tion from the eighteenth century to the nineteenth, Shiises°cnhoSil is the Rev- Cnarles Simeon (died 1836). Within the establishment he took rank as a Low -Churchman. When Simeon began his work he was ridiculed and opposed. But when he died he had won himself a place in the affections and respect of the English Church second to no other man. His collected works are very numerous, and his style is diffuse. In one respect his influence has been most vicious. He pub lished skeletons of sermons in seventeen volumes, covering the whole Bible, and such crutches as these for idle ministers have been seized with avidity, and they have well-nigh destroyed the manliness and self-reliance of many of the clergy.* But his labors for the instruction and spiritual elevation of the poor in and about Cambridge had their effect, not only within his own communion, but in all the religious bodies of Eng land. Much of the present effort to evangelize the neglected parts of London and the smaller cities, and provide plain chap els for the poor, and gather the needy within the circle of Christian sympathy and help, can be traced to his example and the effect of his popular appeals. All the churches of Great Britain have been distinguished by great preachers during the present century. Robert Hall, Later British Chalmers, McCheyne, Dale, Macleod, Guthrie, Spur- Preachers geon, Punshon, Newman Hall, Ryle, Stanley, Far- rar, Parker, Hughes, and many others, have not only excelled in preaching the gospel, but have enriched the liter ature of a people already distinguished for producing a Til- lotson, South, Barrow, and Wesley. The characteristics of the English pulpit are a fine spiritual tone, a boldness in grappling with the problems of theology and social life, and an earnest- * The " Pulpit Commentary " is one of the best specimens of this class of "helps." A fringe of excellent exposition is lost amid a sea of com monplace homiletics. LITEEATUEE AND EELIGION IN ENGLAND 421 ness and vigor and freshness in interpreting the gospel to the needs of to-day. The regenerator of modern English preach ing was Frederick W. Robertson, Vicar of Trinity Chapel, Brighton (1847-53). With a character of unsurpassed holi ness, purity, and beauty, modest, retiring, and of delicate health, he awoke the English mind to the breadth and fulness of the message of Christ to the thoughts and burdens of the time. His preaching, in its interest, suggestiveness, and frankness, was a revelation of the possibilities of the pulpit, and his short and troubled career at Brighton began a new era in the his tory of preaching. No department of professional life has ex hibited more men of genius, or of genius of a higher order, than British theology. Part of the theology has been an ac commodation to the German rationalism. But there has been an abundant offset to this in the scholarly and fervid theolog ical writings of the Christian authors of England and Scotland during the present century, whose works will prove a mine of wealth to the Christian world for ages. In hymnology the poet Keble, Bonar, Miss Havergal, and Mrs. Charles, and a large group besides, have written such hymns as will live as long as the English language endures. CHAPTER XLVIII LITERATURE AND RELIGION IN ENGLAND [Authorities. — For the influence of Coleridge and Carlyle on the religious thought of England, see Hutton, Essays on Modern Guides of English Thought in Matters of Faith (London and N. Y, 1887) ; Tulloch, Movements of Religious Thought in Britain in the Nineteenth Century (N.Y., 1886), chaps, i. and v. ; Curry, Fragments Theological and Religious (N. Y., 1880), chap. x. (Coleridge) ; Bayne, Essays in Biography and Criticism (N. Y., 1881), vol. ii., essay iii. (Coleridge); Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany and Great Britain since 1825 (London, 1890).] The effect of the new liberal ideas on the Continent, as the result of the French Revolution, was visible in England in the literature at the beginning of the century. Lord Byron was its representative. Beginning with his " Hours of Idleness," 422 THE MODEEN CHUECH published at nineteen, he continued to write with a vigor and fertility which were without parallel in modern lit- The |||,™"lc erary history. Shelley's poetry appeared during the same period, and, while cast in the same mould, was of very different quality. Byron's poetry took its inspiration from history. Shelley took human freedom from restraint as the key-note of his writing. There is no doubt that this school has had a strong influence in giving a sceptical and pessimistic strain to much later English literature. Southey was more conservative, but less brilliant. He was thoroughly loyal to the English Church. His best work was done in his biographies. His "Life of Nelson" (1828) is a classic, and his "Life of Wesley" (1820) is the most interesting, though not the most accurate, account of the great reformer. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) was the first of the later poets of England to call the mind back to a love of nature. Living in calm and retirement at Rydal Mount, vy°.r!ls™or'h , beside the beautiful Lake Grasmere, he watched and his School ' the land and sky and water in all their moods. His fame has been in the ascendant in the later years. His fidelity to Christian truth, his clear perception of the spirit of relig ious life in English history (as evinced in his " Ecclesiastical Sonnets"), and his reverent spirit and unaffected life place him in the front line of Christian poets in every age. Sir Walter Scott toiled mainly in the field of Scottish history, but whatever he touched it was with the magician's wand. New man was wont to ascribe to him, as rehabilitating mediaeval history and reviving an interest in the antique, a part in start ing the Oxford movement. De Quincey excelled as an essay ist. Matthew Arnold, the son of Thomas Arnold, of Rugby, has written a number of works in the line of poetry and semi- theological criticism. He is, perhaps, most brilliant when he does not touch on theological or Biblical themes. Charles Kingsley, Rector of Eversley, produced principally sermons and fictions. Some of his poems are exceedingly tender. All his writings exhibit a profound sympathy with the needy classes and a disposition to relieve them. Dickens and Thack eray divided the world of English fiction between themselves. The former described the lower social orders, while Thackeray revealed the social frivolity of the more elevated. Thackeray's permanence, if he shall have it, will be due, however, to those LITEEATUEE AND EELIGION IN ENGLAND 423 works of fiction which furnish portraits of certain times. But his historical lectures on " The Four Georges " and " English Humorists " are worth all his other writings together. Tenny son is at present the leading poet in England. His writings are of varied quality. His dramas are undramatic. His beat poem is his " In Memoriam " — a tribute to the memory of his friend, Arthur Henry Hallam. Tennyson and the Brownings completely recovered to English poetry a sound optimism and a faith strong and triumphant. The first evidence of the strong invasion of England by German thought was by Coleridge. He travelled and stud ied in Germany, and introduced, in disconnected German SDi'rtt f°rm> many philosophical ideas from the centres of German thought. But he gave only the German spirit, and to the young a desire to know more of what Ger many was thinking and saying. His poetry is stronger than his prose, and by it he will live longest in literature. The fruitful thoughts of Coleridge had much to do with liberaliz ing English theology. Carlyle was the first to engraft on English letters the German branch. He made Goethe, Schil ler, Herder, and others, household words throughout Great Britain and the United States. He translated entire works. His version of Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister" is a fine piece of literary reproduction, and was the means of opening to the English public the way to the whole wealth of Goethe's writ ings. Carlyle's sympathies were with a strong government rather than with the struggling people. He was reverent in spirit, and, more than any literary character of later England, the representative of the magnificent literary result possible from industrious habits and devotion to the exact truth of histoiy. 424- THE MODEEN CHUECH CHAPTER XLIX THE SALVATION ARMY f Authorities. — For the theology of the Salvation Army, see the Books on Prao tical Religion published by Mrs. Wm. Booth (1879-1883). For the history and methods, see Mrs. Booth, The Salvation Army in Relation to Church and State (London, 1883) ; Railton, Twenty-one Years in the Salvation Army; Mrs. Ballington Booth, Beneath Two Flags (N. Y., 1889); Butler, The Salvation Army in Switzerland (London, 1884); Ballington Booth, From Ocean to Ocean (N. Y., 1891). This last writer has a comprehen sive article in Jackson, Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1891). Frazer, of London, has a temperate discussion in the Presbyterian Review (N. Y.), April, 1891, and in My Salvation Army Experience (Londdn, 1891), Heathcote, now of the Church of England, calls attention, in excellent spirit, to the defects in their methods and unsatisfactoriness in the results achieved.] " The Salvation Aemt," says Ballington Booth, " has risen out of the terrible need which surrounds it ; I might almost . . say it has formed itself, Phcenix-like, from tbe ashes of depraved and outcast society."* On July 5th, 1865, the Rev. William Booth, who left the Methodist New Connection for evangelistic work, began to preach at Mile End Waste, in London. His work broadened and enlarged until he was led to consolidate it by the formation of an " Army," or band of Christians pledged to work and sacrifice, and organized under a strict military regimen. In 1878 the Army was formed. The new organization at once began an aggressive campaign against sin. It opened "barracks" and rescue-houses in all the large cities. It spread out into other lands, until now it has representatives in every quarter of the world. According to the latest figures, the Army has 3795 corps, or stations, officered by 9457 persons whose whole time i's given to evangelistic work. In 1880 it entered America, * From Ocean to Ocean ; or, The Salvation Army's March from the Atlantic to the Pacific (N. Y., 1891), p. 11. THE SALVATION AEMY 42ft under Railton ; in 1881 it invaded France, under the intrepid Miss Booth (Mrs. Booth-Clibborn), whose sufferings in leading her soldiers in Switzerland (1882 ff.) have given her a world wide fame; in 1882 it appeared in Australia; then in New Zealand, where it has 164 stations, and afterwards in India, where it was welcomed by Chunder Sen, the founder of the Brama-Somaj. Its success in the European countries has not been so great, but it has carried the gospel with commendable zeal and in large force in South Africa. In its remarkable progress it has had to meet persecution in virulent and insult ing forms. Its members have been repeatedly imprisoned, and many have died through injuries received. With just pride the Army can look upon its world-wide fight and say, " And now what land, what region upon earth, is not full of our la bors?"* The theology of the Salvation Army is identical with that of the Methodist Church, in which Mr. Booth was for years a Th . minister. It emphasizes the doctrines of depravity, Methods! freedom of the will, repentance, instantaneous con- and Results version through faith in Christ, and the message of salvation to all men. It is its methods which have given it its chief success, and yet have been its chief reproach. Its flags, marchings, band music, its strange watchwords and catch words, its almost blasphemous use of sacred names, its tyran nical discipline, and dress peculiarities — while these things have helped the Army in its power over tbe lower classes, they have withdrawn from it the sympathy of the Churches. But as the aim of the Army is being better understood, and as it has justified in a measure its methods in its success in reaching the depraved, that sympathy is being steadily re. gained. The Arm s establishes eating and coffee house* oris on missions, food depots, shelters for destitute and for lost women, houses for inebriates, labor bureaus, and factories for the unemployed, and thus combines a practical statesmanship with religious fervor. In 1890 General Booth wrote a book, "In Darkest England and the Way Out," in which he proposed a gigantic scheme for the solution of the problems of crime and pauperism by religion, labor, and social organization. His book was received * See Virg. -ffln., i. 460, 461. 426 THE MODEEN CHUECH with great enthusiasm, money has poured into his treasury from all classes for the carrying-out of his plan, and In Darkest }t has already begun to bear fruit. By the end of "9 a" 1891 $125,000 had been spent in the over-sea colony, $200,000 in the purchase of land for city refuges and work shops, and $200,000 in the farm colony. Each department has been successful. The food and shelter depots have been self- supporting, and the factories have yielded a good profit.* CHAPTER L SURVEY OP RELIGIOUS LIFE ON THE CONTINENT [Authorities. — The recent volumes of the proceedings of the Evangelical Alli ance give the best view of the religious condition of Europe. See Bonar, The White Fields of France : a Story of McAH's Mission to the Working- men of Paris and Lyons (N. Y., 1879); Langdon, Possibilities of Religious Reform in Italy: three articles in Andover Review, vol. v., 1886.] The work of evangelizing France has taken a new depart ure since the overthrow of the empire in 1871. This has been brought about largely through the labors of Mr. and Mrs. McAll. They were making a short visit in Paris, but, being impressed with the spiritual neglect of the masses, they went to work for their relief. From tbe time of their first visit to the present the work has advanced with amazing rapidity. The ouvriers have been reached as never before. Auxiliary associations have been formed. Lay preachers and teachers are at work in large numbers, and the movement is still extending in all directions. In Italy and Spain Protestant efforts are being made with vigor by many religious bodies. Even several American churches are industriously at work in Rome, Venice, "sVn"1 Bologna, Naples, Milan, and other parts of Italy. Christian worship is free throughout the kingdom of It aly. The Protestants are acquiring property, and organizing schools and congregations, with a spirit which increases with * See The Independent, Dec. 24th, 1891, p. 16. SUEVET OF EELIGIOUS LIFE ON THE CONTINENT 427 every year. Already the Protestant population has grown to large dimensions, while the way is opening for still larger suc cess. There is a strong reaction against the long-dominant Romanism, and the minds of the people naturally drift towards scepticism. This is fostered by the prevalent French litera ture. There is need, in both Italy and Spain, that Christian effort be redoubled, so that the minds of the people, and espe cially the young, may be preoccupied with religious truth. Oc cupation by the light is the only safe way to keep out the threat ening darkness. Spain has been opened to Protestantism ever since the flight of Queen Isabella in 1871. The German mis sionaries, with Pastor Fliedner at the head, are leaders in in troducing Protestant doctrines, establishing Sunday-schools, and printing and distributing sound religious literature. A most remarkable work is being carried on in Spain towards building up a national Reformed Church. The native Church is helped by the Spanish and Portuguese Church Aid Society (Episcopal), under the auspices of Lord Plunket, Archbishop of Dublin. His action in ordaining the Rev. Andrew Cassels to the diaconate of the Reformed Lusitanian Church, in the fall of 1891, has occasioned much comment. The sceptical philosophy of Haeckel and his school has made great inroads into the faith of the learned circles. In some parts of Germany there has been a growth in evangel ical sentiment. But within the past five years we have not been able to notice any numerical increase in the evangel ical portion of the clergy. Lately, the approach, for political reasons, towards sympathy with the papacy and with the Ro man Catholics of the empire has given great offence to the Protestant clergy. Switzerland is still divided, like most of the Continental countries, between conflicting theological opinions. German or eastern Switzerland has its theological centre in w zer an ^e famous University of Basel, where Orelli is the chief theological instructor. French Switzerland takes its the ology from Berne. The spiritual life of the republic has been retarded by the sceptical influences, on the one hand from Germany, and, on the other, by the corrupt fiction flowing into French or western Switzerland from France. Holland has had, of late, a strong confessional warfare go ing on within the Church. Apart from that, there is still in 428 IHE MODEEN CHUECH progress the strife between the evangelical and rationalistic sections of the Dutch theology. The leader in this conflict is Dr. Kuyper, who claims that the State Church of Holland is in the lap of Rationalism, and who, with his friends, has been expelled from membership in that body. The fight has been a most bitter one ; and although the Kuy per movement has reacted in a revival of Christian life and doctrine in Holland, the splendid promise of its beginning has not been kept. The orthodox wing lost their brilliant cham pion in the death of the Rev. Dr. J. J. Van Oosterzee, of the University of Utrecht. He was the ablest theologian and the most eloquent preacher of the Dutch Church. Kuenen is the leading sceptical theologian. Holland is no longer the home of an independent and original theology, but follows the fort unes of the German schools of thought. The Scandinavian countries are now undergoing a radical change to liberal ideas. The Church and State are almost separated in Norway, while important advances are taking place in Sweden. The incoming of the Bap tist and Methodist churches has produced a profound impres sion, and the members of both communions are largely increas ing. The most popular and influential preacher in Sweden is Waldenstrom, the pastor of an immense congregation in Viele. Many societies have been formed throughout the land which bear his name — Waldenstromians. He aims at the spiritual building-up of the people by more direct and practical efforts than the State Church has ever employed. THE CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES A.D. 1492-1883 The history of the Christian Church in America remains to be written. Here is a fine field full of the richest materials for a future historian. Baird made a good beginning in his Religion in America (N. Y., 1856). Sprague, in his An nals of the American Pulpit (N. Y., 1859-69, 9 vols.), collected a vast amount of the most useful information on the lives of men eminent in the history of the American Church. The histories of the denominations have been collected in one volume, first by Rupp (Phila., 1844), then by Belcher (Phila., 1861), and again by different writers (Phila., 1871). The work left by Baird has been taken up by Dorchester, in his Christianity in the United States (N. Y., 1888), a work embodying the fruits of great research, and written in a fair and candid spirit. This is the best single volume yet issued on the history of religion in America. The great work edited by Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America (Boston, 1881-89, 8 vols.), is invaluable to the student of ecclesiastical as well as of secular history. I.— Gbe Colonial fl>erfoD 1493- 1783 CHAPTER I THE NEW CHRISTENDOM Eueope in the sixteenth century was in convulsion. Even before the Reformation, the fearless labors of Wycliffe had Europe in the stirl'ed England to its centre, while Huss, of Bohe- sixteenth Cen- mia, had uttered a cry of warning which was heard '"' throughout the Continent and awakened fear in Rome. These and the later reformatory movements reacted on the political life of all the central nations. Not a throne was safe where the new religious revolt was in full force. The entire sixteenth century was a period of universal disturbance. The progress of reform provoked violent hostility, and every land was divided into factions. There were three general grades of sentiment. One class, receiving its inspiration from Rome, wished to continue the old order, with the pope as prac tical sovereign. Another class, craving liberty and an accom modation to the new order, was willing to break loose from the Roman see, but desired to retain many of the Romish usages. The third class saw nothing but antichrist in Rome, and found hope only in casting off every reminder of papal doctrine and custom. The transfer of the conflicts of Europe to America was the new order. Whenever a colony came to America, it no sooner settled in its new habitat than it revived, under on* New Ground Droader conditions, the struggle in which it had been engaged in Europe. The Cavalier of the Virginia Colony surrendered none of his old attachment to the 432 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Church of England. The Plymouth Pilgrim was even more intense in his revolt against both Romanism and Protestant Episcopacy than he had been when he was a Brownist at Scrooby, a parishioner of Robinson in Leyden, or a Pilgrim on the Mayflower. In the New World were fought out, in smaller numbers, and by contestants more dispersed, the issues which had driven the colonists to the Western wilds. The religious motive was supreme in the mind of all the best colonists. To enjoy the free exercise of conscience was the Pilgrim's one passion, whose bright flame no The Religious reaking up, and a new departure was at hand. The European English language had taken tbe place of the Norman Conditions Trench m England, and represented the popular drift towards larger political and religious liberty. In 1362, the Eno-lish was ordered in the courts of English law. Wycliffe's tracts were in the newly liberated tongue, and gave the peo ple their first taste of truth in a language dear to their hearts. Chaucer was the first poet to present in English verse the com- ino- larger life of the Anglo-Saxon intellect. English and Con tinental commerce was extended all over the face of the world. Caxton had made the printing-press the possession of the An- clo-Saxon race. The people of England now first saw the in dustrial field opening before them. Agriculture showed signs of becoming what it was in republican Rome — the best of all manual employments. The eastern coast of England was learnino- from the Flemish weavers, who were now their guests, 454 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES those lessons of manufacturing which to this day have made England a large producer for all lands. Protestants were conquering on the great fields of Germany, England, and Scandinavia. Even when they failed in liberty, their faith in final triumph failed not. The Puritans, burning with shame at the royal deception, looked westward to find their true home. When the colonies in America were planted, both from England and the Continent, tbe people who consti tuted them arrived at the moment of European awakening. They brought the best aspirations of the Old World, and de termined to realize them in the New. The hour of American colonization was the fittest one, in all modern times, for the New World to receive the best which the Old World had to give. The territorial distribution of tbe colonists was not less providential. The territorial successes of the Spanish knights, and Jesuit fathers who accompanied them, were The Territorial cormned to a doubtful settlement in Florida, to Allotment _ ' the great province of New Spain (Mexico), and to a strip of the Pacific coast. The French Roman Catholic ex plorers and the Jesuit fathers were limited to Indian evan gelization and an uncertain territory along the St. Lawrence, the northern chain of lakes, and the Mississippi valley. The great English field of colonization lay between these two. It is the temperate belt of North America — the region which nature had fitted for the most aggressive mission in Western civilization. Spain's field has become more contracted as the centuries have passed. She now holds no foot of land on the North American continent. Louisiana passed from her hands into French possession, and in 1803 the French sold it to the United States. This purchase, made to fill the empty excheq uer of Napoleon I., placed the Mississippi in the possession of the United States, and made the whole domain from that river to the Pacific a future certainty. The French bade fair to own all Canada. The ownership was at last reduced to the fortunes of one battle — that of Quebec, in 1759. Here the English conquered. This culmination of a long and bitter series of wars between France and England made the English the possessors of that immense tract lying between the United States and the polar seas, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The war with Mexico, closing in 1848, gave the POLITICAL PEAMEWOEK OF THE COLONIES 455 United States the great State of Texas, which covers an area of two hundred and seventy-five thousand square miles. The territory now protected by the flag of the United States is a rich inheritance. Every part of it is a witness to the provi dential guidance of our fathers to these shores, and a reminder of the obligation upon their posterity to mould our immigrant population into a righteous citizenship. God's ordering for America is seen as well in the type of men who made the nation. With some exceptions, they were the wheat of the Old World. Unlike many of our recent im migrants, they came to make here their permanent homes. They cut tbe last tie that bound them to the elder civilization, and entered heart and soul, for life and death, into the struggle of this new and rising land. Besides, they were religious men, swayed by righteous principles, who feared God, and him only. They were men of intelligence, far-sighted, who had been trained in the rough discipline of an age that tried men's souls, and they were thus able to lay broad and deep the foundations of a republic whose corner-stones are freedom and law. CHAPTER VIII POLITICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE COLONIES [Authorities. — Besides general histories and authorities previously cited, sea Curtis, History of the Constitution of the United States (N. Y., 1854; new ed., 1890), and Lodge, Short History of the English Colonies in America (N. Y., 1881).] No uniformity in authority is perceptible in the first colo nial organizations. Each arose out of the exigencies of the time. The caprice of the ruler, the necessity of tbe emigration because of suffering at home, and the favor of the leaders with the court and the people, were each a factor which determined the nature of the new government. The colonies, when once established in the New World, were simply a group of local governments, a cluster of diverse republics, each dependent more or less on the order of the government at home. But in all there was larger liberty than either the colonists or their 456 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES rulers had anticipated. The Atlantic added new and deeper colors to the aspirations for freedom by giving scope and oc casion to self-government. Freed from embarrassment by their distance from the Old -World tyrannies, the colonists could set themselves to the task of government in the serious spirit of men placed by Providence at the beginning of a new venture in tbe history of the world. There were four varieties of colonial authority and govern ment. One was the Charter governments. This was the type The Svstem* °^ Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Connecti- of Colonial cut. Plymouth, without tbe formality of charter, Government p0gsesge(j the same authority. Large liberty was al lowed, and larger liberty was taken than was granted. While there was a general accounting to the home government, these colonies had the power of assessing their own taxes, regulat ing their ecclesiastical system, and determining their colonial legislature. The governor had to account to England for his conduct. But the Assembly chose his council, and the Assem bly was elected by popular suffrage. This large liberty to the popular will was the one fatal cause of dissolving the subjec tion of the provinces to England. It bred the Revolution, and the Republic. The Provincial and Royal Grants were the sec ond form of authority. Here was the closest relation to the British crown. Both the governor and the council were ap pointed by the king. There were two houses of legislature, the council being the upper one. The lower bouse were elected by the people. New Hampshire, New Jersey, Virginia, the two Carolinas, and Georgia were under this form. The third were the Proprietary Grants. These were grants to the proprie tors, who could appoint their own governor and convene the legislative body. But there was provision that no act should be done which would interfere with the original authority of the crown. Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware were un der this form. In appearance, this was the most liberal of all the forms of colonial government. But New England was so managed by the people and their governors that they took the most authority. The fourth class consisted of irregular colo nies, which had no roval authority whatever, but settled among others who did possess it. The Huguenots, the first Germans, the Salzburg emigrants, the Moravians, and the few Polish and Waldensian Protestants belonged to this class. They POLITICAL PEAMEWOEK OP THE COLONIES 457 identified themselves with the interests of the colonists who received them and gave them hospitality. Religious liberty under these various forms was very di verse. Pennsylvania and Delaware had it in the fullest sense, and the later colony of Rhode Island made it one of Libert!8 ^er °hiei boasts. Discriminations were allowed, how ever, against the Catholics even in Pennsylvania, and some time after 1688 Rhode Island passed a law disfranchising them. This law remained in force till tbe Revolution brought French soldiers and chaplains to the harbor of Newport. The Church of England was established in Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia. But even here there were varieties of liberty. The Episcopalian establishment in Virginia was exceedingly tyrannical. No one but Episcopa lian ministers was allowed to conduct service. When, on ac count of the shocking moral condition of the people, some New England ministers were sent for, they were immediately ban ished the colony. " Schismatical persons, either out of averse- ness to the orthodox established religion, or out of tbe new fangled conceits of their own heretical inventions, who should refuse to have their children baptized, in contempt of tbe divine sacrament of baptism," should be fined two thousand pounds of tobacco, half to go to the informer and half to the parish. The attempts to suppress the Baptists and Quakers proceeded to great lengths of cruelty. In Georgia, however, where the benign plans of Oglethorpe were carried out, the spirit of tol eration reigned. While in New York the Reformed Church was established by immigrants from Holland, under the au spices of the Dutch West India Company, as early as 1628, or earlier, there was but little freedom of conscience. After the English conquest of New Amsterdam the English Church, by the act of 1693, became virtually established by law,* and it was with difficulty that even the Dutch Church could maintain * Dr. E. T. Corwin holds that the Church of England was never a le gally established Church in New York Colony. The Ministry Act of 1693 was changed in its passage to assume a much more liberal com plexion than its f ramers intended, so that there is nothing in it to warrant the statement of the Trinity Church charter (1697) that the Church of England is established by law. Besides, the act applied only to four counties. 458 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES her rights, while to the Presbyterian and all other churches no legal privilege was allowed. Of all the New England col onies, Rhode Island was the first to declare perfect religious toleration. This was due entirely to the leadership of Roger Williams. He was at first a Puritan, but, adopting Baptist and Independent views, he was outlawed, and but for timely escape would have been forcibly exported back to England. CHAPTER IX CHURCH GOVERNMENT IN THE COLONIES The Church of England being the established faith for the most of the colonies, there was no separate colonial legislation for ecclesiastical order. All that the governors aDd councils and legislative bodies needed to do was to provide for the sup port of the clergy and the erection of edifices. There was universal scarcity of ministers. One of the great causes of the religious decline in Virginia was the want of clerical sup plies. All who were in office had to come over as ordained men. The Church laws in New England proceeded directly from the civil authority. The support of the clergy, the establish ment of churches, and the duties of the governing body were prescriptions of colonial legislation. In the first Court of Assistants for Massachusetts Bay, on August 23d, 1630, the first question was the support of the clergy. In the same year the first church in Boston and Charlestown was organized, and Wilson was ordained to the ministry. There was, considering the population, a rapid increase of churches. In fifteen years after the landing at Plymouth the tenth church was organized. The New England synods were the source of ecclesiastical doctrine until a definite order of local church government was adopted. Cotton's book, " The Keys," was the guide. The first New England Synod met in 1637. But this was a tenta tive measure. No platform of discipline or doctrine was estab lished by it. In 1646 a request was made to the legislature CHUECH GOVEENMENT IN THE COLONIES 459 of Massachusetts that it should call a synod for tbe purpose of establishing a " Platform of Church Discipline." Objections were made, many people fearing tyrannical measures. In 1647 the synod met, by order of the legislature, and Cotton, Par tridge, and Richard Mather were appointed to frame a plat form. In 1648 the celebrated Cambridge Platform was produced as the report of the committee. The Westminster Confession of Faith was adopted as the doctrinal basis of the Thep?aatfobrmdge 8ynod, and " commended to the churches of Christ among us, and to the honored court, as worthy of their due consideration and acceptance." It declared that tbe members of the visible Church are saints; that their children are holy; that the offices of pastor and of teacher are distinct; that tbe special work of pastor is to attend to exhortation, and of the teacher to doctrine ; that the office of ruling elder is distinct from those of pastor and teacher; that Church officers are to be chosen by the Church, and ordained by imposition of hands; that the requisite for membership is repentance of sin, and faith in Jesus Christ ; and that synods and councils must determine controversies of faith and cases of conscience, and bear witness against maladministration and corruption in doc trines and manners. In 1679 another synod confirmed this platform. As all these synods met by order of the legislature, and were approved by the same body, the platform itself had all the force of civil law, and was the order in courts of law. There was a strong dash of Presbyterianism in the early New England polity, which was, in fact, not purged out till the be ginning of the nineteenth century. The Reforming Synod — the one of 1679 — was held for the special purpose of taking action in regard to the sufferings of the New England colonists. Probably at no time The Reforming jn ^ne coi0nial 0r national history has there been such an accumulation of disasters as at this time. The Indian depredations were widespread and devastating; storms along the coast had wrecked many vessels; droughts had cut off the harvests ; pestilence had raged in various local ities; and fire had spread havoc in the homes and among in dustries. The legislature called on the churches to send elders and messengers to meet in synod, and discuss two questions — What are the prevailing evils of New England? and, What 460 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES is to be done that these evils may be removed? The synod concluded that tbe disastrous phenomena were due to the wickedness of the people, such as decay of godliness ; spirit of contention ; young people not mindful of the obligations of baptism; profanation of the Sabbath; profaning of God's name; neglect of prayer and scriptural reading; intemperance; and forsaking the churches. The synod also declared that the members of the churches must advance in piety, renew their vows, support the schools, and cry fervently for the "rain of righteousness." The result was that "this synod was followed with many of the good effects which were desired and expect ed by its friends." The Boston Synod of 1680, of which Increase Mather was moderator, adopted a Confession of Faith. With few excep tions, it was the same as that of the Westminster Assembly, and later of the General Assembly of Scotland. It was, in fact, only more elaborate, the same Confession as the Cam bridge Platform of 1648. A reason was urged for adopting the European Reformed Confessions, " that so they might not only with one heart, but with one mouth, glorify God and our Lord Jesus Christ." Henceforth this was the doctrinal basis of the churches of colonial New England. The Saybrook Platform was adopted by the ministers and delegates of the Colony of Connecticut in 1708. The motion for a synod arose from a request of the trustees of Yale Col lege in 1703. This platform reaffirmed the Savoy Confession, a Congregational symbol of Cromwell's time (1658), and took its doctrinal form chiefly from the Westminster Confession. It made a departure towards Presbyterianism in its creation of consociations or permanent councils whose decisions were to be final, as some hold, or merely advisory, as others maintain. But the tendency afterwards was here also towards purer Con gregationalism. These articles were approved by the legisla tive body as a law of the colony of Connecticut, and became the civil constitution for all the churches of the colony. EDUCATION 461 CHAPTER X EDUCATION [Authorities. — Schem and Kiddle, Cyclopaedia of Education (N. Y., 1877); Boone, History of Education in the United States (N. Y., 1889) ; Quincy History of Harvard University (1840) , The Harvard Book; Clap, Annals of Yale College (1766); Baldwin, Annals of Yale College (New Haven, 1831); Adams, The College of William and Mary (Washington, Govern ment Printing Office, 1887) ; Richardson and Clark, The College Book (Boston, 1878). The Bureau of Education of the Department of the In terior is publishing a valuable series of monographs on the educational history of the various states.] The educational spirit of the first colonists was intense. The Virginia colony numbered among its members men who had been thoroughly educated, and whose associa- Efforts tiona and tastes fitted them for an appreciation of the value of education to their posterity. The New England colonists, while not from an equally elevated social position in the Old World, were far more devoted to literary pursuits, and were more keenly alive to the impor tance of culture for the well-being of the population. It was the authorship of the Pilgrims which caused their exile in Holland. They had written, and therefore they had to suffer. John Robinson, their pastor, was a disputant against Episco- pius in the University of Leyden. His writings, which have been preserved, were such as to aid largely in moulding the New England mind in its most plastic period. Brewster was both publisher and author. The records of Winthrop, Morton, and others show the skill with which the first Puritans of New England knew how to use the pen. One half of their ministers were graduates of Oxford or Cambridge. Divines like Mather, Cotton, and Thomas Hooker were men of great ability and learning. One of the first thoughts of the New England colonists was elementary education for their children. The first common 462 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES school was established in New England about 1640, and be came the herald of all the common schools in the United States. "Salem had a free school in 1640, Boston in 1642, Cambridge about the same time, and the state, in Education 164^' marked out an elaborate system of common and grammar schools." * Instruction was gratuitous, the expenses being met by direct tax on the inhabitants of the town. Schools of various grades sprang up in all parts of the New England colonies, though Boston very early became the cen tre. In 1635 an appropriation was made for Pormont as school master. Six years afterwards the foundation was laid in the same place for the celebrated public Latin School. Academies sprang rapidly into existence. Here young men were prepared for Harvard, Yale, and similar institutions. Harvard College was the first institution of advanced learn ing in the American colonies. It was founded in 1636, for the special purpose of a theological school, for the benefit of posterity, " fearing an illiterate ministry." The Gen eral Court had already voted four hundred pounds for a public school. The Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, made a be quest of over eighteen hundred dollars as an endowment to the school. He also donated three hundred and twenty vol umes as the beginning of a library. It was called a college, and the name of Harvard, its principal benefactor, was given to it. The name of Newtown, where it was located, was changed to Cambridge, in honor of the University of Cambridge, where many of the New England Puritan fathers had been educated. The legislature ordered that the income of Charlestown ferry should be granted the college as a perpetual revenue. The Rev. Henry Dunster was appointed the president. The mot toes of the college were : In Gloriam Christi (" For the Glory of Christ ") ; Christo et Ecclesiae (" To Christ and his Church "). The college received its first charter in 1650. That the first idea of the founding of Harvard — as a theological school — was never lost sight of during its early period may be seen in the fact that during the first century of its history three hundred and seventeen of its alumni became ministers of the gospel. Its first professorship was that of divinity, established by * Thomas Wentworth Higginson, ' ' Larger History of the United States " (N. Y. 1885), p. 201. EDUCATION 463 Thomas Hollis, an English Baptist layman, in 1721. This institution and its great success led to similar ones in other parts of New England. Yale followed in 1701 ; Brown, in 1764; Dartmouth, in 1769; Burlington, in 1791; and Bow- doin, in 1795. The first important educational movement in Virginia was an undertaking to found the " University of Henrico," for the College of education of English and Indians. This began with- wiiiiam in a few years after the settlement in Jamestown. ary Friends in England took pains to collect funds for the purpose. The Bishop of London gave one thousand pounds sterling for the new institution of learning, and another con tributor presented five hundred pounds for educating young Indians. The preacher at Henrico, the Rev. Mr. Bargrave, do nated his library. A school preparatory to the university was proposed, to be located at St. Charles City, to be called the East India School, the first gift having been made by the officers and crew of an East India ship. This whole movement failed because of the Indian massacre of 1622. The colonists, how ever, never lost sight of the founding of a higher institution of learning. Occasionally they had to contend with the op position of those who governed them. Sir William Berkeley, in 1670, resisted an application of the Lords of Plantation in the following language : " I thank God there are no schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have them these one hundred years ; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best government. God keep us from both !" But the educational demand could not be resist ed, and William and Mary College arose as the first successful attempt to establish an institution of high grade in Virginia. It was founded in 1693. As Harvard College grew out of the great success of the pastoral labors of the Rev. Thomas Shep- ard, so the College of William and Mary grew out of tbe long and arduous labors of the Rev. Dr. Blair. This institution be came the most important educational centre in all the Southern colonies. During the entire colonial period it was the place where many of the statesmen and clergy of Virginia were ed ucated. Its power was felt, not only in that one colony, but in the leadership which led to the War of Independence. The remaining colonies were far behind New England in ed- 464 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ucational measures. New York had its Dutch teachers early, but it was not until 1746 that its first great college — Columbia — was founded. Princeton, for New Jersey, was founded in the same year. Dickinson, at Carlisle, was established in 1783, to meet the wants of the rural population in the valleys of the Cumberland and the Susquehanna. The first provision in Ma ryland for a school was in 1723. No school of college grade was established in Georgia or the Carolinas before the Revo lution. Much of tbe instruction given throughout the South ern colonies was private. The planters took care to have good tutors from England brought over and placed in charge of their sons. The tutors lived on the plantations, in the families where they taught. Governesses were provided for the daughters of the planters. This method of education seems to have been preferred to the schools of higher grade. We cannot infer from the absence of such foundations in the South that edu cation was neglected. For the great mass of the people there was no good provision. But for the more wealthy there was ample provision in this private system of instruction. The planters had not only their tutors, but they were attentive to the introduction of the best works in all departments of Euro pean literature. The libraries in the homes of the planters of Virginia and other Southern colonies, during the colonial pe riod, were in some cases magnificent. Books from the Euro pean press were constantly arriving. Besides, many young men went over to Europe for an education. The fashion of young Americans attending the foreign universities seems to have had its origin in tbe South, and particularly in South Carolina, during the colonial period. INTOLEEANCE IN THE COLONIES 466 CHAPTER XI INTOLERANCE IN THE COLONIES [Authorities. — See the literature at Chap. IV. Fiske, in Beginnings of New England (Boston, 1890), gives a just and impartial view. Hallowell, The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (Boston, 1887), should also be read. For Roger Williams, see Dexter, As to Roger Williams (Boston, 1876), and Arnold, History of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (N. Y., 1859-60). These are sufficient to enable the reader to come to a just conclusion. The best short summary is given by Newman, Roger Williams, in Magazine of American Literature, Jan., 1892. Higginson, Larger History of the United States (N. Y., 1886), can be read with advan tage. Fisher has some excellent remarks, History of Christian Church (N.Y., 1887), pp. 468-475.] The intolerance of the Old World was transferred, with modifications, to the New. The two colonies of Virginia and Plymouth represented the two great rival ecclesiastical bodies of England — the Established Church and the non-conformists. The Virginia colonists were of the Established Church. They had with them a clergyman, Hunt, of that body, and were under his pastoral care. The parish system was adopted after the established model at home. The hostility in England to the non-conformists, of whom the Puritans were the larg est portion, was reproduced in Virginia, and exercised with out any show of serious opposition. The New England col onists had suffered keenly from the intolerance of Laud and the crown at home. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 had thrown out of their livings two thousand English non-con formist preachers, for the sole reason that they would not sub mit to reordination and full endorsement of the Book of Com mon Prayer. The Puritan exile to America was the child of bitter persecution. The colonists had grown into solidarity and strength under the lash. It is not surprising that when these Puritan colonists now enjoyed liberty they should not forget the oppressor's hand, nor have a very kindly feeling tow- 466 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ards those who had persecuted them. Their intolerance was their means for guarding against a new mastery in the New World. The New England intolerance was directed against all who differed in religious matters from the colonists. The Massa chusetts and New Haven colonies were particular- 'New^riand1 ly severe against the Quakers. In 1658 the Gen- eral Court of New Haven passed a severe law against the Quakers, as a body "who take upon them that they are immediately sent from God, are infallibly assisted by the Spirit, who speak and write blasphemous opinions, despise government, and the order of God in Church and Common wealth." The penalty of bringing in any known Quakers, or " other blasphemous heretics," was a fine of fifty pounds. If a Quaker should come for a business purpose, he should ap pear before a magistrate and receive license to transact his business, and in case of first disobedience should be whipped, imprisoned, put to labor, and deprived of converse with any one ; for a second offence, should be branded on one hand with the letter H, imprisoned, and put to labor; for a third offence his other hand should be branded, and he be put to labor and imprisoned ; and for a fourth offence he should be imprisoned, kept to labor until sent away at his own charge, and his tongue bored through with a red-hot iron. This law continued in existence but two years. Stiles says that, not withstanding this law, no witch or Quaker was ever punished in the New Haven Colony. The Massachusetts laws were very severe against the Quakers. The records show that thirty were imprisoned, fined, or whipped ; twenty- two were banished, three had an ear cut off, and four were hanged. The same colony was intolerant of tbe Baptists. The first members of that communion were fined and imprisoned. The Maine laws were not less intolerant. The first Episcopalians in Connecticut were cast into prison. It should be remem bered that the penal laws of New England, against which so much has been said, were only of a piece with the legisla tion of that time. The laws in England were fully as Dra conian, even to compelling church-attendance, and punishing with death larceny to the value of twelve-pence. Maryland punished blasphemy at the third offence with death. Virginia outstripped New England in the severity of her punishment INTOLEEANCE IN THE COLONIES 467 against religious offenders. And if no one was put to death by the Episcopalian colony, it was not, as Jefferson remarks, due to the laws, which were harsh enough, but to circum stances. The expulsion of Roger Williams from Salem was a nota ble case of colonial intolerance. He gave great provocation, however, and the wonder is that he did not fare fager wimams worse tnan sun°er banishment. He was a Puritan preacher, and arrived with the Salem Colony in 1631. He demanded that the Church in Boston should re pent publicly of the sin of remaining in communion with the Church of England before coming to America. This the Church in Boston refused to do, and Williams refused to join the Church. The magistrates refused to settle him as pastor. He therefore moved to Plymouth, where he became an assist ant pastor. He returned to Salem and succeeded Skelton as pastor, but his permanent settlement was opposed by the mag istrates on the ground that he had taught that " it is not un lawful for an unregenerate man to pray ; that the magistrate has nothing to do in matters of the first table ; that there should be a general and unlimited toleration of all religions ; that to punish a man for following the dictates of his con science was persecution ; that the patent granted by Charles was invalid, and an instrument of injustice which they ought to renounce, being injurious to the natives, the King of Eng land having no power to dispose of their lands to his own sub jects." As a result, in the winter of 1635-36, Williams was ban ished. He fled to Rhode Island, where, in 1636, he founded the present city of Providence, which he so called " from a sense of God's merciful providence to him in his distress." The case of Roger Williams has produced a large literature and a wide difference of opinion. His manner was unfortunate. A man of gentler method might have escaped punishment. The real grounds of his banishment were twofold : his attack on the validity of the company's charter, and his denial of the right of administering oaths to the unregenerate. The first point was one on which the colonists of Rhode Island were peculiar ly sensitive, as they had suffered too much to have their rights in the New World put in jeopardy. Williams's views on re ligious liberty had nothing whatever to do with his expulsion. He was a man of the utmost conscientiousness and sincerity, 468 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES far in advance of his age, but he was contentious, obstinate, and visionary. The colony of Rhode Island, which was thus founded by Williams and other refugees, granted full religious liberty. Professor Masson speaks of this part of Williams's work as the "organization of a community on the unheard-of principle of absolute religious liberty combined with perfect civil democracy." In the agreement of 1640 are these words : " We agree, as formerly hath been the liberties of this town, so still, to hold forth liberty of conscience." "To this day," says Professor Guild, of Brown University, "the annals of both city and State have remained unsullied by the blot of persecution." The fair promise of this colony, how ever, was not kept. A law of 1663 excluded Catholics from civil rights, and if none of this faith suffered for their relig ious beliefs it was because they kept themselves from so in hospitable a territory. This law was in force until the days of the Revolution. The Virginia Colony compelled all persons to attend the parish worship. Roman Catholics, Quakers, and all Dissenters . . were prohibited from settling in the colony, and people of every country who had not been Christians at home were condemned to slavery. There seems to have been more leniency at first than later. In 1642, owing to the few clergy men, a petition went from Virginia to the Plymouth Colony to send down some Puritan preachers. Knolls and James were sent in answer to the request. But they were not per mitted to remain long. Fears of a large influx, and especially of new opinions, seem to have been entertained ; for these men were sent back, and their followers were scattered. In 1661 there was a rigid enforcement of the laws against Quakers and all others who were not of the Established Church. When the dissenting bodies increased, the same prohibition was ob served. Moravians, Baptists, Presbyterians, "New Lights," and others were persecuted. In 1747 the Rev. Mr. Davis was sent to labor in Virginia. He was a wise, learned, and skilful man. He was very successful. His character and conduct were such as to commend him to all the people. He placed the Presbyterian Church in Virginia on a secure footing. * * See the additional remarks on Virginia, pp. 498-500. INTOLEEANCE IN THE COLONIES 469 The original Roman Catholic colony of Maryland under went important changes from the beginning. The liberty of all to settle there was made use of to such extent New* York " t^a*5 by 1704, the non-Catholics were in the major ity. An act was passed by the General Assem bly to prevent an increase of Roman Catholics. This remained in force until 1776, when full religious liberty was restored. The Reformed Church was tbe established faith in the early history of New York. Quakers were fined and imprisoned. In 1656 the governor, Stuyvesant, forbade any other meetings than the Reformed. Baptists were persecuted. When the English came into possession of New Amsterdam (New York), they were tolerant of the Reformed Church, and in one case the same building was used for the Reformed and the Episco pal services. But this toleration was limited at first to the Reformed. Members of other communions received little fa vor. The first Presbyterian preachers, for example, Macke- mie and Hampton, were fined and imprisoned for preaching in a private house. The grounds of opposition to the Roman Catholics are not hard to find. They are the only body which was everywhere opposed, except for a time in Maryland, and all for the Universal the while in Pennsylvania. The extensive mis- Discrimination sions in Canada, with the line of missions in the West extending down to the Gulf, indicated a progress among the Indians which no Protestant body had met with. The relations of the Roman Catholics with the Ind ians were cordial. The Indians were very shrewdly taught by them to believe that the English were their enemies. The Puritans had just ground for hostility to the Roman Catho lics in England ; and, when ii» this were added the Indian wars, and the association in the minds of the colonists of the Roman Catholics with the uprisings on account of their missionary zeal, it can occasion no surprise that everywhere the Roman Catholic was regarded as not only an ecclesiastical opponent, but a civil enemy. To this must be added the profound an tagonism which was naturally engendered in an age of posi- itive religious sensitiveness. Down to the Revolution there was almost a universal opposition to Roman Catholics on the part of the colonists — in New England very decided, but in the Southern colonies less. Only after the Revolution were 470 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES all confessions in full liberty of civil and religious rights. The great Roman Catholic immigration then set in, and soon the people of the Roman communion began, by labor and by num bers, to make ample amends for the energy with which their coming to Protestant colonies had been contested. CHAPTER XII RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE COLONIES [Authorities. — For a sympathetic, able, and sufficiently full account of the Pu ritan preachers, see Tyler, History of American Literature (N. Y., 1878), vol. i., chs. v.-x. ; vol. ii., chs. xi.-xv. For the Great Awakening, see Ed wards, Narrative of the Work of God in Northampton, Mass., 1763, and Thoughts on the Revival of Religion in New England, 1742, in Works (N. Y, 1829, and later) ; Tracy, The Great Awakening (1842).] The zeal of the first colonists was intense and steady. No material embarrassment was permitted to obscure the original „ ,. . idea of colonization — namely, an open field for spir- Religious Zeal ..,.,„ . . , ., -, , , ltual lite. Extensive revivals prevailed throughout New England. The later colonists were received by the ear lier groups with a cordial spiritual salutation. The first gen eration of Protestant American citizens took better care of new immigrants, and more rapidly incorporated them into the religious life of the country, than any succeeding generation has done. Schools were founded, churches were built, and large plans made for the conversion of the Indians. The pre vailing idea of the Puritan colonies was, that they had the mission of building up great religious commonwealths, and solving in the New World the religious problems which could not be solved in the Old. This period of religious fervor con tinued to 1660, when a season of decline began, which contin ued down to 1720. The decline was induced by the devas tating Indian wars, the witchcraft delusion, and the political agitations arising out of the oppressive measures of the Brit ish government. The New England preachers were able guides. Many of them had come from English universities, and brought with them great literary skill, an intimate acquaintance with the- EELIGIOUS LIPE OP THE COLONIES 47 1 ological controversy, and a practical knowledge of the dan gers of political oppression to religious life. Wilson, Cotton, _ Shepard, the Mathers, Philips, Higginson, and Skel ton wielded the colony of Massachusetts Bay at will. The religious spirit absorbed all others. The preacher was the real governor. No public measure had any chance of success without the clerical support. Brewster in Plymouth, Hooker in Connecticut, Davenport in New Haven, Roger Williams in Rhode Island, and Hunt and Whitaker in Virginia, were the giants of their time. Political preaching was the order of the day. The Old Testament was searched for parallels of duty whenever a war against the Indians was to be fought, or a new British aggression was to be resisted, or pestilence, fam ine, witchcraft, or earthquakes were to be wisely interpreted and guarded against in the future. Books on the current ques tions were multiplied. The printing-press of New England was the powerful battery ever thundering against evils exist ing or apprehended. The Great Awakening began about 1735. Its first indica tions were seen in the wonderful effects of the preaching of Jonathan Edwards in Northampton, Massachusetts, The Great Whitefield came over from England, and made sev- Awakening ° ' eral tours through the Atlantic colonies. His preach ing attracted multitudes, and the numerous converts through his preaching united with the non-episcopal churches. The number converted through his American ministration has been estimated as high as fifty thousand. The physical manifesta tions attending the Great Awakening were very similar to those with which we are familiar in the Wesleyan movement. Trances, swoons, transports, tears, cryings, tremblings — these were some of the physical signs of that wonderful religious upheaval. Prince, Frelinghuysen, Finley, and the brothers Tennent, of New Jersey, and Davis and Blair, of Virginia, and others, contributed greatly to the spiritual result. All the churches had their earnest leaders. The effects of the great revival, which extended from New Hampshire down to tho Carolinas, were immediately seen. A new spirit of consecra tion thrilled every nerve of the colonial churches. New church edifices were erected. Many young men entered the minis try. Schools of all grades sprang into existence, and large funds were brought from their hiding-places and cast into the 472 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Lord's treasury. Religious books multiplied. Even the con servative Benjamin Franklin rejoiced to publish the sermons of Whitefield and Tennent, the Westminster Catechism, and the powerful tracts of John Wesley. The Southern colonies, though visited by Whitefield, did not share extensively in the great revival of the middle of the eighteenth century. The Protestant Episcopal Church in Vir ginia did not give a cordial welcome to the revival influences. The preaching in Virginia pulpits was generally formal, and on topics merely moral, although Morgan Morgan and Deve- reux Jarratt were notable exceptions. The writings of Puritans in the Old World were promptly introduced into the New. Special pains were taken by the New England fathers to get early copies of the in^e'w England Sreat works which their co-religionists in Eng land were producing. The works of Baxter were reproduced in Boston, and brought promptly into the early New England homes. The songs of Watts were reprinted in many editions, and were sung in the most distant settlements. Bunyan was beloved, and became a household companion. For Milton's poetry there was little taste ; but his political tracts were great favorites, for they were thunderbolts against tyranny. Of all the writers who contributed most to found the republic of the United States, Milton probably bears away the palm. CHAPTER XIII COLONIAL WORSHIP AND USAGES [Authority.— Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England (N. Y., 1891).] The sermon was the chief part in the Puritan service. The preacher was supplied with an hour-glass, and it was not un common for it to be reversed twice during his discourse. Sermon , -, when a new start was made each time. There was a wide range to the sermon. The Old Testament was a favor ite part of the Scriptures for subjects. The formal divisions, extending to great numerical length, were the rule. The peo- COLONIAL WOESHIP AND USAGES 473 pie were kept awake, if not by the sermon, at least by the tithing-man, who walked around at fit times with his pole, and touched the offenders on the head. The colonial period was the golden age of political preaching in New England. Soldiers about to start against the Indians were addressed in the church. All unusual phenomena of nature were recog nized in the discourses. A comet was not too small an affair to produce several sermons by Cotton Mather, which in due time were clothed with the dignity of print. The Election Sermon was a permanent institution. The Monday Lecture in Boston was only a continuation of the Sabbath. The prayer was long. The congregation stood during prayer. There was first an invocation. But the long prayer was second in importance only to the sermon, and fully as formal, the difference being that the divisions of the prayer were not announced. The subjects of the prayer were of great number. Few, indeed, we may well imagine, were the public events which were not considered in the course of the "long prayer." In some cases the pastor made a halt in his prayer, which it was understood was intended to be improved by the more weary to sit down. Dorchester says he has seen a manuscript volume of sermons of Rev. Thomas Clap (1725) which contains a " Scheme of Prayer," with five general divi sions and two hundred and forty sub-heads. Sewall, in his "Diary," speaks of a fast-day service where, after three per sons had prayed and one had preached, "another prayed an hour and a half." The singing was congregational, and the psalm was lined by the ruling elder. The " Bay Psalm Book," printed in 1640, \ in Boston, was the universal favorite. The first two edi- mgmg ^ong Q£ tnjs work were the Psalms of David as we find them in the Old Testament. But all subsequent editions were metrical. The "Psalterium Americanum" came into vogue, and was a great favorite in New England. It contained the musical notes. Great care was taken that the singing should be exceedingly simple, lest an approach might be made to the choral enormities of the Church of England, which to the Puri tans was only a younger Church of Rome. Instrumental mu sic was absolutely prohibited, and the reading of the Bible in the church must always be accompanied with exposition. Special services were held on Thanksgiving and fast days. 474 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES The law required that all should attend these services, as well as those on the Sabbath, or pay a fine of five shil- Thanksgiving iin2rS for every absence. The services on Thanks- and Fast Days . °. , . J , , . giving and fast days were the great occasions of the year. There was a general gathering up of themes which had excited public attention. The preacher had before him the great officials of his town. In the churches of the larger towns the same prominence was given to the service. The governor and his council were expected to be present. The preacher considered himself unfettered, and he made full use of his liberty. The Thanksgiving Day celebration is now a recognized feature of our national observances, but fast days, fully as important, and capable of fine adaptation to moral uses, is almost entirely done away with, even in New England. The church buildings in the Southern colonies were mod elled after the Church of England edifices in England. While „L . -..,. small, there were the tower, the bell, the choir. Church Edifices . ,, , . ' . ' ' and all the arrangements found m the smaller churches of England. But in New England there was a shun ning of all ornamentation. Every reminder of the Church of England soon became an object to be avoided. The log church, which often served as fort for the gospel and for earthly weapons, was one of the first buildings thought of in the new town. No carpet or stove was present in the sanctuary, to remind of the repulsive luxuries of the wealthy across the sea, or to distract from the simple severity of the gospel. Even tbe Scripture lesson was avoided in New England during the seventeenth century, lest there might slip in a ritualistic ten dency. The seats were guiltless of cushions. The women and girls of the congregation sat on one side of the church, while the men and boys occupied the other. The people from the country brought their lunch, and remained until the after noon service was over. MISSIONS TO THE INDIANS 475 CHAPTER XIV MISSIONS TO THE INDIANS [Authorities.— Bliss, Encyclopaedia of Missions (N. Y., 1891); Francis, Life of John Eliot, in vol. v. of Sparks, Library of American Biography (Bos ton, 1836); Prentiss, article "Eliot," in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia (N. Y., new ed., 1887); Edwards, Memoirs of David Brainerd, revised and enlarged by S. E. Dwight, edited by J. M. Sherwood (N. Y., 1884).] The conversion of the Indians was one of the early objects of the colonists in America. The Virginia Colony took the first steps. In 1619 a law was adopted requiring "Los^sightT/ tbe instruction of Indian children. King Charles I. interested himself in their behalf, and directed that collections be taken in all the churches of England for training up and "educating infidel (Indian) children in the knowledge of God." But the most systematic and successful efforts in the direction of Indian evangelization were made in New England. In reply to a report from Plymouth, John Robinson wrote from Leyden : "Oh, that you had converted some before you killed any !' In 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted an act for preaching the gospel to the Indians of the region. A special building was erected in connection with Harvard College for the education of Indian youth, while young men, the sons of colonists, were educated in Harvard for the special work of Indian evangelization. The chief tribes of Indians were the Mohegans, the Narragansetts, the Pankun- nawkuts, the Massachusetts, the Pawtuckets, the Algonquins, and the Housatonics. The most successful of all tbe Indian schools in the colonies was founded in 1743, at Lebanon, Con necticut, by the Rev. Eleazer Wheelock. He received an In dian, Samson Occum, into his own house, and taught him for five years. This Indian became a distinguished preacher, and went with the Rev. N. Whitaker to England, to collect funds for Wheelock's work, which had now developed into a school, 476 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES where about twenty Indian youths were taught. It was called "Moor's Indian Charity School," from the man who gave a house and two acres of land to Wheelock for the school. Oc- cum and Whitaker collected in England seven thousand pounds for the school. In 1770 Wheelock removed his school to Han over, New Hampshire. Out of this bumble beginning has grown Dartmouth College. John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, stands first of all men in devotion to the conversion and education of the abo rigines. He was born in England, educated in Cam bridge University, and came to Boston in 1631. He was settled in Roxbury as pastor in 1632. He very early be came interested in the Indians, and urged upon the General Assembly of Massachusetts the necessity of instructing them. The grandeur of Eliot's work lay in his own example. He hired a Pequot captive to instruct him in the Indian language, and in two years was able to preach in it. Owing to his representations a society was established in England, called " A Corporation for the Promoting and Propagating the Gos pel of Jesus Christ in New England." The sum of twelve thousand pounds was raised in England for Indian evangeli zation. Eliot's evangelistic labors continued to the end of his life. He was about forty-two years of age before he began the study of the Indian (Mohegan) language, but used every pos sible means to perfect himself in it. With his usual modesty, he lamented to the end of his life his deficiency in mastering it. His first group of Indians was at Nonantum, now a part of Newton, near Boston. He then began to work at Neponsit, a part of the present Dorchester. He preached a number of years in both places, without compensation, and prayed in tbe Indian families. At no time in Eliot's life did his salary ex ceed fifty pounds. His eldest son preached for several years to the Indians at Natick, Pakemit, the present Stoughton, and other places. The first Indian church was at Natick, where, in 1670, there were about fifty communicants. An Indian la borer, William Shawton, preached at Pakemit, and Tackuppa- willin preached at Hassanamenit, the present Grafton. Many societies of Indian worshippers sprang up in consequence of the labors of the two Eliots. In fourteen towns, within seventy miles of Boston, there were Indian services, where about elev en hundred Indians were under direct pastoral care. By tbe MISSIONS TO THE INDIANS 477 year 1664 it is estimated that there were in eastern Massachu setts about three thousand and six hundred " praying Indians." The Indians became not only moral, but many of them were devout Christians. The literary labors of John Eliot are among the marvels of the Colonial Period. He learned from every quarter, and aimed to get at the finest shades of meaning in the Mohe- HiSLaborSary San tongue- He translated Baxter's "Call" and Bayly's " Practice of Piety." He wrote grammars and primers and other small works, six in all, which, in litera ture, bear the name of " Eliot's Tracts." These works are now very rare. Copies of them, and, we believe, of all Eliot's works, are to be found in the Lenox Library, New York. The great literary achievement of Eliot was his Indian Bible. The New Testament was published in Boston, in 1661, and tbe Old Testament in 1663. A second edition appeared in 1680-85. This work was printed from type sent over from England by the Corporation for the Promoting: and Propagating the Gos pel of Jesus Christ in New England. This was the first Bible printed in the New World, and is a monument to the philo logical skill and sublime devotion of John Eliot, which will long continue to excite the admiration of men. Other laborers in New England were attentive to the spirit ual needs of the Indians. In Plymouth Colony the Rev. Mr. Bourne had an Indian congregation of about five other Indian nun(jre(j on cape c0d and the vicinity, and the Rev. Missionaries l J ' John Cotton had a small congregation on Buzzard's Bay. The two Mayhews, father and son, made Martha's Vine yard the field of their labors, where they began their work about 1649. On the island of Nantucket there were, at the end of the seventeenth century, three churches and five con gregations of "praying Indians." The Stockbridge Mission, in Massachusetts, was under the care of the Rev. Mr. Sargeant, one of the most devoted of all the New England laborers for the aboriginal tribes. He made lengthy journeys to other Indian tribes. He introduced manual trades and agriculture for the boys, and taught the girls the various duties of domestic life. His plan was largely that which our government has been too slow to learn — that, to build up the Indian character, the Ind ians must be taught the exercises and employments of the usual American citizen. 478 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Indian evangelization in other colonies was not neglected. The Reformed Church of Albany organized work among the Mohawks living along the Mohawk River about ,n }*°}:™" the time when Eliot began in New England. Sche- Colonies ° ° nectady became an important centre of missionary work, and the Liturgy of the Reformed Church was published in New York for the Mohawk tribe. The Protestant Epis copal Church of New York published the Book of Common Prayer in the Mohawk tongue in 1715. Moore, Barclay, An drews, Miles, and the Moravian Rauch were zealous mission aries among tbe Indians along the Hudson and the Mohawk. David Brainerd, in 1742, began work among the Indians at Kinderhook, near the Hudson, but his chief labor was on the Susquehanna. His career covered the brief period of about four years ; but such was his devotion and courage that, though he was but thirty years old at the time of his death, his name will ever be associated with Eliot as a master-workman in the difficult field of Indian evangelization. What Henry Martyn was to India, David Brainerd has been to the American Indians. Hawley, Forbes, Kirkland, and Spencer were strong and suc cessful laborers among the Six Nations. Hunt, Whitaker, and Thorpe distinguished themselves in Virginia for labors in be half of the education and conversion of the Indians. But this work came to an end through a massacre of the whites by the Indians. John and Charles Wesley worked for a while as Indian missionaries in Georgia. CHAPTER XV THEOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS [Authorities. — Cotton Mather describes Mrs. Hutchinson's views, though from a hostile attitude, in Magnalia, vii., 3 (best edition, Hartford, 1855, 2 vols.). See also Sparks, American Biography, vol. vi.] The Puritan mind was intensely theological. The experi ences of the Pilgrims in the Old World had been such as to make them thinkers on fundamental doctrinal themes. The Brownists owed their existence as a separatist community to THEOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS 479 their divergence from the prevailing doctrines of the Estab lished Church. The great Arminian controversy in Holland Theological was m progress in Leyden during their residence Bent of the there. John Robinson, their spiritual guide, was a warm disputant on the Calvinistic side. Their the ological tendency was not thrown into the background by their immigration to America. The early Puritan preachers were skilful theologians. The sermon was often a mere sec tion out of dogmatic theology. The future theological integ rity of the colonies seems to have been prominent in the minds of all the spiritual leaders, and not to have been forgotten by the civil administrators. The frequent synods busied them selves fully as much with theological adjustments as with measures for parish government. The Hutchinsonian controversy arose out of the extreme views of a capable woman, Ann Hutchinson. While she was The the leader, she was largely assisted by her broth- Hutchinsonian er-in-law, Wheelwright. She was described as a on roversy "gentlewoman of nimble wit and voluble tongue, of eminent knowledge in the Scriptures, great charity, and notable helpfulness in cases of need among her own sex." She claimed great attainments in spiritual life, and was very im pressive in declaring her extreme views. She held that justi fication is produced by direct revelation or impression ; that there is at once a perfect union between the Holy Ghost and the justified individual ; that the Holy Ghost dwells in the justified one in person; that henceforth such an individual is as incapable of sinning as the Holy Ghost himself ; that the letter of the Scriptures is subordinate, being only a covenant of works ; and that the Spirit must be looked to for the cove nant of grace. Her followers carried her views to still greater extravagance : that Christ himself is a part of the new creat ure ; that Christ and the new creature are personally one ; that a man is justified before he believes ; that believers are not compelled to obey the divine law ; that the Sabbath is the same as other days ; that the soul is not immortal until it be comes united to Christ ; that the final doom of the wicked is annihilation ; that there is no resurrection of the body ; and that the ground of all salvation is assurance by immediate revelation. The rapid spread of the Hutchinsonian views was due large- 480 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ly to the great ability of Mrs. Hutchinson herself, and her in fluence with leading men in the Boston Church, of which she was a member. Many of the leading people adopted her opin ions, and were not slow in propagating them. An effort was made to have Wheelwright settled as pastor in Boston, which led to great excitement and serious divisions. Governor Vane, and Cotton, the pastor in Boston, placed themselves on the side of the Hutchinsonians. Tbe General Court met in 1637, and the matter came to a crisis. Vane and those who sympa thized with him were in the minority. He was not re-elected governor, but Winthrop, who was orthodox, was elected in his stead. Wheelwright was expelled as "guilty of sedition." The Synod of 1637 declared against the sedition, and Cotton finally came back to the orthodox position, and declared that he " disrelished all these opinions and expressions, as being some of them heretical, some of them blasphemous, some of them erroneous, and all of them incongruous." The respecta bility of the Hutchinsonian aberration disanpeared with the surrender of Cotton, who, as Mather declared, " was not the least part of the country." Mrs. Hutchinson was excommu nicated, went to the Rhode Island colony, and united with the co-religionists of Roger Williams. But she had a small fol lowing here, and removed farther south, where she was mur dered by the Indians. The first practice of the New England Church was that only persons professing to have faith in Christ, and to have become regenerate, were members of the Church, Tceovean'antay an<^ ^ad the privilege °f having their children bap tized. But many of the descendants of the colo nists, and many who came over as new members of the colo nies, made no profession of experimental faith. What was their position ? The parents of such adults were anxious they should be received as members of the Church, and that their children should be baptized. Others declared against such ac tion. Then, again, the law of 1631 maintained that those who were not members of the Church could not be political free men : " No man shall be admitted to the freedom of this body politic but such as are members of some of the churches within the limits of the same." If only those professing experimen tal religion could belong to the Church, many children could not be baptized, and many adults could not have political THEOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS 481 rights. It should be said, however, that there is not tbe slight est evidence in the contemporary discussions that the matter of political rights had anything to do with the proposed change. The laymen took no interest in it, and, besides, Charles II. had issued a decree in 1662 doing away with the Church-member ship qualification of the suffrage. It was purely a matter of Church privilege, and grew out of the desire of the pastors to extend as far as possible the blessings of attachment to the Church. Indeed, the form of these covenants was very strict, and it was impossible for any conscientious man to take them unless he were seeking conversion, or was already converted. Connecticut was the first scene of this important controversy, but Boston was the place where the matter culminated. The meeting of ministers in Boston in 1657, and the General Synod there in 1662, decided in favor of granting membership in the Church to all who owned in person the covenant made in their behalf by their parents, and led a life " not scandalous," and save themselves and their children to the Lord. To the children of such persons tbe rite of baptism should not be de nied. This synodal deliverance was called the Half-way Cov enant, which produced universal agitation in New England, and was not suppressed until the great revival in the middle of the last century. The effect of the Half-way Covenant was universally dis astrous. Persons who now entered the Church could do so on simple acknowledgment of the baptismal covenant and tbe leading of a moral life. Regeneration was not necessary. Children of the unregenerate could be baptized, and the whole family were then connected with the Church. Re pentance might be felt to be important, but, not being made a condition of membership, its value was not considered as great as formerly. The general tendency was a lowering of the spiritual standard of Church membership throughout New England. A new view of the Lord's Supper was now advanced. It was held that the Lord's Supper was a means of regeneration, and that unconverted persons might safely be to ar s iews a(jmjtte(j to tne saCrament of tbe Lord's Supper. The Brattle Street Church, Boston, was the first to advocate this new doctrine. The Rev. Solomon Stoddard, of North ampton, grandfather of Jonathan Edwards, publicly defended 31 482 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES it, in 1707, in a sermon in which he declared that "sanctifica tion is not a necessary qualification for partaking of the Lord's Supper, and that the Lord's Supper is a converting ordinance." His views were opposed by Increase Mather and others. But Stoddard's theory was the natural consequence of the Half way Covenant. It found favor in many parts of New Eng land. The effect was to intensify the disastrous tendency of the Half-way Covenant. The churches were greatly in creased by the addition of unconverted members. Some of the churches consisted chiefly of unregenerate people. The conditions of repentance and conversion not being required for admission to membership and to the sacred ordinances, there was the same laxity in receiving unconverted candidates into the ministry. Between the years 1680 and 1750 many such persons became preachers, and were settled as pastors. Their sermons were unspiritual, and their parishioners were cold and formal. The Unitarian secession was no doubt part ly due to the declension of this time. Cotton Mather's pre diction was fulfilled : " Should this declension continue to make progress as it has done, in forty years more convulsions will ensue, and churches will be gathered out of churches." CHAPTER XVI RELIGIOUS LITERATURE [Authorities. — Tyler, History of American Literature, 1607-1766 (N. Y., 1879), is invaluable for the light it throws on the religious literature of the early period. It is written in a charming style, and is the fruit of much re search. The first and second volumes of Richardson's American Litera ture (N. Y., 2 vols. 1887-90) are also of importance. The older work of the Duyckinck brothers, Cyclopaedia of American Literature (N. Y., 1855, 2 vols. ; new and enl. ed. by M. L. Simons, Phila.. 1875), is still an invalu able authority.] In the fierce struggle for existence which the colonies had to pass through, it is not a matter for wonder that the literary production of the early period was scanty. And had it not been for the imperial intellectual endowments of the Puritans the literary output would have been scantier still. EELIGIOUS LITEKATUEE 483 In Virginia a premium was put on ignorance. When Sir William Berkeley was recalled, in 1677, his policy of dis- „. , . couraering learning was continued. There was no Virginia . .° ° . ° . . ,. printing-press m Virginia earlier than 1681 ; and when one was set up, the poor printer was required to give bonds " not to print anything hereafter, until his majesty's pleasure shall be known," which Professor Moses Coit Tyler rightly calls " a gracious way of intimating a perpetual prohibition." Governor Effingham received from home, in 1683, the caution "to allow no person to use a printing-press on any occasion whatever." The first printing was done in Virginia in 172-9, and until the eve of the war of the Revolution there was only one press in the colony. Nevertheless, Virginia is not without some worthy literary remains. Alexander Whitaker, " the Apostle of Virginia," one of the noblest and purest men God gave to America, wrote " Good News from Virginia," which was published in London in 1613. It was an earnest appeal for English evangelism in the new land. Father Andrew White, the Jesuit priest who accompanied the first colonists to Maryland, wrote in Latin an account of the country, "Relatio Itineris in Marylandum," which was discovered in Rome in 1832. James Blair was the first author of any merit in Virginia. His " Present State of Virginia and the College" [of King William and Mary, of which he was president for fifty years], published in London in 1727, is written in excellent style; and his one hundred and seventeen discourses on "Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount" was twice published in London during the author's lifetime, and received the praise of Daniel Water- land. Hugh Jones, rector of Jamestown and chaplain to the Colonial Assembly, issued in London, in 1724, a book on "The Present State of Virginia," which is one of the most useful books of the colonial period. In it he describes the college as " without a chapel, without a scholarship, and without a stat ute ; there is a library without books, comparatively speaking ; and a president without a fixed salary till of late." He makes an appeal for ministers, not " quarrelsome and litigious minis ters who would differ with their parishioners about insignifi cant trifles, nor mere scholars and stoics, nor zealots too rigid in outward appearance," but earnest men, with level heads and pure hearts, who can labor among a people who " are for mod- 484 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES erate views neither high nor low, and who never refuse to shout, " 'God bless the Church, and George its defender, Convert the fanatics, and balk the Pretender.'"* In the Middle Colonies only two names appear as worthy of mention here — Jonathan Dickinson and Samuel Davies. Dick- ...... „ . , inson was a New-Englander and an able theolo- Middle Colonies . n . % , _ . n „ . gian, ranking next to Jonathan Edwards. Davies was an eloquent preacher, but his published sermons hardly bear out his great reputation when living. In literary productiveness New England made up for what the other colonies lacked. Yet here also the dread of dissent acted as a gag. When the first printing-press was New "England set UP in Cambridge, in 1639, the president of Har vard College acted as a kind of censor. But he was not strict enough. The clergy thought they discerned in some of the books a tendency " to open the door of heresy." In 1662 two men were appointed to officially superintend the issues of the naughty machine, and their consent was indis pensable before anything could be printed. A revised edition of the "Imitation of Christ" passed this ordeal in 1667, but the clergy discovered that it was a book written " by a popish minister, wherein is contained some things that are less safe to be infused among the people of this place," and ordered " a more full revisal " of the book. In the meantime the press should stand still. It was not till twenty-one years before the Revolution that this censorship ceased. In one sense all the literature in early New England was a religious literature. But here we will speak only of those Religious writers of some prominence more directly con- Literature in nected with the religious development. William New England Bradford, of the Mayflower, the father of Ameri can history, wrote a " History of Plymouth Plantation," in which the religious idea predominates. This book was given up for lost until it was found, in 1855, in the Fulham library of the Bishop of London. Bradford's nephew, Nathaniel Mor ton, secretary of Plymouth Colony from 1645 to 1685, made this history the basis of his own " New England's Memorial " * See Tyler, History of American Literature, vol. ii., p. 270. EELIGIOUS LITEEATUEE 485 (1669), which was printed at Cambridge. A simple faith breathes throughout Governor Winthrop's "History of New England " (1649). Of great interest is Captain Edward John son's " Wonder-working Providence of Zion's Saviour in New England," first published anonymously in London, in 1654, re published by Draper, of Andover, in 1867. Johnson was the founder of Woburn, Massachusetts, and a typical Puritan lay man. Thomas Hooker, the founder of Hartford in 1636, had a mind of lofty grandeur and masculine force. He wrote twenty-three books, all in the different departments of theol ogy. Thomas Shepard, the minister of Cambridge, 1636- 1649, "a Timothy in the family and a Chrysostom in the pul pit," was the spiritual quickener of Jonathan Edwards, who drew deeply from him for his " Treatise Concerning Religious Affections." John Cotton was the pope of New England. Roger Williams reported the people of New England as say ing that "they could hardly believe that God would suffer Mr. Cotton to err." He was a prolific author of all kinds of theological works. He carried on a controversy with Roger Williams on the right of persecution. Peter Bulkley, the founder of Concord, and minister there from 1636 till his death in 1659, published in London a series of sermons on "The Gospel Covenant" (1646), "one of those massive, ex haustive, ponderous treatises into which the Puritan theo logians put their enormous Biblical learning, their acumen, their industry, the fervor, pathos, and consecration of their lives." As we go down the stream it becomes impossible to do jus tice, in this slight sketch, to the religious writings of the New England fathers. We pass President Chauncey ; Roger Will iams, who bravely pitted himself against the giant Cotton ; the marvellous Mather family — Richard; Increase, his son, with his ninety-two works ; Cotton, the son of Increase, with a list almost as large, among them the "Magnalia Christi Americana" (London, 1702), a storehouse for all our histori ans — the sturdy John Wise ; Samuel Sewall, with his plea for women ; Thomas Prince, who first applied historical criticism to the writings of our annals ; Anne Bradstreet, tbe Mrs. Browning of Puritanism ; Michael Wigglesworth, the poet of its grim Calvinism ; Willard the theologian ; John Higginson, and many another clergyman of cultured mind and strong 486 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES thought ; and, lastly, Jonathan Edwards, the flower of Puri tanism, the saint, the philosopher, the missionary, the scholar, the man of science, the divine, the preacher — a Thomas a Kem- pis, a Calvin, a Jeremy Taylor in one. CHAPTER XVII EARLY LEADERS [Authorities. — Hawks, History of the Episcopal Church in Virginia (N. Y., 1836); Meade, Old Churches, Ministers, and Families of Virginia (Phila., 1857) ; Edward D. Neill, Notes on the Virginia Colonial Clergy. For Bray, see Overton, The English Church and its Bishops (London, 1867), and his art. in Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography ; also Hurst, Proceed ings of American Society of Church History, vol. ii., 1890. On Dickin son, see Gillett, History of Presbyterian Church (Phila., rev. ed., 1873), and Sprague, Annals of American Pulpit, vol. iii., which is of value everywhere in this history. Hooker: see Lives, by Hooker, McClure, and Walker (N. Y., 1891). Cotton : Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana (Hart ford, 1855), and Dexter, Congregationalism as seen in its Literature (N. Y., 1880), both works indispensable for the understanding of the religious his tory of New England. Edwards : Park, arts, in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia and the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia; Memoir in the N. Y. ed. of his Works (1829), edited by Sereno Edwards Dwight; Memoir, by Sam uel Hopkins (1764); Allen, Jonathan Edwards (Boston, 1889).] No man is more worthy of grateful memory than the found er of the Episcopal Church in Virginia, Alexander Whitaker. He was a graduate of Cambridge University, where Whitaker . his father was master of Saint John's College, and in 1611 he left a comfortable parish, or, as William Crashaw says, he " did voluntarily leave his warm nest, and to the wonder of his kindred and the amazement of them that knew him, un dertook this heroical resolution to go to Virginia and help to bear the name of God to the heathen." He was a true mis sionary of the cross, and when he was drowned, some time before 1617, he was revered as an apostle by colonist and Ind ian alike. James Blair, a native of Scotland, a graduate of the Uni versity of Edinburgh, came to Virginia in 1685. He labored to elevate the colonists intellectually as well as spiritually. EAELT LEADEES 487 " He could not rest until school-teachers were in the land." It was through his untiring zeal that the College of William and Blair ^aiT was chartered in 1692. Its noble aim was "that the Church in Virginia may be furnished with a seminary of ministers of the gospel ; that the youth may be piously ed ucated in good letters and manners ; and that the Christian faith may be propagated among the Western Indians, to the glory of Almighty God." For half a century he was the lead ing spirit of this college, and his name is second to none among the fathers of the American Church. Thomas Bray, the commissary (deputy) of the Bishop of London in Maryland (1700-1) is principally famous for his remarkable movement in founding parochial libraries.* Thirty-nine libraries were founded throughout the South ern Colonies. He brought over ministers as well as books, and in every way possible aided the passage of the Church Establishment bill in the Maryland legislature. His library scheme was the germ of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and he founded, in 1701, the Society for the Prop agation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Jonathan Dickinson, for thirty-nine years (1708-47) the Pres byterian minister of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, was a com- „. , , manding figure in the ecclesiastical life of the times. Dickinson „ b B . . He was a physician as well, an educator and an author, and he exerted a great influence on the religious affairs of the Middle Colonies. He was the principal founder of the Col lege of New Jersey, and its first president. Dr. John Erskine, of Scotland, testified that "the British isles had produced no such writers on divinity in the eighteenth century " as were Jonathan Edwards and Jonathan Dickinson — "both born on the confines of the New England forests, and both bred at Yale College." f Thomas Hooker was the first of the Puritan divines to die in America (1647) aged sixty-one. After a troubled career in England, pursued by the pertinacity of Laud, this Cam bridge scholar went to Holland. After three years he came over to Massachusetts Bay in the same ship with John * See Hurst, "Parochial Libraries in the Colonial Period," in Papers of American Society of Church History, vol. ii. , pp. 37-50. f Tyler, American Literature, 1607-1765, vol. ii., p. 217. 488 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Cotton. He preached in Cambridge for three years, when he and his congregation went in a body over the wilderness to the Connecticut River, where they built the town of Hartford (1636). Hooker was the king of his colony, and, whether as a statesman, a theologian, or a preacher, he was excelled by no man of his time. His " New England Way " was commended in England by Thomas Goodwin, and when he died his friend John Cotton lamented him in lines which told how "Zion's beauty did most clearly shine In Hooker's rule and doctrine, both divine." His holiness and intellectual power caused him to be held in superstitious reverence, and miracles were attributed to him by bis wondering parishioners. The sermon of John Cotton before the University of Cam bridge, at St. Mary's Church, about 1612, created a consterna tion very similar to that produced by a like sermon of John Wesley in St. Mary's Church, Oxford, in 1744. Both were the sturdy and uncompromising application of Pu ritan principles to tbe needs of the time. Cotton was lecturer and dean of his college, and fellow of Emmanuel College. In 1612 he became rector of St. Botolph's Church, in Boston, Lin colnshire. When Laud got the reins of the English Church into his hands, it fared poorly for men of Cotton's stamp. " The Earl of Dorset sent a message to Cotton, that if he had only been guilty of drunkenness, or adultery, or any such minor ministerial offence, his pardon could have been had ; but since his crime was Puritanism, he must flee for his life." After many narrow escapes he made his way to Boston across the sea, in September, 1633. His coming was hailed with public thanksgiving. He was immediately made pastor of the First Church, which he held till his death, in 1652. He was the burning and the shining light of New England. "The lantern of St. Botolph's ceased to burn, When from the portals of that church he came, To be a burning and a shining light, Here in the wilderness."* "I hold myself not worthy," said Nathaniel Ward, himself one of the prominent ministers, " to wipe his slippers." Hub- * Longfellow, New England Tragedies. EAELT LEADEES 489 bard, an historian of that time, says that whatever John Cot ton " delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order of the court ... or set up as a practice in the Church." Cromwell wrote to him affectionate and respectful letters. He studied twelve hours a day — " a scholar's day," as he called it. His last author for the day was Calvin. "I love to sweeten my mouth with a piece of Calvin before I go to sleep." Cotton was a man of superb powers, and he left his impress on the New England churches which time has not effaced. " John Cotton, his mark, very curiously stamped on the face of this Planet ; likely to continue for some time."* His "Milk for Babes," a catechism for children, was incorporated in the New England Primer, t Jonathan Edwards was the greatest theologian of the Colo nial Period. "I consider Jonathan Edwards," says Robert Hall, "the greatest of the sons of men. He ranks with Edwards the brightest luminaries of the Christian Church, not excluding any country or any age since the apostolic." His grandfather was a prominent layman of Hartford. His father was for sixty-three years pastor at East Windsor, Connecticut. His mother was the daughter of Solomon Stoddard, whom we have already mentioned, for fifty -six years pastor at North ampton, Massachusetts. Jonathan was born at East Windsor, October 5th, 1703. Before he was thirteen he knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. At that age he entered Yale College, graduating in 1720. He united with the Church on gradua tion, and from August, 1722, until April, 1723, he preached to a small Presbyterian congregation in New York City. From this period date the wonderful " resolutions " which he drew up for the regulation of his life, and which Mrs. Stowe has quoted in part in her novel, "The Minister's Wooing" (ch. xvi.). After a short period as tutor at his Alma Mater, he be came pastor of the Congregational Church at Northampton, 1727. There he acquired his fame as a preacher, the effects * Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (Boston, 1885), vol. ii., p. 267. f It is often said that Boston was given its name cut of compliment to Cotton, in honor of the place of his English pastorate. But this is by no means the case. Boston was founded and named in 1630, and Cotton did not arrive until 1633. For the true motive of the name, see Ellis, art. "Boston," Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. 490 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES of whose sermons seem almost miraculous. With thin voice, weak bodily presence, no gestures, often preaching from a full manuscript, with his eyes either on his paper or on a spot above the front gallery, he yet chained the attention of his hearers, wrought them up to an intense suspense, or subdued them into an awful solemnity, and that by the sole power of the truth and by the spiritual impression of his saintly and austere personality. Dr. James W. Alexander tells how Edwards conquered an audience who came together to hear Whitefield. " Edwards, unknown to most in person, with unfeigned reluc tance, such as a vainer man migkt feel, rose before a disap pointed assembly, and proceeded to read with feeble manner from his manuscript. In a little time his audience was hushed. But this was not all. Before they were aware they were atten tive and enchained. As was then common, one after another on the outskirts would arise and stand ; numbers arose and stood ; they came forward ; they pressed upon the centre ; the whole assembly arose ; and before he concluded sobs burst from the convulsed throng. It was the power of fearful ar gument." We need not wonder that such preaching produced revivals. Tbe Great Awakening of 1734-35 broke out in his church, and both that and another, of 1740-41, spread over New England. He pleaded for a spiritual church-membership, and his oppo sition to certain practices of his leading members and to the Half-way Covenant cost him his church. He was dismissed in 1750, but was soon called to the church at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he also ministered to the Housatonic Indians. He died at Princeton, March 22d, 1758, after being president of the College of New Jersey for three months. Edwards's influence on New England theology and on the religious life of his time was greater than that of any other man. His work on the " Freedom of the Will " (1 754) has been the text-book of the type of doctrine it sets forth. His book on the " Religious Affections " (1746) is an infallible talisman of the true and the false in religious experience. His memory is a precious heritage to the American people, and his name invests the Middle Colonial Period with a halo of glory and renown. THE INFLUENCE OE THE PUBITANS 491 CHAPTER XVIII THE INFLUENCE OF THE PURITANS [Authority. — Compare the brilliant address of Storrs, The Puritan Spirit (N. Y., 1891).] It would be interesting to trace the influence of Puritanism on the civil and religious history of the United States. It must suffice here to mention two or three particulars wherein we reap the fruit of the Puritans' seed-sowing. Earnest intellectuality has stamped the American mind from the beginning. The Puritans were students and think ers. They were accustomed to the every-dav Intellectual Ufe . . ' . , ,. J J discussion of the profoundest problems. They would listen without weariness for two or three hours to the treatment of grave theological subjects by preachers who spent twelve or fourteen hours in their studies every day. The classics and modern philosophical writings were exten sively circulated in the Northern Colonies. Edwards describes tbe delight with which he read at fourteen "Locke on the Human Understanding." Two institutions were a part of ev ery new village — the school and the church. This has made New England the mother of liberty and learning, the train ing-ground of authors and statesmen. From thence has radi ated light to all parts of the country, for New England sent her colonies into New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and all parts of the West. Nor has the heroic moral fibre of the Puritan character been without its influence on American history. The morality of the Puritans may have seemed at times grim and onsc ence gevere; an(j they doubtless had a morbid conscien tiousness on some matters, but this was only an exaggeration of what has really been the saving virtue of American life. Wherever their influence has gone there never has been wide spread looseness of living, a feature of civilization which is 492 TllE CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES not unknown in modern Europe. In spite of sad demoraliza tion which now and then marks our public affairs, there is al ways a sound and healthy foundation of moral sentiment with which politicians must reckon. The Puritan strain has been one of the great saving forces of our public life. The strenuous religiousness of the Puritans is another qual ity which has entered into the achievements of all branches of the American Church. In no country in the world is Church life so full and strong as in America. We may believe that the influence of the Puritans in this particular has been most beneficent. They have always represented a learned ministry, emphasis on preaching, and high ethical standards in preachers and people. Nor should we forget that, although the Puritan had a nar row theology, and guarded with intolerant jealousy his provi dential inheritance, the deeper elements of his theology Proaress i and the bent of his nature made it inevitable that ho should lead the van of progress in both theology and civil af fairs. If a Puritan was intolerant, a Puritan protested against it. Personal independence, loyalty to God, and to him only, an everlasting searching of the divine oracles, a detestation of priestcraft and kingcraft — it was impossible that men with these elements in their very life-blood should not be the her alds of tho Better Day. The supremacy of God, of law, of conscience, of truth, the sense of freedom and of the grandeur and glory of spiritual realities— it is these mighty facts of which the Puritans were the heralds, and which have been the guardian angels of every onward movement in our history. CHAPTER XIX THE EPISCOPAL MOVEMENT IN CONNECTICUT/1! (Authori'i'iks. — Beardsley, Life and Correspondence of Samuel Johnson, D.D. (Boston, 1874, 3d ed., 1889), and History of the Episcopal Church in Con necticut (Boston, 1865, 2 vols.).] Love of philosophy did not prevent the kind heart of Bish op George Berkeley from feeling an interest in the needs of THE EPISCOPAL DEFECTION IN CONNECTICUT 493 the colonies across the sea. He conceived the idea of found ing a college in Bermuda, which would educate missionaries for the Indians and ministers for the colonists. He America"1 succeeerfo& lrSS— 1893 CHAPTER I THE CHURCH AT THE FOUNDING OF THE REPUBLIC [Authorities. — See the works mentioned at the beginning of the American Church History.] The contrast between the Church in the Old World and in the New during the one hundred and eighty-six years of the Colonial Period was marked. The controversies of Protes tantism on the Continent, especially in Germany, had a demor alizing effect. The struggle between the Lutherans and the Reformed had thrown the spiritual life into the background, and had given way to the incoming of rationalism from Eng land and France, and thus made the growth of a native Ger man scepticism a lamentable fact. In England the Wesleyan revival was the only powerful salutary force against the alarm ing Deism. The religious life in America, while it was always more or less disturbed by European impulses, had grown. Now and then there was an interruption. There were abnor mal tendencies, such as might be expected in a land where the conditions were new. But the general life had been progres sive and salutary. The theological activity, the prevalence of revivals, the building of churches, and the evangelistic spirit had produced a strong and aggressive type of ecclesiastical life. The colonial founders of the American Church builded wisely, and made the best possible use of the materials at their command. There was a general spiritual decline in the religious life of 496 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the Church from about 1765 until the end of the eighteenth century. The absorbing topic was the struggle for nation al independence. All spiritual interests languished. Spiritual when once the Revolution commenced, it became the Decline passion of the people until it was concluded. The clergy, for the most part, were intensely patriotic. In their " election-day " and other sermons, they discussed the polit ical situation with the utmost freedom, and used every means to deepen the feeling of resistance to England. They ap plied moral and religious principles to the needs of the time, and this educating influence was the " secret of that moral en ergy which sustained tbe republic in its material weakness against superior numbers and discipline." But this Growth of vely zeai wor]ied disastrously for the time against the churches. Many of the clergy entered the army as soldiers or as chaplains, and thus a large number of con gregations were without pastoral care, and were broken up. Some of the churches were converted into hospitals, others into stables, and others were burned. Only nine of the nineteen churches in New York City were fit for worship when the war was over. Dr. Francis L. Hawks says that Virginia, where the Episcopal Church was the established religion, "came out of the war with a large number of her churches destroyed, with twenty-three of her ninety-five parishes extinct or forsaken, and of the remaining seventy-two, thirty-four were destitute of ministerial services ; while of her ninety-one clergymen, twenty- eight only remained who had lived through the storm." It is impossible to describe the desolation which swept over the churches as the result of the terrible Revolutionary struggle. Many educational institutions were also suspended. Money which would have flowed into spiritual channels was turned into the scanty treasury of the colonies for Washington's army. The peaceful Quakers and Mennonites of Pennsylvania forgot their usual attitude, and eagerly enlisted in the army. When peace came, a new ecclesiastical life needed to be built up. At no time in the history of the American Church was the condition so serious. It was a question, how would Christian people act, with the boon of a nation in their hands ? Until the beginning of the nineteenth century it was a doubt wheth er the national independence would prove a spiritual blessing or a curse. THE CHUECH AT THE FOUNDING OF THE EEPUBLIC 497 The numerical strength of the Church at the beginning of the National Period was about as follows : Ministers. Churches. Episcopalians 250 300 Baptists 350 380 Congregationalists 575 700 Presbyterians 140 300 Lutherans 25 60 German Reformed 25 60 Reformed Dutch 25 60 Methodists 24 11 Associate 13 20 Moravians 12 8 Roman Catholics . 26 52 Total 1465 1951 To show the weakened condition of the ecclesiastical bodies after the war, we give here the statistics of the clergy in New York City in 1793. Out of a population of 40,000 there were twenty-two ministers : Episcopal, 4; Dutch, 3; Methodist, 3; German Calvinist, 1 ; Lutheran, 1 ; Associate Congregation alist, 1 ; Independent, 1 ; Baptist, 1 ; Roman Catholic, 1 ; Jew, I ; Scotch Presbyterian, 1 ; Presbyterian, 3.* There was a decided tendency in several of these bodies to divide on questions of doctrine and polity. It seems to have been a time when the spirit of national independence invaded the ecclesiastical pale. The air was filled with rumors of di vision. Some of the churches did suffer serious schisms at this time, which have not yet been healed. * Dorchester, Christianity in the United States, p. 286 ; Life of Rev. Dr. Samuel Miller, vol. i., p. 81. 498 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER II THE SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE [Authorities. — The best work here, perhaps, is Schaff, Church and Stats in the United States, with Official Documents (N. Y., 1888). Bryce treats this subject with his usual judiciousness and lucidity in chaps, cii., ciii. of his American Commonwealth (London and N. Y., 2d rev. ed., 1891).] The Church had been a part of the colonial system. The citizen had been taxed for the support of the Church. In change of Base Massachusetts Colony only the man who was a in the Support member of the Church could hold political office. of the Church In Mary]and and Virginia and some other South ern colonies the Established Church of England was as fully a part of the system of civil government as in England itself. There was a great variety in the mode of connection between the Church and the colonial government. But the connection was positive and strong. Even in the more liberal colonies, like Delaware and Pennsylvania, no one could vote unless he professed faith in Christ. When the Revolution severed the civil bonds with England, a strong tendency towards the sep aration of the Church from all political government immedi ately set in. The general conscience demanded that the new republic should leave the largest liberty to the individual judgment. The people insisted on placing the support of the Church, in all its departments, upon the voluntary judgment of the adherents. This assertion of the voluntary principle in ecclesiastical support and government was one of the most original of all the great phenomena of this stage of our na tional life. Virginia was the scene of the first great movement to carry into practical effect the voluntary principle. To jnevirgjln?ae the Baptists belongs the honor of being the herald. They began amid the first excitement of the Revolu tionary struggle. In the First Continental Congress they laid THE SEPAEATION OP CHUECH AND STATE 499 their complaints before the Massachusetts delegates, and the large numbers of the Baptist body, and their patriotic action during the war, made their appeal such that it could not well be refused. In 1775, after a struggle of twenty-seven years against the Established Church of Virginia, they presented to the House of Assembly of Virginia a petition "that they might be allowed to worship God in their own way, without interruption; to maintain their own ministers, separate from others ; and to be married, buried, etc., without paying the clergy of other denominations." At the first meeting of the Presbytery of Hanover, Virginia, after the commencement of the war, that body presented a lengthy and able petition for religious liberty. In their movement they had the co-opera tion of the Quakers. In 1777 and 1778 the contest between the friends and enemies of the Establishment became still fiercer, and against the proposal to enjoin a general assess ment for the support of all denominations — which seemed very likely to be adopted — the Presbytery of Hanover presented a remonstrance, in which we find this strong language : " As it is contrary to our principles and interest, and, as we think, subversive of religious liberty, we do again most earnestly en treat that our Legislature would never extend any assessment for religious purposes to us, or to the congregations under our care." The proposed assessment was abandoned. Thomas Jefferson, who in matters religious was to all in tents and purposes a Frenchman, has the honor of being one , „ , . of the earliest and most consistent advocates of The Gradual , ... Emancipation religious freedom. This broad-minded statesman of the Churches °,, . „. ¦¦->¦«¦ j • j, -kT saw that V lrgima dittered in no way trom JSJ ew England in the matter of toleration. In his " Notes on Vir ginia," he says : " The first settlers [of Virginia] were emigrants from England of the English Church, just at the point of time when it was flushed with complete victory over the religions of all other persuasions. Possessed, as they became, of the powers of making, administering, and executing the laws, they showed equal intolerance in this country with their Presbyte rian \i. e., Congregationalist] brethren who had emigrated to the northern government." After speaking of the penalties inflicted upon parents who refused to have their children bap tized, and of the severe punishments — including even death — to which the Quakers were exposed, he continues: "If no cap- 500 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ital executions took place here as [there] did in New England, it was not owing to the moderation of the Church, or the spir it of the legislature, as may be inferred from the law itself ; but to historical circumstances which have not been handed down to us." It was Jefferson who drew up the statute of re ligious liberty which was passed in the Virginia Legislature in 1785, which abolished all civil distinction of creeds. Other states proceeded with more caution. The constitutions of New York, Delaware, and Maryland excluded priests and ministers from all public offices. In New York State a test-oath against the Catholics remained in force till 1806. In Massachusetts, for many years after the beginning of the National Period, se vere discriminations against dissenters were still in force. In order to be exempt from taxation, a certificate had to be pre sented showing that the holder was a regular attendant on some religious denomination other than the Congregational. From 1780 to 1811 it was also necessary for every religious society to be incorporated if it would be exempt from taxes. The Catholics were kept out of office till 1821, and the last vestige of the union of Church and State was not swept from the statute-book of Massachusetts till 1833. Connecticut ac complished the same work in 1818. Most of the state consti tutions nobly provided for full religious liberty. A singular provision of the New Jersey state constitution was to the ef fect that no Protestant inhabitant shall be deprived of his civil and political rights. It was not till 1844 that a new consti- tion suppressed this invidious clause. The constitution of North Carolina (1776) was quite rigid. It provided that no man who did not believe in the existence of God, and in the Protestant religion, and in the divine authority of the Old and New Testaments, could hold any office in the state. In 1835 the word Christian was substituted for Protestant. In New Hampshire the shameful statute which prohibited Catholics from the office of governor, and from having a seat in the Senate and House of Representatives remained in force until 1876. It is strange that this lonely survival of the old bar barism persisted so long in so enlightened a commonwealth. But even to this day the Constitution of New Hampshire ex pressly discriminates against the Jews and Catholics. The effort to make it non-sectarian failed in 1889, THE PEENCH INFIDELITY 50l CHAPTER III THE FRENCH INFIDELITY [Authorities. — Meade, Old Churches, Ministers, and Families in Virginia (Phila., 1857), contains much information concerning the state of things in Vir ginia. For New England, see Sprague, Life of Dwight, in Sparks's Amer ican Biography, new series, vol. iv. (Boston, 1845), and the Life of Dwight prefixed to his Theological Works (Middletown, Conn., 1818 ; manysubse- quent editions). See also McMaster, History of the United States, vol. i. (N. Y., 1883), and the elaborate work of Conway, Life of Thomas Paine (N. Y., 1892), a work written from a point of view sympathetic with its subject, and embodying the fruits of immense research. Dorchester, Chris tianity in the United States (N. Y., 1888), pp. 313-324, is valuable for a summary view.] The close connection of the colonies with France during the Revolutionary War favored the importation of the infidel ity then rampant in that country. Everything was in a receptive, formative condition. The churches were demoralized, and could offer no satisfactory opposition. The new infidelity came with a wonderful freshness and fasci nation to thousands of minds, which, released from the terrible tension of the war, no longer held under by the staid and sombre ways of the old Church, were ready for any new thing. It spread like wildfire. Edition after edition of the infidel publications of the Old World were sold in America. Dr. Dwight says that Godwin's " Political Justice " and Paine's " Age of Reason " " flowed in upon us as a deluge. An enor mous edition of the ' Age of Reason ' was published in France and sent over to America to be sold at a few pence per copy; and where it could not be sold, to be given away." French thought became fashionable. Men who had travelled abroad, college students, and the extreme republicans imbibed the new views with great avidity, and in many circles they became the reigning sentiment. When we consider that, some time after ¦ 1730, the importation of the first infidel book into Virginia 502 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES caused such a consternation that the governor and commis sary excommunicated the authorities of England, we can un derstand tbe profound change of feeling the subsequent events produced. Many public men were smitten by the contagion. Edmund Randolph became a Deist, though he was afterwards restored to belief through the influence of his wife. Thomas Public Men Jefferson never lost his strong faith in God and in God's providence,* but was otherwise very liberal in faith, his creed probably remaining substantially Unitarian. General Charles Lee was quite reckless in his blasphemy. In his will he asked that he might not be buried " in any church or church-yard, or within a mile of any Presbyterian or Ana baptist meeting-house." General Dearborn, Secretary of War under Jefferson, had no patience with religion. " So long as those temples stand," he said, on an occasion, alluding to the churches, " we cannot hope for order and good government." Aaron Burr, the most brilliant and audacious personality in our history, embraced the French views with all the zeal of a convert. Washington and Patrick Henry, and many other able men of that time, remained true to the Christian re ligion, but very many of their associates and others — espe cially at a little later time — were carried away by the Deistic current. With the common people, Paine's " Age of Reason," though an ignorant and easily refuted book, yet, by its plain and vigorous English and its plausible arguments, wrought havoc with religious traditions. The young men in the colleges were peculiarly susceptible to the baleful influence of the rising star of unbelief. " I can , „ „ truly say," remarks Bishop Meade, "that then, In the Colleges ,» ,. . -, -, and tor some years alter, in every educated young man in Virginia whom I met I expected to find a sceptic, if not an avowed unbeliever." He calls the College of William * Notice his remarkable words in his ' ' Notes on Virginia :" "I tremble for my country when I think that God is just ; that his justice cannot sleep forever ; that, considering numbers, nature, and natural means only a revolution of the wheel of fortune, an exchange of situations, is among possible events — that it may become probable by supernatural interfer ence. The Almighty has no attributes which can take sides with us in such a contest" [i.e., as that between slavery and emancipation]. THE FEENCH INFIDELITY 503 and Mary "the hot-bed of French politics and religion." When the Rev. Timothy Dwight came to the presidency of Yale Col lege, in 1795, he found the college honeycombed with atheis tical clubs. The students had assumed the names of English and French infidels, and were more familiarly known by them than by their own. Thomas Cooper, a rank democrat and free thinker, infected every institution in which he taught — Dick inson College, the University of Pennsylvania, and South Car olina College, in Columbia.* Far southward and westward the contagion spread. The early settlers of Kentucky ara said to have named their towns after eminent Frenchmen, as, witness, Altamont, Rousseau, La Rue, Bourbon, though it must be confessed that very few such names survive. Transylvania College, a Presbyterian institution, became the headquarters of infidelity. In 1793, Kentucky dismissed her chaplain from further service in the legislature. The man who did more than any other, perhaps, to stay this tide and bring the people back to saner thoughts was Timothy Dwight, president of Yale College from 1795 to his TtheTide°f death, m 181?. He invited the frankest expression of their doubts and difficulties from his students, and, having heard all that they had to say, he devoted a series of sermons in the chapel of the college, on successive Sundays, to a complete refutation of the whole infidel philosophy. The effect of these masterly discourses was instantaneous. Dr. Dwight, the grandfather of the present president of the uni~ versity, drove infidelity from the institution. From that day to this Yale University has been the seat of sound and rational faith. The sermons of Dwight were published and circulated far and wide, and from the day that the young president faced his students in the chapel of Yale College, infidelity has been a vanishing force in the history of the American people. This overthrow was mightily helped by the great revival which visited the country at that critical time. * See Dorchester,, Christianity in the United States, p. 319. 504 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER IV REVIVAL AT THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY [Authorities. — The best account of this revival is in the old book, Surprising Accounts of the Revival of Religion in the United States (1802). In Sprague, Lectures on Revivals (Albany, 1832), a short history of this awak ening is given. See, also, Tyler, New England Revivals (Boston, 1846), and Speer, The Great Revival of 1800. The little book by Ebenezer Por ter is valuable, Letters on the Religious Revivals which Prevailed about the Beginning of the Present Century (Boston, 1858).] The revival of 1797-1803 had several important centres of operation. The movement began almost simultaneously in widely separated regions, and continued until the in- Th? Jioo11 tervening spaces were covered by its effects. In Con necticut the spiritual outpouring was very remark able, and from there it extended throughout New England. From 1796 to 1803 not less than one hundred and fifty church es in New England were powerfully quickened, and large num bers were added. In Kentucky and Tennessee there was the same great spiritual demonstration. Here was a strong popu lation of the Scotch-Irish element. But these people were surrounded by many who made no profession of religion, by others who were outspoken sceptics, and others who were given up to gross immorality. Craighead, Gready, Hoge, Burke, and the McGees were leaders in the movement. People assembled on week-days for worship in the open air. This, in fact, was the beginning of camp-meetings, which have been such a prominent feature in the religious life of the United States. The first was held in June, 1800, by the Presbyterians and Methodists in concert. All denominations united in the work, and multitude's were awakened and converted. The same physical phenomena attended this mighty work as marked the awakening of the past century. From this revival the Western Church received an impulse which has continued down to the present time. The moral results were most salutary. From EEVIVAL AT THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTUET 505 profligacy and religious indifference, the people became sober and devout, and a most salutary improvement was observed in the whole social condition of the people in the revival districts. The colleges shared largely in this revival. Yale had only about a dozen students who professed religion. But there was such a powerful awakening that seventy-five stu- '"coiieq'es dents became Christians, and united with the Church. In Dartmouth and Williams colleges there were similar awakenings, and large accessions of stu dents to the churches. Many of the young men who were converted afterwards entered the ministry. Of the seventy- five in Yale College who joined the Church about one half became ministers. The reclaiming of the colleges from infi delity to Christianity bad an immense significance. Never since has religion been at so low an ebb in these centres of in tellectual life ; and from these college revivals have come some of the most earnest and successful Christian workers the Church has ever known. A great impulse towards evangelization was imparted by this revival. The Western population had been reached as never before, and the Kentucky and Tennessee region was made the starting-point for missionary work farther west. About this time the entire American Church saw its great opportunity on the frontier. Young men from the East ern colleges were enthusiastic in their desire to travel into all parts of the West, found churches and schools, and distribute the Bible and religious books. There was a new faith in evan gelism. The old prejudice against Whitefield and his meth ods had in large measure long since passed away, and there was a new and general belief in the reality and power of the work of God's Spirit in the human soul. Other advantages to the Church grew out of that wonderful work of grace. The back of infidelity was broken. The old French Deism largely disappeared. The quickening of the membership of the Church had a powerful influence for good. The remnants of the Half-way Covenant were swept away. Besides large accessions in membership and a great increase in ministerial candidates, an impulse was given to literary ac tivity which it has never lost. Books and periodicals were circulated far and wide. Missions among the neglected at home, the Indians and negroes, were revived and organized 506 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES anew. The founding of Sunday-schools, Bible and tract or ganizations, and other benevolent institutions, sprang out of the warm inspiration of this great spiritual ingathering. The American Bible Society, founded in 1816, was the product of this movement, as was also the Massachusetts Society for Pro moting Christian Knowledge (1803), the New York Religious Tract Society (1812), and the New England Tract Society (1814), which, in 1823, changed its name to the American Tract Society, and in 1 825 became practically merged in that great organization of the same name which has had such an honorable part in sowing the land with the leaves of light and healing. CHAPTER V EXPANSION IN THE SOUTH AND WEST [Authorities. — See the different denominational histories, general and local. Dorchester has a most interesting chapter, Christianity in the United States, p. 380 sq.] The Roman Catholic preoccupation in the West and South gave abundant promise of a permanent population of ad herents to that communion. From the head- RTnathe Wert" waters of the Mississippi down to the Gulf, and along the tributary rivers, there had been settle ments of the Jesuits, which preserved the Roman Catholic spirit after the most of the missions had been broken up. The Louisiana purchase from Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1803, de signed to replenish his exchequer for carrying on his war with Spain, brought into the Union the states of Louisiana, Mis sissippi, Alabama, Arkansas, and Missouri. The population was in a large part French, with a Spanish admixture, and the Roman Catholic faith predominated everywhere. Florida came into the Union by cession from Spain in 1819. Here, too, the preoccupation had been Roman Catholic. There was a universal dearth of Protestant population and spirit. The first Protestant society in St. Louis, for example, was organ ized as late as 1818. The vices of the Continent, such as Sab bath-desecration, prevailed in this new territory. EXPANSION IN THE SOUTH AND WEST 507 The Protestant current westward did not take the shape of a religious movement. It was simply the expansion of the solid and permanent population east of the Alle- ^"ent"" ghanies. Many of the settlers went as small groups, and some of them as individual adven turers. They built huts, made a clearing, and in due time were joined by others. The population was Protestant, and partook of the national American feeling. Log churches were built, with such ministerial supply as the scanty means af forded. Many settlers went from Virginia and North Caro lina into Tennessee and Kentucky. In time this emigration extended across the Mississippi into Arkansas and Missouri. There were large bodies, such as the land companies of the latter half of the last century. Among these were the Ohio Company, the Transylvania Company, and the Mississippi Company. The Western Reserve, in the northern part of Ohio, was filled by families from New England. The churches in the East, and especially the Home Missionary societies, sent out ministerial agents to travel through the new regions, and especially the valley of the Mississippi, who brought home re ports of the spiritual destitution, and made successful appeals for its relief. The denominations taking the lead in the great work of Western and Southern evangelization were the Baptists, Pres byterians, and Methodists. The Presbyterians entered Mis sissippi about 1800, and Indiana about 1805. The Baptists or ganized work in Illinois in 1796, in Missouri about the same time, in Indiana in 1802, and in Arkansas about 1818. The Methodists entered Indiana in 1802, and Arkansas in 1815. The Baptists and Methodists began in Wisconsin in 1836. Down to 1805 there were no settlements of native Americans in New Orleans. As late as 1801 there were no Christian peo ple in the old town of Detroit, " except a black man who ap peared pious." In due time all the larger religious bodies of the East sent ministers into Michigan and other Northwestern regions. The Congregationalists were among the first to ex pose the spiritual destitution of the great West, and have been among the most heroic in relieving it. The Protestant Epis copal Church, being strong in Virginia and other Southern states, extended itself in the Southwest. The Methodists were early in Texas, Their itinerants, however, went over all 508 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the new region, and organized their infant societies as a part of the general ecclesiastical system. No denomination can claim the chief honor of this wonderful evangelization in the South and West. The great religious currents moved along the parallels of latitude westward with a steadiness and per sistency which belong to the rarer spiritual phenomena of modern times. The moral significance of the Western and Southwestern occupation by the Protestants of the United States is great. We are too near the scene, and the time is too th'fs Movement recent, to comprehend the vastness of the achieve ment. Centuries must elapse before the transfor mation can be seen in all its meaning. The Western and Southern parts of the field of the American Church are now sources of supply for the East. Let the harvests of the Missis sippi valley fail one season, and there is not a church treasury in the land which is not seriously disturbed by it. The churches in the West which needed help thirty years ago have already pushed out their forces to the Pacific, and have helped to develop the coast from Washington down to San Diego. The national life has been saved by the West. Without tbe Western legions which followed the United States flag in the Civil War, with the devotion of Crusaders, the Union would to-day be only a memory. Our religious literature, the pulpit, our denominational treasuries, have all been enriched beyond calculation by the contributions which the West has made with liberal hand and sublime faith. THE PEOTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHUECH 509 CHAPTER VI THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH [Authorities.— The story of the Episcopal Church in the National Period is told in part by White, Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, new edition, edited by De Costa (N. Y., 1880), a most important authority. Other works are : Perry, History of the Amer ican Episcopal Church (Boston, 1885); Perry, Documentary History of the Protestant Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1862-63); McConnell, History of the American Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1891). This last is a work of great interest and of fine spirit. Newton, The Vine out of Egypt, a sketch of the History of the Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1889), may be commended to those who desire a brief account.] The Revolution left the Episcopal Church stranded like a wrecked ship on the beach. Thousands of her clergy and laity The Loyalists were loyal to the Britisn rule> anfl for this tbey were cruelly exiled from their parishes, and their church es broken up. One thousand one hundred left Boston in a sin gle day, and ten thousand left New York at the time of the evac uation by the English troops. It was by these exiles that the Church of England in Nova Scotia and the other provinces of Canada received such large and honorable accessions. It is their descendants who are largely responsible for fostering the imperial feeling in Canada, and thus preventing that great country from achieving its noble destiny as an independent nation. The loyal clergy of the Revolution were whipped, banished, and persecuted in every possible way, and their churches torn down and burned. The grandfather of Dr. Frederic H. Hedge opposed the appeal to arms on the part of the colonists, though in other respects a sturdy patriot. " Whereupon he was hustled from Warwick to Northampton jail, and got his death by exposure and abuse." A saving remnant, however, brought the Episcopal Church out of its degradation, and started it upon its honorable career as a distinctively American Church. William White was the 510 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES first chaplain of Congress, and it was in an Episcopal church (St. Paul's, in New York) that the first religious oMhecifurch services were held after the inauguration of Wash ington, April 30th, 1789, as completing the con secration, and these were attended by the President and the Houses of Congress in their official capacity. The first meet ing for the organization of the Church was held in New Brunswick, N. J., in May, 1784. What might be called the first General Convention was held in Philadelphia in 1785, when a Prayer-Book was drawn up which was the result of a most thorough-going Arminianizing, or rather Pelagianizing, of the Book of Common Prayer. The innovations were so startling that it was not till the Nicene Creed was restored that the English bishops would consent to extend fellowship to the American Church. In 1786 the necessary Act of Par liament was passed, and on February 4th, 1787, William White and Samuel Provost, two American ministers elected for the purpose, were consecrated bishops in Lambeth Chapel. Pre viously, on November 14th, 1784, Samuel Seabury, represent ing the High-Church sentiments of the Episcopal reaction in Connecticut, had been made bishop by the nonjuring bishops of Scotland. At the General Convention of 1789 the Prayer- Book of 1785 was thrown overboard, and a more conservative version attempted. Even now the liberal element was strong. The Athanasian Creed was rejected by an almost unanimous opinion, the use of the words in the Apostles' Creed, " he de scended into hell," was made optional, as was also the sign of the cross in baptism, and the old form of absolution in the office of the Visitation of the Sick was left out. In this criti cal period, great praise is due to William White, one of the most illustrious names in American Church history, "to whose rare wisdom, prudence, and conciliatory spirit the American Church owes more than to any other formative agency." The development of this Church has given it an honorable part in the growth and sanctification of American life. Its missionary spirit has carried it to all parts of the country, and, in always standing for dignity and beauty in public worship and for an educated clergy, it has exercised great influence on the religious tone of the country. No American Church has shown a deeper sympathy with the poor and the neglected classes, or used better methods in reaching and relieving them, THE CONGREGATIONAL CHUKCH 511 than has the Protestant Episcopal Church within the last two decades. A great structure in New York — the Cathedral of St. John the Divine — is its latest noble undertaking. CHAPTER VII THE CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH [Authorities. — Punchard, Congregationalism in America from 1629 to 1879 (Boston, 1880) ; Dexter, The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years Seen in its Literature (N. Y., 1880) ; Clark, Hist. Sketch of the Con gregational Churches in Massachusetts (Boston, 1858). Punchard is the Abel Stevens of the Congregational Church. The work of Dexter is of great value. It is a mine of incomparable richness. The bibliographical appendix at the end is, perhaps, the eompletest thing of the kind in litera ture. The death (November 13th, 1890) of this lamented scholar was a great loss to historical writing in America.] Befoee the opening of the nineteenth century, Congrega tionalism was hardly known outside of New England. But its influence on the nation was by no means commensurate with its geographical position. New England was the back bone of the Revolutionary struggle, and her democratic Church polity had not a little to do in training the nation for freedom. It was Thomas Hooker who unconsciously prophesied the Con stitution of the United States when he said, " A general coun cil, chosen by all, to transact business which concerns all, I conceive most suitable to rule, and most safe for relief of the whole." It was Samuel Adams, that bright flower of the sturdy Puritan line, who drew up the first protest against tax ing the colonies, and whose genius lay back of the Great Dec laration. In 1801 a plan of union was entered into with the Presby terians which swept the whole Puritan immigration outside of Concessions New England into the Presbyterian Church. This to the wholesale sacrifice was at length brought to an end Presbyterians in 18g2^ an(j gince that time Congregationalism has made a splendid record in religious evangelization and educa tional work in the West. Some of the best schools in the West have been founded by her sons, and the Puritan influ- 512 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ence on Western civilization is one of the most remarkable phenomena in history. In 1852 the Congregationalists of the East and West came together in Albany, and since then the National Councils have tended to cement the denomination and unify its work. The intellectual earnestness of the Congregational clergy has given rise to various theological controversies. Jonathan Edwards himself gave a peculiar turn to the Calvin- Movements isnl of -^ew England, and this individualizing of the general thought was carried on by his son. Further discussion was caused by the position of Samuel Hopkins, the holy and devout minister of Newport, Rhode Island, 1770-1803. The influence of this great thinker has been felt in all tbe later history of New England theology. His friend, Nathaniel Em mons, pastor at Franklin, Massachusetts, 1773-1827, and who died in 1840, in tbe ninety-sixth year of his age, pushed this ra tionalizing of Calvinism still further. In 1807 the two schools of thought united in the founding of the first theological semi nary in the country, that at Andover, Massachusetts, where tbe first foreign missionaries were trained, and where the great insti tutions, the American Education Society, the American Tract Society, and the American Temperance Society, had their ori gin, and where the oldest religious newspaper in America was planned. Perhaps the most exciting stir in New England on matters of religious controversy within orthodox lines was caused by the opinions of Nathaniel W. Taylor, professor of theology at Yale College, 1822-58. The stricter Calvinists, led by Bennet Tyler, waged a relentless warfare against Tay lor and the theological school he represented, and so deep was the animosity of that time that many of the Connecticut Con gregationalists withdrew their support from the Yale Divinity School, and founded a new theological seminary at East Windsor, 1834, which was removed to Hartford in 1865. The most recent controversy is that caused by the alleged depart ure of Andover Theological Seminary from the Puritan land marks ; but to this reference will be made later. The Congregationalists have had an honorable pre-eminence in all fields of Christian activity. They were the first to en- Benevoient Zeal ter the foreign missionary work, 1810 ; and their American Home Missionary Society (founded in 1826), their American Missionary Association for work among THE BEF0EMED CHUECHES 513 the colored people (founded in 1846), their Education Society (founded in 1816), and their other benevolent societies have been among the most influential agencies for the extension of Christianity in all its varied aspects. CHAPTER VIII THE REFORMED CHURCHES [Authorities. — Demarest, History of the Reformed Dutch Church (2d ed., N. Y., 1889); Corwin, Manual of the Reformed Dutch Church (3d ed., N. Y, 1879). The historical work of Corwin can be earnestly endorsed. Sprague, Annals of American Pulpit, vol. ix. (N. Y., 1869), is full of the most val uable material. See, also, Centennial Discourses (2d ed., N. Y., 1877); Centennial of the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, N. J. (N. Y., 1885). For Reformed German Church, see Fathers of the Reformed Church (Lancaster, Pa., 1857) ; Gerhart, German Reformed Church (Lancaster, Pa., 1863) ; Dubbs, Historic Manual (Lancaster, Pa., 1885). These two biog raphies are of permanent value : Harbaugh, Life of Schlatter (Phila., 1857) ; Appel, Life of John Williamson Nevin (Phila., 1890).] While Whitefield was arousing the churches of America with his impetuous eloquence, Frelinghuysen was doing the same work for the Dutch churches, especially in New Jersey. Many churches were organized, but there were very few ministers. During the first part of the eighteenth century Presbyterian ministers were often secured for the churches. Vexatious delays were experienced in effect ing an organization. The tie to the home-land was a source of weakness, as it prevented a sturdy self-development. Finally, in 1747, a coetus, or assembly, was formed by the Rev. Michael Schlatter, who headed a commission from the Amsterdam Clas sis. But the power of this coetus was so limited that it hardly improved the condition of affairs. In 1 753 it transformed itself into a classis on its own responsibility ; but this so offended the more conservative members that they seceded, and estab lished a conf erentie, which made much of the relationship with Holland. For years the controversy between these two bod ies was carried on with extreme bitterness, wasting the Church with strife. In 1770 the parties came together, and in the fol lowing year effected an independent organization, the claims 33 514 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES of the American party being generally conceded. The na tional independence confirmed this result, and blew away the last breath of suspicion. The name of the Church as then adopted was the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church of North America, which was changed, in 1867, to that of the Reformed Church in America. The doctrines of the Dutch Church are of an extreme Cal vinistic type, and more creeds are confessed than is the case with any other Church in the world, perhaps with the exception of the Roman Catholic. The Apostles' Creed, the Nicene, the Athanasian,* the Belgic Confession (1561), the Canons of Dort (1618-19), and the Heidelberg Cat echism (1563) are held aloft as the standards of the faith. Parents presenting their children for baptism must avow ad herence to tbe doctrines of the Church, and pledge the bring- ing-up of their offspring in the same stern belief. The rigid ity of her theology, however, does not prevent the Reformed Dutch Church from exemplifying a large charity in her rela tions with other Christian Churches, and she has not been un affected by the liberal currents of modern times. In 1770 the charter for Queen's College, New Jersey, was obtained, an institution which has had an honorable history under the name of Rutgers College. The theological semi nary at New Brunswick, New Jersey, dates its first professor ship in 1784, and thus claims a much older life than Andover. The Church has had a noble activity in missionary and other enterprises. She has trained a learned and industrious minis try, and her membership has been characterized by rare in telligence and purity of life. The German Reformed Church is made up largely of the descendants of the Palatinate immigration. One of their first ministers was the Rev. George Michael Weiss, Rearmed cTTrch who reported their needs to the old country. Their first settled minister was Philip Boehm, who came to America in 1720, and whose church was in Whit- pain township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Tbe real father of the Church was Michael Schlatter, 1746, who organ ized and consolidated the scattered churches. It is remarka- * No other Protestant Church in America formally receives this fa mous symbol. THE EEFOEMED CHUECHES 515 ble that his appeal for funds in Europe in 1751 secured twenty thousand pounds from George II. and the nobility of England. In 1793 the Church became independent. The first coetus, or synod, was formed September 27th, 1747. In 1869 the name of the Church was changed to that of the Reformed Church of the United States. The Heidelberg Catechism is the only legal standard of doctrine. This Church has contributed greatly to the development of theology in America. Dr. F. A. Rauch gave an original tone to American philosophy, and the theological labors of Dr. John W. Nevin made a profound and widespread impression. He created a voluminous discussion. In this work he was assisted by Dr. Philip Schaff, who came over from Germany in 1844, and entered upon his work at Mercersburg with the zeal of an athlete, and his inaugural address on the Principles of Prot estantism, published in 1845, struck a new key-note in our his tory. It was a plea for a broader and more catholic conception of the Church, and one more in harmony with the idea of his torical development. The German Reformed Church is not a large one, but its influence on American thought and religious life has been most beneficial. 516 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER IX THE BAPTIST CHURCH {^Authorities. — The best history of the Baptists is Armitage, History of the Baptists (N. Y., 1887), a work of great labor and research, but with a good deal of irrelevant matter, and lacking in critical calmness and impartiality. The older work of Benedict, General History of the Baptist Denomination in America (new ed., N. Y., 1848), contains valuable materials. The same author's Fifty Years Among the Baptists (N. Y., 1860) should be consulted for light on the later history. Backus, History of the Baptists of New England (new ed., Newton, Mass., 1871), is indispensable for the Early Pe riod. Baptists and the National Centenary (Phila., 1876) is a collection of valuable historical essays. Cathcart, Baptist Encyclopaedia (Phila., 1880), is a useful book, but, like most of these popular illustrated denominational cyclopedias, of little scientific worth. An admirable, concise view — the best to be found anywhere — is given by Vedder, in the article " Baptists," in Jackson, Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1891).] In 1770 the Baptists had seventy-seven churches with about five thousand members. What a marvellous growth since . . then has marked this aggressive body of Christians ! Roger Williams was the real founder of the Baptist Church in America ; but from the time that Hanserd Knollys became the Puritan minister of Dover, New Hampshire (about 1638), whom Cotton Mather nicknamed Mr. Absurd Knowless, and Henry Dunster was compelled to resign the presidency of Harvard College (in 1654), there were always people of Baptist sentiments in the country. Williams became convinced that his baptism in infancy was invalid, and was immersed by Eze kiel Holliman, a layman of his old church at Salem, who in turn, with ten others, was immersed by Williams. In March, 1639, a church was organized at Providence. Soon after, 1644, John Clarke became pastor in Newport. Obadiah Holmes was the next pastor of this Newport church. In September, 1651, Holmes was publicly whipped in Boston for denying infant baptism ; and this inhospitable reception of Baptist tenets in- THE BAPTIST CHUECH 517 duced him to seek Roger Williams's more congenial colony. But Massachusetts herself could not long refuse toleration to so earnest a people. In 1663 a church was planted in Swan sea, and two years later another was organized in the very heart of the Puritan commonwealth. A company of Baptists, driven out of Maine, set up worship in Charleston, South Caro lina, in 1683, and the organization thus begun has had a con tinuous existence to the present time. Persecution broke up the Baptist Church in New York in 1669, but in 1702 they were permitted to establish their faith again, and the Church thus newly founded is on the eve of the second century of its life. The early history of the Baptists in America, as elsewhere, is a sad one. Themselves the pioneers of freedom, their founder illustrating in his noble commonwealth the Persecution .., - , . , ...,. principles or toleration, they were insulted, impris oned, exiled. "Massachusetts banished and whipped them," says Mr. Henry C. Vedder ; " New York fined, imprisoned, and banished them; Virginia cast them into prison for preach ing the gospel, and even for hearing it ; the first church es tablished in Maine was so harried by violence, fines, and im prisonment that it was broken up. Milder treatment was experienced in some of the colonies, notably in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina, and in the latter state Baptists increased rapidly." The noble conduct of the Baptists during the Revolution, and the exigencies of that struggle and of the reconstruction that followed it, brought in the brighter era. They gave the Revolutionary arms the most hearty support. No Baptist name is found among the loyalists. As has been well said, though they thought that the state should not med dle with religion, they believed there were times when relig ion should help the state. They memorialized the Virginia Convention and Colonial Congress, setting forth the demands of the great emergency. They went so far as to fix a day (July 15th, 1776) when independence should be declared. Their spirit in the war is well illustrated by one of their ministers, Rev. John Gano, chaplain of a New York regiment, who, in the heat of battle, "somehow got to the front of his regiment, but durst not quit his place for fear of dampening the spirits of the soldiers, or bringing upon himself the imputation of cowardice." In the settlement of the Constitution no body of 518 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Christians stood so firmly for full religious freedom. They never receded from the position they took in their memorial to the Virginia Convention in 1775 : "That toleration by the civil government is not sufficient ; that no State religious es tablishment ought to exist; that all religious denominations ought to stand on the same footing ; and that to all alike the protection of the government should be extended, securing to them the peaceable enjoyment of their own religious principles and modes of worship." That every plank in this platform was afterwards incorporated into the law of the nation, is in large measure due to those prophets of the Better Time — men who were far in advance of their age. The national period has witnessed an almost unparalleled development of this once feeble but now mighty Church. No part of this later history has reflected greater glory on the Baptists than their magnificent work for missions. There is no more heroic and saintly figure in the history of Missionary m0(jern missions than Adoniram Judson. In 1812 Pioneers he and Luther Rice sailed for India. On their voy age their study of the Scriptures led them simultaneously, yet independently of each other, to adopt Baptist views ; and when they reached Calcutta they were baptized by immersion by an English Baptist missionary. This led to the formation of the Baptist General Convention, May, 1814, for furthering the work of missions. The work of Judson is a most thrilling chapter in the romance of missions. Burma was largely Christianized, and the missions to the Karens, to the Telugus, and to Assam were, after many a dark day, very successful. In 1878 the Telugu mission gathered in ten thousand converts, " a result of Christian labor which probably surpasses in mag nitude any other ever known in Christian history." As if to reward the unconquerable patience and fortitude of America's pioneer foreign missionary, Judson, God has given such fruits to the Baptist toilers that their foreign missionary society, the American Baptist Missionary Union, has a larger number of communicants than any other society in the foreign field. In cluding their first decade (1814-24), which gave them only one church of eighteen members, " they have organized one church for every three weeks, or about seventeen a year, and baptized one convert for every three hours, day and night, or about three thousand a year — over two hundred and twenty -five THE BAPTIST CHUECH 519 thousand in all." * Not less active have the Baptists been in Home Missionary zeal. A people so conscientious and tenacious of individual opin ion as the Baptists could not be without the stirring of the „ , . waters of controversy. On the refusal by the Contro»ersies . . _., , _, . J . , ,. / American Bible Society, in 1835, to publish any longer the Bible versions of the Baptist missionaries, in which they rendered the Greek words bapto and baptizo by the native equivalent of "immerse," a violent war ensued. In 1837, the Baptists withdrew from the society and organized the Amer ican and Foreign Bible Society. Many desired the new so ciety to undertake a translation into English to supersede, among the Baptists, the Authorized version. The majority re sisted this, until finally the contention became so hot that in 1850 the minority withdrew and organized a second Baptist Bible society, the American Bible Union. In 1865, the most competent scholars in the Baptist Church, under the auspices of tbe Bible Union, issued a version of the New Testament, which, though it had very little circulation among Christians generally, and only a very limited sale among the Baptists, helped to prepare the way for the more catholic undertaking of the Anglo-American Revision Committee. In time, how ever, a peaceable settlement of matters in dispute was arrived at, and in 1883 the foreign translation work was transferred to the Missionary Union, and the home work to the Publication Society. Another famous controversy was that over the teaching of Alexander Campbell. Under the leadership of this great de bater and theologian, the Mahoning Baptist Association of Ohio became thoroughly impregnated with his views. This caused the Beaver Association of the same state to publish an appeal to the churches, in which Campbell and the Maho ning Association were arraigned as untrue to the doctrines of the Bible. Men of eminent ability ranged themselves on one side or the other, and the entire Baptist Church of the West and South — that magnificent result of apostolic labors of fear less and devoted evangelists — was cleft in twain. It is pos sible that a spirit of concession and mutual respect would * Pierson, "The Divine Enterprise of Missions " (N. V., 1891), p. 251. 520 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES have saved the Church the demoralization of this disastrous schism. The Baptist Church has made a noble record in the history of American Christianity. Her educational work has been most creditable. James Manning became president of her first college, at Warren, Rhode Island, in 1765. In 1770 the college was removed to Providence, and in 1804 its name was changed to Brown University. This institution has had a marked influence on the life and thought of the Baptist churches. Recently (1892), through the benefactions of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, the Chicago University has been reorgan ized under the presidency of Dr. William R. Harper. It will make generous provision for special research and advanced work. Baptist scholars like Ripley, Hackett, and Conant — not to speak of living men — have made Biblical learning illustri ous in America. The future of this great Church, which com bines in so admirable a way liberty of thought and loyalty to the Word of God, is radiant with abundant promise. THE PEESBTTEEIAN CHUECH 521 CHAPTER X THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH [Authorities. — The best work for all the early period of the Presbyterian Church in the United States is Briggs, American Presbyterianism (N. Y., 1885), which throws a flood of new light on many points of interest. It is a worthy contribution to American historical scholarship. Bowen, The Days of Makemie (Phila., 1885), though in the form of a story, is a thorough study of the beginnings in Maryland. He handles a good deal of fresh material. Gillett, History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (revised edition, Phila., 1873), is a painstaking and comprehensive work, written from the New-School point of view. It has the advantage of cov ering a later as well as the earlier annals. Webster, History of the Presbyterian Church in America to the Year 1760 (Phila., 1857), was the first volume published under the auspices of the Presbyterian Historical Society. It is specially rich in biographical material, and is still a useful book. Presbyterian Reunion: a Memorial Volume, 1837-71 (N. Y., 1870), is a work of great interest, and valuable for its documents and speeches. Centennial Historical Discourses (Phila., 1876) is commended to those who wish a popular view. Hodge (Charles), Constitutional History of the Pres byterian Church in the United States (Phila., 1840), is an excellent authority, from the Old-School point of view.] No Church has had a deeper influence on the life and thought of the United States than tbe Presbyterian. The Presbyterians claim as their first Church the one or- egmnmg ganjze(j jn jjew Amsterdam (New York) in 1628, by the Rev. Jonas Michaelius, which, though a Reformed Dutch Church, was Presbyterian in polity and doctrine. In fact, it was the first Protestant Church organized in the New World, the Church at Plymouth having been simply transplanted as an organization from Holland. There were many Presbyteri ans indeed, in the Puritan immigration. Owing to the persecu tions by the Episcopal governor of Virginia, Sir William Berke ley, the Presbyterians in that colony removed to Maryland, and settled on the site of the city of Annapolis. There Francis Doughty (1658) and Matthew Hill (1667) preached to them. 522 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES New England only narrowly escaped having a strong Presby terian infusion. " Divers gentlemen in Scotland," says Cotton Mather, wrote to the New-Englanders at an early date to ask "whether they might be suffered freely to exercise their Pres byterian Church government " in the colony. An affirmative answer was returned. A storm at sea and adverse winds, which drove back the Scotch emigrants, prevented what might have been a most influential development in the history of New England. However, many of the early New England ministers were semi-Presbyterian — the golden mean, a " sweet sort of temperance between rigid Presbyterianism and level ling Brownism." Mather thought that the "Heads of Agree ment " between the Presbyterian and Congregational minis ters, drawn up in London in 1690, give a true description of " our ecclesiastical constitution." Writing to Robert Wod row, a Scotch minister and historian, August 8th, 1718, he says: " We are comforted with great numbers of our oppressed brethren coming over from the North of Ireland unto us," re ferring to the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians driven out by pre- latical fury. "They find so very little difference in the man agement of our churches from theirs and yours as to count it next unto none at all. Not a few ministers of the Scotch na tion, coming over hither, have heretofore been invited unto set tlements with our churches." So strong did this Presbyterian contingent become that as early as 1745 a presbytery was formed at Londonderry, New Hampshire. Francis Makemie, an Irish minister from Donegal, who came to America in 1681, in answer to a call for workers, was the . real founder of tbe Presbyterian Church in America. Indefatigable, fearless of persecution, be went about Maryland and Virginia, establishing churches, encouraging the faint-hearted, bringing over ministers from the old country, and at length seeing the formation of the first Presbytery, in 1705, at Philadelphia. In 1716 the first synod was formed. The American Church was composed largely of Scotch- Irish and of Scotch people, who held firmly to the Westmin ster standards. To thwart any heretical tendencies, ofVh^CrTed they determined to bind the Church to their home creed. In 1729 the synod passed the "Adopting Act," by which the Westminster Confession was made the symbol of the Church's faith, but in significant words, whose THE PEESBYTEE1AN CHUECH 523 meaning would be certainly pressed by the liberal wing of the Church. That confession was declared " as being, in all the essential and necessary articles, good forms of sound words and system of Christian doctrine ;" and it was also laid down that no one should be required to assent to articles "not es sential and necessary to doctrine, worship, and government." Any strict construction of the terms of subscription became, therefore, impossible in American Presbyterianism. The Presbyterian Church, as Dr. Leonard Bacon remarked, is of easy cleavage. The first break took place in 1745. Its tu. n- . c u- cause was tbe question of ministerial education The First Schism . ¦* and of revivals. The American section of the Church, as a rule, was in favor of earnest evangelical preach ing, of aggressive methods, and of employing men who were well qualified in zeal and general gifts, even if their educa tional advantages had been meagre. The Scotch section, on the other hand, held stubbornly to the slow and conservative ways of their fathers, and contended for a well-educated min istry. In 1726, William Tennent, a man of genuine apostolic mould, built in his parish at Neshaming, Bucks County, Penn sylvania, a log-house, the celebrated " Log College," in which his sons and many other young men were educated by him for the ministry. The Synod of Philadelphia objected to his sys tem of education as too superficial, and to the general spirit of Evangelism which he fostered. At this time also occurred the great revival under Whitefield, in which he was mightily seconded by Gilbert Tennent, son of the pastor at Neshaming, and this Great Awakening brought to a point of rupture the strained feeling between the " New Side " and the " Old Side," as the parties were called. In 1741 the Presbytery of New Brunswick seceded from the Synod of Philadelphia, and in 1745 the Presbytery of New York joined the progressive party and organized an independent synod. In 1758 both parties buried their differences and came together. It is unnecessary to say that during the War of the Revolu tion the Presbyterian people and clergy stood as one man for independence. They rivalled the Baptists and Congregationalists in their patriotic zeal. After that began a period of magnificent development. With an educated and earnest ministry, the Church spread westward and southward, incorporating a large part of the intelligent 524 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES and well-to-do classes. By the Plan of Union of 1801 the New England emigration to the West was swept into tbe bosom of the Presbyterian Church, and the Congregationalists, the other party in the Plan, were virtually inhibited from the Eastern and Western States. But like the Wooden Horse within the gates of Troy, this arrangement, ostensibly so hap py for the Presbyterians, portended danger. Multitudes of pastors, trained in the freer air of New England and in the theology of Andover and New Haven, were settled over Pres byterian churches. The Church was gradually growing away from the extreme Calvinism of the elder days. The Old- School party, as the stricter element was called, became alarm ed. They protested at the loosening of theological bonds. Their protests fell on heedless ears. Then they tried ecclesi astical discipline. They selected representative New-School men. The trial of Lyman Beecher at Cincinnati (1835), and of Albert Barnes at Philadelphia (1830), for heresy, although fruitless in the results aimed at, precipitated the rupture of the Church. In May, 1837, the Old-School party, being in a majority, cut off three of the synods of Western New York, and one in Ohio. Impassioned agitation followed, and division resulted. The slave question was another wedge. In 1857 the Southern Assemblies (New School) withdrew, and formed the United Synod of the Presbyterian Church, and in 1861 the Old-School Assemblies in the South left their relations in the North. The two seceding bodies united in 1863 in the great Church now known as the Presbyterian Church in the United States. After 1862 fraternal intercommunion began between the two North ern churches, and at length, November 12th, 1869, at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the Plan of Union was adopted. The first union meeting was held in Philadelphia, in May, 1870, amid enthu siastic rejoicings and the congratulations of all bodies of Christians. May the union between the Northern and South ern churches be not long delayed ! Plans for co-operation in the home field were adopted by the General Assemblies of these two bodies in 1889, and the prospect and the reasons for their complete organic reunion are constantly growing strong er. Even the intense excitement and heated discussions at tending the recent trials for heresy will be found of service in defining the pathway of the Presbyterian Church to an en larged field of usefulness. THE PEESBYTEEIAN CHUECH 525 The Presbyterian Church has made an unrivalled record in educational work. The College of New Jersey, commonly called Princeton College, founded in 1746, is the mother of numerous schools of like character. No Church in the coun try has done so much for theological scholarship. Her theo logical seminaries at Princeton, New Jersey (founded 1812); Auburn, New York (1819) ; New York City (1835) ; Allegheny City, Pennsylvania (1827) ; Cincinnati (1829) ; Chicago (1830) ; and others, are not surpassed by any in the world. Men fa mous equally for learning and piety have shed lustre on this representative American Church. Archibald Alexander, and his two sons, James Waddel and Joseph Addison, were an il lustrious trio of scholars and saints, whose influence has been perpetuated at Princeton by the Hodges, father and son. Ed ward Robinson, after Moses Stuart, has been thus far, perhaps, the greatest man in Biblical scholarship in America. The Presbyterian Church has had a most salutary influence on the religious life and thought of the United States ; no Church has received higher honor, and that honor has been richly deserved for her work in education, theological literature, and public morality. The most recent movements are the Pan-Presbyterian coun cils — congresses of all the Reformed churches throughout the world. — which met in Edinburgh in 1877, in Philadelphia in 1880, in Belfast in 1884, in London in 1888, and in Toronto, September, 1892 ; and, most far-reaching of all, tbe Westmin ster Confession revision movement, which has been heartily taken up by the Mother Church. A very conservative revi sion within the limits of Calvinism has already been submitted to the presbyteries for their endorsement or rejection. The more progressive men, dissatisfied with such a timid dealing with the venerable symbol, will be likely to content tbemselves with their own freedom of thought within the limits allowed by the liberal terms of subscription. 526 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER XI THE LUTHERAN CHURCH [Authorities. — The only book which gives the history of American Lutheran. ism up to date is Wolf, The Lutherans in America : a Story of Struggle, Progress, Influence, and Marvellous Growth (N. Y., 1890). The older book of Hazelius is still of service : History of the American Lutheran Church from 1685 to 1842 (Zauesville, 0., 1846). Morris, Fifty Years in the Lu theran Ministry (Baltimore, 1878), is invaluable for the later period. It has a useful list of works on Lutheran Church history in America, pp. 316-319. For the older history the Hallesche Nachrichten, the reports sent home by Muhlenberg, first published in Halle, in 1787, are indispensa ble. They have been admirably edited, with explanations and additions, by Mann and Schmucker (Allentown, Pa., and Halle-on-Saale, 1881), and translated by Schaeffer (Reading, Pa., 1882). They embody an immense amount of useful historical material. Mann, Life and Times of Heinrich Melchior Muhlenberg (Phila., 1887), is a most important work. Schaeffer, Early History of the Lutheran Church in America (Phila., 1857), and Mann, American Lutheranism (Phila., 1857), may also be consulted. There are several local histories. Wolf's article in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia is the most complete of the brief studies. The article by Richard in Magazine of Christian Literature, April, 1892, on the " Grounds of Lutheran Dissension in this Country," and the article by Jacobs in the same periodical for June, 1892, on "The Problem of Lutheran Union," shed welcome light on the controversies which have divided this great Church.] The German Lutherans formed a part of the very earliest Dutch immigration. But they were not allowed to have any , . religious privileges in New Amsterdam until the Weak Beginnings _, ° , r. . ° , . British gained the upperhand in 1664. Before that, however, they had established themselves in Delaware in the possession of their full ecclesiastical rights. In 1638 the Swedish Lutherans sailed up the Delaware, and founded Fort Christina, near the present site of Wilmington. A minister, Torkillus, was one of the colonists. A house of worship was immediately erected, and public services were inaugurated. His successor, John Campanius, is noted for being the first Prot- THE LUTHEEAN CHUECH 527 estant missionary to the American Indians. He translated Luther's "Shorter Catechism" into the language of the ab origines, and copies of this literary relic — the first book of the kind after Eliot's Indian Bible — printed in Upsala, are still pre served. Many of these Swedes, not having pastoral oversight, were gathered into the Episcopal Church. An interesting event was the ordination, by several Swedish ministers, of Jus tus Falkner in 1701 — the first Lutheran ordination in America — because it proved that the Swedes repudiated the Episcopal constitution of the Church. The oppressions and wars of Louis XIV. in the Palatinate compelled thousands of Lutherans to flee. In 1710 tides of immigration set in, helped by the good hand of Queen Anne. The settlers sought the beautiful lands of the Hudson, where they received liberal grants ; but then- people and their lands were subsequently taken from them by another Church. The Salzburgers came over in 1734, with their ministers, and drifted southward to Georgia and the Carolinas. This early period of American Lutherans was one of disorganization. There were few ministers, and the people were scattered abroad as sheep without a shepherd. But they brought over with them their Bibles, hymn-books, their Arndt's " True Christianity," and on those they fed their re ligious life until a better day dawned. That day dawned with the coming of Henry Melchior Muh lenberg, 1742, the founder of Lutheranism in America, one of the noblest figures in American Church history. TLutl1eSrbaUn7s^n, **e was on^ thirty-one years old, fresh from the evangelical atmosphere of Halle. He was a man of great and abounding gifts, of earnest moral force, and he entered upon his work with burning enthusiasm. He preached everywhere, gathering hearers wherever he could find them, organizing them into churches, catechising the children, and doing the pioneer work of an apostle with indefatigable zeal. He early encountered Count Zinzendorf, who had come over the year before, and who, though a Moravian, took the Luther ans under his supervision. Halle supported Muhlenberg by sending him new workers, and by their help the Church was founded on a firm basis, and the first Lutheran synod was or ganized in 1748. It is to the ability, liberal views, foresight, industry, and unconquerable faith of Muhlenberg that the American Lutheran Church owes its firm and exalted position. 528 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES When he died at his home at New Providence (Trappe), Mont gomery County, Pennsylvania, October 7th, 1787, his own synod of Pennsylvania numbered twenty-four clerical mem bers.* No stain rests upon the loyalty of the Lutherans to the rights of the colonies during the Revolutionary struggle. They supported the cause of liberty with an unflinching RevoTu'tion patriotism. One of the sons of Muhlenberg left his pulpit for the camp, and rose to the rank of major- general. Another was driven from his church in New York City by the British, and afterwards became a member of Con gress. The Hessian soldiers whom the British took to fight their American kinsmen remained in America after the close of the war, and were soon incorporated into the Lutheran Church. Twelve hundred soldiers from Brunswick, with seven officers and their chaplain, entered at one time into the Amer ican Church. Seven thousand Hessians found homes on this side of the Atlantic, and were received into the Church of their fatherland. With the opening of the century the progress of the Lu theran Church was hindered through many causes. Chief of these was the indisposition to use English in the Later History _,, , . A. i i -n -. . Church services. The young people drifted into the other churches, while the conservatives were clamoring for the exclusive use of the German language. It was not until 1809 that a Lutheran church was built, in which the services were conducted exclusively in English. But with a disposition to meet the needs of the age prosperity again returned. Sev eral synods were formed — that of New York in 1785, that of North Carolina in 1803, the synod of Ohio and adjacent states in 1803, and the synod of Maryland and Virginia in 1819. All these synods, except that of Ohio, united in the General Synod of 1820, the formation of which was a most important epoch in the history of the Church. This synod stood on the plat form of the Augsburg Confession for all fundamental doc trines, " with acknowledged deviation in minor or non-funda mental points." This platform did not at all satisfy the more * Dr. William Augustus Muhlenberg, the founder of St. Johnland, Long Island, and the author of the hymn " I would not live alway," was the great-grandson of the patriarch of Lutheranism. THE LUTHEEAN CHUECH 529 uncompromising Lutherans, and several synods kept aloof from the General Synod. These at length came together in the General Council, 1866, which held to the Augsburg Con fession in the most stringent interpretation of that instru ment, and to all the other declarations of the Book of Concord. The rule set forth by the General Council is : " Lutheran pul pits are for Lutheran ministers only [in this respect a copy of the Episcopal rule] ; Lutheran altars for Lutheran communi cants only." It is understood, however, that although the German ministers adhere pretty strictly to the rule, the Eng lish members are not held by it. But in spite of this indepen dent union — it cannot be called defection — of the High-Church Lutherans, many European congregations formed here, which were absolutely untouched by the spirit of compromise or fra ternity, kept coldly aloof. In 1872 there was organized at Mil waukee, Wisconsin, the Synodical Conference of North Amer ica, which holds to all the Lutheran symbols in the most rigid manner, and refuses the slightest recognition of the Christian standing of the other denominations. This conference is often called "The Missourians," as it is composed largely of the Missouri churches. The American Lutheran Church presents the peculiar spectacle, therefore, of a Church one and undi vided, with the same polity and creed, without sect or schism, yet grouped into independent and mutually exclusive bodies, whose only note of difference is the degree of strictness with which they hold to all the Lutheran symbols of the sixteenth century. The Lutheran Church also felt the dividing hand of the Rebellion. In 1863 the Southern Lutherans withdrew from The Break tne fellowship of their brethren at the North, and or- during the ganized the General Synod of the Confederate States. Civil ar rpne name was afterwards changed to the General Synod of North America. In 1886 the General Synod of the South was organized at Roanoke, Virginia. It occupies the precise ground of the General Council. In 1765 a private theological seminary was started, under the care of Drs. Helmuth and Schmidt, and in 1787 the Penn sylvania Legislature chartered Franklin College, " for the special benefit of the Germans of the Common wealth, as an acknowledgment of services by them rendered to the state, and in consideration of their industry, economy, and 530 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES public virtues." In 1791 the same Legislature made another grateful recognition of the patriotic services of the Luther ans in the gift of five thousand acres of land "to the free schools of the Lutheran Church in Philadelphia." The Gettys burg Theological Seminary was organized in 1825, the Con cordia Theological Seminary of St. Louis in 1839, and the The ological Seminary at Philadelphia in 1864. The educational work of the Lutherans has been most creditable, and the gen eral influence of this American representative of the Mother of Protestantism on the life of the country has been most sal utary. The Lutheran Church in America preaches the gospel in eight or ten different tongues — the polyglot Church, which, in her pure and thorough patriotism, never forgets the supreme religious needs of her children. AMEKICAN METHODISM 531 CHAPTER XII AMERICAN METHODISM [Authorities. — The most comprehensive work is Stevens, History of the Meth odist Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1865-67), abridged in History of American Methodism (N. Y., 1867). The same author's Methodism in the Eastern States (N. Y., 1848, 1851, 2 vols.) is his first historical writing. Stevens is the Macaulay of Methodism. Bangs is also of value — History of the Methodist Episcopal Church from 1766 to 1840 (N. Y., 1839-41). Bishop McTyeire, History of Methodism (Nashville, 1884), is a remarkable work in small compass. The Journals of Francis Asbury (N. Y., 1854) is indispen sable for the early period, as are also — and for the whole period — the Jour nals and Minutes of the General and Annual Conferences. See also Wake- ley.Lost Chapters Recovered from the Early History of Methodism (new ed., N. Y., 1889); Hyde, The Story of Methodism (Springfield, Mass., 1887); Daniels, Illustrated History of Methodism (N. Y., 1879). For the middle period, Clark, Life and Times of Elijah Hedding (N. Y., 1855) ; Stevens, Life and Times of Nathan Bangs (N. Y., 1863) ; Prentice, Wilbur Fisk (Bos ton, 1890) ; and Larrabee, Life and Letters of Bishop Hamline (N. Y., 1866), are valuable. For the South, the following are admirable: McFerrin, His tory of Methodism in Tennessee (Nashville, 1869) ; Redford, History of Meth odism in Kentucky (Nashville, 1868) ; Bennett, Memorials of Methodism in Virginia (Richmond, 1871) ; Shipp, History of Methodism in South Carolina (Nashville, 1883); Thrall, Methodism in Texas (Nashville, 1889); Lewis, History of Methodism in Missouri from 1860 to 1870 (Nashville, 1890). For the planting of the West, Strickland, Autobiography of Peter Cartwright (N. Y., 1856) ; Finley, Sketches of Western Methodism (N. Y, 1857), and his Autobiography (Cincinnati and N. Y, 1854); and Crooks, Life of Mat thew Simpson (N. Y., 1890). For the Great Division of the Church in 1844, the best books are Elliott, History of the Great Secession from the Method ist Episcopal Church (Cincinnati, 1855), and Redford, History of the Organ ization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South (Nashville, 1871). Atkin son, Centennial History of American Methodism (N. Y., 1884); Cummings, The Early Schools of Methodism (N. Y., 1889) ; and Simpson, Cyclopaedia of Methodism (Phila., 1881), are important contributions.] The history of Methodism in America is almost contempo rary with our national life. During the Revolutionary Period its few preachers, so small was their number and so suspi ciously were they scanned, seemed to be engaged in a hope- 532 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES less struggle in their effort to contribute anything towards the religious development of the people. But with national inde pendence the real history of the aggressive life of Methodism began. The youngest of all the historic churches of Protes tantism, it has grown to be the largest. While it has profited alike by the wisdom and the errors of the older religious bod ies, it has sent the overflowing of its prosperity into all the churches, imparting life and vigor to every communion it has touched. Yet its own growth has been the marvel of history. Having but recently celebrated the centennial of its organiza tion, combining the hopefulness of youth and the vigor of manhood, it looks into the veiled face of the twentieth cen tury with an abounding faith and an undaunted courage. The first Methodists who touched foot on the American con tinent, of whom we have any knowledge, were the German refugees from the Palatinate, who had made a tem porary home in Ireland, where they were converted by the Methodist evangelists, and gathered into classes. In August, 1760, a band of these people landed in New York. Among them were Philip Embury, a local preacher, and Bar bara Heck, wife of Paul Heck. The latter was a woman of fervent piety and intellectual force, and it was owing to her influence that Embury began preaching in 1766, first in his own house, then in a hired room, and in the next year in a rigging-loft — celebrated as the birthplace of Methodism in the New World. Just as Embury had consolidated a congrega tion, a man of fiery zeal and popular gifts came upon the scene. This was Captain Thomas Webb. Converted under Wesley's preaching in Bristol two years before, he longed for association with the Methodists. As soon as he heard that they had established public worship in New York, he left his barracks in Albany, and, in the spring of 1767, appeared as the unexpected champion of the infant cause. He was the providential man. " The little society needed a leader — Webb was born to command. They needed another preacher of more experience, learning, and power — Webb was one of tbe best preachers then on the continent of America. They needed money wherewith to house their young society — Webb was rich and generous. ... It would have been a hard matter for them to have suited themselves by a choice out of all the Methodist preachers better than God had suited AMEEICAN METHODISM 533 them."* The congregation soon overflowed the narrow quar ters, and in 1768 a church was built on John Street — on the same site on which the present John Street Church stands. Webb was soon in Philadelphia, where he gathered a class in 1767 or 1768, and bought the first Methodist church in that city (St. George's) in 1770. Everywhere the Church was spreading. Webb went like a flame of fire through Long Island, New Jersey, and south- .„ eastern Pennsylvania. At the same time that Em- bury was preaching in New York, Robert Straw- bridge was forming societies in Maryland, and Robert Will iams, who, like all the rest of these early preachers, was a layman, in Virginia and North Carolina. The cry for more helpers went over to England. This was answered by the Leeds Conference, August 3d, 1769, in sending the volunteers Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor. Boardman was as signed to New York, Pilmoor to Philadelphia. In two years more they were joined by Francis Asbury, whose name stands for so much in Methodist history, and Richard Wright. The most prominent man of that early time, however, was Thomas Rankin, a Scotchman, whose heart had been touched by White- field's eloquence, and who became one of Wesley's most tried and trusted friends. In 1773 the latter sent Rankin as the general superintendent of the American work. Shadford ac companied him. Without delay, Rankin called the preachers together. The first conference was held in St. George's Church, Philadelphia, July 14th-16th, 1773, Rankin in the chair, when ten preachers came together, who reported a class membership of eleven hundred and sixty. The Revolution had a disastrous effect on the Methodist movement. The preachers were Englishmen, fresh from the mother country, to which they were loyally attached ; and as * Daniels, " History of Methodism " (N. Y., 1879), p. 388. As a preach er Webb had something of the fire and power of Whitefield. In 1774, John Adams, an impartial witness, describes him thus: "Mr. Webb is one of the most fluent, eloquent men I ever heard. He reaches the imagi nation and touches the passions very well, and expresses himself with great propriety." In McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. x., p. 897, the Rev. John Alfred Faulkner gives a sketch of the life of this re markable man. 534 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES soon as the war broke out their work was disturbed, they themselves regarded with suspicion and often persecuted, and before the war was over, in 1781, every one of The Effect of^ tnem; except Asbury, was in Canada or England. Some remained as long as possible rjrosecuting their work under immense difficulties. The conference of the second year of the Revolution, 1776, reported a membership of four thousand nine hundred and twenty-one, with twenty- five preachers; and in the third year, 1777, six thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight members and thirty-eight preachers. When the British preachers were driven back, they left the work in the hands of native helpers. And when the British troops were in possession of Philadelphia and New York, they allowed the work to go on unimpeded. During the British possession of the latter city, the John Street Church was the only church open, and it was packed with hearers, many of them wealthy and aristocratic people, who listened to the gos pel proclaimed by the most able and earnest preachers of the day. Asbury, who took supervision of the entire work in 1778, on Rankin's departure for England, with large foresight saw the drift of history, wisely adapted himself to the great crisis, and cared, as best he could, for his little flock. Thus, between the American preachers who were loyal to the colonies, and the British preachers who, as in New York, were sometimes shielded by the English sword, the infant Church did not fare as badly as might be supposed. In 1783, a year after the close of the war, Asbury could write in this enthusiastic strain : " We have about fourteen thousand members, between sev enty and eighty travelling preachers, between thirty and forty circuits. ... I admire the simplicity of our preachers. I do not think there has appeared another such a company of young devoted men. The gospel has taken a universal spread. . . . O America, America ! It will certainly be the glory of the world for religion."* The war being over, the colonies an independent nation, the Church of England in America utterly disorganized, with most of her clergy in exile, there remained no longer a Organization , ,. -.,,- , . s reluctance on the part of Wesley, in the face of the * Compare this prophecy with the later one of Edward Irving : "Amer ica shall be great neither for Christ nor Antichrist." AMEEICAN METHODISM 535 crying needs of the work, to place the Methodist movement in America on a substantial basis. The cry was for ordained men and the administration of the sacraments. The English bishops had long since refused to officially sanction the Wes leyan revival. It only remained, therefore, for Wesley to set about this work after the fashion of the early Church, and in the use of the powers with which he believed God had intrusted him for his extraordinary mission. Accordingly, in September, 1784, at Bristol, he ordained Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey elders or presbyters, and Thomas Coke bishop or superintendent. These three men arrived in New York, November 3d, 1784, and at once began the full exercise of their ministerial functions. At the ensuing conference — the Christmas conference — held in tbe Lovely Lane Chapel, Baltimore, December 24th, 1784, to January 4th, 1785, at which Dr. Coke presided, the recommendations of Wesley were read and accepted, Coke and Asbury were elected superintendents, Asbury was ordained deacon and elder, and afterwards conse crated superintendent. With the same unanimity the name of the Church was fixed upon — the Methodist Episcopal Church — Wesley's abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles was adopted as the doctrinal basis, and a liturgy was ordered. * Some have blamed Wesley for giving an episcopal organiza tion and an independent existence as a Church to his societies in America. His letter to Coke, Asbury, and " our brethren in North America," however, shows that he proceeded with the utmost deliberation, and after a full survey of the case. Among other things, he says : " It has, indeed, been proposed to desire the English bishops to ordain part of our preachers for America ; but to this I ob ject : (1) I desired the Bishop of London to ordain only one, but could not prevail. (2) If they consented, we know the slowness of their proceeding ; but the matter admits of no de lay. (3) If they would ordain them now, they would likewise expect to govern them ; and how grievously would this entan gle us ! (4) As our American brethren are now totally disen tangled both from the state and from the English hierarchy, we dare not entangle them again, either with the one or the * Wesley's Sunday Service, an adaptation of the Book of Common Prayer. 536 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES other. They are now at full liberty simply to follow the Scriptures and the Primitive Church. And we judge it best that they should stand fast in that liberty wherewith God has so strangely made them free." It cannot be denied that history has abundantly justified Wesley's practical Christian statesmanship in this momentous crisis of his work. The history of Methodism for the next thirty years is the history of Francis Asbury. He was the dauntless pioneer who proved wise the choice of his brethren by labors apos tolic. With unsurpassed organizing talent, a preacher of no mean gifts, with a heroism that knew no fear, and a devotion that knew no rest, he saw the Methodist Episcopal Church grow from a feeble plant to a tree that covered the nation. He trav elled six thousand miles a year. " Within the compass of every year tbe borderers of Canada and the planters of Mississippi looked for the coming of this primitive bishop, and were not disappointed." He led his preachers across the Alleghenies, keeping step with the westward current. He ordained the first man ever set apart to the ministry in the valley of the Mississippi. When he began his work there were four preach ers and three hundred and sixteen members; when he died, in 1816, there were seven hundred ministers, two thousand local preachers, and over two hundred and fourteen thousand mem bers. His salary was sixty-four dollars a year. It is to the indomitable labors of this heroic man, who combined in so re markable a degree religious zeal with profound sagacity, that American Methodism owed the immense vantage-ground it secured in the early years of our national life. It is impossible in this brief sketch to do justice to the later history. The sailing has not always been on smooth waters. The power of the bishops and the supremacy of the clergy were an early bone of contention. The un fortunate refusal of lay representation in the Church councils and certain objections to episcopal authority caused many a bitter struggle in the earlier part of the present century. This issued at last in the formation of the Methodist Protestant Church in Baltimore, November 2d, 1830. The question of sla very caused two divisions. The protest against slavery placed in the first Disciplines bad been gradually withdrawn, or toned down, or explained away, until members and local preachers AMEEICAN METHODISM 537 held slaves without rebuke.* But when regular ministers be gan to hold slaves, the voice of the North was heard in violent opposition. The Rev. Francis A. Harding was suspended from the ministry for refusing to manumit his slaves, 1844, and at the same time Bishop James O. Andrew was ordered to desist from the exercise of his office so long as he owned slaves. It is a significant note of the times that this request was not based on any moral consideration whatever, or on any viola tion of the Discipline, but purely on prudential reasons. The profound agitation which followed issued in the formation of tbe Methodist Episcopal Church, South, May, 1845. This was the first break in any American Church on the question of slavery. At least this is true of a geographical division on the questions at issue between the North and the South. But the year before that memorable General Conference of 1844 a Church had been formed in the North, of members of the Methodist Episcopal Church, based on tbe latter's tolerance of slavery. It was called the Wesleyan Church of America. All tbe offshoots from the parent stock of American Metho dism have had a vigorous life, and have kept up the traditions of the older Church for aggressive work and earnest preaching. In 1883 all the Methodist bodies of Canada became one Church. The division of 1858 in the Methodist Protestant Church, on the inevitable slavery issue, was healed in 1877. Three of the African Churches are now engaged in settling a basis of union, and their consolidation may be confidently expected. There is a strong feeling that makes for the union of the two great Methodist Episcopal Churches. The GDcunienical Methodist Conferences of London, Septem ber, 1881, and of Washington, October, 1891, have lent an irresistible impulse to that tendency towards Christian union which is the glory of the present age. John Dickins, one of the most large-minded of the founders of the Methodist Church in the United States, proposed to Asbury the plan of an academy or college as early as 1780. Asbury entered enthusiastically into the * See an admirable brief history of this retreat, with quotations from the original documents, in Dr. T. O. Summers's article on the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol vi., pp. 182-183. 538 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES plan, which was endorsed by the Christmas Conference of 1784, and in June, 1787, it was dedicated at Abingdon, Maryland, with the name of Cokesbury College. In 1795 it was burned down. Another was built in Baltimore, but it, too, was de stroyed by fire. This put a damper on the educational zeal of the early Methodists. But the work was not abandoned. The year after Asbury's death the oldest of the existing schools, Wilbraham Academy, was established at Newmarket, New Hampshire, 1817. The first theological seminary was opened at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1847. This has since devel oped into the School of Theology of that marvel of rapid and healthy growth, The Boston University. All kinds of educational institutions have rapidly multiplied. An impor tant movement is at present on foot for the establishment of The American University at Washington, a school for post graduate and professional study, in the midst of the large and rich scientific and literary collections of the national capital. The friends of the movement indulge the hope that this insti tution, designed for the most advanced learning, will be the fit ting climax to those sacred gifts which for a century the Meth odist churches of America, with an increasing liberality, have been laying on the altar of education. The Epworth League, so named in honor of the home of the Wesleys in a town of Lincolnshire, is an organization of the youns: people of the two chief branches of Meth- En worth Lpfifl up odism, and of Canadian Methodism. This League has been in existence in tbe Methodist Episcopal Church only about six years, and yet its membership in that one body is about nine hundred thousand. Its general interests are in the hands of a Board of Control, and its organ is the Epworth Herald, issued in Chicago and edited by Joseph F. Berry, D.D. This vast organization has for its purpose the promo tion of religious life, humane work, and mental discipline. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 539 CHAPTER XIII THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH [Authorities. — The best handy history is De Courcy and Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the United States (N. Y., 1879). Strangely enough, this excellent history has no index. The best history of the Indian Missions is Shea, History of Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States (N. Y., 1854). For the French settlements, colonization, and reli"- ious conquests the best works are these : Parkman, The Pioneers of France in the New World (Boston, 1865); The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century (Boston, 1867); The Old Regime in Canada (Boston, 1874) ; Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. (Boston, 1877) ; A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1892). This whole series is an un rivalled example of attractive style, accuracy, firm command of the sources, sympathetic treatment, and thorough impartiality. Along with these no ble histories should be read Shea's translation of Charlevoix, History and General Description of New France (N. Y., 6 vols., 8vo, 1866-72). There are numerous local histories. For later history see Clarke, Lives of De ceased Bishops of the Catholic Church of the United States (N. Y., 1872), an authority for the whole National Period; Hassard, Life of Archbishop Hughes (N. Y., 1866) ; the forthcoming Life of Hughes in the series Amer ican Religious Leaders ; Spalding, Life of Archbishop Spalding (N. Y, 1872). The best brief view is given in the excellent article by Professor Schem on the Roman Catholic Church in the United States in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia (N. Y, 1880), vol. ix., pp. 79-85.] At the opening of the National Period the Roman Catholics were a feeble folk. The fears, suspicions, and intense memo ries of suffering in Europe on the part of the Northern colonies had prevented any large Catholic immigration. They had even their own doors closed upon them in Maryland by the Puritans and Anglicans, whom a liberal constitution had invited. The great colony of New York had driven out almost every Cath olic within its borders, and at tbe outbreak of the Revolution ary War the Church was hardly known in New York City. Even Rhode Island was not more hospitable, as her laws dis criminated at first against the Catholics. What Pennsylvania gave by the tolerance of law she withdrew by the intolerance 540 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES of sentiments. It is unnecessary to say that New England and the whole South rigidly excluded the Catholics. And this was at a time when the whole number of tbe sect in the country did not exceed twenty-five thousand. The Revolution changed all that. In 1774 the Continental Congress at Philadelphia pronounced for the broadest tolera tion. Two years after, owing to the efforts of the'RevoTJtion Cnarles Carroll of Carrollton, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, emancipation was secured in Maryland. The Federal Constitution of 1787, to which two Catholics contributed — Daniel Carroll, of Mary land, and Thomas Fitzsimmons, of Pennsylvania — completed the enfranchisement of Catholics, so far as full religious liber ty and equality for all the offices of the United States were concerned. Some of the states, however, had not yet reached this high ground. The Catholics entered patriotically into the Revolutionary War. The Catholics of Maryland did their full share of fighting, and Washington gladly recognized the value of their services. He who consolidated the infant cause was John Carroll, an indefatigable and public - spirited priest. He accompanied „ Franklin in 1776 on a tour to Montreal, to secure Bishop Carroll ' the neutrality, il not the alliance, ot the Canadians. When the papal nuncio at Paris consulted Franklin as to the proper person to be put in charge of the American work, the great American at once urged his friend Carroll. In 1784 he was made prefect apostolic, and in 1790 he was consecrated Bishop of Baltimore. The new bishop at once began four great enterprises : education, church-building, formation of a national clergy, foundation of female communities of mercy. These four lines of work proceeded with remarkable vigor. Georgetown College had been begun as early as 1788. St. Mary's Seminary, in Baltimore, was founded in 1791. The St. Joseph's Academy, at Emmittsburg, Maryland, founded in 1809, was tbe first school for the higher education of women. The French Revolution drove many of the most pious and cultured priests to America. These reinforced Carroll's native helpers, and the work became so extensive that he had to ask for the appointment of an assistant. In 1800 Father Leonard Neale, a member of an old and distinguished Maryland fam ily, was consecrated assistant bishop in Baltimore. Several of GO Longitude West 50 from Greenwich 40 „ r B B E A\ JT SEJ. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 541 these French priests, such as Flaget, Cheverus, Dubois, and Marechal, adapted themselves to their new conditions with re markable success, and were made bishops, especially in Loui siana and in the Southwest. The Catholic Church grew rap idly under the earnest and patriotic Bishop Carroll ; and when he died, December 3d, 1815, it was estimated that there were two hundred thousand Catholics in the country. Baltimore had been made a metropolitan see, 1808, and four new bish oprics had been erected. The most interesting personality, perhaps, of the first half of the National Period was Prince Demetrius Gallitzin. He was the son of the Russian ambassador at The Prince-priest HaSue- In 1>lQ2 ne was aide-de-camp to the Aus trian general, Van Lilien, who commanded an army in Brabant. Being dismissed from that service, he came to America, and, having previously embraced the Roman Catho lic faith, he entered the Sulpitian Theological Seminary in Bal timore, November 5th, 1792. He was the first priest who re ceived all the orders in this country. He was ordained March 18th, 1795. With the enthusiasm of an apostle he plunged into the pathless wilds of northern Maryland and western Pennsylvania. His wealth, his time, his culture, everything he had, he gave to this work. He was a colonizer, a mission ary, and the founder of a native Catholic literature. He bought up vast tracts of land, which he sold in farms at a low rate. He was the first to attract immigration to the Alle- ghenies. Lodging in a humble cabin, dressed in coarse clothes, he travelled incessantly through the region of the Alleghenies, dispensing the consolations of religion. He made his head quarters at Loretto, Cambria County, Pennsylvania. He was the first to make a respectable literary appeal to the American people in defence of the Catholic faith, and his books have been extensively circulated on both sides of the ocean. Prince Gallitzin is the most picturesque figure in the history of Amer ican Catholicism, and the life of this high-minded and devoted nobleman is one of the most fascinating in the history of American Christianity. He died at Loretto, May 6th, 1841. The growth of Catholicism in America aroused intense op position from many Protestants. Occasionally there were pop ular demonstrations. For example, a book by a Canadian ad venturess of no moral character whatever, who had never seen 542 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the inside of a convent, entitled " The Awful Disclosures of Maria Monk," which appeared about 1836, fanned the flame of popular fury. This book had an immense circula- Outifreaks t*on ' an<* tnougQ i* was proved by an investigation of Protestants that the work was a fabrication from beginning to end,, the refutation did but little to stem the tide of indignation. In 1834 a mob burned the Ursuline Convent in Boston. In 1844 the Gordon Riots of 1780 were re-enacted in Philadelphia. A mob fired tbe Kensington suburb of the city ; many houses occupied by Irish families were destroyed ; women and children escaped half-naked to the country ; many were shot down as they fled from their homes ; and a reign of terror ensued throughout the city. St. Michael's Church was burned; then St. Augustine's, whose pastor had made his church a hospital during the cholera scourge ; afterwards the House of the Sisters of Mercy ; and, finally, this mob turned its firebrands against the Library of the Augustinian Hermits. But the better sense of the people finally asserted itself, and these outbreaks have never been repeated. If one ask, Why the Protestant antagonism to Roman Ca tholicism during the Colonial Period, and, indeed, down to the present time? the answer is to be found in the fact that the Protestantism of America is due to the long and intense Cath olic oppression in Europe. The Protestant hostility in Amer ica is the harvest which Rome still reaps from its centuries of persecution beyond the seas. The Roman Catholic Church has rapidly expanded, according to the measure of its American opportunity. In 1846 Oregon „ ._, „ _,,. City was made the seat of an archbishop, and in Rapid Growth J ?> 1850 the same honor was conferred upon New Or leans, New York, and Cincinnati. In 1850 the Church had 6 archbishops, 27 bishops, 1800 priests, 1073 churches, 17 colleges, and 91 female academies. Now it has 13 archbishops, 75 bish ops, 8000 priests, 2000 theological students, 7000 churches, with 3000 chapels, and 75 colleges, with 4134 schools (1883), in which are enrolled 625,964 pupils. Then there were not, perhaps, half a dozen Catholic papers in the country ; now there are hardly less than 150. This marvellous growth is almost entire ly due to immigration and natural increase. There have been periods when many converts were made, but these have been relatively few. The Oxford Movement helped in this direc- THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 543 tion, and the converts have been mostly from the Protestant Episcopal Church. Levi Silliman Ives, the Episcopal bishop of North Carolina, seceded to Rome in 1852. Ten years earlier James Roosevelt Bayley, archbishop of Baltimore (1872-77), nephew of Mother Seton, founder of the Sisters of Charity in America, herself a convert, went out from the same Church. The Roman Catholic bishop of Columbus, Ohio, Dr. Rosecrans (died 1878), was also trained in the Protestant Epis copal Church. To offset these accessions there have been thou sands who have been lost to this Church. The breaking-up of old ties through immigration, the lack of the ordinances of re ligion in a new country, intermarriage, and the silent but most powerful influences of modern ideas of freedom, and the general spirit of our civilization, have set multitudes adrift from their ancestral faith. This is frankly conceded by Cath olics. The firm position of the Roman Catholic Church is due in no small measure to John Hughes, who emigrated when a young man (1817) from Ireland, and rose from one position />HughSehs°P to anotner untu" ne was made Bishop of New York in 1838, first as an assistant, then as full bishop in 1842, on the death of Bishop Dubois. He was a man of great strength of character and intellect, and he labored with im mense energy to plant the Roman Catholic Church on immov able foundations. He was the first to begin a determined war fare against the public - school system, and by securing the titles of Church property in the hands of the bishops he put a stop to many unseemly disputes. The hand of this great eccle siastic guided the Roman Catholic Church of America for over twenty years. He died January 3d, 1864. The work of the Roman Catholic Church in educational ex tension has been marvellous. Its schools dot the land every where. Its latest venture is the establishment of Developments tne Catholic University of America in Washington, a school intended for the broadest and most thor ough culture. It represents the liberal wing of the Roman Catholic Church. Among the men who stand as exponents of this section of the Church are Bishop Keane, Cardinal Gib bons, and Archbishop Ireland. The condemnation of the Knights of Labor, through the representations of Archbishop Taschereau, was withdrawn through the efforts of Cardinal 544 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Gibbons. The step towards the Americanizing of the paro chial school, though it has been severely criticised by both Catholics and Protestants, is a significant surrender of the ex treme Catholic position as to education. And this step, taken in 1891 by Archbishop Ireland at Faribault and Stillwater, Minnesota, has received the endorsement of the pope (1892) and of the Public School Board of the locality. Recently Pro fessor Bouquillon, of the Catholic University at Washington, has published a pamphlet (Baltimore, 1891), in which he stout ly contends for the right of the state to educate her children. The chief leaders of American Roman Catholicism are now aiming to impress upon the public mind the loyalty of their co religionists to American institutions and their full appreciation of modern science. The task is very difficult, and cannot be ac complished, unless much of history is forgotten. When the Ro man Pope ceases to write encyclicals for his American children, and to give frequent advice as to their duty, and when the Ro man Propaganda is no longer called upon to furnish the chief in structors for Roman Catholic institutions in the United States, and when it is once for all acknowledged that the first duty of the American Roman Catholic is not to the man of the Vatican, but to the country whose liberties he enjoys, it will be time to acknowledge that American Roman Catholicism is in harmony with true American citizenship and the latest science. THE UNITAEIAN CHUECH 545 CHAPTER XrV THE UNITARIAN CHURCH ^Authorities. — The eighth volume of Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit (N. Y., 1865), contains invaluable materials. Ellis, The Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy (Boston, 1857), is an excellent history, written from a Unitarian standpoint. The first part of the same author's Memoir of Jared Sparks (Boston, 1869) is worth noting. The Life of Channing, by his nephew, the Rev. William Henry Channing (Boston, 10th ed., 1874, 3 vols.), is a work of great value. It has been published in an abridged form (Boston, 1880). The Channing Centenary Volume, edited by Rev. Russell Nevins Bellows (enlarged edition, Boston, 1883), is a noble tribute to the wide-spread influence of that great teacher. For the rise of Unitarian ism, Mrs. Lee, Memoirs of the Buckminsters, Father and Son (Boston, 1851), is a useful book. The rich biography of Ezra Stiles Gannett, by his son, W. C.Gannett (Boston, 1876), covers the history of Boston Unitarian ism from 1824-71. Another biography of the same character is equally valuable : Frothingham, Boston Unitarianism, 1820-50 : a Study of the Life and Work of Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham (N. Y., 1890). This is the best delineation of the progress between Channing and Parker. The most important and elaborate work on Parker is Weiss, Life and Corre spondence of Theodore Parker (2 vols., N. Y., 1864) ; the best short life is Frothingham (Boston, 1874) ; and what will probably be the most interest ing and original is Fiske's Parker, already announced in the series of American Religious Leaders. Ware, Unitarian Biography (2 vols., Boston, 1850-51), should be consulted. By far the best view of the historical progress of American Unitarianism in short compass is given in Lectures V.-XI. of The Channing Hall Lectures on Unitarianism, its Origin and His tory (Boston, 1890). Allen, Our Liberal Movement in Theology (Boston, 1882), is an excellent review of the theological progress of New England, and the most instructive of recent volumes is Hale, James Freeman Clarke, (Boston, 1890).] The development of Unitarianism in New England does not seem to have been due to any influences from without, but to a natural reaction from the rigidity of the old 0rl9in Calvinism. Priestley, indeed, came to America in 1794, and oro-anized a Church in Philadelphia, which has had a con tinuous existence to the present time — Dr. Furness, pastor from 35 546 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES 1825-75, being now pastor emeritus. But Priestley exerted no special influence on New England. James Freeman, though not the first Unitarian preacher in New England, was the first minister of a Unitarian Church organized as such ; and in the expurgated liturgy which he drew up for the use of his con gregation he acknowledges his indebtedness to Theophilus Lindsey, one of the best of the English Unitarians. But his views, like those of his brother ministers of the liberal faith, were formed independently. American Unitarianism, unlike American Methodism, grew out of American soil. It was the intellectual revolt of men trained in the severe and indepen dent methods of thinking common among the Puritans. The first Unitarian minister in America was Ebenezer Gay, of the First Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, who died in 1787, in the ninety-second year of his age and in the Unitarians s^xtj -ninth of his sole pastorate. His was the longest pastorate of a single church of which we have any knowledge. President Adams referred to him, with several other ministers of that time, as a well-known Unitarian. He suffered nothing in ecclesiastical standing on this account. He was the life-long friend of Dr. Appleton, of Cambridge, a mod erate Calvinist. A man of more commanding influence was Charles Chauncy, minister of the First Church in Boston for sixty years (died 1787). He was an ardent patriot, and his influence was felt over the whole commonwealth. He not only held most liberal views as to the divine nature, but he boldly proclaimed the ultimate salvation of all men. He, too, was in the most cordial relations with all his brother minis ters. Another noted Unitarian of that time was Jonathan Mayhew, minister of the West Church of Boston from 1747 until his death in 1766. He was a man of extraordinary force of character, a born fighter, who wielded a tremendous influ ence in the period just before the Revolution. It was proba bly his belligerent ways that alienated some of his brethren from him, so that not one of his Boston fellow-pastors would attend his ordaining council. But they afterwards became more friendly. Mayhew himself was at one time scribe of the Massachusetts Convention of Congregational Ministers. He was one of the most striking personalities in a period of great men. Dr. Jeremy Belknap (died 1798), of the Federal Street (now Arlington Street) Church, Boston, was another early THE UNITAEIAN CHUECH 547 Unitarian. He compiled the first Unitarian hymn-book, and was one of the first American historians, his " History of New Hampshire " (3 vols., 1784-92) being still considered a work of great value. James Freeman, already mentioned, the grand father, by marriage, of the late James Freeman Clarke, was in vited to become the minister of King's Chapel, Boston, an Epis copal Church, in 1783. On renouncing the Trinity, his congre gation still clung to him, and voted to alter their liturgy and creed. " Thus the first Episcopal Church in New England became the first Unitarian Church in America." From 1785 to the present, King's Chapel has retained its Unitarian status. Freeman was a man of beautiful character — a rare union of intellectual, social, and spiritual gifts ; and for many years after his death (in 1835) his name was cherished as a most fra grant and precious memory. Many other names must be passed over. It seems strange to us that the most uncompromising Unitarianism could grow up in the oldest Puritan churches in New England, so that what were at first the most orthodox churches — the First Church of Plymouth, the First of Boston, and twenty-six others of the oldest churches of New England, and thirty-eight which were older than the year 1700 — became gradually transformed into churches of an opposite faith, their ministers retaining their places without opposition, and even in the full possession of their fraternal rights. But we must remember that many of the oldest churches had no creed statements, simply covenants, and that with some churches which did confess a creed this confession did not imply that either minister or people were rigidly bound to it. In con formity with the Congregational principle, freedom was al lowed. But this peaceable development at last came to an end. The Trinitarians became aroused. The appointment of Dr. Ware as professor of divinity in Harvard University, in 1805, was the occasion of the break of the former peaceful re lations of the liberal and conservative wing, though that break was not consummated till some years after. About 1810 Jere miah Evarts, father of the Hon. William M. Evarts, struck the first blow from the orthodox side in the Panoplist. Chan ning, then the minister of the Federal Street Church, replied. Ware and Professor Woods, of Andover Theological Seminary, continued the controversy, 1820-23. From 1815 to 1825 the 548 THE CHUECH IX THE UNITED STATES lines became more and more definitely drawn ; fellowship was broken, friends were separated, and churches went their sev eral ways. The courts decided that the parish, not necessarily the members of the Church, is the legal representative of the Church, and this momentous decision, received with dismay by the orthodox party, confirmed the Unitarians in the posses sion of what were once Trinitarian churches. The most illustrious name in American Unitarianism is William Ellery Channing, a man who combined fine literary gifts with a noble Christian character and intense hu- Channing ° manitanan zeal. In 1803 he was ordained pastor of Federal Street Church, Boston, and his church at once became filled, owing to the power and freshness of his preaching. His great sermon at the ordination of Jared Sparks as pastor of the Unitarian Church in Baltimore, in 1819, was almost an epoch-making performance. It is largely through the influ ence of Channing, who had such an intense dislike of every thing sectarian, that Unitarianism became the name of an in fluence and tendency rather than of a denomination. In a letter written two years before his death he uses these mem orable words : " As I grow older ... I distrust sectarian in fluence more and more. I am detached from a denomination, and strive to feel more my connection with the Universal Church, with all good and holy men. I am little of a Unita rian, have little sympathy with the system of Priestley and Belsham, and stand aloof from all but those who strive and pray for clearer light and more effectual manifestations of Christian truth."* Channing was thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Christ ; and, though he could not rise to the full conception of his divinity, he adored his Master with a pro found reverence and a passionate love. On all questions of Christ's sinlessness and miracles, on the fulness of his mani festation of God, he occupied entirely orthodox ground, and nothing could be more uncongenial to him than the present shallow rationalism or semi-paganism which shields itself un der the Unitarian name. No man, perhaps, in the history of American Christianity, better deserves the name given to him by a French Catholic writer — the "American Fenelon." * W. H. Channing, Memoir, vol. ii., p. 380. See the fine article on Chan ning by Dr. Schaff in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, s. v. THE UNITAEIAN CHUECH 549 But already a new era was dawning. Channing died Octo ber 2d, 1842. On May 17th, 1841, Theodore Parker, then pas- Theodore Parker *or a* West Roxbury, Massachusetts, preached an ordination sermon in South Boston on " The Transient and Permanent in Christianity." He cut aloof from the Bible, denying its inspiration and divine authority, points which had been firmly held by the older Unitarians. He held, that all that is supernatural in the gospel narrative is a myth or fable. He was the first Unitarian to apply the knife of the most rationalistic criticism to the Bible, and to empty Christi anity of its divinity and exclusive sanctions. This sermon created the utmost consternation, and many Unitarians re fused fellowship with him. But Parker stood firmly by his views, which he elaborated in books and lectures. He was urged to come to Boston, where he would have a larger field, and in 1846 he became pastor of the "Twenty-eighth Congre gational Society " of Boston. His ministry was a phenomenal success. He was to Unitarianism what Beecher was to ortho doxy. The frankness and benevolence of his nature, his bold ness and eloquence, his advocacy of reforms, often unpopular, drew to him an immense crowd, and his new views of Christi anity were listened to with marvellous interest. His health at length broke down under his terrible strain of work. In a vain quest he went abroad, and died in Florence, May 10th, 1860. In 1892 a new memorial was erected to him in the cemetery of that beautiful city. But the radicalism of Parker is now the orthodoxy of Uni tarianism. The boldest Deist as well as the most spiritual Christian is now enrolled under the Unitarian banner. Never- theless, the Christian note is not discarded. The National Conference, organized in 1864, professes as one of its objects to " increase our sense of the obligations of all disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ to prove their faith by self-denial, and by the devotion of their lives to the service of God and the build ing-up of the kingdom of his Son." Recently the Unitarians have entered into mission work. They support one or two missionaries in India, and in 1890 they sent one to Japan. By the circulation of books and tracts, and by the employment of special workers, the Unita rians seek to leaven the home field with liberal sentiments. The West is now the favorite field of Unitarian extension. 550 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES The Unitarian Church, though small in numbers, has achieved a magnificent success in philanthropic and educa tional work. The culture of its ministers and members, their enthusiasm for humanity, their achievements in literature and science, their devotion to ethical ideals and to the work of charity and reform, have made for them a noble record in the history of the Church, and have given them an influence that is in no relation to their small numerical strength. CHAPTER XV THE UNIVERSALIST CHURCH [Authorities. — The best history is Eddy, Universalism in America (Boston, 1882-84). Adams, Fifty Notable Years : Views of the Ministry of Chris tian Universalism (Boston, 1882), is an important book. The Life of Bal- lou has been written by Whittemore and M. M. Ballon (Boston, 1854), and by Safford (Boston, 1889). The Autobiography of Murray (1813, continued by his wife, 1816, 9th ed., with notes, 1870) is a most interesting book. Mur ray is very frank. Stone, Life of Winchester (Boston, 1836), ought not to be overlooked. Ellis, Life of Chapin (Boston, 1882), is the best of the re cent biographies. It tells the story of a noble and inspiring life. See Thomas, A Century of Universalism (Boston, 1870). The best short sketch is Eddy, art. " Universalists," in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. x., pp. 657-665. This last writer, however, makes the strange mistake (p. 660) of classing Frederick W. Robertson and Archdeacon Farrar as Universalists. The latter distinctly repudiates Universalism (Eternal Hope, London ed., Pref., p. xxiv. ; Mercy and Judgment, American ed., pp. 40-41), and the former repeatedly preached the possibility of an eternal destruc tion (Sermons, American ed., pp. 68, 98, 100-101, 154, 164-165, 411, 414, 592).] The real father of American Universalism is a man who never saw America, and whose name ought to be rescued from „ ,, oblivion. This was James Relly, a preacher of the James Relly __, . _ ,, „ , . . . ,, , ,. r , , „ Whiteneld, or Calvinistic, Methodists, but who final ly carried his Calvinism to tbe conclusion that if Christ paid the debt of the sins of all men, then all men must ultimately be saved. He proclaimed his new views with great ardor, and drew together a congregation in London about the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1759 he published a book which THE UNIVEESALIST CHUECH 551 prepared the ground in America for the coming of Murray. This was entitled "Union, or the Consanguinity of Christ and His Church." The reasoning was rigidly Calvinistic throughout, and this was the first form of modern Universal ism. Relly died in 1778, and his congregation soon dispersed. There is now no organized congregation of Universalists in Europe, except in Scotland, where a small mission is sustained. Relly is connected with America by John Murray, a mem ber of his London congregation and an enthusiastic disciple. , . „ He was also trained in rigid Calvinistic principles, John M urrav it v * and by a family discipline of the harshest kind. It is hardly a wonder that he revolted from this system. Murray came under the influence of Wesley, and was much drawn to the more joyful ways of the Methodists. He afterwards went to London, where he completely lost his faith, and fell into dis sipation. Then he heard Whitefield, and became his zealous convert. He was at first very deeply prejudiced against Relly, but he read his book and heard him preach, and the result was that Murray embraced the Universalist creed. In a spirit of thorough dejection over his financial and other losses he sailed for America in 1770. This is the date of the first Universalist preaching in America. Murray at first kept his peculiar faith in the background, but it at length cropped out, and he re ceived an invitation to preach at Gloucester, Massachusetts, where Relly's book had made some silent conversions, and where the first Universalist Church was organized in 1779. Murray became the pastor of this church, remaining there till 1793, though still itinerating through New England and the Middle States preaching Universalism. He had his share of persecution, but he was never daunted for that. A mob sur rounded a church in Boston where he was preaching. A targe stone was thrown at his head. Murray picked it up with the remark, " This argument is weighty and solid, but it is neither rational nor convincing." Then the people shouted, "Pray, sir, leave the pulpit ; your life is in danger." " With your good leave," was Murray's brave reply, " I will pursue my sub ject, and while I have a 'Thus saith the Lord ' for every point of doctrine I advance, not all the stones in Boston, unless they stop my breath, shall stop my mouth or arrest my testimony." Murray preached in Boston from 1793 to 1809. He died Sep tember 3d, 1815, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, 552 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Though Murray was the founder of Universalism in Amer ica, he was by no means the first to preach the doctrine. Joseph Gatschell, of Marblehead, Massachusetts, in Pioneers 1684, was brought before Suffolk County Court for teaching " that all men shall be saved," and was sentenced "to the pillory, and to have bis tongue drawn forth and pierced with a hot iron." George de Benneville preached the same doctrine in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. This De Benneville came to America in 1741, after a romantic career in the Old World. He preached among the Dunkers. The Rev. Richard Clarke, rector of St. Philip's Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina, from 1754 to 1759, with other ministers of his Church, as well as Drs. Mayhew and Chauncy, two of the ablest Puritan minis ters of Boston, were pronounced advocates of the final salva tion of all. Contemporary with Murray, but independent of him, other men proclaimed the same gospel. Adam Streeter, in Rhode Island, was one of these. He preached in 1777. The most brilliant man of that time was Elhanan Winchester. He far surpassed Murray for solid qualities of mind, and the saintliness of his character and the eloquence of his preaching achieved a great deal for early Universalism. His field was Philadelphia, 1780-87. His theology was of a much more evangelical type than either the hard Calvinism of Murray or the liberalism of Ballou. We now come to the most illustrious name in the history of American Universalism — Hosea Ballou. Like Winchester and Caleb Rich, he began as a Baptist. He be- Hosea Ballou ,.,,.,. K. -, „ came a convert to the new faith in 1792, and after several brief pastorates he settled as the minister of the Sec ond Universalist Society of Boston in 1817. There he died, June 7th, 1852, in his eighty-first year. Ballou established a Universalist periodical literature, and by pen no less than by voice labored with all his might for his hopeful creed. He emptied Universalism of its deeper elements, making it semi- Unitarian, and, departing from the rational theory of Win chester, he proclaimed the crass notion of the immediate hap piness of all after death. His idea of Christ was equally shal low. Ballou is a mighty name in the Universalist theology, and while the denomination has grown out of his doctrine of the instantaneous heaven of men who die in their sins, his THE UNIVEESALIST CHUECH 553 latitudinarian teachings on the general Christian system have had a wide-spread and profound influence on the later Uni versalists. It is an interesting fact that as early as 1786 the right of the Gloucester Society of Universalists to be exempted from , „ the parish taxes was confirmed, after various ap- Orgamzatlon ,-,¦,, i i , ¦ , ,., i peals and delays, by the highest court ot the col ony. Several congregations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island united with that in Gloucester in holding an associa tion at Oxford, Massachusetts, in 1785. The churches in and around Philadelphia formed a convention in 1790, and in 1792 the churches of the Eastern States formed a similar confer ence. The Philadelphia Convention went out of existence in 1809, but the Eastern Convention still meets annually under the name of the Universalist General Convention. The gov ernment of these churches is strictly Congregational. The Universalist denomination has made an honorable rec ord in literary and educational work. Though numerically a small body, it has four colleges and three theological schools, and in New England and New York five academies. It has a number of earnest and high-minded adherents, and many who are in hearty sympathy with the evangelical faith. There is at present a strong leaven of rationalism working in the Universalist Church, and the battle is now waging between the orthodox and the Unitarian wing. In its origin, Universalism stood firmly on the Calvinistic platform, and in cordial agree ment with the essential elements of the creed of the Church catholic. If the present Unitarian movement in the Univer salist Church succeeds, the descent will mark one of the most instructive developments in the history of the Church. 554 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER XVI THE MORAVIAN CHURCH [Authorities. — For the history of the Moravian Brethren in America, see Reichel, The Early History of the Church of the United Brethren in North America (Nazareth, Pa., 1888); De Schweinitz, The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum (Bethlehem, Pa., 1885). On their mission ary work, see Holmes, Missions of the United Brethren (London, 1827) ; Heckewelder, History of the Indian Mission (Phila., 1817); De Schweinitz, Life and Times of David Zeisberger (Phila., 1870) ; Thompson, Moravian Missions (New York, 1882); Schultze, Die Missionsfelder der Erneuerten Briiderkirche (Bethlehem, Pa., 1890). See an excellent article by Hark, The Andover Review, vol. iv., pp. 587-593 (December, 1885).] The Moravians made their first settlement on this conti nent in Georgia, in 1735. It was the profound faith and peaceful spirit of these new-comers which so deeply The Early impressed John Wesley on his voyage to America in the fall of that year. It is, in fact, to this casual meeting on shipboard that we owe the Methodist movement. The Georgian colony was soon broken up, and the Brethren moved northward to Pennsylvania, that Mecca of the dis tressed. In 1736* they founded Bethlehem, and soon after Nazareth and Lititz. They instituted here their peculiar method of organization, which was similar to the communism of the first Jerusalem Church. " The lands were the property of the Church, and the farms and various departments of me chanical industry were stocked by it and worked for its bene fit. In return the Church provided the inhabitants with all the necessaries of life." But there was no common treasury ; each man kept his own private means ; and it is an error to say that there was a community of goods. This system existed for twenty years (1742-62). Each member of the "Economy," Some give tbe date as 1740. THE MOEAVIAN CHUECH 555 as the system was called, was pledged "to devote his time and powers in whatever direction they could be most advan tageously applied for the spread of the gospel." It was about this time that the celebrated Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf, the regenerator of the Moravian Church, came , , to America, 1741-42. His work was originally of a Zinzendorf ,. . ', . , . , , . . , mediating character, in which he sought to unite the Germans, irrespective of creed, into a Christian Alliance, called the "Congregation of God in the Spirit." This project failed completely. He fell into an unfortunate misunderstanding with the Lutherans, and his work was much maligned. " The ideal which inspired him," says De Schweinitz, "was too lofty for that time of sectarian bigotry and disputes. He was more than a century in advance of his age." Zinzendorf went out on wide missionary journeys among the Indians, and it is even asserted that he was the first white man to pitch his tent in the far-famed Wyoming Valley, in northeastern Pennsylva nia. This was in 1742. It was he who gave the name of Bethlehem to the new colony. He returned to Europe in Jan uary, 1743. The Moravians are the master missionaries of the world. With undaunted zeal and heroism they have carried the cross ... , , . to heathen tribes, selecting, as a rule, the darkest Missionary Zeal , ' , ,° ™ , , , and most degraded lands. The pledge, quoted above, secured a never-failing band of workers, who, inflamed only with the love of Christ, penetrated into the farthest Ind ian settlements. In 1740 the Moravian Henry Rauch began a mission in New York State, not far from Kingston. He after wards removed to Pennsylvania, and before the close of 1742 there were thirty-one baptized Indian converts, many of them marvellous illustrations of the power of divine grace to trans form the most profligate savages into strong Christian men.* The apostle of the Indian missions, however, was David Zeisberger, the John Eliot of the Moravians — a man whose missionary enthusiasm and work place him in the front rank of Christian heroes. He came to America about 1740, or earlier, and was a member of the Bethlehem * See the full and interesting article, by Romig, on "Moravian Mis sions " in Bliss's Encyclopaedia ol Missions (New York, 1891), vol. ii., pp. 129-147. 556 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES colony. In 1745 he began his work among the Indians, and he carried it forward with an unflagging devotion for sixty- two years. He labored in four states and in Canada, and among eight Indian tribes. He established thirteen Christian Indian towns. Many of his converts were from the most un promising ranks of abandoned savages, but they proved the genuineness of their conversion by their consistent lives. He wielded a marvellous influence over the Indians. His daring journeys into unknown solitudes remind us of the unparalleled sacrifices of the Jesuit missionaries. For many years he pre vented the Grand Council of the Delawares in Ohio from join ing other tribes in fighting against the colonies in the Revolu tionary War. One of his last works was to lead the remnant that survived the massacre of his Gnadenhutten colony in Ohio (1782) to Fairfield, Canada. In 1798 land was granted to these Moravian exiles on the Tuscarawas, Ohio, near their for mer settlements. Zeisberger led what was left of his martyr band to this station, which he called Goshen. There he died, November 17th, 1808. "The weeping Indians stood around his death-bed, exclaiming, ' Father, we will cleave to the Sav iour, and live to him alone !' " Christian Frederick Post and Heckewelder were also Moravian pioneers in the West. They helped Zeisberger in Christianizing the Indians west of the Alleghenies. The massacre of the Gnadenhutten colonists is one of the darkest blots on the escutcheon of the American arms. The progress of the Moravian Church in this country was much impeded by its town system. The Moravian plan was to form villages, or colonies, consisting exclusively of Christian people, banded together as a Christian com munity after a lofty ethical ideal. When this system was broken up, as it was in 1884 and the following years, the Mo ravians expanded their organization, and planted churches with rapidity. They extended their work in the usual manner, and within the last thirty years they have doubled in number. This Church has formed a distinctive and picturesque feat ure in our American religious life. In the purity and vigor of its piety, in the simplicity and firmness of its faith, in its missionary activity, and in its devotion to the customs of early Christianity, it has been exceeded by no Church in the world. The lot was formerly used to decide cases of impor- ALEXANDEE CAMPBELL AND THE DISCIPLES OF CHEIST 557 tance, but its use with regard to marriages was abolished in 1818, and in other matters it is greatly restricted, if not alto gether done away. The Moravians have an episcopal form of government, and they claim that their episcopacy is entirely valid, even from the High-Church point of view. This claim was accepted by Archbishop Wake and Bishop Wilson, of the Church of England, but it is now repudiated by the stricter Anglicans. As in the case of the Roman Catholic Church, America forms one province of the ecclesiastical territory, the supreme authority being in Europe. The highest court is the Genera} Synod, which meets at Herrnhut every ten years. There is a theological seminary at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, founded in 1807. The service of the Church is liturgical, with free prayer as allowable. The Church observes many beauti ful customs. Foot- wash ing, formerly practised to a very lim ited extent, died out entirely about the beginning of the nine teenth century. CHAPTER XVII ALEXANDER CAMPBELL AND THE DISCIPLES OF CHRIST [Authorities. — Richardson, Life of Alexander Campbell (2d ed., Cincinnati, 1872) ; Memoirs of Thomas Campbell (Cincinnati, 1861) ; Hatfield, Alexan der Campbell and the Disciples, in Presbyterian Review, vol. iii., pp. 528-562 (July, 1882) ; Longan, The Origin of the Disciples of Christ. Power has a comprehensive article on the Disciples of Christ in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia.] Few men have impressed themselves more profoundly on the religious life of their age than Alexander Campbell. His personality was of the most vigorous type, and for Alexander over a generation his name was a tower of strength ,amp over the whole United States. His father, the Rev. Thomas Campbell, a relative of the poet Campbell, was an Irish Presbyterian minister of the Secession Church. He came to America in 1807, and served under the Associate Synod several Presbyterian churches in Western Pennsylvania. Both father and son had come under the influence of the Haldanes, 558 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES and this fact must be taken into the account in their theologi cal development. Alexander was born near Ballymena, Coun ty Antrim, Ireland, September 12th, 1788. He was educated at the University of Glasgow, and in 1809 came to this coun try. He joined his father at Washington, Pennsylvania, and very soon both began to enunciate views which excited wide spread attention. Especially with respect to human creeds he took advanced ground. His platform for Christian union, which he laid down at the very beginning of his ministry, an ticipated the irenical proposals of the Protestant Episcopal House of Bishops in 1886. But Campbell, with that fearless ness and loyalty to his principles which were characteristic of him, took a much more radical position. He would dissolve the whole later superstructure of the Church, and go back to the simplicity of apostolic times. " Christian union," ran his notable words, " can result from nothing short of the destruc tion of creeds and confessions of faith, inasmuch as human creeds and confessions have destroyed Christian union." In consistency with this, he further said : " Nothing ought to be received into the faith and worship of the Church, or be made a term of communion among Christians, that is not as old as the New Testament ; nor ought anything to be admitted as of divine obligation in the Church constitution or management, save what is enjoined by the authority of our Lord Jesus Christ and his apostles upon the New Testament Church, either in express terms or by approved precedent." The lay ing-down of this radical Puritan platform by this young man of twenty-two was an epoch-making event in the history of the American Church. A rupture was imminent. A Church of so firm a foundation in creed as the Presbyterian could hardly be expected to bear with so revolutionary a character. Campbell Form^As^ociates and his. fatber withdrew, and formed a new con gregation at Brush Run, Pennsylvania, 1810. On the birth of his first child, in 1812, he was led into a thor ough study of the baptismal question. This convinced him of the Scripturalness of immersion, and he and his whole congre gation were immersed. Thus the ties which bound him to the Scotch creed were severed one by one. He used these memo rable words to Loos, the Baptist minister, who baptized him : " I have set out to follow the apostles of Christ, and their ALEXANDEE CAMPBELL AND THE DISCIPLES OE CHEIST 559 Master, and I will be baptized only into the primitive Chris tian faith." Alexander Campbell and his father were received into Red stone Baptist Association, and they immediately began form ing congregations, which were also received into Baptists also t^le same association. They preached their views with ardor and eloquence, and they soon began to make a stir through the whole Ohio region. Campbell had taken up his residence at what is now Bethany, West Vir ginia, where, for a time, he conducted a high- school for boys. It was really in intention a theological seminary. Soon the Baptists became dissatisfied with his views, and furious con troversies ensued. The battle was waged bitterly. Associa tions were disrupted, churches destroyed, and the end was the permanent loss of Campbell and his followers to the Baptist Church. They formed, about 1827, an independent Church, called the Disciples of Christ — the act of exclusion being taken by the Baptists. The subsequent life of this earnest and gifted man was most active and aggressive. He established a periodical i-i Press> 1823, the printing being done at first in bis own house at Bethany. He travelled through the West, organizing churches, preaching to vast crowds, lectur ing, debating. He leavened the whole country with his views. Few men have exerted a wider influence. He was a fearless controversialist, and loved to meet in the free fo rum of discussion the ablest men of the time. In 1828 he held his great debate with Robert Owen at Cincinnati, on the truth of Christianity. His powerful arguments on that occa sion converted several prominent citizens, and made a lasting impression on the city and surrounding country. The year before, he met the Rev. William McCalla at Washington, Kentucky, to discuss baptism. One of his most famous en counters was with Archbishop Purcell in Cincinnati, in 1836, on the Roman Catholic Church. Campbell had a noble pres ence a powerful voice, and a mind of exceeding strength and agility, and it is safe to say no cause ever suffered in his hands on a public debate. At the same time, he was a man of the purest character and the highest Christian consecration. He died at Bethany, West Virginia, March 4th, 1866. As the founder of one of the largest churches of American origin, 560 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the life of Alexander Campbell has a significance second to few in American Church history. The Church founded thus has spread with astonishing rapid ity. The Disciples number now nearly eight hundred thousand. Their chief strength is in the Middle-West and the ThofDChristeS Southwest. Their first college (Bethany College, Bethany, West Virginia) was founded by Campbell in his own town in 1841. They support two universities and thirty colleges and academies. Their college at Hiram, Ohio, bad for its president James A. Garfield, who likewise taught there for some years. Garfield was also a Disciple preacher until he began his political career in 1856. He remained until his death an active worker in the denomination, and a trustee of Hiram and Bethany colleges. This Church sustains mis sions in several foreign fields, and is an energetic and evan gelical body. It is thoroughly in harmony with the Church catholic on all essential points. On account of the Disciples repudiating common theological terms like "trinity," "con- substantial," as divisive, they have been sometimes represented as Unitarians. But this does them very great injustice. They hold to the divinity of Jesus Christ as the foundation of their faith. The Christians, or Christian Connection, have often been confounded with the Disciples of Christ. The two bodies should be kept entirely distinct. The former Th\o caMed"*' came into existence about 1804, when a part of the O'Kelly secession from the Methodist Epis copal Church, a portion of the Baptist Church in Hart! and, Vermont, and a Presbyterian schism in Kentucky and Ten nessee in 1801, united to form one Church, called the Chris tian Church. The bond of union in each case was the desire to get rid of creeds, and to confess the simple primitive gos pel. They are very similar to the Disciples in doctrine and organization. As to the sacraments, they are Baptists. They hold that Christ is divine, but care nothing for the ancient definitions. THE QUAKEES 561 CHAPTER XVni THE QUAKERS [Authomtbes. — Bowden, History of Friends in America (London, 1850-54); Kite, Biographical Sketches of Friends (Phila., 1871) ; Evans, Friends in the Seventeenth Century (Phila., 1875) ; Budge, Annals of the Early Friends (London, 1877) ; Journal of Life and Labors of Elias Hicks (N. T., 5th ed., 1832); Janney, History of the Quakers (Phila., 1859-64, 4 vols.); Maule, Transactions and Changes in the Society of Friends (Phila., 1884) ; Turner, The Quakers: a Study, a History, and a Criticism (London, 1889). Alex ander Gordon gives an excellent description of the doctrinal change in Quakerism in his article " Modern Quakerism," in The Modern Review (Lon don, October, 1884, pp. 701-718). From this point of view the two works of Hodgson are indispensable : Historical Memoirs of the Society of Friends, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Phila., 1867) ; The Society of Friends in the Nineteenth Century (Phila., 1876). Compare Edgerton, Modern Quak erism Examined, and Contrasted with that of the Ancient Type (Indian apolis, 1876). Joseph Smith's Catalogues of Friends' Books (1867), and of Books against the Friends (1884), with biographical notices, are a com plete survey of the whole literature. New light is thrown on the treatment of the Quakers in New England by Hallowell, The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (Boston, 1883), who writes, however, in a spirit of antago nism to the Puritans.] The first Quakers in America were Mary Fisher and Anne Austin, who arrived in Boston in 1656. Many followed them, driven from England by hard treatment, until their George Fox numbers became alarming. In 1671, George Fox himself, the founder of the Society of Friends, vis ited this country. He was a man of simple faith and apos tolic zeal. He travelled through the country, looking up Friends who had settled here and there, and preaching his peculiar doctrines. In his journals he speaks of himself as struggling through " the great bogs " of the Dismal Swamp, and "lying abroad nights by a fire." In 1672 he attended the Yearly Meeting at Newport, Rhode Island, which lasted for six days. At the end of this meeting he says : " It was 562 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES sometimes hard for Friends to part ; for the glorious power of the Lord, which was over all, and his blessed truth and life flowing amongst them, had so knit and united them together that they spent two days in taking leave one of another, and of the Friends of the island." In 1673 he returned to Eng land. We have already referred to the persecutions of the Quak ers. In all the colonies, except Rhode Island and Pennsylva nia, their lot was a hard one. The first immigrants Persecutions . . , , ,_ , ° were sent back by the Massachusetts Colony. But, refusing to take the hint, others followed. They were scourged, imprisoned, exiled, slain. William Robinson and Marmaduke Stevenson were hanged in New England in 1659, Mary Dyer in 1660, and William Leddra in 1661. Mary Dyer, the soli tary female victim among the New England martyrs, is claimed by Quaker writers as a woman of remarkable refine ment and piety. It is hard for us at this age to understand these persecuting measures against so inoffensive and kind- hearted religionists. It must be remembered, however, that the early Quakers were looked upon as social revolutionists, and the Puritans guarded their insecure charter with desperate jealousy. They were always fearful of bad reports sent back to the mother country. Cotton Mather justifies the measures against the Quakers by this reasoning : "It was also thought that the very Quakers themselves would say that if they had got into a Corner of the World, and with an immense Toyl and Charge made a Wilderness habitable, on purpose there to be undisturbed in the Exercises of their Worship, they would never bear to have New-Eng- landers come among them and interrupt their Publick Wor ship, endeavor to seduce their Children from it, yea, and re peat such Endeavors after mild Entreaties first, and then just Banishments, to oblige their departure." It should also be remembered, as affording palliation for these persecutions, that some of the first Quakers were misled by fanatical frenzy into indecent exhibitions. These were gone through with as a sign, as a symbolic act. Mr. Whittier thinks that these "naked performances came from persons who were maddened by seeing tbe partial exposure of Quak ers whipped through the streets." Higginson remarks con cerning this interpretation: "This view, though plausible, THE QUAKEES 563 seems to me to overlook the highly wrought condition of mind among these enthusiasts, and the fact that they regarded everything as a symbol. When one of the ablest of the Quak ers, Robert Barclay, walked the streets of Aberdeen in sack cloth and ashes, he deemed it right to sacrifice all propriety for the sake of a symbolic act ; and in just the same spirit we find the Quaker writers of that period defending these per sonal exposures, not by Mr. Whittier's reasons, but by sym bolic ones." * These exhibitions, however, were exceptional. The Quakers, by their meek, brave endurance of wrong, by their blameless lives and peaceful dispositions, at length won universal respect. The persecutions in New England ceased in 1660, owing to a royal mandamus. In spite of adverse circumstances, the Quaker development proceeded rapidly. A Monthly Meeting was established in New England before 1660, and in 1661 a Yearly Meet- IncrGSSG ing was held in Rhode Island, which has been kept up ever since. The settlement of Pennsylvania by the great Quaker, William Penn, and his brethren of the same faith, in 1682, was a red-letter day in their history. It was thus that the Quaker element became a distinct and influential force in the progress of American civilization. In 1690 there were ten thousand Friends in America. During the three wars in our national history they continued steadfast in their peace prin ciples, though at the cost of a great deal of abuse and suf fering. In 1827, Elias Hicks, of Jericho, Long Island, a man of acute intellect and great energy of character, led many of the Quak ers away from their ancient landmarks by introducing The Hicks wjja^ he considered more rational views. These views Secession met with bitter opposition, and the result was a wide spread schism. Hicks has been represented as a Unitarian in his general theological position, but this is a great mistake. He is substantially orthodox in all essential doctrines, and it was only by bringing into prominent light many of these doc trines that he created an intense commotion within the quiet borders of the Friends. Six out of the ten Yearly Meetings ad hered to him. Both parties claim to represent original Quak- « Larger History of the United States (N. Y., 1885), p. 204. 564 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES erism. The old, so-called orthodox, party is the one acknowl edged by the London Yearly Meeting. Mr. Allinson, of the Friends' Review, is no doubt right in conceding that in the division doctrinal and personal considerations were mingled, and that many failed to comprehend the true issue. He says — and he speaks from the "orthodox" standpoint — that many who were one in faith were unfortunately dissevered for life in their Church fellowship. Violent controversies have taken place within the last few years as to the amount of departure from the original Quaker testimony, and various small schisms have been the Discussions result- There can be no doubt that the Friends have ceased to emphasize some of their peculiarities, and have come more into sympathy in their preaching and working with the other evangelical bodies. It is to this they owe their remarkable revival in the West. The evangelical strain of modern Quakerism is due largely to Joseph John Gurney (died 1847), one of the noblest characters of modern times. It is claimed that the great principle of the Inner Light, the immediate inspiration of the soul by the Holy Ghost, which was the glory of the early Quaker theology, has been retired. Others deny this, and say that these modern improvements are by no means intended to take the place of any doctrine of true Quakerism. It may be, after all, a question of emphasis. No body of Christians has been more enthusiastic in moral reform than the Quakers. Every effort towards the ameliora tion of suffering, the suppression of slavery, the abo- Enthusiasm lition of war> the regeneration of prison discipline, and every other humanitarian cause, has found in them firm and unwearying supporters. Their heroic toil for the realization of the Christian ideal was typified in the life of Lu- cretia Mott (1793-1880), the anti-slavery apostle. As early as 1727 the English Friends began the agitation against slavery, and they never ceased in their peaceful efforts until the institu tion was abolished. Clarkson was very closely identified with the Friends, though he never joined them. The devotion of the Quakers to the morals of Jesus has leavened the whole Christian world. Our great poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, is their chief representative in the world of letters. 0THEE DENOMINATIONS 565 CHAPTER XIX OTHER DENOMINATIONS [Authorities. — MacDonald, History of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (Nashville, 1 888) ; Cossett, Life and Times of Finis Ewing (Nashville, 1853) ; Beard, Biographical Sketches of Some of the Early Ministers of the Cum berland Presbyterian Church (Nashville, 1867); Ciisman, Origin and Doc trines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (Nashville, 1875); Glasgow, History of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in America (Baltimore, 1888) ; Stewart, History of the Free-Will Baptists (Dover, N. H, 1862). A most ad mirable account of the Tunkers is contributed by ex-President Cattell in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia. On these, see also the fourth part of the val uable but now scarce book, Edwards, Materials towards a History of Amer ican Baptists (Phila., 1770); Rupp, History of Lancaster County, Pa., part ii., chap. vi. ; Miller, Record of the Faithful CLewisburg, Pa., 1882); and the Annual Minutes from 1788; Wellcome, History of the Second- Advent Mes sage (Yarmouth, Me., 1874); A Collection of Pamphlets with Reference to the Formation of the Reformed Episcopal Church (Phila., 1876); Journals of the General Councils from 1878 to present; Life of George David Cum mins, by his wife (N. T., 1878) ; J. Howard Smith, article on "Reformed Epis copal Church" in McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, viii., 1008-1013; Aycrigg, Memoirs of the Reformed Episcopal Church (new ed., N. T., 1882) ; Driiry, Life of Otterbein (Dayton, 0., 1884) ; Lawrence, History of the United Brethren ; Spayth, History of Church of United Brethren in Christ (Circleville, 0., 1851) ; Yeakel, "Jacob Albright," in Lives of the Leaders in our Church Universal, edited by MacCracken (N. Y., etc., 1879), pp. 657- 661.] It is impossible to do justice to the many bodies of Christians which have been formed in the stimulating religious atmosphere of America. The spirit of division has had free course, and the many sects in this country afford a phenomenon unpar alleled in the history of Christianity. Sometimes the cause of the divisions seems trivial enough to the sober judgment of later times. Many of them might, no doubt, have been avoided by the exercise of the spirit of moderation on the part of the dissentients, and of the spirit of charity and comprehension on the part of the majority. At other times — especially when 566 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the Church rigidly exercises its self-appointed office as the guardian of some old-time dogma, instead of confining itself to the mission to which the Lord Christ sent it forth, that of preaching the gospel to the world — it would appear that no resource was left to the minority but that of separation. A few of the more important of the smaller denominations will here be mentioned. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church was the outcome of the great revival in Kentucky in 1797. One of the principal The Cumberland leaders was the Rev. James McGready, of the Presbyterian Presbyterian Church. The demands of the work urc were so great — compare the similar condition un der Wesley — that educated and ordained ministers could not be obtained in sufficient numbers. The Cumberland Presby tery thereupon, on the plea of necessity, ordained several men to reap the ripened harvest. These men could not meet the usual theological requirements. This action so enraged the Synod of Kentucky, to which the Cumberland Presbytery was amenable, that it went to the extreme of dissolving the Presby tery. All the offending members were prohibited from any ministerial acts. This was in 1806. The exiled members and those who sympathized with them, forming the majority of the Presbytery, abstained from all presbyterial proceedings, and awaited a redress of their grievances. To save their con gregations from disintegration, however, and to carry on the work of tbe revival, they formed a voluntary association called a Council. But in vain they waited for any conciliatory overtures from the Synod. Finally, on the 4th of February, 1810, three ministers — Finis Ewing, Samuel King, and Samuel McAdow — reorganized the Cumberland Presbytery ; and as the Synod and General Assembly refused to recognize this ac tion, the Church which thus had its origin took the name of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. This Church has had a re markable development. It extends from Pennsylvania to the Pacific, and from the Great Lakes to Louisiana and Texas. It has had a noble missionary and educational activity, and has had a most honorable career in the evangelization of the South and West. There can be no doubt that in the exigencies of the Great Revival of the beginning of this century there had been a re action from the stern Calvinism then prevalent, and that the OTHEE DENOMINATIONS 567 Synod of Kentucky was correct in its impression that the Cum berland Presbytery were not sufficiently sound in the faith. This impression was confirmed by the result. The new Church put forth its doctrinal protest in these notable words : 1. There are no eternal reprobates ; 2. Christ died, not for a part only, but for all mankind, and for all in the same sense ; 3. Infants dying in infancy are saved through Christ and the sanctification of the Spirit ; 4. The Spirit of God operates on the world as coextensively as Christ has made the atone ment, and in such a manner as to leave all men inexcusable. With these exceptions, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church rests on a solid Calvinistic basis. It is interesting to note that, after a long and animated debate, this vigorous Arminian body was admitted to the Pan -Presbyterian Council in Belfast in 1884. The peculiar relation of the Reformed Presbyterian Church to the Constitution of the United States calls for special men- The Reformed tion- This Church is the lineal descendant of that Presbyterian earnest and uncompromising body of Presbyterians ur0 who set forth so enthusiastically the renewed and enlarged National Covenant of Scotland in 1638. It is this devotion that has given them the name of Covenanters. Their principles require the complete autonomy of the Church as the representative of Christ, a radical reformation of every pre latic abuse, and the recognition of the Lordship of the Re deemer in all the acts of the State. They therefore refused to assent to the Revolution Settlement under William and Mary, by which a sort of royal supremacy over the Church in Scotland was maintained by the establishment of Presbyte rianism. This most extreme of the Presbyterian churches was planted in America in 1752 by Cuthbertson, from Scotland, as sisted later by Lind and Dobbin from Ireland. Through the labors of these ministers a Presbytery was formed in 1774. In 1782 this Presbytery united with the Presbytery of the Asso ciate Church. This union proved unsatisfactory, and in 1798 commissioners from the home Church in Scotland, McKinney and Gibson, meeting in Philadelphia, reconstituted the Re formed Presbyterian Church in the United States. All went well until 1833, when the severe prohibitions of all civil con formity provoked a protest, and caused a number of the min isters to withdraw from the Synod, who, however, retained the 568 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES old name. This new Synod relaxed somewhat the old condi tions, and it has grown much more rapidly than its more faithful sister. It has a college, appropriately called Geneva College, at Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, and a theological sem inary at Allegheny, in the same State. This Church supports missionaries in Syria and India. It allows its members to vote for officers who are not required to take an oath of allegiance to the Constitution. Both of the Reformed Presbyterian churches denounce that instrument as godless because it does not formally recognize the Headship of Christ in the affairs of nations. These churches keep fairly loyal to the old tradi tions which forbade the use of any hymns except the Psalms of David, and the employment of any musical aid to the voice in singing the praises of God. The Reformed Presbyterians have been recently agitated by the ecclesiastical trial of some ministers who voted at an election. Benjamin Randall, a convert of Whitefield, and a member of the Congregationalist Church, became a convert to Baptist views. But he could not agree with the Calvinism of Ba'tist* *"s brethren, and he was expelled from the Baptist Church. In 1780 he organized the Free-will Baptist Church at Durham, New Hampshire. A similar movement took place in North Carolina in 1751, under Shubael Stearns. An other protest — especially to the close-communion feature of the Baptist Church — was heard in Rhode Island and Connecticut in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Here, again, we meet with the influence of Whitefield. Those who gathered around this standard formed the Groton Union Conference in 1785. Many of them were absorbed into the Free Baptist Church. The latter Church has had a creditable growth. The Free Baptists are Arminian in theology, and hold to open commun ion with regard to the Lord's Supper. One of their declara tions is': " God has ordained man with power of free choice, and governs him by moral laws and motives ; and this power of free choice is the exact measure of his responsibility. All events are present with God from everlasting to everlasting ; but his knowledge of them does not in any sense cause them, nor does he decree all events which he knows will occur." The denomination is strong in Maine, and has a respectable stand ing in other states. It has a large constituency in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. It supports an excellent college at Lew- OTHEE DENOMINATIONS 569 iston, Maine, and another at Hillsdale, Michigan. This is a vigorous body of Christians, and it has made an honorable record in the religious history of the country. An interesting sect is the Tunkers, or German Baptists, sometimes called Dunkards, or Dunkers. Their official name is The Brethren, though they themselves frequently use the name German Baptists. Their origin is unique. In 1708 a few of the inhabitants of Schwartzenau, in Germany, led by Alexander Mack, met together to study the Bible, pledging each other to receive whatsoever it should teach them. In ignorance of Church history and of the prac tices of denominations in other countries, they reached the following conclusions : 1 . The Bible as the only rule of faith — all catechisms and confessions to be discarded; 2. The Con gregational form of Church government ; 3. Baptism of be lievers only; 4. Immersion. They also agreed to the follow ing methods and customs: An unpaid ministry; plainness of dress ; abstinence from oaths, war, and recourse to the civil courts ; refusal of interest ; the holy kiss ; anointing the sick with oil ; the love-feast ; feet- washing ; and trine immersion in baptism. The little band thus started on so primitive a way won many adherents. They were at length driven out by per secution, and took refuge in Holland and other countries. But they all soon came to America, the first contingent arriving in 1719, and settling in Germantown, Pennsylvania. They built a church, and chose Peter Becker as their minister. They have spread into the West and South, and though they pub lish no statistics ("inasmuch as the apostles never gave the exact number of believers"), it is estimated that they have twenty-five hundred preachers and ninety-five thousand mem bers. This brave company of Christians was unfortunately divided about 1880 on the question of what was essential or non-essen tial in the matters of practice. Tbe progressive party con tended that the Annual Meeting was taken Up with imposing petty rules and restrictions, in which their liberty in the gos pel was outrageously trampled upon. The first Convention of the Progressives was held at Ashland, Ohio, June 28th, 1882. The Brethren have always taken advanced ground on moral reforms. They issued a testimony against intoxicating drinks as early as 1781. 570 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES The first organized form of the New Church, or the New Jerusalem Church, in America, was the society which the Rev. James Wilmer and Col. Robert Carter, of Virginia, Swedenborgians gathered together in Baltimore in 1792. It is be lieved, however, that James Glen, an Englishman, who lectured in Philadelphia in 1 784, was the apostle of S weden- borgianism in America. In 1798 another society was formed in Baltimore, and at this time the first ordinations took place. Ralph Mather and John Hargrove were ordained by the lay- ing-on of hands of ten laymen. In 1817 the General Conven tion was organized. The Swedenborgians have carried on an extensive work in circulating the books of their great seer, and, after the fashion of the Unitarians, they seek thus to si lently leaven the whole Church. Some men eminent in science and literature have been members of the New Church. There are several sects bearing the name of Adventists. They all agree in holding to the near approach of the personal return of Christ. They take their rise in the mighty V/ventlsu1 agitati°n which swept over the country, due to the labors of William Miller, of Low Hampton, New York. Miller was a farmer. In 1833, after long studies of the prophecies, he came to the conclusion that the world was coming to an end in 1843. He began to publish his views and win disciples. He found willing listeners in all parts of the country, and as the day approached many sold their property, donned white robes, and went up to the hills to await their Lord's Coming. In the revulsion of feeling due to the disap pointment of their hopes, many renounced the doctrines of Mil ler. Others, however, still clung to the belief that Christ was soon to return, and various dates have been fixed. The Adven tists, as a rule, do not now specify the exact date, but content themselves with simply affirming that the Second Coming is very near, within ten or fifteen years at the farthest. The original body, the Evangelical Adventists, with headquarters in Bos ton, set forth their first Declaration of Principles in Albany in 1845. In 1840, however, they had begun the publication in Boston of the Signs of the Times, which is still continued un der the name of Messiah's Herald. The Christian Adventists is a larger body. This Church was organized in 1861. It has publishing houses in Boston and in Yarmouth, Maine. The Seventh-Day Adventists, with principal headquarters at OTHEE DENOMINATIONS 571 Battle Creek, Michigan, arose, like the Evangelical Adventists, in 1845. They are a numerous society, and have representa tives in many foreign countries. These and other Second Ad- ventist bodies are active in propagating their views, and have numerous sympathizers in all the evangelical churches. They all unite in a materialistic conception of Christianity and in a literal interpretation of the Bible. The Reformed Episcopal Church is really the offspring of the High-Church movement in the Protestant Episcopal Church. This movement became the ruling force. The Ep^scopa'church old-time traditions which allowed ministers of other Churches to officiate in Episcopal pulpits became of no effect. Between 1860 and 1870 canons were enacted forbidding any but Episcopally ordained men to min ister in the Church service. Even indirect sanction of the va lidity of the ministerial rights of other denominations was frowned upon. These measures were obnoxious to many evan gelical men in the Episcopal Church. They grew restive under them. All appeals to have these divisive and invidious laws rescinded, and all petitions for the revision of the Prayer Book, were rejected. Trouble was inevitable. In 1871 the Rev. Dr. Cheney was suspended from preaching by Bishop Whitehouse, for omitting the word " regenerate " in the service for infant baptism. Assistant Bishop Cummins, of Kentucky, was prohibited from preaching in the Illinois diocese by the same bishop on account of his opposition to the High-Church laws. Matters reached a crisis at the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, in October, 1873. On Sunday, Octo ber 12th, Bishop Cummins assisted the illustrious Dr. Dorner, of Germany, and other divines in the celebration of Holy Communion, in the Presbyterian church of which Dr. John Hall was pastor. Dean R. Payne Smith, of Canterbury, and Canon Fremantle, of London, offended in the same way. This illustration of fraternal love between different bodies of Chris tians caused the utmost sensation in the Protestant Episcopal Church. A storm of adverse criticism fell on tbe heads of the unfortunate parties. Bishop Cummins seemed to feel there was no longer any place left for evangelical men in the Prot estant Episcopal Church who desired to be true in any sense to the immemorial traditions of their own Church, now super- 572 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES seded by High-Church canons, which cut off from the body of Christ all the historic Churches of Christendom, except the Greek and the Roman Catholic. This impression led to the withdrawal of Bishop Cummins and several clergymen and laymen from the Episcopal Church. On the second day of December, 1873, in Association Hall, New York City, the Re formed Episcopal Church was organized with eight clergy men and twenty laymen, all of whom had been members of the Protestant Episcopal Church. In two years the number of clergy increased to fifty. With the elimination of the High-Church features, the Re formed Episcopal Church still retains a substantial agreement with the mother Church. It holds to the Book of Common Prayer "as it was revised, prepared, and recommended for use by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church, a.d. 1785." Extemporaneous prayer is allowed. Some doctrinal changes have been introduced into the Thirty-nine Articles, making them more definite and rigid. This Church has recently become impregnated with Second Adventism. Philip William Otterbein stands with Muhlenberg and As bury among the most illustrious religious founders of the United States. He was born, June 4th, 1726, at BreTthrenncheurch Orenburg, Germany. In 1752 he emigrated to America, and became pastor of the Reformed German Church in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. During his min istry here he received an experience very like Wesley's at the Aldersgate Street meeting, London. His preaching was with a spiritual power and illumination which was a surprise to his congregation. In 1760 he became pastor at Tulpehocken, Pennsylvania. He introduced evening services, special evan gelistic agencies, and carried on a work similar to the later work of the Methodist pioneers. He travelled far and wide, attending camp-meetings, kindling religious enthusiasm, and introducing multitudes into a new experience. During a great meeting held in a barn in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, he met the Rev. Martin Boehm, a thoroughly congenial spirit, who had been conducting a similar movement among the Mennonites. These two men now joined hands, and, helped by other German ministers, they penetrated the wilds of Penn sylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, preaching with a fervor and spiritual power unknown to the German settlers. Otterbein OTHEE DENOMINATIONS 573 fell in with Asbury, by whom he was held in the highest es teem, and at whose ordination as bishop he assisted, Decem ber 27th, 1784. The work under Otterbein and Boehm be came so extensive that annual conferences of the ministers were necessary in order to its guidance and consolidation. The first was held in Baltimore in 1789. For several years these earnest Germans were content with their existing Church organizations, and took no measures to form a new denomina tion. But in 1800, at their conference near Frederick, Mary land, the societies united in one body, which they called the "United Brethren in Christ." Otterbein and Boehm were elected bishops. In 1815 the doctrinal position of the Church was defined in a brief and admirable statement, at once evan gelical and catholic. The government of this aggressive Church is similar to that of the Methodist Episcopal, though more democratic. The United Brethren sustain missions in Germany and West Africa, and have an extensive publishing house in Dayton, Ohio. They have taken radical positions with regard to secret societies and all other moral reforms. A fact of wide and encouraging meaning is that, whereas at the time of the organization of the Church, German was spoken almost exclusively, it is now used by less than four per cent. of the congregations. Otterbein, in the midst of his other labors, always had charge of a parish. He was stationed at York, Pennsylvania, 1765-74, and at Baltimore, 1774 until his death, November 17th, 1813. Harbaugh contends that Otterbein never left the Church of his birth, but simply desired a reorganization of methods within that Church. Similar in origin to the United Brethren is that other large section of Methodism, the Evangelical Association. In 1790 Aib ¦ hf d JacoD Albright, then a successful brick and tile the Evangelical manufacturer in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, Association wag je(j jnj.Q a tnor0Uga religious life through the death of his children. He had been trained in the Lutheran Church, to which he now turned for counsel. But he was re pelled, and it was not until he met with Adam Ridgel, a Meth odist lay-preacher, that he found needful sympathy and help. This led him to study the Methodist polity and doctrine, and he was received into the Methodist Episcopal Church. Owing to a severe illness, be was led to undertake the evangelization 574 THE CHUKCH IN THE UNITED STATES of the German people. He began this work in October, 1796. Though meeting with much opposition and persecution, he car ried on his work with marvellous enthusiasm and success. At this time the Methodist Episcopal Church did not propose en tering the German-American field, so that this energetic lay evangelist was compelled to organize his societies on an inde pendent footing. In 1803 his congregations formed a Church similar in polity and doctrine to the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1807, a conference was held at which Albright was ordained bishop. Albright had the zeal and enterprise of Otterbein, though without his learning, and his extensive trav els throughout the German settlements introduced a new era into the history of these colonists. His saintly and beautiful life is a legacy of unspeakable value. He died at Miihlbach, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, May 8th, 1808. The Evangelical Association has extended largely in the Western States, and has a branch in Germany. This Church has a college and theological department at Naperville, Illi nois, and a publishing house at Cleveland, Ohio. It has recent ly been divided by one of the bitterest ecclesiastical feuds of modern times. The causes of this unfortunate division are largely personal, and all efforts towards healing this disastrous breach have thus far proven unsuccessful. A calamity such as this, to one of the purest and most earnest Christian Churches in the land, is a matter of profound regret. THE TEANSCENDENTALISTS 575 CHAPTER XX THE TRANSCENDENTALISTS [Authorities. — Frothingham, Transcendentalism in New England : a History (N. Y., 1876). This is the only authoritative account of all phases of this remarkable movement. The author fully appreciates the unworldly ideal ism of that noble group of men. The same author's George Ripley (Bos ton, 1882), in American Men of Letters Series, and his article on "Tran scendentalism " in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, should also be read. Oliver Wendell Holmes's Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston, 1891), in the same series, is fresh, but spoiled by a Unitarian tendency. Holmes is at his best in imagination, and at his worst in theology. The best life of Emerson is by Cabot (Boston, 1887). The Brook Farm enterprise is fully described in the Atlantic Monthly for 1878, in Old and New for February, April, Septem ber, 1871, and May, 1872, and in chaps, iii. and iv. of Frothingham's Ripley.] The Transcendental movement had its origin in a band of Unitarian scholars and thinkers, mostly young men, earnest, n . . aggressive, and completely dissatisfied with the old or der of things. In September, 1836, Ralph Waldo Emer son, Frederick H. Hedge, George Ripley, and George Putnam met together in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to discuss meas ures for the bringing-in of the better day. Each man, as Em erson intimated, " carried a revolution in his waistcoat pocket." But the truth of history must be told — the revolutions never came out of their hiding-places. Other meetings were held. These were fitful, and without any special prearrangement. The meeting at Emerson's house in Concord in that same month of September was called by the public the meeting of the " Transcendental Club." There was really no organized movement. It was simply an undefined fellowship of thought ful and original men in great good humor with themselves, but thoroughly out of humor with the ruling doctrines of the Church, and bent on realizing, they knew not how, an ideal quite independent of Christianity. George Ripley, one of the best of the original band, thus states the creed of the Transcendentalists : " There is a class 576 the chuech in the united states of persons who desire a reform in the prevailing philosophy of the day. These are called Transcendentalists, be cause they believe in an order of truths which transcends the sphere of the external senses. Their leading idea is the supremacy of mind over matter. Hence they maintain that the truth of religion does not depend on tradition, nor histor ical facts, but has an unerring witness in the soul. There is a light, they believe, which enlighteneth every man that cometh into the world ; there is a faculty in all — the most degraded, the most ignorant, the most obscure — to perceive spiritual truth when distinctly presented ; and the ultimate appeal on all moral questions is not to a jury of scholars, a hierarchy of divines, or the prescriptions of a creed, but to the common- sense of the human race." Individuals differing very widely in their convictions were brought together. They were united by the common belief in the supremacy of the individual reason, of the intuitions of the soul, and of the immediate apprehension of spiritual truth by the native power of man. To them human nature itself was divine. Chief among the Transcendentalists was Ralph Waldo Em erson, both a lover and a critic of the movement. He was a man of delightful spirit, and wrote with inimitable subtlety Emerson ° J. •> and grace. His name reflects immortal honor upon American letters. He came from a family famed for its relig ious distinction, in which were eight generations of preachers. Not in theology, however, or in the theological spirit, but in let ters and philosophical glimpses, it may be said Emerson was the rare flower of the New England stock. He graduated from Harvard University in 1821, and in 1829 became pastor of the Second Unitarian Church of Boston. In 1832 he resigned his pastorate on account of his growing lack of sympathy with everything distinctive of Christianity. Later, he became un willing to offer public prayer, and at length retired from all association with ecclesiastical affairs. He then devoted him self entirely to writing and lecturing. He made no pretension whatever to any consistency or constructiveness of thought, but there is always something marvellously vital, suggestive, and stimulating in his writings. He was an intuitionalist pure and simple. He left no philosophical system, no school, and in religion he steadily drifted farther away from theism to a the teanscendentalists 577 sort of pale pantheism. His life was remarkably pure and beautiful, and his constant plea for the things of the spirit was not without its influence against the rising materialism. The Transcendentalists, at the outset, were men of sane and moderate intentions. They broached no visionary reforms. ««¦¦ » j o . They were not iconoclasts. But between 1830 Affiliated Reformers rf . and 1850 the air was full of radical proposals for a reconstructed world, and the wildest social and religious the ories were set forth. These the Transcendentalists rather en couraged than frowned upon, so that the opprobrium of these movements fell upon those who had little or nothing in com mon with them. Frothingham quotes from Emerson a de scription of the Conventions of the Friends of Universal Prog ress, held in 1840 in Chardon Street, Boston : " The singularity and latitude of the summons drew to gether from all parts of New England, and also from the Mid dle States, men of every shade of opinion, from the strait- est orthodoxy to tbe wildest heresy, and many persons whose church was a church of one member only. A great variety of dialect and of costume was noticed. A great deal of confu sion, eccentricity, and freak appeared, as well as of zeal and enthusiasm. . . . Madmen, madwomen, men with beards, Dun- kers, Muggletonians, Come-outers, Groaners, Agrarians, Sev enth - Day Baptists, Quakers, Abolitionists, Calvinists, Unita rians, and philosophers, all came successively to the top, and seized their moment, if not their hour, wherein to chide, or pray, or preach, or protest. ... If there was not parliamentary order, there was life, and the assurance of that constitutional love for religion and religious liberty which in all periods characterizes the inhabitants of this part of America. . . . These men and women were in reach of something better and more satisfying than a vote or a definition." The Transcendentalists themselves inaugurated an experi ment at West Roxbury, Massachusetts, for the realization of human brotherhood, personal equality, and the com bination of intellectual pursuits with manual labor. It was a small agricultural colony, organized, not on a com- munjat4i^JjuJi>ojjjliisocialistic .and co-cmeratiye basjs... The arti cles of association were drawn up in September, 1841. The prime leaders were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, Minot Pratt, and William B. Allen. Nathaniel Hawthorne also bought 37 578 THE chuech in the united states stock, and Theodore Parker, the great Channing, and other men of eminence gave it their sympathy. Personal property and individual rights and tastes were respected. The colony numbered about one hundred and fifty. Some joined to see how such an industrial experiment would work, and others were impelled by the desire to realize the democratic ideal of Christ. In the Dial, which was the great Transcendental organ, Miss Elizabeth Peabody describes the institute as an attempt to establish upon earth the City of God. "We have hitherto heard of Christ by the hearing of the ear," she says ; " now let us see him, let us be him, and see what will come of that. Let us communicate with each other and live." The male members of the institute worked at farming, gardening, and other pursuits, according to their liking, and many of them in teaching, which was the most remunerative part of their work. Some of the members, like Mr. and Mrs. Ripley, Dana, John S. Dwight, and George P. Bradford, were competent scholars, and they had no lack of pupils. In 1845 the Brook Farm As sociation was turned into a Fourierist "phalanx." On the evening of March 3d, 1846, the phalanstery was burned, and the interesting experiment of Brook Farm was abandoned, 1847, amid crushing financial losses. Brook Farm is a romantic episode in American history. Of tbe sincerity of purpose and noble enthusiasm of its promoters there can be no doubt. Frothingham thinks that the in troduction of Fourierism was one of the chief causes of its downfall. It smothered its joyous and free spirit by too much mechanism and rule. " The idealists lingered last, loath to leave a spot endeared by so many associations, hallowed by so many hopes. One of the last to go, one of the saddest of heart, one of the most self-sacrificing through it all, was John S. Dwight. It may truly be said that Brook Farm died in music."* But the men who planted it never lost faith in the principles it embodied. Hawthorne used to speak of "his old and affectionately remembered home at Brook Farm." In the same spirit Dana wrote long after of the " great pleasure to look back upon the days when we were together, and to be lieve that the ends for which we then labored are sure at last, in good time, to be realized for mankind." * Frothingham, "George Ripley," p. 192. COMMUNISTIC CHUECHES 579 CHAPTER XXI COMMUNISTIC CHURCHES [Authorities. — The best authority is Nordhoff, Communistic Societies in the United States (N. Y., 1875). Noyes, History of American Socialisms (Lon don, 1870), is a valuable work. Dixon, New America (London, 1867), and Spiritual Wives (London, 1868), contain a mine of information by a compe tent critic and versatile writer. Noyes, Handbook of the Oneida Commu nity (Wallingford, Conn., 1867), gives full details concerning the most radi cal communistic experiment. Williams, The Harmony Society at Economy, Pa. (New Haven, 1867); Avery, Sketches of Shakers and Shakerism (Al bany, 1883).] Seveeau attempts at a realization of the unity and com munity of goods of the Early Church have been made on American soil. These organizations, for the most part, have been established on ostensibly Christian and Biblical princi ples, and therefore deserve a brief treatment in a history of the American Church. The first of these in point of time is the German Seventh- Day Baptists. They were founded by Conrad Beissel, who The German came to this country in 1720. He very soon became Seventh-Day dissatisfied with the views of the Tunkers, of which ap IS s body he was a member, and began to advocate celi bacy and the Saturday Sabbath. He withdrew from all inter course with his former associates, and established himself as a hermit on the banks of the Cocalico River. He was soon joined by others. In 1728 Beissel formed a monastic order, and built cells at Ephrata, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Celibacy was required on the part of the monks, but not for other members of the society. The inmates of the cloisters changed their names on assuming the vows of the order, and wore a peculiar garb. In 1740 there were thirty-six monks and thirty-five nuns, besides nearly two hundred and fifty af filiated members. Various mills were operated. The monks gave special attention to printing. Some of the largest pub- 580 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES lishing undertakings of the entire Colonial period were car ried on in the German language in the retired settlement of Ephrata. For example, the celebrated Martyr Book (" Der Blutige Schau-Platz ") was translated by them from the Dutch into German, and printed here in 1748. It is an immense folio, of over fifteen hundred pages, and probably the largest work from the colonial press. Pennypacker refers to the Sabbath- school established by Ludwig Hacker, of Ephrata, as existing forty years before Raikes's school was founded. Beissel died in 1768. Peter Miller, a convert from the Presbyterians, suc ceeded him. But the society has steadily gone down, and there are now but few members. The old cloister still stands at Ephrata, and another at Snow Hill, Pennsylvania. The Ephrata community kept up a good reputation for morality and piety, and one cannot but look with regret upon the steady dwindling-away of this picturesque band of Baptist monks. The Shakers trace their origin back to the Camisards of France. They say that some of the Camisards went to England in 1706, and formed a society in 1747, which was led by James and Jane Wardley. Ann Lee, of Manchester, England, joined this society in 1758. She received revelations from God, and went forth to found a new Church. Her lead ership was accepted by many, and she was regarded as the second appearing of Christ. Acting under a supposed divine revelation, she and nine of her followers set sail for New York, May 19th, 1774. A tract of ground was bought, seven miles northwest of Albany, and in 1776 Ann Lee's pilgrim Church "gathered in this forest home." A revival of religion at New Lebanon, Columbia County, New York, in 1779, largely in creased Lee's company. " The Shakers' first house of worship was built at New Lebanon in 1785. The first gathering into a community was in 1787. Their first written covenant of a full consecration to God of life, services, and treasure was signed by the members in 1795." Their proper name is " Believers in Christ's Second Appear ing," but they themselves ordinarily use the name by which they are known to the world. It is derived from one of their chief prophecies (Haggai ii., 6, 7), where Christ is promised to appear. They have several points of agreement with the Quakers, especially in simplicity of dress and severe morality of life. Their societies consist of both sexes and all ages. The COMMUNISTIC CHUECHES 581 sexes commingle freely together in social converse, and in business and labor. They also worship and eat together, but in separate groups. The most absolute law of celibacy is rig idly enforced upon all. They reject the divinity of Christ. He became the Messiah in baptism. Resurrection is of the soul. The new life comes from the death of sin. The day of judgment is when any one receives or refuses the Christ-life. There is no arbitrary election into eternal life. Probation ex tends into the next life, and the end of the world comes to every soul when born of the Christ-spirit. The Shakers be lieve in spiritualistic communications. They are opposed to war, and are loyal to civil government and to the laws of the land, but refuse all general governmental offices. An interesting body of Christians was founded by the weaver George Rapp, who was born at Iptingen, Wurtemberg, 1770, and died at Economy, Pennsylvania, August 7th, 1847. When a young man he became im pressed with the lifeless character of the Church, and began to preach in the neighboring villages a return to the apostolic simplicity and earnestness of faith. Persecution was his re ward. In 1803 he emigrated to America, and made arrange ments for the coming of his followers. They responded ire mediately, and very soon six hundred persons had arrived. They purchased land in Butler County, Pennsylvania, along tbe Conequenessing Creek. On February 15th, 1805, the Rapp ists formally organized themselves into a "Harmony Society." Everything was to be thrown into a common stock, a uniform dress to be adopted, and each was to labor for the good of the whole. Rapp was their " preacher, teacher, guide, and keep er." He was a man of earnest Christian character, of fine executive ability, and sound common-sense. Houses, a church, a school-house, mills, a tannery, and a distillery were built. In 1807, under an impulse of still stricter conformity to the ex ample of Christ, tbe Rappists avowed celibacy. In 1815 they purchased a tract of twenty-four thousand acres upon the Wabash, Indiana, where they established the New Harmony settlement. This they sold to Robert Owen in 1824, and the Rappists took up their last abode at Economy, Pennsylvania, seventeen miles northwest of Pittsburg. In 1831 a German adventurer, Bernhard Muller, introduced dissensions into the colony ; and since then the Rappists have lost heart, sought no 582 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES more accessions, and have declined. At present they number only about thirty members. They have a saner theology than the Shakers, though with some suggestions of an extravagant mysticism. They abhor spiritualism, and look constantly for the personal Second Coming of Christ. Rapp believed that he would live to see this day. With pathetic faith, the venerable reformer, in extreme feebleness, awaiting the approach of death, said : " If I did not know that the dear Lord meant I should present you all to him, I should think my last moments come." Very similar in origin to the Rappists is the " Separatist So ciety of Zoar." These Zoarites also arose in Wiirtemberg, and brought upon themselves the wrath of the Estab lished Church by their refusal to send their children to the clerical schools. The government also treated them harshly on account of their disinclination to bear arms. Some English Quakers assisted them to emigrate. They arrived in Philadelphia in August, 1817, and at once bought a tract of five thousand six hundred acres in Ohio. Their headquarters are at Zoar, Tuscarawas County, Ohio. They chose Joseph Baumeler as leader. They established a community of goods. In 1832 they sought for incorporation, taking the name of the Separatist Society of Zoar. They have prospered greatly in worldly affairs. In principle they are much like the Quakers. They believe in the Trinity, and in the usual orthodox doc trines. They refuse all titles of honor, address every one as thou (du), reject the sacraments and all ceremonies, have no ad vanced ministry, and give equal rights to the women. Unlike the Rappists, the Zoarites hold that marriage is honorable. They are a pious and industrious folk, but have made little effort towards intellectual culture. John H. Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, ap plied the doctrines of communism to persons as well as to property. He graduated at Dartmouth College in Community 1830> studied theology at Andover and New Haven, and was licensed to preach in 1833. He embraced, however, some strange doctrines. He held that the Second Coming of Christ took place soon after his Ascension ; that we are therefore living in a new dispensation in which personal communication with Christ secures salvation from all evil and sin, even disease and death itself. He sought to carry out his tbeories in two settlements organized on the most unregulated THE MOEMONS 583 application of the theory of "having all things in common." These communities were at Oneida, Madison County, New York, and at Wallingford, Connecticut. For thirty years Noyes's experiment went on with much success (1848-79). For some years before 1878, Professor Mears, of Hamilton Col lege, led a crusade against the immoral practices of the society in respect to the community of wives, and in 1879 this social feature was abandoned. Other changes followed. In 1880, communism in goods was superseded by a joint-stock arrange ment, and the community was reorganized and incorporated as the Oneida Community, Limited. The community carries on several manufactories, and has attained to considerable wealth. The Wallingford Community was abandoned in 1880. CHAPTER XXII THE MORMONS [Authorities. — There is an abundant Mormon literature. A complete bibliog raphy can be found in Bancroft, History of Utah (San Francisco, 1890), pp. xx.-xlvii. A very full list is given by a princely Americanist, Woodward, Bibliotheca Scalawagiana (N. Y., 1880). Whitsitt appends an excellent se lection to his article in Jackson, Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1891), p. 622. A few of the more important historical works are here given. Of the earlier histories, Howe, Mormonism Unveiled (Painesville, 0., 1834- 1841); Mackay, The Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints (London, 1851); and Kidder, Mormonism and the Mormons (N. Y., 1842), are still of value. Of later histories, Stenhouse, Rocky Mountain Saints (N. Y., 1873); Gregg, The Prophet of Palmyra (N. Y., 1890) ; Spaulding, The Spaulding Memo rial (Boston, 1872); Montgomery, The Mormon Delusion (Boston, 1890); Thomas, Mormon Saints (London, 1890); Whitsitt, Life of Sidney Rigdon (1891); Dickinson, New Light on Mormonism (new ed., N. Y., 1890), may be consulted. Mrs. Dickinson has shed new light on the Spaulding affair, and Whitsitt has thoroughly reinvestigated the origin of the delusion. Kennedy. Early Days of Mormonism (N. Y., 1888), is indispensable for the experience at Palmyra, Kirtland, and Nauvoo. For the history of the Utah Settlement, see Bancroft, as above. McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia has an elaborate treatment by Worman; Bishop Tuttle, of Utah, writes an admirable article for the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, and Whitsitt fur nishes much fresh information in a thorough survey in Jackson, as above.] It is impossible to unravel the intricate details of the early history of the most remarkable delusion in the history of re- 584 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ligious fanaticism. To give to each man who had a part in the promotion of Mormonism his just dues, to find out in whose mind it had its inception, to tell the exact part each played in that strange role — this is indeed a difficult task. Whitsitt has taken up this work with great thoroughness, and it seems probable that his results are not far from the truth. Three men laid the foundations of Mormonism. The first was Solomon Spaulding. He may be called its unconscious prophet. He was an erratic Presbyterian preacher of Spaulding £_ r _, , / \ , , Western Pennsylvania, who was taken up with theories of millennialism, return of the Jews, and the Indians as the de scendants of the ten tribes of Israel. He set forth these and other theories in a series of weak romances, one of which, the "Book of Mormon," written about 1812, was deposited in the printing-office of Patterson & Lambdin, Pittsburg. Spaul ding died in 1816. He did not give to the subsequent Mor monism its Bible, and his part is exaggerated by some, but it is indisputable that one, if not more, of his wild romances was at the foundation of the sacred book of the Latter-Day Saints. Sidney Rigdon had the largest part in this literary history. Without intending it, he really founded the absurd Mormon system. He was born in St. Clair township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, February 19th, 1793. He became a Baptist minister in 1819, but was converted into a firm be lief in the views of the Disciples of Christ in 1821. The Dis ciples were literalists in their interpretation of Scripture ; and when Rigdon came into the possession of Spaulding's manu scripts at the bankrupt sale of the Pittsburg printers, he at once began to revise these writings, make large additions to them, and impregnate them through and through with the Disciple theology. Rigdon's thought seems to have been to make these supposed revelations the medium of the founding of a Church which would completely embody his ideals. Rig don was, in his way, a brilliant and audacious man, and be suc ceeded in his work beyond his expectations. A helper appeared at the right moment. This was Joseph Smith, a young man of Manchester, Ontario County, New Joseph smith ^ork" H<1 was born in Sharon> Windsor County, Vermont, December 23d, 1805. "His family led a sort of gypsy existence from 1804 to 1815, changing their places of residence seven times in that period." Their last THE MOEMONS 585 abode was in Palmyra, Wayne County, New York. Joseph Smith was fond of divination, fortune-telling, discovering hid den treasures ; and with his divining-rod and seer stare he travelled over New York State, attracting considerable atten tion. He had formerly been connected with the Methodists. He claims to have been the subject of visions and strange dreams. He united a visionary and emotional temperament with considerable shrewdness and sagacity. Rigdon fell in with him September 21st, 1823. Smith was captivated with the Pittsburg minister's ideas and plans. The " Book of Mor mon," as edited by Rigdon, was published in March, 1830. The first Church was enrolled at Manchester, New York, April 6th, 1830. The singular book, thus destined to figure so largely in the religious history of the country, professed to give the fortunes of the aborigines of America from the time of The " Book of tneir ieavjno. tne Bible lands until the time when Mormon ° a part of them were annihilated in the great battle of Cumorah Hill, Ontario County, New York, a.d. 384. Of those who escaped in that battle were Mormon and his son Moroni. Mormon collected the sacred books of the kings and priests, containing God's revelations, which were supplemented by Moroni, who buried them in the hill of Cumorah with the divine assurance that God's true prophet would some day dis cover them and publish them to the world. This volume, con sisting of thin gold plates, Smith professed to have discovered. The reality of all this, with several angelic interferences be sides, was attested by the oath of Smith's amanuenses, Cow- dery, Whitmer, and Martin Harris, all of whom, however, sub sequently withdrew their oath and denounced the whole story as an imposture. The first gathering-place of the Mormons was at Kirtland, Ohio, 1831. Many joined them. It is here that we first hear of Brigham Young, also a Vermonter, whose fa ther had settled at Sherburne, Chenango County, New York. Brigham joined the Mormons in 1831, and his strong and determined character at once made an impression on the Kirtland colony. Missionaries were sent to England and the continent of Europe, and Young himself undertook the conversion of the New-Englanders. But the new religion ists made themselves obnoxious to the people of the town ; per- 586 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES secution arose, and they were driven out. A like fate over took a section that went into Jackson County, Missouri. These latter were driven from county to county, until, in 1839, they were expelled from the state altogether. The Kirtland band, with many new converts, moved in 1838 to Nauvoo, on the Mississippi River, Illinois. Here they built a large town, con structed a temple, and were enjoying a prosperous existence, when persecution once more arose. Their claims as the only true people of God, their " revelations," the new doctrine of polygamy which it was reported Smith had received by spe cial communication from God, and the implicit obedience re quired by their prophet — these things, acting on the inflamed religions prejudices of the " Gentiles," caused an unfortunate outbreak. Smith was arrested and imprisoned. On June 27th, 1844, a mob broke into the jail at Carthage, near Nauvoo, and shot Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum. This cruel and causeless murder threw the halo of martyrdom around the head of the first prophet of Mormonism, and bound his fol lowers together as though around a sacred cause. The tireless energy and diplomacy of Brigham Young had supplanted Rigdon, and virtually retired him. Young was elected president. He cared nothing for revelations, but devoted himself with rare ambition and statesmanship to consolidate the Mormons, and lead them into territories beyond the hand of the disturber. With a select band of pioneers he threaded a wild of eleven hundred miles, and on July 24th, 1847 (the Great Day of the Mormons), he arrived in the Salt Lake Valley. This was to be the Mormon centre. Here tbe toilsome pilgrimage was to end. The next year four thousand Mormons were marched with military precision across the great plains and mountains, and as if by magic Salt Lake City arose. Here Brigham Young reigned a virtual king until his death, August 29th, 1877. The Mormons received constant recruits by the missionary labors of their wily rep resentatives in England, Sweden, and Norway. Their heavy emigration fund, and the glowing descriptions of the El Do rado of the West, with the religious zeal of the missionaries and their constant appeal to the Bible, made an impression upon the poorer classes in the old countries, and won many converts. The Germans and Swiss were less susceptible, and no hearing could be obtained in Roman Catholic countries. THE MOEMONS 587 In addition to Utah, large colonies were settled in Wyoming, Idaho, and the surrounding states and territories. Brigham Young directed the political fortunes of the Mor mon theocracy of the West. He ruled with a rod of iron. He reduced the whole territory of Utah under his Complications swav- The Federal authorities were treated with profound contempt. Trains of non-Mormon immi grants were massacred. It was a Mormon empire, in which a military autocracy was sustained by the august sanctions of religious inspiration. At length, after the close of the Civil War, the United States were in a position to regain control of this portion of their domain. A Federal governor was ap pointed. In 1871, polygamy was outlawed and Young ar rested. But this advantage was not followed up. Freling- huysen introduced a bill in 1873 severely censuring polyg amy. A more radical measure was reported in 1874. These and later laws were of little effect, however, on account of the difficulty of enforcing them. At length, in 1882, Senator Ed munds, of Young's and Smith's native state, secured the pas sage of a bill which struck the death - blow of polygamy. Many convictions followed this act. " Gentile " immigration largely increased. Public sentiment as well as public law be gan to work. The leaders saw that the immoral feature of their sect could be no longer maintained. In October, 1890, President Woodruff proclaimed to a vast audience in the tem ple at Salt Lake City that, by divine authority, polygamy was abolished in the Church of the Latter-Day Saints. When Joseph Smith was reported to have published his revelation of polygamy in 1843, Rigdon strenuously held out against it. In fact, it is claimed that this was A Rival Claimant ° „ _,. , -, . . , merely a ruse of Young, who was a determined advocate of the new theory. Rigdon and Joseph Smith, Jr., the son of the slain prophet, repudiated Young's authority, and, with many thousands of the best Mormons, refused to join the Utah exodus. They went back to Kirtland, Ohio, and peace ably settled in other parts of the Middle West. After recov ering from the shock of Smith's assassination, they launched their bark again under the title of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. They claim to be the true Mormons, and denounce Young and the larger Church as schismatics and impostors. They quote from the "Book of 588 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Mormon " passages strictly forbidding polygamy and concu binage. The courts of Ohio have endorsed their claim to be the legal successors of the original Mormons by giving to them the old temple at Kirtland. They have a publishing house at Lamoni, Decatur County, Iowa, and churches in all the large cities of the Union and many in England. Joseph Smith, Jr., is the president of this body. The Mormons profess to prove all their tenets from the Bible, which is a divine revelation, and, along with the "Book of Mormon " and the " Book of Doctrine and Covenants," the standard of faith and practice. They interpret the Bible in a crude and literal fashion. Their own sacred books do not supersede, but rather supplement, the Bible. Prophecy, miracles, and all the apostolic gifts continue in the Church to all time. The "Epitome of Faith," issued by the Reorganized Church, is a carefully guarded statement of several Scriptural doctrines, with some Mormon additions. The Mormon leaders have developed a theocracy fatal to virtue and liberty. It has wound its coils like an octopus around both the family and the state, and would have crushed both if it had had the power. The band that remained east of the Rocky Mountains under the younger Smith is the only Mormon body that has retained any degree of simple and Scriptural faith. It is guiltless of the crimes that stain the reign of Brigham Young. Missionary work is now being carried on in Utah by the various evangelical denominations. The non-Mormon element has become so strong that the government of Salt Lake City has at length been wrested out of the hands of the hierarchy. Of all the frontier fields in the United States, no parts are so difficult for the minister of the gospel as those of Utah and the surrounding regions where Mormonism has held sway and breathed its mildew. THE ANTISLAVEEY EEFOEM 589 CHAPTER XXIII THE ANTISLAVERY REFORM [Authorities. — Williams, History of the Negro Race (N. Y., 1883); Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (Boston, 1871-76). The above are learned and elaborate works of permanent authority. An excel lent brief review is given by Brace, Gesta Christi (N. Y., 4th ed., revised, 1888), pp. 369-386. The best — in fact, the only — conspectus of the views of the American churches is found in three works republished by a veteran antislavery reformer, Mr. Parker Pillsbury, of Concord, N. H. These works are: Pillsbury, The Church as It Is ; or, The Forlorn Hope of Slavery (1845, 2d ed., revised, 1888); Birney, The American Churches the Bulwark of American Slavery (1st ed., London, 1840 ; last ed., Concord, 1885) ; Fos ter, The Brotherhood of Thieves ; or, A True Picture of the American Church and Clergy (1843, new ed. 1886). These pamphlets give volumi nous extracts from the official declarations of the Churches and from repre sentative clergymen. The history of the conflict in the Methodist Episco pal Church, the Church in which the antislavery agitation had its fullest effect, is told by Elliott, History of the Great Secession (Cincinnati, 1852), and American Slavery (1850). For the honorable work of the Quakers, see Statement of the Rise and Progress of the Testimony of the Friends in Regard to Slavery (Phila., 1843). See also Pillsbury, Acts of the Anti- Slavery Apostles (Concord, 1883); Johnson, Garrison and the Anti-Slavery Movement (revised ed., Boston, 1881) ; and Clarke, Anti-Slavery Days (N. Y., 1883).] The history of slavery in America is contemporary with the history of the country. In 1619, a Dutch frigate stopped at Jamestown, Virginia, and sold fourteen negroes to the 0r 9'n colonists. English merchants carried on the trade assid uously. The Royal African Company, chartered by Elizabeth, agreed to furnish in thirty-three years 144,000 negroes, many of them to the American colonies. The colonists, as a rule, had few, if any, scruples on the subject. The Virginian set tlers of North Carolina carried their slaves with them. " South Carolina was settled by planters from Barbadoes, whence slaves were brought by one of its earliest governors, Sir John Yea- 590 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES mans." The only colony in which slavery was outlawed was Georgia, and this, according to Bancroft, was not due to the humane sentiments of Oglethorpe, but to public interest and safety. In 1743, the antislavery laws were repealed. The cultivation of cotton, rice, and sugar in the South naturally attracted slave labor to that region ; and although, on account of climate and other considerations of convenience, the North ern States employed less and less of slave labor, the merchants of Boston, Salem, Newport, New York, and other Northern cities carried on the slave-traffic with great enterprise and zeal. In many cases the out-borne cargo was rum, which was exchanged in Africa for negroes, who were brought to the Southern States, and became a part of the inheritance which only a great war destroyed. Three hundred thousand slaves were imported into the colonies previous to 1776. Early voices were not wanting against slavery. Its incon sistency with the Declaration of Independence was the occa sion of taunts without number. As might be ex- Early Protests pected, the New England States developed the earliest antislavery sentiment. As early as 1703 a verdict of damages in favor of a slave for the recovery of wages and freedom for the years after the age of twenty-one was ren dered by a Connecticut court. In 1 766, a similar verdict was given by the Superior Court of Salem, Massachusetts. In 1780, the Bill of Rights, declaring that "all men are born equally free and independent," was adopted by Massachusetts. It accompanied the Constitution of 1780, and was drawn up by John Adams. On the strength of this Bill, the Supreme Judicial Court declared that slavery was abolished in Massa chusetts. A similar decision did the same thing for New Hampshire, and so strong was the sentiment in Vermont that the first article of its Bill of Rights in 1777, before it be came a state, branded slavery as an institution unworthy of the support of mankind. The Colonial Congress in 1774 made a similar declaration : " We will neither import nor purchase any slave imported, nor will we hold intercourse with those provinces that do not agree with the same." This healthful feeling pervaded the whole Revolutionary period. " The spirit of the master," says Jefferson, in his "Notes on Virginia," "is abating, that of the slave is rising from the dust ; the way, I hope, preparing for total emancipation." The Revolutionary THE ANTISLAVEEY EEEOEM 591 Fathers were sound on this question, and far in advance of their times. Washington, in his will, provided for the emanci pation of his slaves. He said to Jefferson that it was " among his first wishes to see some plan adopted in which slavery in this country might be abolished by law." Franklin became the president of an abolition society in Philadelphia in 1787. John Adams echoed the words of Washington: "Every meas ure of prudence," he said, "ought to be assumed for the event ual total extirpation of slavery from the United States." In 1787, when the Constitution of the United States was framed, slavery would have been abolished by that instrument had it not been for the opposition of South Carolina and Georgia, the inhabitants of which states believed slave-labor a financial advantage. They firmly refused to go into the Union at all unless slavery was left untouched. The Friends seem to have been the earliest body to take ac tion against slavery. In 1688, the Germantown (Philadelphia) Quakers petitioned the Yearly Meeting to do some- Churchmennand tning for tce overthrow of the institution. "From Ecclesiastical 1395 t,o 1776 the Society nearly every year de clared the importing, purchase, or sale of slaves by its members to be a ' disownable offence.' " John Wool- man and Anthony Benezet are illustrious names in the history of this reform (1746-67). Benjamin Lay, also a Quaker, re printed the tract of Judge Samuel Sewall, of Massachusetts, "The Selling of Joseph," which was first published in 1700. In 1770, Dr. Samuel Hopkins, a Congregationalist divine, pastor of the First Church, Newport, Rhode Island, began to preach against the slave system. Owing to the energy of its ship pers, Newport was the principal slave-mart for all the thirteen colonies. Hopkins entered into the controversy with intense earnestness, and his sermons, pamphlets, and newspaper arti cles exerted a wide influence. He also devised a plan for African colonization and evangelization. Wesley's testimony against slavery was not without effect in America. In 1784, at the organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the following were the official records of the Church : " We view it as contrary to tbe Golden Law of God, on which hang all the law and the prophets, and the inalienable rights of man kind as well as every principle of the Revolution, to hold in the deepest abasement, in a more abject slavery than is 592 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES perhaps to be found in any part of the world except America, so many souls that are all capable of the image of God." Ex plicit measures were then mentioned for the emancipation of every slave held by any members of the Church. This dec laration closed thus : " What shall be done with those who buy or sell slaves, or give them away? Answer. They are immediately to be expelled, unless they buy them on purpose to free them." The subsequent history of .Methodism, how ever, marked a continuous retreat from this position, until in 1836 the General Conference passed a vote of censure on two of its members for attending an antislavery meeting in Cincin nati. Nevertheless, in 1796, a protest had been made against the "crying evil of African slavery," and somewhat similar measures of manumission urged upon the Church as those out lined in 1784, but this time only in the case of official members. Slave-selling, however, was prohibited. In 1800, preachers were particularly designated as the objects of discipline and dis grace in case of holding property in human beings. In 1804, the descent had gone so far that the Discipline, besides paring away the resolutions of 1796, made the following notable con cession: "The members of our societies in the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee shall be ex empted from the operation of the above rules." The Presbyterian Church began its testimony with the same boldness. In 1787, the synods of New York and Philadelphia earnestly recommended abolition of slavery. This judgment was reaffirmed by the General Assemblies of 1793 and 1794. In a note to the 142d question of the Larger Catechism, slavery was denounced as man-stealing. Slave-holding, however, was not made a disciplinary offence, and the note on man-stealing was erased in 1816. The Presbyterian Church contented her self with general statements of the evils of slavery, and with urging an ultimate emancipation. A period of quiescence followed. Slavery had become thoroughly intrenched in all the Southern States. Any ef fort at exscinding the slave-holding element would Quiescence have caused a rupture immediately. The Protestant Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches did not dis criminate against the system. Even the Quakers grew cold. Slave-owners were freely admitted into the Presbyterian and Methodist Churches. The disruption of Methodism, in 1844, THE ANTISLAVEEY EEFOEM 593 was due not to a return to Wesley's high ground of slavery as a sin against God and an outrage on human rights, but to the fact, as asserted in the Resolution of the General Conference, that Bishop Andrew's involuntary connection with slavery " would embarrass the exercise of his office as an itinerant gen eral superintendent." His suspension did not call a halt to the exercise of that spirit of concession which had been a marked feature in all the utterances of the Methodist Episcopal Cburch. This spirit had gone so far that, in 1836, the General Confer ence charged the ministers and members of the Church "to abstain from all abolition movements and associations, and to refrain from patronizing any of their publications." .Though the official representatives of Christ were very cau tious and conservative, hoping and waiting for a time when Providence would interfere to remove the evil, the gospel had nurtured many a man whose life was de voted to the overthrow of the great curse. Chief of these was William Lloyd Garrison, who at an early period said : " Eman cipation mnst be the work of Christianity and the Church. They must achieve the elevation of the blacks, and place them on the equality of the Gospels." He was a printer and journal ist, and from the time of his association with Benjamin Lundy, an eminent Quaker philanthropist, in the publication of the pa per the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," in 1829, to the final overthrow of slavery, he labored with quenchless devo tion to this work. Sometimes mobbed, he pursued his course with an enthusiasm that nothing could daunt. His plans were peaceable ; he depended entirely on the force of truth, public sentiment, an enlightened conscience, and moral energy. In accordance with his principles, the New England Antislavery Society was formed, in January, 1832. Garrison had a host of helpers. It is impossible to do more than mention the names of some of those prophets of the better time, who led for so long what seemed a forlorn hope. Stephen S. Foster, Nathaniel Peabody Rogers, Parker Pillsbury, James G. Birney, Elizur Wright, Jr., Isaac T. Hopper, Gerrit Smith, Joshua Leavitt, Arthur and Lewis Tappan, Oliver Johnson — these and many others gave the cause the advocacy of their voice, their pen, their life. The times demanded men of he roic mould. Harriet Martineau calls it the "Martyr-age in America." The mobbing of public speakers was nothing un- 594 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES common. The eloquent George Thompson was compelled to flee to England in disguise. Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston with a rope around his body. Lovejoy was murdered in Alton, Illinois, in 1837. Birney's printing- press was destroyed in 1836. It was the martyrdom of Love- joy that gave Wendell Phillips to the cause. The Fugitive- Slave Law of 1850 brought out Theodore Parker. The elo quence of Henry Ward Beecher was enlisted. Noble women like Lydia Maria Child, Lucretia Mott, Abby Kelly, and Mrs. Stowe gave their influence also. That most powerful novel, " Uncle Tom's Cabin " (1852), was really, as Nassau W. Senior, the English economist, said, a pamphlet against the Fugitive- Slave Law. Whittier was the poet of the movement, helped by other master-singers — Bryant, Longfellow, and especially Lowell. But it was reserved by an inscrutable Providence that not by the Church, nor by philanthropists, nor by law, should American slavery receive its death-blow, but by the bloody ordeal of a four years' conflict between the North and the South. Abraham Linooln signed the death- warrant of American, if not universal, slavery, by issuing the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1st, 1863 — a warrant executed by the greatest Civil War in all history. The South is acquiescing in this result as a providential deliverance. Her people have learned that slavery was, after all, only a most expensive system, and had they the option to day to choose its restoration they would promptly refuse the offer. The Southern people have entered upon a new era of material development and religious prosperity. The Amer ican Church is girding itself to the solution of the questions presented by the unparalleled spectacle of a race of mag nificent possibilities suddenly elevated from the condition of chattels to that of free citizenship. No church in any country has ever been burdened with so great and sudden a responsi bility. The future will prove that no church has discharged its delicate and difficult task with more heroic spirit than that of the whole American Church. THE TEMPEEANCE EEFOEM 595 CHAPTER XXIV THE TEMPERANCE REFORM [Authorities. — Dorchester, The Liquor Problem in All Ages (N. Y., 1884), is a complete historical survey, and has statistical tables of value. A book of great importance is Gustafson, The Foundation of Death : a Study of the Drink Question (London, Boston, and N. Y., 5th ed., 1888). It contains an excellent bibliography. It is, perhaps, the best single book on the Temper ance question. Winskill, History of the Temperance Reformation (N. Y., 1866). Burns, Temperance History (London, 1890-91), is written by a vet eran student of the reform. The Centennial Temperance Volume (N. Y., 1876) contains a great deal of historical matter. Stearns, Footprints of Temperance Pioneers (N. Y., 1885). Lees, Text -book of Temperance (N. Y., 1869), is a complete and scholarly work. Pitman, Alcohol and the State (N. Y., 1877), is the best book on the legal aspects of the subject. Blair, The Temperance Reform (Boston, 1890). The works of the great re former and orator, John B. Gough, are of inestimable value ; so also is the autobiography of Miss Frances E. Willard. The remarkable woman's move ment in Ohio and Illinois in 1873 and 1874 has found a competent histo rian in Mrs. Annie Wittenmeyer, History of the Woman's Temperance Cru sade (Boston, 1882).] The colonists took strong ground concerning intemperance. Plymouth Colony, in a law of 1658, disfranchised drunkards. A man convicted of drunkenness the third time " y was publicly whipped. Governor Winthrop, of the Massachusetts Bay Company, was much grieved at the drinking customs of the time, and forbade all drinking of healths at his table. In 1637 a law was passed prohibiting loafing at taverns. In 1645 innkeepers were fined five shil lings for allowing any one to drink excessively in their taverns. In 1646 a stringent law was passed by the Massachusetts Bay colonists regulating the sale of liquor, and forbidding any dis order in public-houses. A prohibitory law was passed in Vir ginia in 1676, but it had little effect. It is evident, there fore, that in the pre-Revolutionary times the drink-curse was recognized as a public calamity, and efforts were made to abate it. 596 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Many of the Revolutionary Fathers had decided views on the temperance question. Franklin was a total abstainer, and an advocate of abstinence. John Adams thundered Revolutionary agamst, the public-house. In his journal, June 4th, 1761, he says : " Discharged my venom to Bill Veasey against the multitude, poverty, ill-government, and ill effects of licensed houses, and the timorous temper, as well as criminal design, of the selectmen who grant them approba tion." Israel Putnam took the same ground. He held that the multiplying of public-houses has a tendency, as he says, "to ruin the morals of the youth, and promote idleness and intemperance among all ranks of people." He understood the subject thoroughly. On February 27th, 1774, the Continental Congress spoke as follows : "Resolved, that it be recommended to the several legisla tures of the United States immediately to pass laws the most effectual for putting an immediate stop to the pernicious prac tice of distilling grain, by which the most extensive evils are likely to be derived, if not quickly prevented." This resolution failed of its design, however. The most in fluential utterance of that time was the essay by Dr. Benjamin Rush entitled "The Effects of Ardent Spirits on the Human Body and Mind," published in Philadelphia in 1786. This essay was a very intelligent discussion, and made a profound impression wherever it was read. Besides, Rush saw to it that it was read. Copies of it were presented to the clergy, and it was sold in tract form by the thousand. Edi tion after edition was called for. The author visited religious bodies, made speeches before them, and tried everywhere to enlist public sympathy for a temperance reform. His pam phlet was republished in the Gentleman's Magazine, London, in 1786.* Rush had a strong belief in the efficacy of relig ious instruction, and but little faith in law. He says : " From the influence of the Quakers and Methodists in checking this evil, I am disposed to believe that the business must be effect ed finally by religion alone. Human reason has been employed in vain, and the conduct of New England in the Congress has furnished us with a melancholy proof that we have nothing to •This celebrated tract is quoted in full in Stearns, "Footprints of Temperance Pioneers," pp. 5-22. THE TEMPEEANCE EEFOEM 597 hope from the influence of law in making man wise and sober. Let these considerations lead us to address the heads and gov erning bodies of all the churches in America upon tbe subject. I have borne a testimony (by particular desire) at a Methodist Conference against the use of ardent spirits, and I hope with effect. I have likewise written to the Roman Catholic bishop of Maryland to set an association on foot against them in his society. I have repeatedly insisted upon a public testimony being published against them by the Presbyterian synod of this city [Philadelphia], and have suggested to our good Bish op White the necessity of the Episcopal Church not standing neutral in this interesting business." * It appears, therefore, that Dr. Rush was the morning-star of the temperance reformation. He fought for the cause with splendid persistency. It appears also that, as in the case of slavery, the opinions of many of the leading minds in the Revolutionary era were far in advance of much of the senti ment of later times. As we have seen, from the support given to Dr. Rush, the churches were not blind to the evils of intemperance. The bold testimony of Wesley prepared the Methodists asticaf Action for a radical position. His rule absolutely forbid ding the use of intoxicating drinks as a beverage was adopted at the organization of the American Church in 1784. This action but reaffirmed their utterances at the con ferences before they had an independent existence as a Church. Thus, in 1783 : " Should our friends be permitted to make spirituous liquors, sell, and drink them in drams ? Ans. By no means ; we think it wrong in its nature and consequences ; and desire all our preachers to teach the people, by precept and example, to put away this evil." The same declaration was made in 1780. Dorchester quotes a noble statement put forth by Bishops Coke and Asbury, explaining what must then have been considered remarkable legislation. In 1784, the New England Yearly Meeting of Friends condemned the use of ar dent spirits, and in 1788 they made abstinence binding upon all their members. The other Churches moved later. In 1812, * From a manuscript letter to the Rev. Dr. Belknap, of New Hamp shire, in possession of the New England Historical Society, Boston, quoted by Dorchester, " The Liquor Problem," pp. 127-173. 598 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the Presbyterian General Assembly protested "not only against actual intemperance, but against all those habits and indulgences which may have a tendency to produce it." In the same year, the General Association (Congregational) of Connecticut put forth a manifesto to the same import. In 1818, the Presbyterian Assembly went further, and said that men ought to " abstain from even the common use of ardent spirits." Joseph Talcott, a devout Quaker, was a pioneer reformer. He lived near Auburn, New York, and Professor W. J. Beecher, of Auburn Theological Seminary, has res- Reformers cued Lis name from oblivion. Talcott preached ab stinence through all that part of the country. This was in 1816. He appeared before the Presbyterian Synod of Geneva, New York, and presented the claims of his cause with such cogency and force that the synod published his pa per with resolutions " fully approving it, and solemnly declar ing that from that time they would abandon the use of ardent spirits, except for medicinal purposes ; that they would speak against its common use from the pulpit . . . and use their influence to prevail with others to follow their example."* About 1819 Judge Hertell, of New York, published a pam phlet taking common cause with Talcott, and produced a wide impression. In 1810, Dr. Heman Humphrey, pastor of the Con gregational Church in Fairfield, Connecticut, preached a se ries of six sermons on intemperance. Humphrey was thorough ly in earnest, and upon assuming the presidency of Amherst College, in 1823, he regenerated the spirit of the college with regard to this matter, and made it a powerful focus of temper ance light. A remarkable sermon was preached by the Rev. Nathaniel S. Prime, father of the Rev. Dr. S. Irenseus Prime before the Long Island Presbytery, November 5th, 1812. This sermon produced a profound impression. In his second parish at Cambridge, Washington County, New York, about 1813, Prime organized the farmers of his congregation into a tem perance society. Lyman Beecher was the Nestor of that day. In 1825 he preached his six celebrated sermons on intemper ance in Litchfield, Connecticut. They were published, and had * Quoted by Beecher in the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopaedia, art. " Tem perance. " THE TEMPEEANCE EEFOEM 599 a wide circulation in both this country and Europe. Beecher was the disciple of Rush. The reading of Rush's essay gave him to the Temperance cause. Besides that, the treatment accorded to some Indians of his parish by the liquor-sellers awoke an abhorrence to the traffic which he ever after retained. "Oh, it was horrible, horrible !" he says in his "Autobiogra phy." " It burned and burned in my mind ; and I swore a deep oath to God that it shouldn't be so." Discussion ripened into organization. Probably the first temperance society was the Union Temperance Society of Moreau, New York, founded in 1808. The folio w- Organization *nS vea,T saw a 8imilar society in Greenfield, also in Saratoga County, New York. In 1813, the Massa chusetts Society for the Suppression of Intemperance was organized. Other societies followed. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance was organized in 1826. The work received great impetus by the first National Temperance Convention, held in Philadelphia, in May, 1833. Up to this time the principal aim was to abate the evils of drink, without specially committing any one to the principle of total absti nence. The platfons of the first National Convention was simply : " The traffic in ardent spirits as a drink, and the use of it as such, are morally wrong, and ought to be abandoned throughout the world." That same year saw the Massachu setts Society adopt the pledge of totar abstinence. In 1836 the Pennsylvania Society occupied the same ground. The second National Convention, held in Saratoga, in 1836, also flung the banners of Total Abstinence to the breeze — so rap idly did the more daring principle win adherents. The cele brated Washingtonian movement, originating in Baltimore in 1840, led one hundred and fifty thousand men to give up the use of intoxicating liquors. It was the parent of the Order of the Sons of Temperance, which was organized in New York in 1842. The Good Templars order, the most massive and power ful of all the secret fraternities which have gathered about the temperance idea, originated in New York in 1851. It is a world-wide order ; both it and the Sons of Temperance have exerted an incalculable influence on public opinion, largely through their education of young people. Many other organ izations have sprung from the same desperate effort to do something to stem the tide of intemperance. 600 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES The invocation of law was not long delayed. Eminent jurists gave it as their opinion that the state had the right to prohibit tbe liquor-traffic, or to restrict it in any way it thought best — an opinion that has been con firmed by the Supreme Court of the United States. The fourth National Convention, held in 1851, recommended pro hibitory laws. As early as 1833, American statesmen repudi ated the license system as a means of dealing with the traffic. It is surprising what radical temperance measures were passed between 1837 and 1840. There was apparently a better pub lic feeling then than now. Agitation had aroused the public mind. It seemed at one time as though the spontaneous up rising of the people would outlaw the traffic forever. Maine passed her prohibitory law in 1846, and in 1848 made it em brace all intoxicating liquors. Many of the states voted no- license. Delaware declared for Prohibition by statute in 1847, but the law was adjudged unconstitutional. Massachusetts passed a prohibitory law in 1852,* Vermont made a similar law in the same year, New Hampshire in 1855, Rhode Island in 1852, Connecticut in 1854, New York in 1855, and many other states have had at some time a prohibitory law in one or another of its forms. This splendid vantage-ground has since been greatly endan gered. At the present time the only states in which Prohibition is in force are Maine, Vermont, Kansas, Iowa, and the Dakotas. Many of the states have recently rejected Prohibition by immense majorities when submitted to popular vote. The natural law of reaction ; the difficulty of enforcing the laws ; the swarming of European immigrants ; the new force to be reckoned with in those educated under conditions foreign to our own, and who look with supreme impatience on any attempt to regulate their social habits ; the conviction of many as to the inexpediency of strict laws against drink, ex cept where sustained by an overwhelming public sentiment; the bad spirit evolved by party bickerings, and the mutual de nunciations of each other by temperance people over the ques tion of method ; the coming-in of other great issues, like those * This law was carefully revised in 1854. See the instructive chapter in Judge Pitman's able work, Alcohol and the State, chap, xx., " The His tory of Prohibition." THE TEMPEEANCE EEFOEM 601 which led to the Civil War ; the labor disturbances of more recent times ; and the new political economy, which is inclined to make bad social conditions the cause of drink rather than vice versa — these and other reasons may have bad more or less to do with the present pause in the advance of the temper ance reform. Temperance people are seriously divided as to method ; the liquor interest acts as a unit in all matters affecting itself. But the result of the great moral agitation of this century abides in the entire emancipation of the mass of English-speaking people of North America from the use of intoxicating drinks. Victory will come in the end. The day is sure to dawn when the saloon will be relegated to the realm of antiquities, and will be as great a curiosity as the Virgin, or any other monstrosity in the Torture Chamber of the Nu remberg Castle. In 1873-74, a remarkable movement began in Ohio. The women formed praying-bands, and visited the saloons, implor ing their keepers to close. They joined prayer and women to gongr with moral suasion. Their reception was va- the Rescue " r ried, and many thrilling incidents occurred. Hun dreds of saloon-keepers gave up their business, and many were converted and became useful citizens. The general result was most favorable. This movement resulted in the formation, in 1874, of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, which has been of incalculable benefit to the great cause of temperance. 602 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER XXV PHILANTHROPY AND CHRISTIAN UNION [Authorities. — Brace, Gesta Christi (4th ed., enlarged, N. T., 1888); Tiffany, Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix (Boston, 1891); Reports of the Freedmen's Bureaus, of the Slater and Peabody Funds, of the American Missionary Association, and of the various denominational societies for work among the freedmen ; Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor (Boston, 1881) ; Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education ; Hay- good, Our Brother in Black (N. Y., 1881) ; Smith, Reunion among Chris tians (London, 1890); Briggs, Barriers to Christian Union, in Presbyterian Review, July, 1887 ; Wordsworth, Lambeth Conference and Church Re union (Edinb., 1888) ; Hurst, Christian Union Necessary for Religious Progress and Defence (N. Y., 1880).] Philantheopt is a characteristic of present-day Christian ity. The effort is made to realize in the life of the Church the healing mission of Christ. That spirit The """spirit r°PiC more and more pervades the Church. Some times this appears in corporate action, and often in individual consecration. Wealth is poured out in abun dance in the founding of institutions of healing and mercy. Men who make but little profession of Christianity are touched by the genius of the gospel, and vie with each other in providing for themselves a monument better far than sculptured stone or storied urn. But much yet remains to be done. This is a ripe field. Rich rewards await the reapers. No sooner had the close of the Civil War thrown upon the country the stupendous problem of fitting an enslaved race for The Freedmen freedom than the churches came forward to freely offer their help. Only five months after the be ginning of the war, the American Missionary Association (Congregational) opened a school at Hampton, Virginia, for fugitive slaves. "The spot overlooked the waters on which the first slave-ship entered tbe American continent." This PHIXANTHEOPT AND CHEISTIAN UNION 603 school was opened on September 17th, 1861. The Associa tion extended its work after the close of the war. It now supports some of the best institutions in the South, such as Berea College, Berea, Kentucky ; Atlanta University ; Fisk University, Nashville, Tennessee ; and Straight University, New Orleans. A non-denominational Freedmen's Aid Society was organized in Boston, February 7th, 1862, another in New York a few days later, and others in Cincinnati, Chicago, and elsewhere. These societies were consolidated in 1866 under the name of the American Freedmen's Union Commission. The Baptists have pursued this work energetically, beginning as early as 1862, and supporting some of the finest schools in the South. The Free Baptists have Storer College, at Har per's Ferry, Virginia. The Friends have not been neglectful of this work, though their object is rather to help the public- school system than to establish schools of their own. The Methodist Episcopal Church established its Freedmen's Aid Society on August 6th, 1866, and has put money and men without stint into this field. The Presbyterians organized their work in 1865, as did also tbe Episcopalians. The method of all these and other societies is to unite religion and education. Education is interpreted liberally. It includes industrial, nor mal, Biblical, classical, and professional departments. The negro is found responsive to the touch of culture, and this work has revealed a beautiful heroism and self-sacrifice both on the part of the teachers in consecration to a noble work, and on the part of pupils in their earnestness in seeking the advantages thus offered. Two special benefactions to this field deserve mention. One is the gift of three million dol lars by George Peabody in 1866, and the other that of one million dollars by John F. Slater, of Norwich, Connecticut, in 1882. The treatment of the Indians by the United States is one of the darkest chapters in our national history. Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson, who labored nobly in this cause, describes T e In ians t^^ wnoje njstory m one word — a century of dis honor. They were first robbed of their territories, then crowd ed into reservations, afterwards robbed of these, and all the time cheated, oppressed, and deceived. "The only good Ind ian is a dead Indian," is the unholy dictum which has governed a o-reat deal of our action. A humaner policy has, however, not 604 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES been wanting. The first instruction delivered to Virginia was; "To provide that the true word and service of God be preached, planted, and used, not only in the said colony, but also as much as might be among the savages bordering upon it, accord ing to the rites and doctrines of the Church of England." The point made by Roger Williams, that the Indian was the real owner of the soil, was acknowledged by many of the early colonists. The seal of Massachusetts colony had as its device the figure of an Indian, with the Macedonian cry, " Come over and help us." But our coming has often been with no benev olent intentions. Recently a better spirit has been shown. The government is trying the work of civilization instead of extirpation, and with notable success. It supports many schools itself, besides aiding schools partially supported by missionary Contract Schools boards. Tbe latter are called Contract Schools. and Training Eor this class of work alone, the government dis- Sch001 tributed, in 1890, $506,994, of which the Catholics received $356,491, the Presbyterians $47,650, the Congrega tional society $16,408, and the remaining $86,455 was given to other Church societies doing work among the Indians. The Indian Training School at Hampton, Virginia, has realized splendid results. Of the 250,000 Indians now in the United States, 96,000 are, wholly or in part, in citizen's dress, 22,000 can read, 29,000 can speak the English language, and 17,000 live in houses.* In 1889, 300,000 acres of land were culti vated by the Indians. It seems evident, therefore, that the humaner policy has not been a failure. It is often asserted that the Indians are a doomed race, that they must event ually disappear from the earth. Whatever may be true of some tribes, it is a fact that there is an actual increase where tests have been applied. The Rev. Dr. J. P. Williamson, after a life-long experience with the Dakotas, intimates that they have increased sixty per cent, in forty years. The Rev. Dr. Stephen R. Riggs, after forty years of service among the Sioux, in answer to the question, "Is the Indian dying out?" said, " No, sir ; I do not think that the facts which are before us at all justify the belief that the Indians are necessarily a van ishing race." * Article "Indians, American,'' in Bliss, Encyclopaedia of Missions (N. Y. 1891), vol. i., p. 453. PHILANTHEOPY AND CHEISTIAN UNION 605 All the larger denominations support numerous hospitals, retreats, asylums, homes for the aged and infirm, and other in stitutions of mercy. The Roman Catholic Church and'nsaU nas been prominent in this department of Christian activity, its numerous sisterhoods furnishing to its hand a body of workers adapted to the pursuits of charity. All the Protestant denominations have made notable advances within recent years, and have shown that they are not silent to the voice of distress. The work of Dorothea Lynde Dix in improving the care of the insane is one of the most magnifi cent achievements of the century. What Howard did for pris ons, Miss Dix has done for insane asylums. Her whole life was devoted to this cause, and through her efforts changes were introduced which tended to the permanent alleviation, if not cure, of the victims of insanity. Her work covered both continents. The life of this frail woman marked a new era in the history of human progress. It is impossible to do justice to the marvellous advance on all lines of social, industrial, and national enterprise due to the „1U „ . increasing Christian sentiment of the age. Socie- Other Reforms .. . ° . „ , , ., ° ties tor the prevention of cruelty to children, organ izations which do the same work for animals, the disappearance of duelling from every English-speaking land, arbitration for the settlement of national disputes, more considerate laws in war, the treatment of both civil and military prisoners, the cru sade against opium and spirituous liquors — these and other facts show the growing power of Christian light and love. There are clouds, however, yet in our sky ; there are occasional ebul litions of the old savage barbarism ; there are problems of the most serious and perplexing character, such as intemperance and the conflict of labor and capital, which face the present generation. But the progress in the past fifty years has been so gratifying that we cannot but look to tbe future with great hope. Christian union is one of the most beautiful phases of our American ecclesiastical life. It is only within recent years that fraternity has predominated over denominational differences. The old theological controversies were so bitter, and men held to their convictions with such intense emphasis that it was impossible for the churches to co operate in the spirit of Christian love. The great revival of 606 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES 1857-59 helped to dissolve these animosities. The Evangelical Alliance, founded in 1846, has been a powerful agency in bring ing the churches into closer relationship. The Young Men's Christian Association, founded in London by George Williams, June 6th, 1844, attracted a great number of young men of all denominations into Christian work, and furnished a broad plat form on which all churches could stand for the furtherance of the Redeemer's kingdom. The growth of this non-sectarian organization is one of the golden fruits of this era. There were, in 1891, 4110 associations throughout the world, with 375,163 members, of which number 1341 associations were in the Unit ed States and Canada, with 212,676 members. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions were voluntary associations for the care of the wounded and suffering during the Civil War. These also strengthened the sentiment of Christian union. The needs of the unevangelized masses ; the folly of intrud ing denominational rivalries into small communities in our own land, and in mission fields already occupied ; the helpless ness of a divided Church before any great and urgent call ; the scandal to the Christian name of the spirit of division which has had free course in many parts of the country; the per petual object lesson of tbe Roman Catholic Church in the mas- siveness and unity of its impression — these and other consid erations have helped forward the conviction that Federal Union tae t-me jjag come when some kind of a Bund, or Demanded ' federal union, or alliance — some method of real izing an interdenominational fellowship — is imperatively de manded. The noble work of that best of all non-sectarian organizations, the American Bible Society, formed in 1816 in New York — a society which for nearly a century has been the meeting-ground of Christians of every name — has shown that such a communion of labor and counsel is entirely practica ble. The growth of Christian union has been also helped by the formation of the Young People's Society of Christian En deavor, organized in Portland, Maine, by the Rev. Francis E. Clark, in 1881. This society emphasizes loyalty to one's own Church as one of its cardinal principles. But it has interde nominational features which give it a unique and splendid advantage. This recent development of the Christian activity of America has had a marvellous growth in all evangelical denominations, and has contributed towards the realization of FHILANTHBOPY AND CHEISTIAN UNION 607 the sense of Christian brotherhood and of the oneness of all of Christ's followers. The Protestant Episcopal Church has the honor of being the first to institute proceedings looking towards the reunion of Protestantism. In its General Convention, held in oSrg\Pn%,0uWniodn Chicago in 1886, the House of Bishops submitted a plan by which it was thought the churches might take initial steps towards organic union. This basis was en dorsed by the Convention, and it has been submitted to the other Christian churches for their action. It puts forward the Apostles' and the Nicene Creeds as an expression of doctrine, the Bible as the rule of faith, the. sacraments of the Lord's Supper and baptism, and the historic episcopate. The over tures have received cordial welcome in many quarters, and in others only indifferent attention. The chief difficulty seems to be in the interpretation of the " historic episcopate." The con summation of some form of tangible and visible Christian union is the great need of the Modern Church. But there is no likelihood that this fruition will ever be reached on the ba sis of any definite form of ecclesiastical polity. A declaration identical in terms with that of the House of Bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church was set forth by the Conference of all the bishops throughout the world in fellowship with the Church of England, held at the Lambeth Conference, London, in the summer of 1888. But the almost unanimous report of the Committee on Christian Union appointed by the chairman of this Conference, the Archbishop of Canterbury, in which the acceptance of the " historic episcopate " was interpreted as not necessarily invalidating the ordinations of other churches, was voted down by a large majority, and even its publication suppressed. 608 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER XXVI MISSIONS [Authorities. — The best single work is Bliss, Encyclopaedia of Missions (N. Y., 1891). Jackson and Gilmore's bibliography is one of remarkable complete ness. The work as a whole is superb. The Report of the Centenary Confer ence on Protestant Missions held in London, 1888 (N. Y., 1889), gives a conspectus of the whole missionary field, and of all missionary problems. For histories of American Missionary Societies see Reid, History of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1879) ; Mary Sparkes Wheeler, First Decade of Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church (N. Y., 1881) ; Anderson, History of the Missions of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston, 1870-74), Commemorative Volume of the American Board, in Connection with Seventy-fifth Anniversary (Boston, 1885) ; Smith, Concise History of the American Baptist Union (new ed., 1883) ; American Baptist Missionary Union, in Connection with Fiftieth Anniversary (N. Y., 1865) ; Tupper, Foreign Missions of the Southern Baptist Convention (Phila., 1880) ; Historical Sketches of the Missions of the Presbyterian Church (Phila., 1881). A larger volume of the same name by various contributors is also published (Phila., 1886). Histories of Episcopal Missions in Various Lands : China (N. Y., 1885), Africa (N. Y., 1884). See the History section of Jack son and Gilmore's Bibliography in Bliss, Encyclopaedia of Missions, vol. i., pp. 637-646. Historical Sketches of Woman's Missionary Societies in America and England (Boston, 1880).] In no country has the growing missionary spirit been so strong as in the United States. In proportion to its brief his tory and the absorbing demands of its own terri- Th° Sp1rit0"ary tory' n0 land has achieved so much in foreign fields. The home field has indeed taken up the energies of the churches to a degree unparalleled elsewhere, yet this has stimulated to increased sacrifices for foreign mis sions. When we consider the work achieved in these two de partments, it is impossible to charge the American Church with indifference to the needs of the perishing. Reference has already been made to the work of Eliot and other missionaries to the Indians. During this century the , MISSIONS 609 work has been carried forward with greater persistency. The Penobscot Indians in Maine have been under the charge of Tj,e Catholic missionaries. Romagne, who labored North American among them from 1800 to 1820, was one of the most devoted of the Catholic workers. In 1765, Samuel Kirkland opened up a Presbyterian mission among tbe Senecas, in New York State. He then turned to the Oneidas, where he met with great success. The tribe was changed from savages to a sober, industrious, civilized, Christian com munity. The Friends have also labored among the New York Indians during this century. The American Board of Com missioners for Foreign Missions (Congregational and Presby terian from 1810 to 1870, Congregational since 1870) began their work in this field among the Cherokees of Georgia in 1815. One of their converts, a half-breed Cherokee, invented the Cherokee alphabet in 1825, and in three or four years half the nation could read. A remarkable fact in attestation of the good fruits of Indian missionary labor is, that when in 1859 the Rev. H. H. Spaulding returned to the Nez Perces, after an enforced exile of twelve years, he found that these Indians had retained their religious services, and that many of them still kept up morning and evening prayers. In 1883 the American Board transferred all its Indian missions to the American Missionary Association. The Presbyterian Church entered this field in 1833. It has accomplished much in educa tional work. The Protestant Episcopal Church has paid special attention to the Sioux. The Rev. S. D. Hinman translated the Prayer Book into the Dakota tongue, and this Church has es tablished several successful agencies among intractable tribes. The Baptists have made a noble record. They have one hun dred and sixty-two churches and twenty-one missionaries in Indian territory. John Stewart was the pioneer Methodist Indian missionary. His charge was the Wyandottes of Ohio. He died in 1823. Many Methodist Conferences have now their own missions among the Indians in all parts of the land. Two facts make missionary labor among the Indians peculiarly dif ficult — their extreme conservatism and their natural suspicion and jealousy of the whites, due to our Century of Dishonor. The Church of the United States has achieved great results in connection with missions in European and Asiatic Turkey. This has been especially an American field, and no part of the 39 610 THE CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES vast enterprise of modern missions has required greater wisdom and zeal. It was of the remarkable results of this mission that the Earl of Shaftesbury said : " I do not believe that in Turkey the whole history of missions, I do not believe that in the history of diplomacy, or in the history of any negotiation car ried on between man and man, we can find anything to equal the wisdom, the soundness, and the pure, evangelical truth of the men who constitute the American mission." General Lew Wallace, who went to the East prejudiced against mission work in those countries, completely changed his views after a resi dence on the ground, and gave cheerful testimony to the fine work, both civilizing and religious, which the American mission aries are accomplishing. In 1863 Robert College was opened on the Bosphorus, and about the same time the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut. These schools have been powerful factors in the uplifting of the country, and some of the missionaries — Drs. Hamlin, Long, Bliss, Washburn, Van Dyck, Post, and others — have blessed the whole world by their Oriental schol arship and sublime devotion to a great cause. Another triumph of the American missionary is the Sand wich Islands. In 1819, Bingham and Thurston arrived on the „ ...... islands. In 1824, the principal chiefs agreed to Sandwich Islands . , ; , ,r r ° recognize the Sabbath, and adopt the ten com mandments as the basis of government. The country has been long since completely Christianized, and in 1850 the native churches organized the Hawaiian Missionary Society, to carry the gospel to other islands. To the American Board belongs the honor of this marvellous history. In 1863 a greater pro portion of the population could read and write than in New England. The results of this mission, however, have been se verely endangered by the heavy ingress of foreign traders. This element has served as a most corrupting agency. Japan has also been a special field of American effort. The first to take advantage of the treaty of 1858, in which certain ports were opened to trade and residence, July 4th, 1859, was the Protestant Episcopal Church, which before the latter date had sent John Liggins and C. M. Williams (after wards bishop) from China to Japan. The same year the Pres byterians sent Dr. J. C. Hepburn, the famous Japanese lexi cographer, and the Reformed Church the Rev. Dr. S. R. Brown, and two others. This was the beginning of that mighty im- MISSIONS 611 pulse which has carried Japan to the van of Oriental nations in tolerance and the ideals of a Christian civilization. In 1868 occurred the great revolution which overturned the old Tycoon, and brought in the reign of liberal ideas. In the magnificent progress of Christianity in Japan the American churches have had a large share. Nearly all the denomina tions have representatives there. The societies laboring under the Presbyterial polity united in 1877 with the Native Church of Christ in Japan. The churches organized according to the Congregational polity are independent native churches. Ef forts at further union have been made, but thus far unsuccess fully. The chief difficulty is in the line of discipline and pol ity. The Japanese themselves are impatient at what seems to them the frivolous divisions of the Church. " It is evident to all who are familiar with the history of the native intellect, or with the workings of the Japanese mind, past or present, that subtle doctrinal theories have no charm, but are only a weari ness to the flesh. They refuse to believe that the hereditary quarrels of European Christians need to be perpetuated in their country, or that, in view of the gospel's supreme good news, and the necessities of their countrymen, either tbe de nominational differences in doctrine or peculiarities of govern ment are at all needful."* In 1890 there were eighteen Protes tant churches operating in Japan, supporting 422 stations, 207 churches, and reporting 29,663 communicants. India was the virgin field of the American missionary move ment. In 1806, four students at Williams College were acci dentally driven together by a thunder-storm. Under the lee of a hay-stack they pledged themselves to carry the gospel to the heathen, Samuel J. Mills saying, "We can do it if we will." Two years later Mills, Richards, and Gordon Hall signed a pledge to missionary work. "In 1810, Mills again leading, with Judson, Newell, and Nott — all students in An dover Theological Seminary — met a number of ministers at the parlor of Professor Stuart, and in response to their appeal to be sent to foreign lands received the assurance, ' Go, in the name of the Lord, and we will help.' The next day two of those ministers, Drs. Spring and Worcester, on their way to ?Article on Japan in Bliss's "Encyclopaedia of Missions," vol. i., p. 498. 612 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES the General Association of Massachusetts [Congregational] at Bradford, formed the plan of the American Board of Com missioners for Foreign Missions, which three days later, June 29th, 1810, was adopted by the Association." This is the old est missionary society in the United States. On the 19th of February, 1812, Judson and Newell, With their wives, sailed from Salem, Massachusetts, for Calcutta, and on the 22d Hall, Rice, and Nott sailed from Philadelphia for the same port. This was the beginning at once of American foreign missions and of the heroic labors of American missionaries in Burma and India. The conversion of Judson to Baptist views brought the Baptists to India. The Presbyterians entered in 1833, the Methodists in 1856, and now there are about fourteen Ameri can churches working in India. It is impossible to name all the lands where the feet of the American missionary have trod. The latest accession to Af rica is the brave William Taylor, a man of apostolic mould. He has gone into the Congo country, and we trust will aid mightily towards founding a Christian state. The first Meth odist foreign missionary was Melville B. Cox, whose early death in Liberia, in 1833, left the memory of a beautiful and devoted life. Korea is one of the latest on the list of missions. Tbe Rev. John Ross, of Monkden, China, without leav- Eastern Asia , . . . -, ., Tr , ing his own mission, mastered the Korean language, translated the whole New Testament into Korean, sent pack ages into the country, and thus, when Protestant missionaries at a later time entered Korea, " they found whole communities in the north professing Protestant Christianity, studying the Bible among themselves, and only waiting for some one to come and teach them." In 1884, the Presbyterian and Meth odist Episcopal Boards almost simultaneously sent mission aries into the country. Alaska, long shamefully neglected, is now the centre of a promising mission. The Rev. Dr. Sheldon Jackson, the Apostle of Alaska, has placed the whole Christian Church under obligation to him for his labors in that new and needy field. He is an honor to the Presbyterian Church. No more important mission field demands the consecration of Christian sympathy and energy than the United States. Immigration on a scale unknown in modern his- Home Missions ° tory has placed upon us problems which are the despair of our wisest men. MISSIONS 613 "Wide open and unguarded stand our gates, And through, them presses a wild motley throng- Men from the Volga and the Tartar steppes, Featureless figures of the Hoang-Ho, Malayan, Scythian, Teuton, Kelt, and Slav, Flying the Old World's poverty and scorn ; These bringing with them unknown gods and rites. Those, tiger passions, here to stretch their claws. In street and alley, what strange tongues are these, Accents of menace, alien to our air, Voices that once the Tower of Babel knew I O Liberty, white Goddess ! is it well To leave the gates unguarded ? On thy breast Fold Sorrow's children, soothe the hurts of fate, Lift the down-trodden, but with hand of steel Stay those who to thy sacred portals come To waste the gifts of freedom. Have a care Lest from thy brow the clustered stars be torn And trampled in the dust. For so of old The thronging Goth and Vandal trampled Rome, And where the temples of the Cassars stood The lean wolf unmolested made her lair."* The first Home Missionary Society was organized by the Congregationalists in Connecticut in 1774. The Presbyterians of New York and New Jersey followed in 1789 and 1796, and the Congregationalists of Massachusetts established the Mas sachusetts Home Missionary Society in 1799. The polity of the Methodist Episcopal Church requiring an itinerant min istry, the labors of many of its preachers were purely mis sionary, without the name. The Western field was one great territory for home missionary work. The Methodist Episco pal Missionary Society was organized in 1819, but its labors for the first thirteen years were confined entirely to the home field. All the churches exhibited a profound interest in mis sionary work. The Protestant Episcopal Church organized its Board of Missions, for both foreign and home work, in 1820 ; the Baptists established their Home Missionary Society in 1832. Some of the churches have Women's Home Mission ary Societies which supplement, in a wise and successful way, the regular work of the churches with which they are con nected. The field which these latter societies have chosen has been chiefly in the South, on the frontier, and especially in * Thomas Bailey Aldrich in the Atlantic Monthly, August, 1892. 614 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Utah. The American Home Missionary Society was formed in 1826. It is mainly supported by the Congregationalists, as is also the American Missionary Association. The work of these and other societies in our own land is one of the most promising and important which can engage the attention of our people. Our national history thus far has been more or less of an experiment. It is for the churches to say whether, in the very highest and largest sense, the Republic of the United States shall prove a success and its Liberty shall con tinue to enlighten the World. CHAPTER XXVII THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL [Authorities. — Pray, The History of Sunday-schools and of Religious Educa tion (Boston, 1847); Watson, The First Fifty Years of the Sunday-school (London, 1873); Vincent, The Modern Sunday-school (N.Y., 1887); Trum bull, Yale Lectures on the Sunday-school (Phila., 1888); Record of the World's Sunday-school Convention (London and Chicago, 1889). An ad mirable brief discussion of the Sunday-school problem is Taylor, What Shall We Do with the Sunday-school as an Institution ? (N. Y., 1886).] As in England so in America, efforts were put forth for the religious instruction of children, entirely independent of the work of Raikes, in 1780, from which the Sunday- American school, as an organized institution, takes its rise. As Beginnings ' ° ' early as 1641 the General Court of Massachusetts Colony provided for catechising the children. The Scriptures were memorized with great assiduity. There is historic proof of a number of Sunday-school beginnings : in Roxbury, Massa chusetts, in 1674 ; two years later, in Norwich, Connecticut ; in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1680 ; in Newtown, Long Island, in 1683 ; by the Schwenkfelders, in Berks and Montgomery counties, Pennsylvania, in 1734 ; in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, by Ludwig Hacker, in 1740, "a school continuing for thirty years with gratuitous instruction, children's meetings, and having many revivals ;" in Bethlehem, Connecticut, by Rev. Joseph Bellamy, in 1740 ; in Philadelphia, by Mrs. Greening, in 1744 ; in Columbia, Connecticut, by Rev. Eleaze.r Wheelock, THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL 615 in 1763 ; and in 1786, by Bishop Asbury, at the house of Thomas Crenshaw, in Hanover County, Virginia. After 1790 many schools sprang up. In January, 1791, the First-day or Sunday-school Society was formed in Philadelphia, to secure the religious instruction of poor children on Sunday. These schools were isolated instances, and it cannot be said that any one of them was the original of the American Sunday- school. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century the Sunday- school in America has enjoyed a remarkable growth. In no part Growth °^ t^le wor^ nas *-t possessed such an hospitable field. The visit of Mrs. Bethune and Mrs. Graham, earnest Sun day-school workers, to England about 1803, and the visit of Rev. Robert May, of London, to America, in 1811, gave the cause a permanent growth. May was an enthusiastic believer in Sunday-schools, and he suggested many improved methods. Sunday-school unions were organized in New York and in Boston in 1816, and in Philadelphia in 1817. Out of these grew the American Sunday-school Union in 1824. This is an undenominational society, and it has been of incalculable ser vice to the cause both as a missionary and a publishing organ ization. In 1826 the Methodist Episcopal Church formed its own Sunday-school Union, and the other denominations have also taken the work into their own hands. The agent of the Sunday-school Union is often one of the first representatives of Christianity to set foot in many a pioneer settlement, and the Sunday-school he organizes is invariably the nucleus of the coming church. In 1889, at the World's Sunday-school Con vention in London, the following statistics were reported for tbe United States : Sunday-schools, 101,824 ; teachers, 1,100,104 ; scholars, 8,345,431 ; total membership, 9,445,535. The mem bership must be now nearly ten millions. A large part of early Sunday-school instruction was in the elementary English branches. By and by, with the develop ment of the common schools, religious instruction Development came more and more to the front. Often — and that of Methods to the present day in some parts of the country — instruction in the alphabet and elementary reader and in the Bible proceeded side by side. " James Gall, in his ' End and Es sence of Sabbath -school Teaching7 and his 'Nature's Normal School,' aimed to introduce an improved lesson system into Scot- 616 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES land, which was also used in some schools in America as early as 1820. Stowe's training system, giving prominence to pictorial methods of instruction, aided in reforming the excessive use of the memory. A thorough advance in Amer ica was effected by the introduction of the ' Uni form Limited Lessons,' prepared in 1825, and adopted by the American Sunday-school Union, and its hundreds of auxilia ries, in 1826. This scheme contemplated a five years' course of study for the whole Bible — one and the same lesson for all, of from seven to fifteen verses, questions and comments in at least three grades, and reviews." This was really a revolution in Sunday-school methods. At once the institution assumed an importance never approached before. In 1840 the London Sunday-school Union adopted a similar scheme. Mimpriss introduced in England, in 1844, an excel lent method for the study of the Gospels in a graduated si multaneous series, which was republished in this country, and exerted a considerable influence. In 1871 a meeting of Sunday- school publishers in New York, at the request of the execu tive committee of the National Sunday-school Convention, agreed upon a scheme of lessons for 1872. "At the Indian apolis convention in that year, a lesson committee was ap pointed to arrange a course of lessons for seven years, cover ing the whole Bible, which was recommended for the use of the Sunday-schools throughout the country." This excel- internationai ^ent P^an was adopted in 1873. The same system, Lessons now called the International System of Sunday- school Lessons, has contributed more towards Bible-study than all other agencies combined. Conventions, teachers' meetings, normal classes, and other auxiliary means have helped to per fect the Sunday-school idea. A rich literature has grown up. The presses of all the churches have furnished for the Sunday- school Library not only works in biography, history, travel, religion, adventure, and fiction, but they have also given ad mirable and scholarly works for the understanding of the Bible. CHEISTIAN LITEEATUEE 617 CHAPTER XXVIII CHRISTIAN LITERATURE [Authokities. — There is no history of the religious literature of the United States. The best that can be done is to consult the larger histories of American literature, such as Duyekinck's Cyclopedia and Tyler's and Richardson's Histories. See Part V., Chapter XVI., above. For hymnology, the best authority is Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology (London and N.Y., 1892). Duffield, English Hymns (N. Y., 1886), is the next best authority. It is a work of rare interest,. by a devout and scholarly mind. Nutter, Studies in the Hymnal (N. Y., 1890). This author is a master in hymnology.] Elementaey religious works were produced at an early period. The " New England Primer," during the eighteenth century, was the little manual which was regarded Books m ~^ew England as necessary for every child's in struction. The catechism prepared by Richard Ma ther and John Cotton, entitled "Spiritual Milk for Babes," appeared in many forms and for many years, and was incor porated into the " New England Primer " of later date. It was made a part of a primer for the colony of Connecticut, and published about 1715. The "New England Primer" absorbed the necessary parts of other elementary works, and was published in the various colonies. It was edited by many competent hands, and adapted itself to the political changes of the colonies. At one time it was strongly antk Catholic. It was loyal to the British king when it was nec essary so to be. But in due time it produced Washing- New England ton'8 portrait as its frontispiece. The " New Eng- Primer ]an(j Primer Improved" was the later and final form. It contained hymns by Watts, easy spelling and read ing lessons, prayers, acrostics, the Shorter Catechism, and the celebrated " Dialogue between Christ, Youth, and the Devil." The picture of John Rogers at the stake, surrounded by his wife and children, was always a necessary illustration. The alphabetic couplets beginning with 618 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES and closing with ' In Adam's fall We sinned all," ' Zaccheus he Did climb the tree His Lord to see," were never omitted, as needful exposition of the truth to accompany the quaint illustrations. The "Psalterium Ameri- canum," edited by Cotton Mather, was used for worship ex tensively. The "Whole Book of Psalms," published in 1640, and the first English book printed in the western hemisphere, was a literal reprint of the received version. It was as near an approach to the Psalter of the Established Church as the antip athies of the Puritan fathers would allow. The great basis of the New England faith was the Westminster Catechism. It was the universal guide. Each pastor in the colonial period pro ceeded according to its requirements. It was regarded as the great modern triumph of Christianity in Europe. Sermons were preached upon it, and books were published in exposition of it. Samuel Willard, for example, covered a space of nineteen years, by delivering two hundred and fifty lectures on the Shorter Catechism. His works were published after his death in a ponderous volume — the first folio produced by the American press. Sermons were a favorite form of religious literature. Watts's " Psalms and Hymns " went through numerous edi tions. Religious biography, such as the "Journal of White- field," and others, was in general demand. Reprints of Baxter's practical works were common. Only a short time elapsed before a good practical work in England found its way to Boston, and came out from the press of Kneeland, Bumstead, or some other printer of that place. The fruits of the colonial press now appear exceedingly primitive, but they formed an essential part of the religious foundation of the country, and prove to us the early determination of the colo nists to develop a religious literature independent of the moth er country. The religious literature of the recent period has taken on a more popular character. To no one writer is America indebted more than to Jacob Abbott for the power of religion Literature over ttie P°Pular mind. After leaving the Eliot Con gregational Church in Roxbury, Massachusetts, in CHEISTIAN LITERATUEE 619 1836, of which he was pastor for two years, he devoted his whole time to the writing of religious books. These have had an enormous sale. He made religion attractive, and inaugu rated a new era in the treatment of such themes. As soon as the Sunday-school began to use the circulating library, a de mand arose for a literature that would combine fascinating in terest with pure moral instruction. This demand has been abundantly supplied in a Sunday-school literature the most captivating in the world. Writers like Daniel Wise, Edward Everett Hale, Richard Newton, Mrs. A. D. T. Whitney, Julia A. Eastman, and Pansy (Mrs. G. R. Alden), have furnished the present generation with religious books of unparalleled interest and power. Some of the works of Newton have been translated into twenty languages. The most recent phase of this subject is the popularity of books of scholarly and thought ful cast. Volumes of sermons and other discussions in relig ion by vigorous and progressive thinkers, who are heartily in sympathy with historic Christianity, pass through many edi tions in a few years. The best preachers command a vast audience through their books and the weekly publication of their sermons. Religious newspapers and magazines have a wide circulation, which is constantly increasing. Judging from the sale of books, there never was so much popular interest in religion as at present. In no country has the religious press so prominent a place as in the United States, and that place is richly deserved by superior merit. Thomas Prince (1722-48), son of Periodica?* the famous Pastor of the Old South Church, pub lished the first American periodical. It was called The Christian History, containing accounts of the revival and propagation of religion in Great Britain and America for 1743 (Boston, 1744-45, 2 vols.). It was published weekly. The Connecticut Evangelical Magazine began in 1800 in Hartford, and continued ten years. The Massachusetts Missionary Magazine began in Boston in 1803; The Panoplist (begun in 1805) was merged into it in 1808; the name was changed to that of Missionary Herald in 1822 ; and under that familiar name the magazine has continued to the present time. Other religious and theological magazines and quarterlies followed. The first of the present religious newspapers was The Congre gationalist, which began under the title of The Boston Re- 620 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES corder, January 3d, 1816. The next in order of time were The Religious Intelligencer, in 1816; The Watchman, in 1819; The Christian Mirror, in 1822; Zion's Herald, in 1823 ; New York Observer, in 1823; The Christian Advocate, in 1826; The Morn ing Star, in 1826. Many other great denominational papers followed in quick succession.* A notable result of the organized missionary labor of the American Church has been the production of a rich and varied literature. Aside from the many reports and Literary Outgrowth hist0ries bearing more or less an official cast, a of Missions ° , . , iii still larger list of works is the natural though incidental outgrowth of this most sublime effort to evangelize the nations. Inspiring biographies of choice missionary spirits; vivid and scientific accounts of races, tribes, countries, customs, dialects, and the decaying faiths of heathenism ; tales of ad venture and discovery ; the story of the long and weary task of reducing spoken tongues to writing and of translating the Scriptures ; studies of linguistic and ethnological value ; and romances of fact more fascinating than any possible fiction, form some of the more valuable contributions of our American missions to the world of letters. From the day of the " Bay Psalm Book" and Wiggleswof th's "Day of Doom" to the verse of Ray Palmer is a history fraught with notable achievements in Christian song. America has contributed her share to the general chorus. The more notable of Our hymn-writers have been recognized by the whole Christian world. Timothy Dwight (d. 1817), the President of Yale College, was a renowned the ologian in his time, but he is now known most of all for his hymn, which is sung the world over, "I love thy kingdom, Lord." Samuel Davies (d. 1761), one of the most eloquent and power ful preachers of the American Church, wrote "Lord, I am thine, entirely thine." James Waddel Alexander (d. 1859), of princely origin, was happy in his translation of German hymns. The old passion hymn, "O Sacred Head, now wounded," • See Dorchester, "Christianity in the United States," pp. 424, 425. CHEISTIAN LITEEATUEE 621 is the best known. Bishop George W. Doane (d. 1859) wrote "Softly now the light of day." His brethren in the Episcopal Church, Bishop Henry W. On- derdonk and William Augustus Muhlenberg, have also pro duced some masterpieces. The latter, who died in 1877, was a man of saintly life and of noble influence on the Christian life and thought of his time. His hymns, " Like Noah's weary dove," and " I would not live alway," will long continue to express the sentiments of innumerable souls until the discords of earth are lost in the harmonies of the Song of Moses and the Lamb. The poet Bryant is known by several hymns found in all the hymnals, and John Pierpont has given us " O Thou, to whom in ancient times," and "The winds are hushed, the peaceful moon." Phoebe Cary wrote many sweet lyrics of trust and hope. Her best-known hymn is "One sweetly solemn thought." William B. Tappan (d. 1849) was an industrious poet. His " There is an hour of peaceful rest," and " 'Tis midnight, and on Olive's brow," are familiar to Christians in all parts of the world. Augustus L. Hillhouse (d. 1859) wrote one of the grandest poems in the English language, " Trembling before thine awful throne." Edward H. Sears, author of one of the best studies of John's Gospel, " The Fourth Gospel the Heart of Christ," gave us two inspiring Christmas hymns, " Calm on the listening ear of night," "It came upon the midnight clear." 622 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES Bishop Arthur Cleveland Coxe is the author of "Oh ! where are kings and empires now," "How beauteous were the marks divine,'' and "In the silent midnight watches." Ray Palmer (d. 1887) stands at the head of all our American hymn-writers, and by the side of the immortal masters of universal Christian song. Some of his hymns are perfect. Like the best of Wesley's and Watts's and Toplady's, they seem the fruit of a divine inspiration. They are exquisite in form, and breathe the majestic spirit of Christian faith and the profound humility of Christian devotion. All of our great poets have contributed to our hymnology. Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, Holmes, have written single lyrics which greatly enrich the sacred poetry of the Church Universal. CHAPTER XXIX THE AMERICAN PULPIT [Authorities. — Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit (N. Y., 1856-69) is a monumental work. It is a thesaurus of the most valuable material. There is no work on the history of American preaching. The lives of the great preachers should be read: Edwards, Life of Bellamy, in Works (Boston, 1850); Life of Dwight, in his Theology (Boston, 1809 sq.); Park, Life of Emmons, in Works (1860-61); Edwards, Life of the Younger Edwards, in Works (Boston, 1842) ; Autobiography and Correspondence of Lyman Beecher (N. Y., 1864-65) ; Cummings, Life of Payson, in Works (Portland, 1846), also published separately ; Tyler, Life of Nettleton (Hartford, 1844) ; Wright, Life of Finney (Boston, 1891) ; Prentice, Life of Wilbur Fisk (Bos ton, 1890); Willi tt, Life of Summerfield (Phila., 1857); Roche, Life of Durbin (N. Y., 1889); Henkle, Life of Bascom (Nashville, 1854) ; Beecher and Scoville, Life of Henry Ward Beecher (N. Y., 1888); Crooks, Life of Matthew Simpson (N. Y., 1890).] The American pulpit has occupied a large place in the re ligious history of the country. The first preachers were men of remarkable gifts. Thoroughly educated, for the most part in Cambridge, England, devoted to Bible study and to the in vestigation of the severest theological problems, active in tern- THE AMEEICAN PULPIT 623 poral affairs, the first ministers of the colonies made their influ ence felt on the whole life of the country. This was particu larly true of New England, where the clergy had a fair field. They were the real founders of the New England common wealths. In their Fast-Day and Thanksgiving-Day discourses they discussed public questions with great ability and perfect frankness. The legislators derived their best advice from the ministers, who never avoided the full and just treatment of great public questions. They were the chief promoters of every educational movement. They founded the early col leges. They knew their power ; they magnified their office. No Stuart king was reverenced more by ardent loyalist than the New England minister by his flock. But in this case no men were more worthy of that reverence. As Professor Moses Coit Tyler says, "for once in the history of the world the sov ereign power was in the hands of sovereign men." In holi ness of life, in intellectual breadth and acuteness, in devotion to their calling, they were a body of men unsurpassed in the history of the founding of great commonwealths. Their sup port was often scanty — a piece of land and a few hundred dol lars. They were often paid in produce. Poor in all things except the wealth of brains and faith, the preachers of the colonial period of America have made many rich. The New England sermon, until quite a late period, was a magnificent specimen of intellectual athletics. The deepest problems of religion were ventilated with a com- UndNSermon pleteness and logical thoroughness of which the preaching at this age can give us but little concep tion. If one sermon was insufficient for this purpose, the sub ject was continued the next Sunday. Indeed, it might run through the year — or the years. Doctrinal preaching was large ly in vogue. Abstract points of metaphysical theology were then living questions in which the people were intensely inter ested. Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, as one to the manner born, has interpreted the New England mind in her " Minis ter's Wooing." She there represents the men and matrons of the age succeeding the Revolution as discussing over their work the theology of the long, abstruse sermons of the pre ceding Sabbath. They entered into these debates with keen relish. The pulpit was the sole fountain of popular instruc tion. Happily enough, it was not then confronted with tbe 624 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES many rivals which now contest its influence. The preachers rose to their opportunities, and from their high vantage-ground they spoke with power and authority. They were the un crowned kings of the age. The pulpit was the only throne known to the colonies. In the past more than to-day, the American clergy have been the leaders in all movements for liberty and the Better Time. In the War for Independence they thundered from L Reform' " tneir pulpits against English oppression, and aroused the people to enthusiasm. Both in the North and South the clergy were heroes on the field and in council, and were among the first to foresee the necessity of revolution and the sublime destiny of the country. Without the clergy of that critical time, the Independence of the United States could not have been achieved. The same fact appears in the Civil War of 1861-65. In the gradual development of the spirit of emancipation of the slaves the clergy performed their full share. Many of them, indeed, were conservative, and took no active part in the discussions. Others spoke out boldly. Sam uel Hopkins, in Newport, lifted up his voice against the slave- trade, then actively conducted by New England dealers. He was fierce in his attacks, even though some members of his congregation were engaged in the business. He devised a scheme of colonization, by which he hoped to solve the prob lem. Theodore Parker was a mighty champion in the same cause. Henry Ward Beecher told the members of his church in Brooklyn, on becoming their pastor, that he expected to wage war against slavery, and that he desired a free field. Many less influential were no less outspoken. The temper ance reform has called out the earnest efforts of the clergy. Justin Edwards devoted his life to this cause. Hitchcock, at Amherst, and Beecher, at Litchfield, were sturdy champions. If to some the ministry did not move fast enough along lines of reform, it can be said that the adherence of the clergy has made this and every other beneficent movement possible. Many of the American clergy have been famous for the quickening power of their preaching. Great revivals and or ganized movements have been promoted by their ap- Revivals peals. Edward N. Kirk, of the Mount Vernon Congre gational Church, Boston, exercised a most fruitful ministry. Asahel Nettleton was active as an evangelist in Massachusetts, THE AMEEICAN PULPIT 625 Connecticut, and New York, from 1812 to 1822. He was a strong Calvinist, and vigorously opposed the methods and doc trines of Finney. Finney himself labored with marvellous suc cess in evangelistic work from 1824 to 1860. Even after his installation as professor at Oberlin in 1835, he travelled through the country on his revival mission. He used simple language, was clear, logical, and direct in his presentation of the truth. He analyzed the motives with a master-hand, and his appeals to the conscience were overwhelming. Both his preaching and methods were similar to those already employed by the Methodists, and for a time he was bitterly opposed by some Congregational and Presbyterian ministers. These conserva tives held a convention in New Lebanon, New Hampshire, to decide what to do concerning Finney's innovations. Lyman Beecher, though progressive enough in some matters, was among Finney's opponents. Beecher was a powerful preacher, and his own labors were not without permanent results in the quickening of the churches. Benjamin Abbott (died 1796) carried on a marvellous minis try in New Jersey in the later decades of tbe eighteenth cen tury. He was the founder of many Methodist churches in that state. Peter Cartwright, the Methodist pio- Peter Cartwright ^^ in the Wegfc> w&& & man of 01.igmal m0VL\df with a strong dash of eccentricity. His preaching and that of many of his co-laborers was attended with remarkable dem onstrations. The days of Pentecost were repeated. Cart wright received over ten thousand people into the Church. The "Revue des Deux Mondes," in a full treatment of his career, has presented Cartwright's work as a type of the pio neer religious life of the United States. His life reads like a romance. Recently, under Moody and other evangelists, re vivals on a large scale have been witnessed. Many eminent preachers have shed honor upon the Ameri can Church. In no field of our ecclesiastical life has there been reaped a richer or more enduring harvest. Great Preachers ^ thege Jater timeg the following, among others, deserve mention. Edward Payson was a man of pre-eminent holiness and purity of character. He was the pastor of tbe Second Congregational Church of Portland, Maine, from 1807 until his death in 1827. It has been said that his "Life and Sermons " have been " more read at home and abroad than the 626 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES writings of any other New England divine, except Timothy Dwight." John Summerfield was an Englishman, who, in 1821, entered the Methodist ministry in New York. His career was brief, but it was one of remarkable brilliancy and suc cess. He drew vast crowds by his astonishing eloquence. Henry B. Bascom, of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, who died in Louisville, in 1850, had a national reputation as a preacher. Horace Bushnell, of Hartford (died 1876), was the Frederick William Robertson of America. His sermons were bold and original, and remarkably suggestive in their unfold ing and application of spiritual truth. Henry Ward Beecher is an important name in the history of American preaching. He was the son of Lyman Beecher, and began his ministry at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, in 1837, whence in two years he was called to Indianapolis. From 1847 until his death, March 8th, 1887, he was the pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, where he achieved a world-wide reputation. His frankness and unconventionality, his warm human sympa thies, his intrepid advocacy of every moral reform, his mar vellous insight into certain aspects of the gospel and of the _ . .. character of Christ, the sweep of his imagination and Beecher, Simp- . '. r & son, and his splendid oratorical gifts — all these gave him a Brooks phenomenal success as a preacher. He cared noth ing for theology as a system. Indeed, he had little theological ability. His mind was not logical and constructive, but intui tional. He had a great heart, and the supreme object of his ministry was human helpfulness. His long ministry of forty years in Brooklyn is the most famous, perhaps, in the annals of Church history. It may be fitly compared, because of fervid eloquence, combative force against popular errors, and lengthy continuance, to the immortal career of Chrysostom in Antioch and Constantinople. Matthew Simpson was one of the most powerful and magnetic preachers of the American Church. With vivid imagination, a far-reaching and melodious voice, a keen perception of the very central truths of the gospel, an in tense sympathy with the masses, he long stood as leader in coun cil, on the platform, and in the pulpit. Phillips Brooks pos sessed a vivid imagination, eloquent speech, and wonderful insight into the deep meaning of the Scriptures. His graces and gifts of nature gave him cosmopolitan leadership and clothed him with universal brotherliness. Anglo-Saxon Chris- THEOLOGY OF THE AMEEICAN CHUECH 627 tendom stands a mourner at his fresh grave. Many other names occur in the history of American preaching : Francis L. Hawks, John M'Clintock, Thomas Guard, William Adams, John P. Thompson, Edwin H. Chapin, William R. Williams, George W. Bethune, Thomas Starr King, James Freeman Clarke, Otis H. Tiffany — these names represent many more who have shown that in the matter of preaching the United States has been behind no country in the world. CHAPTER XXX THEOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN CHURCH [Authorities. — There is no history of American theology. An excellent sketch appears in Fisher, History of the Church (N. Y., 1887). See Hurst, Our Theological Century (N. Y., 1877), and the lives of representative American theologians.] The early American Theology was serious and funda mental. The doctrinal differences of the Old World had The Early caused the Puritan emigration. The thinking re- Theological volved about the foundations of Christianity. Never Tone was so much theological meditation, fortified by ap propriate Scripture proofs, produced amid such humble sur roundings as in our early New England colonies. The echoes from the Westminster Assembly were heard throughout New England, and produced their effect in the log-house of the hum blest colony. Theological terms were well understood, and the finer points had their discriminating judges in men clad in homespun. The Bible was uppermost in every mind. A doctrinal tenet which was purely speculative, and had no direct Scriptural proof, passed as of little value. The West minster Catechism, the Savoy Confession, and the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England were the universal bases of belief. These were claimed to be derived directly from the Bible, and stood next to it in tbe love of the people. The Scriptures were read daily in the domestic circle, and often the head of the family used the original Hebrew and Greek. Scriptural themes were frequent in academic use. Cotton Ma- 628 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES ther's address, on taking his degree as Bachelor of Arts, was based on " The Divinity of the Hebrew Points." " We re cord," says an author, " at our country's origin a favorable im pulse to the employment of our native good sense in theologi cal investigation ; for our fathers made an open renunciation of all prescriptive systems, and took the Bible alone for their text-book." The Liberalizing Period came as a result of the introduction of the Half-way Covenant. Many persons coming into the Church without profession of regeneration, a large amount of loose theology came in with them. Less attention was given to the confessions. The Bible was re garded as of less importance than in the earlier time. Many people looked upon the severer thinking of their fathers as good enough for the beginning of colonial life, but not suited to the more advanced period. The reaction against the Script ural letter opened wide the door for a too liberal theological tendency. The result was the Unitarian revolt. The Controversial Period was the next stage in our theol ogy. While the great revival at the middle of the eighteenth century did much to restore the old theological TControversy° firmness, the tendency now was to a discussion of great Scriptural themes. Jonathan Edwards, of Northampton, by his work on "The Freedom of the Will," opened the door to a line of controversy which has broken out afresh, at intervals, ever since. His work was the best philo sophical structure ever reared on the Calvinistic theology, whether in the Old World or the New. The Congregational ists were most affected by this controversy. While the Pres byterians were agitated by the discussion, they were never diverted from a line which they early chose — the literary qual ifications of their ministry, a thorough Christian experience, and a zeal in occupying new territory. The favorite theo logical text-books of the pre-Revolutionary period had been Ames's "Medulla," Wolleb's "Compendium," and Willard's " Body of Divinity." But some other works came in to take their place. The writings of Edwards, who is the real founder of "New England theology," took the place of these primi tive works. The three authors who built on the Edwardean foundation were Bellamy, in his " True Religion ;" Smalley, in his "Distinction between Natural and Moral Inability;" THEOLOGY OF THE AMEEICAN CHUECH 629 and Hopkins, in his "Reduction of Disinterested Love to a System of Theology." The Hopkinsian theology was a toning- down of the strict Calvinism of Edwards and his school. The leaders were Hopkins, Bellamy, the younger Edwards, West, Spring, and Emmons. They differed from the elder Calvinism as to the nature of human depravity, the imputation of Adam's sin, the nature and extent of the atonement, and the natural in ability of the unregenerate to become Christians. They were warm advocates of revivals, benevolent institutions, and mis sionary movements ; and they founded the Theological Maga zine (New York), the Evangelical Magazine (Connecticut), and the Missionary Magazine (Massachusetts). The strict Edward- ean Calvinists and the Hopkinsians were two distinct classes at the beginning of the present century. Each operated on the other favorably. In due time they approached and amalga mated, though without any formal action. The union of the Cal vinistic Panoplist with the Hopkinsian Missionary Magazine, in 1808, was one of the public evidences of the amalgamation. Leonard Woods, of Andover, was a judicious and moderate theologian, who stood squarely on Calvinistic principles, with- c „ „ out pushing them to an extreme. Nathanael Em- Emmons, . Taylor, mons, of Franklin, Massachusetts, carried still further Park Hopkins's liberalizing of Edwards. He emphasized the freedom of the will, and free volition as essential to every good or bad act. He rejected the transference of Christ's righteousness. The influence of this godly and venerable pas tor and theologian was most profound on later New England thought. Nathaniel W. Taylor, of the Divinity School of Yale College, sought to relieve the Calvinistic doctrine of sin of its difficulties. His theological lectures and works created wide spread consternation among the more conservative, and led to the formation of the East Windsor (Connecticut) Theological School, under Bennet Tyler, his bitter opponent. This insti tution has developed into the present Hartford Theological Seminary. Edwards A. Park, the pupil of Emmons, was the Nathaniel W. Taylor of Andover. He was a teacher of great in tellectual acuteness and breadth, and completely emancipated the Congregational theology from the last remnant of strict Calvinism. The quickening power of his influence on multi tudes of pupils who have carried his theological method fur ther than the master is one of the most notable facts in the 630 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES recent history of the Church. The present Andover theology is in the direct line of this development. It is due to tbe ex tension of the idea of the universal atonement of Christ. The recent trial of the Andover professors for heresy, under the Seminary creed, has been decided by the Supreme Court of Massachusetts — though on another and technical issue — in favor of the professors. The Unitarian development arose as a protest against the old Calvinism, and was fostered by the intellectual atmosphere of New England and the decline of spiritual re- Unitananism . ° r ligion. It has recently thrown out many ot those positive elements which linked it to historic Christianity. Some of its representatives have adopted the extreme of Ger man rationalism, while others adhere to the border-land of the orthodox faith. The Presbyterian Church has gone through a similar expe rience with the Congregational. It has been helpless to pre vent the disintegration of the severer creeds of the P Theology™ Post-Reformation age- The Old School fought te naciously for the traditional conceptions, but at the reunion of the Church in 1870 the New School obtained com plete recognition. It was the ruling school in the North. Henry B. Smith, professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, from 1850 until his resignation on account of ill- health in 1874, was the real father of the most modern and ag gressive Presbyterian theology. The noble personality of this devout scholar and theologian is one of the rare heritages of the American Church. The Hodges, of Princeton, were able champions of tbe Old School. At present Princeton stands as the representative of the strict orthodoxy of the Presbyterian Church. In tbe Union Theological Seminary, Professor Charles A. Briggs, the pupil and follower of Henry B. Smith, is under trial for heresy. The partnership between Princeton and Union in the conduct of a most able and admirable theological period ical, The Presbyterian Review (1880-89), was dissolved. A revis ion of the Westminster Confession has been undertaken, which is proceeding on very conservative lines. The present outlook is, that tbe younger and more progressive thinkers, the pupils of Smith, Schaff, and Hitchcock, and like-minded theologians, will yet occupy hospitable places in their ancestral home. The Irenical Period is the latest stage in American theology. THEOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN CHUECH 631 While each of the great religious denominations has its theo logical system, and has developed its systematic the- PeHod'03 °l°gy from the basis of its Confession, there has been a notable absence of the polemic spirit. The Edwardean theory of the Will has been ably answered by Whedon, from an Arminian point of view, but without acrimony. The universal tendency now is, in treating doc trinal theology, not to pull down another, but to build up one's own system. Everywhere the spirit is constructive. In spite of appearances that indicate the contrary, the ani mus of theology at present is peaceful and mediatory. The purpose is more and more to emphasize the great underlying truths on which all the churches stand, and to free the evan gelical faith from embarrassing and unnecessary inferences and additions. The reconciling influence of Arminian theol ogy, which al the beginning of the nineteenth century was dreaded as a dangerous importation, has been most salutary. But there are many factors which have contributed towards a larger tolerance and a more generous catholicity. The church es are uniting on a basis of the fundamental doctrines of Christ to carry on an aggressive campaign against the kingdom of darkness. The points of disagreement are seen to be compare atively few and minor. The true growth of the Church, both in spiritual power and in the respect and homage of men, is found to be not only consistent with the free expression of individ ual opinion and the untrammelled development of theology, but to require such freedom of expression and development. The essential doctrines of the gospel were never more cordially believed than is the case to-day. The American Church is more and more inclined to settle down on the cardinal truths of Christianity, and, without laying again the foundations, or compromising any of the essentials of belief, to go forward to meet the great questions which Humanity has too long been asking, but in vain. 632 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER XXXI THEOLOGICAL SCHOLARSHIP The contributions of the American Church to theological science, even from the early Colonial period, have been im portant. The development of Biblical scholarship has been very rapid, especially within the last hundred years. Moses Stuart, of Andover, was the most notable of the early inter- Exege'icai preters of the sacred text, and so far surpassed all predecessors that he may be called the father of Bib lical literature in America. He was the first to bring to his task as an exegete tbe requisite first-hand knowledge, and to inspire others with his enthusiasm for scholarship. His name in this respect is the most eminent of any in the history of our land. He broke the ground in 1813 by a " Hebrew Grammar," and he continued until he died, January 4th, 1852. His last book, "A Commentary on tbe Book of Proverbs," was pub lished in that year. When he printed his " Hebrew Grammar" he was compelled to set up the types of about half the para digms of the verbs with his own hands. He was the pioneer also in introducing German theological works into this country. He here achieved a great triumph in overcoming a deep preju dice, but he conferred a lasting boon on American students, for all time to come, in opening to them the wealth of the evan gelical learning of Germany. He was himself an expositor of the Bible, of rare insight and judgment. Contemporaneous „ . with him was Samuel H. Turner, professor in the Gen- Turner, eral Theological Seminary (Episcopal), New York, from Robinson 181g unti, hig deatnj ;n lg61> jje ajg0 snare(J wita Stuart the opprobrium of translating German works on the Bi ble, and published original " Commentaries " and other works. Turner was an earnest scholar and a sound commentator, and he achieved much for American Biblical scholarship. Edward THEOLOGICAL SCHOLAESHIP 633 Robinson was the third member of this illustrious trio of pio neers. In 1823 he assisted his friend and colleague, Professor Stuart, in getting out a second edition of the latter's " Hebrew Grammar." His life was devoted to his science. His greatest work was his " Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petraea," the first edition of which was published in 1841. It was the first attempt in modern times to open up the Bible lands after thorough and patient exploration. It was a monumental work, and all the later books on the Bible have drawn from it as from a fountain. William M. Thom son, in " The Land and the Book," shows how the lands of the Bible, as seen to-day, confirm the Scriptural narrative. Andrews Norton, who taught sacred literature in Harvard from 1813 to 1830, was also an early worker in the Biblical field. His great work on the "Genuineness of the Gospels" was published in Boston, 1837-44. He is the Lardner of America. Coming down to later times, we name only repre sentatives of a large class of Biblical scholars : Ezra Abbot, a textual critic of world-wide reputation, author of an invaluable monograph on the "External Evidences of the Fourth Gos pel"; Caspar Rene Gregory, whom Abbot assisted in the publication of the "Prolegomena to the Eighth Larger Edi tion of Tischendorf's Greek Testament"; Horatio B. Hack- ett, one of the noblest Christian scholars of modern times, The Later Bib- whose " Commentary on Acts " is a work of ex- licai Scholars ceptional value, and who, with Abbot, assisted in editing the American edition of Smith's "Bible Dictionary"; Thomas J. Conant, the learned and patient translator of the Bible for the American Bible Union ; Joseph Addison Alex ander, a man of vast learning, who at Princeton helped Stuart of Andover in popularizing German Biblical schol arship, but, like Stuart, was also an independent explorer ; Fales H. Newhall, a brilliant scholar ; Henry J. Ripley, whose life connects the early and later period ; Enoch C. Wines, famous in another department of labor, whose " Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient Hebrews " has es tablished his reputation in this department ; George R. Noyes, one of the older commentators, an accurate and reverent trans lator ; Charles Hodge, Daniel D. Whedon, James Strong, and William Nast, who have done honor to the universal Church by their priceless labors in the field of Biblical science. 634 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES In Historical Theology there has been an excellent begin ning. America being far removed from the conflicts and prejudices of the Old World, there is no reason why there should not here prevail the judicial spirit. Some of our . fl ,„ _ young American scholars in general history, ny on American beginning their historical studies in the Ger- Histonograp y man unjvergit,ieg) have transplanted to our shores at once the pure historical spirit and the rare historical fruits of the long and calm investigation of German historians. America preceded England as the discoverer of the historical treasures of Germany. Bancroft, Motley, and others of our young men feasted their eyes upon the stores of historical wealth in Gottingen ; they only prepared the way for a great habit — the American study of history in Germany and a sus tained familiarity with the latest historical literature of the continent in general. This early drinking at the German foun tains of history applies also to historical theology, George P. Fisher, of Yale, was a student in Halle, and without his Ger man training there had not been his superb Histories, which have appeared during the last two decades. Henry B. Smith's edition of Hagenbach's " History of Christian Doctrines " is a masterpiece of scholarship. The same great scholar re vised and completed Gieseler's " History of the Church," and wrote himself a "History of the Church in Sixteen Chrono logical Tables." Philip Schaff is the greatest of all Fisher.Smith, our Church historians. A native of Switzerland, and Schaff and a student under the noble and pure Neander, he came to this country when a young man, and has devoted his life to teaching and authorship. There is hardly a depart ment of theological science which he has not made richer by his labors. But it is as an historian of the Church that his scholarship has been most important and his fame most en during. His example has been an inspiration to many young men, who will enrich the historiography of the Church of the Future. Lyman Coleman has investigated Christian Antiquities, and Charles W. Bennett has given us the best single work on Christian Archseology. Charles W. Baird and his brother, Hen ry M. Baird, have made thorough studies of the Huguenot Em igration to America; and their father, Robert Baird, was the first to give a connected historical account of Religion in THEOLOGICAL SCHOLAESHIP 635 America. Dorchester has produced a " History of Christianity in the United States," which is a storehouse of valuable facts. Leonard Bacon has written a History of the origin of the New England Churches, entitled "Genesis of the New England Churches." Henry M. Dexter was an accom- Chulch HTstorlans Plished student of Puritan history, and his works are of great and permanent value. His " Con gregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years as Seen in its Literature " is one of the most important works in Church history produced on either side of the Atlantic. While Stuart was bringing forward his exegetical treasures from Germany, James Murdock, at the same institution, was doing the same work for the German church historians, adding, himself, most valuable materials. Ezra H. Gillett was an historian of pains taking research. His "Life and Times of John Huss" and " His tory of the Presbyterian Church " are comprehensive works. Hatfield, Nutter, and Duffield have written valuable books on the history of hymns. The latter's investigations into Latin hymnology are specially worthy of mention. Charles P. Krauth has given the results of his study of the Reformation in a nota ble volume, and E. J. Wolf has published a graphic account of the Lutherans in America. America has achieved pre-eminent success in theology proper. The long line of New England theologians is a list of sturdy thinkers which no other land surpasses. Systematic (Charles Hodge was for over a generation the Nestor Theology ° & . of Calvinism. His " Systematic Theology " is a text book wherever the English language is spoken. His son, Archibald A. Hodge, continued his father's work in his father's spirit and with his father's ability. Robert J. Breckenridge was the Charles Hodge of the South. Thomas O. Summers, dis tinguished in other literary fields, wrote a most valuable treat ise on theology. James Richards did good service at Auburn. Daniel D. Whedon was a most virile thinker. His prelections are among the finest specimens of theological debate to be found anywhere. James W. Dale is famous for his elaborate works on baptism. Lewis F. Stearns left one of the most im portant books of the present time as the monument of his short life — namely, "The Evidence of Christian Experience." J. P. Boyce and J. L. Dagg, both Baptists, have treated Sys tematic Theology. Horace Bushnell exerted a wide influence 636 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES on the thought of his time. His works on "Christian Nurture" and on "The Vicarious Sacrifice" are among the most suggestive treatises in the whole range of theology. Charles G. Finney impressed his views of truth on a wide circle of pupils and hearers. He was the founder of the Oberlin theology. Enoch Pond was a veteran instructor and author. Henry B. Smith mediated between Calvinism and modern theology. His post humous lectures, edited by his pupil, the late Professor Karr, are among the most valuable books of the kind in our literature. Miner Raymond was the first Methodist theologian to produce a complete "Systematic Theology." Randolph S. Foster, after a number of minor theological discussions, such as "Beyond the Grave " and similar works, began a colossal undertaking in systematic theology, under the general title of " Studies in Theology." Stephen M. Merrill has treated certain depart ments of systematic theology, especially in eschatology and baptism, with great skill. John Miley has produced a " Sys tematic Theology " at once original, liberal, and fully recogniz ing the latest investigations. Every theological seminary has its authority in this science, and men now venerable have made able contributions in published volumes. The Churches of Europe have produced the most scholarly treatises on Pastoral Theology known to Christian literature. The conduct of a parish has been sung in the poems of Theology George Herbert and others, developed by Baxter and many other writers in special treatises, and illustrated by the labors of Baxter, Howe, and many generations of de voted pastors. Many of them have become the honored teach ers of the American Church. We have depended mostly on the German writers, whose treatises have been translated into English and made to do service in the United States. The most popular of the foreign works of this class has been Vinet's "Pastoral Theology," which, however, has been left in the back ground by later works. Theology, as an applied science, has had in the United States an unparalleled field for experi ment. The problems of Christian life and work with us are so numerous as to remove the science of Pastoral Theology quite out of the limitations of the State Churches, and to give it a larger place in the service of the Church. The labors of Ebenezer Porter, James W. Alexander, Daniel P. Kidder, and Austin Phelps are fair specimens of how well the American THEOLOGICAL SCHOLAESHIP 637 mind can conduct the treatment of great pastoral questions. All practical subjects have been discussed with singular fulness and promptness. Hitchcock, Behrends, Ely, and others have shown tbe relations of the Labor question to Christianity. The Sunday-school, in its most modern phases, has V^t7«?Thi.Xn enli8ted the services of Wise' Vincent> Trum- bull, Hurlbut, Eggleston, and many others. Mis sions, evangelical work, Sabbath observance, humane efforts, and many other departments of ecclesiastical activity, have interested writers of all the great churches, and the fruit of their pens has become the immortal treasure of the Church, both in Europe and America. The record which the American Church has made in the great work of Christian defence is excellent. The echoes of the scepticism of the Old World which have reached our shores have left no harmful result. The people of the United States, even from the early colonization of the country, have never given hospitality to the rationalism of Germany or the deism of France. Our greatest danger arose from the force of Thomas Jefferson's example of sympathy with French infidel ity, and of Thomas Paine's gross scepticism. But the great re- Christian Apologetics vival at the begilming of the present century of the was of incalculable influence in producing an American Church evangelical spirit, from which the American Church has never shown the least disposition to retire. There has been some variety in attachment to the Christian founda tions. In New England the disposition has been stronger than elsewhere to make concessions to the opponents of the ortho dox communions. In the Middle States the field for rationalis tic opinions has been less inviting, and these have never se cured more than occasional favor. In the Southern States there has never been any yielding to sceptical influences. All the churches in the Southern States have, from the beginning of the Colonial Period down to this day, stood Territorial Difference id b gide in loyalty to the faith of the in Religious Belief J . ¦> J Church in its periods of reform and evangel ization. The arduous experiences of James Freeman Clarke, in his pastorate of a little group of Unitarians in Louisville, are a fair type of tbe difficulty, from the beginning, of plant ing any other than principles of Evangelical Christianity on Southern soil. 638 THE CHUECH IN THE UNITED STATES It is in harmony with the general evangelical trend of the American Church that we should find among American theo logians a goodly number of heroic defenders of evangelical faith, and yet who are advocates of a growing and aggressive theology. Indeed, in no country do we find a keener appre ciation of the labors of the eminent Christian apologists of Germany, France, and Holland, such as Neander, Tholuck, Hengstenberg, Lange, Christlieb, De Pressense, Van Prinsterer, and Van Oosterzee, than in the United States. The American defections from Christianity, excepting the Unitarian, have never made a lasting and profound impression on the life and thought of the country. Philip Schaff, here, as in many fields, has benefited the American Church by his prompt rec- Representative ognition of the dangers of German rationalism. American George P. Fisher, by his " Supernatural Origin of po ogis s Christianity," gave prompt notice that American scholarship was on tbe side of Evangelical Christianity. William Nast, in his " Introduction to the Gospels," has pro duced one of the most successful and convincing refutations of Strauss and his school. Joseph Cook has had a unique career in the Boston Monday Lectureship, and has widely in fluenced the views of many. These are representatives of a large class of men who are of supreme influence in shaping the theology of the American Church. There is every reason to expect that, in the battle for a firm and aggressive faith, the Church of the United States will be as devoted in its attachment to the Divine Word in the Twentieth Century as it has been in the three centuries already past. APPENDIX CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES I. STATISTICS AS GATHERED BY THE CENSUS OFFICE Churches Church Organi Value of Church Communi cants or Members Edifices zations Property 294fV 580 $465,605 26,816 1 29 1,400 647 22J 30 61,400 1,147 m 28 16,790 1,018 4181 995 644,675 28,991 78^ 106 264,010 9,123 131 18 19,500 937 34 63 57,750 2,080 25 25 8,300 525 — 109 — 2,279 1 87 1,265 2,364 1 — 200 1,081 — — — 446 6 335 13 14 63,300 10,850 1 1 5,000 100 3 4 13,320 665 — 8 — 1,000 ,765f 10,221 118,381,516 6,250,045 23 12 220,000 13,504 3 10 66,050 1,394 135 143 137,000 13,004 962f 1,281 1,637,202 90,718 3381 479 643,185 22,511 87} 154 1,386,455 7,095 — — 6,000 20 22 7 15,000 1,600 (See Mennonite) 1 1 10,000 250 — 1 — 21 — 1 — 25 1 1 3,000 200 16 15 36,800 1,728 ,736,V 4,868 43,335,437 512,771 Adventists : Advent Christian Church of God (Seventh Day) . . Evangelical Adventists Life and Advent Union Seventh Day Adventists Baptists, Seventh Day " Six Principle Brethren in Christ or River Bretliren United Zion's Children Brethren (Plymouth) I (Plymouth) II " (Plymouth) III (Plymouth) IV Catholic : Armenian Greek Catholic (Uniates) Greek Orthodox Old Catholic Reformed Catholic Roman Catholic Russian Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Christian Church, South Christian Connection Church of God (Winnebrenarian) . . Church of the New Jerusalem (Community) Adonai Shomo " Amana Society " Bruederhoef Men. Soc. " Harmony Society .... " New Icaria " Society of Altruists. . . " Society of Separatists . " Society of Shakers . . . Congregationalists 640 APPENDIX CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES— (Continued) Chueches Church Edifices Organi zations Value of Church Property Communi cants or Members Disciples of Christ Dunkards, or German Baptists or ) Brethren (Conservative) ) " (Old Order).... " " " (Progressive) . . . Seventh Day German Baptists. . . Evangelical Association Friends (Hicksite) " (Orthodox) " (Primitive) " (Wilburite) Friends of the Temple (Hoffmanians) German Evangelical Protestant. . . . " " Synod of North Amer. Independent Churches of Christ in Christian Union Jewish (Orthodox) " (Reformed) Lutheran, Buffalo Synod " Danish Church Assoc'tion " Danish Ch. in America. . . " General Council " General Synod " German Augsburg Synod, " Hauge's Synod " Icelandic Synod " Immanuel Synod " Indep'nd'ntCongregations " Joint Synod of Ohio, etc. " Michigan Synod " Norwegian Ch. in America " Suomai Synod " Synodical Conference. . . . " United Norwegian Ch. ) of America j " United Synod in the South Mennonite " Amish " Apostolic " Brethren in Christ " Bruederhoef " Defenceless " General Conference .... " Old Amish " Old(Wisler) " Reformed Bundes Conference der Menno- ) niten Brueder Gemeinde.. . . J Church of God in Christ Methodist : African Methodist Episcopal .... African Union Meth. Protest 5,3241i 854J& 81$ H 1,8991 213 725 5 52 5 52 785^ 1831122179 2533741 1,551-rV 1,822* 23 99} 4 19 87 443 53 2751 8* 1,531 379J 1971 61 1 43 1 1429 11 3 4,124 27 7,246 720 57 128 6 2,310 201794 9 52 4 52 870 294 316217 2750 131 1,995 1,424 23 . 175 13 21 112 421 65 489 11 1,9341,122 414 246 97 2 45 5 9 45 22 15 34 1218 2,481 40 $2,206,038 1,121,541 24,970 145,770 14,650 4,785,680 1,661,850 2,795,784 16,700 67,000 15,300 1,187,450 4,614,490 234,450 2,802,0506,952,225 84,410 44,775 129,700 11,119,286 8,919,170 111,060 214,395 7,200 94,200 530,125 1,639,087 164,770 806,825 12,898 7,804,313 1,644,455 1,114,065 317,045 76,450 1,200 39,600 4,600 10,540 119,350 1,500 8,015 52,650 11,350 1,600 6,468,280 54,440 641,051 61,101 2,0888,089 194 133,313 21,992 80,665 232 4,329 340 36,156 187,432 18,214 57,69772,899 4,242 3,493 10,181 324,846 164,640 7,010 14,730 1,991 5,580 18,096 69,505 11,482 55,452 1,385 357,153119,972 37,457 17,07810,101 209 1,113 352 856 5,6702,038 610 1,6551,388 471 452,725 3,415 APPENDIX 641 CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES— (Continued) Churches Church Organi Value of Church Communi cants or Edifices zations Property Members Methodist : Amer. Wesleyan Connection. . 341f 665 $393,250 16,492 Evang. Miss. Ch. in America. . 3 11 2,000 951 14 15 266,975 2,569 Methodist Episcopal 22,844^T 25,861 96,723,408 2,240,354 Methodist Episcopal, South. . . 12,6871$ 15,017 18,775,362 1,209,976 Primitive Methodist 78 84 291,993 4,764 2,279 Union American Meth. Episc. 35 42 187,600 Welsh Calvinistic Methodist.. 1891 187 625,875 12,722 27" 32 15,000 2,346 114 94 681,250 11,781 Mormons : Church of Jesus Christ of ) 265| 425 825,506 144,352 Reorganized Ch. of Jesus \ Christ of Latter Day Sts. j 1221 431 226,285 21,773 Presbyterian : Associate Ch. of N. America . . 23 31 29,200 1,053 Associate Reformed, South. . . 116 116 211,850 8,501 Cumberland Presbyterian .... 2,008^ 2,791 3,515,511 164,940 " " Colored 192f 238 202,961 13,439 Presbyterian in United States 2,288 2,391 8,812,152 179,721 Presbyt. inU. S. of America. . 6,663} 6,717 74,455,200 788,224 Ref. Presbyt. (Covenanted). . . 1 4 — 37 Ref. Presbyterian, Gen. Synod. 33 33 469,000 4,602 Ref. Presb. in U.S. and Canada 1 1 75,000 600 Reformed Presbyterian Synod 115 115 1,071,400 10,574 United Presbyterian 8311 866 6,408,084 94,402 Reformed Church in America . . 669} 572 10,340,159 92,970 Christian Reformed 106 99 428,500 12,470 Reformed Church in the U. S. . . 1,3041 1,510 7,975,583 204,018 Reformed Episcopal 84 83 1,615,101 8,455 27 329 37,350 8,662 6 4 12,200 306 11 A 20 8,700 913 4 60,000 1,064 30 334 573,660 45,030 1 40 600 696 Total 832^ 955 8,060,833 49,224 89,7561fl 104,108 $480,030,800 15,395,127 41 642 APPENDIX CHURCHES IN THE UNITED STATES n. STATISTICS AS GATHERED FROM DENOMINATIONAL YEAR BOOK AND OTHER SOURCES Churches Church Edifices Value of Church Property Communi cants or Members Baptists, Freewill " General " General Freewill " Old Two Seed in the Spirit. " Original Freewill " Primitive " Regular Colored 1 ' Regular (North) Regular (South) Christian Scientists Church of God in Christ Jesus Methodist : African Methodist Episcopal Zion . Colored Methodist Episcopal Congregational Methodist Free Methodist Methodist Protestant United Brethren Protestant Episcopal Social Brethren Unitarians 1,210* 220* 1 79 58 2,100 10,518 8,083 16,059 7 29} 3,5003,196 190 1,102 2,003 4,265 5,605 5 422 $3,105,392 298,390 4,778 64,00032,050 1,426,570 2,605,907 45,296,989 13,214,109 40,66645,076 2,498,560 1,563,681 47,500 805,085 3,682,837 4,698,614 73,586,201 8,700 13,079,800 87,36923,002 859 2,126 4,417 85,000 1,229,516 783,769 1,282,221 7,8892,612 349,788 128,758 10,143 22,113 141,072228,158532,054 913 67,749 Total. 58,653^ Recapitulation : Total by Census Returns Total by Year Book and other Sources . ".'""lit 58,653*V $166,094,904 480,030,800 166,094,904 4,986,528 16,395,127 4,986,528 Grand Total 148,5001^ $646,125,704 20,381,655 INDEX OF AUTHORS Abbot, E., 633. Abbott, J., 618. Abelard, P., 167, 179, 181, 182, 183, 184, 385. Aben Ezra, 175, 176. Acrelius, I., 461. Adam of St. Victor, 167. Adamnan, 95. Adams, B., 441. Adams, C. K., 2. Adams, H. B., 461. Adams, J., 533, 546, 590, 591, 596. Adams, J. G., 550. Adams, S., 511. Adams, W., 627. Addison, J., 348, 369. ^Egidius, J., 274. jEschines, 10. iEschylus, 10. jEsculapius, 35. Agricola, J., 310. Agricola, R.,211. Ailly.P. d', 198, 213, 214. Alberich of Liege, 186. Alberti, V., 325. Albertus Magnus, 387. Alcuin, F., 119, 123, 135, 138. Alden, Mrs. G. R.,619. Aldrich, T. B., 613. Alembert, J. R. d', 340. Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, 47. Alexander, A., 525. Alexander, J. A., 525, 633. Alexander, J. W., 490, 525, 620. Alexander, W. L., 237. Alfonso da Liguori, 387. Alford, H, 366, 419. Alford, Mrs. H., 419. Alfred the Great, 138, 148, 150, 186. Algazel, 172. Allen, A. V. G., 486. Allen, D. H., 63, 105. Allen, J. H., 486, 545. Altamirano, I. M., 435. Alzog, J., 286, 384. Ambrose, 61, 67. Ames, W., 628. Anderson, R., 49, 608. Andrea, J. V., 313. Andrewes, L., 353. Anselm, 178, 182, 387. Anton, P., 324. Antoninus, 81. Apollinaris, 37, 49, 50. Apollonius of Tyana, 19, 32. Appel, T., 513. Aquinas, T., 167, 172, 179, 387. Argyropylus, J., 209. Aristides, 33, 34. Aristo, 33, 34. Aristotle, 10, 13, 63, 64, 172, 173, 177, 206. Arius, 3, 46, 47, 48. Arminius, J., 3 i 8, 319. Armitage, T., 516. Arndt, J., 313, 527. Arnobius, 34, 35, 38, 64. Arnold of Brescia, 150, 151, 152, 153, 183. Arnold of Ltibeck, 186. Arnold, A., 337. Arnold, G., 325. Arnold, M., 422. Arnold, S. G., 465. Arnold, T., 356,419, 422. Arnold (T.) and Addis (W. E.), 383. Arrian, 31. Arthur, W., 397. Asbury, F., 531, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538,672,673,597,615. Ashwell, A. R., 419. Athanasius, 3, 47, 48, 64, 69, 96. Athenagoras, 33, 34. Atkinson, J., 347, 631. Atterbury, F., 365. Aubigne, M. d', 194, 276, 379. 644 INDEX OP AUTHOKS Augustine, 11, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59, 66, 225, 337. Aurispa, J., 209. Autcar, 115. Averrhoes, 172. Avery, G. B., 579. Aycrigg, B., 565. Backus, I., 516. Bacon, F., 307. Bacon, L., 367, 441, 445, 523, 635. Bacon, L. W., 222, 397. Bacon, R., 180. Bahrdt, K. F., 334. Baillet, A., 387. Baird, C. W., 450, 634. Baird, H. M., 262, 341, 630. Baird, R., 430, 432, 634. Baldwin, E., 461. Ballou, H, 550, 552. Balzani, H., 173. Bancroft, G., 448, 590, 634. Bancroft, H. H, 583. Bancroft, J. M., 466. Bangs, N, 318, 631. Barclay, H, 478. Barclay, R., 563. Bardesanes, 28. Barmby, J., 93. Barnabas, 57, 58, 62, 75, 406. Barnes, A., 524. Baronius, C, 383. Barrett, B. F., 328. ' Barrow, 1., 360, 364, 420. Bascom, H. B., 622, 626. Basil of Cappadocia, 81. Basilides, 27, 29. Baumgarten, H., 262. Baur, F. C, 165. Baxter, R., 309, 367, 368, 369, 370, 472, 477, 618, 636. Bayly, L., 477. Bayne, P., 215, 296, 304, 421. Beard, C, 194, 195, 207, 215, 336. Beard, R., 565. Beardsley, E. E., 492. Beatus, 122. Beckett, W. H, 244. Bede, Venerable, 101, 138. Beecher, H. W., 540, 594, 622, 624, 626. Beecher, L., 524, 598, 599, 622, 624, 625, 626. Beecher (W. C.) and Scoville (S.), 622. Beecher, W. J., 598. Beer, F. W., 260. Behrends, A. J. F., 637. Behringer, G. F., 215. Belknap, J., 546, 547, 597. Bellamy, J., 614, 622, 628, 629. Bellarmine, R., 384. Bellows, R. N, 545. Belsham, T., 548. Benedict, D., 516. Benezet, A., 591. Benham, W., 125. Bennett, C. W., 75, 85, 163, 634. Bennett, W. W., 531. Benrath, K., 267. Berengar, 123, 178. Berkeley, G., 178, 492. Bernard of Clairvaux, 152, 160, 161. 167, 179, 387. Bernardine a Piconio, 385. Berridge, J., 360. Bersier, E., 262. Berthold of Ratisbon, 167. Besant, W., 262. Bessarion, J., 309. Bethune, G. W., 627. Beveridge, W., 359. Beza, T., 243, 264, 319. Bigelow, J., 336. Bingham, J., 365. Binns, W., 184. Birch, T., 361. Birney, J. G., 589, 593, 594. Bishop, L., 292. Bjerregaard, C. H. A., 312. Blackburn, W. M., 233, 237, 286. Blair, H. W., 595. Blair, J., 464, 471, 483, 486. Blair, W., 361. Bliss, E. M., 408, 475, 555, 604, 608, 611. Bliss, J., 361. Blondel, D., 125. Blount, O, 308. Boccaccio, G., 107, 185, 208. Boehme, J., 312, 313, 314. Boethius, 137, 138, 150. Bolingbroke, H. S. J., 308, 340. Bonar, A. A., 419. Bonar, H., 421, 426. Bonaventura, G., 167. Bonnet, J., 267. Bonnier, E., 181. Bonwetsch, G. H., 44. Boone, R. G., 461. Booth, B., 424. Booth, Mrs. B., 424. Booth, W., 424, 426. Booth, Mrs. W., 424. Bosio, A., 86, 87, 88. Bossuet, J. B., 310, 337. Bost, A, 326. INDEX OP AUTHORS 645 Boswell, J., 366. Botta, V., 184. Bouquillon, T., 544. Bourignon, A., 337. Bovet, E. V. F., 326. Bowden, J., 561. Bowden, J. W., 129, 131. Bowen, L. P., 521. Boyce, J. P., 635. Boyle, G. D., 309, 367. Bozman, J. L., 447. Brace, C. L., 22, 589, 602. Bradford, W., 484. Bradley, G. G., 419. Bradstreet, A., 485. Brainerd, D., 475, 478. Brandt, C, 318. Brandt, G., 318. Bray, T., 486, 487. Breckenridge, R. J., 635. Breithaupt, J. J., 324. Bressani, F. G., 438. Brewster, W., 444, 461, 471. Bridgett, T. E., 244. Briggs, C. A., 293, 521, 602, 630. Bright, W., 95. Broadus, J. A., 166. Brodhead, J. R., 450. Brodrick, G. C, 359. Brooke, S. A., 419. Brown, J., 367. Brown, J. T., 361. Brown, R., 253, 298. Browne, G. F., 100. Browning, E. B., 423, 485. Browning, 0., 184. Browning, R., 423. Brownlow, W. R., 85. Brucioli, A., 270. Bryant, W. C, 694, 621, 622. Bryce, J., 107, 380, 498. Bucer, M., 236, 242, 268, 297. Buchanan, R., 380, 382. Buckley, T. W. A., 287. Buddensieg, R., 394. Budge, F. A, 299, 561. Bugenhagen, J., 232. Bulkley, P., 485. Bull, G., 353, 365. Bungener, L. F., 237, 287, 341. Bunsen, C. C. J., 22, 356. Bunting, J., 419. Bunting, T. P., 419. Bunyan, J., 367, 371, 372, 472. Burckhardt, J. J-, 207. Burnet, G., 87, 348. Burns, D., 414, 695. Burns, R., 378. Burrage, H. S., 233. Burton, H., 255. Btisenbaum, H, 290. Bushnell, H., 626, 635. Butler, C, 394. Butler, C. M., 276. Butler, J., 309, 365. Butler, J. E., 424. Buxtorf, J. (younger), 365. Byron, G. G. N, 238, 421, 422. Cabot, J. E., 575. Cairns, J., 307. Calamy, E., 367, 369. Calder, F. R., 318. Calderwood, D., 373. Calixtus, G., 311. Calmet, A., 385. Calvert, Sir G., 447. Calvin, J., 207, 237, 239, 240,241, 242, 243, 244, 257, 263, 270, 282, 297, 311, 319, 337, Campanius, J.,526. [443,456,489. Campanius, T., 451. Campbell, A., 519, 557, 558, 559, 560. Camus, J. P., 336. Candlish, R. S., 380, 382, 419. Capito, W. F., 236, 242. Carey, W., 409, 420. Caristadt, A. B., 261. Carlyle, J. W., 414. Carlyle, T., 222, 421, 423, 489. Carpocrates, 28. Carpzov, J. B., 325. Carr, A., 2. Carroll, C, 540. Carroll, H. K., iv. Carstares, W., 376. Cartwright, P., 531, 625. Cartwright, T., 367. Cams, W., 419. Cary, P., 621. Cassiodorus, 137. Cathcart, W., 516. Cattell, W. C, 665. Caxton, W., 453. Cazala, A., 274. Celsus, 31, 33, 34, 82. Cerinthus, 27. Chalkondylas, D., 209. Chalmers, T., 380, 382, 419, 420. Channing, W. E., 545, 548, 549, 578. Channing, W. H., 545, 548. Chapin,E.H, 550, 627. Charles, E., 421. Charlevoix, P. F. X., 437, 539. Chase, T., 299. Chaucer, G., 453. Chauncey, C, 485. 646 INDEX OP AUTHORS Chauncv, C, 546, 552. Cheever, H. T., 336. Cheke, Sir J., 360. Child, L. M., 594. Chillingworth, W., 362, 363. Christlieb, T., 408. Christoffel, R, 233. Chrysostom, J., 23, 37, 49, 67, 363. Chubb, T., 308. Chunder Sen, 425. Church, R. W., 104, 184,351. Cicero, M. T., 34, 82. Clap, T., 461, 473. Clark, D. W., 531. Clark, F. E., 606. Clark, J., 516. Clark, J. S., 511. Clark, W., 267. Clarke, J. F., 547, 589, 627, 637. Clarke, R., 552. Clarke, R. H., 539. Clarkson, T., 416, 564. Clemanges, N., 199. Clemens Romanus, 61, 62, 71. Clement, 58. Clement of Alexandria, 11, 34, 35, 36, 37, 64, 77, 82, 84. Clement of Ireland, 119. Coelestius, 52. Coke, T., 349, 350, 595, 597. Coleman, L., 80, 634. Colenso, J. W., 354. Coleridge, S. T., 355, 421, 423. Colet, J., 248, 359. Collins, A., 308. Colquhoun, J. C.,416. Comba, E., 153. Commodianus, 38. Conant, T. J., 520, 633. Condillac, E. B., 308. Conway, M. D., 501. Conybeare (W. J.) and Howson (J. S.), 6, 8, 366. Cook, G., 373. Cook, J., 638. Cooper, T., 503. Comely, R. P. O, 385. Corwin, E. T., 457, 513. Cosin, J., 353. Cossett, F. R., 565. Cotton, J., 444, 458, 459, 461, 471, 477, 480, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 617. Coverdale, M., 249. Cox, F. A., 228. Cox, G. W., 168, 354. Coxe, A. C, 622. Cranmer, T., 247, 249, 250, 251, 272, 297, 363. Crashaw, W., 486. Creighton, M., 2, 187, 194. Crippen, T. G., 54. Crisman, E. B., 565. Crispi, F., 388. Crooks, G. R, 531, 622. Crowe, J., 228. Cruciger, G., 232. Cudworth, R., 360. Cummings, A., 622. Cummings, A. W., 531. Cummins, G. D., 565, 571, 572. Cummins, Mrs. G. D., 565. Cunningham, J., 24, 69, 299. Cunningham, W., 237, 380, 382, 419. Curry, D., 421. Curtis, G. T., 455. Cutler, T., 493, 494. Cutts, E. L., 38. Cyprian, 34, 38, 54, 66, 67, 71, 73, 79, 81, 83. Cyriaci, M., 278. Cyril, 37. Cyril the Philosopher, 141. Dagg, J. L., 635. Dale, J. W., 635. Dale, T., 420. Dana, C. A., 677, 578. Daniel, 87. Daniels, W. U, 531, 533. Dante, 40, 107, 185, 208, 269, 313. Dauvignac, J. M. S., 289. Davenport, J., 471. David, 86, 88, 108, 473. Davies, S., 484, 620. Deane, W. J., 60. De Castros, A., 272. De Costa, B. F., 509. De Courcy, H, 539. De Felice, G., 262. De Hummelauer, F., 385. Demans, R., 244. Demarest, D. D., 513. Demetrius, 81. Demetrius Phalerius, 13. Demosthenes, 10. De Quincey, T., 422. De Rossi, G. B., 85, 87, 88, 89, 90. Des Cartes, R., 331. De Schweinitz, E., 326, 554, 555. De Thou, J. A., 265. Deutsch, S. M., 181. Devay, M., 278. De Vinne, D., 95. Dexter, H. M., 466, 486, 511, 635. Diaz, J., 274. Dickens, C, 395, 417, 422. INDEX OP AUTHORS 647 Dickinson, E. E., 583. Dickinson, J., 484, 486, 487. Didron, M., 163. Didymus the Blind, 37. Diodorus, 37. Dionysius of Alexandria, 37, 81. Dionysius of Corinth, 7, 81. Dionysius Exiguus, 113, 133, 148. Dix, D. L., 602, 605. Dixon, R. W., 146, 293. Dixon, W. H., 416, 579. Doane, G. W., 621. Dodd, C, 394. Dods, M., 364. DoUinger, J. J. I., 282, 884, 400. Donaldson, J., 30. Donatus, 55. Dorchester, D., 414, 430, 473, 497, 501, 503, 506, 595, 597, 620, 635. Dorner, I. A., 335, 571. Dorotheus, 37. Drane, A. T., 36, 159. Draper, J. W., 171, 207. Drummond, R. B., 258. Drury, A. B., 565. Dubbs, J. H., 513. Duff, A., 383, 409. Duffield, S. W., 134, 166, 617, 635. Dupin, L. E.,384. Durbin, J. P., 622. Dutton,W. E., 168. Duvergnier, J., 337. Duyckinck, E. A., 482, 617. Duyckinck, G. L., 482. Dwight, S. E., 475, 486. Dwight, T., 501, 503, 620, 622, 626. Dyer, T. H., 237. Eales, S. J., 159. Earle, A. M., 472. Eastman, J. A., 619. Eckart, M., 200, 201. Eddy, R, 550. Eden, C. P., 361. Edgerton, W., 561. Edmunds, J., 279. Edwards, Jonathan, 470, 471, 475, 481, 484, 485, 486, 487, 489, 490, 491, 512, 628, 629. Edwards, Jonathan (younger), 622, 629. Edwards, Justin, 624. Edwards, M., 565. Edwards, T., 622. Egede, H., 409. Eggleston, E., 405, 637. Eginhard, 119, 120. Egle, W. H, 447. " Eliot, George," 267, Eliot, J., 368, 476, 476, 477, 478, 627, 555, 608. Elipandus, 122, 123. Ellicott, C. J., 351. Elliott, C, 531, 581, 689. Ellis, G. E., 433, 441, 489, 545, 560. Ely, R. T., 637. Emerson, R. W,, 575, 576, 577. Emerton, E., 105. Emmons, N., 512, 622, 629. Enoch, 61. Ephraem, 37. Epictetus, 31. Epicurus, 15. Epiphanius, 56. Episcopius, S., 318, 319, 320, 461. Erasmus, D., 207, 210, 211, 229, 236, 246, 248, 250, 258, 260, 261, 273, 297, 359, 360. Erdosy, J., 278. Erigena, J. S., 123. Erskine, E., 377, 378, 380. Erskine, J., 487. Etherius, 122. Euripides, 10. Eusebius, 8, 11, 37. Eusebius of Emesa, 37. Eustathius of Thessalonica, 159. Evagrius, 386. Evans, T., 299, 561. Evarts, J., 545. Evelyn, J., 87. Ewing, F., 565, 566. Ezra, 61. Fagius, P., 246. Fairbairn, A. M., 351. Farel, G., 237, 238, 240, 241, 242. Farrar, A. S., 307, 330. Farrar, F. W., 3, 6, 184, 347, 414, 420, 550. Faulkner, J. A, iv, 312, 533. Felicissimus, 54. Felix, 122, 133. Fenelon, F. S. M., 337, 548. Fessler, J., 398, 399. Fichte, J. G., 334. Field, J., 416. Finley, J. B., 531. Finley, S., 471. Finney, C. G., 622, 625, 636. Fisher, G. P., iii, 2, 9, 125, 171, 194, 212, 255, 262, 265, 289, 330, 400, 465, 627, 634, 638. Fisher, J., 360. Fisher, J. A., 2. Fisk.W., 531, 622. Fiske, J., 433, 465, 545. 648 INDEX OP AUTHORS Fletcher, C. R. L., 314. Fletcher, J., 350. Fliedner, T., 417, 418, 427. Foakes-Jackson, F. J., 2. Forbes, Eli, 478. Forster, J., 232. Foster, R. S., 636. Foster, S. S., 589. Foster, W. E., 279. Fox, G., 299, 561. Francis of Sales, 336, 337. Francis, C, 475. Francke, A. H., 324, 325, 326. Franklin, B., 349, 472, 591, 596. Fraser, D., 377, 419, 424. Frederick the Great, 43, 331, 340. Freeman, E. A., 40, 146, 156, 171. Freeman, J., 546, 547. Fremantle, W. H., 571. Friedrich, J., 397. Froment, A., 238. Frothingham, N. L., 545. Frothingham, 0. B., 546, 675, 577, 578. Froude, J. A., 156, 159, 215, 244, 255, 258, 353, 367. Froude, R. H., 352, 353. Fulbert, 178. Fuller, T., 245, 297. Furness, W. H., 545. Gall, J., 405, 615. Gallitzin, Prince D., 541. Gannett, W. C, 545. Gano, J., 517. Gardiner, S. R., 244, 314, 361, 362. Garfield, J. A., 560. Garnett, R., 301. Garrison, W. L., 689, 593, 594. Gasperinus Barzizza, 209. Gay, E., 546. Gaza, T., 209. Geffcken, H., 388. Gerjer, E. G., 275. Geikie, C, 244. George of Trapezium, 209. Gerhard, J., 313. Gerhart, E. V, 513. Gerson, J. C, 198, 213, 214. Gibbon, E., 41, 91, 308. Gibbons, J., 543. Gieseler, J. C. L., iii, 104, 144, 286, 634. Gilbert, Sir H., 441. Gilbert, S., 404. Gillespie, T., 378, 390. Gillett, E. H., 276, 486, 521, 635. Gindely, A., 314. Gladstone, W.E., 361, 397. Glasgow, H., 565. Gloag, P. J., 6. Godwin, W., 501. Goerres, J. J., 384. Goethe, J. W., 332, 423. Gomarus, F., 319. Goodwin, C. W., 356, 358. Goodwin, J., 367, 370. Goodwin, J. A., 441. Goodwin, T., 367, 368, 369, 488. Gordon, A., 561. Gordon, R., 382. Gore, C, 93, 358. Gottfried of Strasburg, 185. Gottschalk, 123. Gough, J. B., 414, 595. Graetz, H, 175. Gray, G. Z., 168. Green, J. R., 100, 244, 252, 296. Gregg, T, 683. Gregory the Great, 93, 94, 124, 186, 138, 160. Gregory Nazianzus, 53, 66. Gregory Thaumaturgus, 37. Gregory, A., 404. Gregory, C. R, 633. Griesinger, T., 289. Grimm, J., 385. Grob, J., 233. Grocyn, W., 359. Groot, G., 258. Grotius, H., 319, 450. Guard, T., 627. Guarinus of Verona, 209. Giider, E., 233. Guido of Arezzo, 138, 167. Guild, R. A, 468. Guizot, F. P. G., 119, 182, 211, 237. Gurney, J. J., 564. Gustafson, A., 414, 595. Gustavus Adolphus, 316, 432, 451. Guthrie, D. K. and C, 419. Guthrie, J., 318. Guthrie, T., 382, 419, 420. Guyard, S., 116. Guyon, J. M. B., 336, 337. Gwatkin, H. M., 46. Hackett, H. B., 620, 633. Hadrian, 138. Haeckel, E., 427. Hagenbach, K. R., iii, 63, 242, 286, 310, 634. Haggai, 580. Haldane, A., 377. Haldane, J., 377, 378, 379, 380, 557. Haldane, R, 377, 378, 379, 380, 557. Hale, E. E., 545, 619. HalI,G., 611, 612. INDEX OF AUTHORS 649 Hall, John, 571. Hall, Joseph, 365. Hall, N., 420. Hall, R., 367, 419, 420, 489. Hall, R. W., 95. Hallam, H., 104. Hallowell, R. P., 465, 561. Hamilton, P., 255, 256, 257. Hamilton, Sir W., 178. Hamlin, C, 611. Hamline, L. L., 531. Hampden, R. D., 351. Hanna, W., 380, 419. Hansen, M. G., 258. Harbaugh, H., 513, 573. Hardwick, C, 104, 212, 252. Hardy, Mrs. E., 233. Hark, J. M., 554. Harper, T. N., 177. Harper, W. R., 520, 620. Harris, J. R., 20. Hartmann, F., 312. Hase, K., 184. Hassard, J. R. G., 539. Hatch, E., 24. Hatfield, E. F., 567, 635. Hausser, L., 194. Havergal, F. R., 421. Hawks, F. L., 441, 447, 486, 496, 627. Hawthorne, N., 577, 578. Haygood, A. G., 602. Hazelius, E. L., 526. Heard, A. F., 344. Heath, R., 339. Heathcote, W. S., 424. Heckewelder, J., 554, 556. Hedge, F. H., 222, 509, 575. Hedio, C, 236, 242, 281. Hefele, C. J., 384, 398. Hegel, G. W. F., 334. Hegesippus, 8, 37, 84. Helmuth, J. C. H., 529. Helvetius, C. A., 340. Henderson, T. F., 255. Hengstenberg, E. W., 335, 638. Henkle, M. M., 622. Henry VIII., 247. Henry, Patrick, 502. Henry, Paul, 237. Hepburn, J. C, 610. Heracleon, 28, 29. Heracles, 37. Herbert, G.,636. Herbert, Lord, 308. Herbst, A., 385. Herder, J. G., 332. Hergenrother, J., 383, 384. Herkless, J., 265. Hermas, 57, 58, 406. Herodotus, 83. Herrlinger, 228. Herzog, J. J., 237. Hesiod, 10, 31. Hessey, J. A., 75. Hetherington, W. M., 293, 373. Hicks, E., 561, 563. Hierocles, 31, 82. Higginson, F., 446, 471. Higginson, J., 485. Higginson, T. W., 462, 465, 562, 663. Hillhouse, A. L., 621. Hincmar, 130. Hinman, S. D., 609. Hippolytus, 34, 37. Hitchcock, E., 624. Hitchcock, R. D., 630, 637. Hitchcock (R. D.) and Brown (F.), 20. Hobbes, T., 178. Hodder, E., 408. Hodge, A. A., 525, 630, 635. Hodge, C, 521, 525, 630, 633, 635. Hodgson, W., 299, 561. Hoge, M., 504. Holbach, P. T., 340. Holmes, J., 326, 554. Holmes, 0. W., 254, 575, 622. Holtzmann, H., 57. Homer, 10, 83. Hood, E. P., 301, 419. Hook, W. F., 361. Hooker, E. W., 486. Hooker, R., 353, 361. Hooker, T., 444, 461, 471, 485, 487, 488, 511. Hopkins, S., 486, 512, 591, 624, 629. Hopkins, S. M., 318. Hoppin, J. M, 166,333. Hore,A.H.,146. Hosack, J., 255. Howard, J., 416, 417, 605. Howe, E. D., 583. Howe, J., 367, 370, 636. Howson, J. S., 366. Hubbard, W., 488. Hucbald, 167. Hug, J. L., 385. Hughes, H. P., 418, 420. Hughes, J., 539, 543. Hughes, T., 137. Hugo k Santo Caro, 180. Hugo of St. Victor, 204. Humboldt, F. H. A., 50. Hume, D., 178, 244, 308, 309. Humphrey, H, 598. Hunt, J., 146, 336, 399. Hunter, W. F., 112. 650 INDEX OP AUTHORS Hurlbut, J. L., 637. Hurst, C. E., 267. Hurst, J. F., 2, 267, 286, 307, 310, 330, 486, 487, 602, 627. Hurter, F. E., 384, 385. Husenbeth,F. O, 394. Huss, J., 196, 198, 213, 220, 245, 276, 277, 326, 635. Hutten, U. von, 228, 232. Hutton, R. H., 421. Hutton, W. H., 156, 351. Hyde, A. B., 531. Hystaspes, 61. Ignatius, 62, 75. Inge, W. R., 9. Ingle, E., 447. Ireland, J., 544. Irenaeus, 33, 37, 59, 60, 65, 66, 67, 73, 84. Irving, E., 534. Irving, W., 433. Isaiah, 61, 78. Isidore of Hispalis, 113, 115. Isocrates, 10. Ives, L. S., 543. Jackson, G. A., 33. Jackson, H. H., 602, 603. Jackson, J. P., 184. Jackson, S., 612. Jackson, S. M., 156, 237, 312, 404, 408, 424, 516, 583. Jackson (S. M.) and Gilmore (G. W.), 608. Jackson, T., 347, 367. Jacobs, H. E., 526. Jacoponus, 167. Jaeschke, H. A., 328. Jahn, J., 385. James, 8, 58, 62. Janney, S. M., 561. Jansen, C, 336, 337. Japp, A. H, 408. Jarducci, F., 433. Jarratt, D., 472. Jarvis, A., 494. Jefferson, T., 467, 499, 500, 502, 590, 591, 637. Jehuda Levi, 176. Jerome, 52, 83, 84, 86. Jervis, W. H., 265, 339. Jessup, H. H, 411. John of Goch, 206. John the Apostle, 8, 17, 31, 36, 45, 58, 59, 101. Johnson, E., 485. Johnson, O., 589, 593. Johnson, Samuel, D.D., 492, 493, 494. Johnson, Samuel, LL.D., 79, 365, 366. Jonah, 31. Jonas, J., 232, 233. Jones, H., 483. Jowett, B., 356, 358. Jude, 58. Judson, A., 410, 518, 611, 612. Julian, J., 617. Julian the Apostate, 41, 42, 43, 48, 65, 196. Julius Africanus, 37, 57, 84. Justin Martyr, 11, 33, 34, 64, 65, 75. Juvenal, 12, 16, 31. Karr, W. S., 636. Kant, I., 334. Kaufmann, D., 175. Kaulen, F., 383. Keane, J. J., 543. Keble, J., 170, 352, 421. Kellett, F. W., 93. Kellogg, S. H., 408. Kempis, T. a, 162, 195, 205, 313, 484, 486. Kennedy, J. H, 583. Kenyon, E. C, 347. Kettlewell, S., 195. Kidder, D. P., 404. Kiernander, J. Z., 409. Kimchis (the three), 175. King, C. W., 26. King, T. S., 627. Kingsley, C, 356, 419, 422. Kingsley, Mrs. O, 419. Kirchofer, M., 237. Kirkland, S., 478, 609. Kitchen, G. W., 228. Kite, J. L, 561. Kitto, J., 366. Kleanthes, 35. Klopstock, F. G., 313. Knabenbauer, J., 386. Knollys, H, 516. Knox, J., 255, 256, 257. Kohlrausch, H. F., 125. Koster, F. B., 321. Kostlin, J., 215, 218. Krasinski, V., 276. Krauth, C. P., 635. Kuenen, A., 428. Kurtz, J. H, 2, 208, 242, 267, 399. Kuyper, A., 428. Lacroix, J. P., 321. Lacroix, P., 134. Lactantius, 34. Laing, M., 373, INDEX OP AUTHORS 651 Lamb, M., 450. Lanciani, R., 85. Landerer, M. A., 177, 228. Lane, C. A., 146. Lanfranc, 178. Langdon, W. C, 426. Lange, J. P., 335, 638. Lardner, N., 309, 633. Larrabee, W. C, 631. Lascaris, C, 209. Las Casas, B., 433, 435, 436. Latimer, H, 249. Laud, W., 361, 362, 363, 369, 375, 445, 465, 487, 488. Laudinus, C, 209. Laurie, S. S., 80, 119. Law, W., 365, 366. Lawrence, J., 565. Lea, H. C, 272. Lear, H. L., 336. Learned, J. E., 392. Lechler, G. V., 244, 276. Lecky, W. E. H, 330, 350. Ledderhose, C. F., 228. Lee, C, 502. Lee, E. B., 545. Lee, J., 373. Lee, W., 361. Lees, F. R., 595. Leibnitz, G.W., 331. Leidrad of Lyons, 139. Leighton, R., 361, 365. Leland, J., 307, 309. Lenormant, F., 385. Lentulus, 62. Lessing, G. E., 331, 333. Lewin, T., 8. Lewis, W. H, 531. Lichtenberger, F., 333. Liddon, H. P., 354, 366. Lightfoot, J., 365. Lightfoot, J. B., 24, 26, 366. Linacre, T., 359. Lincoln, A., 594. Lindsey, T., 546. Lingard, J., 252, 384, 394. Linsay, T. M., 194. Littledale, R. F., 69, 91, 287, 289, 397. Livingstone, D., 412. Locke, J., 307, 308, 491. Lodge, H. C, 455. Lombard, P., 179. Longan, G. W., 557. Longfellow, H. W., 119, 339, 488, 594, 622. Lorimer, P., 255. Loserth, J., 276, Lovejoy, E. P., 694. Low (S. J.) and Pulling (F. S.), 298. Lowell, J. R., 694. Lowth, R., 365. Liibke,W., 163. Lucian, 31, 79. Luke, 25, 29. Lukianus, 37. Lully, R., 179, 180. Lundy, B., 593. Luther, M., 3, 133, 178, 181, 191, 194, 197, 198, 202,203, 207, 215-233, 235, 236, 247, 257-261, 263, 268, 273, 276, 277-283, 297, 810, 311, 314, 316, 324, 350, 360, 407, 443, 451, 527. Lycurgus, 10. Lynch (Bishop), 393. Lyte,H. C. M.,359. Macaulay, T. B., 244, 289, 296, 301, 303, 304, 306, 315, 348, 367, 371, 531. MacCracken, H. M., 565. Macdonald, B. W., 665. Macdonald, F. W., 419. Macdonald, J. M., 6. Macfarlane, J., 382. Mackay, C, 583. Mackenzie (J.) and Rainy (R.), 380, 419. Maekonochie, A., 354. Maclear, G. F., 95, 139. Macleod, D., 419. Macleod, N, 419,420. Maguire, J. F, 414. Maimonides, 176. Makemie, F., 521, 522. Malan, C, 379. Maldonatus, J., 385. Mandeville, B., 308. Manetho, 84. Mani, 28. Mann, W. J., 526. Manning, H. E., 69, 414. Mansel, H. S., 26. Marcellus, 269. Marchi, F., 87. Marcion, 29, 30. Marcus Aurelius, 19. Marmochini, S., 270. Marquette, J., 438. Marsden, J. B., 296. Marshman, J., 420. Martensen, H. L., 312. Martin, F., 438. Martin, J. P. P., 385. Martineau, H., 593. Martyn, H, 419, 478. Martyn, W. C, 258, 652 INDEX OP AUTHORS Martyr, P., 246, 270, 272, 297. Mason, A. J., 17. Massingberd, F. C, 262. Masson, D., 301. Mather, C, 461, 471, 473, 478, 480, 482, 485, 486, 522, 562, 576, 618, 627. Mather, I., 460, 471, 482, 485. Mather, R, 459, 471, 485, 617. Matthew, T., 250. Maule, J., 561. Maurice, F., 419. Maurice, F. D., 354, 356, 419. May, R., 615. Mavhew, E., 477. Mayhew, J., 546, 552. Mayhew, T., 477. Mayor, J. E. B., 399. McCalla, W. L., 559. McCheyne, R. M., 382, 419, 420. McClintock, J., 237, 287, 627. McClintock (J.) and Strong (J.), 91, 95, 237, 252, 289, 321, 404, 486, 533, 537, 639, 550, 565, 583. McClure, A. W., 486. McConnell, S. D., 509. McCosh, J., 382. McCrie, T., 237, 255, 267, 272. McFerrin, J. B., 531. Mcllvain, J. W., 447. McMaster, J. B., 501. McSherry, R., 447. McTyeire, H. N, 531. Mead, C. M., 416. Mead, E. D., 215. Meade, W., 441, 486, 501, 502. Melanchthon, P., 223, 227-232, 263, 268, 269, 297, 314. Meletius, 56. Meline, J. F., 255. Melito, 33, 37, 58, 215. Merivale, C, 38, 95. Merrill, S. M., 636. Methodius, 141. Meynell, W., 351. Michaud, J. F., 168. Miley, J., 636. Miller, H., 565. Miller, S., 497. Miller, W., 570. Milman, H. H., 38, 49, 93, 125, 144, 150, 171, 175, 187, 212, 366. Milner, I., 366. Milner, John, 394. Milner, Joseph, 366, 394. Miltiades, 33. Milton, J., 40, 155, 301, 303, 304, 313, 472. Mimpriss, R., 404, 616. Minutius Felix, 38. Mitchell, A. F., 95, 255, 293. Mitchell, J. M., 402. Moffat, J. C, 153, 255, 373. Moffat, R., 412. Mohammed, 116, 117, 118, 175. Mohler, J. A., 115, 384. Molina, A., 435. Molinos, M., 336, 337. Mombert, J. I., 107, 244, 406. Monod, A., 379. Montalembert, C. F. R., 92, 384. Montgomery, M. W., 583. Moody, D. L., 625. Morata, O. F., 267. More, H., 360. More, T., 211, 248, 260, 359. Morgan, T., 308. Morley, J., 341. Morris, J. G. F., 526. Morrison, J. C, 159. Morrison, R., 409. Morton, N., 461, 484. Mosellanus, P., 219. Moschopvlus, E., 209. Moses, 4,"61, 87, 175,621. Mosheim, J. L., 286. Motley, J. L., 318, 634. Moulton, W. F., 244. Movers, F. K, 385. Mozley, J. B., 222. Mueller, J., 335. Muhlenberg, H. M., 526, 527, 528, 572. Muhlenberg, W. A., 528, 621. Muir, W., 116. Mulholland, R., 414. MuUinger, J. B., 119, 186, 359, 399. Muratori, L. A., 387. Murdock, J., 635. Murray, J., 550, 551, 552. Muth, K., 211. Nast, W., 633, 638. Naugis, W. de, 185. Neal, D., 296. Neale, J. M., 166. Neander, A., iii, 2, 3, 11, 33, 40, 100, 139, 150, 177, 180, 195, 335, 634, 638. Neill, E. D., 447, 486. Nestorius, 49, 50, 52, 386. Nettleton, A., 622, 624. Nevin, J. W., 613, 515. Newell, E. J., 95. Newell, S., 611, 612. Newhall, F. H, 633. Newman, A. H., 44, 465. Newman, F. W.. 353. 41(J INDEX OP AUTHORS 653 Newman, J. H., 2, 46, 57, 69, 112, 115, 119, 129, 130, 131, 181, 351, 362, 353, 388, 394, 422. Newton, I., 360, 364. Newton, R., 619. Newton, W. W., 519. Nicephorus, 8. Nicodemus, 62. Nightingale, F., 416, 417, 418. Niven, T. B. W., 380. Noldeke, T., 116. Nordhoff, C, 679. Northcote, J. S., 85. Norton, A., 633. Norton, C. E., 163. Nott, S., 611, 612. Novatianus, 54, 55. Noyes, G. R., 633. Noyes, J. H, 579, 582, 683. Nutter, C. S., 617, 635. O'Callaghan, E. B., 450. Ochino, B., 246, 267, 270. 272, 288, 297. Odo of Clugnv, 167. (Ecolampadius, J., 229, 236, 260, 281. Oliphant, Mrs. M.,267. Onderdonk, H.W., 621. Orelli, C. von, 427. Origen, 11, 33, 34, 37, 38, 46, 57, 60, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 78, 83, 84, 204. Orme, W., 367, 368. Orosius, P., 138. Osiander, A., 311. Overton, J. H., 347, 486. Ovid, 442. Owen, J., 367, 369, 370. Owen, R., 569, 581. Pagi, A., 383. Paine, T., 310, 501, 502, 637. Paleario, A., 267, 270, 271. Paley, W., 309. Palfrey, J. G., 441. Palgrave, R. F. D., 301. Palmer, R, 136, 620, 622. Palmer, W., 352. Pamphilus, 37. Panta?nus, 37. Panzer, G. W., 210. Papias, 37, 84. Paris, M., 185. Park, E. A., 486, 622, 629. Parker, J., 420. Parker, T., 545, 549, 578, 594, 624. Parkman, F., 437, 539. Pascal, B., 338. Paschali, G. L., 270, 271. Patrick, St., 99. Pattison, M., 301, 304, 356, 368. Paul the Apostle, 6, 7, 11, 16, 22,23, 24, 26, 29, 36, 37, 58, 61, 62, 73, 78, 82, 84,88,98, 133,243,397. Paul the Deacon, 119, 138. Paul, C. K., 35. Pauli, G. R., 146. Paulinus, 52. Paulinus of Aquileia, 120, 139. Payson, E., 622, 625. Peabody, E., 578. Pearson, J. N, 361. Pelagius, 49, 51, 52, 179. Penn, W., 447, 449, 453, 563. Pennington, A. R., 258. Perothes, N, 209. Perrone, G., 384. Perry, G. G, 244, 293. Perry, W. S., 509. Persius, 12. Pestalozzi, J. H., 334. Petavius, D., 384. Peter the Apostle, 4, 6, 7, 17, 58, 62, 78, 133, 397. Peter Comestor, 115. Peter the Deacon., 134. Peter of Pisa, 119. Petersen, L., 275. Petersen, O., 275. Petrarch, F., 107, 185, 206, 269. Petrus, 37. Pfleiderer, O., 333, 421. Phelps, A., 636. Philip de Neri, 288. Philip, R., 367. Phillips, W., 594. Philo, 16, 27. Pick, B., 14. Picton, J. A., 301. Pierpont, J., 621. Pierson, A. T., 519. Pillsbury, P., 589, 693. Pilmoor, J., 533. Piper, F., 87. Pistorius, M., 210. Pitman, R. C, 595, 600. Platina, B. B. de S., 125. [176, 178. Plato, 10, 11, 13, 28, 35, 37, 172, 173, Pletho, G., 209. Pliny, 18, 82. Plotinus, 10. Plummer, A., 2. Plutschau, H, 409. Poggius, G. F., 209. Poiret, P., 334. Politianus, A., 209. Polonus, M., 185. Polycarp, 19, 30, 37, 58, 59, 83, 84. Pond, E., 636. 654 INDEX OP AUTHORS Pontano, J. J., 269. Poole, R. L., 244. Pope, A., 348. Porphyry, 31, 32, 82. Porter, E., 504, 636. Porter, E. P., 404. Post, C. F., 556. Powell, B., 356, 357. Power, F. D., 557. Pray, L. G., 614. Prentice, G, 531, 622. Prentiss, G. L., 475. Prescott, W. H, 272, 433. Pressense, E. de, 2, 3, 335, 339, 341, 397, 638. Priestley, J., 545, 546, 548. Prime, N. S., 598. Prime, S. I., 402, 598. Prince, T., 471, 485, 620. Proby, W. H. B., 354. Provoost,S., 510. Ptolemaeus, 28. Punchard, G, 511. Punshon, W. M., 419, 420. Pusey, E. B., 351, 352, 386, 388. Putnam, G., 575. Pythagoras, 28. Quadratus, 33, 34. Quincy, J., 461. Rabanus Maurus, 135. Radbertus, P., 123. Radewin, F., 268. Railton, 424. Rainy, R., 373, 380. Raleigh, Sir W., 441. Randall, D. R., 447. Randolph, E., 602. Ranke, L., 262, 289. Ratramnus, F., 123. Rauch,F.A., 515. Raymond, M., 636. Reade, C, 417. Redford, A. H., 531. Reginus, 167. Reichel, O. J., 187. Reichel, W. C, 554. Reid, J. M., 608. Rein.W., 215. Relly, J., 550, 551. Remusat, C. F. M. de, 181. Renan, E., 44, 237. Rendall, G. H, 41. Reuchlin, J., 211. Reuss, E., 57. Rhiem, E., 222. Rice, E. W., 404. Richard, J. W., 526. Richard of St. Victor, 204. Richards, J., 635. Richardson, C. F., 482, 617. Richardson (C. F.) and Clark (H. A.), 461. Richardson, R., 557. Ridley, N, 249. Rigdon, S., 583, 584, 585. Riggs, S. R., 604. Ripley, G., 575, 577, 578. Ripley, H. J., 520, 633. Ritschl, A., 322. Ritter, J. I., 384. Robert of France, 135, 167. Robert of Sorbonne, 180. Robertson, F. W., 354, 356, 419, 421, 550, 626. Robertson, G. C, 181. Robertson, J. C, 156. Robertson, W., 373. Robinson, E., 525, 632. Robinson, J., 254, 432, 443, 461, 475, 479. Roche, J. A., 622. Rodriga de Valero, 274. Rogers, H., 367. Rogers, J., 617. Rohrbacher, R. F., 384. Romig, B., 555. R6rer, G, 232. Roscoe, W., 267. Ross, J., 612. Rothe, R., 24. Roublin, 236. Rousseau, J. J., 340, 603. Row, J., 373. Rufinus, 84, 92. Rupp, I. D., 430, 565. Rush, B., 596, 597, 599. Russell, M., 373. Russell, T., 367. Ruysbroek, J., 195, 201. Ryle, J. C, 420. Safford, 0. F., 550. Sallust, 83. Salmond, C. A., 390. Salmond, S. D. F., 6. Sanazzaro, J., 269. Sanchez, T., 290. Sandys, G, 442. Saturninus, 29. Savonarola, G., 197, 267, 268. Schaeffer, C. W., 526. Schaff, P., iii, 2, 8, 20, 49, 76, 85, 144, 184, 194, 228, 267, 279, 397, 402, 406, 407, 498, 548, 630, 634, 638. INDEX OP AUTHORS 655 Schaff (P.) and Prime (S. I.), 402. Schaff-Herzog, 67, 78, 95, 112, 117, 184, 207, 228, 233, 237, 256, 276, 279, 299, 321, 322, 361, 402, 404, 475, 486, 626, 548, 557, 565, 575. 583, 598. Schanz, P., 385. Scharf, J. T., 447. Schelling, F. W. J., 334. Schelvig, S., 325. Schem, A. J., 289, 539. Schem (A. J.) and Kiddle (H.), 461. Schiller, J. C. F., 161, 332, 423. Schlegel, J. A., 313. Schleiermacher, F. D. E., 11, 177, 333, 335. Schmucker, B. M., 526. Scholz, A., 385. Schopenhauer, A., 334. Schultze, 554. Schiirer, E., 14. Schwartz, C. F., 409. Scott, G. G., 163. Scott, Sir W., 171, 422. Scott, T., 366. Scotus, J. Duns, 179, 387. Seabury, S., 494, 510. Sears, E. H., 621. Seebohm, F., 194, 244, 258. Selborne, Lord, 166. Semler,J. S., 331. Seneca, L. A., 62, 82, 239, 365. Senior, N. W., 594. Seth, A., 177. Sewall, S., 473, 485, 591. Shaftesbury, Earl, 30a Shakespeare, W., 407. Sharp, G., 416. Shea, J. G., 437, 539. Shedd, W. G. T., 166. Sheldon, H. C, 63. Shelley, P. B., 422. Shepard, T., 463, 471, 485. Sherlock, T., 309. Sherwood, J. M., 475. Shimmelpennick, Mrs. M. A., 336. Shipp, A. M., 531. Shorthouse, J. H, 336. Sickingen, F. von, 232. Simeon, C, 355, 360, 379, 419, 420. Simons, M. L., 482. Simpson, M., 531, 622, 626. Smalley, J., 628. Smith, A., 178. Smith, E., 411. Smith, G., 75, 108. Smith, H. B., 630, 634, 636. Smith, H. P., 175. Smith, Captain J., 441, 442. Smith, Joseph, 561. Smith, Joseph, 584, 685, 586, 687. Smith, J. H., 665. Smith, P., 2, 104, 267. Smith, R., 602. Smith, R. B., 116. Smith, R. P., 571. Smith, S., 396, 409. Smith, S. F., 608. Smith, T., 139. i Smith, Sir T., 360. Smith, W., 633. Smyth, E. C, 85, 333. Smyth, E. G., 75. Socrates, 10, 13, 178. Solomon, 14, 108. Solomon, I., 175. Solon, 10. Sophocles, 10. South, R., 365, 420. Southey, R., 347, 367, 371, 422. Soyres, J. de, 44. Spalding, J. R., 639. Spalding, M. J., 539. Spangenberg, A. G., 327. Sparks, J., 475, 478, 501, 645, 548. Spaulding, S., 583, 584. Spaulding, S. J., 583. Spayth, H. G., 565. Speer, W., 504. Spencer, E., 478. Spener, P. J., 322-327, 349. Spiers, E. B., 321. Spinoza, B., 331. Spotiswood, J., 373. Sprague, W. B., 430, 486, 501, 504, 513, 545, 622. Spring, S., 611, 629. Spurgeon, C. H, 420. Stanley, A. P., 69, 85, 156, 344, 356, 366, 373, 408, 419, 420. Stanley, H. M., 413. Stapfer, E., 14. Starbuck, C. C, 399. Stearns, J. N, 595, 596. Stearns, L. F., 635. Steitz, G. E., 386. Stenhouse, T. B. H., 583. Stephen, 62. Stephen, L, 486. Stephen, Sir J., 129, 169, 289, 336. Stephens, W. R. W., 129. Stephenson, T. B., 418. Stevens, A., 347, 511, 531. Stewart, D., 178. Stewart, J. D., 565. Stille, C. J., 177, 186, 207. Stobart, J. W. H, 116. 656 INDEX OP AUTHORS Stoddard, S., 481, 482, 489. Stone, E. M., 550. Storrs, R. S., 491. Story, R. H., 380. Stoughton, J., 267, 272, 293, 301, 304, 354, 416. Stowe, H. B., 489, 623. Stowell, W. H., 296. Strack, C, 267. Strauss, D. F., 228, 638. Strickland, W. P., 531. Strong, James, 633. Strong, Josiah, 402. Stuart, M., 385, 525, 611, 632, 633, 635. Stubbs, W., 104, 252, 286. Sturge, G., 228. Suarez, F., 290. Sullivan, W. R., 95. Summerfield, J., 622, 626. Summers, T. 0., 318, 537, 635. Suso, H, 195, 201, 312. Swedenborg, E., 328, 329. Symonds, J. A., 207. Tacitus, 13, 31. Tait, A. O, 354. Talleyrand, 340. Tappan, L., 593. Tappan, W.B., 621. Tatian, 29, 33, 34, 35, 66. Tauler, J., 195, 201-203, 205, 312, 323. Taylor, G. L., 614. Taylor, J., 361, 363, 364, 486. Taylor, N. W., 512, 629. Taylor, W., 413, 612. Taylor, W. M., 255. Telford, J., 347. Temple, F., 356, 358. Tennent, G., 523. Tennent, W., 472, 523. Tennyson, A., 93, 423. Teofilo, 270. Terence 22Y Tertullian, 32, 34, 35, 38, 46, 57, 64-67, 76-78, 96. Thackeray, W. M., 422, 423. Theiner.A., 383. Theodore of Mopsuestia, 37. Theodore of Tarsus, 138. Theodoret, 43. Theodorus, 37. Theodulf of Orleans, 135, 139. Theodulph, 120. Theophilus of Antioch, 64-66. Tholuck, F. A. G., 322, 335, 688. Thomas the Apostle, 62. Thomas of Celano, 167. Thomas, A. 0., 550. Thomas, E. A., 683. Thompson, A. C, 326, 564. Thompson, J. P., 627. Thompson, R. A., 156. Thompson, R. E., 134. Thomson, A., 377. Thomson, J. E. H., 60. Thomson, W. M., 633. Thrall, H. S., 531. Tierney, M., 294. Tiffany, F., 602. Tiffany, O. H., 627. Tillemont, S. L., 384. Tillotson, J., 363, 420. Tindal, M., 308. Tischendorf, L. F. K., 335, 406, 633. Toletus, F., 290. Toplady, A. M., 370, 622. Tracy, J., 470. Tredegar, 106. Tregelles, S. P., 366. Tremellius, E., 246. Trench, R. O, 104, 166, 173, 207, 314. Trumbull, H. C, 404, 614, 637. Tucker, H. W., 408. Tulloch, J., 222, 237, 307, 421. Tupper, H. A., 608. Turner, F. S., 661. Turner, S. H, 632. Tutilo, 137, 164. Tuttle (Bishop), 583. Tyerman, L., 347. Tyler, B., 504, 512, 622, 629. Tyler, M. C, 470, 482, 483, 484, 487, 617, 623. Tyndale, W., 244, 249. Tytler, P. F., 373. Ueberweg, F., 181. Uhlhorn, G., 17, 22, 30. Ulfilas,48, 98, 137. Ullman, K, 159, 196, 335, 638. Upham, T. C, 336. Urlsperger, S., 322. Ussher, J., 366. Valdes, J. de, 267, 271. Valentinian, 28. Valla, L., 209, 388. Vane, H., 480. Van Ess, L., 385. Van Oosterzee, J. J., 335, 428, 638. Van Prinsterer, G., 638. Van Schulte, G. F., 400. Vasquez, G., 290. Vaughan, R. A., 312. Vaughan, R. B., 177. Vedder, H. C, 516, 517. INDEX OP AUTHORS 657 Venn, H., 366. Vergerio, P. P., 270. Villari, P., 267. Villemain, A. F., 129. Villers, C. F. D., 280. Vincent, J. H., 404, 406, 614, 620, 637. Vincent, M. R., 184,392. Vincentius of Lerin, 401. Vinet, A., 636. Viret, P., 238, 242. Virgil, 84, 86, 425. Voltaire, F. M. A., 308, 331, 339-343. Wake, W., 557. Wakeley, J. B., 531. Waldenstrom, P. P., 428. Walker, G. L., 486. Walker, N. L., 373, 380. Wallace, D. M., 344. Wallace, L., 610. Walter of the Vogelweide, 185. Walton, I., 361. Warburton, W., 809, 365. Ward, A. W., 289. Ward, N., 488. Ward, Wilfred, 351. Ward, William, 420. Ware, W., 545. Warheck, G., 408. Washington, G., 502, 591, 617. Wasserschleben, F. W. H., 112. Waterland, D., 365, 483. Waterworth, J., 287. Watson, F., 33. Watson, P. B., 17, 275. Watson, W. H., 614. Watts, I., 472, 617, 618, 622. Webster, R., 521. Weiss, C, 450. Weiss, J., 545. Wellcome, J. C, 565. Wellhausen, J., 116. Welsh, D., 381, 382. Wernefried, P., 135. Werner, K., 384. Wesley, C, 347, 348, 350, 448, 478, 638, 622. Weslev J-, 309, 322, 347-350, 360, 379, 420 422, 448, 449, 472, 478, 488, 532, 535', 536, 638, 551, 564, 572, 591, 693, 59?! West, S., 629. West, W., 361. S3£ &!«••»,««. Wheeler, H., 416. Wheeler, M. S., 608. Wheelock, E., 476, 476, 614. Whichcote, B., 360. Whiston, W., 360. White, A., 483. White, H, 262. White, W., 328. White, W. (Bishop), 609, 510, 597. Whitefield, G., 347-350, 360, 472, 661, 568, 618. Whitnev, A. D. T., 619. Whitsitt, W. H, 683. Whittemore (T.) and Ballou (M. M.), 550. Whittier, J. G., 562, 563, 664, 694, 622. Wieland, C. M., 332. Wiffen, B. B., 267. Wigglesworth, M., 486, 620. Wight, O.W., 181. Wilberforce, R. G., 419. Wilberforce, R. I., and S., 416. Wilberforce, S., 416. Wilberforce, W., 416. Wildenhahn, A., 322. Wilke, C. G., 385. Wilks,G.A.F., 126. Willard,F.E.,404,695. Willard,S., 486, 618,628. William of Champeaux, 181, 182. Williams, A., 579. Williams, G. W., 589. Williams, I., 352. Williams, J., 244. Williams, Roger, 444, 468, 465, 467, 468, 471, 480, 485, 516, 517, 604. Williams, Rowland, 366, 357. Williams, W. R., 627. Williamson, J. P., 604. Willis, R., 237. Willitt,W.M.,622.Wilson, H, 689. Wilson, H. B., 366, 357. Wilson, T. L., 244. Wilson, W., 380,419. Winchester, E., 650, 552. Wines, E.C., 633. Winkworth, S., 195. Winskill, 596. Winsor, J., 430, 433, 437. Winthrop, J., 444, 445, 461, 480, 485, 595. Wise.D., 619, 637. Wise, J., 485. Wiseman, N., 187, 396. Withrow, W. H., 85. Wittenmeyer, A., 595. 658 INDEX OP AUTHORS Wodrow, R., 373, 522. Wolf, E. J., 526, 636. Wolf, J. C, 331. Wolfin, H, 234. Wolfram of Eschenbach, 186. Wolleb, J., 628. Wood, W. C, 75. Woods, L., 547, 629. Woodward, C. L., 683. Woolman, J., 591. Woolston, T., 308. Worcester, B., 328. Worcester, S., 611. Wordsworth, Charles, 373. Wordsworth, Christopher, 602. Wordsworth, W., 96, 101, 422. Worman, J. H., 91, 262, 583. Wratislaw, A. H., 276. Wright, E., Jr., 593. Wright, G. F., 622. Wycliffe, J., 191, 244-246, 258, 276, 280, 296, 370, 453. Wytenbogart, H.,319. Wyttenbach, D., 234. Xenophon, 13. Yeakel, R., 665. Young, M., 267. Young, R., 408. Zadoc, 15. Zeisberger, D., 564, 655, 666. Zeno, 35. Ziegenbalg, B., 409. Zinzendorf, N. L., 277, 326, 327. 349, 450, 527, 555. Zoroaster, 28, 97. Zumarraga, J., 435. Zwingli, U, 233-236, 268, 310. GENERAL INDEX Abelard, 179 ; influence of, upon Arnold of Brescia, 151; and his fortunes, 181-184. Abyssinian Church, the, 97, 98. Adolphus, Gustavus, 316. Adoptianism, 122, 123. Advantages of the Reformation, 279- 281. Adventists, Second, 570 ; German Sev enth-Day, 579, 580. Africa, spread of Christianity in, 97, 98; missions in, 412,413, 612. " Age of Reason," 501, 502. Albigenses, the Waldenses and the, 153,155. Albright, Jacob, 673. Alcuin, 119, 138. Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, 47. Alexandrian School, the, 37. Alford, Dean, 366. Alfred the Great, 138, 148-150. Algazel, 172. Alliance, the Evangelical, 402, 403, 606. America, benefit of Reformation to, 280 ; celebration of the four-hun dredth anniversary of Luther's birth in, 283 ; Jesuit missions in, 291, 292 ; Deism in, 309, 310 ; Protestant emi gration to, 317, 318; European con flicts transferred to, 431, 432 ; relig ious character of, determined at bat tle of Quebec, 440 ; territorial distri bution in, 454 ; French infidelity in, 501-503; Methodism in, 531-538; the pulpit of, 622-627 ; theological scholarship in, 632-638. Andrea, John Valentine, 313. Anskar, the missionary, 140. Anthropology, 66, 123. Antioch, School of, 37. Antislavery reform, the, 589-594. Apocryphal writings, 60-62. Apollinaris, 49. Apologists, 33-36 ; against Deism, 809; American, 637, 638. Apostates, 44, 79. " Apostle of the Indies, the," 436. Apostles, the, scene of the labors of, 6-9 ; and prophets, 24. Apostolical Constitutions, 62. Aquinas, Thomas, 179. Arabic philosophy, the, 171-173. Arianism, rise of, 46. Arminius and the Synod of Dort, 318- 320. Arndt, John, 313. Arnold of Brescia, 150-163. Art, Christian, 163-166. Arts, mediaeval, 136, 137. Asbury, Francis, 534^536. Asia, spread of Christianity in, 96 ; Western, as a mission field, 411. Athanasius, 47, 48. Atterbury, Francis, 365. Auchterarder case, the, 381. Augsburg Confession, the, 227, 231 ; adopted in Sweden, 275. Augustine, 50, 51 ; Luther joins the order of, 217. Averrhoes, 172. Avignon, residence of popes at, 188, 212, 213. Awakening, the great, 471, 472, 490. Bacon and Locke, 307, 308. Baltimore, Lord, 447. Baptists, the, 516-520; pioneers in the voluntary principle of church sup port, 498, 499 ; Free, 568. Baronius, Caesar, 383. Barrow, Isaac, 364, 365. Bartholomew, St., massacre of, 264, 265. Basel, Council of, 214; a Protestant centre, 236; Calvin in, 239, 240; Erasmus in, 260. Basilides, 27. 660 GENERAL INDEX Baxter, Richard, 368. Becket, Thomas, 156-158. Bede, the Venerable, 101. Beecher, Henry Ward, 626. Beggars' League, the, 259. Bells for churches, 136. Benedictines, the, 160. Benevolence of the Congregationalists, 512, 513. Berkeley, Bishop, in America, 492, 498. Bernard of Clairvaux, 152, 160. Berthold of Ratisbon, 167. Beza, Calvin and, 243. Bible, Luther's, 221, 224; Wyclifle's, 246; English publication of, 249, 250; first Spanish, 273; Authorized Version of, 294 ; attack of Rational ism upon, 331, 332 ; revision of, 406, 407 ; Eliot's Indian, 477. Bingham, Joseph, 365. Bishops, 25 ; powers of, 71 ; Roman, pre-eminence of, 73, 74, 93-95 ; sol diers made, 111; independent, 111; election of, primitive mode of, re stored, 112; authority of, increased by the Isidorean decretals, 115. Bismarck and the pope, 390, 391. Blair, James, 486, 487. Boehme, Jacob, 312, 313. Bohemia, the Reformation in, 277 ; the Hussites of, 326. Boleyn, Anne, 247. " Book of Mormon," the, 586. Books, room for, called Phrontisterion — thinking - room, 81; printed and circulated in England during reign of Henry VIII., 260 ; Protestant, in Italy, 268 ; English, in New England, 472. Booth, William, 424. Bosio, Antonio, 86, 87. Boston Synod, the, 460. Brainerd, David, 478. Bray, Thomas, 487. Britain, entrance of Christianity into, 99, 147, 148 ; warfare in, 146, 147. Broad Church, the, 355, 356. Brook Farm, 577, 578. Brothers of the Common Life, 162, 205, 258. Brownists, 263, 254, 298. Bugenhagen, John, 232. Bulgaria, beginning of Christianity in, 141 ; missions in, 412. Bull, Luther burns the papal, 220. Bunyan, John, 371. Burial of the dead, 85, 86. Burmah as a mission field, 412. Butler, Joseph, 365. Byron's "Prisoner of Chillon," 238; poetry, 421, 422. Calas family, the, 342. Calverts, the, 447. Calvin, John, 239-243 ; and Knox, 257. Cambridge University, 359-361 ; Plat form, the, 459. Camisards, the, 341, 342. Campbell, Alexander, 519, 557-560. Camp-meetings, beginning of, 504. Canada, the French and Jesuits in, 437^40. Canon, the Old Testament, 57 ; the New Testament, 58 ; settlement of the, 59. Canstein Bible, the, 324, 325. Cappel, battle of, 236. Caristadt and the Zwickau Prophets, 222. Carlyle, Thomas, 423 ; remarks of, on Luther, 220. Carolinas, the, 448. Carolingian rulers, Church and State under the later, 110-112; extinction of, 112; moral decline following, 129. Carpocrates, 28. Carroll, John, 540. Cartwright, Peter, 625. Cartwright, Thomas, 367, 368. Catacombs, the Church in the, 85-90. Catechisms of Luther, 225. Catechumens, 79. Catharine of Aragon, 246. Catharists, the, 154. Cathedrals, 165. Catholics, the Old, 154. Celibacy, 132. Celsus, 31. Cerinthus, 27. Chalmers, Thomas, 382, 383. Change of base in the support of the Church, 498. Channing, William Ellery, 548. Chapels, 136. Charity, 80, 81. Charlemagne, reign of, 107-110; ex ample of, 110, 184; successors of, 110, 111; schools of, 119-121; at tention of, to music, 135 ; scholars of, 138. Charles I., 296, 362, 374, 375, 376. Charles H., 302, 304, 306. Charles V, 196, 197, 258, 272, 273; and Luther, 220. Charles IX. of France, 264, 265. GENERAL INDEX 661 Charles Martel arrests Mohammedan ism in Western Europe, 118. Chauncey, Charles, 546. Chautauqua Movement, the, 405, Cheerfulness indicated by inscriptions in the Catacombs, 89, 90. Children's Crusade, the, 170. Chillingworth, William, 362, 363. China as a mission field, 410. Christ, completion of personal ministry of, 4 ; elevation of childhood by, 13 ; controversies on, 46-48 ; apocryphal accounts of, 61, 62; divinity of, 64, 65 ; doctrines concerning, 64, 65 ; representations of, in art, 77, 78 ; in the Catacombs, 88, 89. Christendom, the New, 431, 432. Christian worship, 20, 21, 166-168 ; de fenders, 33-36; schools, 36-38; methods employed by Julian for pro moting paganism, 43 ; life and usa ges, 80-85 ; Catacombs, 86 ; use of monasticism, 91, 92 ; doctrines set tled, 101 ; art, 163-165 ; Conference in Washington, 403 ; union, philan thropy and, 602 - 607 ; literature, 617-822. Christianity, paganism and, 9-13 ; ob stacles to, 12; attitude of Judaism towards, 14-16 ; Jewish hostility to, 17 ; final efforts of Rome to destroy, 19 ; humane work of, 22, 23 ; rela tion of Ebionism and Gnosticism to, 26-30; literary attack of paganism upon, 30-33 ; growth of, 30 ; grounds of pagan hostility to, 32 ; defence of, by apologists, 33-36 ; Constantine's conversion to, 39 ; Julian's hostility to, 41-43 ; efforts of Montanus to re store purity and simplicity of, 45; service of Arian controversy to, 48 ; results of controversies favorable to, 53, 54 ; expansion of, 96-99 ; rapid extension of, 100; missions of, in Europe, 139-143. Christians, practical life of, 5 ; perse cutions of, 18, 19 ; the life of, 22, 23 ; aversion of, for Gnostics, 29, 30 ; difference between Greek and Ro man, 63, 144 ; domestic life of, 82 ; contrast between Saxon and Latin, 191 ; the, or the Christian Connec tion, 560. Christology, 64, 66. Church, the : divine superintendence of, 3; mission of the historian of, 3; organization of, 5, 24, 25 ; and its history, 3-5; literature of, under Constantine, 38-41 ; schisms in, 54- 56 ; doctrine of, 66 ; government of, revolution in, 69, 70 ; and State, 70, 107, 110-112, 272, 273 ; separation of, and State, 498-500 ; beneficence of, 80, 81 ; incentives of, to knowl edge, 81, 100; travel as related to, 83-85; in the Catacombs, 85-90; superstition in, 102 ; of the Middle Ages, 105 ; Charlemagne and, 109, 110; regains power taken away by Charlemagne, 112 ; deceived by the pseudo-Isidorean decretals, 113; edu cation in the hands of, 120; moral and spiritual decline of, in tenth cen tury, 129 ; reform of, attempted by Gregory VII., 129-131 ; low state of, at close of mediaeval period, 189, 190 ; at the founding of the republic, 495- 497. Church, the Abyssinian, 97, 98. — American, theology of the, 627-631. — the Anglo-Saxon, 146-150. — the Baptist, 516-520. — the British, independence of, 147 ; aggressiveness of, 420. — the Broad, 355. — the Congregational, 511-513. — the Cumberland Presbyterian, 666, 567. — edifices, 77 ; in the colonies, 474. — the English, changes of, 166 ; under James I. and Charles I., 293-296 ; during the Restoration, 304-307 ; effect of the Oxford reformers upon, 353 ; schools in, 354-359 ; scholars and divines of, 361-367 ; leads in Bible revision, 407. — Episcopal, the Protestant, 509-511 ; new hopes for the, 493, 494. — the Gallican, independence of, 187, 262; defended by Clemanges, 199. — government in the colonies, 458— 460. — the Greek, 144-146 ; attempts at reunion of, with the Latin, 146. — the High, 354. — the Low, 355. — the Lutheran, 526-530. — the Mediaeval, 105, 106. — the Methodist, 531-638. — the Methodist, of Canada, 537. — the Methodist Episcopal, 534-536. — the Methodist Episcopal, South, 537. — the Methodist Protestant, 536. — the Moravian, 554-557. — the New, Swedenborg and, 328-380, 570. 662 GENERAL INDEX Church, the Old Catholic, 400. — the Presbyterian, 521-524. — the Protestant, organization of the German, 227 ; at Geneva, 241 ; division of, in England, 307 ; in Germany, 310, 311. — the Reformed (Dutch), 513, 514; the German, 514, 515 ; — Presby terian, 567 ; — Episcopal, 571. — the Roman Catholic, divergence of British Church from, 147, 148; triumph of, at close of mediaeval period, 190 ; councils of, 212 ; re cuperative measures of, 287-289 ; unity of, 315 ; Mysticism in, 336, 337; Napoleon and, 340, 341; the tractarian drift to, 353 ; learn ing and literary culture in, 383- 385 ; loss of temporal power a blessing to, 390 ; contest of, with Germany, 390-392; in England, 394-397 ; in America, 539-548. — the Russo-Greek, 344-347. — of Scotland, Free, 381, 382. — the Scottish, critical periods in the history of the, 373-377 ; schism and revival in, 377-380; the Great Disruption in, 380-383. — the Unitarian, 545-550. — the Universalist, 550-553. — the United Presbyterian, 378. Churches, bells for, 136 ; architecture for, 136, 164, 165; art in, 163, 164; the Reformed, 513-515 ; Communis tic, 579-583 ; organic union of, 607. Clemanges, Nicholas, 199. Clergy, the minor, 70 ; greater, 71 ; se cure control of education, 121 ; mar riage of, 130, 131, 145; power of, attempt to reduce the, 161 ; temper ance and, 415 ; the American, lead ers in reform, 624. Coke, Thomas, 350. Coleridge, S. T., 423. Colet and More, 248, 359. Colleges, early American, 462-464 ; in fidelity in, 502, 503 ; revival in, 505. Colonial currents, 318 ; worship and usages, 472-474. Colonies, the Continental — Dutch, Swedes, Huguenots, and other Prot estants, 450-453 ; political frame work of, 455—468 ; Church govern ment in, 468-460; intolerance in, 465-470; religious life of, 470-472; theological movements in the New England, 478-482. Colonization, the Spanish, 433-436 ; the French, 437-440; the English, 441-450. Columbus, Christopher, 433. Commonwealth, Cromwell and the, 301-304. Communistic Churches, 579-583. Congo Free State, the, 413. Congregationalism, 445, 446, 511-513. Connecticut, the Episcopal defection in, 492-494. Conscience, as a Puritan product, 491, 492. Constance, Council of, 213, 245 ; ami Huss, 277. Constantine, liberation of the Church under, 38-41 ; family of, regarded by Julian as representative Christians, 42 ; relation of, to the Arian contro versy, 47, 48 ; burden imposed upon the Church by, 102. Constantinople, 74 ; capture of, 208. Continent, Deism on the, 309 ; temper ance on, 415 ; colonies from, 450- 453. Controversies, on Christ, 46-48 ; the later, 49-54; mediaeval, 122-124; of scholasticism, 178-181; the Hab its, 297 ; of German Protestantism, 310, 311 ; of the Baptists, 619. Conventicle act, the, 305. Conybeare, W. J., 366. Cosmology, Christian, 66. Cotta, Ursula, interest of, in Luther, 216. Cotton, John, 488, 489. Councils, 189 ; Nicaea, 47, 53, 68, 69 Sardica, 48, 72 ; Constantinople, 48 Chalcedon, 53 ; Trent, 59, 271, 287 Laodicea, 72; Elvira, 78; Orleans, 111 ; Paris, 111 ; Pavia, 132 ; second Trullan, 145 ; Lyons, 146 ; the Ref orm- atory,212-214 ; the Vatican, 397-399. Covenant, the Half-way, 480-482. Covenants, the war of the, 373. Coverdale's Bible, 249. Cranach, Lucas, 233. Cranmer, Thomas, 249. Criticism, Biblical, in the Roman Cath olic Church, 385. Cromwell and the Commonwealth, 301- 304. Crusades, the, 168-171. Cumberland Presbyterians, the, 566. Cutler, Timothy, and Samuel Johnson, conversion of, to Episcopacy, 493. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, 54. D'Ailly, Peter, 198, 213, 214. GENERAL INDEX 663 Danish missions, 408, 409. Dante, 185, 186 ; lines of, on preachers, 269. Dartmouth College, origin of, 476. Deaconesses, 417, 418. Deacons, 25. Decay of the Roman Catholic Church in England, 396. Decretals, pseudo-Isidorean, 112-115. Deism, English, 307-310, 348. Denmark, beginning of Christianity in, 139, 140; Reformation in, 276. Denominations, the smaller, 565-574. De Rossi, G. B., 87. Despotism, religious, in Spain, 273. Dickens and Thackeray, 422. Dickinson, Jonathan, 487. Disabilities of Roman Catholics in Eng land, 394. Disciples of Christ, 557-560. Discipline, ecclesiastical, 78-80. Discoverers, the English, 441. Discovery of the Catacombs, 86. Dispersed, the, 15, 16. Disruption, the Great, 380-383. Doctrine in the Catacombs, 88, 89 ; di vergence in, 144 ; of Evangelical Al liance, 402. DoUinger, Dr. J. J. I., 400. Domestic life, 82. Dominicans, the, 161. Donatus, schism of, 55. Dort, Synod of, Arminius and the, 318- 320. Duchoborges, the, 347. Dunkards, the, 569. Dutch reformers, early, 207 ; Reforma tion, 258-261 ; republic, 279 ; mis sions, 408 ; colonies, 450, 451. Dwight, Timothy, influence of, 583. Early period, close of the, 100-102; leaders of colonial period, 486-490. Easter controversy, the, 76. Eastern and Western Church, contrast ed, 74 ; differing views of, as to im ages, 78, 124; as to the procession of the Holy Ghost, 122 ; schism be tween, 144-146, 190. Ebionism and Gnosticism, 26-30 re sponsible for many apocryphal pro ductions, 61. Ecclesiastical government and the Ro man primacy, 69-74 ; discipline, 78- 80 ; authority built up by the forged decretals, 113, 114; usages, moral life and, 132-134. Eckart, Master, 200, Education in the hands of the Church, 120, 121 ; encouraged by Alfred the Great, 160 ; influence of William of Champeaux in, 181 ; in Russo-Greek Church, 346 ; in the colonies, 461- 464 ; work of Baptists in, 520 ; work of the Presbyterian Church in, 525 ; work of the Lutheran Church in, 529, 530 ; in the Methodist Church, 538 ; in the Roman Catholic Church, 543, 544 ; in the Unitarian Church, 550; in the Universalist Church, 553. Edward III. defends Wycliffe, 245. — VI., reaction under, 251, 252. Edwards, Jonathan, 471, 489, 490, 628. Eliot, John, 476, 477. Elipandus, heresy of, 122, 123. Elizabeth, of England, 253, 256, 257 ; contrast of James I. with, 294. Emancipation in the West Indies, 416. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 575-577. Emmanuel, Victor, 389. England, conditions favoring Protes tantism in, 197 ; during the Restora tion, 304-307 ; at the beginning of the Wesleyan movement, 348 ; Ro man Catholicism in, 394-397; phi lanthropy in, and Germany, 416-418; in the sixteenth century, 431. English Reformation, the, first period, 244-260; second period, 261-254; Bible, 249, 250, 294; Church under James I. and Charles I., 293-296; Revolution, Charles I. and, 295 ; Puritans, 296-298 ; Deism, 307-310; universities, 359-361 ; Church, schol ars and divines of the, 361-367; preachers, 419-421; conquest of Canada, the, 440 ; colonization, the, 441-450; books in New England, 472. Episcopacy, attempt to force, on Scot land, 375. Episcopal defection in Connecticut, the, 492-494. Episcopius, Simon, 319, 320. Epistolary writings, 82, 83. Epworth League, the, 538. Erasmus, 210, 211, 246, 260, 261 ; esti- mate of Melanchthon by, 229. Erfurt University, Luther at, 216, 217. Erskine schism, the, and the Haldane revival, 377-380. Eschatology, 68. "Essays and Reviews," 356-368. 664 GENERAL INDEX Esthonians converted by force, 143. Europe, spread of Christianity in, 98, 139-143 ; favorable conditions in, for American colonization, 453. Evangelical Alliance, 402, 403. Evangelical Association, the, 573, 574. Evangelical reaction, the, 333-335. Evangelists, 24, 25. Evangelization, 95, 96, 139-143 ; in the South and West, 507, 508. Exegetes, Jewish, 175, 176. Exile of Calvin and Farel, 241, 242 ; of Italian reformers, 271, 272 ; of the Salzburgers, 321. Expansion in the South and West, 506-508. Faith, Luther's, 226. Falk-Laws, the, 391. Farel, Guillaume, 238, 239 ; Calvin and, 240-242. Fathers, the, epistolary writings of, 83 ; travels of, 83-85 ; Abelard's blow at the supremacy of, 183. Felicissimus, schism of, 54. Felix of Argel, 122, 123. Festivals, weekly, 75 ; yearly, 76, 133. Feudal system broken up by the Cru sades, 171. Fichte, John G., 334. Filioque controversy, 122. Finns, attempt to Christianize the, 143. Fisher, George P., 634. Flemish Jansenism, French Mysticism and, 336-338. Fletcher, John, 350. Florence, Savonarola in, 267, 268. Fox, George, 299 ; in America, 561. France, contest of the papacy with, 187-190; influence of Swiss Prot estantism in, 243, 244 ; the Refor mation in, 262-266 ; evangelization in, 426. Francis I. of France, 263. Franciscans, the, 160. Francke, August H., 324, 325. Frederic Barbarossa, 173. Free Baptists, 568. Free Church of Scotland, 381, 382. Freedmen, the, 602, 603. Freeman, James, 546, 547. French, the, reformers, cause of the failure of, 199 ; Switzerland, the Ref ormation in, 237-244 ; Mysticism and Flemish Jansenism, 336-338; infi delity, 339-341, 501-503; Protes tantism, 341-343 ; colonization, 437- 440; Huguenots, 462. " Friends of God," the, 205. Friendship of Luther and Melanch thon, 232. Fulbert, 178. Gallic Confession, the, 264. Gallitzin, Prince Demetrius, 541. General Council of Lutherans, 529. Geneva, 238, 244; Calvin at, 240-242; Confession of, 241. George, Duke, and Luther, 223. Georgia colony, the, 322, 448. Gerhard, John, 313. German power, the new, 126, 127 ; rule in Italy, 173-175; nation, Luther's appeal to the, 219 ; Switzerland, the Reformation in, 233-237; Empire, Jesuits in the, 292 ; spirit, invasion of English literature by the, 423; immigration to America, 452, 453; Reformed Church, 514, 515. Germany, spread of Christianity in, 99, 191; the home of Mysticism, 200; the Reformation in, 215-233 ; cele bration of the four-hundredth anni versary of Luther's birth in, 282; the Protestant Church in, 310, 311 ; Mysticism in, 312-314; Rationalism in, 330-332; contest of the Roman Catholic Church with, 390-392; phi lanthropy in England and, 416-418; evangelization in, 427 ; influence of, on American historiography, 634. Gerson, John Charlier, 198. Gnosticism, 26-30. Goch, John of, 206. Gomarus and Arminius, 319. " Good News from Virginia," 483. Goodwin, John, 370. Goodwin, Thomas, 368, 369. Gore, Charles, 358. Gorham case, the, 354, 356. Gothic architecture, 164, 165. Government, ecclesiastical, and the Ro man primacy, 69-74; under Caro lingians, 111 ; colonial, four kinds of, 456. Great Britain, temperance in, 414, 415. Greek and Roman conditions, 9-13 ; apologists, 33, 34 ; letters, study of, 208, 209. Gregory the Great, the age of, 93-95. — VII. and Henry IV., 127, 128; re form by, 129-131. — IX., 174. — Nazianzen, remarks of, on preva lence of theological discussion, 63. Guyon, Madame, 337. GENERAL INDEX 665 Habits controversy, the, 297. Haldane revival, the, the Erskine schism and, 377-380. Half-way Covenant, the, 480-482, 628. Hall, Joseph, 365. Halle University, 324. Hamilton, Patrick, 256. Hampden, Renn Dickson, 351. Hanover, the Presbytery of, asks for religious liberty, 499. Harold of Jutland, 139 ; of England, 147. Harvard College, 462. Hefele's, Bishop, Confession, 399. Hegel, George W. F., 834. HeToise, Abelard and, 1 83. Helvetic Confession, the, 236 ; the sec ond, 243, 244. Henry IV. of Germany and Gregory VII., 127, 128. — II. of England, 166, 157. — VIH. of England, 246-250. — IV. of France, 266. Herbert, Lord, of Cherbury, 308. Herrnhut, 327. Hicks, Elias, 563. High Church, the, 354; views at Ox ford, 351-353. Hildebrand, 127-131. Historians, mediaeval, 185. Historical suggestions of the Cata combs, 89, 90. ' Hohenstaufens in Italy, the, 173-175. Holland, Charles V. and, 197 ; and the reform, 205 ; a scene of controversy, 318-32Q ; Community of Jansenists, 338 ; the evangelical conflict in, 427, 428. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, lines of, on Robinson of Leyden, 254. Holy Ghost, the, doctrine of, 65, 66, 144 ; procession of, 122. Home missions, 612-614. Homilarium, the, 134, 135. Hooker, Thomas, 487, 488. Hopkinsianism, 628, 629. Howard, John, 417. Howe, John, 370. Howson, Dean John S., 366. Hughes, John, 543. Hugo of St. Victor, 204. Huguenots, the, 263-266 ; sufferings of, 341 ; colonists of, 452. Humanism of Italy, the, 207-211, 269, 278 ; in England, 307. Hume, David, 308. Hungary, beginning of Christianity in, 142, 143 ; the Reformation in, 278. Hurons, Jesuits among the, 438. Huss, John, 276, 277; followers of, 326. Hutchinsonian controversy, the, 479, 480. Hutten, Ulrich von, 232. Hymns, writers of, mediaeval, 135, 167 ; Luther's, 225 ; of Great Britain, 421 ; of the United States, 620-622. Iceland and Greenland, extension of Christianity to, 141. Images, 77, 78, 82, 124. Immaculate Conception, doctrine of the, 387 ; condemned, 401. "In Darkest England and the Way Out," 425. Independents, 253. India as a mission-field, 409, 611, 612. Indians, Penn's policy with the, 449 ; missions to, and work for, 475-478, 603, 604, 608. Indulgences, sale of, 218. Infidelity, French, 339-341, 501-503. Influence, general, of Jesuitism, 292 ; of Quakerism, 300 ; of the Puritans, 491, 492. Inquisition, the, 259 ; in Italy, 271 ; in Spain, 274. " Destitutes," the, of Calvin, 240. Intellectual life in the colonies, 491. International Sunday - school lessons, 405, 616. Intolerance in the colonies, 465-470 ; breaking up of, 499, 600. Isidore, the fictitious, 112-115. Islam, 117. Italy, a new force in, 150 ; the Hohen staufens in, 173 ; the Humanism of 207-211; the Reformation in, 267- 272; a united, 389; evangelization in, 426. James I. and Charles I., the English Church under, 293-296. — n., 306. — VI. of Scotland, 375. James River Colony, 442. Jansenism, Flemish, French Mysticism and, 336-338. Januarius, St., liquefaction of the blood of, 393. Japan as a mission-field, 410, 610, 611. Jehuda Levi, 176. Jesuits, the order of, 289-293 ; among the Hurons, 438. Jewish Gnosticism, 27, 28 ; philosophy, 175, 176. 666 GENERAL INDEX Jews, the, 14-16 ; sects of, 15 ; hostil ity of, to Christianity, 17. John, the Apostle, 8. Jonas, Justus, 232, 233. Judaism, attitude of, towards Chris tianity, 14-16. Julian, reaction under, 41-43, 48. Kant, Immanuel, 334. Keble, John, 352. Kempis's " Imitation of Christ," 205. Khadija, wife of Mohammed, 116. Knightly orders, the, 161, 162. Knox, John, 257. Koran, the, 118. Laity, moral reaction of the, 153, 205. Lapsed, two views concerning the, 44. Las Casas, Bartolome de, 436. Latin classics, revival of, 209. Laud, William, 361, 362. Law, William, 365, 366. Leaders, early, in American Church history, 486-490. Learning, early attention to Christian, 36 ; Charlemagne's attention to, 119 ; in the monasteries, 162, 163 ; revival of, in Italy, 207-211; promoted by the Reformation, 280 ; and literary culture in the Roman Catholic Church, 383-385. Lecky, remarks of, on Wesley, 350. Lectures of Melanchthon, 230, 231. Lee, Ann, 580. Leighton, Robert, 365. Leo XIII., the Liberal, 391, 392. Libertines at Geneva, 241, 242. Liberty promoted by the Reformation, 279 ; religious, in the colonies, 457, 499, 500. Liddon, Canon Henry P., 366. Lightfoot, Bishop Joseph B., 366. Lightfoot, John, 365. Literary transition, the, 106 ; activity, decline in, 121 ; productiveness of John Wesley, 350; culture in the Roman Catholic Church, 383-385; result of Spanish colonization, 435, 436 ; labors of John Eliot, 477. Literature, cultivated by Charlemagne, 121 ; by Alfred the Great, 148 ; by the monasteries, 163; of the Arabs, 171 ; general, of the mediaeval period, 184-186; revival of, 207,211; pro moted by the Reformation, 281 ; and religion in England, 421-423 ; relig ious, in the colonies, 482-486 ; Chris tian, 617-622. " Loci Theologici"of Melanchthon, 227, 231, 268. Locke, Bacon and, 307, 308. Logos, discussions on the, 64, 65. London, University of, 361. Longfellow's picture of Alcuin, 119. Lord's Supper, mediaeval views of, 123 ; Zwingli's view of, 235, 236; Stod dard's views of, 481,482. Loretto, the House of, 392. Louis IX. of France, 170. — XIV., 342. Low Church, the, 355. Lowth, Robert, 365. Loyalists, the, of the Revolution, 509. Loyola, Ignatius, 290. Lully, Raymond, 179, 180. Luther, Martin, 215-233; learns from Savonarola, 197 ; relation of, to Tau ler, 203 ; and Zwingli, 235, 236 ; and Henry VIII., 247 ; and Erasmus, 260, 261 ; four-hundredth anniversary of the birth of, 281-283. Lutherans, the, 526-530 ; losers by con- troversv, 311. " Lux Mundi," 358, 359. " Magdeburg Centuries," the authors of the, expose the forged decretals, 115. Maimonides, 176. Makemie, Francis, 522. Malakans, the, 347. Manfred, 174. Mani, 28. Marcion, 29, 30. Mariolatry, no trace of, in the Cata combs, 89, 90,133 ; opposed by Zwin gli, 234, 235 ; growth of, 386-388. Marriage of the clergy, 130, 131, 145. Martyr days, 76, 77. Martyrdom, fanatical spirit of, 55. Mary, Queen, 249, 252, 256, 257. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other Eng lish colonies, 44 7-450; andNewYork, intolerance in, 469. Massachusetts Bay colony, 444. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 264, 265. Mathers, the, 485. Mathew, Father, 414. Matthew's Bible, 250. Mayhew, Jonathan, 546. Mecca and Medina, 117. Mediaaval transition, the, 105-107 ; pe riod, retrospect of the, 190, 191. Mediatory school, the, 335. Melanchthon, Philip, 223-227 ; and oth er German reformers, 228-233. Meletius, schism of, 56. GENERAL INDEX 667 Mendicant orders, 160. Methodism, Wesley and, 347-350; American, 631-538. Metropolitan authority, 72. Mexico, 434, 435. Middle Ages, significance of the, 105 ; periods of, 105, 106. Milman, Dean Henry H., 366. Milner, Joseph, 366. Milton, John, 303, 304 ; lines of, on the martyrs of Piedmont, 155; tribute of, to Cromwell, 303. Missionary tours of Paul, 7, 8 ; pioneers of the Baptists, 518, 519. Mission-field, the Protestant, 408-413. Missions, mediseval, 139-143; Jesuit, 290-292, 438, 439 ; Moravian, 327, 328, 409, 555, 556 ; Protestant, 408- 413; to the Indians, 475-478 ; of the Baptists, 518, 519 ; among the Mor mons, 588 ; in the United States, 608-614; home, 612-614. Mississippi valley, explored by the French, 438, 439. Mob rule in London, 395. Moehler's " Symbolism," 384. Mohammedanism, 116-118, 172; hold of, upon Palestine, 168, 170 ; arrest of, 170. Mohawk Indians, missions to the, 478. Monasteries produce scholars, 137; as intellectual centres, 162, 163 ; art in, 163 ; Russian, 345, 346. Monastic orders, 159-162,288 ; schools, 186. Monasticism, 91-93 ; Eastern, 159, 345, 346; Western, 160. Montanistic reform, the, 44-46. Monte Cassino, 162, 163. Moral decline, 129 ; life and ecclesias tical usages, 132-134 ; results of the controversial period, 311; signifi cance of the evangelization of the South and West, 508 ; enthusiasm of the Quakers, 564. Moravia, evangelization of, 141, 142. Moravians, the, contact of John Wesley with, 348, 554 ; in America, 450, 554-557. More, Thomas, 211; Colet and, 248; and Erasmus, 260. Mormons, the, 583-588. Muhlenberg, Henry Melchoir, 527. Muratorian fragment, the, 58. Murray, John, 551. Music, 135, 167 ; Luther's fondness for, 216, 227. Mysticism, 177; in Germany, 312-314; French, and Flemish Jansenism, 336- 338. Mystics, 200-203 ; Spanish, 273. Nantes, edict of, 266, 266. Napoleon and the Church, 340, 341. Navigators, the French, 437, 438 ; Eng lish, 441. Nazaraeans, 27. Neander's remark on Constantine's reign, 40. Nestorius, 50. Netherlands, the Reformation in the, 258-261. New Englaud, church government in, 458-460; elementary education in, 462 ; intolerance in, 466-468 ; preach ers of, 470, 471 ; English books in, 472 ; printing in, 484 ; religious lit erature in, 484-486; Primer, 617; sermon, the, 623. New Sweden, 451. New York, beginnings of, 461. Newman, John Henry, 351, 352. Nicsea, council of, 47 ; effect of, 68, 69. Nightingale, Florence, 417. Nikon, Patriarch, 344. Nominalists and Realists, 178. Non-conformists, 298. North Africa, school of, 38. North Carolina, 448. Norway, planting of Christianity in, 141 ; the Reformation in, 276. Novatianus, schism of, 54. Numerical strength of the American Church at the beginning of the na tional period, 497. Oglethorpe, James E., 448. Old and New School Presbyterians, 523. Old Catholics, the, 399-401. Oneida Community, the, 582, 583. Ophites, 28. Opposition to the Jesuits, 290. Orders, the monastic, 159-162, 288- 293. Organ, the first, in the West, 135. Orphan House at Halle, the, 325. Otterbein, Philip William, 572, 573. Owen, John, 369. Oxford University, 359-361. Paganism, and Christianity, 9 ; literary attack of, 30-33 ; disintegration of, 32, 33 ; Constantine's relation to, 40 ; efforts of Julian to restore, 42, 43. 668 GENERAL INDEX Paleario, Antonio, 271. Papacy, the, created by Gregory the Great, 95, 191 ; temporal power of, 109, 388-390 ; appeal of, to the past, 113; fluctuations in, 125; elevation of, by Gregory VII., 127, 128; met by a new force, 150; loyalty of Becket to, 157, 158; the divided, 187-190, 213; an issue between the Greek and Latin Churches, 208. " Paradise Lost," 303. Paris, Synod of, 264. Parker, Theodore, 549. Parliament the hope of England, 294 ; endorses the Westminster Confes sion, 296. Pascal, Blaise, 338. Patriarchate, the, 72, 73 ; of Constanti nople, 144, 145. Patronage in thie Scotch Church, 377, 380. Paul, 7 ; works among the Jews, 16. — Diaconus, 138, 139. Peasants' War, the, 223, 224. Peel, Robert, introduces the Relief Bill, 395. Pelagius, 51. Penance, 132. Penitents, 79, 80. Penn, William, and the Quaker emigra tion, 300, 449, 563. Pennsylvania, and other colonies, Mary land, 447-450 ; Germans in, 453. Pentecost, preaching at, 4 ; hymn, 135, 136. Pepin, 108, 109, 388. Periodicals, religious, 619. Persecution, period of universal, 17- 19; under Mary, 252; of Huguenots, 264-266 ; in Spain, 274 ; of the Salz burgers, 321, 322 ; of the Baptists, 517; of the Quakers, 562. Person of Christ, controversies on the, 49-54. Personality of Luther, 225. Peter, 6 ; in Rome, 7. — the Great, 344, 345. — the Hermit, 166, 168. Petersens, the, 275. Petrarch, lines of, on Rome, 269. Philanthropy of the Quakers, 300 ; in England and Germany, 416-418; and Christian Union, 602-607. Philip IV. of France and Boniface VIII., 188, 212. Philo, 27. Philosophy, the Greek, 10 ; decay of, 10; Arabic, the, 171-173 ; the Jew ish, 175, 176; the Scholastic, 177- 181; Luther's interest in, 217; of Deism, 308 ; Rationalism and, 334. Pietism, relation of, to the Mystics, 314 ; Spener and, 322-326. " Pilgrim's Progress," 371, 372. Pilgrims, the Puritan, 254, 443. Plan of Union between Presbyterian and Congregational Churches, 524. Planting, the providential, 453-465. Plastic arts, 165. Plymouth colony, the, 443. Poets, mediaeval, 184; Florentine, the, 185. Poland adopts Christianity, 142; the Reformation in, 277, 278. Political condition of Switzerland, 233 ; effects of the Reformation, 279-281 ; framework of the colonies, 455-458 ; complications of Mormonism, 587, 588. Polygamy permitted by the Koran, 118. Poor, the care of the, 22. Popes, the : Leo III. and Charlemagne, 108-110; Stephen EL, 108; Adrian I., 109; rule of, 125-128; Joanna, 125 ; three rival, 126 ; Gregory VII., 129-132, 168; Sincius, 132; John XIII., 136; Leo IX., 145; Hadrian IV, 152; Gregory IX., 174; Clement IV., 174; Boniface VIII., 188, 212; John XXIII., 277; Pius IV, 288; Paul III., 288, 290 ; Pius IX., 290, 387, 389, 397 ; Pius VII., 341 ; Leo XIII, 391. Pornocracy, the, 126. Porphyry, 32. Port Royal a Jansenist centre, 338. Portugal, the inquisition in, 274. "Praise of Folly," the, by Erasmus, 260. Prayer, Luther's power in, 226 ; in the Puritan service, 473. Preachers, great mediaeval, 166, 167; English, 419-121 ; of New England, 470, 471 ; great, of the United States, 625-627. Predestination, 123. Presbyterian Church, the, 621-525. Presbyterians, the, betrayed by James I., 294 ; in the Westminster Assem bly, 296 ; Puritans and, scholars and divines of, 367-372; of Scotland, 374-377 ; the Scotch-Irish, 449, 450 ; concession of the Congregationalists to, 511; Cumberland, 566; theology of, 630. Presbyters, 25, 71 ; penitential, 80. GENERAL INDEX 669 Primer, the New England, 617. Princes favor the Reformation, 232. Printing in New England, 484. Prison reform, 416, 417. Private life of Luther, 227. Progress, universal, 106, 107 ; a prod uct of the Puritans, 492. Prophets of the New Testament, 24. Protectorate of Cromwell, the, 302. Protestant currents in Switzerland, 237; Church in Germany, 310, 311; emigration to America, 317, 318 ; mission-field, 408-413 ; colonies, the smaller, 450-453 ; currents, the, 507 ; outbreaks, 542. Protestantism, the heralds of, 195-207; in England, 244-254; in France, 262-266, 341-343; in Italy, 267- 272; in Spain and Portugal, 272- 275 ; in Scandinavia, 275, 276 ; in the Slavic lands, 276-278 ; the moth er of universities, 281 ; four-hun dredth anniversary of Luther's birth celebrated throughout, 281-283; ef forts to arrest, 287-293 ; divisions of, 314—317 ; leads Romanism in art, science, and literature, 385 ; union of, in the Evangelical Alliance, 402, 403 ; effect of English conquest of Canada on, 440. Protestants and Catholics, 287, 315 ; in Maryland, 447, 448. Providential planting, the, 453-455. "Psalterium Americanum," 618. Pulpit, the American, 622-627. Puritans, the, 254, 296-298 ; James I. and, 293, 294 ; scholars and divines of, 367-372, 444-446; intensely theo logical, 478, 479 ; influence of, 491, 492. Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 352. Quakers, the, 299, 300, 449, 561-564 ; persecuted in New England, 466. Quietists, French, 337. Raikes, Robert, 404. Rappists, the, 581, 582. Rationalism in Germany, 330-332 ; de cline wrought by, 333 ; and philoso phy, 334. Realists, Nominalists and, 178. Recuperative measures of Romanism, 287-289. Reform, the Montanistic, 44-46 ; Gre gorian, 129-131 ; attempted by Ar nold of Brescia, 150-163; by the Waldenses and Albigenses, 153-155 ; need of, acknowledged by the Coun cils of Pisa, Constanoe, and Basel, 212-214; university, 360, 861; the temperance, 414, 415, 595 - 601 ; prison, 416, 417 ; the antislavery, 589-594; the clergy, leaders in, 624. Reformation, the, entering wedge of, 128 ; a factor of, Arnold of Brescia, 153; a historical crisis, 196; pio neers of, 196 ; hastened by Human ism, 210; the German, 215-233 ; in German Switzerland, 233-237; in French Switzerland, 237-244; the English, 244-254 ; Henry VIII.'s pat ronage of, 246, 247 ; the Scotch, 255- 258; in the Netherlands, 258-261; in France, 262-266 ; in Italy, 267- 272; in Spain and Portugal, 272- 275 ; in the Slavic lands, 276-278 ; results of, 279-281. Reformatory Councils, the, 212-214. Reformed Churches, the; 518-515. — Episcopal Church, the, 571. — Presbyterian Church; the, 567. Reformers, two kinds of , 1 97 ; the Paris, 198, 199, 213; early Dutch, 207; Zwingli's variations from the Ger man, 235 ; Scotch, 255-258, 374, 381 ; Continental, influence of, in England, 297. Reforming Synod, the, 459, 460. Relics, 133, 166. Relief Synod, the, 379 ; Bill for Roman Catholics, 395. Religious tendency of Humanism in Italy and north of the Alps, 210; im pulse in America, the, 435, 455, 470, 492 ; life on the Continent, survey of tbe, 426-428 ; life of the colonies, 470-472 ; literature of the colonies, 482-486 ; attitude of public men at the Revolutionary period, 602; lib erty asked for by the Baptists, 518. Relly, James, 550. Remonstrants and con tra-Remons t ran ts, 319,320. Renata, 270. Restoration, the Church during the, 304- 307. Results of the Reformation, 279-281 ; of the Thirty Years' War, 317 ; of modern missions, 413 ; of the revival of 1800, 605, 506. Reuchlin, John, 211. Revision of the Bible, the, 406, 407. Revival under the Haldanes, the, 378- 670 GENERAL INDEX 380 ; under Edwards, 471 ; at the beginning of the century, 604-506 ; later, 624, 625. Revolution, French, 340 ; the Lutherans during the American, 528; the Amer ican, the effect of, upon Methodism, 533, 534 ; upon Roman Catholicism, 540. Rhode Island, 468. Richard of St. Victor, 204. Rigdon, Sidney, 584. Robertson, Frederick W., 421. Robinson, Edward, 633. Robinson, John, 254, 443, 479. Roman Catholicism in England, 394- 397; in America, 639-544. Roman Catholics, discrimination against the, in the colonies, 469, 470, 500 ; in the West, 506. Roman Empire, rule of, 11; persecu tions of Christians in, 18, 19 ; writ ers, scorn of, for Christianity, 31 ; apologists, 34, 35 ; primacy, ecclesi astical government and, 69-74, 101, 144 ; Catacombs, 85-90 ; bishopric, growth of the, 93, 94, 98 ; centrali zation, 101 ; Empire threatened by Charlemagne, 107. Rome, Luther's journey to, 217 ; moral condition of, Petrarch's lines on the, 269. Rush, Benjamin, 596, 597. Russia accepts Christianity, 142. Russo-Greek Church, the, '344-347. Ruysbroek, John, 201. Sabbath, the, 21. Sacraments, the, 21 ; doctrine of the, 66, 67. Sacred seasons and public worship, 75- 78. Saint Patrick, 99. Saints' days, 133, 134. Salvation Army, the, 424-426. Salzburg persecution, the, 321, 322,450. Samaritans, the, 15. Sandwich Islands, missions in the, 610. Saturninus, 29. Savonarola, Luther's lesson from, 197 ; influence of, 267, 268. Saxon Confession, the, 231. Saxons and Latins confront each other, 191. Saybrook Platform, the, 460. Scandinavia, the Reformation in, 275, 276 ; evangelization in, 428. Scepticism of the Humanists, 269 ; in Germany, 330-332 ; in France, 339- 341 ; growth of, at the Revolution ary period, 496. Schaff, Philip, 634. Schelling, Frederick W. J., 334. Schisms, ecclesiastical, 54-56 ; between the East and the West, 144-146 ; in the papacy, 189, 213. Schleiermacher, Frederick D. E., 335. Scholars before Charlemagne, 137; of Charlemagne's court, 138, 139 ; and divines of the English Church, 361- 367 ; and divines, Puritan and Pres byterian, 367-372. Scholarship, theological, in the United States, 632-638. Scholasticism, 173, 177-181. Schools of Charlemagne, 119-121, 186; of Alfred the Great, 138 ; the great, 186, 187; of St. Victor, 203; in the Church of England, the, 354-359; contract and training, for Indians, 604. Scotch Reformation, 255-258 ; Irish, the, 449, 450, 522. Scott, Thomas, 366. Scottish Church, critical periods in the history of the, 373-377 ; the Great Disruption in, 380-383. Scotus, Duns, 179,387. Scriptures, the, and tradition, 57-60 ; copies of, in the early Church, 81, 82 ; in the Catacombs, 87, 88 ; circulation of, 121, 270; Jewish exposition of, 176 ; study of, » cure for scholasti cism, 180 ; appeal of Gerson to, 199 ; study of, promoted by Humanism, 210. Sects of the Russo-Greek Church, 346, 347. Semler, John S., 331. Separation of Church and State, 498- 500. Sermon, the, 134, 135, 166 ; in the Puri tan service, 472, 473. Services, the public, 134-137. Seventh-Day Adventists, 570 ; German, 579, 680. Shakers, the, 580, 581. Shelley, poetry of, 422. Sibylline oracles, the, 61. Sicilies, the, 173, 174. Sick and insane, the care of the, 605. Sickingen, Franz von, 232. Simeon, Charles, 355; and his school, 420. Simeon Stylites, 92, 93. Simony in the tenth century, 129, 130. Singing in the Puritan services, 473. GENERAL INDEX 671 Sisters of the People, 418. Sixty-seven Articles, the, by Zwingli, 2to\t. Slavery, 13 ; and Christianity, 23 ; death blow to, 416 ; question of, in the Presbyterian Church, 524, 592; move ments against, in America, 589-594. Slavic lands, the Reformation in, 276- 278. Smalcald, Convention at, 227. Smith, Henry B., 634. Smith, Captain John, 442. Smith, Joseph, 584, 585. Smith, Joseph, Jr., 587, 588. Sobieski, John, defeats the Turks, 118. Society of Jesus, the, 289-293. South and West, expansion in the, 506-508. South, Robert, 365. Southern colonies, 448 ; education in, 464 ; not affected greatly by the revival of the eighteenth century, 472. Southey, writings of, 422. Spain and Portugal, the Reformation in, 272-275 ; evangelization in, 427. Spanish colonization, the, 433-436. Spaulding, Solomon, 584. Spener and Pietism, 322-326. Spiritual decline at Revolutionary peri od, 495, 496. Stanley, Dean Arthur P., 366. State, Church and, 40. Statistics of the Church at the begin ning of the national period, 497. Stephen, St., of Hungary, 143. Stephen of England, 156. Stoddard, Solomon, views of, on the Lord's Supper, 481, 482. Strasburg, Calvin at, 242. Stuart, Moses, 632. Sunday observance, 75. Sunday-school, the, 404, 405; in the United States, 614-616 ; writers on, 637. Superstition in the Church, 102; the survival of, 392, 393. Suso, Henry, 201. Sweden, beginning of Christianity in, 140 ; the Reformation in, 275 ; col ony from, 451. Swedenborg and the New Church, 328- 330, 570. Switzerland, the Reformation in Ger man, 233-237; the Reformation in French, 237-244; spiritual life in, 427. Symbolism in the Catacombs, 87-89. Synod of Dort, Arminius and the, 318^ 320 ; General, of the Lutherans, 528. Synodical Conference of Lutherans, 529. Tatian, 29. Tauler, John, 202, 203. Taylor, Jeremy, 363, 364. Temperance reform, the, 414, 415, 596- 601. Temporal power of the papacy, the end of the, 388-390. Tennyson, Alfred, 423. Territorial allotment in America, the, 454; difference in religious belief, 637. Tertullian, 34, 35, 46. Testament, New, Erasmus's, 261. Thanksgiving and fast days, 473, 474. Tlieatines, the, 288. Theatricals, religious, 185. Theological movements in the New England colonies, 478-482 ; in the Congregational Church, 612 ; schol arship in the United States, 632- 638. Theology during the early period, 63- 69 ; of the mediasval period, 122- 124; of scholasticism, 177-181; at tention of Abelard to, 182-184; of John of Goch, 206 ; of Melanchthon, 231 ; German and Swiss, 236 ; of Calvin, 243; of the Quakers, 299, 300; of Swedenborg, 329; in the Roman Catholic Church, 384 ; of the Salvation Army, 425 ; of the Re formed (Dutch) Church, 514 ; of the American Church, 627-632. Theses, Luther's Ninety-five, 219. Thirty Years' War, the, 314-317; ef fects of, 322, 323. Thomists, the, and Scotists, 179. " Times, Tracts for the," 352. Tractarian movement, the, 351-353. Tradition, the Scriptures and, 57-60. Transcendentalists, the, 575-578. Transition, the mediaeval, 105-107. Transubstantiation, 123, 124. Transylvania, the Reformation in, 278. Travels of the Fathers, 83-85. Tregelles, Samuel Prideaux, 366. Trent, the Council of, 271, 287, 288. Treves, the seamless coat at, 393. "True Christianity," 313. Tunkers, the, 569. Turkish missions, 412, 609, 610. Turner, Samuel H, 632. Tutilo of St. Gall, 137, 164. 672 GENERAL INDEX Tyndale, the New Testament of, 249. Ulfilas, 48, 98, 137. Uniform lessons, 616. Uniformity, the Act of, 258, 298, 306. Union of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies, 446, 446 ; of Methodist churches of Canada, 537 ; Christian, and philanthropy, 602-607. Unitarians, the, 646-550, 630. Unitas Fratrum, or the United Breth ren, 327, 572. United Presbyterian Church, the, 379. Unity and trinity, 64; essential, of Protestantism, 310. Universalists, the, 550-553. Universities of modern Europe, origin of, 120, 186, 187 ; Mohammedan, 172; a fruit of the Reformation, 281 ; the English, 359-361. Ussher, James, 365. Utah, the Mormons in, 586. Utrecht, Convention of, articles of the, 401. Valentinian, 28. Vatican Council, the, 397-399. " Veni, Sancte Spiritus," 135. Venice, the Reformation in, 268, 270. Version, the Revised, 406, 407. Victor, School of St., 203. Vincent, John H., 405. Viret, Peter, 242. Virgin Mary, growth of the worship of , the, 386-388. Virginia and Massachusetts, 441-446 ; intolerance in, 465-468 ; literature in, 483. Voluntary principle of Church support, 498, 499. Waldenses, the, and the Albigenses, 153-155. Waldenstrom, P. P., 428. War, the Thirty Years', 314-317 ; of the Covenants, 373. Warburton, William, 365. Ware, appointment of Dr., at Harvard, 547. Wartburg Oastle, Luther at, 221, 230 ; leaves, 223. Webb, Thomas, 532, 533. Wends, the, planting of Christianity among the, 142. Wesley, Charles, 348, 349. Wesley, John, influence of, against De ism," 309, 419 ; and Methodism, 347- 350. Wesleyan revival, effects of the, 419. West, expansion in the So«th ahd, SOB- SOS. Western Church, the Eastern and, con trasted, 74. Westminster Assembly, the, 295. Westphalia, the peace of, 316. Whitaker, Alexander, 483, 486. White, William, 509, 510. Whitefield, George, 349. William of Champeaux, 182. William and Mary, 306, 307. William and Mary College, 463. Williams, Roger, 467, 576. Wittenberg, Luther at, 217-220, 223, 230. Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 601. Women and childhood, degradation of, 12; elevation of, 23; work of, for Reformation in Italy, 270. Wordsworth, William, 422. Worms, Diet at, 220. Worship, Christian, 20, 21, 166-168, sacred seasons and public, 76-78 ; of Mary, growth of, 386-388 ; colo nial, and usages, 472-474. Wounded, care of the, 417. Writers, mediaeval, 137-139. Wycliffe, John, 245, 246. Xavier, Francis, 291. Young, Brigham, 685-588. Young Men's Christian Associatibn, 606. Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, 606. Young, training of the, 78. Zeisberger, David, 555, 556. Zinzendorf, Nicholas L, 326, 327, 666, Zoarites, the, 582. Zurich, the Reformation in, 233-237. Zwickau Prophets, the, 222, 223. Zwingli, Ulric, 234. THE END YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 02388 5883