YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE LIBRARY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL THE CAMBRIDGE BIBLE FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES General Editor for the Old Testament : — A. F. KIRKPATRICK, D.D. THE BOOK OF PSALMS EonSon: C. J. CLAY and SONS, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE. (Stagoto: so, WELLINGTON STREET. lUilijig: F. A. BROCKHAUS. #tto gnrU: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Scaiiag nnlj ttatcutta : MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. [AU Rights reserved^ THE BOOK OF PSALMS Edited by A. F KIRKPATRICK, D.D. Master of Selwyn College, Cambridge ; Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity. Cambridge : at the University Press 1903 In the Psalms tlie soul turns inward on itself, and their great feature is that they are the expression of a large spiritual experience. They come straight from " the heart within the heart, " and the secret depths of the spirit. Where, in those rough cruel days, did they come from, those piercing, lightning-like gleams of strange spiritual truth, those magni ficent outlooks over the kingdom of God, those raptures at His presence and. His glory, those wonderful disclosures of self-knowledge, those pure outpourings of the love of God? Surely here is something more than the mere working of the mind of man. Surely they tell of higher guiding, prepared for all time ; surely, as we believe, they hear " the word behind them saying, This is the way, walk ye in it" they repeat the whispers of the Spirit of God, they reflect the very light of the Eternal Wisdom. In that wild time there must have been men sheltered a?id hidden amid the tumult round them, humble and faithful and true, to whom the Holy Ghost could open by degrees the " wondrous things of His law," whom He taught, and whose mouths He opened, to teach their brethren by their own experience, and to do each their part in the great preparation. Dean Church. First Edition fanuary 1902. Reprinted May 1902, 1903. CONTENTS. n. in. PAGES Introduction. 1. The Book of Psalms ix — xiii II. The Position, Names, Numbering, and Divisions of the Psalter xiii — xviii III- The Titles of the Psalms xviii — xxxv IV. The Authorship and Age of the Psalms xxxv — 1 V. The Object, Collection, and Growth of the Psalter 1 — lix VI. The Form of Hebrew Poetry Ix — Ixiv VII. The Hebrew Text, the Ancient Versions, and the English Versions lxv — lxxv VIII. The Messianic Hope lxxvi — lxxxv IX. On some points in the Theology of the Psalms lxxxv — xcvii X. The Psalter in the Christian Church ... xcviii — cviii XI. Literature cviii — cxii Text and Notes i — 834 Appendices.... 835 — 840 Index S+i — 852 The Text adopted in this Edition is that of Dr Scrivener's Cambridge Paragraph Bible. A few variations from the ordi nary Text, chiefly in the spelling of certain words, and in the use of italics, will be noticed. For the principles adopted by Dr Scrivener as regards the printing of the Text see his In troduction to the Paragraph Bible, published by the Cambridge University Press. The choice and flower of all things profitable in other books the Psalms do both more briefly contain, and more movingly also express, by reason of that poetical form wherewith they are written . . . What is there necessary for man to know which the Psalms are not able to teach ? They are to beginners an easy and familiar introduction, a mighty augmentation of all virtue and knowledge in such as are entered before, a strong confirmation to the most perfect among others. Heroical magnanimity, exquisite justice, grave moderation, exact wisdom, repentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the terrors of wrath, the comforts of grace, the works of Providence over this world, and the promised joys of that world which is to come, all good necessarily to be either known or done or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeih. Let there be any grief or disease incident into the soul of man, any wound or sickness named, for which there is not in this treasure-house a present comfortable remedy at all times ready to be Jound. R. HOOKER. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. THE BOOK OF PSALMS. Lyric poetry is the most ancient kind of poetry, and Hebrew poetry is mainly lyric. Neither epic nor dramatic poetry flourished in ancient Israel. Some indeed of the historical Psalms may be said to have an epic colouring, but they belong to the class of didactic narrative: Job and the Song of Songs may be called in a sense dramatic, but they do not appear to have been intended for performance on the stage1. The only independent branch of poetry in Israel was gnomic or pro verbial poetry, which in the hands of the ' Wise Men ' attained to a rich development, and must have exercised an important influence on the education of the people. The Old Testament is the religious history of Israel, and the poetry preserved in the Book of Psalms is, as might be expected, religious poetry. Secular poetry no doubt existed2, but, with 1 See however Driver, Lit. of O. T.6, p. 444, for the view that the Song may have been "designed to be acted, ihe different parts being personated by different characters," or represented by "the varied voice and gesture of a single reciter." 2 Such as the drinking songs referred to in Amos vi. 5 (R.V.); Is. v. it: harvest and vintage songs (Is. xvi. 10, 11; Jer. xlviii. 33): parables (Judg. ix. 8 ff.). Solomon's 'thousand and five songs' were probably of a secular character (1 Kings iv. 32). Poems like Exod. xv and Judg. v are essentially religious. The Book of the Wars of Jehovah (Num. xxi. 14), and the Book of Jashar, i.e. the Upright (Josh. a. 13; 1 Sam. i. 18), appear to have been collections of poems commemorating remarkable episodes of national history, and the characters and exploits of national heroes. In these no sharp line could be drawn between what was secular and what was religious. INTRODUCTION. the exception of a few fragments preserved in the historical books1, it has not come down to us. The Psalter then is a collection of religious lyrics. Lyric poetry is defined as "that which directly expresses the individual emotions of the poet"; and religious lyric poetry is the expression of those emotions and feelings as they are stirred by the thought of God and directed God-wards. This is the common characteristic of the Psalms in all their manifold variety. Some are directly addressed to God, as petition or thanksgiving or praise: some are the communings of the soul with God, expressing its faith, its hope, its love, its needs, its fears, its aspirations, its joys, its triumphs : some celebrate the ' marvellous works ' of God in nature and in history : some reflect upon the perplexing problems of life and their relation to the divine government of the world: but God is as it were the sun around which all revolves, and His light and heat illuminate and animate the whole. The Psalms stand in an intimate relation to the whole of the Old Testament. They are the inspired response of the human heart to God's revelation of Himself, in Law and History and Prophecy and Philosophy. The Psalmists celebrate the moral law as the guide of human conduct ; they welcome the ordinances of worship and rejoice in the privilege of access to the presence of God in the Temple, as the crowning joy of life. History supplies its lessons of God's goodness and man's ingratitude, thrown into the easily remembered form of didactic poetry. The recollection of the past is a warning for the present, the support of faith in the hour of trial, the ground of comfort in times of calamity. The Psalms are closely connected with Prophecy. The term 'prophesying' is applied to the expression of religious fervour in chant and hymn (i Sam. x. 10 ff. ; xix. 20 ff.: 1 Chr. xxv. 1 3); and David's chief musicians, Heman, Asaph, and Jeduthun, are called 'seers' (1 Chr. xxv. 5 ; 2 Chr. xxix. 30; xxxv. 15). Sacred poetry often rises to prophetic foresight, or speaks with pro- 1 E.g. Gen. iv. 23, 24; Num. xxi. 17, 18, 27—30; Judg. xv. 16 • 1 Sam. xviii. 7. ' THE BOOK OF PSALMS. phetic authority1, while prophecy often passes into lyric poetry2. The passion for truth and righteousness, and the unquenchable belief that Jehovah's moral government of the world is working, surely if slowly, towards a glorious consummation in the estab lishment of His universal sovereignty, animate and inspire Psalmists not less than Prophets. Several Psalms reflect the influence of the ' Wisdom ' or religious philosophy of Israel, both in its practical and in its speculative aspects. The moral lessons for every-day life collected in the Book of Proverbs, and the discussion of the problems of the world in Job and Ecclesiastes, find their echo in the poetry of the Psalter3. The importance of the Psalter for a just appreciation of the history of Israel is obvious. How meagre an idea of the higher religious life of Israel should we derive from the Historical Books apart from the Prophets : how imperfect still would be the picture drawn from the Historical Books and the Prophets without the warmth of colouring added to it by the Psalms. These alone give us a glimpse into the inner religion of the best spirits in the nation, and bear witness to the faith, the love, the devotion of pious souls, even under the limitations of the Old Covenant Hence it is essential to study the Psalms critically and historically, to endeavour to ascertain their original meaning, and to assign them to their proper place in the history and development of revelation ; not only in order to give life and reality to the Psalms themselves, and to understand them better ; but for the sake of the light which they throw upon the religious history of Israel, and the course of God's dealings with His people. The inquiry is however one of extreme difficulty. The widest diversity of opinion prevails as to the date and authorship of the Psalms, and we must often be content to acknowledge that a Psalm cannot be assigned to a definite period, still less to a particular author, with any degree of certainty. 1 See Ps. xii. 5 ; xlvi. ro ; 1. 4 ff. ; Ixxv. 2 ff. ; Ixxxi. 6 flf. ; ex. 1. 2 See e.g. Is. xii, xxv, xxvi; Nah. i. 2 ff. ; Hab. iii. 8 See especially Pss. xxxvii, xlix, ixxiii. INTRODUCTION. But after all, the critical and historical study of the Psalms is but a preliminary to the higher study of their spiritual meaning and their devotional use. The Psalter has been through all the centuries and will ever continue to be the one unique and inexhaustible treasury of devotion for the individual and for the Church. Through its guidance the soul learns to commune with God : it supplies the most fitting language for common worship. To some it may seem almost a sacrilege to apply the methods of criticism to such a book. It may be disappointing to find that many Psalms once supposed to be David's must be rele gated to a far later age ; perplexing to find familiar renderings condemned, and long current interpretations abandoned. But Holy Scripture conveys divine truth through the medium of human language, and it is our duty to investigate to the full the meaning and the force of that language. Criticism is not the enemy but the handmaid of devotion. As we learn to understand more of the original meaning of the Psalms for those who wrote and used them, we shall learn more of their true meaning for ourselves. But that meaning is not limited to the ' original ' sense, if by this is meant only that sense which the writers could recognise in their own words. Every true poet's words contain far more than he himself at the moment intends. And the words of these inspired poets were so shaped and moulded by the Holy Spirit that they might grow and expand with the growth of revelation, and "gather wealth in the course of ages." The Psalms belong indeed to the Old and not to the New Testa ment. They are the product of the Jewish and not of the Christian Church1. But "the Psalter in its spiritual fulness 1 " It is true that not a little of the colouring of the Psalms is derived from the ritual and order of the old dispensation, and has now become antiquated ; but practical religion does not refuse those bonds of con nexion witli the past. The believing soul is never anxious to separate its own spiritual life from the spiritual life of the fathers. Rather does it cling with special affection to the links that unite it to the church of the Old Testament ; and the forms which, in their literal sense, are now antiquated, become to us an additional group of figures in the rich poetic imagery of the Hebrew hymnal. " Robertson Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, p. 191. THE BOOK OF PSALMS. belongs to no special time"; and the old words are 'fulfilled' in Christ. The Christian Church may, nay must, use them as they are illuminated by the light of the Gospel. And if the saying, "pectus est quod facit theologum1," is true of the study of the Bible generally, it is most true of the study of that book which has well been called "the Bible within the Bible," the very "heart of the Bible." CHAPTER II. THE POSITION, NAMES, NUMBERING, AND DIVISIONS OF THE PSALTER. I. The position of the Psalter in the Old Testament. The Hebrew title of the Old Testament indicates the three great divisions, in which, from very early times2, the Canonical Books were arranged by the Jewish Church: — Law, Prophets, Writings. The Book of Psalms belongs to the third of these divisions, the Writings or Hagiographa. But its position in the group has not always been the same3. In the MSS. of the German type, which our printed editions follow, the Psalms 1 " It is the heart which makes the theologian." 2 This triple division is recognised in the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus, written about B.C. 132 by the author's grandson, who translated the book from Hebrew into Greek. " Whereas many great things have been delivered unto us by means of (5id) the law and the prophets and the others that have followed after them my grandfather Jesus, when he had diligently given himself to the reading of the law and the prophets and the other books of our fathers (rax iSXXav irarplwp fsipMav) . . . was drawn on also himself to write something pertaining to instruction and wisdom." And again, apologising for the imperfec tions of his version, he says: " For words spoken in Hebrew have not precisely the same force, when they are translated into another tongue : and not only this treatise, but even the law and the prophecies and the rest of the books (r& Xoi7r& twv fsifShlwv) differ in no small degree when they are spoken in their own language." The clear distinction which is here drawn between the Canonical books and Ecclesiasticus, and the reference to the Greek Version of the O.T. as already in existence, should be carefully noticed. See further below, p. xlvi. 3 See Ginsburg, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, ch. i ; Ryle, Canon of Ihe O.T., ch. xii. INTRODUCTION. stand first, followed by Proverbs and Job. That this was the ancient order is at least a probable inference from Luke xxiv. 44 where "the Psalms" stands by the side of "the Law" and "the Prophets" as the title of the Hagiographa in general1. The order of the books of the O.T. in our English Bibles is that which had come to be adopted in the Vulgate by the sixteenth century. It corresponds more nearly to the arrange ment of the LXX found in the Vatican MS. than to that of the Hebrew, but differs from it in placing Job before the Psalter instead of after the Song of Songs, and in placing the Minor Prophets after instead of before the Major Prophets, and arranging them as they stand in the Hebrew text. 2. Names of the Psalter. The Septuagint translators em ployed the word ^aXju.or2, psalm, to render the Heb. word mizmor, which was the technical term for a song with musical accompaniment (see p. xix). The collection was styled simply Psalms, as in the Vatican MS. (^jraK/ioi, cp. Luke xxiv. 44), or The Book of Psalms (Luke xx. 42 ; Acts i. 20), or in later times The Psalter, ^dkTr\p or \jfa\rriptov3. The Greek words have come down to us through the Latin psalmus, psalterium. In the Hebrew Bible the title of the collection is Book of Praises, or simply, Praises : Sepher Tehillim abbreviated into Tillim or Tillin*. This title was known to Hippolytus6 and 1 Comp. too Philo (B.C. 20 — A.D. 50) de vita contempt, (ii. 475): vbfxovs Kal \6yia deairiade'vTa dta irpoiP : LXX in Ps. vii simply $a\p.6s, in Hab. ptera v) ; Ps. xlviii to the second day (devripa o-a/3/3arou) ; Ps. xciv to the fourth day (rerpaSi i>) ; Ps. xciii to the sixth day of the week (els ¦rijv ijp.ipav tov irpoo-apfiaTov). The Old Latin Version further refers Ps. Ixxxi to the fifth day (quinta sabbati). These titles agree with the arrangement given in the Mishna (Tamid, vii. 3), according to which the Psalm for the third day was Ps. lxxxii. The title of Pss. xxxviii and lxx to bring to remembrance, or, as R.V. marg., to make memorial, may indicate that they were sung at the offering of incense (see Introd. to Ps. xxxviii) : and that of Ps. c, A Psalm of thanksgiving (R.V.), marg. for the thank-offering, may mark that it was sung when thank- offerings (lvi. 12) were offered. 1 The rendering of the LXX iirip tov Xaov tov dirb twv ayluv Hep.aKpvixp4vov, for the people removed far from the sanctuary, which at first sight seems hopelessly divergent, is explained by Baethgen as a paraphrase. By the dove the translator understood Israel, and for elem he read elim, which he took to mean gods. But thinking it unseemly to describe Israel as the dove of the distant gods, he substituted a free paraphrase. 2 The LXX simply transliterates inrip MaeXid. Aq. Symm. Theod. Jer. render For or in the dance, a curiously inappropriate title for both these Pss. 8 Cp. Ecclus. 1. 14 ff. lor a description of the service. INTRODUCTION. The title of Ps. xxx, A Song at the Dedication of the House, may refer to its use at the Festival of the Dedication, instituted by Judas Maccabaeus in B.C. 164, when the Temple was re-dedicated after its profanation by Antiochus (1 Mace. iv. 59 ; John x. 22). The title of Ps. xxix in the LXX, egodiov o-k^vtis (Vulg. in consummatione tabernaculi), refers to its use on the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles. To teach is part of the title prefixed to Ps. Ix. A comparison of Deut. xxxi. 19 and 2 Sam. i. 18 makes it probable that it was to be learnt by heart and recited on public occasions. On these titles see further in the notes on the particular Psalms. A song of Degrees, rather, A Song of Ascents (R.V.), or, for the Goings up, is the title prefixed to 15 Psalms (exx — exxxiv), which appear to have formed a'separate collection, bearing the title The Songs of the Goings up (or, of the Going up), which was afterwards transferred to each separate Psalm. Various explanations of this title have been proposed. (1) The LXX renders w'St) twv ava@a6p.&v : Vulg. and Jer., canticum graduum, * a song of the steps.' It has been supposed that they were so called because they were sung up'on the flight of 15 steps which led from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Men in the Second Temple. But Delitzsch has shewn that the passage of the Talmud quoted in support of this explanation really says nothing at all about the singing of these Psalms upon the steps, or the derivation of the name from them, but merely compares the number of the Psalms with that of the steps. (2) An explanation which has found considerable favour in modern times regards the term as denoting a particular kind of ' ascending ' structure, in which each verse takes up and repeats a word or clause from the preceding verse. Ps. exxi offers a good example of this structure ; but apart from the fact that no trace can be found of this technical meaning of the word 'ascent' elsewhere, the structure is neither peculiar to these Psalms nor characteristic of all of them. (3) As 'the ascent' or 'going up' was the regular term for THE TITLES OF THE PSALMS. the Return from Babylon (Ezra vii. 9), some have supposed that these Psalms were sung by the returning exiles on their march. So the Syriac Version, and probably Aq. Symm. and Theod., who render aap.a t&v avaf$ao-ea>v or eis rat avafHao-tis. But the contents of many of the Psalms do not favour this explanation. (4) ' To go up ' was the regular term for making pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the great festivals (1 Sam. i. 3; Ps. cxxii. 4). 'The songs of the goings up' may have been the name for the songs which were sung on these occasions. We know that the pilgrims went up with singing (Is. xxx. 29; Ps. xiii. 4), and many of these Psalms are well suited for such occasions1; while others, though not so obviously appropriate, might well have been employed for the purpose. This is on the whole the most probable explanation, although the substantive ' going up ' is not used elsewhere in this technical sense2. 4. Titles relating to Authorship. These are regularly intro duced by a preposition denoting of or belonging to, by, the so- called 'lamed auctoris.' In some instances, as in Hab. iii. 1, it was no doubt intended to denote authorship ; but in others, as will be seen presently (p. xxxiii), it was probably intended to denote origin, rather than, in the strict sense of the. word, authorship. This is clearly the case with the title A Psalm of the sons of Korah, which must mean ' a Psalm from the collection known as that of the sons of K.' ; probably also with the title A Psalm of Asaph, and, at least in many instances, with the title A Psalm of David. (a) One Psalm (xc) bears the name of Moses. (b) 73 Psalms bear the name of David : viz. all those in Book I, except i and ii, which are prefatory ; x, which is part of ix ; and xxxiii, which appears to be a later addition : 18 in Book II (li — lxv, lxviii— lxx); one in Book III (lxxxvi); two in Book IV (ci, ciii); 15 in Book V (cviii— ex, cxxii, cxxiv, exxxi, exxxiii, exxxviii — cxiv). 1 E.g. exxi — exxiii, exxv, exxvii, exxviii, exxxii— exxxiv. 2 Unless Wellhausen is right in altering JTPDD highways to mbyD goings up, pilgrimages, in lxxxiv. 5, following the LXX avaf}dv); and pleading for indulgence towards the defects of his own translation he points out that even in the case of " the law 1 See Robertson Smith, Old Test, in Jewish Church'1, pp. 207, 437- AUTHORSHIP AND AGE OF THE PSALMS, xlvii and the prophecies and the rest of the books " there is no small difference between the original and a translation. From these statements it may reasonably be inferred (i) that Jesus the son of Sirach, c. 1S0 B.C., was acquainted with a three fold Canon of Scripture, distinguished from other writings ; and (2) that a Greek translation of a three-fold Canon was current in Egypt c. 130 B.C. Now "the Greek Psalter... is essentially the same as the Hebrew ; there is nothing to suggest that the Greek was first translated from a less complete Psalter and afterwards extended to agree with the received Hebrew. It is therefore reasonable to hold that the Hebrew Psalter was com pleted and recognised as an authoritative collection long enough before 130 B.C. to allow of its passing to the Hellenistic Jews of Alexandria1." Accordingly the closing of the Canon of the Psalter must be placed, at the very latest, in the time of Simon (c. 140 B.C.). John Hyrcanus (B.C. 135 — 106), Aristobulus I, who assumed the title of king (B.C. 106), and Alexander Jannaeus (B.C. 105 — 78), are not celebrated in the Psalter. But it seems very doubtful whether a considerably longer interval than ten years ought not to be allowed between the closing of the col lection and its currency in a Greek Version ; and the evidence next to be adduced makes it extremely probable that the col lection was completed at least half a century earlier. (4) Fresh evidence as to the contents of the Canon of Scripture known to Jesus the son of Sirach has recently been brought to light by the recovery of portions of the Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus by Dr Schechter and other scholars. In this text ch. li. 12 is followed by a Psalm of fifteen verses, which is unquestionably an imitation of Ps. cxxxv (see Introd. to that Ps.), and is largely composed of phrases taken from Psalms in Book V, e.g. cxxi, cxxxii, cxlvii, cxlviii. In particular, cxlviii. 14 is quoted verbatim. If this Psalm was composed by Jesus the son of Sirach c. 180 B.C., it shews that he was familiar with Psalms, some of which have a strong claim to be regarded as among the latest in the Psalter. This is the most striking example, but Dr Schechter holds that the allusions in the 1 Robertson Smith, O. T.J. C. p. 201. xlviii INTRODUCTION. portions of the Hebrew text at present recovered extend over " all the books or groups of the Psalms1." Though it is impossible to prove that the Psalter was finally completed by B.C. 1 80, a strong presumption is raised against the admission of Psalms after that date, and it is highly probable that among " the other books of the fathers " upon the study of which Jesus the son of Sirach based his work was the Psalter substantially as we now have it. In particular it is noteworthy that we have clear evidence for the existence of the last group of Psalms (cxliv — cl), in which Maccabaean Psalms might most naturally be looked for, and one of which (cxlix) has upon internal grounds the best claim of any Psalm to be regarded as Maccabaean. (5) The Second Book of Maccabees speaks of the care which Judas took to collect the sacred writings which had been dispersed or lost in the war (2 Mace. ii. 14), but no hint is given that the collection included new works. This book however cannot be regarded as a trustworthy historical authority. (6) If the Psalms of Solomon1 could he referred to the Maccabaean age, they would afford an almost conclusive proof that the whole of the Psalter belongs to a much earlier time. But it is now generally agreed that this collection belongs to the period after the conquest of Jerusalem by Pompey in B.C. 63, and was completed soon after his death in B.C. 48s. Even if the Psalms of Solomon are to be placed at this later date, the argu ment does not altogether lose its force4. For they were written only a century after the standard of independence was raised by 1 Schechter and Taylor, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, p. 26. "The impression produced by the perusal of Ben Sira's original on the student who is at all familiar with the Hebrew Scriptures is that of reading the work of a post-canonical author, who already knew his Bible and was constantly quoting it." 2 A collection of 18 Psalms, written in Hebrew, probably in Palestine, but now extant only in a Greek version. The best .edition is that of Prof, (now Bp) Ryle and Dr James, with translation" and commentary (1891). The text is to be found in Vol. iii of Dr Swete's edition of the LXX (also published separately, with the Greek fragments of Enoch). 3 See Schiirer's Hist, of the Jewish People in the time of Jesus Christ, Div. ii. § 32 (Vol. iii. pp. 17 ff., E.T.). 4 The development of this argument by Bp Westcott in Smith's Diet. of the Bible, ii. 168, on the hypothesis of the Maccabaean date of these Psalms, should still be consulted. AUTHORSHIP AND AGE OF THE PSALMS, xlix Mattathias, and almost immediately after the time at which the Psalter is supposed by some critics to have received its latest additions. But the contrast is immense. They are separated from the Psalter by an impassable gulf. " The spirit which the Psalms breathe is entirely that of Pharisaic Judaism. They are pervaded by an earnest moral tone and a sincere piety. But the righteousness which they preach and the dearth of which they deplore is, all through, the righteousness which consists in complying with all the Pharisaic prescriptions1." Their development of the doctrine of the Resurrection and the Messianic expectation separates them widely from the canonical Psalms. Where for example can we find parallels in the Psalter to language like tlie following with reference to the Resurrection? " The destruction of the sinner shall be for ever, and he shall not be remembered, when He visiteth the righteous : this is the portion of sinners for ever. But they that fear the Lord shall arise unto life eternal, and their life shall be in the light of the Lord, and shall fail no more" (iii. 13 — 16). "For the Lord will spare His saints, and their transgressions will He blot out by correction : for the life of the righteous is for ever, but sinners shall be carried away to destruction, and the memorial of them shall no more be found " (xiii. 9, 10). Equally remarkable is the expression of the Messianic hope : " Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David, at the time which Thou knowest, O God, that he may reign over Israel Thy servant. And gird him with strength to break in pieces unrighteous rulers" (xvii. 23, 24). 1 Schiirer, p. si. INTRODUCTION. "And in his days there is no unrighteousness in the midst of them, for all are holy, and their king is the anointed lord1" (v. 36). * * * * " And he himself is pure from sin, to rule over a great people ; to rebuke rulers and to destroy sinners by the strength of his word. And he shall not be feeble in his days, relying upon his God, for God made him mighty in the holy spirit, and wise in the counsel of understanding, with strength and righteousness" (vv. 41, 42). These general considerations are sufficient, taken all together, to make it antecedently doubtful whether any Psalms date from the Maccabaean period, and it seems to be fairly open to ques tion whether the internal characteristics of the supposed Macca baean Psalms are such as to outweigh these general conside rations. The discussion of these special characteristics must necessarily be deferred to the notes on each Psalm. Few modern commentators however deny the possibility, and most maintain the certainty, of the existence of Maccabaean Psalms in the Psalter. CHAPTER V. THE OBJECT, COLLECTION, AND GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. What was the object with which the Psalter was compiled? It is often spoken of as ' the hymn book of the second Temple,' and it is assumed that it was intended for use in public worship. But it has not the appearance of a collection of hymns made exclusively for liturgical purposes, and there is no evidence that it was so used as a whole in the Jewish Church down to the Christian era2. Many of the Psalms were no doubt written 1 xPWT°s Ki'P'os: cp. Lam. iv. 20 (LXX), Luke ii. n. 2 " The statements of the Rabbis point to the use of certain Psalms on special occasions only ; for the use of the whole Psalter in the period to which they refer there is no evidence." Dalman in Theol. Litztg. 1893, col. 517. OBJECT OF THE PSALTER. li expressly for use in public worship, either in celebration of particular events, or for general use ; and many not written with this special object are well adapted for it. But many were clearly not originally intended for this purpose, and could only be so used by a process of accommodation. Some Psalms are the outpouring of the heart to God in the most intimate personal communion, in supplication, confession, thanksgiving, praise, springing out of the needs and aspirations of the soul in the crises of life, and adapted primarily for private devotion rather than for public worship. Some are of a didactic character, intended for instruction and edification, and to be read or learnt rather than sung. The object of the compilers of the Psalter would seem to have been by no means simply liturgical, but partly to unite and preserve existing collections of religious poetry, partly to provide a book of religious devotion, public and private. In this connexion a few words may be said upon a question which has recently been much discussed : — Who is the speaker in the Psalms ? At first sight it may seem to the reader accus tomed to modern western modes of thought that it can be no one but the Psalmist himself. But in view of the ancient oriental modes of thought and expression it is at least possible that in many Psalms which seem at first sight to be entirely personal and individual, the speaker is not an individual, but the nation or the godly part of it, the collective 'servant of - Jehovah.' Thus in Ps. cxxix Israel speaks as an individual : "Much have they vexed me from my youth up, let Israel now say." Such personification of the nation is not confined to poetry : it is common in the Pentateuch. Israel often speaks or is addressed as an individual, e.g. in Deut. vii. 17 fi. ; Ex. xxiii. 20 ff. ; Num. vi. 24 — 26. May not this usage be common in the Psalms ? and especially if the Psalter be ' the hymn book of the congregation,' is it not the congregation that speaks ? This method of interpretation is no novelty. It is found in the LXX and the Targum, in which Psalms apparently most strongly individual (e.g. xxiii, lvi) are interpreted of the nation ; it has been adopted by Christian Fathers and Jewish Rabbis and modem commentators of the most widely different schools. dz Hi INTRODUCTION. It has been most elaborately developed in recent times by Smend1, who holds that in few if any of the Psalms is the voice of an individual to be heard. The hostility of enemies so often complained of is really the hostility of neighbouring nations : the sicknesses and sufferings described are those of the body politic (cp. Is. i. 5 ff.). The theory doubtless contains elements of truth ; but it has been pressed to absurd extremes, and it is con nected with the mistaken view that the Psalter was designed as a whole to be the hymn book of the congregation, and that the Psalms were written for that purpose. Many of the Psalmists were representative men. They spoke on behalf of the nation, or of some class or body within it. Their vivid consciousness of the 'solidarity' of the nation, of the reality and continuity of national life, enabled them to enter into its hopes and fears, its joys and sufferings, its triumphs and reverses, with a depth of insight and an intensity of sympathy which made them truly the mouth pieces of the community. The true poet enlarges and genera lises his own feelings and experiences. Thus Tennyson writes of In Memoriam : " ' I ' is not always the author speaking of himself, but the voice of the human race speaking through him2." But while the Psalmist speaks in the name of many, he speaks in his own name too. He is not, in the majority of cases at any rate, deliberately substituting the personality of the nation for his own personality. Many Psalms are so intensely personal, that it is impossible to suppose that they did not have their origin in real personal experience ; often experience so special and peculiar that it is only by a process of accommodation that it can be used by the congregation. Outside of the Psalter, e.g. in Jeremiah and Nehemiah, language closely resembling that of the Psalter is used by individuals. Moreover the speaker is not seldom distinguished from the congregation. And if the reference of Psalms to the nation is as old as the LXX, the 1 In the Zeitschrift fiir alttestamentliche Theologie, 18S8, pp. 49 ff. It has also been fully examined and advocated within more reasonable limits by Beer, Individual- und Gemeindepsalmen, 1894. See also Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 261 ff., 276 ff. Robertson Smith, O. T.J. C. p. 220. Driver, Lit. of O.T? p. 389. 2 Tennyson's Life, i. 305. GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. liii reference of them to individuals is still older, for it is implied by the titles, which connect them with events in the life of David. Still, the possibility that the ' I ' in the Psalter is collective and not individual must be borne in mind in the interpretation of the Psalms, though to what extent the principle is to be applied will remain debatable. In many Psalms where ' I ' and ' we ' interchange it may be questioned whether ' I ' denotes tlie nation, or the Psalmist speaking on its behalf as its leader and repre sentative. See e.g. xliv. 4, 6, 1 5 ; lx. 9 ; lxv. 3 ; lxvi. 1 3 ff. ; lxxiv. 12; lxxxix. 50; xciv. 16 ff. ; ciii; cxviii. Some Psalms where the singular alone is used may be national ; but to the present writer it seems exceedingly questionable whether such Psalms as li, lvi, lxxi, lxxxviii, cii, cxvi, cxxxix, can be other than personal in their origin and primary application, though they may in use have been appropriated by the whole congregation. Internal evidence makes it certain that the Psalter grew up gradually from the union of earlier collections of Psalms, and these collections differed widely in character. In some the personal element predominated ; in others there were more Psalms referring primarily to events in the national history ; in others the liturgical intention is obvious. The various strata of which the Psalter is composed can to some extent be distinguished. Three principal divisions, marked by well-defined characteristics, may be observed. They appear to have arisen in successive chronological order1, but such a supposition need not exclude the possibility that the first division received late additions, or that the last division may contain early Psalms. It is an unwarrantable assumption that there can be no pre-exilic Psalms in the third division, because they must all have been included in one of the earlier collections. (i) The First Division is coextensive with Book I (Pss. i — xli). AU the Psalms in it have titles and are described as Psalms " of David," with the exception of i, ii, x, xxxiii. The 1 It is maintained by Peters (Development of the Psalter, in The New World, 1893, p. 295) that the Psalms in the appendix to Book III (84 — 89) and in Books IV and V, which are composed largely of cita tions from, paraphrases of, or enlargements upon other scriptures, quote only Psalms preceding them in the order of arrangement. liv INTRODUCTION. exceptions are easily accounted for. Pss. i and ii are intro ductory, and probably did not belong to the original collection. Ps. x was either originally part of Ps. ix, or was written as a pendant to it. Ps. xxxiii appears to be of later date, inserted as an illustration of the last verse of Ps. xxxii. This collection may have been made by one editor • it does not appear, like the Second and Third Divisions, to have had collections already existing incorporated in it. (ii) The Second Division corresponds to Books II and III (Ps. xiii — lxxxix). All the Psalms in it, except xliii (which is really part of xiii) and lxxi, bear titles. It consists of (a) seven Psalms (or eight, if xiii and xliii are reckoned separately) " of the sons of Korah " (xiii— xlix) : (b) a Psalm " of Asaph " (1): (c) ten Psalms, all except lxvi, lxvii, "of David" (li — lxx): (d) an anonymous Psalm (lxxi), and a Psalm " of Solomon " (lxxii) 1 : (e) eleven Psalms " of Asaph " (Ixxiii — lxxxiii) : (/) a supplement containing three Psalms "of the sons of Korah" (lxxxiv, lxxxv, Ixxxvii) ; one "of David," which is manifestly a cento from other Psalms (lxxxvi) ; one " of Heman the Ezrahite " (lxxxviii) ; and one '' of Ethan the Ezrahite " (lxxxix). Thus it appears to have been formed by the union of at least three previously existing collections or of portions of them. (iii) The Third Division corresponds to Books IV and V (Pss. xc — cl). In this division many Psalms have no title at all, and only a few bear the name of an author. In Book IV, Ps. xc bears the name of Moses: Pss. ci and ciii that of David. In Book V, Pss. cviii — ex, cxxii, cxxiv, exxxi, exxxiii, 1 It has been conjectured by Ewald that Pss. li— lxxii originally stood after xli, so that tlie arrangement was (i) Davidic Psalms, i — xli; li— lxxii: (2) Levitical Psalms: {a) Korahite, xiii— xlix ; (6) Asaphite, 1, Ixxiii — lxxxiii ; (c) Korahite supplement, lxxxiv — lxxxix. The hypo thesis is ingenious. It brings the Davidic Psalms together, and makes the note to lxxii. 20 more natural; and it connects the isolated Psalm of Asaph (1) with the rest of the group. But it is clear that Books II and III formed a collection independent of Book I : and the editor may have wished to separate the mass of the Asaphite Psalms from the Korahite Psalms by placing the Davidic Psalms between them, while he put 1 next to li on account of the similarity of its teaching on sacrifice. The note to lxxii. 20 is true for his collection ; and it does not necessarily imply that none but Davidic Psalms have preceded. Cp. Job xxxi. 40. GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. Iv cxxxviii — cxiv, bear the name of David : cxxvii that of Solomon. Of the rest the majority have no title, or only that of a subordinate collection, e.g. 'A Song of Ascents,' a collection which probably existed previously in a separate form for the use of pilgrims. Other groups connected by their titles are the groups of 'Davidic' Psalms, cviii — ex, cxxxviii — cxiv; and by contents and form though not by titles, xciii — c, the Psalms beginning with Hodit (' O give thanks ') cv — cvii, and the Hallelujah Psalms, cxi — cxviii, cxlvi — cL We may now proceed to examine the characteristics of these divisions. The greater part of the Second Division is remark ably distinguished from the First and Third by the use of the Divine Names. Psalms xiii — lxxxiii are ' Elohistic ' ; that is to say, they employ the appellative Elohim = 'God,' in the place and almost to the exclusion of the proper name Jehovah, represented in the A.V. by Lord. In Pss. i — xli, Elohim occurs absolutely1 only 15 times, and in some of these cases it is required by the sense2. Jehovah on the other hand occurs 272 times, or, if titles and doxology are included, 278 times3. In Pss. xiii — lxxxiii, the proportion is reversed. Elohim occurs 200 times, Jehovah only 43 times (exclusive of the doxology, lxxii. 18) ; while in Pss. lxxxiv — lxxxix Elohim occurs only 7 times, Jehovah 31 times. In Pss. xc — cl, Jehovah occurs 339 times, while Elohim (of the true God) is to be found only in Ps. cviii, which is taken direct from two Psalms in the Elohistic group, and in cxliv. 9, in a Psalm which is evidently compiled from various sources. It may also be noted that Adonai='Lord' occurs much more 1 By ' absolutely ' is meant, without either a pronoun attached to it (' my God ' and the like) or a qualifying word grammatically connected with it ('God of my righteousness,' 'God of my salvation,' and the like). The English reader must remember that three Hebrew words, El, Eloah, and Elohim, are represented by God in the A.V. El occurs absolutely 11 times in division i, 29 times in division ii, 14 times in division iii. Eloah is rare in the Psalter. 2 E.g. ix. 17; x. 4, 13; xiv. 1, 2, 5; xxxvi. 1, 7. In iii. 2 the reading is doubtful. See note there. 3 So Nestle, Theol. Litztg. 1896, col. 132. lvi INTRODUCTION. frequently in the Second Division (31 times), than in the First (10 times), or Third (8 times). This use of Elohim cannot be explained on internal grounds. It stands precisely as Jehovah does elsewhere, and not unfre quently the substitution leads to awkwardness of expression. Thus, for example, Ps. 1. 7 is taken from Ex. xx. 2 ; " I am God thy God" is clearly the equivalent of " I am Jehovah thy God " ; lxviii. 1, 2, 7, 8 are based upon Num. x. 35; Judg. v. 4, 5, 31; lxxi. 19 is from Ex. xv. 11 ; and in each case Elohim takes the place of Jehovah. More striking still is the fact that in two Psalms which are repeated from Book I (liii = xiv ; lxx=xl. 13 ff.), the alteration is made, though in Ps. lxx Jehovah still occurs twice. To what then is this peculiarity due? Is it characteristic of a particular style of writing ? or is it the work of an editor or compiler ? It seems certain (1) from the alteration in Psalms adopted from Book I, (2) from the variety of the sources from which the Psalms in this group are derived, that the change is, in part at least, due to the hand of an editor. It may no doubt have been the usage of certain writers. It has been suggested that it was a custom in the family of Asaph, connected possibly with the musical or liturgical use of the Psalms. But even if the pecu liarity was due in some instances to the author, there can be little doubt that, in the group as a whole, it is due to the collector or editor. It seems clear also that the substitution of Elohim for Jehovah was not due to the superstitious avoidance of the use of the Sacred Name in later times1. The Elohistic collection is by no means the latest part of the Psalter. Books IV and V are composed of Psalms the majority of which are unquestionably of later date than those in the Elohistic group. But in these books the name Jehovah is used throughout, with the exceptions noted above. The compiler of Book V knew the Elohistic Psalms in their present form : and so apparently did the com- 1 The use of Elohim as a proper name, without the article, must be distinguished from the use oi Elohim with the article (D»r6xn) in some of the later books of the O.T., e.g. Chronicles and Ecclesiastes. GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. lvii piler of Ps. Ixxxvi, in the appendix to the Elohistic collection, as may be inferred from a comparison of v. 14 with liv. 4 f. The suggestion has been made that the compiler's object was to shew that the God of Israel was not merely a national God, and to counteract the Jewish spirit of exclusiveness1. Another suggestion is that the collection was thus adapted for the use of the exiles and Israelites in the dispersion, with a view to avoid the repetition of the Sacred Name in a heathen land2. But no positive result can be arrived at. The relation of the 'Elohistic' Psalms to the 'Elohistic' documents in the Pentateuch3 is also an obscure question, which needs further investigation. The argument for the original independence of the three divisions which is derived from the use of the names of God is corroborated : (a) By the repetition in the Second Division of Psalms found in the First, and in the Third of Psalms found in the Second. Thus liii=xiv: lxx=xl. 13 ff.: cviii = lvii. 7 — 11, lx. 5 — 12. (b) By the note appended to Ps. lxxii, "The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended4." This note, whether taken over from an earlier collection by the editor of Books II and III, or inserted by him, appears to shew that he knew of no more Davidic Psalms, or at any rate that his collection contained no more. Clearly therefore his collection must have been indepen dent of Books IV and V, which contain several more Psalms ascribed to David. (c) By the difference already noticed in regard to titles. In this respect the Third Division is markedly distinguished from the First and Second. In these the Psalms with but few easily explained exceptions have titles, giving the name of the author or the collection from which the Psalm was taken, in many cases the occasion, and some musical or liturgical description or direction. But in the Third Division the majority of the 1 Cp. Ottley, Aspects of the O.T., p. 191. 2 Only in the Temple, according to Jacob (ZA TIV, 1896, p. 158), was the Sacred Name JHVH pronounced. 3 On these see Driver, Lit. of 0. T.e, pp. 1 16 ff. 4 Cp. Job xxxi. 40. lviii INTRODUCTION. Psalms are anonymous ; musical and liturgical directions are rare ; and titles of the obscure character of many of those in Divisions I and II are entirely absent. Moreover the musical term Selah, which occurs 17 times in Division I, and 50 times in Division II, is found but four times in Division III, and then in two Psalms ascribed to David (cxl, cxliii). (d) By the character of the contents of the three divisions. Speaking broadly and generally, the Psalms of the First Division are personal, those of the Second, national, those of the Third, liturgical. There are numerous exceptions, but it is in the First Division that personal prayers and thanksgivings are chiefly to be found: in the Second, prayers in special times of national calamity (xliv, lx, lxxiv, lxxix, lxxx, lxxxiii, lxxxix), and thanksgivings in times of national deliverance (xlvi, xlvii, xlviii, lxxv, lxxvi, lxv — lxviii) : in the Third, Psalms of praise and thanksgiving for general use in the Temple services (xcii, xcv — c, cv — cvii, cxi — cxviii, cxx — cxxxvi, cxlvi — cl). The various steps in the formation of the Psalter may have been somewhat as follows : (1) An original collection, which bore the name Psalms (or, Prayers) of David, from its first and greatest poet, though poems by other writers were not excluded from it. It has already been suggested (p. xxxii) that the general title of the collection was subsequently transferred to each separate Psalm in the First Group which was taken from it. (2) The formation of another ' Davidic ' collection, and the two Levitical hymnaries belonging to the families of Korah and Asaph. (3) The 'Elohistic' collection was formed by the union of selections of Levitical Psalms from the Korahite and Asaphite hymnaries with another selection of ' Davidic ' Psalms, and ' Elohistically ' edited. (4) To this collection was subsequently added an appendix of Korahite and other Psalms (lxxxiv — bcxxix), which were not altered by the Elohistic editor. (5) Other collections grew up, perhaps to some extent simul taneously with the preceding stages, and these were united in the Third Division, with a gleaning of earlier Psalms, some of GROWTH OF THE PSALTER. lix which were believed to have been written by David, or were taken from a collection bearing his name. (6) Finally, the various collections were united in the com plete Psalter. The date of these collections cannot be determined with cer tainty. Reasons have been given (p. xlvii f.) for thinking that the Psalter was practically complete by about 200 B.C. ; and Psalms in the Third Division were known to the chronicler a century earlier. The Second Division contains some Psalms of the period of the Monarchy ; but others cannot be earlier than the Exile and Return (e.g. lxxxv). Even the First Division was pro bably not completed in its present form till after the Exile, though the grounds upon which Psalms in Book I are referred to the post-exilic period are less positive and convincing. The opinion is gaining ground that "the Psalter, in all its parts, is a compilation of the post-exilic age1," but this does not exclude the possibility that pre-exilic collections of Psalms ex isted, side by side with prophetic and historical books. Their extent however cannot now be determined2. The arrangement of the Psalms in the several books appears to have been determined partly by their arrangement in the smaller collections from which they were taken, where their order may have been fixed by considerations of date and author ship ; partly by similarity of character and contents ; partly by liturgical usage. Thus for example, we find groups of Maschil Psalms (xliii — xiv, Iii — lv, lxxxviii, lxxxix), and Michtam Psalms (lvi — lx). Resemblance in character may account for the juxta position of 1 and li : xxxiii takes up xxxii. 1 1 : xxxiv and xxxv both speak of 'the angel of Jehovah,' who is mentioned no where else in the Psalter. The title of xxxvi links it to xxxv. 27 (' servant of the LORD ') : that of lvi may connect it with lv. 6. Pss. cxi — cxviii and cxiv — cl are liturgical groups. 1 Driver, Lit. of O. T.", p. 386 ; cp. Davison, Praises of Israel, p. 29. 2 The statement in 2 Mace. ii. 13 that "Nehemiah founding a library gathered together... the writings of David " (ret tov AavlS), may preserve a true tradition that he had some part in the compilation of the Psalter, but what it was is quite uncertain. lx INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER VI. THE FORM OF HEBREW POETRY. ANCIENT Hebrew poetry possesses neither metre nor rhyme1. Its essential characteristic is rhythm, which makes itself ap parent both in the rhythmical cadence of each separate clause, and in the rhythmical balance of clauses when they are com bined in a verse. The Hebrew language is characterised by a vigorous terse ness and power of condensation which cannot be preserved in English. Hence the clauses of Hebrew poetry are as a rule short. They consist sometimes of two words only, most frequently of three words, but not seldom of more than three words. The rhythm of the clause often reflects the thought which it expresses. Thus, for example, the lively animated rhythm of the opening stanza (vv. i — 3) of Ps. ii vividly suggests the tumultuous gathering of the nations ; while the stately measure of v. 4 presents the contrast of the calm and unmoved majesty of Jehovah enthroned in heaven. Or again, the evening hymn Ps. iv sinks to rest in its concluding verse with a rhythm as reposeful as the assurance which it expresses. A peculiar rhythm known as the elegiac or Qfndh rhythm, in which each line is divided by a caesura into two unequal parts, was employed in dirges, and sometimes in other poems. It is found in Lam. i — iv, and occasionally in the Psalter, e.g. in Ps. xix. 7 ff. 1 When Philo, Josephus, Eusebius, Jerome, and other early writers, compared Hebrew poetry with Greek and Latin metres, and spoke of hexameters and pentameters, sapphics, or trimeter and tetrameter iambics, they were using familiar language loosely. Various attempts have been made to discover a metrical system in the Psalms, on the basis of quantity, or of number of syllables or accents. Most of them involve the abandonment of the Massoretic vocalisation, and invoke the aid of ' a whole arsenal of licences. ' Happily they do not concern the English reader. Rhyme is found occasionally (e.g. viii. 3 [Heb. 4]; cvi. 4 — 7), but it appears to be accidental rather than intentional, and is never systematic ally employed. Both rhyme and metre have been used in medieval and modern Jewish poetry from the 7th cent. a.d. onwards. THE FORM OF HEBREW POETRY. Ixi The rhythm of clauses however, together with many other features of Hebrew poetry, such as assonance and alliteration, distinctive use of words and constructions, and so forth, chiefly concerns the student of the original. But the rhythmical balance of clauses combined in a verse admits of being repro duced in translation, and can to a large extent be appreciated by the English reader. Owing to this peculiar nature of its form, Hebrew poetry loses less in translation than poetry which depends for much of its charm upon rhymes or metres which cannot be reproduced in another language. This balanced symmetry of form and sense is known as parallelism of clauses (parallelismus membrorum) or simply, parallelism1. It satisfies the love of regular and harmonious movement which is natural to the human mind, and was specially adapted to the primitive method of antiphonal chant ing (Ex. xv. i, 20, 21 ; 1 Sam. xviii. 7). Such poetry is not sharply distinguished from elevated prose. Many passages in the prophets are written in poetical style, and exhibit the features of parallelism as plainly as any of the Psalms2. The law of parallelism in Hebrew poetry has an exegetical value. It can often be appealed to in order to determine the construction or connexion of words, to elucidate the sense, or to decide a doubtful reading. The arrangement of the text in lines, adopted by Dr Scrivener in the standard edition of the A.V. from which the text in this edition is taken, and in the Revised Version, makes this characteristic of Hebrew poetry more plainly perceptible to the English reader. The various forms of parallelism are generally classified under three principal heads : (1) Synonymous parallelism, when the same fundamental thought is repeated in different words in the second line of a couplet. Thus in Ps. cxiv. 1 : "When Israel went forth out of Egypt, 1 This fundamental principle of Hebrew poetry had been noticed by earlier writers, but attention was first called to its importance, and its nature was fully examined, by Robert Lowth (1710 — 1787), Professor of Poetry at Oxford, and afterwards Bishop of London, in his De sacra Poesi Hebraeorum Praelectiones Academicae Oxonii habitae (1753). 2 E.g. Is. lx. 1—3; lxv. 13, 14; Hos. xi. 8, 9; Nah. i. 2. lxii INTRODUCTION. The house of Jacob from a people of strange language " : and the same construction is maintained throughout the Psalm. Every page of the Psalter supplies abundant examples. (2) Antithetic or contrasted parallelism, when the thought expressed in the first line of a couplet is corroborated or eluci dated by the affirmation of its opposite in the second line. This form of parallelism is specially suited to Gnomic Poetry, and is particularly characteristic of the oldest collection of proverbs in the Book of Proverbs (chaps, x — xxii. 16). Thus for example: " Every wise woman buildeth her house : But folly plucketh it down with her own hands " (Prov. xiv. 1). But it is by no means rare in the Psalms, e.g. i. 6, "Tor Jehovah knoweth the way of the righteous : But the way of the wicked shall perish." (3) Synthetic or constructive parallelism. Under this head are classed the numerous instances in which the two lines of the couplet stand in the relation of cause and consequence, pro tasis and apodosis, proposition and qualification or supplement, or almost any logical or constructional relation ; or in which, as is very frequently the case, the parallelism is one of form only without any logical relation between the clauses. Thus e.g. : "Yet I have set up my king, Upon Zion my holy mountain " (Ps. ii. 6). The simplest and most common form of parallelism is the couplet or distich: but this may be expanded into a tristich (triplet) or a tetrastich (quatrain) or even longer combinations, in a variety of ways. Thus the three lines of a verse may be synonymous : "The floods have lifted up, O Jehovah, The floods have lifted up their voice; The floods lift up their din " (Ps. xciii. 3). Or the first two lines may be synonymous, and the third supplementary, as in Ps. ii. 2: "The kings of the earth take their stand, And rulers hold conclave together, Against Jehovah and against His anointed." The third line may be antithetic, as in Ps. liv. 3 : THE FORM OF HEBREW POETRY. lxiii " For strangers are risen up against me, And violent men have sought my life: They have not set God before their eyes." Or the first line may be introductory, and the last two synony mous, as in Ps. iii. 7 : " Arise, Jehovah ; save me, my God : For Thou hast smitten all mine enemies on the cheek ; Thou hast shattered the teeth of the wicked." In a few instances the first line is parallel to the third, and the second is parenthetical, e.g. Ps. iv. i. Similarly in tetrastichs (usually including two verses) we find (a) four synonymous lines, as in xci. 5, 6. Or (b) the first line is parallel to the second, and the third to the fourth, but the second couplet is required to complete the sense; e.g. in Ps. xviii. 15. Or (c) the first line may be parallel to the third, the second to the fourth, as in xxvii. 3 : "Though an host should encamp against me, My heart shall not fear: Though war should rise against me, Even then will I be confident." Or (d) the first three lines may be parallel, and the fourth supplementary, as in Ps. i. 3. Or (e) the first line may be independent, and the last three parallel, as in Prov. xxiv. 12. Or two synonymous lines may be contrasted with two synony mous lines, as in xxxvii. 35, 36 : " I have seen the wicked in his terribleness, And spreading himself like a green tree in its native soil : And I passed by, and lo 1 he was not, Yea, I sought him, but he could not be found." Even longer combinations than tetrastichs sometimes occur, e.g. in Ps. xxxix. 12 ; Num. xxiv. 17 : and on the other hand single lines are found, for the most part as introductions or conclusions, e.g. in Pss. xviii. 1 ; cix. 1 ; cxxx. 1 ; xcii. 8 ; Ex. xv. 18. While maintaining its fundamental characteristic of rhythm, Hebrew poetry admits of the greatest freedom and variety of form. Strophical arrangement. Series of verses are, as might be expected, combined, and many Psalms consist of distinct groups lxiv INTRODUCTION. of verses. Such groups may conveniently be called stanzas or strophes, but the terms must not be supposed to imply that the same metrical or rhythmical structure recurs in each, as in Greek or Latin poetry. The strophes in a Psalm do not even necessarily consist of the same number of lines or verses. Such divisions are sometimes clearly marked by a refrain, as in Pss. xiii — xliii, xlvi, lvii : or by alphabetical arrangement, as in cxix : or by Selah, denoting probably a musical interlude, as in Pss. iii and iv. But more frequently there is no external mark of the division, though it is clearly indicated by the struc ture and contents of the Psalm, as in Ps. ii. Alphabetic or Acrostic Psalms. Eight or nine Psalms1 present various forms of alphabetic structure (Pss. ix, x, xxv, xxxiv, xxxvii, cxi, cxii, cxix, cxiv). In cxi and cxii each letter begins a line, and the lines are arranged in. eight distichs and two tristichs. In Pss. xxv, xxxiv, cxiv, Prov. xxxi, Lam. iv, each letter begins a distich, in Lam. i, ii, a tristich. In Ps. xxxvii each letter begins a pair of verses, commonly containing four, some times five, lines. In Lam. iii each verse in a stanza of three verses, and in Ps. cxix each verse in a stanza of eight verses, begins with the same letter, and the letters are taken in regular succession. Such an arrangement, artificial though it seems, does not necessarily fetter a poet more than an elaborate metre or rhyme. It is not to be regarded as 'a compensation for the vanished spirit of poetry.' It was probably intended as an aid to memory, and is chiefly employed in Psalms of a proverbial character to connect detached thoughts, or when, as in Ps. cxix and in Lamentations, the poet needs some artificial bond to link together a number of variations upon one theme. The elaborate development of the system in Lamentations proves that alphabetic structure is not in itself a proof of a very late date2. ' Also Lam. i— iv : Prov. xxxi. 10—31. Traces of alphabetic structure have been pointed out in Nah. i. 2—10: and the original of Ecclesias ticus h. 13-30 was alphabetic. See Schechter and Taylor, Wisdom of Ben Sira, pp. lxxvi ff. 2 The early Roman poet Ennius wrote acrostics (Cicero, de Divina- THE HEBREW TEXT. lxv CHAPTER VII. THE HEBREW TEXT, THE ANCIENT VERSIONS, AND THE ENGLISH VERSIONS. i. The Hebrew Text1. A few words on the character of the Hebrew Text are necessary in order to justify the occasional departures from it, which will be met with in this commentary. The extant Hebrew MSS. of the O.T. are all comparatively recent. The oldest of which the age is known with certainty is the St Petersburg MS. which is dated A.D. 9162 ; the majority are of the 12th to the 16th centuries. They all present substantially the same text3, commonly called the Massoretic Text4. Thus while we possess MSS. of the N.T. written less than three centuries after the date of the earliest of the books, our oldest MS. of the O.T. is more than ten centuries posterior to the date of the latest of the books which it contains ; and while our MSS. of the N.T. present a great variety of readings, those of the O.T. are practically unanimous in supporting the same text. This unanimity was long supposed to be due to the jealous care with which the Jewish scribes had preserved the sacred Hone, ii. 54, § m); and they are said to have been invented in Greece by the comedian Epicharmus (B.C. 540 — 450). We may compare the alliteration, which is a common feature of early poetry. Alliterative and acrostic poetry was written in Assyria and Babylonia. See Prec. Soe. Bibl. Arch. 1895, p. 131. 1 For an outline of the history of the Hebrew text see the writer's Divine Library of the Old Testament, Lect. iii. 2 Dr Ginsburg (Introd. to the Heb. Bible, p. 469) places an undated MS. in the British Museum somewhat earlier, c. 820 — 850 A.D. 3 The variations between them are (roughly speaking) not greater than the variations between the different editions of the A.V. which have appeared since 161 1, and they concern for the most part unim portant points of orthography. 4 Massora means (1) tradition in general: (2) specially, tradition concerning the text of the O.T., and in particular the elaborate system of rules and memoria technica by which the later scribes sought to guard the text from corruption. Those who devoted themselves to this study were called ' masters of Massora,' or ' Massoretes ' ; and the term ' Massoretic ' is applied to the text which their labours were designed to preserve. lxvi INTRODUCTION. text from the earliest times. But careful examination makes it clear that this is not the case. Since the rise of the schools of the ' Massoretes,' in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D., the text has, no doubt, been preserved with scrupulous exact ness. But the recension which they adopted, whether originally derived from a single MS., as some suppose, or from a com parison of MSS. held in estimation at the time, unquestionably contains not a few errors, which had crept in during the long course of its previous history1. The proof of this lies in the following facts : — (i) There are many passages in which the Massoretic Text cannot be translated without doing violence to the laws of grammar, or is irreconcilable with the context or with other passages. (2) Parallel passages (e.g. Ps. xviii and 2 Sam. xxii) differ in such a way as to make it evident that the variations are due partly to accidental mistakes in transcription, partly to intentional revision. (3) The Ancient Versions represent various readings, which in many cases bear a strong stamp of probability, and often lessen or remove the difficulties of the Massoretic Text. The Massoretic Text as a whole is undoubtedly superior to any of the Ancient Versions : but we are amply justified in calling in the aid of those Versions, and in particular the Septuagint, wherever that text appears to be defective : and even where it is not in itself suspicious, but some of the Ancient Versions offer a different reading, that reading may deserve to be taken into account. In some few cases, where there is reason to 1 The history of the Hebrew text may be divided into four periods. (1) The first of these periods was marked by the exclusive use of the archaic character : (2) the second, from the time of Ezra to the destruc tion of Jerusalem, saw the archaic character completely superseded by the square character, as the Hebrew language was superseded by Aramaic : (3) in the third period, from the Fall of Jerusalem to the end of the fifth century, the consonantal text was fixed : (4) in the fourth period, the exegetical tradition of the proper method of reading the text was stereotyped by the addition of the vowels, and an elaborate system of rules was invented to secure the accurate transmission of the text even in the minutest particulars. THE HEBREW TEXT. lxvii suspect corruption anterior to all extant documentary authorities, it may even be allowable to resort to conjectural emendation, and such emendations will occasionally be mentioned. The accidental corruptions to which all ancient texts were exposed in the process of transmission must of course be care fully distinguished from the intentional alterations to which the Psalms would be especially liable. The original text of a Psalm, like that of the hymns in modern hymn books, was doubtless often altered to adapt it for liturgical use. Archaisms would be modernised : some Psalms would be abbreviated ; others would be amplified ; in some cases (e.g. I Chr. xvi, Ps. cviii) portions of Psalms were combined. A comparison of Ps. xviii with 2 Sam. xxii appears to shew that, exactly as might be expected, peculiar forms were replaced by those in ordinary use, unusual constructions were simplified, archaisms and obscure expres sions were explained. The processes which in this instance can be traced doubtless went on elsewhere, though to what extent it is impossible to say. Two further points must be mentioned here in order to explain some of the notes : (i) Hebrew, like other Semitic languages, was originally written without any vowels, except such long vowels as were represented by consonants. In the earlier stages of the language even these were sparingly used. The present elaborate system of vowel marks or ' points,' commonly called the ' Massoretic punctuation ' or ' vocalisation,' was not reduced to writing until the seventh or eighth century a.d. It stereotyped the pro nunciation and reading of the O.T. then current, and in many respects represents a far older tradition. But in a vowelless, or as it is called 'unpointed,' text, many words may be read in different ways, and the Massoretic punctuation does not appear in all cases to give the true way of reading the con sonants. (2) In some passages the traditional method of reading (Q're) did not agree with the consonants of the written text (K'thibh). In such cases the Massoretes did not alter the text, but appended a marginal note, giving the consonants with which the vowels shewn in the text were to be read. It should 3 2 Ixviii INTRODUCTION. be clearly understood that the Qre or marginal reading is the accepted reading of the Jewish textual tradition. But internal evidence, and the evidence of the Ancient Versions, lead us to prefer sometimes the Qre and sometimes the K'thibh. See for example Ps. xxiv. 4, where A.V. and R.V. rightly follow the K'thibh, and desert the Jewish tradition : or Ps. c. 3, where A.V. unfortunately followed the K'thibh, and R.V. has happily taken the Qre. ii. The Ancient Versions of the O.T. These possess a fresh interest for the English reader, since the R.V. has given oc casional references to them in its margin. (i) The Septuagint1. The oldest and most valuable of them is the Greek Version, commonly called the Septuagint (Sept. or LXX), or Version of the Seventy Elders. It derives its name from the tradition that the translation of the Pentateuch was made by seventy or seventy-two elders, despatched from Jerusalem to Alexandria at the request of Ptolemy Philadelphus (B.C. 283— 247). But the 'Letter of Aristeas,' on which this story rests, is undoubtedly a forgery, and all that can be asserted about the origin of the Septuagint is that it was made (1) in Egypt, and probably at Alexandria, (2) at different times and by different hands during the third and second centuries B.C., (3) before the vowel-points had been added to the Hebrew text, or that text had finally taken its present form. The Pentateuch was probably translated first under the earlier Ptolemies : and the grandson of Jesus the son of Sirach, about 130 B.C., knew and used the version of the Hagiographa as well as of the Law and the Prophets2. This, it may be assumed, included the Psalter. The character of the LXX varies greatly in different parts of the O.T. The work of pioneers in the task of translation, with no aids of grammar and lexicon to help them, naturally presents many imperfections. Yet not seldom it gives a valuable clue to the meaning of obscure words, or suggests certain corrections of 1 For a full account of the LXX, the Ancient Versions based upon it, and the later Greek Versions, see Swete's admirable Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek (1900). 2 See above, p. xlvi f. THE ANCIENT VERSIONS. lxix the Massoretic Text. The version of the Psalter is on the whole fairly good, though it is often altogether at fault in difficult passages, and hopelessly astray as to the purport of the titles. It has a special interest for English readers, because, as will be seen presently, it has, through the Vulgate, indirectly had con siderable influence on the version most familiar to many of them. Unfortunately the Septuagint has not come down to us in its original form. The text has suffered from numerous corruptions and alterations, partly through the carelessness of transcribers, partly through the introduction of fresh renderings intended to harmonise it with the Massoretic Text, or taken from other Greek Versions. The most important MSS. of the LXX for the Psalter to which reference will occasionally be made, are the follow ing1: The Vatican MS. (denoted by the letter B); a splendid copy of the Greek Bible, written in the fourth century A.D., and now preserved in the Vatican Library at Rome. Ten leaves of the Psalter, containing Pss. cv. 27 — cxxxvii. 6, are unfortunately lost. The text of this MS. is given in Dr Swete's edition of the LXX, the lacuna in the Psalter being supplied from the Sinaitic MS. (tf). The equally splendid Sinaitic MS. (denoted by the letter {$ Aleph), also written in the fourth century, found by Tischendorf in the convent of St Catharine on Mt Sinai, and now at St Petersburg. The Alexandrine MS. (denoted by the letter A), written in the middle of the fifth century, brought from Alexandria, and now the great treasure of the British Museum. Nine leaves are wanting in the Psalter (Ps. xlix. 19 — lxxix. 10). The Septuagint, with all its defects, is of the greatest interest and importance to all students of the O.T. (1) It preserves evidence for the text far more ancient than 1 For fuller information see Swete's Introduction, and his edition of the LXX, published by the Camb. Univ. Press. The Psalter is to be had separately in a convenient form. Ixx INTRODUCTION. that of the oldest Hebrew MS., and often represents a text differing from the Massoretic recension. (2) It is one of the most ancient helps for ascertaining the meaning of the language of the O.T., and is a valuable supple ment to Jewish tradition. (3) It was the means by which the Greek language was wedded to Hebrew thought, and the way was prepared for the use of that language in the New Testament. (4) The great majority of the quotations made from the O.T. by the writers of the N.T. are taken from the LXX. (5) It is the version in which the O.T. was studied by the Fathers of the Eastern Church, and indirectly, in the old Latin Versions made from it, by those of the Western Church, until Jerome's new translation from the Hebrew came into use. In the Psalter its influence was permanent, for as will be seen below (p. lxxii), the new version never superseded the old. (ii) The Targum. After the return from the Babylonian exile, Aramaic, sometimes inaccurately called Chaldee, began to take the place of Hebrew in Palestine. As Hebrew died out, the needs of the people were met by oral translations or para phrases in Aramaic. Hence arose the Aramaic Versions com monly called the Targums \ The Targum of the Psalter is on the whole a fairly good version, though it often assumes the character of a paraphrastic interpretation. In its present form it appears to contain elements as late as the ninth century, but in the main it belongs to a much earlier date. As a rule it represents the Massoretic recension, and is not of much value for textual criticism. It is interesting as preserving interpretations current in the ancient Jewish Church, and in particular, for the reference of several passages in the Psalter to the Messiah2. (iii) The Syriac Version, known as the Peshitta (simple vt literal version), probably originated at Edessa, about the second century a.d. It was made from the Plebrew, with the help of Jewish converts or actual Jews. But the present text in some parts of the O.T. agrees with the LXX in such a way as to 1 Targum means interpretation or translation. Cp. dragoman, lit. interpreter. 2 See e.g. Ps. xxi. 1, j; xiv. ,, 7; Ixi. 6, 8; lxxii. 1; Ixxx. 15. THE ANCIENT VERSIONS. lxxi make it evident either that the original translators consulted that version, or that subsequent revisers introduced renderings from it. This is largely the case in the Psalms K (iv) The later Greek Versions require only a brief mention. That of Aquila of Pontus, a Jewish proselyte from heathenism, was made in the beginning of the second century A.D., when the breach between Church and Synagogue was complete, and the Jews desired an accurate version for purposes of controversy with Christians. It is characterised by a slavish but ingenious literalism. That of Theodotion, made towards the end of the second century, or possibly earlier2, was little more than a revision of the LXX. That of Symmachus, made probably a little later than that of Theodotion, was also based on the LXX. It aimed at com bining accuracy and perspicuity, and was by far the best of the three. These versions were collected in the gigantic work of Origen (a.d. 185 — 254) called the Hexapla, which contained in six parallel columns, (1) the Hebrew Text, (2) the Hebrew trans literated into Greek letters, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) the LXX, (6) Theodotion. In the Psalter the Hexapla became the Octapla by the addition of two columns containing two more Greek versions known as the 'Fifth' (Quinta) and 'Sixth' (Sexta). Unfortunately only fragments of these versions are extant3. Generally, though not always, they agree with the Massoretic Text. (v) The Latin Versions. The earliest Latin Version of the 1 See Wright's Short History of Syriac Literature, p. 3. 2 See Schiirer's Hist, of the Jewish People &c, Div. ii. § 33 (Vol. iii. p.173, E. T.). 3 Collected with exhaustive completeness in F. Field's Origenis Hexaplorum quae supersunt. 1875. But since then fresh discoveries have been made. On some palimpsest leaves brought from the Genizah at Cairo by Dr Schechter some continuous fragments of Aquila's version (including portions of Pss. xxii, xc, xci) have been discovered : and a fragment of a copy of the Hexapla of the Psalms has come to light in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. See Swete, Introd. pp. 34, 62. lxxii INTRODUCTION. O.T., the Vetus Latina or Old Latin, was made in North Africa from the LXX1. This version, of which various recen sions appear to have been current, was twice revised by St Jerome (Hieronymus). The first revision, made about a.d. 383, is known as the Roman Psalter, probably because it was made at Rome and for the use of the Roman Church at the request of Pope Damasus ; the second, made about A.D. 387, is called the Galilean Psalter, because the Gallican Churches were the first to adopt it. Shortly afterwards, about a.d. 389, Jerome commenced his memorable work of translating the O.T. directly from the Hebrew, which occupied him for fourteen years. After bitter opposition and many vicissitudes, it won its way by its intrinsic excellence to be the Bible of the Latin Church, and came to be known as The Vulgate. But long familiarity with the Old Latin Version of the Psalter made it impossible to displace it, and the Gallican Psalter is incorporated in the Vulgate in place of Jerome's new translation. That new translation, " iuxta Hebraicam veritatem," never came into general use. It is of great value for the interpretation of the text, and shews that the Hebrew text known to Jerome was in the main the same as the present Massoretic Text. Accordingly, the student must remember that in the Psalter the Vulgate is an echo of the LXX, and not an independent witness to text or interpretation : while Jerome's translation (referred to as Jer.) occupies the place which the Vulgate does in the other books of the O.T.2 iii. The English Versions". It would be impossible to give here even a sketch of the history of the English Bible. But as the Version with which many readers are most familiar is not that in the Bible, but that in the Prayer-Book, it seems worth while to give a brief account of its origin and charac teristics. As the Old Latin Version held its ground against Jerome's 1 See Swete, Introd. p. 98. * The best edition of Jerome's Psalter with critical apparatus is that by P. de Lagarde, Psalterium iuxta Hebraeos Hieronymi, 1874. 3 See Bishop Westcott, History of the English Bible, ed. 2, 1872. THE ENGLISH VERSIONS. Ixxiii more accurate translation, because constant liturgical use had established it too firmly for it to be displaced, so the older English Version of the Psalter taken from the Great Bible has kept its place in the Prayer-Book, and has never been superseded for devotional use. The ' Great Bible,' sometimes known as Cromwell's, because the first edition (April 1539) appeared under the auspices of Thomas Cromwell, Henry VI IPs famous minister, sometimes as Cranmer's, because he wrote the preface to the second edition (April 1540), was a revision of Matthew's Bible (1537), executed by Coverdale with the help of Sebastian Minister's Latin version, published in 1534 — 51. Matthew's Bible was a composite work. The Pentateuch and N.T. were taken from Tyndale's published translation ; the books from Ezra to Malachi and the Apocrypha from Cover- dale's version ; the remaining books from Joshua to 2 Chron. from a translation which there is little reason to doubt was made by Tyndale. The Psalter in Matthew's Bible was therefore Coverdale's work: and Coverdale's Version (1535) lays no claim to inde pendence. He tells us in the Epistle unto the Kinges hyghnesse prefixed to the work, that he had " with a cleare conscience purely and faythfully translated this out of fyve sundry inter preters," and the original title-page described the book as "faithfully and truly translated out of Douche and Latyn into Englishe2." It is not certain who the " fyve sundry interpreters " were ; but the 'Douche' included the Swiss-German version known as the Zurich Bible3 (1524 — 29), and Luther's version; and among the 'Latyn' translations, beside the Vulgate, was the version of Sanctes Pagninus (1527). It is worth while thus 1 Minister was largely indebted to the commentaries of medieval Jewish scholars, especially R. David Kimchi (1160 — 1235), and their influence is constantly to be traced in the English Versions. 5 For a full account of Coverdale's work see Bp Westcott's History of the English Bible, chap. iii. 3 So called, because it was the work of a band of scholars at Zurich, including Zwingli, Pellican, and Leo Juda. Coverdale's indebtedness to this version in the Psalter is very large. lxxiv INTRODUCTION. to trace the pedigree of the Prayer-Book Version, for in spite of successive revisions, it retains many marks of its origin. Many of its peculiar renderings, and in particular the additions which it contains, are derived from the LXX through the Vulgate. In the Great Bible these additions were clearly distinguished by being printed in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets. Thus e.g. in Ps. xiv, no not 07ie (v. 2), euen where no fear was (v. 9), and the whole of vv. 5 — 7, are in smaller type: and in xxix. 1, bring yong rammes unto the Lorde. These distinc tions were retained in the Standard Prayer-Book of 1662 (the so-called Annexed Book), but have been dropped in modern editions. The Prayer-Book Psalter appears to be a reproduction, not critically exact, of the last revision of the Great Bible (Nov. 1540)1. The text differs in a considerable number of passages2 from that of 15393. The A.V. of 161 1, though more accurate, is less melodious, and when, at the revision of the Prayer-Book in 1662, the version of 161 1 was substituted in the Epistles and Gospels, the old Psalter was left untouched. " The choirs and congrega tions had grown familiar with it, and it was felt to be smoother and more easy to sing." Coverdale was a consummate master of melodious prose ; and the " exquisite rhythm, graceful free dom of rendering, and endeavour to represent the spirit as well as the letter of the original " have justly given to his work " the pre-eminent distinction of being the version through which the Psalms as an instrument of devotional exercise, as an aid to meditation and the religious habit of mind, and as a formative influence in the spiritual education of man, now live in their fullest and widest use4." 1 Bp Westcott, The Paragraph Psalter, p. xi. 2 See examples in Driver, The Parallel Psalter, p. xv. Some interest ing archaisms disappeared in the revision: e.g. leave for praise (Ps. cvii. 32) ; sparsed for dispersed (cxii. 9). See Driver, p. xvii. 3 This is easily accessible in Prof. Earle's reprint, with introduction and notes, The Psalter of 1539, " Landmark in English Literature (1892). 4 Earle, p. vi. THE ENGLISH VERSIONS. The Revised Version of 1885 has made a great advance upon the A.V. in respect of accuracy of rendering. The changes made by the Revisers will, as a rule, be quoted in this commentary, but the translation must be read and studied as a whole in order properly to appreciate their force and value. Even with the help which the R.V. now supplies to the English reader, it does not seem superfluous to endeavour by more exact renderings to bring the student closer to the sense of the original. It is well known that the A.V. frequently creates artificial distinctions by different renderings of the same word, and ignores real distinctions by giving the same rendering for different words : and this, though to a far less extent, is still the case in the R.V.1 Rigid uniformity of rendering may be misleading, but it is well that attention should be called to distinctions where they exist. Again, the precise force of a tense, or the exact emphasis of the original, cannot always be given without some circumlocution which would be clumsy in a version intended for general use : but it is worth while to attempt to express finer shades of meaning in a commen tary. The best translation cannot always adequately represent the original : and it is well that the English reader should be reminded that the sense cannot always be determined with precision, and may often best be realised by approaching it from different sides. ' See, for example, iii. 2, 7, 8, where the connexion is obscured by the rendering of the same word help in v. 2, and salvation in v. 8. Two entirely different words are rendered blessed in xli. 1, 13. The first expresses congratulation (Happy : cp. be made happy in v. 2) : the second expresses the tribute of human reverence to the divine iriajesty. The word rendered trust or put trust in in vii. 1, xi. 1 is quite distinct from the word similarly rendered in xiii. 5. It means to take refuge in, and the sense gains remarkably by the correct rendering. The exact rendering of a tense may be sufficient to draw a forcible picture, as in vii. 15. For some excellent remarks upon principles of translation see Driver, The Parallel Psalter, pp. xxv ff. Ixxvi INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER VIII. the messianic hope. Poetry was the handmaid of Prophecy in preparing the way for the coming of Christ. Prophetic ideas are taken up, de veloped, pressed to their full consequences, with the boldness and enthusiasm of inspired imagination. The constant use of the Psalms for devotion and worship familiarised the people with them. Expectation was aroused and kept alive. Hope became part of the national life. Even Psalms, which were not felt beforehand to speak of Him Who was to come, con tributed to mould the temper of mind which was prepared to receive Him when He came in form and fashion far other than that which popular hopes had anticipated ; and they were re cognised in the event as pointing forward to Him. Cp. Lk. i, ii. This work of preparation went forward along several distinct lines, some of which are seen to converge or meet even in the O.T., while others were only harmonised by the fulfilment. Thus (i) some Psalms pointed forward to the Messiah as . Son of God and King and Priest : others (2) prepared the way for the suffering Redeemer: others (3) only find their full meaning in the perfect Son of Man : others (4) foretell the Advent of Jehovah Himself to judge and redeem. All these different lines of thought combined to prepare the way for Christ ; but it must be remembered that the preparation was in great measure silent and unconscious. It is difficult for us who read the O.T. in the light of its fulfilment to realise how dim and vague and incomplete the Messianic Hope must have been until the Coming of Christ revealed the divine purpose, and enabled men to recognise how through long ages God had been preparing for its consummation. (1) The Royal Messiah (Psalms ii, xviii, xx, xxi, xiv, Ixi, lxxii, lxxxix, ex, exxxii). The Kingdom of Israel was at once the expression of God's purpose to establish an universal kingdom upon earth, and the means for the accomplishment of that purpose. The people of Israel was Jehovah's son, His firstborn (Ex. iv. 22, 23 ; Deut. xxxii. THE MESSIANIC HOPE. lxxvii 6; Hos. xi. i), and His servant (Is. xli. 8); and the Davidic king as the representative of the nation was Jehovah's son, His first born (2 Sam. vii. 14; Ps. ii. 7; lxxxix. 26, 27), and His servant (2 Sam. vii. 5 ff.). He was no absolute despot, reigning in His own right, but the 'Anointed of Jehovah' who was the true King of Israel, appointed by Him as His viceroy and representative (Ps. ii. 6). He was said to "sit upon the throne of the kingdom of the Lord over Israel" (1 Chr. xxviii. 5), or even "on the throne of the Lord" (i Chr. xxix. 23 ; 2 Chr. ix. 8). Thus he was at once the representative of the people before Jehovah, and the representative of Jehovah before the people, and before the nations. To Him as Jehovah's viceroy was promised the sovereignty over the nations. Nathan's message to David (2 Sam. vii) was the Davidic king's patent of adoption and title deed of inheritance. It was the procla mation of "the everlasting covenant" which God made with the house of David (2 Sam. xxiii. 5). Upon the divine choice of David and his house, and in particular upon this great prophecy, are based a series of what may be called Royal Psalms. Critical events in the life of David or later kings, or in the history of the kingdom, gave occasion to David him self, or other poet-seers, to declare the full significance and extent of that promise. Successive kings might fail to realise their rightful prerogatives, but the divine promise remained unrevoked, waiting for one who could claim its fulfilment in all its grandeur. Different aspects of the promise are presented in different Psalms. They can only be briefly summarised here : for fuller explanation reference must be made to the introductions and notes to each Psalm. In Ps. ii the prominent thought is the divine sonship of the anointed king and its significance. The nations are mustering with intent to renounce their allegiance to the king recently enthroned in Zion. But their purpose is vain, for the king is none other than Jehovah's Son and representative. In rebelling against him they are rebelling against Jehovah, and if they persist, will do it to their own destruction. In David's great thanksgiving (Ps. xviii) he celebrates Jehovah lxxviii INTRODUCTION. as the giver of victory, and recognises that his position as "the head of the nations" (v. 43) has been given him in order that he may proclaim Jehovah's glory among them (v. 49). The relation of the king to Jehovah as His anointed repre sentative is the ground of intercession and confidence in Ps. xx. 6 ; and the thanksgiving for victory which follows in Ps. xxi naturally dwells upon the high dignity which belongs to him in virtue of that relation, and anticipates his future triumphs. The same thought is repeated in Ps. Ixi. 6 f. Ps. xiv is a marriage song for Solomon or some later king of the house of David. In lofty language the poet sets before him the ideal of his office (cp. 2 Sam. xxiii. 3ff.), and claims for him the fulness of the promise of eternal dominion. The union with a foreign princess suggests the hope of the peaceful union of all nations in harmonious fellowship with Israel. Ps. lxxii is an intercession for Solomon or some other king on his accession. In glowing colours it depicts the ideal of his office, and prays that he may fulfil it as the righteous sovereign who redresses wrong, and may rule over a world-wide empire, receiving the willing homage of the nations to his virtue, and proving himself the heir of the patriarchal promise. In some crisis of national disaster the author of Ps. lxxxix recites the promise to David, and contrasting its brilliant hopes with the disappointment which it was his trial to witness, pleads for the renewal of God's favour. Ps. ex is a kind of solemn oracle. It describes David as king, priest, and conqueror. Jehovah adopts him as His as sessor, placing him in the seat of honour at His side. Though not of Aaron's line he is invested with a priestly dignity. The new king of Zion must inherit all the privileges of the ancient king of Salem, and enter upon the religious as well as the civil memories of his capital. Once more, in Ps. exxxii, possibly in days when the kingdom had ceased to exist, and the representative of the house of David was only a governor appointed by a foreign conqueror, the ancient promise is pleaded in confidence that it must still find fulfilment. These Psalms refer primarily to the circumstances of the THE MESSIANIC HOPE. lxxix time. The revolt of the nations, the royal marriage, the ac cession of a prince of unique promise, the installation of the king, gave the inspired poets opportunity for dwelling on the promises and hopes connected with the Davidic kingdom. But successive princes of David's line failed to fulfil their high destiny, to subdue the nations, to rule the world in righteous ness, to establish a permanent dynasty. The kingdom ceased to exist ; yet it was felt that the divine promise could not fail ; and hope was directed to the future. Men were led to see that the divine promise had not been frustrated but postponed, and to look for the coming of One who should 'fulfil' the utmost that had been spoken of Israel's king1. (2) The suffering Messiah (Pss. xxii, lxix, cix, xxxv, xli, lv). Men's minds had to be prepared not only for a triumphant King, but for a suffering Saviour. The great prophecy of Is. Iii, liii finds preludes and echoes in the Psalter in what may be called the Passion Psalms. The sufferings of David and other saints of the old dispensation were typical : they helped to familiarise men with the thought of the righteous suffering for God's sake, of suffering as the path to victory, of glory to be won for God and deliverance for man through suffering. They were the anticipation, as the sufferings of the members of the Christian Church are the supplement (Col. i. 24), of the afflictions of Christ. But not only were these sufferings in themselves typical, but the records of them were so moulded by the Spirit of God as to prefigure the sufferings of Christ even in circumstantial details. These details are not the most important part of the type or prophecy; but they serve to arrest attention, and direct it to the essential idea. These Psalms do not appear to have been applied to the Messiah in the Jewish Church as the Royal Psalms were. It was Christ Himself who first shewed His disciples that He must gather up into Himself and fulfil the manifold experiences of the people of God, in suffering as well as in triumph, and taught them to recognise that those sufferings had been foreor- 1 For references to the Messianic interpretations of the Targums see note on p. lxx. 'xxx INTRODUCTION. dained in the divine purpose, and how they had been fore shadowed throughout the Old Testament. Ps. xxii stands by itself among these Psalms. In its descrip tion of the Psalmist's sufferings, and in its joyous anticipation of the coming extension of Jehovah's kingdom, it foreshadows the Passion of Christ and its glorious fruits : and our Lord's use of the opening words (and probably of the whole Psalm) upon the Cross, stamps it as applicable to and fulfilled in Him. Ps. lxix records the sufferings of one who was persecuted for God's sake (vv. 7 ff.). In his consuming zeal for God's house, in his suffering as the victim of causeless hatred (cp. xxxv. 19; cix. 3 ff.), in his endurance of reproach for his faithfulness to God, he was the prototype of Christ. The contemptuous mockery (vv. 12, 20) and maltreatment (vv. 21, 26) to which he was exposed, prefigured the actual sufferings of Christ. The curse which falls upon his persecutors (v. 25 ; cp. cix. 8) be comes the doom of the arch-traitor (Acts i. 20) ; and the judge ment invoked upon his enemies (vv. 22 — 24) finds its fulfilment in the rejection of apostate Israel (Rom. xi. 9, 10). The treachery of the faithless friend described in xli. 9 (cp. lv. 12 ff.) anticipates the treachery of the false disciple. (3) The Son of Man (Pss. viii, xvi, xl). Psalms which describe the true destiny of man, the issue of perfect fellowship with God, the ideal of complete obedience, unmistakably point forward to Him who as the representative of man triumphed where man had failed. Ps. viii looks away from the Fall and its fatal consequences to man's nature, position, and destiny in the purpose of God. Christ's perfect humanity answered to that ideal, and is seen to be the pledge of the fulfilment of the divine purpose for the whole race of mankind (Heb. ii. 6 ff.). In Ps. xvi faith and hope triumph over the fear of death in the consciousness of fellowship with God. Yet the Psalmist did not escape death; his words looked forward, and first found their adequate realisation in the Resurrection of Christ (Acts ii. 25 ff. ; xiii. 35). In Ps. xl the Psalmist professes his desire to prove his grati tude to God by offering the sacrifice of obedience. But that THE MESSIANIC HOPE. Ixxxi obedience was at best imperfect. His words must wait to receive their full accomplishment in the perfect obedience of Christ (Heb. x. 5 ff.). Christ as the perfect Teacher adopted and 'fulfilled' the methods of the teachers of the old dispensation (Ps. lxxviii. i). (4) The coming of God. Another series of Psalms describes or anticipates the Advent of Jehovah Himself to judge and to redeem. Such are xviii. 7 ff, 1, Ixviii, xcvi — xcviii. Ttjey correspond to the prophetic idea of 'the day of Jehovah,' which culminates in Mai. iii. 1 ff. They do not indeed predict the Incarnation, but they served to prepare men's minds for the direct personal intervention of God which was to be realised in the Incarnation. We find passages originally spoken of Jehovah applied in the N.T. to Christ1. The words of Ps. Ixviii. 18, which describe the triumphant ascent of Jehovah to His throne after the subjugation of the world, are adapted and applied to the triumphant return of Christ to heaven and His distribution of the gifts of grace (Eph. iv. 8). The words of cii. 25, 26, contrasting the immutability of the Creator with the mutability of created things, originally ad dressed to Jehovah by the exile who appealed to Him to inter vene on behalf of Zion, are applied to the Son through whom the worlds were made (Hebr. i. 10). Thus the inspired poetry of the Psalter, viewing the Davidic kingdom in the light of the prophetic promises attached to it, played its part in preparing men's minds for a King who should be God's Son and representative, as it came to be inter preted in the course of history through failure and disappoint ment. The record of the Psalmists' own sufferings helped to give some insight into the part which suffering must perform in the redemption of the world. Their ideals of man's destiny and duty implied the hope of the coming of One who should perfectly fulfil them. The expectation of Jehovah's advent to judge and redeem anticipated a direct divine interposition for the establishment of the divine kingdom in the world. It is not to be supposed that the relation of these various elements of the preparation could be recognised, or that they 1 See Bp Westcott's Hebrews, p. 89. PSALMS / Ixxxii INTRODUCTION. could be harmonised into one consistent picture beforehand- It was reserved for the event to shew that the various lines of hope and teaching were not parallel but convergent, meeting in the Person and Work of Him Who is at once God and Man, Son and Servant, Priest and King, Sufferer and Victor. It has been assumed thus far that these Psalms refer primarily to the circumstances under which they were written. Many commentators however regard some of the ' Royal Psalms,' in particular Pss. ii, xiv, lxxii, ex, as direct prophecies of the Messianic King : some, because they are unable to discover the precise historical occasion in existing records : others, because the language seems to reach beyond what could be predicated of any earthly king, and the N. T. application of these Psalms to Christ appears to them to require that they should be referred to Him alone. The particular historical reference of each of these Psalms will be discussed in the introduction to it : here it must suffice to observe that such Psalms as ii and xiv produce the decided impression that they were written in view of contemporary events. Lofty as is the language used, it is no more than is warranted by the grandeur of the divine promises to the house of David; and if the words are applied to Christ with a fulness and directness which seems to exclude any lower meaning, it must be remembered that it was through the institution of the kingdom that men were taught to look for Him, and their fulfilment in Him presumes rather than excludes the view that they had a true, if partial, meaning for the time ai* which they were written. Similarly in the case of the ' Passion Psalms ' it has been thought that, at least in Ps. xxii, the Psalmist is speaking in the person of Christ. Yet even this Psalm plainly springs out of personal suffering; though it is equally plain that the character of that suffering was providentially moulded to be a type, and the record of it inspired by the Holy Spirit to be a prophecy, of the sufferings of Christ. That Ps. lxix cannot as a whole be placed in the mouth of Christ is evident, if for no other reason, from the confession of sin in v. 5. Have then these Psalms, has prophecy in general, a 'double THE MESSIANIC HOPE. lxxxiii sense?' a primary historical sense in relation to the circum stances under which they were written, and a secondary typical or prophetical sense, in which they came to be under stood by the Jewish and afterwards by the Christian Church ? We may no doubt legitimately talk of a ' double sense,' if what we mean is that Psalmist and Prophet did not realise the full meaning of their words, and that that meaning only came to be understood as it was unfolded by the course of history. But is it not a truer view to regard both senses as essentially one? The institutions of Israel and the discipline of the saints of old were designed to express the divine purpose as the age and the people were able to receive it. The divine purpose is eternally one and the same, though it must be gradually revealed to man, and man's apprehension of it changes. And it is involved in any worthy conception of inspiration that inspired words should express divine ideas with a fulness which cannot at once be intelligible, but only comes to be understood as it is in terpreted by the course of history or illuminated by the light of fuller revelation. Inspired words are "springing and germinant" in their very nature : they grow with the growing mind of man. They are 'fulfilled,' not in the sense that their meaning is exhausted and their function accomplished, but in the sense that they are enlarged, expanded, ennobled. What is temporary and acci dental falls away, and the eternal truth shines forth in its in exhaustible freshness and grandeur. For us the Psalms which were designed to prepare the way for the coming of Christ bear witness to the unity of the divine plan which is being wrought out through successive ages of the world. (5) The nations. Under the head of Messianic Hope in the Psalter must be included the view which is presented of the relation of the nations to Jehovah and to Israel. Few features are more striking than the constant anticipation of the inclusion of all nations in Jehovah's kingdom. On the one hand indeed the nations appear as the deadly enemies of Jehovah's people, leagued together for its destruction (ii, lxxxiii), but doomed themselves to be destroyed if they lxxxiv INTRODUCTION. persist in their unhallowed purpose (ii. 9; ix. 17 ff. ; xxxiii. 10 ; xlvi. 6 ff. ; Ik. 5, 8). But concurrently with this view of the relation of the nations to Jehovah and Israel, another and more hopeful view is con stantly presented. The nations as well as Israel belong to Jehovah, and are the objects of His care; they will eventually render Him homage; and Israel is to be the instrument for accomplishing this purpose and establishing the universal divine kingdom. (a) The earth and all its inhabitants belong to Jehovah as their Creator (xxiv. 1 ; cp. viii. 1); they are under His observa tion (lxvi. 7), and subservient to His purposes (xxxiii. 14); He disciplines and teaches them (xciv. 10) ; they are addressed as being capable of moral instruction (xlix. 1). He is the supreme and universal King and Judge (xxii. 28 ; xlvi. 10; xlvii. 2, 8, 9; xcvi. 13 ; xcviii. 9; xcix. 2; cxiii. 4); the nations are constantly exhorted to render Him homage (ii. 8 ff.), to fear Him (xxxiii. 8), to praise Him (lxvi. 1 f. ; cxvii. 1 ; cxiv. 21), and even to worship Him in His temple (xcvi. 7 ff.; c. 1, 2). (b) The time will come when all nations will acknowledge His sovereignty (xxii. 27; lxvi. 4; Ixviii. 29 ff. ; lxxxvi. 9; cii. 22). The kings of the earth will render homage to their sovereign (cii. 15 ; cxxxviii. 4). To Him as the hearer of prayer shall "all flesh" come (lxv. 2); He is the confidence of all the ends of the earth (lxv. 5) ; and the Psalter ends with the chorus of universal praise from every living thing (cl. 6). (c) Israel is Jehovah's instrument for accomplishing the world-wide extension of His kingdom. In the early days of the kingdom it may have seemed that Israel's destiny was to subjugate the nations and include them in the kingdom of Jehovah by conquest (ii ; xviii. 43 ; xlvii) ; yet the thought is never far distant that the object of Israel's victories is to make Jehovah known (xviii. 49 ; lvii. 9), and to lead to the harmonious union of the nations with His people (xlvii. 9). Ps. xiv suggests the hope of peaceful alliance, Ps. lxxii of conquest by moral supremacy (vv. 8 ff). If to the last the thought of actual conquests survived (cxlix. 6 ff.), a more spiritual conception of Israel's relation to the nations grew up THE MESSIANIC HOPE. lxxxv side by side with it. The Psalmist's gratitude for personal deliverance widens out into the prospect of the universal worship of Jehovah (xxii). Ps. lxvii expresses Israel's con sciousness of its calling to be a blessing to. the world, and the final purpose of its prosperity is the conversion of the nations. Zion becomes the spiritual metropolis in which nations once hostile are enrolled as citizens (lxxxvii) ; and Israel's deliverance from captivity is seen to lead to the universal worship of her Deliverer, and the gathering of the nations to Zion to serve Him (cii. 15, 21 ff. ; cp. xcvi — xcviii). Thus, even under the limitations of the old Covenant, were formed the hopes which are in part fulfilled, and in part still await fulfilment, in the Christian Church. CHAPTER IX. ON SOME POINTS IN THE THEOLOGY OF THE PSALMS. A thorough examination of the Theology of the Psalms would exceed the limits of the present work. It would include an investigation whether any progress and development of doctrine can be traced in the Psalms of different periods. All that can be attempted here is a few brief notes on some points which re quire the student's attention or present special difficulties. (i) The relation of the Psalms to the Ordinances of Worship. The Psalms represent the inward and spiritual side of the religion of Israel. They are the manifold expression of the intense devotion of pious souls to God, of the feelings of trust and hope and love which reach a climax in such Psalms as xxiii, xlii — xliii, lxiii, lxxxiv. They are the many-toned voice of prayer in the widest sense, as the soul's address to God in confession, petition, intercession, meditation, thanksgiving, praise, both in public and private. They offer the most complete proof, if proof were needed, how utterly false is the notion that the religion of Israel was a formal system of external rites and ceremonies. In such a book frequent reference to the external ordinances of worship is scarcely to be expected: but they are presumed, lxxxvi INTRODUCTION. and the experience of God's favour is constantly connected with the Sanctuary and its acts of worship1. There are frequent references to the Temple as the central place of worship, where men appear before God, and where He specially reveals His power glory and goodness, and interprets the ways of His Providence (xlii. 2 ; xlviii. 9 ; lxiii. 2 ; lxv. 4 ; Ixviii. 29; Ixxiii. 17 ; xcvi. 6 ff. ; &c). The impressive splendour of the priestly array is alluded to (xxix. 2, note ; xcvi. 9 ; ex. 3). The delight of the festal pilgrimages to Zion is vividly de scribed (xlii, xliii, lxxxiv, cxxii, cp. lv. 14). Consuming zeal for God's house in a corrupt age characterised the saint and ex posed him to persecution (lxix. 9). The joyous character of the O. T. worship is so striking a feature of the Psalter as scarcely to need special notice. The Psalter as the hymn-book of the Second Temple was entitled 'The Book of Praises.' We hear the jubilant songs of the troops of pilgrims (xlii. 4; cp. Is. xxx. 29): we see the pro cessions to the Temple with minstrels and singers (Ixviii. 24, 25) : we hear its courts resound with shouts of praise (xcv. 1 ff. ; c. 1, 4), and music of harp and psaltery, timbrel and trumpet, cymbals and pipe (cl.). Sacrifice is referred to as the sanction of the covenant between God and His people (1. 5 ; cp. Ex. xxiv. 5 ff.) ; as the regular accompaniment of approach to God (xx. 3; 1. 8ff.; lxvi. 13, 15; xcvi. 8); as the natural expression of gratitude (xxvii. 6; xliii. 4; li. 19; liv. 6; cvii. 22; cxvi. 17; cxviii. 27), es pecially in connexion with vows (lvi. 12 ; lxvi. 13 ff.), which are frequently mentioned (xxii. 25 ; Ixi. 5, 8 ; lxv. 1 ; lxxvi. 1 1 ; cxvi. 14, 18). The Levitical ceremonies of purification are alluded to as symbols of the inward cleansing which must be effected by God Himself (li. 7). But the great prophetic doctrine2 of the intrinsic worthless- ness of sacrifice apart from the disposition of the worshipper is emphatically laid down. It is not sacrifice but obedience that 1 Cp. Oehler, 0. T. Theology, § 201. 2 From 1 Sam. xv. 22 onwards. See Amos v. 21 ff.; Hos. vi. 6: Is. i. u ff. ; Mic. vi. 6 ff. ; Jer. vi. 20; vii. 21 ff. ; xiv. 12. MORAL QUESTIONS. lxxxvii God desires (xl. 6ff.); it is not thank-offering, but a thankful heart which finds acceptance with Him (1. 14, 23 ; cp. lxix. 301 31); it is not sacrifice, but contrition which is the condition of forgiveness (li. 16 ff). Penitence and prayer are true sacrifices (li. 17 ; cxii. 2) : and the moral conditions which can alone make sacrifice acceptable and are requisite for approach to God are constantly insisted upon (iv. 5 ; xv. iff; xxiv. 3 ff. ; xxvi. 6 ; lxvi. 18). It is God Himself who 'purges away' iniquity (lxv. 3 ; lxxviii. 38; lxxix. 9; lxxxv. 2). (ii) The self-righteousness of the Psalmists. Readers of the Psalms are sometimes startled by assertions of integrity and innocence which appear to indicate a spirit of self-righteous ness and self-satisfaction approximating to that of the Pharisee (Luke xviii. 9). Thus David appeals to be judged according to his righteousness and his integrity (vii. 8 ; cp. xxvi. 1 ff.), and regards his deliverance from his enemies as the reward of his righteousness and innocence (xviii. 20 ff.); sincerity and inno cence are urged as grounds of answer to prayer (xvii. 1 ff.), and God's most searching scrutiny is invited (xxvi. 2 ff). Some of these utterances are no more than asseverations that the speaker is innocent of particular crimes laid to his charge by his enemies (vii. 3 ff.); others are general professions of purity of purpose and single-hearted devotion to God (xvii. 1 ff.). They are not to be compared with the self-complacency of the Pharisee, who prides himself on his superiority to the rest of the world, but with St Paul's assertions of conscious rectitude (Acts xx. 26 ff. ; xxiii. 1). They breathe the spirit of simple faith and childlike trust, which throws itself unreservedly on God. Those who make them do not profess to be absolutely sinless, but they do claim to belong to the class of the righteous who may expect God's favour, and they do disclaim all fellowship with the wicked, from whom they expect to be distinguished in the course of His Providence. And if God's present favour is expected as the reward of right conduct, it must be remembered that the Israelite looked for the visible manifestation of the divine government of the world in the reward of the godly and the punishment of the evildoer in this present life (1 Kings viii. 32, 39). He felt that he had a lxxxviii INTRODUCTION. right to be treated according to the rectitude of which. he was conscious. Further, it was commonly supposed that there was a pro portion between sin and suffering; that exceptional suffering was an evidence of exceptional guilt. This idea throws light upon the assertions of national innocence in xliv. i7ffi, and of personal innocence in Iix. 3. They are clearly relative, as much as to say, 'We know of no national apostasy which can account for this defeat as a well-merited judgement:' 'I am not conscious of any personal transgression for which this persecution is a fitting chastisement.' So Job repeatedly acknowledges the sinfulness of man, but denies that he has been guilty of any special sin to account for his extraordinary afflictions. Some however of these utterances undoubtedly belong to the O. T. and not to the N.T. They are the partial expression of an eternal truth (Matt. xvi. 27), in a form which belongs to the age in which they were spoken. The N. T. has brought a new reve lation of the nature of sin, and a more thorough self-knowledge: it teaches the inadmissibility of any plea of merit on man's part (Luke xvii. 10). But the docile spirit which fearlessly submits itself to the divine scrutiny and desires to be instructed (cxxxix. 23, 24) has nothing in common with the Pharisaism which is by its very nature incapable of improvement. And side by side with these assertions of integrity we find in the Psalms the fullest recognition of personal sinfulness (li. 5 ; lxix. 5), of man's inability to justify himself before God (cxxx. 3 ff., cxliii. 2), of his need of pardon cleansing and renewal (xxxii, li, lxv. 3), of his dependence on God for preser vation from sin (xix. 12 ff), of the barrier which sin erects ber tween him and God (lxvi. 18, 1. 16 ff); as well as the strongest expressions of absolute self-surrender and dependence on God and entire trust in His mercy (xxv. 4ff, Ixxiii. 25 ff). (iii) The so-called Imprecatory Psalms have long been felt to constitute one of the 'moral difficulties' of the O.T. We are startled to find the most lofty and spiritual meditations inter rupted by passionate prayers for vengeance upon enemies or ending in triumphant exultation at their destruction. How, we ask, can such utterances be part of a divine revelation? How THE IMPRECATORY PSALMS. lxxxix can the men who penned them have been in any sense inspired by the Holy Spirit? These imprecations cannot be explained away, as some have thought, by rendering the verbs as futures, and regarding them as authoritative declarations of the certain fate of the wicked. Of these there are many, but in not a few cases the form of the verb is that which specifically expresses a wish or prayer, and it cannot be rendered as a simple future. Nor again can the difficulty be removed by regarding the imprecations of Pss. lxix and cix as the curses not of the Psalmist himself but of his enemies. Even if this view were exegetically tenable for these two Psalms, which is doubtful, expressions of the same kind are scattered throughout the Psalter. Moreover the Book of Jeremiah contains prayers for vengeance on his enemies, at least as terrible as those of Pss. lxix and cix (Jer. xi. 18 ff. ; xv. 15 ff. ; xvii. 18 ; xviii. 19 ff. ; xx. 1 1 ff). In what light then are these utterances to be regarded? They must be viewed as belonging to the dispensation of the Old Testament ; they must be estimated from the standpoint of the Law, which was based upon the rule of retaliation, and not of the Gospel, which is animated by the principle of love; they belong to the spirit of Elijah, not of Christ; they use the language of the age which was taught to love its neighbour and hate its enemy (Matt. v. 43)1. Our Lord explicitly declared that the old dispensation, though not contrary to the new, was inferior to it ; that modes of thought and actions were permitted or even enjoined which would not be allowable for His followers ; that He had come to 'fulfil' the Law and the Prophets by raising all to a higher moral and spiritual level, expanding and completing what was rudimentary and imperfect (Matt. v. 43; xix. 8; Luke ix. 55). It is essential then to endeavour to understand the ruling 1 It is well to remember, on the other hand, that the Law inculcates service to an enemy (Ex. xxiii. 4, 5), and forbids hatred, vengeance, and bearing of grudges (Lev. xix. 17, 18): and the Book of Proverbs bids men leave vengeance to God (xx. 22), and control their exultation at an enemy's misfortune (xxiv. 17; cp. Job xxxi. 29) ; and teaches that kindness is the best revenge (xxv. 21, 22). We have here the germ of Christian ethics. INTRODUCTION. ideas and the circumstances of the age in which these Psalms were composed, in order to realise how, from the point of view of that age, such prayers for vengeance and expressions of triumph as they contain could be regarded as justifiable. In the first place it is important to observe that they are not dictated merely by private vindictiveness and personal thirst for revenge. While it would perhaps be too much to say that they contain no tinge of human passion (for the Psalmists were men of infirmity, and inspiration does not obliterate personal charac ter), they rise to a far higher level. They spring ultimately from zeal for God's cause, and they express a willingness to leave vengeance in the hands of Him to whom it belongs. Retribution is desired and welcomed as part of the divine older (lviii. II ; civ. 35). This was a great advance upon the ruder stage of society, in which each man claimed to be his own avenger. David's first impulse when he was insulted by Nabal was to wreak a terrible vengeance upon him and all that belonged to him. It was the natural instinct of the time. But his final resolve to leave ven geance to God indicated the better feeling that was being learnt (1 Sam. xxv. 21 ff., 39). Though their form belongs to the circumstances and limita tions of the age, these invocations of vengeance are the feeling after a truth of the divine government of the world. For it is the teaching of the N.T. not less than of the O.T. that the kingdom of God must come in judgement as well as in grace. Love no less than justice demands that there should be an ultimate distinction between the good and the evil, that those who will not submit to the laws of the kingdom should be banished from it (Matt. xiii. 49, 50; xvi. 27 ; John v. 29). But while the Gospel proclaims the law of universal love, and bids men pray without ceasing for the establishment of the kingdom of God by the repentance and reformation even of the most hardened offenders, and leave the issue to the future judgement of God, the Law with its stern principle of retribution and its limitation of view to the present life, allowed men to pray for the establishment of the kingdom of God through the destruction of the wicked. THE IMPRECATORY PSALMS. The Prophets and Psalmists of the O.T. had a keen sense of the great conflict constantly going on between good and evil, between God and His enemies1. That conflict was being waged in the world at large between Israel as the people of God and the nations which threatened to destroy Israel. The enemies of Israel were the enemies of Israel's God; Israel's defeat was a reproach to His Name; the cause at stake was not merely the existence of the nation, but the cause of divine truth and righteousness. This aspect of the conflict is most completely expressed in Ps. lxxxiii, and prayers for vengeance such as those of lxxix. 10, 12 and cxxxvii. 8 express the national desire for the vindication of a just cause, and the punishment of cruel insults. Within the nation of Israel this same conflict was being waged on a smaller scale between the godly and the ungodly. When the righteous were oppressed and the wicked triumphant, it seemed as though God's rule were being set at nought, as though God's cause were losing. It was not only allowable but a duty to pray for its triumph, and that involved the destruction of the wicked who persisted in their wickedness. There must be no half-heartedness or compromise. In hatred as well as in love the man who fears God must be wholly on His side (cxxxix. 19 — 22). The perfect ruler resolves not only to choose the faithful in the land for his servants, but "morning by morn ing " to " destroy all the wicked of the land ; to cut off all the workers of iniquity from the city of the Lord" (ci. 6 — 8) ; and it seemed only right and natural to pray that the Divine Ruler would do the same. Further light is thrown on the Imprecatory Psalms by the consideration that there was as yet no revelation of a final judge ment in which evil will receive its entire condemnation, or of a future state of rewards and punishments (see p. xciii ff.). Men expected and desired to see a present and visible distinction between the righteous and the wicked, according to the law of the divine government (cxxv. 4, 5 ; cxiv. 20). It was part of God's lovingkindness not less than of His omnipotence to "reward 1 See Rainy's Development of Christian Doctrine, p. 346, wheie there is a helpful treatment of the whole question. INTRODUCTION. every man according to his work" (lxii. 12). The sufferings of the godly and the prosperity of the ungodly formed one of the severest trials of faith and patience to those whose view was limited to the present life (Ps. xxxvii, Ixxiii). Although God's sentence upon evil is constantly being executed in this world, it is often deferred and not immediately visible; and those who longed for the vindication of righteousness desired to have it executed promptly before their eyes. Hence the righteous could rejoice when he saw the wicked destroyed, for it was a manifest proof of the righteous government of Jehovah (Iii. 5 ff. ; liv. 7 ; lviii. 10, 11 ; xcii. 11). Again, it must be remembered that we have been taught to distinguish between the evil man and evil : to love the sinner while we hate his sin. But Hebrew modes of thought were concrete. The man was identified with his wickedness; the one was a part of the other ; they were inseparable. Clearly it was desirable that wickedness should be extirpated. How could this be done except by the destruction of the wicked man ? What right had he to exist, if he persisted obstinately in his wickedness and refused to reform (1. 16 ff.)? The imprecations which appear most terrible to us are those which include a man's kith and kin in his doom (lxix. 25 ; cix. 9 ff.). In order to estimate them rightly it must be borne in mind that a man's family was regarded as part of him. He lived on in his posterity : the sin of the parent was entailed upon the children : if the offence had been monstrous and abnormal, so ought the punishment to be. The defective conception of the rights of the individual, so justly insisted upon by Professor Mozley as one of the chief 'ruling ideas in early ages,' helps us to understand how not only the guilty man, but all his family, could be devoted to destruction1. Let it be noted too that what seems the most awful of all anathemas (lxix. 28) would not have been understood in the extreme sense which we attach to it : and some of the ex pressions which shock us most by their ferocity are metaphors derived from times of wild and savage warfare (lviii. 10; Ixviii. 21 ff). The noblest thoughts may coexist side by side with 1 See Mozley's Lectures on the Old Testament, pp. 87 ff., 198 ff. THE IMPRECATORY PSALMS. much that to a later age seems wholly barbarous and revolt ing. These utterances then belong to the spirit of the O.T. and not of the N.T., and by it they must be judged. They belong to the age in which the martyr's dying prayer was not, " Lord, lay not this sin to their charge" (Acts vii. 60), but, "Jehovah look upon it, and require it" (2 Chron. xxiv. 22). It is im possible that such language should be repeated in its old and literal sense by any follower of Him Who has bidden us to love our enemies and pray for them that persecute us. Yet these utterances still have their lesson. On the one hand they may make us thankful that we live in the light of the Gospel and under the law of Love: on the other hand they testify to the punishment which the impenitent sinner deserves and must finally receive (Rom. vi. 23). They set an example of moral earnestness, of righteous indignation, of burning zeal for the cause of God. Men have need to beware lest in pity for the sinner they condone the sin, or relax the struggle against evil. The underlying truth is still true, that "the cause of sin shall go down, in the persons of those who maintain it, in such a manner as to throw back on them all the evil they have sought to do.. ..This was waited for with inexpressible longing. It was fit it should be.. ..This is not the only truth bearing on the point; but it is truth, and it was then the present truth1"- It is in virtue of the truth which they contain that these Psalms can be regarded as 'inspired,' and their position in the records of divine revelation justified. Their fundamental motive and idea is the religious passion for justice ; and it was by the Holy Spirit that their writers were taught to discern and grasp this essential truth; but the form in which they clothed their desire for its realisation belonged to the limitations and modes of thought of their particular age. (iv) The Future Life. Death is never regarded in the O. T. as annihilation or the end of personal existence. But it is for the most part contemplated as the end of all that deserves to be called life. Existence continues, but all the joy and vigour of vitality are gone for ever (Is. xiv. 10; Ps. cxliii. 3 = Lam. iii. 6). 1 Rainy, p. 348. INTRODUCTION. Communion with God is at an end : the dead can no longer "see" Him : they cannot serve or praise Him in the silence of Sheol : His lovingkindness, faithfulness, and righteousness can no longer be experienced there. See Ps. vi. 5 ; xxx. 9 ; lxxxviii. 4, 5, 10 — 12; cxv. 17; Is. xxxviii. 11, 18: and numerous pas sages in Job, e.g. vii. 9; x. 21 ff.; xiv. Death is the common lot of all, which none can escape (xlix. 7 ff. ; lxxxix. 48), but the righteous and the wicked are dis tinguished by the manner of their death (Ixxiii. 19). When death comes to a man in a good old age, and he leaves his children behind him to keep his name in remembrance, it may be borne with equanimity; but premature death is usually regarded as the sign of God's displeasure and the penal doom of the wicked (xxvi. 9), and childlessness is little better than annihilation. To the oppressed and persecuted indeed Sheol is a welcome rest (Job iii. I7ffi), and death may even be a gracious removal from coming evil (Is. lvii. 1, 2) ; but as a rule death is dreaded as the passage into the monotonous and hopeless gloom of the under-world. The continuance of existence after death has no moral or religious element in it. It is practically non-existence. The dead man 'is not' (xxxix. 13). It offers neither encouragement nor warning. It brings no solution of the enigmas of the present life. There is no hope of happiness or fear of punishment in the world beyond. This world was regarded as the scene of recompence and retribution. If reward and punishment did not come to the individual, they might be expected to come to his posterity. For the man lived on in his children: this was his real con tinuance in life, not the shadowy existence of Sheol : hence the bitterness of childlessness. Nowhere in the Psalter do we find the hope of a Resurrection from the dead. The prophets speak of a national, and finally of a personal resurrection (Hos. vi. iff; Is. xxvi. 19; Ezek. xxxvii. 1 ff. ; Dan. xii. 2), and predict the final destruction of death (Is. xxv. 8). But just where we should have expected to find such a hope as the ground of consolation, it is conspicuously absent1. 1 lvi. 13; Ixviii. 20; xc. 3; cxii. 7, which are sometimes referred to, THE FUTURE LIFE. Indeed it is set on one side as incredible (lxxxviii. 10). It is evident that there was as yet no revelation of a resurrection upon which men could rest; it was no article of the common religious belief to which the faithful naturally turned for comfort1. But do we not find that strong souls, at least in rare moments of exultant faith and hope, broke through the veil, and anticipated, not indeed the resurrection of the body, but translation through death into a true life of unending fellowship with God, like Enoch or Elijah? Do not Pss. xvi, xvii, xlix, Ixxiii, plainly speak of the hope of the righteous in his death? The answer to this question is one of the most difficult problems of the theology of the Psalter. It can only be satis factorily treated in the detailed exposition of the passages as they stand in their context. Some of the expressions which appear at first sight to imply a sure hope of deliverance from Sheol and of reception into the more immediate presence of God (e.g. xlix. 15, Ixxiii. 24) are used elsewhere of temporal deliverance from death or protection from danger, and may mean no more than this (ix. 13, xviii. 16, xxx. 3, lxxxvi. 13, ciii. 4, cxxxviii. 7). Reading these passages in the light of fuller revelation we may easily assign to them a deeper and more precise meaning than their original authors and hearers under stood. They adapt themselves so readily to Christian hope that we are easily led to believe that it was there from the first. Unquestionably these Psalms (xvi, xvii, xlix, Ixxiii) do contain the germ and principle of the doctrine of eternal life. It was present to the mind of the Spirit Who inspired their authors. The intimate fellowship with God of which they speak as man's highest good and truest happiness could not, in view of the nature and destiny of man and his relation to God, continue to be regarded as limited to this life and liable to sudden and final interruption. (See Matt. xxii. 31 ff). It re- cannot be interpreted of a resurrection. The text of xlviii. 14 is very uncertain; lxxxvi. 13 is a thanksgiving for deliverance from death; cxviii. 17 expresses the hope of such a deliverance. 1 Contrast the precise statements in the Psalms of Solomon quoted on p. xlix, where however it is only a resurrection of the righteous which is anticipated. INTRODUCTION. quired but a step forward to realise the truth of its permanence, but whether the Psalmists took this step is doubtful. But even if they did, there was still no clear and explicit revelation on which the doctrine of a future life or of a resur rection could be based. It was but a 'postulate of faith,' a splendid hope, a personal and individual conclusion. What was the meaning and purpose of this reserve in the teaching of the O. T.? Mankind had to be trained through long ages by this stern discipline to know the bitterness of death as the punishment of sin, and to trust God utterly in spite of all appearances. They had to be profoundly impressed with a sense of need and of the incompleteness of life here, in order that they might long for deliverance from this bondage and welcome it when it came (Heb. ii. 15). Nor could the revelation of the Resurrection and eternal life be made in fulness and certainty (so far as we can see) otherwise than through the victory of the second Adam who through death overcame death and opened unto us the gate of everlasting life (1 Cor. xv. 21 ff). Yet, as Delitzsch observes, there is nothing which comes to light in the New Testament which does not already exist in germ in the Psalms. The ideas of death and life are regarded by the Psalmists in their fundamental relation to the wrath and the love of God, in such a way that it is easy for Christian faith to appropriate and deepen, in the light of fuller revelation, all that is said of them in the Psalms. There is no contradiction of the Psalmist's thought, when the Christian as he prays substitutes hell for Sheol in such a passage as vi. 5, for the Psalmist dreaded Sheol only as the realm of wrath and separation from the love of God, which is the true life of man. Nor is there anything contrary to the mind of the authors in the application of xvii. 15 to the future vision of the face of God in all its glory, or of xlix. 14 to the Resurrection morning; for the hopes there expressed in moments of spiritual elevation can only find their full satisfaction in the world to come. The faint glimmerings of twilight in the eschatological darkness of the Old Testament are the first rays of the coming sunrise. And the Christian cannot refrain from passing beyond the THE FUTURE LIFE. limits of the Psalmists, and understanding the Psalms according to the mind of the Spirit, whose; purpose in the gradual revela tion of salvation was ever directed towards the final consum mation. Thus understood, the Psalms belong to the Israel of the New Testament not less than of the Old Testament. The Church, in using the Psalms for its prayers, recognises the unity of the two Testaments : and scholarship, in expound ing the Psalms, gives full weight to the difference between them. Both are right; the former in regarding the Psalms in the light of the one unchanging salvation, the latter in dis tinguishing the different periods and steps in which that salva tion was historically revealed1. The sacred poetry of heathen religions, in spite of all that it contains of noble aspiration and pathetic "feeling after God," has ceased to be a living power. But "the Psalms of those far distant days, the early utterances of their faith and love, still form the staple of the worship and devotion of the Christian Church"... "The Vedic hymns are dead remains, known in their real spirit and meaning to a few students. The Psalms are as living as when they were written.... They were composed in an age at least as immature as that of the singers of the Veda ; but they are now what they have been for thirty centuries, the very life of spiritual religion — they suit the needs, they express, as nothing else can express, the deepest religious ideas of ' the foremost in the files of time.'3" 1 Delitzsch, The Psalms, p. 63. 5 Dean Church, The Sacred Poetry of Early Religions, pp. 1 2, 3S. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER X. THE PSALTER IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. If a history of the use of the Psalter could be written, it would be a history of the spiritual life of the Church. From the earliest times the Psalter has been the Church's manual of Prayer and Praise in its public worship, the treasury of devotion for its individual members in their private communing with God. " No single Book of Scripture, not even of the New Testament, has, perhaps, ever taken such hold on the heart of Christendom. None, if we may dare judge, unless it be the Gospels, has had so large an influence in moulding the affections, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of believers. With its words, rather than with their own, they have come before God. In these they have uttered their desires, their fears, their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys, their thanksgivings. By these their devotion has been kindled and their hearts comforted. The Psalter has been, in the truest sense, the Prayer Book both of Jews and Chris tians1." "What is the history of the Church," writes Dean Stanley, "but a long commentary on the sacred records of its first beginnings?... The actual effect, the manifold applications, in history, of the words of Scripture, give them a new instruction, and afford a new proof of their endless vigour and vitality.... The Psalter alone, by its manifold applications and uses in after times, is a vast palimpsest, written over and over again, illuminated, illustrated, by every conceivable incident and emotion of men and nations ; battles, wanderings, dangers, escapes, deathbeds, obsequies, of many ages and countries, rise, or may rise, to our view as we read it2." It would be impossible in a few pages to trace the history of the use of the Psalter even in the barest outline. All that can 1 Bishop Perowne, The Psalms, p. 22. 2 Stanley, The Eastern Church, pp. lxxiv, lxxv. THE USE OF THE PSALMS. be attempted here is to give some few indications of the vast influence which the Psalter has exercised, and of its paramount importance in the history of Christian worship and devotion. There is no evidence that the entire Psalter was used in the public worship of the Jewish Church, though many Psalms were sung or chanted in the services of the Temple and the Synagogue1. But the number of the quotations from the Psalter in the New Testament, and the multitude of indirect allusions to its thoughts and language, prove how familiarly it was known in the apostolic age. It was upon the Psalms that our Lord's spiritual life was nourished. The sting of the Tempter's quotation of Ps. xci lay in the fact that its words were a precious reality to Him. He sang the 'Hallel' (Pss. cxiii — cxviii) with His disciples at the Last Supper (Matt. xxvi. 30). A Psalm was the subject of His meditation as He hung upon the Cross, and with the words of a Psalm He.gaveup His life. In the Psalms He and His disciples found the foreshadowing of His own experience (John xiii. 18; ii. 17), and He taught His disciples to understand how they prepared the way for His coming (Luke xxiv. 44). The first Christian hymns — the Magnificat, Benedictus, and Nunc Di- mittis — are composed after the model of Psalms and contain numerous echoes of them. Doubtless the hymns which Paul and Silas sang in the prison at Philippi (Acts xvi. 25) were Psalms. St James commends the singing of Psalms as the most fitting expression of joyfulness (v. 13) ; St Paul enjoins it as the natural outlet for spiritual enthusiasm and a means of mutual edification (Eph. v. 19; Col. iii. 16). It was a common practice at the meetings of the Corinthian Church (1 Cor. xiv. 26). As we pass on into later ages we find that the singing of Psalms was not only a constant element of common worship, but a favourite occupation of Christians in their homes and at their work. It was a tradition in the Church of Antioch that the antiphonal singing of Psalms was introduced by Ignatius, the first bishop (c. A.D. 100), who saw a vision of angels praising the Trinity in antiphonal hymns, and delivered the method of 1 For the daily Psalms see above p. xxvii. g2 INTRODUCTION. singing which he had seen in his vision to the Church at Antioch, whence it spread to all the Churches1. The hymns from Holy Scripture which Tertullian in the second century tells us were sung at the agapae or love-feasts were doubtless Psalms2. St Jerome, writing from Bethlehem to Marcella3, and describing the charms of the Holy Land, tells her that the singing of Psalms was universal. "Wherever you turn the labourer at the plough sings Alleluia : the toiling reaper beguiles his work with Psalms : the vine-dresser as he prunes the vine with his curved pruning-hook sings something of David's, These are the songs of this province : these, to use the common phrase, are its love ditties: these the shepherd whistles; these are the labourer's implements.'' St Chrysostom4 (347 — 407) thus describes the universality of the use of the Psalms in his day. "If we keep vigil in the Church, David comes first, last, and midst. If early in the morning we seek for the melody of hymns, first, last, and midst is David again. If we are occupied with the funeral solemni ties of the departed, if virgins sit at home and spin, David is first, last, and midst5. O marvellous wonder ! Many who have made but little progress in literature, many who have scarcely mastered its first principles, have the Psalter by heart. Nor is it in cities and churches alone that at all times, through every age, David is illustrious ; in the midst of the forum, in the wilderness, and uninhabitable land, he excites the praises of God. In monasteries, amongst those holy choirs of angelic armies, David is first, midst, and last. In the convents of virgins, where are the bands of them that imitate Mary ; in the deserts, where are men crucified to this world, and having their conversation with God, first, midst, and last is he. All other men are at night overpowered by natural sleep : David alone is 1 Socrates, Hist. Eccl., vi. 8. 2 Tert. Apol. c. 39. 3 Ep. xlvi. 4 Quoted in Neale and Littledale, Comm. on the Psalms, p. 1. 5 St Chrysostom is referring to that stanza of Theognis, &XX' alel irp&rSv re Kal tio-rarov, iv Te piaoiaiv dsfaw Si fj.eu kXvBi, koI eadXa SLSou. THE USE OF THE PSALMS. active ; and congregating the servants of God into seraphic bands, turns earth into heaven, and converts men into angels." When men and women, forsaking their ordinary callings, dedicated their lives to devotion and prayer in monasteries and communities, the singing of Psalms formed a large part of their religious exercises. In course of time the recitation of the Psalter became a clerical obligation as well. Various schemes or uses were drawn up. Fixed Psalms were generally assigned to certain of the canonical hours, while at the other services the remainder of the Psalms were recited 'in course.' Thus accord ing to the Roman or Gregorian scheme fixed Psalms were assigned for daily use at Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Sext, Nones, and Compline ; while at Mattins Pss. i — cix, and at Vespers Pss. ex — cl were taken once a week 'in course,' exclusive of the Psalms assigned to the other services. The Benedictine or Monastic scheme was similar, also providing for the recitation once a week of those Psalms which were not recited daily. The Ambrosian scheme, deriving its origin from St Ambrose, and still in use in the province of Milan, only provides for the recita tion of the Psalter once a fortnight. In the Eastern Church the Psalter is divided into twenty cathismata, each of which is subdivided into three staseis. The whole Psalter is recited once a week ordinarily, and twice a week in Lent, but the details of the arrangement vary according to the time of year1. In this way a portion of the Psalms nearly equal in amount to twice the whole Psalter was recited every week. But many instances are quoted of holy men who recited it much more frequently. It is said that St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland, in the fifth century, repeated' it daily; St Maurus, the disciple of St Benedict, and Alcuin, the famous instructor of Charles the Great, did the same. St Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow, in the sixth century, went through it every night. Bede relates how Ecgbert, a young student of noble birth at an Irish monastery, 1 For full details consult The Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. Psalmody, or the Introduction to Neale and Littledale's Commen tary on the Psalms, ch. i. The Prayer Book Interleaved has some clear tables, and also an account by the late Dr Schiller-Szinessy of the recital of the Psalms according to the modem Jewish use (p. 255). INTRODUCTION. when attacked by the plague, vowed that if he recovered he would recite the whole Psalter daily in addition to the ordinary canonical hours, as a memorial of praise to God1. A knowledge of the Psalter by heart was required of candi dates for ordination. St Gennadius, Patriarch of Constantinople (a.d. 458 — 471), refused to ordain as priest anyone who had not been diligent in reciting the Psalter. St Gregory the Great inquired if Rusticus, who had been elected Bishop of Ancona, knew the Psalter by heart, and refused to allow John the Presbyter to be consecrated as metropolitan of Ravenna on account of his ignorance of the Psalter. The second Canon of the second Council of Nicaea (a.d. 587) laid it down that no one was to be consecrated bishop unless he knew the Psalter thoroughly, and the eighth Council of Toledo (A.D. 653) ordered that "no one henceforth shall be promoted lo any ecclesiastical dignity who does not perfectly know the whole Psalter" (Can. 8). Various methods of singing the Psalms were in use in ancient times2. (1) Sometimes the Psalm was sung throughout by the choir or congregation. This was called cantus directa- neus, and was the simplest form of singing with little more than monotone. (2) Sometimes the Psalm was sung by a single voice, usually in a very elaborate fashion. This was called cantus tractus. (3) Sometimes the Psalm was sung in cantus responsorius, the precentor and the choir or the congregation taking their parts alternately. (4) Sometimes the Psalm was sung in cantus antiphonalis, the two sides of the choir taking it up alternately. The following passage of St Chrysostom (Hom. v) is of interest as shewing the congregational character of the singing in his day, and emphasising its significance. " When the Psalm began, it mingled all the different voices together, and one harmonious song was raised. Young and old, rich and poor, women and men, slaves and freemen, all raised the same melody. ...But it not only united us who were present; it joined the dead with the living. For the blessed Prophet was singing with us.... The Prophet speaks and we all answer, we all re- 1 Bede, Hist. Eccl., iii. 27. 2 See Ncale and Littledale's Commentary, p. 58; Proctor and Frere New History of the Book of Common Prayer, p. 345. THE USE OF THE PSALMS. spond. You can see no distinction of slave or free, rich or poor, ruler or subject. The inequalities of life are banished ; all are united in one choir, all have equal right of speech, and earth imitates Heaven. So great is the nobility of the Church." The voices of holy men in every age unite in bearing a con cordant testimony to the power and preciousness of the Psalms. A few examples only can be given here. St Athanasius, in his Epistle to Marcellinus on the Interpre tation of the Psalms, the whole of which well deserves study, writes thus : "They seem to me to be a kind of mirror for everyone who sings them, in which he may observe the motions of the soul, and as he observes them give utterance to them in words. He who hears them read, takes them as if they were spoken specially for him. Stricken in his conscience he repents, or hearing of hope in God, and of the grace which is given to those who believe, he rejoices as if this grace were promised to him in particular, and begins to thank God.. ..He who genuinely studies all that is written in this book of Divine inspiration may gather, as out of a paradise, that which is serviceable for his own need. Methinks that in the words of this book you may find an accurate survey and delineation of the whole life of man, the dispositions of the soul, and the movements of the mind. If a man has need of penitence and confession, if affliction or temptation has overtaken him, if he has been persecuted or has been delivered from the plots of his enemies, if he is in sorrow or trouble, or if he wishes to praise and give thanks and bless the Lord, he finds instruction in the Psalms.... If thou meditate on these things and study the Psalms, thou shalt be able, under the guidance of the Spirit, to grasp their meaning ; and thou shalt emulate the life of the divinely inspired men who uttered these words." From Alexandria let us pass to Cappadocia, and listen to the eloquent words of St Basil, in the introduction to his Homily on the First Psalm : "All Scripture given by inspiration. of God is profitable, for it was written by the Spirit to the end that as it were in a general hospital for souls, we human beings might each select the INTRODUCTION. medicine for his own disease.... The prophets provide one kind of instruction, the historians another, the law yet another, and the exhortations of the Proverbs yet another. But the Book of Psalms contains that which is profitable in all of them. It prophesies of the future ; it recalls history ; it legislates for life ; it suggests rules of action ; in a word, it is a common storehouse of good doctrines, providing exactly what is ex pedient for everyone.... A Psalm is the calm of souls, the arbiter of peace : it stills the stormy waves of thought. It softens the angry spirit, and sobers the intemperate. A Psalm cements friendship : it unites those who are at variance ; it reconciles those who are at enmity. For who can regard as an enemy the man with whom he has joined in lifting up one voice to God? Psalmody therefore provides the greatest of all good things, even love, for it has invented concerted singing as a bond of unity, and fits the people together in the concord of one choir. A Psalm puts demons to flight: it summons the angels to our aid ; it is a weapon in the midst of alarms by night, a rest from the toils of day; it is a safeguard for babes, a decoration for adults, a comfort for the aged, a most befitting ornament for women. It makes deserts populous and market places sane. It is an initiation to novices, growth to those who are advancing, confirmation to those who are being per fected. It is the voice of the Church; it gladdens festivals, it creates godly sorrow. For a Psalm calls forth tears even from a stony heart. A Psalm is the employment of angels, heavenly converse, spiritual incense.. ..What mayest thou not learn thence? The heroism of courage ; the integrity of justice ; the gravity of temperance ; the perfection of prudence ; the manner of re pentance ; the measure of patience ; in a word every good thing thou canst mention. Therein is a complete theology; the pre diction of the advent of Christ in the flesh, the threatening of judgement, the hope of resurrection, the fear of chastisement, promises of glory, revelations of mysteries : all, as in some great public storehouse, are treasured up in the Book of Psalms1." 1 This passage seems to have been in Hooker's mind when he wrote the well-known words quoted on p. viii. THE USE OF THE PSALMS. In a well-known passage of his Confessions (ix. 4), St Augus tine describes the comfort which he derived from the Psalms in the interval before his baptism. "In what accents I addressed Thee, my God, when I read the Psalms of David, those faithful songs, the language of devotion which banishes the spirit of pride, while I was still a novice in true love of Thee, and as a catechumen rested in that country house along with Alypius, who was also a catechumen, with my mother at our side, in the dress of a woman but with the faith of a man, with the calmness of age, the affection of a mother, the piety of a Christian. How I addressed Thee in those Psalms ! how my love for Thee was kindled by them ! how I burned to recite them, were it possible, throughout the world, as an antidote to the pride of humanity. Yet they are sung throughout the world, and there is none that hideth him self from Thy heat1. How grieved and indignant was I with the Manichaeans 2 ! and yet again I pitied them for their ignorance of those sacraments, those medicines, and their mad rejection of the antidote which might have cured them of their madness. Would that they could have been somewhere near me without my knowledge and watched my face and heard my voice when I read the Fourth Psalm in that time of leisure, and have known the effect of that Psalm upon me. Would that they could have heard what I uttered between the words of the Psalm, without my knowing that they heard... how I spoke with myself and to myself before Thee out of the inmost feelings of my soul. I trembled for fear, and then I became fervent with hope and rejoicing in Thy mercy, O Father. And all these feelings issued forth by my eyes and voice..." The interpretation of the Psalm and the application of it to his own circumstances which follow are fanciful and far-fetched, but they shew how his heart glowed with fervour as he read, and how he found the Psalms "sweetened with heavenly honey, and luminous with the light of God." Luther and Calvin represent the revival of the study of the Bible in the age of the Reformation. 1 An allusion to Ps. xix. 6. 2 Who deprived themselves of the Psalms by rejecting the O. T. INTRODUCTION. Luther speaks thus of the Psalter, which he found inex pressibly precious in the trials and conflicts of his stormy life : "You may rightly call the Psalter a Bible in miniature, in which all things which are set forth more at length in the rest of the Scriptures are collected into a beautiful manual of won derful and attractive brevity. From the Psalms you may learn not the works of the saints only, but the words, the utterances, the groans, the colloquies, which they used in the presence of God, in temptation and in consolation ; so that though they are dead, in the Psalms they live and speak. The Psalms exhibit the mind of the saints ; they express the hidden treasure of their hearts, the working of their thoughts, and their most secret feelings 1." "This book," says Calvin, in the Epistle to his Readers pre fixed to his commentary, " I am wont to call an anatomy of all the parts of the soul ; for no one will find in himself a single feeling of which the image is not reflected in this mirror. Here the Holy Spirit has represented to the life all the griefs, sorrows, fears, doubts, hopes, cares, anxieties, in short, all the stormy emotions, by which human minds are wont to be agitated. The rest of Scripture contains the commands which God gave His servants to be delivered to us. Here the prophets themselves, in their converse with God, because they lay bare all their inmost feelings, invite or compel every one of us to examine himself, that none of all the infirmities to which we are subject may remain hidden. It is a rare and singular advantage when every secret recess is laid open, and the heart purged from the foul plague of hypocrisy and brought out to light." One quotation from a modern writer must suffice. With profound insight and unrivalled delicacy of touch the late Dean Church thus describes the Psalms and their work2: " In the Psalms we see the soul in the secret of its workings, in the variety and play of its many-sided and subtly compounded nature— loving, hoping, fearing, despairing, exulting, repenting, aspiring— the soul, conscious of the greatness and sweetness of 1 Works, ed. 1553, Vol. iii. p. 356. 2 The Discipline of tlie Christian Character, pp. 53 ff. THE USE OF THE PSALMS. its relations to Almighty God, and penetrated by them to the very quick ; longing, thirsting, gasping, after the glimpses that visit it, of His goodness and beauty — awestruck before the un- searchableness of His judgement, silent before the certainty of His righteousness — opening, like a flower to the sun, in the presence of His light, of the immensity of His lovingkind ness" It has been the work of the Book of Psalms to teach devotion, worship, self-knowledge. "They bring before us in all its fulness and richness the devotional element of the religious character. They are the first great teachers and patterns of prayer, and they shew this side. of the religious character. ..in varied and finished detail, in all its compass and living and spontaneous force.. ..The tongue is loosed to give utterance out of the abundance of the heart, to every mood, every contrasted feeling of the changeful human mind. From all the hidden depths, from all the strange and secret consciousnesses of the awakened and enlightened soul, spring up unexpected and vivid words, in whicli generation after generation has found the coun terpart of its own convictions and hopes and joys, its own fears and distresses and perplexities and doubts, its own confidence and its own sorrow, its own brightest and darkest hours. This immense variety of mood and subject and occasion, with which the reverence and hope of worship are always combined, is a further point in the work of the Book of Psalms. It is a vast step in the revealing of man to man. We know how much we owe of the knowledge of ourselves to the great dramatists, to the great lyrical poets, to the great novelists. Such, in the unfolding to man of all that is really and most deeply in volved in the religious character, is the place of the Book of Psalms." Luther, as we have seen, calls the Psalms "a Bible in minia ture '' ; and the words which Coleridge uses of the whole Bible may most truly be applied to the Psalms. In them we find copious sources of truth, and power, and purifying impulses ; words for our inmost thoughts, songs for our joy, utterances for our hidden griefs, pleadings for our shame and our feebleness. And whatever finds us bears witness for itself that it has pro ceeded from a Holy Spirit, even from the same Spirit, which INTRODUCTION. in all ages entering into holy souls maketh them friends of God and prophets1. CHAPTER XI. LITERATURE. The literature on the Psalter is enormous, and only a few of the most important and useful works can be mentioned here. An interesting sketch of the history of the exposition of the Psalms will be found in § ix of the Introduction to Delitzsch's Commentary. St Athanasius' Letter to Marcellinus on the Interpretation of the Psalms is worthy of its author. It treats of the character and value of the Psalms, classifies them, and indicates how they may be used in the various experiences of life. The most famous Greek commentary on the Psalms is the Homilies of St Chrysostom. It was complete, but only the Homilies upon 58 Psalms are now extant. The corresponding work in the Western Church is the Enarrationes in Psalmos of St Au gustine, expositions of the Psalms for the most part actually delivered, the 32 discourses on Ps. cxix forming an exception. It became the great authority from which subsequent writers drew freely. Medieval expositors followed in the track of the ancient Fathers. The literal meaning was neglected, mystical and allegorical exegesis was predominant. Dependence on the imperfect Greek and Latin Versions often led them far astray, and the absence of any restraint to the luxuriance of their imagination lays them open to the charge of "making anything out of anything." But the patristic and medieval commentaries are rich in beautiful thought, profound spiritual instruction, and practical application. To the Jewish commentators of the Middle Ages we owe a great debt. They preserved the tradition of the meaning of the Hebrew language, which had been entirely neglected 1 Coleridge's Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures, Letter i. LITERATURE. in the Christian Church, and to them the scholars of the 16th century turned when the study of the original text was revived. Chief among them were Raschi (R. Solomon Isaaki) of Troyes (d. A.D. 1 105), Aben Ezra of Toledo (d. a.d. 1167), and David Kimchi of Narbonne (d. about A.D. 1235)1. The most important works of the Reformation period were those of Luther, who lectured and wrote much on the Psalms, and Calvin, whose Commentary (1567) marked a new departure in the combination of sound exegesis with practical application. Poole's Synopsis Criticorum, an abridgment of the Critici Sacri published in 1660 in London under the direction of Bishop Pearson and others, is a convenient summary of the opinions of scholars of the 16th and 17th centuries. Martin Geier's voluminous work (1668) is one of the best productions of the 17th century. Rosenmiiller's Scholia (1798 — 1804, 2nd ed. of the Psalms 1821 — 23) may be said to mark the transition to the modern period. It is mainly a compilation from older works, and is still valuable, especially for its copious citation of Jewish authorities and for its comments on the renderings of the LXX and other Versions. Among modem German Commentaries those of H. Ewald, H. Hupfeld, F. Delitzsch, and F. Baethgen, are the most generally useful. Ewald's Commentary in The Poets of the O.T. (1836, 3rd ed. 1866, translated in the Theol. Transl. Fund Library, 1880) is distinguished by "intense poetic and religious sympathy, and by a keen and discriminating historical imagination." Hupfeld's work (1855 — 62, 2nd ed. with additions by Riehm, 1867 — 71, 3rd ed., revised by Nowack, 1888) is serviceable for its careful investigation of the meaning of the language. Delitzsch (1867, 5th ed. 1894, translation from the 4th ed. by Eaton, 1887), if sometimes fanciful, is always reverent, and constantly penetrates to the deeper meaning. Baethgen, in the Handkommentar zum A.T. (1892, 2nd ed. 1897), repre sents a newer school of critics, without the extravagances which unfortunately disfigure the work of some of them. 1 The commentary of Raschi is accessible to those who do not know Rabbinic Hebrew in the Latin translation of J. F. Breithaupt (1710); that of Kimchi in the Latin translation of A. Janvier (1566). INTRODUCTION. Other German commentaries are those of F. Hitzig, 1835, completely revised edition, 1863-5; A. Tholuck, Uebersetzung und Auslegung der Psalmen fiir Geistliche und Laien der christlichen Kirche, 1843, 2nd ed. 1873; J. Olshausen in the Kurzgef. exeg. Handbuch, 1853; H. Gratz, Kritischer Com mentar zu den Psalmen, 1882, (gives much interesting informa tion from Jewish sources, but emends the text too freely) : F. W. Schultz in the Kurzgef. Kommentar, 1888, replaced by that of H. Kessler, 1899; B. Duhm in the Kurzer Hand-Commentar, 1899 (trenchant and often suggestive, but shewing little appre ciation of either the poetical or the religious worth of the Psalms). Among French commentaries may be mentioned that of E. Reuss, 1879, Le Psautier, ou le Livre de Canliques de la Synagogue (strongly advocating the national interpretation of the Psalms). At the head of English commentaries stands that of Bishop Perowne, The Book of Psalms, a new Translation, with Intro ductions and Notes, explanatory and critical (1864, 8th ed. 1892), which marks an epoch in the exegesis of the O.T. in England. W. Kay, The Psalms with Notes, 187 1, 2nd ed. 1874, contains much that is instructive. T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms, A new Translation with Commentary, 1888, is fresh and sug gestive. A. Maclaren's Exposition, in the Expositor's Bible, 1893-94, is vigorous and practical. Among many other commentaries the following may be mentioned : J. M. Neale and R. F. Littledale, A Comme?itary on the Psalms from Primitive and Medieval Writers, 4th ed. 1884 (useful for the dissertation on The Psalms as employed in the Offices of the Church, and as giving an insight into the methods of patristic and medieval interpretation which have exercised such a wide influence)1 : The Psalms Chronologically arranged, by Four Friends, 1867, 2nd ed. 1891 (based upon Ewald) : F. C. Cook, G. H. S. Johnson and C. J. Elliott, in The 1 The Dissertation on The Mystical and Literal Interpretation of tlie Psalms at p. 429 of Vol. i should not be overlooked by those who wish to understand, if they cannot follow, a method of interpretation which has had such a wide currency and still has a strong attraction for many muids. LITERATURE. Speaker's Commentary, 1873 : A. C. Jennings and W. H. Lowe, The Psalms with Introduction and Critical Notes, 1875-7: C H. Spurgeon, The Treasury of David, 1870-85 (containing, besides his own exposition, a copious collection of extracts from various writers, especially the Puritans) : A. S. Aglen, in Bp Ellicott's 0.71 Comm. for English Readers, 1884 (contains many interesting illustrations from English literature) : Bishop Barry, in The. Teacher's Prayer Book . E. G. King, The Psalms in Three Collections, translated with notes, 1898, 1902: C. G. Montefiore, The Book of Psalms, 1901 (from The Bible for Home Reading). Among books and articles bearing on the study of the Psalms the following may be mentioned. J. G. von Herder, vom Geist der Ebr. Poesie, 1782-3: Isaac Taylor, The Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry: Archbishop Alexander, Bampton Lectures for 1876, The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity, 2nd ed. 1878 : T. K. Cheyne, Bampton Lectures for 1889, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions, 189 1 ; J. Sharpe, The Student's Handbook to the Psalms, 2nd ed., 1 894 : W. T. Davison, The Praises of Israel, 1893, 2nd ed., 1897 (a brightly written introduction to the study of the Psalms): J. Robertson, Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 1898: W. Robert son Smith, The O. T. in the Jewish Church, Lect. vii. R. W. Church, The Sacred Poetry of Early Religions (published separately, and also in The Gifts of Civilisation), also Sermon iii in The Discipline of the Christian Character : A. Neubauer, On the Titles of the Psalms according to early Jewish Authorities, in Studia Biblica, Vol. ii, 1890 : C. Ehrt, Abfassungszeit und Abschluss des Psalters zur Priifung der Frage nach Makkabder- psalmen historisch-kritisch untersucht, 1869: M. Kopfstein, Die Asaph-Psalmen untersucht, 188 1 : R. Smend, Ueber das Ich der Psalmen, Z.A.T.W. 1888, pp. 49 — 147, on the question Who is the speaker in the Psalms? discussed very fully and more moderately by G. Beer, Individual- unti- .Gemeinde-Psalmen, 1894 : B. Stade, Die Messianische Hoffnung im Psalter, Zeitschr. f. Theol. u. Kirche, 1892, pp. 369 ff. : J. Wellhausen, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the O.T., text 1895, English translation (by INTRODUCTION. H. H. Furness) with explanatory notes and an Appendix on the Music of the Ancient Hebrews, 1898 cp. Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten, vi. 163. Much interesting illustrative matter on the use of the Psalms is to be found in J. Ker's The Psalms in History and Biography, 1888, and A. S. Dyer's Psalm-Mosaics, 1894 : comp. § i of the Introduction to Tholuck's commentary, and ch. ii of the Introd. to Bp Perowne's commentary. The Paragraph Psalter, by Bp Westcott, 1879, contains a suggestive marginal analysis. S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter, being the Prayer Book Version of the Psalms, and a New Version, with an Introduction and Glossaries, (on the origin and history of the Prayer Book Psalter, and explaining characteristic words and archaisms). A convenient Parallel Psalter containing P.B.V., A.V., and R.V. in parallel columns, is published by the Camb. Univ. Press. The Wycliffite Version of Nicholas de Hereford and John Purvey is accessible in a reprint from Forshall and Madden's edition, published by the Clarendon Press, 1881 : and the original of the Prayer Book Version is reproduced in J. Earle's The Psalter of the Great Bible of 1539, a Landmark in English Literature, with Introduction and Notes, 1894. On the Metrical Ver sions of the Psalter consult Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology, and H. A. Glass, The Story of the Psalters, 1888. Quis audeat praesumere unum Psalmum rotunde ab ullo intellectual ? Vita nostra initium et pro/edits est non consum mate. — Luther.' <$C tVTCXjU (A VUtjC : £*Jrr+ LvUf c\ t^ZkJr^* c^asrUftf^nvuor* THE BOOK OF PSALMS. PSALM I. This Psalm is the development in poetical language and imagery of the thought repeated in so many forms in the Book of Proverbs (e.g. ii. 21, 22), that it is well with the righteous and ill with the wicked. The belief in Jehovah's righteous government of the world was a fundamental principle of Old Testament religion, and it is here asserted without any of those doubts and questionings which disturbed the minds of many Psalmists and Prophets, especially in the later stages of Old Testament revelation. The Psalm forms an appropriate prologue to the Psalter, which records the manifold experiences of the godly. For it affirms the truth to which they clung, in spite of all appearances to the contrary, in spite of the sufferings of the righteous and the triumphs of *he wicked, that the only sure and lasting happiness for man is to be found in fellow ship with God. The Psalm expresses a general truth, and does not appear to refer to any particular person or occasion. Hence date and authorship , must remain uncertain. Some (without good reason) have assigned it to David, during his persecution by Saul, or during Absalom's rebellion : Dean (now Bp. ) Perowne conjectures that it may have been written by Solomon as an introduction to a collection of David's poems : Prof. Cheyne thinks that it was a product of the fresh enthusiasm for the study of the Law in the time of Ezra. Two considerations however limit the period to which it may be assigned. —~~ (1) It is earlier than Jeremiah, who paraphrases and expands part of it in ch. xvii. 5 — 8 with reference to. Jehoiakim or Jehoiachin. (2) The most striking parallels in thought and language are to be found in the middle section of the Book of Proverbs (x — xxiv), which dates from a comparatively early period in the history of Judah, if not from the reign of Solomon himself. The ' scorner ' is a character hardly mentioned outside of the Book of Proverbs : the contrast of the righteous and the wicked, and the belief that prospe rity is the reward of piety, and adversity of ungodliness, are especially conspicuous in the middle section of that book: and further striking coincidences in detail of thought and language will easily be found. PSALM I. i. The absence of a title distinguishes it from the mass of Psalms in Book I., and points to its having been derived from a different source. It may have been composed or selected as a preface to the original 'Davidic' collection (Introd. p. lviii), or, though this is less probable, placed here by the final editor of the Psalter. The Psalm consists of two equal divisions : i. The enduring prosperity of the righteous (i — 3), ii. contrasted with the speedy ruin of the wicked (4 — 6). Observe the affinity of this Psalm to xxvi ; and still more to cxii, which celebrates the blessedness of the righteous, and begins and ends with the same words (Blessed. ..perish) : and contrast with its simple confidence the questionings of xxxvii and Ixxiii, in which the problem of the prosperity of the wicked is treated as a trial of faith. 1 T)lessed is the man D That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, Nor standeth in the way of sinners, Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful. 1 — 3. The happiness of the righteous. 1. More exactly : Happy the man who hath not walked in the counsel of wicked men, ¦ . ,^lA Nor stood In the way of sinners, No » sat in the session of scorners. " *"7 Blessed] Or, happy : LXX (MKapios. Cp. Matt. v. 3 ff. The righteous man is first described negatively and retrospectively. All his life he has observed the precept, 'depart from evil' (xxxiv. 14). the ungodly] Rather, wicked men: and so in w. 4, 5, 6. It is the most general term in the O. T. for the ungodly in contrast to the righteous. If the primary notion of the Hebrew word rdshd is unrest (cp. Job iii. 17; Is. lvii. 20, 21), the word well expresses the [.; disharmony whicli sin has brought into human nature, affecting man's relation to God, to man, to self. sinners] Those who miss the mark, or go astray from the path of right. The intensive form of the word shews that habitual offenders are meant. Cp. Prov. i. 10 ff. the scornful] Better, as the word is rendered in Proverbs, scorners: those who make what is good and holy the object of their ridicule. With the exception of the present passage and Is. xxix. 20 (cp. however Is. xxviii. 14, 22, R.V. ; Hos. vii. 5) the term is peculiar to the Book of Proverbs. There 'the scorners' appear as a class of defiant and cynical freethinkers, in contrast and antagonism to !, 'the wise.' The root-principle of their character is a spirit of proud self-sufficiency, a contemptuous disregard for God and man (Prov. xxi. 24). It is impossible to reform them, for they hate reproof, and will not seek instruction (xiii. 1; xv. 12). If they seek for wisdom they will not find it (xiv. 6). It is folly to argue with them (ix. 7, 8). PSALM I. 2. But his delight is in the law of the Lord ; : And in his law doth he meditate day and night. They are generally detested (xxiv. p), and in the interests of peace must be banished from society (xxii. 10). Divine judgements are in store for them, and their fate is a warning to the simple (iii. 34 ; xix. 25, 29; xxi. 11). The three clauses of the verse with their threefold parallelism (walk, stand, sit : counsel, way, session : wicked , sinners, scorners) emphasise the godly man's entire avoidance of association with evil and evil-doers in every form and degree. They denote successive steps in a career of evil, and form a climax : — (1) adoption of the principles of the wicked as a rule of life : (2) persistence in the practices of notorious offenders : (3) deliberate association with those who openly mock at religion. With the first clause and for the phrase counsel of the wicked cp. Mic. vi. 16; Jer. vii. 24; Job x. 3; xxi. 16; xxii. 18: for stood &c, cp. Ps. xxxvi. 4. For both clauses cp. the concrete example in 2 Chron. xxii. 3 — 5. With the third clause cp. Ps. xxvi. 4, 5. 2. The positive principle and source of the righteous man's life. The law of the Lord is his rule of conduct. It is no irksome restriction of his liberty but the object of his love and constant study (Deut. vi. 6—9). True happiness is to be found not in ways of man's own devising, but in the revealed will of God. "The purpose of the, Law was to make men happy." Kay. Cp. Deut. xxxiii. 29. f his delight] The religion of Israel was not an external formalism, but 'an obedience of the heart. Cp. xxxvii. 31; xl. 8; cxii. 1 ; cxix. 35, 97. the law of the Lord] The Hebrew word tbrah has a much wider range of meaning than law, by which it is always rendered in the A.V. It denotes (1) teaching, instruction, whether human (Prov. i. 8), or divine ; (2) a precept or law; (3) a body of laws, and in particular the Mosaic law, and so finally the Pentateuch. The parallel to the second clause of the verse in Josh. i. 8 suggests a particular reference to Deuteronomy ; but the meaning here must not be limited to the Pentateuch or any part of it. Rather as in passages where it is parallel to and synonymous with the word of the Lord (Is. i. 10; ii. 3) it should be taken to include all Divine revelation as the guide of life. meditate] The Psalmists meditate on God Himself (lxiii. 6) ; on His works in nature and in history (lxxvii. 12; cxliii. 5). 3. The consequent prosperity of the godly man is emblematically described. As a tree is nourished by constant supplies of water, with out which under the burning Eastern sun it would wither a'nddie, so the life of the godly man is maintained fcy the supplies of grace drawn "y from constant communion with God through His "revelation. Cp. Iii. 8 ; xcii. 12; cxxviii. 3; Num. xxiv. 6. If a special tree is meant, it is pro bably not the oleander (Stanley, Sinai and Palestine, p. 146), which bears no fruit ; nor the vine (Ezek. xix. 10) ; nor the pomegranate; but the palm. Its love of water, its stately growth, its evergreen foliage, its valuable fruit, combine to suggest that it is here referred to. Cp. Ecclus. xxiv. 14; and see Thomson's Land and the Book, p. 48 f. PSALM I. 3—5. 3 And he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, That bringeth forth his fruit in his season ; His leaf also shall not wither ; And whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 4 The. ungodly are not so : But are like the chaff which the wind driveth away. s Therefore the ungodly shall not stand in the judgment, Nor sinners in the congregation of the righteous. Vra."h-r lrns-ui<.l the rivers of water] Better, streams of water : either natural . watercourses (Is. xliv. 4): or more probably_ artificial channels for COMt irrigating the land. Cp. Prov. xxi. 1 ; Eccl.Ti. 5, 6^ and whatsoever &c] Or, as R.V. marg., in whatsoever he doeth he shall prosper. The figure of the tree is dropped, and the words refer directly to the godly man. The literal meaning of the word rendered prosper is to carry through to a successful result. Cp. Josh. i. 8; . and for illustration, Gen. xxxix. 3, 23. 4 — 6. The character and destiny of the wicked. 4. In sharp contrast to the firmly-rooted, flourishing, fruitful tree is the chaff on the threshing-floor, worthless in itself, and liable to be swept away by every passing breeze. The scattering of chaff by the wind is a common figure in the O.T. for the sudden destruction of the wicked. Cp. xxxv. 5; Job xxi. 18; Is. xxix. 5 ; Hos. xiii. 3. Here it describes their character as well as their fate. It would be vividly suggestive to those who were familiar with the sight of the threshing-floors, usually placed on high ground to take advantage of every breeze, on which the corn was threshed out and winnowed by throwing it up against the wind with shovels, the grain falling on the floor to be carefully gathered up, the chaff left to be carried away by the wind and vanish. The P.B.V. following the LXX and Vulg. adds from the face of the earth. Cp. Am. ix. 8; Zeph. i. 2, 3. 6. Therefore] The real character of the wicked will be manifested in the judgement. Since they are thus worthless and unstable, destitute of root and fruit, the wicked will not hold their ground in the judgement, in which Jehovah separates the chaff from the wheat (Matt. iii. 12). stand] So Lat. causa start, and the opposite causa cadere. Cp. v. 5; cxxx. 3; Nah. i. 6; Mai. iii. 2 ; Wisd. v. 1. in the judgment] Not, before a human tribunal : nor merely in the last judgement, (as the Targum and many interpreters understand it) : but in every act of judgement by which Jehovah separates between the righteous and the wicked, and vindicates His righteous government of the world. Cp. as an illustration Num. xvi. Each such ' day of the Lord ' is a type and pledge of the great day of judgement. Cp. Is. i. 24 ff., ii. 12 ff. ; Mai. iii. 5; Eccl. xii. 14. in the congregation of the righteous] The ' congregation of Israel,' which is the ' congregation of Jehovah,' is in its true idea and ultimate PSALM I. 6. II. For the Lord knoweth the way of the righteous : < But the way of the ungodly shall perish. destination, the 'congregation of the righteous' (cxi. t). It is the aim of each successive judgement to purify it, until at last the complete and final separation shall be effected (Matt. xiii. 41 — 43). 6. The teaching of the Psalm is grounded on the doctrine of divine Providence. Each clause of the verse implies the supplement of its anti thesis to the other clause. ' The Lord knows the way of the righteous,' and under His care it is a ' way of life ' (xvi. 1 1 ; Prov. xii. 28) ; 'a way of peace' (Is. lix. 8); 'a way eternal' (cxxxix. 24). Equally He knows the way of the wicked, and by the unalterable laws of His government it can lead only to destruction; it is a way of death (Prov. xiv. 12). knoweth] Divine knowledge cannot be abstract or ineffectual. It involves approval, care, guidance ; or abandonment, judgement. The '• righteous man's course of life leads to God Himself; and He lakes care that it does not fail of its end (Nah. i. 7; 2 Tim. ii. 19). PSALM II. The circumstances which called forth this Psalm stand out clearly. A king of Israel, recently placed upon the throne, and consecrated by the solemn rite of anointing to be Jehovah's representative in the government of His people, is menaced by a confederacy of subject nations, threatening to revolt and cast off their allegiance. The moment is critical : but his cause is Jehovah's ; their endeavour is. futile. He asserts his high claims; and the nations are exhorted to yield a willing submission, and avoid the destruction which awaits rebels against the authority of Jehovah. Who then was the king? and what was the occasion referred to? The king's consciousness of his high calling, and the confidence with which he appeals to the divine promise, point to a time when that promise was Still recent, and the lofty ideal of the theocratic kingdom had not been blurred and defaced by failure and defeat. For such a time we must go back to the reigns of David and Solomon. (1) The language of Acts iv. 25 does not decide the question, for 'David' in the N.T. may mean no more than 'the Psalter' (Heb. iv. 7) Y or 'a Psalmist.' The older commentators however attribute the Psalm to David, and suppose the occasion to have been the attack of the Philistines shortly after he was anointed king over all Israel (2 Sam. v. 1 7 ff.), or of the confederacy of Ammonites and Syrians described in 2 Sam. x. But the Psalm speaks plainly (v. 3) of subject nations, while the Philistines certainly were not David's subjects at the time, and it is doubtful if the Syrians were. See note on 2 Sam. x. (2) On the other hand there is good reason for supposing that Solo- V mon was the king referred to. He was anointed at Gihon, and solemnly enthroned on Zion (1 Kings i. 45). Zion was already 'Jehovah's holy mountain ' in virtue of the presence of the Ark there. So strongly was the theocratic character of the kingdom then realised that he is said to have sat 'on the throne of Jehovah' (1 Chr. xxix. 23; cp. xxviii. 5). PSALM II. The Psalm is based upon the great promise in 2 Sam. vii. 12 ff., which, although not limited to Solomon, would naturally be claimed by him with special confidence. Solomon succeeded to the great kingdom which his father had built up. But he was young. The succession was , disputed. What more likely than that some of the subject nations should threaten to revolt upon his accession ? Hadad's request ( 1 Kings xi. 21) shews that his enemies thought that their opportunity was come. It is true that we have no account of any such revolt in the Historical Books. But their records are incomplete and fragmentary; and the language of the Psalm implies that the revolt was only threatened, and had not as yet broken out into open war. There was still hope that wiser counsels might prevail [vv. 10 ff.); and if they did, we should hardly expect to find any reference in Kings and Chron. to a mere threat of rebellion. Moreover, though Solomon's reign was on the whole peaceful, there are incidental notices which make it plain that it was not uniformly and universally so. He made great military preparations (1 Kings iv. 26; ix. 15 ff. ; xi. 27 : 2 Chron. viii. 5 ff.), and engaged in wars (2 Chron. viii. 3); and Hadad and Rezon succeeded in 'doing him mischief (1 Kings xi. 21 — 25).. (3) The conjectures which refer the Psalm to a later occasion have but little probability. The confederacy of Pekah and Rezin against Ahaz (Is. vii.); and the invasion of Judah by the Moabites and their allies (2 Chr. xx.) have been suggested: but neither of these was a revolt of subject nations, The question still remains whether Solomon was himself the writer. The king and the poet appear to be identified in w. 7 ff. ; but in such a highly dramatic Psalm, it is at least possible that the poet might intro duce the king as a speaker, as he introduces the nations (v. 3), and Jehovah (v. 6). The particular historical reference is however of relatively small moment compared with the typical application of the Psalm to the Kingdom of Christ. To understand this, it is necessary to realise the peculiar position of the Israelite king. Israel was Jehovah's son, His firstborn (Ex. iv. 22; Deut. xxxii. 6); and Israel's king, as the ruler and representative of the people, was adopted by Jehovah as His son, His firstborn (2 Sam. vii. 13 ft".; Ps. lxxxix. 26, 27). It was a moral relationship, sharply distinguished from the supposed descent of kings and heroes from gods in the heathen world in virtue of which they styled themselves Zeus-born, sons of Zeus, and the like. It involved on the one side fatherly love and protection, on the other filial obedience and devotion. . The king moreover was not an absolute monarch in his own right. He was the Anointed of Jehovah, His viceroy and earthly representative. To him therefore was given not only the sovereignty over Israel, but the sovereignty over the nations. Rebellion against him was rebellion against Jehovah. Thus, as the adopted son of Jehovah and His Anointed King, he was the type of the eternal Son of God, the 'Lord's Christ.' Then, as successive kings of David's line failed to realise their high destiny, men were taught to look for the coming of One who should fulfil the Divine PSALM II. words of promise, giving them a meaning and " reality beyond hope and imagination. See Introd. p. lxxvi ff. This Psalm then is typical and prophetic of the rebellion of the kingdoms of the world against the kingdom of Christ, and of the final triumph of the kingdom of Christ. To Him all nations are given for an inheritance ; if they will not submit He must judge them. This typical meaning does not however exclude (as some commentators think), but rather requires, a historic foundation for the Psalm. In connexion with this Psalm should be studied 2 Sam. vii. ; Ps. lxxxix ; and Pss. xxi, xiv, lxxii and ex. The references to this Psalm in the N.T. should be carefully examined. (i) In Acts iv. 25 — 28, vv. 1, 2 are applied to the confederate hostility of Jews and Gentiles against Christ. (2) v. 7 was quoted by St Paul at Antioch (Acts xiii. 33) as fulfilled in the Resurrection of Christ (cp. Rom. i. 4) : and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the words are cited (the Messianic reference of the Psalm being evidently generally admitted) to describe the superiority of the Son to angels (i. 5) : and as a declaration of the Divine sonship of Christ, in connexion with the proof of the Divine origin of His high- priesthood (v. 5). 1 (3) It contains the titles 'my Son' (Matt. iii. 17), and 'the Lord's Christ' (Luke ii. 26), which describe the nature and office of the Messiah. Comp. Matt. xvi. 16: John xx. 31. (4) Its language is repeatedly borrowed in the Revelation, the great epic of the conflict and triumph of Christ's kingdom. He 'rules the nations with a rod of iron' (Rev. xii. 5, xix. 15); and delegates the same power to His servants (ii. 26, 27). 'Kings of the earth' occurs no less than nine times in this book (i. 5, &c). 'He that sitteth in the heavens' is the central figure there (iv. 2 and frequently). These quotations sufficiently explain the choice of the Psalm as one of the Proper Psalms for Easter Day. In a few Heb. MSS. the Second Psalm is reckoned as the First, the First being treated as an independent prologue to the whole book; in a few other MSS. the two are united. Origen says that this was the case in one of two copies he had seen (Op. ii. 537): and there was an ancient Jewish saying, "The first Psalm begins with blessing (i. 1), and ends with blessing" (ii. 12). Some recensions of the LXX appear to have followed this arrangement, though Origen speaks as if all the Greek copies with which he was acquainted divided the two Psalms. Justin Martyr in his Apology (i. 40) cites Pss. i and ii as a continuous prophecy, and in Acts xiii. 33 D and cognate authorities representing the 'Western' text, read, 'in the first Psalm.' But though there are points of contact in phraseology (blessed, i. 1, ii. 12; meditate, i. 2, ii. 1; perish connected with way, i. 6; ii. 12); they are clearly distinct in style and character. Ps. i is the calm expression of a general truth; Ps. ii springs out of a special occasion ; it is full of movement, and has a correspondingly vigorous 1 In D and cognate authorities the words, "Thou art my son, this day have I begotten thee" are substituted for "Thou art my beloved son, in thee I am well pleased," in Luke iii 22. This was also the reading of the Ebionite Gospel. PSALM II. i, 2. rhythm. Probably the absence of a title to Ps. ii (contrary to the usual practice of Book I) accounts for its having been joined to Ps. i. The Psalm is dramatic in form. The scene changes. Different persons are introduced as speakers. Its structure is definite and artistic. It consists of four stanzas, each (except the second) of seven lines. i. The poet contemplates with astonishment the tumult of the nations, mustering with the vain idea of revolt from their allegiance (i-3)- ii. But looking from earth to heaven he beholds Jehovah enthroned in majesty. He mocks their puny efforts. He has but to speak, and they are paralysed (4 — 6). iii. The king speaks, and recites the solemn decree by which Jehovah has adopted him for His son, and given him the nations for his inheritance, with authority to subdue all opposition (7 — 9). iv. The poet concludes with an exhortation to the nations to yield willing submission, instead of resisting to their own destruction (10 — 12). 2 Why do the heathen rage, And the people imagine a vain thing? •-¦¦ 2 The kings of the earth set themselves, ' And the rulers take counsel together, 1 — 3. The muster of the nations and its design. 1. Why] The Psalmist gazes on the great tumult of the nations mustering for war, till the sight forces from him this question of mingled astonishment and indignation. Their insurrection is at once causeless and hopeless. the heathen] Better, as R.V., the nations. Goyim, variously rendered in A.V. nations, heathen, Gentiles, denotes the non-Israelite nations as distinguished from and often in antagonism to the people of Jehovah. Sometimes the word has a moral significance and may rightly be rendered heathen. rage] Rather, as in marg., tumultuously assemble; or, throng together. Cp. the cognate subst. in Ps. lxiv. 2, insurrection, R.V. tumult, marg. throng. the people] R.V. rightly, peoples. Comp. xliv. 2, 14. imagine] Or, meditate: the same word as in i. 2 ; but in a bad sense, as in xxxviii. 12. 2. The kings of the earth] In contrast to ' my king, ' v. 6. Cp. the use of the phrase in striking contexts, Ixxvi. 12; lxxxix. 27; cii. 15; cxxxviii. 4; cxlviii. 11; Is. xxiv. 21. set themselves] The tenses of the original mw.1,2 give a vividness and variety to the picture which can hardly be reproduced in translation. Rage and take counsel are perfects, representing the throng as already gathered, and the chiefs seated in divan together: imagine and set themselves are imperfects (the graphic, pictorial tense of Hebrew poetry), representing their plot in process of development. The rapid PSALM II. 3—6. Against the Lord, and against his anointed, saying, Let us break their bands asunder, And cast away their cords from us. He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh : The Lord shall have them in derision. Then shall he speak unto them in his wrath, And vex them in his sore displeasure. Yet have I set my king lively rhythm moreover well suggests the stir and tumult of the gathering host. against the Lord] They would not deny that in making war Upon Israel they were making war upon Israel's God (2 Kings xviii. 32 ff.); but they little knew Whom they were defying (2 Kings xix. 22 ff.). 3. The words of the kings and rulers exhorting one another to cast off the yoke of subjection. Bands are the fastenings by which the yoke was secured upon the neck (Jer. xxvii. 2; xxx. 8; Nah. i. 13; &c.) : cords are perhaps merely synonymous with bands: but as the language of the previous clause is derived from the figure of an ox yoked for ploughing, cords may naturally be understood to mean the reins by which the animal was guided and kept under control. Cp. Job xxxix. 10; Hos. xi. 4. 4 — 6. The poet-seer draws aside the veil, and bids us look from earth to heaven. There the supreme Ruler of the world sits en throned in majesty. With sovereign contempt He surveys these petty plottings, and when the moment comes confounds them with a word. 4. He that sitteth in the heavens] Enthroned in majesty (cxxiii. 1), but withal watching and controlling the course of events upon the earth (xi. 4; ciii. 19; cxiii. 4 ff. ; Rev. v. 13; vi. 16). shall laugh. ..shall have them in derision] Or, laugheth...mocketh at them. Cp. xxxvii. 13; lix. 8; Prov. i. 26. The O.T. uses human language of God without fear of lowering Him to a human level. the Lord] This is the reading of 161 1, restored by Dr Scrivener. Most editions, and R.V., have the Lord, in accordance with the Massoretic Text, which reads Adonai, not Jehovah. The variation is perhaps significant. God is spoken of as the sovereign ruler of the world, rather than as the covenant God of Israel. 5. Then] There is a limit to the divine patience. He will not always look on in silence. If they persist in their folly He must speak, and His word (like that of His representative, Is. xi. 4) is power. vex] Trouble, confound, dismay, with panic terror, paralysing their efforts. Cp. xlviii. 5; lxxxiii. 15, 17. in his sore displeasure] Lit. fiery wrath (Ex. xv. 7), a word used almost exclusively of divine anger. 6. Yet have I set] R.V., Yet I have set. The first stanza ended with the defiant words of the rebels : the second stanza ends with the answer of Jehovah. The sentence is elliptical, and the pronoun is 3 -u T. PSALM II. 7, 8. Upon my holy hill of Zion. 7 I will declare the decree : The Lord hath said unto me, Thou art my Son; This day have I begotten thee. 8 Ask of me, And I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance, And the uttermost parts of tb£ earth for thy possession. emphatic: 'Why this uproar, when it is /Who have set up My king' &c. The meaning of the word rendered set has been much disputed, but )t certainly means set up, or appointed, not, as A.V. marg. , anointed. Cp. Prov. viii. 23. my king] A king appointed by Me, to rule over My people, as My representative. Cp. 1 Sam. xvi. 1. my holy hill of Zion] Zion, the name of the ancient strong-hold which became the city of David (2 Sam. v. 7), consecrated by the presence of the Ark until the Temple was built, is the poetical and pro-, phetical name for Jerusalem in its character as the holy city, the earthly dwelling-place of Jehovah, and the seat of the kingdom which He had established. For a discussion of the topographical difficulties con nected with the site of Zion see Comm. on 2 Samuel, p. 239. 7—9. Jehovah has acknowledged the king as His own: and now the king takes up Jehovah's declaration, and appeals to the Divine, decree of sonship, and the promise of world-wide dominion. 7. the decree] The solemn and authoritative edict, promulgated in the promise made to David and his house through Nathan (2 Sam. vii. 12 ff.). • hath said unto me] Better, said unto me (R.V.), or, said of me. this day] The day when he was anointed king. If Nathan was (as is commonly supposed) Solomon's tutor, he had no doubt trained him to a consciousness of his high calling ; and when in concert with Zadok he anointed him (1 Kings i. 34), he would not fail to impress upon him the significance of the rite. Comp. David's charge to hini in 1 Chr. xxii. 6 ff. have I begotten thee] lis the emphatic word in the clause, contrasting Y thejjew^simsjijpjjyadojiition with the existing sonship by natural relation.' The'recognitionnoiTniJist's eternal sonship in the Resurrection corre sponds to the recognition of the king's adoptive sonship in the rite of anointing (Acts xiii. 33 ; Rom. i. 4). 8. Ask of me] Inheritance is the natural right of sonship. Yet even the son must plead the promise and claim its fulfilment. Dominion over the nations is not expressly mentioned in z Sam. vii. ; but cp. Ps. lxxxix. 27. inheritance ...possession] Words frequently applied to the gift of Canaan to Israel (Gen. xvii. 8; Deut. iv. 21, xxxii. 49). Now the world shall be his with equal right. Jehovah is king of the world, and PSALM II. 9—12. Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron ; c Thou shalt dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel. Be wise now therefore, O ye kings : , Be instructed, ye judges of the earth. Serve the Lord with fear, , And rejoice with trembling. Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, , He offers His representative a. world-wide dominion. Cp. lxxii. 8 ; Zech. ix. 9, to. 9. Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron] A figure for the severity of the chastisement that awaits rebels. Or perhaps, 'an iron sceptre' (xiv. 6), symbol o"f a stern and irresistible rule. But the word rendered break them, if read with different vowels, may mean rule (lit. shepherd) them, so the LXX (and after it Rev. ii. 27 ; xii. 5 ; xix. 15), Syriac, and Jerome. In this case rod will mean a shepherd's staff (Mic. vii. 14), and the phrase will be an oxymoron. a potter's vessel] An emblem of easy, complete, irreparable destruc tion. The confederacy is shattered into fragments which cannot be reunited. Cp. Jer. xix. 11; Is. xxx. 14; Prov. vi. 15. 10 — 12. The poet speaks, drawing the lesson from the great truths which have been set forth. There is a better way. Submission may avert destruction. The leaders of the nations are exhorted to be wise in time, and accept the suzerainty of Jehovah instead of resisting until His wrath is kindled. 10. Be wise now therefore] Now therefore should stand first, as in R.V., emphatically introducing the conclusion to be drawn from the statements of the preceding verses. kings... judges of the earth] Not the rebel leaders of v. 2 exclusively, though the warning has a special significance for them, but all world- rulers. Judges = rulers generally, administration of justice being one of the most important functions of the king in early times. Cp. cxlviii. 1 1 ; Prov. viii. 16. 11. Serve] The context indicates that political submission to Jehovah in the person of His representative is primarily intended. Cp. xviii. 43; lxxii. 11. But the wider meaning must not be excluded. Serve and fear are words constantly used with a religious meaning ; and political submission to Israel is only the prelude to that spiritual Submission of the nations to Jehovah, which is a constant element in the Messianic expectation of the O.T. Cp. xxii. 27, 28; lxvii. 7; c. 1 ff.; cii. 15; &c. rejoice with trembling] There is no need to alter the reading to tremble (xcvi. 9) or to look for this meaning in the word rendered rejoice. Joyfulness tempered with reverent awe befits those who approach One so gracious yet so terrible. Cp. xcvii. 1; c. 2; Hos. iii. 5; xi. 10, 11; Heb. xii. 28. P.B.V. adds unto him with LXX and Vulg. 12. Kiss the Son] According to this rendering the exhortation to serve Jehovah is followed by an exhortation to pay homage to His PSALM II. 12. And ye perish from the way, representative. For the kiss of homage cp. i Sam. x. i ; i Kings xix. 18; Job xxxi. 27; Hos. xiii. 2. But this rendering must certainly be abandoned. (1) Not to mention some minor difficulties, it assumes that the Psalmist has used the Aramaic word bar for son (cp. Bar-jona, Bar- jesus) instead of the usual Hebrew word ben. The only example of its use in the Hebrew of the O.T. (it is of course found in the Aramaic of Ezra and Daniel) is in Prov. xxxi. 1, a. passage which contains other marked Aramaisms. No satisfactory reason has been suggested for its introduction here. We should not expect a poet to borrow a foreign word for son either for 'emphasis' or for 'euphony.' (2) None of the ancient Versions, with the exception of the Syriac, give this sense to the words. They represent two views as to the meaning, (a) The LXX, and of course the Versions dependent on it, render, Lay hold of instruction : and similarly the Targum, Receive in struction, (b) Symmachus and Jerome render, Worship purely ; and to the same effect, but with his usual bald literalism, Aquila gives, Kiss choicely. The Syriac gives the meaning Kiss the son: but its rendering is merely a transcription of the Hebrew words. The reading of the Ambrosian MS., which agrees with the rendering of the LXX, is a correction by a later hand to the reading of the Hexaplar Syriac. Jerome was acquainted with the translation Worship the son, but rejected it as doubtful. The passage in his treatise against Ruffinus (i. 19) deserves quotation. He had been charged with inconsistency for translating Worship purely (adorate pure) in his Psalter; though he had given Woi-ship the son (adorate filium) in his Commentary. After discussing the possible meanings of the words he concludes thus : "Why am I to blame, if I have given different translations of an ambiguous word? and while in my short commentary where there is opportunity for discussion I had said Worship the Son, in the text itself, to avoid all appearance of forced interpretation, and to leave no opening for Jewish cavils, I have said, Worship purely, or choicely ; as Aquila also and Symmachus have translated it. It is however easier to shew that the rendering Kiss the Son is untenable, than to decide what rendering should be adopted. Bar (beside other senses inapplicable here) may mean choice, or, pure. Hence some commentators have adopted the renderings Worship the chosen one; or, Worship in purity (cp. xviii. 20, 24; xxiv. 3 — 5). But the substantial agreement of the LXX and Targum points to the existence of a widely-spread early tradition as to the sense, and on the whole it seems best to follow their general direction and render, Embrace instruction, or perhaps, obedience. No rendering is free from difficulty, and it may be doubted whether the text is sound. But an exaggerated importance has frequently been attached to the words. The uncertainty as to their meaning does not affect the general drift of the Psalm, or its Messianic interpretation. lest he be angry] The subject of the verb is Jehovah Himself. The verb is applied to God in all the thirteen passages where it occurs. PSALM II. 12. III. 13 When his wrath is kindled but a little : Blessed art all they that put their trust in him. perish from the way] Rather, as R.V., perish in the way: find that your expedition leads only to ruin. Cp. i. 6. P.B.V. adds right from the LXX (i% 6S0S iuccdas). when his wrath is kindled but a little] Better, For quickly (or easily) may Ms anger blaze forth. Kindled fails to give the idea of the Divine wrath blazing up to consume all adversaries. Cp. lxxxiii. 14 f. ; Is. xxx. 27. Blessed are all they that put their trust in him] Rather, Happy are all they that take refuge in him: lit. seek asylum or shelter: cp. Jud. ix. 15; Ruth ii. 12 (R.V.); Ps. vii. 1; lvii. 1. Here primarily, those are congratulated who place themselves under His protectorate by accepting the suzerainty of His king; but as in the preceding verse, the deeper spiritual sense must not be excluded. Cp. xxxiv. 8. Nah. i. 7 combines the thought with that of i. 6 a. PSALM III. The third and fourth Psalms are closely connected and should be studied together. The one is a morning hymn, after a night .spent safely in the midst of danger (iii. 5); the other an evening hymn, when the danger, though less imminent, has not passed away (iv. 8). The spirit and the circumstances are the same : there are resemblances of language and of structure. Compare iii. 1 ("they that distress me") with iv. 1 ("in distress"); iii. 2 with iv. 6 ("there be many that say" is an expression peculiar to these two Psalms) ; iii. 3 with iv. 2 ; iii. 5 with iv. 8; and on the structure of Ps. iv see below. They are clearly the work of the same author, in the same crisis of his life. That author is in high position (iii. 6) and speaks with a tone of authority (iv. 2 ff.); he is attacked by enemies, not apparently foreigners (iii. I, 6), whose project is profane and unprincipled (iv. 2, 4, 5) : his cause is pro nounced desperate (iii. 2), but with unshaken faith he appeals to the experience of past deliverances, and with absolute confidence casts himself upon Jehovah for protection and deliverance. We can hardly be wrong in accepting the title which states that the third Psalm was written by David when he fled from Absalom his son, and the third Psalm carries the fourth with it. Of that flight a singularly graphic account is preserved in 2 Sam. xv — xviii. Read in the light of it, these Psalms gain in point and force and vividness. The peril of his position and the ingratitude of the people must be realised in order to estimate duly the strength of the faith and the generosity of feeling, to which these Psalms give expression. The absence of any reference to Absalom himself is thoroughly natural. Comp. 2 Sam. xviii. 33. It has been suggested that the precise occasion of Ps. iii was the morning after the first night following upon David's flight from Jeru salem. That night however was spent in the passage of the Jordan, in consequence of Hushai's urgent message (2 Sam. xvii. 15 — 22), 14 PSALM III. I, 2. and we must rather think of the morning after some night later on, perhaps the next, which had been marked by unexpected rest, in contrast to the sudden alarms of the previous night. The fourth Psalm was written somewhat later, when David had had time to reflect on the true character of the rebellion; perhaps at Mahanaim, which was his head-quarters for some time. The second Psalm describes the Kingdom of the Lord's Anointed threatened by enemies from without : the third and fourth tell of a time when it was in danger from intestine foes. All three alike are inspired by the conviction that human schemes are impotent to frustrate the Divine purpose. The Psalm is divided into four stanzas, each, with the exception of the third, closed by a Selah. i. The present distress, vv. i, 2. ii. God the source of help and protection, vv. 3, 4. iii. Confidence in the midst of danger, w. 5, 6. iv. Prayer for deliverance, and blessing on the people, vv. 7, 8. A Psalm of David, when he fled from Absalom his son. 3 Lord, how are they increased that trouble me 1 Many are they that rise up against me. * Many there be which say of my soul, There is no help for him in God. Selah. 1, 2. David lays his need before Jehovah. He is threatened by a rebellion which hourly gathers fresh adherents. His cause is pro nounced utterly desperate. 1. they... that trouble me] R.V. mine adversaries: lit. they that distress me. Cp. iv. 1. increased. ..many] "The conspiracy was strong; for the people increased continually with Absalom. And there came a messenger to David, saying, The hearts of the men of Israel are after Absalom " (2 Sam. xv. 12, 13; cp. xvi. 15). many are they that rise up against me] lit. many are rising up against me. The rebellion is in full progress and gathering strength. The phrase is used of enemies in general, but is specially appropriate to insurgents against the established government. Cp. 2 Sam. xviii. 31, 32. 2. Faint-hearted friends may be meant, as well as insolent enemies like Shimei, who professed to regard the king's calamities as the divine punishment for his past crimes (2 Sam. xvi. 8 ff.). of my soul] The 'soul' in O. T. language is a man's 'self;' it represents him as a living, thinking, conscious individual. help] Or, salvation, as in v. 8; where see note. Cp. 'save me' in v. 7. But the words 'soul' and 'salvation' are not primarily to be understood in a spiritual sense. in God] As distinguished from men. All help, divine as well as human, fails him in his need. Hence the general term God is used. PSALM III. 3—6. 15 But thou, O Lord, art a shield for me ; My glory, and the lifter up of mine head. I cried unto the Lord with my voice, And he heard me out of his holy hill. Selah. I laid me down and slept ; : I awaked; for the Lord susta:ned me. I will not be afraid of ten thousands of people, 1 But where David expresses his own confident assurance (v. 8) or pleads for help (v. 4), he uses the covenant name Jehovah. The LXX how ever, wliich P.B.V. follows, reads, in his God. 3, 4. Men may say that God has forsaken him, but he knows that it is not so. 3. a shield for me] More significantly the original, a shield about me. A natural metaphor for a warrior-poet. Cp. God's promise to Abraham, Gen. xv. 1 ; Deut. xxxiii. 29; Ps. xviii. 2, &c. my glory] The honour of the Israelite king was derived from Jeho vah, whose representative he was. Cp. xxi. 5 ; lxii. 7 ; and see note on iv. 2. My worship (P. TS.V.) = my honour ox glory. the lifter up of mine head] A general truth. David is still confident that as Jehovah raised him from low estate to royal dignity, and brought him up from depths of trouble in times past, He can even now save him and restore him to the throne. Cp. 2 Sam. xv. 25. 4. An appeal to past experiences of answered prayer. 'As often as I called,' — the imperfect tense in the Heb. denotes repeated action or habit — 'he answered me.' Cp. iv. 1 ; xci. 15. out of his holy hill] Cp. ii. 6. Zion, the seat of the Ark of the covenant, which was the symbol and pledge of Jehovah's presence, is as it were the centre from which He exercises His earthly sovereignty. Cp- xiv. 7; xx. 2; Am. i. 2. There is possibly a tacit reference to the sending back of the Ark (2 Sam. xv. 25), which may have discouraged some of his followers. He would assure them that its absence does not diminish Jehovah's power to help. 5, 6. Not only past but present experience justifies this confidence. 5. The pronoun is emphatic : — /, pursued by enemies, despaired of by friends : — and the words refer to the actual experience of the past night. The calmness which could thus repose in the face of danger was a practical proof of faith. sustained] R.V. sustaineth. The tense suggests the unceasing, ever active care by which he is upheld. The same word is used in xxxvii. 17, 24; lxxi. 6; cxiv. 14. Contrast xxvii. 2. 6. Cp. xxvii. 3. Numbers were on the side of Absalom, and but for the divinely sent infatuation which made him reject Ahithophel's clever advice, in all probability David's handful of followers would have been overwhelmed without effort (2 Sam, xvii. 1 ff.). 16 PSALM III. 7, 8. That have set themselves against me round about. 7 Arise, O Lord ; save me, O my God : For thou hast smitten all mine enemies upon the cheek bone ; Thou hast broken the teeth of the ungodly. i Salvation belongeth unto the Lord : Thy blessing is upon thy people. Selah. set themselves against me] A private individual could hardly speak thus; and we are reminded of Ahithophel's counsel to strike one blow at the king, and save a civil war. 7, 8. The Psalm concludes with a prayer for deliverance as in times past, and for a blessing on the people. 7. Arise, 0 Lord] The opening words of the ancient marching- shout of Israel, rich in memories of deliverance and victory. See Num. x. 35. Cp. Ixviii. 1. for thou hast smitten] Again, as in v. 4, appeal is made to the ex perience of the past as the ground of prayer. Hitherto Jehovah has put His enemies to shame, and destroyed their power for mischief. The buffet on the cheek was a climax of insult which shewed that all spirit and power of resistance were gone. Cp. 1 Kings xxii. 24; Job xvi. 10; Lam. iii. 30; Mic. v. 1. Then, by a natural figure (how appropriate in David's mouth ! cp. 1 Sam. xvii. 34), the wicked are pictured as ferocious wild beasts, rushing upon their prey, but suddenly deprived of their power to hurt. Cp. lviii. 6. 8. Salvation] R. V. marg. victory unduly limits the thought, though no doubt it is the particular form in which David desires to see Jehovah's saving power manifested. 'Save' is the constant prayer, 'salvation' the constant desire, of the Psalmists. The Hebrew words thus rendered denote primarily enlargement, liberation from a state of confinement and distress, power to move freely and at will, and so deliverance generally. Such deliverance comes from Jehovah alone : it is eagerly sought as the proof of His favour. It is, mainly at least, temporal and material, and is looked for in this life ; for in the O. T. this life is the sphere of God's dealings with His people. But the word grows with the growth of reve lation, till it gains an inexhaustible fulness of spiritual meaning in the N. T. thy blessing is upon thy people] Rather as R.V., thy blessing be upon thy people. This prayer reveals the noble heart of the true king, to whom the welfare of his people is more than his own personal safety. Like Him of whom he was the type, he intercedes on behalf of the rebels, for 'thy people' cannot be limited to the loyal few. The whole nation is still Jehovah's people, though they have been misled into revolt against His king. As the sequel shewed, the revolt was the work of a party, not of the nation (2 Sam. xix. 9). PSALM IV. 1. 17 PSALM IV. The occasion of this Psalm has already been discussed in the intro duction to Ps. iii. Some days at least have elapsed. The immediate personal peril is past. Reflection has deepened David's consciousness of his own integrity, and his sense of the rebels' guilt. The Psalm breathes a spirit of righteous indignation, which rises completely above mere personal vindictiveness. Its structure, if the indications afforded by the Selah at the end of v. 2 and v. 4 are to be followed, is similar to that of its companion Psalm. i. Appeal to God, and remonstrance with the rebels, vv. 1,2. ii. The true character of the rebellion exposed, vv. 3, 4. iii. The better way indicated, vv. 5, 6. iv. The supreme joy of perfect trust, vv. 7, 8. Most commentators however divide the Psalm thus: i. Appeal to God, v. 1 ; ii. Remonstrance with enemies, vv. 2 — 5 ; iii. The superiority of God-given joy to all earthly grounds of rejoicing, vv. 6 — 8. This division however neglects the Selah, which serves to emphasise the im portant thought of v. 3, and after v. 4 prepares the way for repentance following on reflection : it ignores the parallelism of structure with Ps. iii, and though at first sight attractive, fails to bring out the true connexion and sequence of the thoughts. To the chief Musician on Neginoth, A Psalm of David. Hear me when I call, O God of my righteousness : Thou hast enlarged me when f was in distress ; The title should be rendered as in R.V., For the Chief Musician ; on stringed instruments. See Introd. pp. xxi f., xxiv- 1, 2. An appeal to God, and an expostulation with men. 1. Hear me&c] When I call, answer me. Cp. c. 3 and iii. 4. The LXX and Vulg. represent a different vocalisation and render, "when I called, the God of my righteousness answered me." This reading agrees well with the second clause of the verse, but on the whole the rhythm of the sentence is in favour of the Massoretic text. 0 God of my righteousness] David is confident of the integrity of his heart and the justice of his cause. To God alone he looks to help him to his right, and vindicate his righteousness openly in the sight of men by making that cause triumphant. Cp. vii. 8 ff . ; 1 Kings viii. 32. thou hast enlarged me] R. V., Thou hast set me at large. But the words are perhaps best taken as a relative clause, thou who hast set me at large ; giving a second reason for his appeal to God in the experience of past deliverances, possibly with particular reference to the events of the last few days. This natural figure for liberation from distress may be derived from the idea of an army which has been hemmed in by iS PSALM IV. 2,3. Have mercy upon me, and hear my prayer. = O ye sons of men, how long will ye turn my glory into shame? How long will ye love vanity, and seek after leasing ? Selah. 3 But know that the Lord hath set apart him that is godly for himself : enemies in some narrow pass escaping into the open plain. Cp. 1 Sam. xxiii. 26 for an illustration. Have mercy upon me] Rather, as marg., be gracious unto me. The word suggests the free bestowal of favour rather than the exercise of forgiving clemency. It is connected with the word rendered ' gracious ' in the fundamental passage Ex. xxxiv. 6. Cp. Ps. lxxxvi. 15. 2. 0 ye sons of men] From appealing to God he turns to remonstrate •- with the rebels, and singles out the leaders from the general mass. The phrase used is bneish, which in xlix. 2 is rendered 'high,'' and in Ixii. 9, 'men of high degree,' in opposition to bne dddm, rendered 'low' and ' men of low degree.' At the same time by calling them 'sons of men' he contrasts them with God, the defender of his cause. my glory] There is no need to inquire whether David's personal honour or his royal dignity is meant. Both are included, for both were defamed and insulted. But it was an aggravation of the rebels' offence that the king had a special 'glory ' as the representative of Jehovah. Cp. iii. 3, note. vanity... leasing] The rebellion is a vain thing, destined to end in failure, like the threatened uprising of the nations (ii. 1): it is a lie, for it is based on the false principle of personal ambition setting itself up against the divinely appointed king. Cp. Is. xxviii. 15, 17. Another possible interpretation would refer the words to the false imputations and underhand intrigues by which Absalom and his confederates sought to tarnish David's reputation and undermine his authority. Cp. 2 Sam. xv. 2 ff. But the verbs used (love. ..seek) point rather to the end desired than to the means employed. leasing] R.V. falsehood. Leasing (v. 6) is an obsolete word for a lie: from A.S. leds, empty, and so false: used by Chaucer, Spenser, and Shakespeare. Cp. Faerie Queene, 11. n. 10: " Slaunderous reproches, and fowle infamies, Leasinges, backby tinges." 3, 4. The reason why the attempt is doomed to failure. Warning to reflect before it is too late. 3. hath set apart] Hath distinguished. The verb combines the idea of marvellous dealing with that of choice and separation. Cp. xvii. 7 ; cxxxix. 14; Is. xxix. 14. him that is godly] The word chdsid which is thus rendered is one of the characteristic words of the Psalter. It is derived from chesed, ' mercy ' or 'lovingkindness,' and denotes either (1) one who is characterised by dutiful love to God and to his fellow-men; the 'godly,' or 'merciful' man, xviii. 25; or (2) 'one who is the object of Jehovah's lovingkind- PSALM IV. 4—6. 19 The Lord will hear when I call unto him. Stand in awe, and sin not: « Commune with your own heart upon your bed, and be still. Selah. Offer the sacrifices of righteousness, : And put your trust in the Lord. There be many that say, Who will shew us any good ? ( Lord, lift thou up the light of thy countenance upon us. ness,' as R.V. margin 'one that He favoureth': cp. A.V. marg., lxxxvi. 2. See Appendix, Note I, for a further discussion of its meaning. 4. Let wholesome fear, continues David, deter you from persisting in this course of action, which is nothing less than sinful. R.V. marg. gives the rendering of the LXX, " Be ye angry," i.e. If you must needs be angry and discontented with my government, do not be carried away by passion into open rebellion. The rendering is possible, for the word is used of the perturbation of wrath as well as of fear. But it gives a less obvious and suitable sense. The words are adopted (but not as an express quotation) by St Paul in his warning against resentment, Eph. iv. 26. commune &c] Lit. speak in your heart. The voice of conscience, unheeded in the turmoil and excitement of the day, or silenced by fear of men and evil example, may make itself heard in the calm solitude of the night, and convince you of the truth. Comp., though the turn of thought is different, lxiii. 6; cxlix. 5. be still] Desist from your mad endeavour. 5, 6. After an interval for reflection indicated by the interlude (Selah) David points the malcontents among the people to the true source of prosperity. 5. sacrifices of righteousness] Sacrifices offered in a right spirit, cp. Deut. xxxiii. 19; Ps. li. 19. The rebels are still addressed. The sacri fices with which they pretended to hallow their cause (2 Sam. xv. 12) were a wretched hypocrisy, inasmuch as they were acting in opposition to the will of God. Let them approach Him in a right spirit, and instead of impatiently trying to remedy evils by revolution, rely entirely upon His guidance. 6. David knows well that there are plenty of discontented grumblers among his subjects, ready to follow anyone who makes them fair promises. His answer to them is a prayer for a blessing upon himself and his people (us), which recalls the great Aaronic benediction of Num. vi. 24 — 26, fusing into one the two petitions, "The Lord make His face to shine upon thee," "the Lord lift up His countenance upon thee." Cp. Ps. xxxi. 16; lxxx. 3, 7, 19. The 'many', as in iii. 2, are chiefly the wavering mass of the people, who had not yet taken a side ; but some at least of Absalom's partisans, and some of David's half-hearted followers are included. PSALM IV. 7, 8. 7 Thou hast put gladness in my heart, More than in the time that their corn and their wine in creased. ;< , s 1 will both lay me down in peace, and sleep : For thou, Lord, only makest me dwell in safety. 1, 8. A joy and peace which are independent of outward circum stances. 7. more than &c] Lit. more than (the joy of) the time of their corn and wine when they were increased: i.e. more than their rejoicings for harvest and vintage even when they were most abundant : well expressed in R.V., more than they have when their corn and their wine are increased. The persons referred to may be either the malcontents, or men in general. The boisterous mirth of harvest and vintage rejoicings (Is. ix. 3; Jer. xlviii. 33) is the highest form of joy which they know whose desires are limited to earthly things ; but deeper far is that inward joy which is the gift of God, for it is one of the fruits of the Spirit, Gal. v. 22; cp. Rom. xiv. 17. The words gain fresh point when it is remembered that David was reduced to straits for the bare necessaries of life till he reached his hospitable friends at Mahanaim (2 Sam. xvii. 27 — 29). 8. In peace will I lay me down and sleep at once: no fears or anxieties delaying slumber. In iii. 5 he recorded his experience : here he gives expression to the trust which sprang from it. for thou Lord, only] For it is thou, Lord, alone, who &c. This exquisite expression of absolute confidence, the rhythm of which in the original is as reposeful as the thought, gives an excellent sense in connexion with the context. 'Many' had declared that he was abandoned by God as well as man (iii. 2), but in unshaken faith he claims Jehovah as his sole protector, beside whom he needs no other. But the word rendered 'alone' elsewhere means apart, when joined with verbs denoting dwelling. Thus it is used of Israel, isolated and separate from the nations, in Num. xxiii. 9 ; and in Deut. xxxiii. '28; Jer. xlix. 31, it is combined with the word here rendered 'in safety'. So probably the meaning is, 'It is Thou, Lord, who makest me dwell apart in safety:' isolated from my foes in Thy safe keeping. Hence R.V. marg. gives, in solitude. PSALM V. Another morning prayer, uttered by one who is exposed to danger from the machinations of unscrupulous and hypocritical enemies. The title assigns it to David, and he might have written thus when he xwas in the court of Saul, or shortly before the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion. It has been urged that v. 7 assumes the existence of the Temple, and is therefore decisive against the Davidic authorship. This however is not certain. The term " house of the Lord " presents no difficulty. PSALM V. 1—3. It is used of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26; Deut. xxiii. 18; Josh. vi. 24; 1 Sam. i. 24, iii. 15), and also of the tent which David pitched for the ark on Mount Zion (2 Sam. xii. 20). But could this ark-tent be called a temple r The Heb. word heycdl denotes a spacious building, whether temple or palace (Ps. xiv. 8, 15), and would not be a strictly appropriate designation for it. It is however applied to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam. i. 9, iii. 3), and may have remained in use, and been applied to the ark-tent in David's time. It should at any rate be noticed that in xxvii. 4, 6, 'house of the Lord,' 'temple,' and 'tent' (A.V. tabernacle) are all used in close juxtaposition. It is moreover at least possible that here, as in xi. 4, xviii. 6, xxix. 9(?), the temple is heaven, the dwelling-place of God, of which the earthly temple is but the symbol. The Psalm opens with an urgent cry for a favourable hearing (1 — 3). Jehovah will not tolerate the wicked (4 — 6); but the Psalmist, through His lovingkindness, is admitted to His presence. He prays that he may be preserved from falling into the snares of his insidious foes (7 — 9) ; and that their just condemnation and punishment may exhibit a proof of God's righteous government which will cheer the hearts of His servants (10 — 12). To the chief Musician upon Nehiloth, A Psalm of David. Give ear to my words, O Lord, 5 Consider my meditation. Hearken unto the voice of my cry, my King, and my God : 2 For unto thee will I pray. My voice shalt thou hear in the morning, O Lord j 3 The title may be rendered with R.V., For the Chief Musician; with the Nehiloth, or, (marg.) wind instruments. See Introd. pp. xxi, xxiv. 1 — 3. Introductory petitions for a favourable hearing. 1. my meditation] The Heb. word, which occurs again only in xxxix. 3, may denote either the unspoken prayer of the heart (cp. the cognate verb in i. 2) ; or the low, murmuring utterance of brooding sorrow. Cp. Is. xxxviii. 14. So Jerome, murmur meum. 2. my cry] A word specially used of an imploring cry to God for help (xxii. 24; xxviii. 2; &c). my King, and my God] Cp. lxxxiv. 3. The language is all the more significant, if the petitioner was David. He appeals to Hiin, Whose chosen representative he was. 3. O Lord, in the morning shalt thou hear my voice ; In the morning will I order my prayer unto thee, and will keep watch. (R.V.). 'In the morning' is repeated with emphasis. The first thought of the day is prayer. Cp. lv. 17, lxxxviii. 13; lix. 16, xcii. 1, lvii. S. PSALM V. 4, 5. fn the morning will I direct my prayer unto thee, and will look up. 4 For thou art not a God that hath pleasure in wickedness : Neither shall evil dwell with thee. s The foolish shall not stand in thy sight : will I direct] Better, as R.V., will I order. The word means to arrange, and is used of setting in order the pieces of wood (Gen. xxii. 9; Lev. i. 7), or the parts of the sacrifice (Lev. i. 8), upon the altar. One of the first duties of the priests in the morning was to prepare the wood for the morning sacrifice, which was offered at sunrise (Lev. vi. 12 ; Num. xxviii. 4). Hence some commentators think that the Psalmist intends to compare his daily morning prayer to the daily morning sacrifice. Cp. cxii. ». But the word 'order' has no ex clusive or even predominant sacrificial reference; and we should probably rather compare the expressions ' to order one's words ' or 'one's cause' in Job xxxii. 14, xxiii. 4, and the more closely parallel use of the word without an object in Job xxxiii. 5, xxxvii. 19. and will look up] Rather, as R.V., will keep watcn, for an answer, like a sentinel on the look out (2 Sam. xviii. 24). Cp. Micah vii. 7 ; Hab. ii. 1. 4 — 6. The ground of the Psalmist's confident expectation of an answer is the holiness of God, who will tolerate no evil. Comp. the ideal of an earthly king's court in Ps. ci. 4. a God] El, not Elohim. If the fundamental idea of this name for God is that oi power1, its use here is significant. Power without goodness is the fetishistic conception of deity, to which human nature is prone (1. 21). neither shall evil dwell with thee] Rather, as R.V. marg., with the LXX, Vulg. and Jerome, The evil man shall not sojourn with thee. He cannot be (so to speak) God's guest, and enjoy the hospitality and protection which Oriental custom prescribes. See on xv. 1, and cp. Ixi. 4. To sinners the divine holiness is a consuming fire which they cannot endure (Is. xxxiii. 14). 6, 6. Various classes of evil doers. The foolish, or rather the arrogant, a word denoting boastful blustering presumption rather than folly ; cp. Ixxiii. 3, Ixxv. 4 : workers of iniquity, the standing expression in the Psalms for those who make a practice of what is morally worth less (cp. John iii. 20, v. 29); those 'that speak lies' (for leasing see on iv. 2); cp. lviii. 3, vii. 14: men of bloodshed and deceit, who do not shrink from murder and that by treachery, in fact the Shimeis and Doegs and Ahithophels and Joabs of David's time. shall not stand in thy sight] This may simply mean that they cannot impose upon God. He passes judgement on their hollow pre tensions (cp. i. 5), and they shrink away condemned. But the idea is 1 Attractive but questionable is Lagarde's explanation of the name El as ' the Being to Whom man turns,' the aim and end of all human longing and effort. PSALM V. 6—8. 23 Thou hatest all workers of iniquity. Thou shalt destroy them that speak leasing : 6 The Lord will abhor the bloody and deceitful man. But as for me, I will come into thy house in the multitude 7 of thy mercy : And in thy fear will I worship toward thy holy temple. Lead me, O Lord, in thy righteousness because of mine 8 enemies j probably rather of courtiers standing in the presence of a monarch. Cp. Prov. xxii. 29 ; Ps. ci. 7 ; and the picture of the heavenly council in Job i. 6, ii. 1. will abhor] Abhorreth ; a strong word : abominates, as something wholly unnatural and detestable. 7 — 9. In sharp contrast to the banishment of the wicked from God's presence is the Psalmist's freedom of access. He prays for the special guidance needed by one who is surrounded by insidious enemies. 7. / will come &c] Better, as R.V., following the order of the original : in the multitude [or, abundance] of thy lovingkindness will I come into thy house. Cp. lxix. 13, 16, cvi. 7, 45. The wicked are excluded from Jehovah's presence by their own act; the godly man is admitted to it by Jehovah's grace. Note the contrast between "the multitude of thy lovingkindness," and "the multitude of their trans gressions," v. 10. and in thy fear] Omit and. Fear, reverent awe, is the right spirit for approach to a holy God. Cp. ii. 11 ; Heb. xii. 28, 29. will I worship] The Heb. word means to prostrate one's self, the Oriental attitude of reverence to a superior or supplication (Gen. xviii. 2) ; hence in general, of the corresponding disposition of mind, to worship. The Psalmist worships facing the sanctuary which was the outward sign of Jehovah's presence among His people. Or is the heavenly temple meant? (1 Kings viii. 22). 8. The prayer for guidance which is the main object and central thought of the Psalm. Lead me. ..in thy righteousness] i.e. because Thou art righteous. / A comparison of xxiii. 3; Prov. viii. 20; xii. 28; might incline us to understand the meaning to be, 'Lead me in the path of right conduct which Thou hast marked out for me : ' but the true parallels are xxxi. t, lxxi. i, cxix. 40, cxliii. 1, n; which shew clearly that God's own righteousness is meant. One element of that righteousness is faithfulness to His saints in the fulfilment of covenant promises, and to this the Psalmist appeals. because of mine enemies] A peculiar word found only in xxvii. 11, liv. 5, lvi. 2, lix. 10. Render, as in R.V. margin, them that lie in wait \ for me, like fowlers (Jer. v. 26, R.V.), or a leopard for its prey (Hos. xiii. 7). He prays that he may be preserved from falling into their snares. 24 PSALM V. 9— n. Make thy way straight before my face. 9 For there is no faithfulness in their mouth ; Their inward part is very wickedness : Their throat is an open sepulchre; They flatter with their tongue. i° Destroy thou them, O God ; Let them fall by their own counsels ; Cast them out in the multitude of their transgressions ; For they- have rebelled against thee. " But let all those that put their trust in thee rejoice : make thy way straight] Or, as P.B.V. and R.V., plain. The word means both level and straight. The godly man's life is a path marked out for him by God (xvii. 5, Ixxiii. 24, lxxxvi. n). He prays that it may be such that he may be in no danger of stumbling or losing his way. 'Bring us not into temptation.' 9. The reason for the Psalmist's special need of guidance is the treacherous character of his enemies. There is no stedfastness, nothing upon which he can depend, in their talk: their inmost heart is bent on destruction (lit. is destructions, or perhaps, as R.V. marg., a yawning gulf): their throat, the instrument of speech (cxv. 7, cxlix. 6), threatens death like an open grave, though their words are so smooth and specious. 10 — 12. As he calls to mind their malice he can no longer refrain, but breaks out into urgent prayer that sentence may be passed upon them as guilty of high treason against God ; that so, in the triumph of the right, the godly may rejoice in God's favour and protection. On such prayers see Introduction, p. lxxxviii ff. 10. Destroy thou them, O God] R.V. , Hold them guilty ; punish them; for it is by visible failure and disaster that their condemnation is to be made known. let them fall by their own counsels] Let their own machinations recoil on their heads and bring them to ruin. Cp. 2 Sam. xv. 31. Better so than as margin, fall from, i.e. fail in, their counsels. Cp. lxiv. 8. cast them out] As no longer worthy to dwell in the land : or, thrust them down from the position which they occupy. Cp. lxii. 4 ; xxxvi. 12. for they have rebelled against thee] Rebellion against the king was in a. special way rebellion against Jehovah, whose representative he was. But it may refer quite generally to their defiance of divine authority, and their persecution of God's servant. 11. We may render more exactly : So shall all those that take refuge in thee rejoice, They shall ever shout for joy while thou protectest them, And they that love thy name shall exult in thee. PSALM V. 12. 25 Let them ever shout for joy, because thou defendest them : Let them also that love thy name be joyful in thee. For thou, Lord, wilt bless the righteous ; 1 With favour wilt thou compass him as with a shield. The punishment of the wicked according to their deeds is an occasion for the universal rejoicing of the godly. Not only do they sympathise with their fellow-saint in his deliverance, but they see in it a vindication of Jehovah's righteous government, and an assurance that those who have put themselves under His protection will not find their confidence misplaced. that love thy name] Cp. lxix. 36, cxix. 132. 'The Name of Jehovah' is the compendious expression for His character and attri butes as He has revealed them to men. See Oehler's 0. T. Theology, § 56. Needs must those who love Him as He has revealed Himself rejoice when He proves Himself true to His promises. defendest them] Protectest, or shelterest them; in Thy secret pavilion (xxvii. 5, xxxi. 20); or, under Thy outspread wings (xci. 4). 12. The R.V. follows the Massoretic punctuation in transferring Lord to the second half of the verse : 0 Lord, thou wilt compass him with favour as with a shield. a shield] A truckler, or large shield to protect the whole body. Cp. xxxv. 2, xci. 4; 1 Sam. xvii. 7. From : Kings x. 16, 17 it would seem that the 'buckler' (A.V. 'target') was about double the size of the ' shield.' PSALM VI. The Psalmist has been suffering from severe and long-continued sickness, which has brought him to the brink of the grave. The most bitter part of his trial is that he feels it to be a token of God's dis pleasure ; and malicious enemies aggravate his suffering by taunting him with being forsaken by God. This is the natural view of the Psalmist's situation. Many however think that the attacks of enemies are his chief and primary ground of complaint, though these have wrought upon him until mental anxiety has produced actual sickness. But it is plain from w. 1 — 3 that he is suffering from a direct divine visitation, and that the persecution of which he complains (v. 7) is a consequence and aggravation of it. Suffering and misfortune were popularly regarded (as we learn from the Book of Job) as evidences of commensurate guilt on the part of the sufferer. Hence when the godly suffered, he became a butt for the scornful taunts of the godless. Cp. Ps. xli. The title assigns the Psalm to David. Some, wrongly supposing that the hostility of enemies is the chief ground of complaint, would refer it to the time when he was persecuted by Saul : others think that this and some other Psalms were the outcome of a dangerous illness from which he suffered in the interval between his sin with Bathsheba and Absalom's rebellion. The fact is that here^ as in many other Psalms, there is little or nothing to fix the author or even the period to 26 PSALM VI. i, 2. which the Psalm belongs. This however is clear, that the Psalm is the record of a personal experience, not the utterance of the nation in a time of calamity, personified as a sick and persecuted sufferer. Comp. Ps. xxx, which is a corresponding thanksgiving. This Psalm is the first of the seven known from ancient times in the Christian Church as 'the Penitential Psalms' (vi, xxxii, xxxviii, li, cii, cxxx, cxliii). They are all prescribed for use on Ash Wednesday, the 51st in the Commination Service, and the remaining six as Proper Psalms. The Psalm falls into three divisions : i. The cry of anguish for relief in suffering, 1 — 3. ii. Earnest yet calmer pleading for deliverance, 4 — 7. iii. Triumphant assurance of answered prayer and restoration to God's favour, 8 — 10. To the chief Musician on Neginoth upon Sheminith, A Psalm of David. 6 O Lord, rebuke me not in thine anger, Neither chasten me in thy hot displeasure. a Have mercy upon me, O Lord ; for I am weak : O Lord, heal me ; for my bones are vexed. The title should be rendered as in R.V., For the Chief Musician; on stringed instruments, set to the Sheminith (or, the eighth). See Introd. pp. xxi, xxiv f. 1 — 3. The Psalmist pleads for mercy, deprecating the severity ol God's visitation. 1. The emphasis in the original lies on the words not in Thine anger, neither in Thy hot displeasure. The Psalmist pleads that his present suffering exceeds the measure of loving correction (Job v. 17; Prov. iii. 11, 12; Jer. x. 24; Rev. iii. 19). He can only interpret it as a sign that the wrath of God is resting upon him. Perhaps, like Job, he can detect no special sin to account for it. At least it is noteworthy that the Psalm contains no explicit confession of sin, and in this respect it is a remark able contrast to the kindred Ps. xxxviii, which opens with the same words. 2. Have mercy upon me] Be gracious unto me. See note on iv. 1. /am weak] R.V., I am withered away, retaining the primary mean ing of the word. Cp. Nah. i. 4, where it is rendered languisheth. heal me] So Jeremiah prays (xvii. 14), combining this petition with that of v. 4. Cp. Job v. 18; Ps. xxx. 2; xli. 4; cxlvii. 3. for my bones are vexed] Even the solid framework of the body, the seat of its strength and solidity, is racked and shaken well nigh to dis solution. Cp. xxii. 14. 'The bones,' in the language of Hebrew poetry, denote the whole physical organism of the living man, as being the fundamental part of it. Hence they are the seat of health (Prov. xvi. 24), or of pain, as here. In some passages, 'the bones' come to be identified with the man himself, as a living agent. Cp. xxxv. 10. On the word 'vexed,' see note on ii. 5. PSALM VI. 3—5. 27 My soul is also sore vexed : But thou, O Lord, how long ? Return, O Lord, deliver my soul : O save me for thy mercy's sake. For in death there is no remembrance of thee : In the grave who shall give thee thanks ? 3. Mind as well as body, the inner self as well as its outer organism, is dismayed. Our Lord appropriates these words, in view of His approaching Passion (John xii. 27), using the Greek word (Tapaaaeiv) employed by the LXX. how long?] Cp. xc. 13. How pregnant is the aposiopesis! How long wilt Thou be angry? How long wilt Thou hide Thy face and refuse to hear me? Cp. xiii. 1. It is recorded of Calvin in his last painful illness that he uttered no word of complaint unworthy of a Christian man ; only raising his eyes to heaven he would say Usquequo Domine (Lord, how long?) for even when he was in health, this was a kind of watchword with him, in refer ence to the troubles of the brethren (Vita: Opp. Tom. 1). He renews his prayer, and in a calmer tone, reasons with God. 4. Return] For Jehovah seems to have abandoned him. Cp. xc. '3- 0 save me for thy mercy s sake] R.V., save me for thy loving kindness' sake. Jehovah declares Himself to be "a God... plenteous in lovingkindness and truth, who keeps lovingkindness for thousands" (Ex. xxxiv. 7, 8), and the Psalmist intreats Him to be true to this central attribute in His own revelation of His character. 5. A further plea. There can be no gain in his death. Nay, Jeho vah will be the loser by it. For man is created to praise God, and God delights in his praise. But in the state to which man passes at death, he can no longer gratefully call to mind His goodness (cxiv. 7), or celebrate His praise. Here, as in xxx. 9, lxxxviii. 10 — 12, cxv. 17 (cp. Is. xxxviii. 18 ff. ; the Book of Job; Eccles. ix. 5, vi. 10); we meet with that dreary despairing view of the state after death, which the Hebrews shared with the rest of the ancient world. They did not look forward to annihilation, but to a dreamy, shadowy, existence which did not deserve the name of life. The dead, they thought, were cut off from all activity and enjoy ment, and worst of all, from the consciousness of God's presence, and from that communion with Him, which is the essence of 'life' (xxx. 5). It is hardly possible for us who live in the light of Christ's Resurrection (2 Tim. i. 10), to realise what the lifelong slavery to the fear of death (Heb. ii. 15) meant to the faithful Israelite, and the bold struggles of his faith to break the fetters. See Introd. p. xciii ff. in the grave] It is far better, with the R.V., to retain the Hebrew [ word Sheol to denote the abode of the departed. It is the O.T. equi- ' valent of Hades, by which it is rendered in the LXX. It was thought 28 PSALM VI. 6— 10. 6 I am weary with my groaning ; All the night make I my bed to swim ; I water my couch with my tears. 7 Mine eye is consumed because of grief ; It waxeth old because of all mine enemies. s Depart from me, all ye workers of iniquity ; For the Lord hath heard the voice of my weeping. 9 The Lord hath heard my supplication ; The Lord will receive my prayer. i° Let all mine enemies be ashamed and sore vexed : Let them return and be ashamed suddenly. of as a vast subterranean abyss, where all alike were gathered ; a place of gloom and silence, but withal of rest, however joyless, for its shadowy denizens have no more power to do harm than good. " There the wicked cease from troubling; and there the weary be at rest." Cp. Job iii. 13 — 19; Is. xiv. 9 ff. See Oehler's O.T. Theology, § 78. 6. / am weary with my groaning] So Baruch complained, Jer. xiv. 3, R. V. Cp. Ps. lxix. 3. all the night] Rather, every night. His sorrow is of long con tinuance, and knows no respite. 7. Mine eye is wasted away because of provocation ; It is waxed old because of all mine adversaries. With the first clause comp. xxxi. 9. The look of the eye is a sure indi cation of the state of health, mental and bodily. The word rendered adversaries means literally them that distress me. Cp. vii. 4, 6; and the cognate words in iii. 1, iv. 1. 8 — 10. The cloud breaks. Heaviness is turned to joy. With a sudden inspiration of faith the Psalmist realises that his prayer is heard, and predicts the speedy confusion of his enemies. 8. Depart from me, all ye workers of iniquity] Words used by our Lord, Matt. vii. 23. 9. Twice he repeats the confident assertion of faith, that Jehovah has heard his prayer, and with equal confidence adds the assurance that He will accept it favourably, and not reject it. Cp. 1 John v. 14, 15. 10. It is better to render the verbs as future : All mine enemies shall he ashamed and sore vexed ; They shall turn back, they shall be ashamed in a moment. The 'dismay', which he had felt to be a token of divine displeasure (w. 2, 3), is now retorted upon those who took a malicious delight in his misfortunes. When God returns to His servant, his assailants are repulsed in sudden and ignominious defeat. Cp. xxxv. 4, 26, lvi. 9, lxxxiii. 17. PSALM VII. 29 PSALM VII. The Psalmist is assailed by ruthless enemies who are bent upon taking his life, charging him with heinous crimes. He solemnly protests entire innocence, and appeals to God as the supreme Judge to vindicate his cause. The title gives a clue to the circumstances under which the Psalm was written. It is called "Shiggaion of David, which he sang unto the LORD, concerning the words of Cush a Benjamite." Shiggaion (see Introd. p. xx) probably denotes a poem of passionate ecstatic character, written under the influence of strong emotion, and reflecting its origin in its form. Cush is not mentioned elsewhere. It is plain however that he was one of those fellow tribesmen and close adherents of Saul, who in sinuated that David was intriguing against the king's life (1 Sam. xxii. 8) and by their baseless calumnies further inflamed his already irritated mind. Of such slanderers David complains in 1 Sam. xxiv. 9, xxvi. 19. Cush is simply a proper name not otherwise known to us. There is no reason for taking it to mean a Cushite or Ethiopian (super verba Aethiopis, Jerome) ; or as a by-name for Saul himself as a black-hearted man (though the identification of Cush with Saul is as old as the Targum); still less for identifying Cush with Shimei. The fact that Cush is not elsewhere mentioned shews that the title is of great antiquity. It comes, if not from David himself, at least from an editor who possessed fuller information about David's history, either in still living tradition, or in writings such as those mentioned in 1 Chr. xxix. 29. The Psalm belongs then to that period of David's life, when he was hunted from place to place by Saul ; and it strikingly reflects the cha racteristic feelings of that time as they are portrayed in the Book of Samuel. 1 Sam. xxi — xxvi, especially xxiv and xxvi, should be read in illustration of it. Compare particularly the reference to slanders in the title with 1 Sam. xxiv. 9, xxvi. 19 : the virulence of persecution described in vv. 1, 2 with 1 Sam. xx. 1, 31, xxiii. 15, &c: the protestations of innocence in vv. 3, 4 with 1 Sam. xx. 1, xxiv. to, 11, 17, xxvi. 18, 23, 24: the appeal to God as Judge in vv. 6, 8 with 1 Sam. xxiv. 12, 15. The energy and vigour of the Psalm correspond to the circumstances. Pressing danger, the rankling sense of injustice, a strong faith in the judicial righteousness of God, are its inspiring motives. Ancient Jewish tradition prescribes it for use on the feast of Purim. The Psalm falls into two principal divisions, the first mainly personal, the second general: i. David's prayer for God's intervention on his behalf, vv. 1 — 10. After an appeal setting forth the urgency of his need (1, 2) and a solemn protestation of his innocence of the crimes laid to his charge (3 — 5), David prays God to appear as Judge, and publicly do him justice (6 — 8). A prayer for the triumph of righteousness, and a con- 30 PSALM VII. 1—4- fident expression of trust in God, (9, 10) close the first part, and form the transition to the second part. ii. The judicial activity of God, vv. 11— 17. God unceasingly executes vengeance on the wicked (11 — 13); and wickedness works its own punishment (14—16). Concluding ascription of praise to Jehovah for this manifestation of His righteousness (17). . Shiggaion of David, which he sang unto the Lord, concerning the words of Cush ihe Benjamite. 7 O Lord my God, in thee do I put my trust : Save me from all them that persecute me, and deliver me : 2 Lest he tear my soul like a lion, Rending it in pieces, while there is none to deliver. 3 O Lord my God, if I have done this ; If there be iniquity in my hands ; , If I have rewarded evil unto him that was at peace with me; 1, 2. The Psalmist's cry for help, based on Jehovah's relation to him. 1. in thee do I put my trust] In thee have I taken refuge. See note on ii. 12, and comp. the opening words of Pss. xi, xvi, xxxi, lvii, lxxi; and cxii. 8. David has put himself under Jehovah's protection, and appeals to Him on the ground of this covenant relationship between them. In thee is emphatic. all them that persecute me] R.V., all them that pursue me. Saul and his followers. Cp. 1 Sam. xxiii. 28, xxiv. 14, xxv. 29, xxvi. 18. 2. His enemies are many, but one is conspicuous above all for merciless ferocity. Cush, or perhaps Saul himself, is meant (1 Sam. xx. 1). For the simile cp. x. 9, xvii. 12, xxii. 13, 21. my soul] My life : me, regarded as a living individual. 3 — 5. The appeal for help is supported by a solemn protestation of innocence. If he is guilty of the crimes laid to his charge, may he be surrendered to the utmost fury 'of his enemies. 3. if I have done this] ' This ' refers to the crimes of which he was falsely accused by Cush, and is further explained in the two following lines. if there be iniquity in my hands] Wrong as the opposite of right : what is crooked and distorted : a different word from that used in v. 14 and in v. 5. Compare the closely similar language of David's protest in 1 Sam. xxiv. 11, "Know thou and see that there is neither evil nor transgression in mine hand:" and 1 Sam. xxvi. 18, "What have I done? or what evil is in mine hand?" 4. If I have rewarded evil &c] If I have been guilty of un provoked outrage, such, it is perhaps implied, as that of which Saul is guilty toward me (1 Sam. xxiv. 17). This is probably right; but another possible rendering deserves mention : If I have requited him PSALM VII. 5, 6. 31 (Yea, I have delivered him that without cause is mine enemy :) Let the enemy persecute my soul, and take */ ; 5 Yea, let him tread down my life upon the earth, And lay mine honour in the dust. Selah. Arise, O Lord, in thine anger, t that rewarded me evil ; i.e. taken revenge into my own hands. Cp. David's solemn disclaimer of such conduct in i Sam. xxiv. 12. Yea, I have delivered him that without cause is mine enemy] R. V., him that without cause was mine adversary, as in u. 6. See on vi. 7. The clause is u parenthesis, asserting that his conduct had been the very opposite of that which was attributed to him. Far from committing unprovoked outrages, he had saved the life of his enemy, and that though the enemy's hostility to him was causeless. The words refer to the occasions in the cave and in the camp, when David prevented his followers from taking Saul's life (1 Sam. xxiv. 4 ff. ; xxvi. 8 ff.). The construction is bold, but it is thoroughly in keeping with the style of the Psalm, with its passionate protestations of innocence; and there is no need to adopt an unsupported meaning of the word for 'deliver,' and render, not as a parenthesis but in direct continuation of tbe preceding clause, and have spoiled him that with out cause was mine adversary, with a supposed reference to 1 Sam. xxiv. 4, 5, or xxvi. ii : or to alter the text by transposing two letters, so as to mean : and oppressed mine adversary without cause. 6. Render : Let an enemy pursue my soul and overtake it ; Yea, trample my life to the ground, And make my glory to dwell in the dust. With the first line comp. Ex. xv. 9, echoed again in Ps. xviii. 37. The last line might mean only, ' degrade my dignity, treat me with insult and ignominy;' but the parallelism of 'my soul,' 'my life,' 'my glory,' is decisive in favour of interpreting 'my glory' to mean 'my soul,' as in xvi. 9; xxx. 12; lvii. 8. The 'soul' is so designated either as the noblest part of man, or as the image of the divine glory. ' The dust ' will then be 'the dust of death.' Cp. xxii. 15; and the exact parallel 'dwellers in the dust,' Is. xxvi. 19. David then invokes death by an enemy's hand if he is guilty, and death, as the language implies, with every circumstance of violence and disgrace. 6 — 8. Conscious of his integrity, David appeals to Jehovah, as the Judge of the world, to hold an assize, and vindicate his innocence. 6. Arise. ..lift up thyself. ..awake] Cp. iii. 7, ix. 19, x. 12, xliv. 23, xciv. 2, and many similar invocations; couched in human language, as though God could be an otiose spectator, or even like a sentinel negli gently slumbering on his watch, though the Psalmists well knew that Israel's watchman neither slumbered nor slept (cxxi. 3, 4). in thine anger] Cp. vi. 1. Holiness and Justice can only be mani fested as anger in their judicial relation to sin and wrong. 32 PSALM VII. 7, 8. Lift up thyself because of the rage of mine enemies : And awake for me to the judgment that thou hast com manded. 7 So shall the congregation of the people compass thee about: For their sakes therefore return thou on high. 8 The Lord shall judge the people : Judge me, O Lord, according to my righteousness, because of the rage of mine enemies] Or, against the ragings of mine adversaries. and awake for me to the judgment that thou hast commanded] The R.V., and awake for me ; thou hast commanded judgement, represents the abruptness of the original. The exact turn of the thought is obscure. Perhaps, with a sudden intuition of faith, David realises that his prayer for God's interposition is answered, and, so to speak, the commission issued for holding the assize which he proceeds to describe in vv. 7, 8. Or the words may give the ground of his prayer : 'arise, inasmuch as judgement is Thy ordinance and function ' (Gen. xviii. 25). 7. Render : And let the assembly of peoples come round about thee : And over it return thou on high. The judgement scene. The Psalmist prays that ' the peoples ' may be summoned to stand round the tribunal. It is a general summons. No distinction is made between Israel and other nations. Jehovah is exercising His judicial functions in their fullest extent as the Judge of all the earth. The second line is difficult. There is much authority in favour of the interpretation, ' Return to heaven, when the judgement is finished, soaring away above the vast throng and vanishing to Thy abode on high, thus proving that Thou art the supreme Judge of all.' This explanation no doubt presents a grand poetic picture ; but it is clearly untenable, for no mention has yet been made of the judgement, and v. 8 goes on to speak of it as in progress. It is best (if the Masso retic text is retained) to explain : 'once more occupy the throne of judge ment above the assembly, resume the judicial functions which seem for a time to have been abandoned.' But it is doubtful if the word 'return' fairly yields this sense, and it is probable that we should change the vowel points, and read sit instead of return. ' Over it take Thy seat on high ' upon the throne of judgement, gives precisely the sense needed by the context. Comp. the parallels in the closely related Ps. ix., vv. 4, 7. 8. Render as R.V. : The LORD ministereth judgement to the peoples. Jehovah has taken His seat and opened the assize (cp. the exactly similar sequence of ideas in ix. 7, 8 : and see Is. iii. 13, 14, R.V.) : and the Psalmist comes forward with a plea to have justice done him. judge me] Here as elsewhere, of a judgement favourable to the peti tioner (xxvi. i, xxxv. 24, xliii. 1, lxxxii. 3): 'do me justice.' David PSALM VII. 9— n. 33 And according to mine integrity that is in me. 0 let the wickedness of the wicked come to an end ; but 9 establish the just : For the righteous God trieth the hearts and reins. My defence is of God, 10 Which saveth the upright in heart. God judgeth the righteous, it challenges a decision according to his righteousness and his integrity ; not that he would claim to be perfect and sinless, but he has "a con science void of offence toward God and toward men," and protests his innocence of the charges of treachery which have been brought against him. See Introduction, p. lxxxvii ff. Comp. 1 Sam. xxvi. 23 (R.V.). that is in me] The marg. alternative of R.V., be it unto me, is suggested to meet a difficulty in the usage of the preposition, which commonly means upon. But the rendering of the text can be defended as a well established idiom, of which examples will be found in xlii. 6, 11 ; or we may render upon me, and regard righteousness and integrity as a cloak which envelopes the Psalmist. Cp. Job xxix. 14. 9, 10. His own personal need is but one small part of the great cause, and he passes on to pray for the larger hope of the universal destruction of evil and triumph of the righteous. 9. More exactly : 0 that the evil of wicked men might come to an end, and that thou wouldest establish the righteous ; For a trier of hearts and reins is God the righteous. The last clause adds the ground upon which the hope and prayer of the first clause is based. God is righteous, and He is a discerner of hearts ; there can therefore be no doubt of His will and His ability to distinguish between the righteous and the wicked by an impartial judgement. Cp. t Sam. xvi. 7; Is. xi. 3, 4. According to the ancient exegetical tra dition represented by the Hebrew accents (Wickes' Treatise on the Accentuation &c, p. 43), the first clause should be rendered, 0 let evil make an end of the wicked, and it is certainly a striking truth that the punishment of the wicked springs out of their own misdeeds: comp. vv. 14 ff., and perhaps xxxiv. 21 : but the sense given by the LXX, Jerome, and the English Versions is probably right. trieth the hearts and reins] A favourite thought with Jeremiah : see ch. xi. 20, xvii. 10, xx. 12; cp. Rev. ii. 23. The heart is regarded in the O.T. as the organ of thought and will, which determines the man's moral and religious character, the reins (kidneys) as the seat of the emotions: see Delitzsch, Biblical Psychology, § xiii.; and Oehler, Old Testament Theology, § 71. 10. My defence is of God] R.V., my shield is with God. Lit. my shield is upon God; it rests with God to defend me. Cp. lxii. 7. 11 — 13. The theme of the judicial righteousness of God, in all its certainty and terribleness, is further developed. 34 PSALM VII. 12—14. And God is angry with the wicked every day. " If he turn not, he will whet his sword ; He hath bent his bow, and made it ready. 13 He hath also prepared for him the instruments of death ; He ordaineth his arrows against the persecutors. ¦ 4 Behold, he travaileth with iniquity, And hath conceived mischief, And brought forth falsehood. 11. Render with R. V. ; God (Elohim) is a righteous judge, Yea, a God [ED that hath indignation every day. Whatever men may think (x. 4, 11, 13), God's judicial wrath against evil never rests. The addition strong and patient in P.B.V. is derived from the LXX through the Vulgate, strong being a rendering of El, and patient a gloss. 12. If a man turn not from his evil way and repent, God 'will whet his sword : ' nay, He has already strung His bow and made it ready to discharge the arrow of punishment. God is described under the figure of a warrior, armed with sword and bow to execute vengeance on the wicked. Cp. Deut. xxxii. 41, 42. The tenses of the first clause represent the judgement as in process of preparation from time to time; those of the second clause as ready to be launched against the offender at any moment. The wicked aim their arrows at the upright in heart (xi. 2), but 'the saviour of the upright in heart' aims His arrows at them and frustrates their plots. R.V. marg. Surely he will again whet his sword is a possible but less satisfactory rendering, w. 12, 1 3 may then be referred either to God, or to the enemy intending to renew his attack. 13. Render : Yea at him hath he aimed deadly missiles ; Making his arrows fiery. Or, Yea, for him hath he prepared &c. The description of the warrior-judge is continued. God's arrows are His lightnings (xviii. 14; Zech. ix. 14), which He aims at the impenitent sinner. There may be a reference to the fire-darts of ancient warfare (Lat. malleoli), arrows with tow, pitch, and other inflammable materials attached to them, lighted and discharged into a besieged town with the object of setting it on fire. Cp. ' the fire- charged darts of the evil one,' Eph. vi. 16. 14 — 16. The punishment of the wicked described from another point of view as the natural result of his own actions. He falls into the snare which he laid for others. 14. Render the second line, Yea he conceiveth mischief and bringeth forth falsehood. Words of studied ambiguity are chosen, ironically describing the action of the wicked man in its intention and its result. The 'iniquity' PSALM VII. 15—17. 35 He made a pit, and digged it, And is fallen into the ditch which he made. His mischief shall return upon his own head, And his violent dealing shall come down upon his own pate. I will praise the Lord according to his righteousness : And will sing praise to the name of the Lord most High. (lit. worthlessness : see on v. 5) which he laboriously plans is destined to prove vanity and failure: the 'mischief which he conceives for others issues in calamity for himself: the resultant 'falsehood' de ceives not others but himself. Cp. for the figure, Job xv. 35 ; Is. xxxiii. 1 1 , lix. 4. 15. More exactly : He hath dug a pit and delved it deep, And is fallen into the ditch he was making. Another picture of the destruction of the wicked. He 'is snared in the work of his own hands' (ix. 16). The figure is taken from the pitfalls used by hunters. See Ezek. xix. 4; and cp. lvii. 6; Eccl. x. 8. Observe the graphic force of the tense in the last line. His schemes for the destruction of others prove his own ruin even before he has com pleted them. 16. The certain recoil of evil upon the evil-doer. Cp. 1 Sam. xxv. 39: and the figures in Prov. xxvi. 27, and Ecclus. xxvii. 25, "Whoso casteth a stone on high casteth it on his own head." 17. A closing doxology. I will praise the Lord] R.V., I will give thanks unto the Lord. The idea conveyed by this word, so characteristic of the Psalter, is that of the acknowledgement due from man to God for His goodness. Hence the rendering of the LXX, i^op.oXoyi\aopai, and of the Vulg. , confitebor. according to his righteousness] Manifested and vindicated in the judgment of the wicked. the name of the Lord Most High] Since He has thus revealed Himself in His character of Supreme Governor of the world. On the title Most High see Appendix, Note II. PSALM VIII. It is the marvel of God's choice of man to be the chief revelation of Himself and His representative on earth that is the theme of this Psalm. Although God's glory is so conspicuously stamped upon the heavens, He makes infants the defenders of His cause (1, 2). The infinite vastness of the heavens would seem to make a puny creature like man beneath God's notice (3, 4). Not so, for He has made him in His own image, and appointed him His viceroy over creation (5, 6), in all its varied forms of Hfe (7, S). 36 PSALM VIII. Man then, not Nature, is the central thought in the poet's mind. It is indeed the contemplation of the heavens with all their wealth of mystery and magnificence which by the law of contrast has turned his gaze to man. Nature is wonderful as the reflection of God's glory, but man is more wonderful still. Mere atom as he seems to be com pared with those starry depths (and what force modern astronomical discovery adds to the contrast), he is in truth more mysterious and wonderful than they, for he is by nature scarce less than God, and appointed to be His viceroy in the world. Man's dignity is the true marvel of the universe. The Psalmist looks away from the Fall with its heritage of woe, from the sin and failure and rebellion of mankind, to man's nature and position and destiny in the original purpose of God. And was he not justified in doing so? The image of God in man is defaced but not destroyed (i Cor. xi. 7 ; St James iii. 9) ; the grant of dominion is not abrogated (Gen. ix. 2 ff.), though its conditions are modified. Prophets and Apostles look steadily forward to the restoration of man's destined relation to God and to creation (Is. xi. 1 — 9; Rom. viii. 18 — 22). God's purposes are not frustrated by man's sin, and the Psalm is virtually a prophecy. It finds ' fulfilment ' in the Incarnation. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ii. 6 ff.) quotes vv. 4 — 6, and contrasts man's failure with this his lofty destiny. ' ' We see not yet all things subjected to him." "But," as he goes on to say, apply ing the Psalmist's words to the condescension of the Incarnation, "we behold him who hath been made a little lower than the angels, even Jesus, because of the suffering of death crowned with glory and honour." The Son of Man, the representative of the race, receives as the reward of His obedience unto death the honour designed for man, and in His exaltation we see "the pledge that the Divine counsel of love will not fail of fulfilment " (Bp. Westcott, Chrislus Consummator, p. 21). St Paul too quotes the last half of v. 6 as an assurance of the final triumph of Christ (1 Cor. xv. 27; cp. Eph. i. 22). If all things were subjected to the first Adam who failed through sin, not less must they be subjected to the second Adam who triumphs through obedience, and fulfils the destiny of the race. The title attributes the Psalm to David, and it may well be his. The fact that the author of the Book of Job was familiar with the Psalm (cp. Job vii. 17 ff. with v. 4) would be a strong confirmation of the accuracy of the title, if that book could be assigned with certainty to the time of Solomon; but the uncertainty as to its date prevents any argument being drawn from the allusion. It has been suggested that David composed the Psalm as a shepherd on the plains of Bethlehem. With all its marvellous depth of meaning, it certainly possesses a striking freshness and simplicity; but would it not be more natural to regard it as the later fruit of seeds of thought sown then and gradually brought to maturity? The appropriateness of this Psalm as one of the Proper Psalms for Ascension Day is obvious. It is in the Ascension of Christ that we see man, in the person of his perfect representative, "crowned with glory and honour." PSALM VIII. i. 37 To the chief Musician upon Gittith, A Psalm of David. O Lord our Lord, I How excellent is thy name in all the earth ! Who hast set thy glory above the heavens. On the title, For the Chief Musician ; set to the Gittith (R.V.), see Introd. p. xxv. 1, 2. The fundamental thought and motive of the Psalm : — the revelation of Jehovah's majesty on earth. 1. O Lord, our Lord] Jehovah, our Lord. Coverdale rightly felt the need of some audible distinction between Lord ( = Jehovah) and Lord (=Adonai), when he rendered O Lorde oure Govemoure. Cp. Jerome's Domine dominator noster. How fitting is this acknowledgment of Jehovah's sovereignty for the opening of a Psalm in which man's dele gated dominion over the world is brought into such prominence. Here, for the first time in the Psalter, the Psalmist associates others with himself in addressing Jehovah ("our Lord"). He speaks on behalf of the cove nant people, hardly as yet (at any rate consciously) on behalf of all man kind. Cp. Neh. x. 29; viii. 10; Ps. cxxxv. 5; cxlvii. 5; Is. xxvi. 13. how excellent] Or, majestic. The word is related to that rendered honour isi v. 5, and majesty in civ. 1. It suggests the ideas of ampli tude, splendour, magnificence. Cp. lxxvi. 4; xciii. 4 (A.V. mighty). thy name] That expression of Thyself in the works of Creation and Providence by which Thy character may be recognised. Cp. v. 11. Who hast set] "The Hebrew," as the margin of the R.V. candidly notes, "is obscure." The word, as vocalised in the Massoretic Text, is imperative, 'set thou'^ but the construction would be unparalleled, and a prayer for the manifestation of God's glory in the heavens would be out of place, for it is already manifested there. No satis factory explanation can be offered without some alteration of the text. Changing the vowels we may render, 'Thou whose glory is spread over the heavens,' (cp. Hab. iii. 3): or, 'Thou whose glory is celebrated above the heavens.' Cp. the LXX, 'Thy magnificence is exalted above the heavens' (iirijpQij 7} p.eyaXoirpeiria gov virepavio twv oiipavwv). But it seems best to make the slight change of consonants required for the rendering of the A.V., which gives an excellent sense, and is supported by the Targum, Syriac, Symmachus, and Jerome, among the ancient versions. Jehovah has set His glory upon the heavens (so R.V. rightly, though retaining above in the marg.), clothed them with a glory which is the reflection and manifestation of His own (civ. 1). Cp. the uses of the phrase in Num. xxvii. 20; 1 Chr. xxix. 25; Dan. xi. 21 ; and a similar phrase in Ps. xxi. 5. The connexion of the clause has still to be considered. It may be joined with the preceding invocation, and a full stop placed at the end of the verse as in A.V. : or it may be taken in close connexion with v. 2 : Thou who hast set thy glory upon tlie heavens, Out of the mouth of children and sucklings hast thou founded strength. 38 PSALM VIII. 2. i Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength Because of thine enemies, That thou mightest still the enemy and the avenger. This construction seems preferable; for it leaves the opening invocation to stand by itself as it does at the close of the Psalm ¦ (v. 9) : it em phasises the contrast between Jehovah's revelation of Himself in the splendour of the heavens, and His revelation of Himself in the weakest specimens of humanity, which, paradox as it may seem, is not less but more significant and convincing; and thus it brings out the parallelism between the last clause of v. 1 and v. 3, and between v. 2 and v. 4 ff. But however we punctuate, v. 2 must not be dis connected from v. 1. 2. Render : Out of the mouth of children and sucklings hast thou founded strength, Because of thine adversaries, To quell the enemy and the avenger. Instead of founded strength, we might render, founded a stronghold, established a defence : but the more general sense is preferable. The LXX gives a free version, 'Thou hast perfected praise,' and in this form the words are quoted in Matt. xxi. 16. The general sense is plain. Jehovah has ordained that even the feeblest representatives of humanity should be His champions to con found and silence those who oppose His kingdom and deny His good ness and providential government. The mystery of man, of a being made in the image of God to know God, is greater than the mystery of the heavens, with all their immensity and majesty, as truly as the spiri tual and eternal is greater than the material and temporal. Man there fore, even in the, weakness of childhood, is a witness of the existence and character of God. But how is the testimony uttered? The words must not be prosaically defined and limited. The inarticulate, unspoken testimony to its Creator borne by the mere existence of the infant with its wonderful instincts and capacities for development; the powers of reason and thought and speech; the exercise of these powers in the praise of God with the simple faith of childhood ; all are included. Nor is it mere poetic fancy to say that " Trailing clouds of glory do we come, From God, who is our home," and that "Heaven lies about us in our infancy." This truth was illustrated in the Hosannas of the children who wel comed the Lord on His triumphal entry into Jerusalem, while the chief priests and scribes hardened their hearts in contemptuous hostility, (Matt. xxi. 15 ff.) ; but it has a wider scope than that particular instance. The interpretation of 'children and sucklings' as 'weak and humble PSALM VIII. 3, 4. 39 When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, The moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained ; What is man, that thou art mindful of him? And the son of man, that thou visitest him? believers' (Matt. xi. 25), does not take account of the context. It may be a justifiable application of the words, but there is no hint that they are used figuratively, and it is of man as man that the Psalmist speaks here not less than in vv. 4 ff. Nor again must the words be understood in a general sense as the equivalent of i Cor. i. 26 ff., though a part of the truth they contain illustrates the principle of divine economy there asserted. 'Thine adversaries '...'the enemy and avenger' must not be limited to the enemies of the nation by a reference to xliv. 5, 16. These no doubt are among the enemies of Jehovah ; but all within the nation who oppose God's purposes or question His Providence, the 'wicked,' the 'scorners,' (i. 1) the 'fools' (xiv. 1) are equally included. The 'avenger' in particular is one who usurps, in his own selfish interests, a. judicial function which belongs to God alone (Deut. xxxii. 35 ; Nah. i. 2). 3, 4. The contemplation of the heavens in all their splendour forces the Psalmist to wonder that God should choose so insignificant a thing as man for the object of His special regard. 3. thy heavens] The heavens as created by God and manifesting His glory. Cp. lxxxix. 11 ; Job xxxvi. 29; xxxviii. 33; Is. xl. 26. It is of the sky at night that the Psalmist is thinking, for he does not mention the sun ; and unquestionably the star-lit sky, especially in the transparent clearness of an Eastern atmosphere, is more suggestive of the vastness and variety and mystery of the universe. See the eloquent passage from Whewell's Astronomy, Book III. ch. 3, quoted by Bp. Perowne. the work of thy fingers] The deft workmanship of a skilful artificer supplies a figure for the creative operations of God. Cp. xix. 1; cii. 25. 4. Then (so the ellipse may be filled up), the thought is forced upon me What is frail man that thou shouldest he mindful of him? And the son of man, that thou shouldest visit him ? The words for man are chosen to emphasise his weakness in contrast to the vast and (apparently) unchanging structure of the heavens. Enosh denotes man in his frailty, impotence, mortality (ciii. 15); hence it is used with special frequency in Job, where man is contrasted with God (e.g. Job iv. 17, where A.V. renders mortal man). Ben-ddam (son of man) denotes man according to his earthly origin. Cp. Job's 'man that is born of a woman' (xiv. 1). God's 'visitation' of man is His constant, loving, providential, regard (Job x. 12). It is to God's present and continuous care that the verse refers. It is not until v. 5 that the Psalmist looks back to man's original creation. There is an echo of these words in cxliv. 3, and Jer. xv. 15; and Job 40 PSALM VIII. 5—8. s For 'thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, And hast crowned him with glory and honour. 6 Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; Thou hast put all things under his feet: 7 All sheep and oxen, Yea, and the beasts of the field ; 8 The fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea, And whatsoever passeth through the paths of the seas. parodies them, when he asks in the bitterness of his soul how man can be of such importance to God that He should think it worth while to persecute him (vii. 17 ff.). On the quotation of vv. 4 — 6 in Hebr. ii. 6 ff., see above. 6, 6. The Psalmist looks back to man's creation. God's regardwas exhibited in the nature with which man was endowed, and the position of sovereignty in which he was placed. 5. Render as R.V. : For thou hast made him but little lower than God, And erownest him with glory and honour. In rendering than the angels the A.V. follows the LXX, Vulg., Targ. and Syriac. The later Greek versions (Aquila, Symmachus and Theo dotion) and Jerome, rightly render than God. For though in some cases Elohim (God or gods) is applied to supernatural beings generally (1 Sam. xxviii. 13), angels are rather called 'sons of God;' and moreover there is a clear reference to the creation of man in the image of God, after His likeness (Gen. i. 26, 27). 'Glory' and 'honour' (or,majesty: worship in P.B.V. is an archaism for honour) are the attributes of royalty: of God Himself (cxiv. 5, 12), and of kings who are His representatives (xxi. 5; xiv. 3). Man is crowned king of creation. 6. Again a reference to Gen. i. 26, 28. 'Thou hast put all things under his feet' reads like a paraphrase of the word there rendered 'let them have dominion,' which means primarily 'to tread under foot,' and thence 'to rule.' On St Paul's application of the words in 1 Cor. xv. 27 see above. 7, 8. Man's subjects are as it were mustered and passed in review : domestic animals, and even the wild creatures that roam at large over the open country ; the birds of the air (lit. heaven, as civ. 12), and the fish of the sea, and all the manifold inhabitants of the mysterious depths of ocean. See Gen. i. 21; ix. 2. Cp. Homer's vypa. KiXevda (II. i. 312); "the wet sea-paths," as Milton calls them in his version of the Psalm. The living creatures here enumerated are only mentioned by way of example and illustration of "all things." In the Psalmist's day the PSALM VIII. 9. 41 O Lord our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the g earth ! dominion of man over nature was most strikingly exercised in his mastery over the animal creation, which he tamed or caught and turned to his own use. "Man has become," says Darwin, "even in his rudest state, the most dominant animal that has ever appeared on this earth." In our own day it is by the investigation of the great laws of nature, and by the utilisation of the great forces of nature, that man asserts and extends his sovereignty. 9. How can the Psalmist better close than with the same exclama tion of reverent wonder with which he began; repeated now with fuller significance, after meditation on the way in which the truth it asserts is most signally declared! PSALM IX. There is evidently a close relationship between the Ninth and Tenth Psalms. In the LXX, Vulg., and Jerome's Latin Version they are reckoned as a single Psalm : and the absence of a title to Ps. x, contrary to the general rule in Book I (Introd. p. liii), may indicate that in the Hebrew text also it was originally united to Psalm ix. L They are connected by resemblances (a) oiform, and (b) of language. (a) The same ' alphabetic ' or ' acrostic ' structure appears in both. In Ps. ix the pairs of verses begin with successive letters of the alphabet, with ihe exceptions that the fourth letter (Daleth) is missing; the fifth letter (He) is obscured by a corruption of the text in v. 7 ; and the eleventh letter (Kaph) is represented by Qoph2 in v. 19. Ps. x begins with the twelfth letter (Lamed) ; but the alphabetical arrangement is then dropped , and six letters are passed over. At v. 12 however the structure of Ps. ix reappears, and w. 12, 14, 15, 17 begin with the last four letters of the alphabet in order, (b) Language. ' In times of trouble ' (ix. 9, a. 1) is a peculiar phrase found nowhere else: the word for 'oppressed' or 'downtrodden' (ix. 9; x. 18) occurs elsewhere only in Ps. lxxiv. 21 ; Prov. xxvi. 28 (?) : 'mortal man' is mentioned at the close of both Psalms in the same connexion (ix. 19, 20; x. 18). Comp. further ix. 12 a with x. 4, 13: ix. 12 b with x. 12, and ix. 18 with x. 11 : 'for ever and ever,' ix. 5, x. 16: the appeal to 'arise' ix. 19, x. 12: and other points of thought and expression. But while the resemblance in form and language is so marked, the difference in tone and subject is not less striking. The individuality of the writer, which is so prominent in Ps. ix (w. 1 — 4; 13, 14), dis appears in Ps. x. Ps. ix is a triumphant thanksgiving, rarely passing into prayer (vv. 13, 19): its theme is the manifestation of God's sovereign righteousness in the defeat and destruction of foreign enemies of the nation. Ps. x is a plaintive expostulation and prayer, describing 1 Comp. the analogous case of Pss. xlii, xliii. 2 I. e. the hard guttural Semitic k, the 19th letter of the alphabet, takes the place of the soft k. 42 PSALM IX. the tyrannous conduct of godless men within the nation1, and pleading that God will no longer delay to vindicate His righteousness, and prove Himself the Defender of the helpless. The two Psalms present an unsolved literary problem. The descrip tion of the wicked man (x. 3 — 11) may have been taken from another poem, for it is distinguished by other peculiarities, besides the absence of the alphabetic structure. We cannot tell whether verses beginning with the missing letters of the alphabet were displaced to make room for it, or whether it stood here from the first. The latter alternative seems most probable, for the concluding verses of the Psalm have links of con nexion with w. 3 — 11. Comp. 'helpless" in v. 14 with vv. 8, 10; v. 13 with v. 4; v, 14 with v. 11. Ps. ix however appears to be complete in itself, and it seems preferable to regard Ps. x as a companion piece rather than as part of a continuous whole. The connexion of thought is clear. The Psalmist has watched the great conflict between good and evil being waged in two fields: in the world, between Israel and the heathen nations; in the nation of Israel, between godless oppressors of the weak and their innocent victims. He has seen the sovereignty of God decisively vindicated in the world by the defeat of Israel's enemies : but when he surveys the conflict within the nation, wrong seems to be triumphant. So he prays for an equally significant demonstration of God's sovereignty within the nation by a signal punishment of the wicked who deny His power or will to interpose. These Psalms have been assigned to widely differing dates. But the tradition of their Davidic origin may be right. The author of Ps. ix speaks as the representative of the nation, in language more natural to a king than to anyone else. The enemies of the nation are his enemies (v. 3) ; the national cause is his cause (v. 4). This Psalm then may celebrate David's victories in general (2 Sam. viii) ; and x. 16 may refer in particular to the expulsion of the Philistines who occupied the north of Palestine for some time after the disaster of Gilboa (1 Sam. xxxi. 7), and to the subjugation of the Jebusites. Nor is it difficult to understand how David might have to deplore the existence of domestic evils such as those described in Ps. x, without being able to remedy them 2. The misgovernment of Saul's later years, and the contest between Ish-bosheth and David must have left a serious legacy of civil disorder (1 Sam. xxii. 1, 2; 2 Sam. iii. 1, 22, iv. 2); and we have indications that David was not in a position to control his powerful nobles and enforce the administration of justice (2 Sam. iii. 39; xv. 2ff.). 1^ The Davidic origin of Ps. ix is supported by its connexion with 'Ps. vii. The closing words of Ps. vii (cp. xviii. 49) are taken up and expanded in Ps. ix. 1, 2: both Psalms are inspired by a vivid sense of the judicial righteousness of Jehovah (vii. 6 ff., n ; ix. 4, 7, 8, 16, 19) : in both we have the thought of evil recoiling upon its authors (vii. 14 ff.; 1 The only reference to 'the nations' (in v. 16) is by way of illustration. 2 Compare the account of Charlemain's reign in Dean Church's Beginni?ig of the Middle Ages, p. 125. PSALM IX 43 ix. 15 ff.). The connexion of v. 11, vii. 17, viii. 1, 9, ix. i, 10; should also be noted. It may further be remarked that in Ps. x triumphant injustice is regarded in the simplest light as a wrong that calls for redress ; not as in Ps. xxxvii, as a ground of discontent, or as in Ps. Ixxiii, as a trial of faith. The train of thought is as follows. Ps. ix. The Psalmist resolves to celebrate Jehovah's praise for victory won by His help (1 — 4). He contrasts the transitoriness of the nations in their wickedness with the eternal sovereignty of the righteous Judge (5 — 8), Who never fails to defend the godly (9, 10). A renewed in vitation to praise (11, 12) is succeeded by a prayer for help in the hour of need (13, 14); and the revelation of Jehovah's judicial righteousness in the discomfiture of the heathen is once more proclaimed (15, 16). After an interlude of music the Psalm concludes with a confident anticipation of the certainty of judgement and deliverance (17, 18), and a prayer that the nations may be taught to know their human impotence (19, 20). Ps. a. From the conflict between Israel and the nations in which God's sovereignty has been victoriously manifested, the Psalmist turns to the triumph of might over right in Israel itself. He remonstrates with Jehovah for His apparent indifference (1, 2), and draws a graphic picture of the atheistic self-complacency and pitiless tyranny of 'the wicked man' (3 — 11). An urgent appeal to Jehovah to intervene and right these crying wrongs is, followed by a confident expression of assurance that they are not unobserved or disregarded (12 — 14). The prayer for the extirpation of evil finds a pledge for its fulfilment in the eternal sovereignty of Jehovah and the extermination of the heathen from His land (15, 16). The prayer of faith cannot remain unanswered, and heaven-protected right will finally be triumphant over earthly might (17, 18). The title should be rendered as in R.V., For the Chief Musician; set to Muth-labhen. Probably (if the Massoretic text is sound) Muth-labben are the opening words of some well-known melody to which the Psalm was to be sung. Comp. the title of xxii : 'set to Ayyeleth hash-Shahar,' i.e. ' the hind of the morning ' ; and of lvi and lvii. The words are obscure, but may mean 'Die for the son',' or, 'Death to the son.' The analogy of other titles is decisive against all the interpretations which explain these words to refer to the contents or occasion of the Psalm; 'upon the death of Ben,' or, 'Labben,' or 'the son;' by whom some unknown but formidable enemy of the nation, or Goliath, or even (as though David could possibly have written in this tone then) Absalom, is supposed to be intended. The tradition that it refers to Goliath is as old as the Targum, which paraphrases, " Concerning the death of the man who went forth between the camps," an allusion to 1 Sam. xvii. 4, where the Heb. word for 'champion' is 'man of the space between the camps. ' It is however possible that the present text is a corruption of the words 'upon Alamoth' which occur in the title of xlvi (cp. 1 Chr. xv. 20). So the LXX, Aquila, and Theodotion appear to have read, though they give wrong renderings. See Introd. p. xxv. 44 PSALM IX. 1—4. To the chief Musician upon Muth-labben, A Psalm of David. 9 (X) I will praise thee, O Lord, with my whole heart ; I will shew forth all thy marvellous works, E I will be glad and rejoice in thee : I will sing praise to thy name, O thou most High. 3 Q) When mine enemies are turned back, They shall fall and perish at thy presence. 4 For thou hast maintained my right and my cause ; Thou satest in the throne judging right. 1 — 4. The Psalmist's purpose to praise Jehovah for the recent manifestation of His righteous judgement in the defeat of His enemies. Each of the four lines in vv. I, 2 begins with Aleph, the first letter of the alphabet. 1. I will praise thee, 0 Lord] R.V., I will give thanks unto the Lord, as in vii. 1 7. with my whole heart] With the heart, not with the lips only (Is. xxix. 13) : with the whole heart, acknowledging that all the honour is due to Jehovah. Cp. Deut. vi. 5. These conditions of true worship correspond to the divine attributes of omniscience (vii. 9), and 'jealousy' (Ex. xxxiv. 14). thy marvellous works] A special term for the singular and con spicuous works of God, both in nature (Job v. 9), and in His dealings with His people (Ex. iii. 20), particularly in the great crises of their history (lxxviii. 4, n, 32), which declare His power and love, and arouse the admiration of all who behold them. The word includes ' miracles ' commonly so called, as one limited class of ' the wonderful works of God,' but is of much wider application. To recount and celebrate His marvellous works is the duty and delight of God's saints. 2. rejoice] R.V., exult ; the same word as in v. 11 c . The closing words of Ps. vii are taken up and expanded in these two verses. 3, 4. Stanza of Beth. It is best to place a semicolon only at the end of v. 2, and render v. 3 in close connexion with it : Because mine enemies turn pack, Stumble and perish at Thy presence. The 'presence' or 'face' of God is to His enemies necessarily a mani festation of victorious wrath. Comp. xxi. 9 (R.V. marg.); xxxiv. 16; Ex. xiv. 24. The verse is a vivid picture of a panic rout : the foe turning to flee, stumbling in their precipitate haste, overtaken and annihilated. Cp. xxxv. 5, 6. 4. In the defeat of his enemies he sees God's judicial intervention on his behalf. God has pronounced and executed sentence in his favour. Cp. vii. 8, 9. thou satest &c] Better, thou didst take thy seat on the throne, Judging righteously. The throne is that of judgement (v. 7 ; Prov. xx. 8). God has assumed this judicial character, in answer to the Psalmist's prayer in vii. 7. PSALM IX. 5, 6. 45 (J) Thou hast rebuked the heathen, thou hast destroyed the s wicked, Thou hast put out their name for ever and ever. (j"l) O thou enemy, destructions are come to a perpetual