YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORE ¦ BOSTON ¦ CHICAGO ¦ DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA 1492-1783 BY HERBERT EUGENE BOLTON, Ph. D. PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AND THOMAS MAITLAND MARSHALL, Ph. D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Nm fork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 All rights reserved Copyright, 1920, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1920. Gross Ca<^t> Hi— i O o !z! O !* H H i— i n > THE BACKGROUND AND THE DISCOVERY 7 COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Early life of Columbus. — Meanwhile America had been dis covered by Christopher Columbus, in the service of Spain. Much that was formerly believed to be true concerning the early fife of Columbus recent research has proved to be false or to rest upon doubtful evidence. He was born at or near Genoa, probably in 1452, and was the son of a woolen weaver. Little is known of his education, but in some manner he acquired a knowledge of Latin, read the principal geographical works then accessible, and acquired a wide knowledge of navigation. Three books which he studied with care were the General History and Geog raphy by ^Eneas Sylvius, the Imago Mundi of Pierre d'Ailly, and the Travels of Marco Polo. He entered the marine service of Portugal, probably lived for a time on the island of Porto Santo, one of the Madeiras, visited the coast of Guinea, and sailed as far north as England. He mar ried Felipa Moniz, a niece of Isabel Moniz, whose husband was Bartholomew Perestrello, who served under Prince Henry. It is probable that a correspondence occurred between Columbus and the Florentine geographer, Toscanelli, who is said to have sug gested to the navigator the possibiUty of reaching the Indies by sailing west and to have sent him a copy of a chart which he had prepared. The Toscanelli map has not come down to us, the so- called reproduction of it being an adaptation of Behaim's globe of 1492. Through these various influences Columbus conceived the plan of seeking new lands in the Atlantic and became con vinced of the feasibility of opening a western route to the Indies. His sojourn in Spain. — After unsuccessfully urging his views in Portugal, in 1484 Columbus went to Spain, where he presented himself at the court and made the acquaintance of many in fluential persons. He also sent his brother Bartholomew to ob tain assistance in western exploration from Henry VII of Eng land. Columbus met with slight encouragement in Spain, and decided to seek French aid, but just as he was making his de parture he was recalled, Queen Isabella having been brought to a favorable decision by Fray Juan Perez, a former confessor, by Luis de Santangel, the treasurer of Aragon, by the Count of Medina-Celi, and by the Marquesa de Moya. 8 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA His commission. — Columbus was given a commission author izing him to explore and trade. It said nothing of a route to the Indies. The enterprise of discovery was essentially a new one, and it was natural that the first patent should contain only gen eral provisions. Indeed, the document was so brief and incom plete that many supplementary orders had to be issued before the expedition was ready. In return for services and to provide a representative of Spanish authority in anticipated discoveries, Columbus was ennobled and made admiral, viceroy, and gover nor-general in such lands as he might add to the Castilian realm. These offices were patterned after well-known institutions then in use in Spain. The titles were to be hereditary in Columbus's family. The admiral was to have a tenth of the net profits of trade and precious metals within his discoveries. By contribut ing an eighth of the expense of commercial ventures, he was en titled to an additional eighth of the profits from trade. To en courage the expedition all duties on exports were remitted. Outfitting the expedition. — The story that Isabella pawned her jewels to equip the expedition is now disproved, the royal share of the money apparently being loaned to the Castilian treasury by Luis de Santangel. The total cost of outfitting was probably somewhat less than $100,000, of which Columbus or his friends furnished an eighth. Three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina, were provided. The number who sailed is variously estimated at from ninety to one hundred and twenty men. The discovery. — In August, 1492, the three vessels sailed from Palos to the Canaries, those islands then being a possession of Spain which she had acquired from Portugal in 1479. During the entire colonial period they were an important factor in navi gation, being a place for refitting before the long trans-Atlantic voyage. The vessels left the Canaries on September 6 and sailed almost due west. They met with fair weather, but the length of the voyage caused much complaint, which resulted in a plot to get rid of Columbus. The Admiral succeeded in quelling the mutiny, however, and shortly afterward land was sighted. On the evening of October n a light in the distance was twice seen by the commander, and before morning the moonlight dis closed to the lookout of the Pinta a sandy beach. The landfall aw w> o aOa> O ffiW c/: O o < The Four Voyages of Columbus io THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA .was a small coral island of the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador and which was probably the one now called Wat- ling's Island. Believing that he had reached the Indies, he called the inhabitants Indians, a name which has clung ever since to American aborigines. Sojourn in the West Indies. — Through all of his sojourn in the West Indies, Columbus was filled with the idea that he had found the Indies. Hearing of Cuba and believing that it was Cipango, he planned to visit the mainland and go to the city of Guisay, the Quinsai of Marco Polo. From the Bahamas he pro ceeded to Cuba and explored the eastern third of its northern coast. He despatched an interpreter to the Grand Khan, but instead of a mighty city, an Indian village was discovered. There Europeans first saw the smoking of tobacco. From Cuba the expedition went to Haiti, which Columbus named Espafiola (Little Spain), corrupted in English to Hispaniola, and there the Santa Maria was wrecked. The return voyage. — Having built a fort on the northern shore of Espafiola not far from its westernmost point, which he named La Navidad (the Nativity) because the neighboring harbor was entered on Christmas day, Columbus left forty-four of the crew with ample provisions, implements, and arms, and began the return voyage on January 4, 1493. Two violent storms were encountered, but both were weathered, and on March 4 the vessels came to anchor in the mouth of the Tagus. His reception. — In Lisbon the news of the discovery created great excitement. The King of Portugal invited Columbus to court and entertained him royally. On March 13 he sailed for Spain, arriving at Palos two days later. The citizens adjourned business for the day; bells were rung, and at night the streets were illumined with torches. From there he proceeded to Seville and then to the court at Barcelona, where the greatest honors were bestowed upon him. He was allowed to be seated in the presence of the sovereigns, who showed the keenest interest in his specimens of flora and fauna, pearls and golden trinkets, but especially in the Indians whom he had brought from Espafiola. The theory that he had reached the outlying parts of the Indies was readily accepted, and the sovereigns at once prepared to take possession of the newly discovered lands. THE BACKGROUND AND THE DISCOVERY n The line of Demarcation. — The king of Portugal, jealous of Spain's triumph, is said to have planned to send a fleet across the Atlantic to dispute the Spanish claims. Ferdinand and Isabella hurried a messenger to Rome asking the pope to confirm their rights to the new discoveries. Accordingly, on May 4, 1493, Pope Alexander VI assigned to Spain all lands west of a meridian one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. King John was not satisfied, and a year later, by thc treaty of Tordesillas, a division line was fixed at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands. This change gave Portugal title to her later discoveries on the Brazilian coast, though it lessened her pos sessions in the Orient. READINGS GROWTH OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE Beazley, C. R., The Dawn of Modern Geography; Prince Henry the Navi gator, 1-105; Fischer, J., The Discoveries of the Northmen in America; Fiske, John, The Discovery of America, I, 151-255, 363-381; Hovgaard, W., The Voyages of the Norsemen to America, 221-255; Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian, Yule ed.; Olson, J. E., and Bourne, E. G., eds., The Northmen, Columbus, and Cabot {Original Narratives of Early American History), 3-84; Vining, E. J., An Inglorious Columbus; or evidence that Hwi Shan . . . discovered America in the Fifth Century; Winsor, Justin, Narrative and Critical History of America, I, 1-58; Fossum, A., The Norse Discovery of America; Steensby, H. P., The Norsemen's Route to Wineland; Larson, L. M., "The Church in North America (Greenland) in the Middle Ages," in The Catholic Historical Review, V, 175-194. PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES Beazley, C. R., Prince Henry the Navigator, 123-307; Bourne, E. G, "Prince Henry the Navigator," in Essays in Historical Criticism, 173-189; Cheyney, E. P., European Background of American History, 60-70; Helps, Arthur, The Spanish Conquest in America, I, 1-54; Jayne, K. G., Vasco da Gama and his Successors, 7-240; Lybyer, A. H., "The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade," in The English Historical Review, XXX, 577- 588; Major, R. H., The Discoveries of Prince Henry thc Navigator; Martins, J. P. 0., The Golden Age of Prince Henry the Navigator, 66-84, 205-231; Stephens, H. M., Portugal, 115-248; Vander Linden, H., "Alexander VI., and the Demarcation of the Maritime and Colonial Dominions of Spain and Portugal," in American Historical Review, XXII, 1-20. COLUMBUS Biggar, H. P., "Thc New Columbus," in Am. Hist. Assoc, Ann. Rpt., 1912, pp. 97-104; Bourne, E. G., Spain in America, 8-32; Channing, Edward, 12 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA History of the United States, I, 14-25; Hart, A. B., American History told by Contemporaries, I, 28-48 ; Helps, Arthur, The Spanish Conquest in America, I, 55-88; Herrera, Antonio, Historia General; Las Casas, Bartholomew, Historia de las Indias; Major, R. H., Select Letters of Columbus; Markham, Clements, Life of Columbus; Navarrete, M. F., Coleccidn de los Viages y Descubrimientos; Olson, J. E., and Bourne, E. G., eds., The Northmen, Co lumbus, and Cabot {Original Narratives), 89-383; Peter Martyr, De Orbe Novo (F. A. McNutt, trans.); Richman, I. B., The Spanish Conquerors, 1-63; Thacher, J. B., Columbus; Vignaud, Henry, Toscanelli and Columbus: Win- sor, Justin, Columbus. CHAPTER II THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1643) SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST The discoveries of Columbus opened to Spain the opportunity to found a great colonial empire in the new world. For this work Spain had been prepared by the welding of the nation which was perfected during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The Christian reconquest. — In the eighth century the Moham medan Berbers had overthrown the Visigothic kingdom, the unconquered Christian princes retiring to the mountain regions of the north. Gradually they reconquered the country. By 910 they had established the kingdoms of Leon and Navarre, and the county of Barcelona. By 1037 Leon and Castile had united and conquered a wide tract south of the Douro River. Aragon, originally a Frankish country, had also become an independent kingdom. By n 50 almost two-thirds of the peninsula had been conquered; Portugal now extended from the Minho River to the Tagus; Castile occupied the central region, and Aragon had incorporated Barcelona and Catalonia. During the next two centuries the rest of the peninsula, except the small kingdom of Granada, was conquered, and Aragon established her power in the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and southern Italy. In 1469 Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, thus uniting the two great states. In 1481 they made war upon Granada, completing its conquest in the year of the discovery of America. All of these changes had been chiefly of rulers, the great body of the people remaining of the original Iberian stock. Lack of unity. — But there was neither unity of speech, customs, nor institutions. There were three main religious groups, Chris tians, Mohammedans, and Jews. The people were also divided into social classes, nobility, clergy, common people, and slaves. The ranks and privileges of the nobility varied greatly, some having immense estates and almost sovereign powers, others 13 14 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA being landless soldiers of fortune. Castile was the land of castles. The nobles were turbulent and warlike. They delighted in chiv alry, which probably attained a higher development in Spam than in any other country. Furthermore, there were three great mihtary orders, which had grown in strength during the Moorish wars; these were the Knights of Santiago, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, at the head of each of which was a grand master. 'The orders, the landed nobility, and the church owned about one- third of the land and controlled large military forces. The cities were also powerful; they were strongly fortified, regulated their own affairs, and many of them had great fleets and extensive com merce. Life outside of the cities was largely pastoral, wool growing being the principal industry. Both Castile and Aragon contained governing bodies called Cortes, to which some of the larger cities sent representatives, but they were of little impor tance, most of the work of lawmaking being done by the sover eign acting with his Council of State. Establishment of unity. — To bring the entire country into religious and political unity was the great task of Ferdinand and Isabella. This was accomplished partly through the Hermandad and the organization of several royal councils. The Hermandad, originally a local police, was organized as a state police; captured offenders were punished before local officers of the crown called alcaldes. Turbulent nobles and brigands were made to feel the long arm of the royal power. The nobles were also curbed by transferring the grand masterships of the military orders to the crown and the sovereigns resumed control of many estates which had been granted to churches and nobles. The royal council of twelve had been the principal governing body. Under Ferdinand and Isabella it was divided into three councils, justice, state, and finance. Other councils were added from time to time; among these was the Council of the Inquisition, whose business it was to stamp out heresy. By its efforts unbaptized Jews and Moors were expelled. The rulers also sent royal officers called cor- regidores into the local communities, who gradually extended the powers of the crown at the expense of local government. Thus were laid the foundations of an absolute monarchy, which, in the sixteenth century, became the most influential in Europe. Charles V. — The prestige of Spain was greatly enhanced in the THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 15 16 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA sixteenth century by the Emperor Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. From his mother he inherited Spain, Naples, and Sicily, and possessions in the new world and the Far East; from his father the Netherlands; from his grandfather, Maximilian I, the Hapsburg inheritance in Germany, By elec tion he became Holy Roman Emperor. The larger part of the reign was occupied by three great European contests; a series of struggles with Francis I of France for the control of Italy, the Reformation in Germany, and the curbing of the westward ad vance of the Turks. The almost constant wars of the Emperor kept him away from Spain nearly his entire time, but he used the centralized system of Ferdinand and Isabella to supply him with soldiers and money. The constant drain of treasure overtaxed the resources of Spain, but the rich mines of the new world fur nished the surplus for his vast undertakings. The fact that Charles was successful in retaining his power in Italy, coupled with his struggle against the Protestants and the Turks, made him the recognized protector of the Catholic church. His reign, marked by many sad failures in Europe, witnessed a phenomenal expansion of Spain's colonies. THE OCCUPATION OF THE WEST INDIES The rule, of Columbus in the Indies. — When Columbus dis covered a new world for Spain, that country was placed in a new situation, and a settled colonial policy was developed only with experience. A department of Indian affairs was created at once and put in charge of Fonseca, a member of the royal council. A combined interest in commerce, religion, and colonization was shown in all the arrangements for a second voyage by Columbus, but commerce was the primary object. At first it was planned to send a thousand colonists, but so eager were the applicants that fifteen hundred embarked. The expedition was equipped at the queen's expense, and most of the colonists were in her pay. Reaching Espafiola in November, 1493, Columbus found Navidad destroyed by Indians; he accordingly established a new settlement, named Isabella, at a point farther east. Leaving his brother Diego in charge, Columbus explored the southern coast of Cuba, discovered Jamaica, and circumnavigated Espafiola. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 17 Complaints being made against his administration, in 1495 Co lumbus returned to Spain to defend himself. Shortly after his departure, gold being found in the southern part of Espafiola, the new town of Santo Domingo was founded there and became the capital. Ojther men were eager for commercial adventure. and, in response to their demands, in 1495 trade in the Indies was opened to all Spaniards, at their own expense. Columbus regarded this an infringement upon his rights, and on his return to Spain he protested, but to little purpose. In 1498 Columbus sailed on a third voyage, taking some two hundred colonists. On the way he discovered the mainland of South America near the Orinoco River, and, farther west, valuable pearl fisheries. During his absence a civil war had occurred in Espafiola, and, at the end of two years of trouble with the contending factions, Columbus was sent to Spain in chains by Bobadilla, a royal commissioner, who remained to govern in his place. The charges against Columbus were dis missed, but he was not restored to his rule in the Indies. In 1502 Nicolas de Ovando was sent to replace Bobadilla, taking with him 2500 new colonists. Spread of settlement in the West Indies. — After 1496 Santo Domingo became the chief town of Espafiola and the seat of Spanish rule in America. In rapid succession posts and mining camps' were established in various parts of the island, and by 1 5 13 there were seventeen chartered towns in Espafiola alone. Santo Domingo at that time had a population of fifteen hundred persons. It was some fifteen years after the settlement of Es pafiola before the other islands began to be occupied, attention being first given to making cruises along the southern mainland. Ovando began the conquest of the other islands, however, and Diego Columbus, his successor, prosecuted the work with more vigor. In 1508 Ponce de Leon was sent to conquer Porto Rico, and in 151 1 the present city of San Juan was founded. The settlement of Jamaica was begun in 1509 by Esquivel, under orders of Diego Columbus. Several towns were soon established, and a shipyard opened. In 1537 Jamaica became a possession of the family of Columbus, with the title of Marquis till 1557, then of Duke of La Vega. In 1508 Ocampo circumnavigated Cuba and in 1 5 1 1 Velasquez began the conquest of the island . Santiago 18 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 19 was founded in 15 14 and Havana a year later. Thus the West Indies became the nursery of Spanish culture and institutions in America. Gold mining was important in Espafiola for a time, but the mines were soon exhausted. In all the islands cotton, sugar, and cattle raising soon acquired some proportions, but the native population rapidly decreased, negro slaves were expensive, and rich profits attracted the settlers to the mainland; consequently, after the first quarter century the islands declined in prosperity and Porto Rico was for a time actually abandoned. BEGINNINGS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY The Casa de Contratacion. — For ten years Fonseca remained at the head of American affairs, being in effect colonial minister. In 1503 the Casa de Contratacion or House of Trade was estab lished at Seville, to direct commerce, navigation, and all related matters of the Indies. In charge of the Casa was a board of of ficials, including factors, treasurer, auditor, and notary. They maintained a warehouse for receiving all goods and treasure going to or from the islands. They were required to keep in formed of the needs of the Indies, assemble and forward supplies, organize trading expeditions, and instruct and license pilots. Later on a professorship of cosmography was established for the purpose of instructing pilots, who were required to keep diaries of their voyages. This provision resulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of historical and geographical information in the government archives, much of which is still extant. The Council of the Indies. — Spanish America was a possession of the sovereigns of Castile, as heirs of Queen Isabella, under whose patronage America had been discovered. At first, legis lative and political matters relating to the Indies had been con sidered by the sovereigns in consultation with Fonseca and other personal advisors, but to supervise these matters a new board was gradually formed. In 1 517 it was formally organized, among the members being Fonseca and Peter Martyr, the his torian. In 1524 the board was reorganized as the Council of the Indies. This body was the supreme legislative and judicial au thority, under the king, of Spanish-America. The Casa de Con- 20 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA tratacion was subordinate to the Council, which likewise super vised all civil and ecclesiastical appointments in the colonies. Usually some of the members of the Council had served in the Indies. The governors-general and the audiencia. — Ovando ruled in Espafiola until 1509, when Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, after a struggle for his hereditary rights, was made admiral and governor-general of the Indies. Complaint against Diego's administration led to the establishment at Santo Domingo of a superior court with appeals from the decisions of the governor- general. This was the germ of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo, which, for a time, was the administrative head of the greater part of the Indies. By decree of September 14, 1524, the Audiencia was formally established, with a president, four judges, a fiscal, a deputy grand-chancellor, and other officers. The towns. — In the early sixteenth century the colonial towns showed some political activity. In 1507 the municipalities of Espafiola sent delegates to Spain to petition for the rights enjoyed by Spanish towns. The request was granted, and, among other privileges, fourteen towns were granted coats-of-arms. Conven tions of delegates from the towns were often held in these early days, to consider common needs and to draw up memorials to the home government. In 1530 Charles V decreed that such conventions should not be held without his consent, and the tendency thereafter was toward stronger absolutism and away from local political life. But there never was a time when the right of petition was not freely exercised, and with great effect on actual administration. In the sixteenth century the towns sometimes elected proctors to represent them before the Council of the Indies. In the seventeenth century they sometimes em ployed residents of Spain for this purpose. In the colonial towns, both Spanish and native, there was some degree of self-government. Each Spanish town had its cabildo composed of regidores. In 1523 the regidores were made elective, but the tendency was to secure the office by purchase or inheri tance, as was the case in Spain. The functions of the cabildos were similar to those of a New England town council, embracing legislation, police matters, care of highways, sanitation, and analogous functions. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 21 Emigration. — The notion sometimes voiced that Spain did not "colonize" America is unfounded. Emigration to America was encouraged by subsidies and other means, and in early days large colonies were sent by government authority. It has been seen, for example, that on his first three voyages Columbus took over about 100, 1500, and 200 colonists respectively, and that Ovando took 2500. During the entire sixteenth century the emigration to America averaged from 1000 to 2000 persons per year. In general, emigration was restricted to Spaniards of undoubted orthodoxy, hence Jews, Moors, and recent converts were ex cluded. Naturalization was relatively easy, however, and by means of it many foreigners were admitted. Portuguese, for example, were numerous in the Indies, especially among the seamen. Charles V adopted the liberal policy of opening the Indies to subjects of all parts of his empire, but Philip II re turned to the more exclusive practice. Later on, as the trade monopoly broke down, it became necessary to admit foreign traders to American ports, but they were required to return within specified periods. Married Spaniards emigrating from Spain were urged or even required to take their families, but the emigration of unmarried Spanish women was discouraged. Intermarriage of Spaniards with native women was favored by the authorities, and, as a large majority of the immigrants were single men, the practice was common, either with or without formal sanction. An effort to supply the lack of women by sending white slaves to the islands failed, and in 1514 marriage with Indian women was approved by royal order. With the opening of Mexico and Peru the island colonies were in danger of depopulation. To prevent this from happening, migration to the mainland was forbidden under heavy penalties (1525-1526), and the recruiting of new conquering expeditions in the islands was prohibited. To secure settlers for Espafiola, in 1529 attractive feudal lordships were offered to founders of colonies. Agriculture. — Agriculture in the West Indies was encouraged by all means available. Duties on imports were remitted for a term of years. In 1497 the sovereigns ordered a public farm es tablished to provide loans of stock and seed, to be paid back by colonists within a term of years. Free lands were granted to 22 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA settlers, with a reservation of the precious metals to the crown. Special orders were given for mulberry and silkworm culture. These efforts to promote agriculture in the West Indies, however, were made largely nugatory by commercial restrictions and the superior attractions of the mainland. Indian policy. — Columbus found Espafiola inhabited, it was estimated, by a quarter of a million of Indians, and the other islands similarly populated. He was instructed to treat the natives well and to do all in his power to convert them. The sovereigns frequently repeated these orders, and commanded that the natives be treated as free men and paid for their work. But the shortage of a labor-supply and the relative position of the two races led quickly and almost inevitably to the practical en slavement of the weaker. Encomiendas. — Following the rebellion of 1495, the subdued abatives were put under tribute in the form of specified amounts of products, commutable to labor. In 1497 a practice was begun of allotting lands to Spaniards, the forced labor of the natives going with the land. Complaint being made by priests and seculars that the Indians could neither be made to work, nor be taught or converted without restraint, in 1503 it was ordered that they should be congregated (congregados) in permanent villages and put under protectors (encomenderos) , who were obliged to teach and protect them, and were empowered to exact their labor, though for pay and as free men. This provision con tained the essence of the encomienda system, which was designed to protect and civilize the native, as well as to exploit him. But there was always danger that the former aim would yield to the latter, and, contrary to royal will, the condition of the natives fast became one of practical slavery. Depopulation of the islands. — Moreover, in a very short time the islands became nearly depopulated of natives. Many were slain in the wars of conquest and during rebellions, or died of starvation while in hiding. Perhaps a greater number died of smallpox, measles, and other diseases brought from Europe. The result was that by 1514 the native population of Espafiola was reduced to 14,000. A similar reduction of native population occurred in the other islands as they were successively occupied. Indian slavery.— Indian slavery was not generally allowed in THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492- 1543) 23 theory. But the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and Florida were found to be inhabited by hostile cannibals, who were regarded as fair prize for enslavement. As early as 1494 Columbus sug gested that permission be given to sell Caribs. In 1498 he took a cargo of six hundred of them to Spain. Soon it became an accepted legal principle that cannibals and rebellious Indians could be enslaved. The idea was encouraged by the lack of Spanish laborers, and by the disappearance of the native popu lation of Espafiola. Slave-hunting was soon extended, therefore, to the coasts of Florida, Panuco, and other parts of the mainland. The practice was continued, as the frontier advanced, to the eighteenth century when, for example, Apaches of Texas and Pawnees of Kansas were often sold to work on plantations in Louisiana or Cuba. Las Casas. — Numerous prominent Spaniards in the Indies early opposed encomiendas on moral grounds. Among them the most aggressive was Father Bartolome de las Casas. He had come to the Indies as a layman, had held an encomienda after becoming a priest, but in 15 14 had renounced it. In the following year he went to Spain, secured the appointment of a commission of Geronymite friars to enforce the laws regarding Indians in the islands, and was himself made Protector of the Indians. In 1 516 he returned to Espafiola, but, being dissatisfied with the work of the commission, he returned to Spain, where he favored negro slavery as a means of sparing the natives. In 152 1 he tried to found a Utopian colony on Tierra Firme, to furnish an humane example, but through unfortunate circumstances it failed completely. EXPLORATION OF THE MAINLAND COASTS AND THE SEARCH FOR A STRAIT Voyages toward the South. — The discovery by Columbus (1498) of pearls on the southern mainland, combined with the Portuguese successes in India, gave new incentive to voyages, and within the next few years many thousands of miles of coastline of South and Central America were explored in the interest of trade, discovery, and international rivalry. In 1499 Ojeda ex plored from near Paramaribo to the Gulf of Maracaibo. In 1500 24 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Pinzon and DeLepe sailed north to the Pearl Coast from points near 8° and io° south, respectively, and Bastidas made known the coast from the Gulf of Maracaibo to Nombre de Di6s, on the Isthmus of Panama. The chain of discoveries was carried in 1502 from the north shore of Honduras to Nombre de Dios by the fourth voyage of Columbus, made primarily in search of a strait through the troublesome lands which he had discovered. In 1504 La Cosa and Vespucius, during a trading voyage on the Gulf of Uraba, ascended the Atrato River two hundred miles by a route which has since been proposed as an interoceanic canal. Meanwhile numerous other voyages were made to the Pearl Coast for commercial purposes. They added little more to geographical knowledge, but led to colonization on the south ern mainland. Portuguese competition. — Spanish efforts to find a passage to the Indian Ocean by going to the southward were stimulated by the Portuguese voyages in the same direction. In 1500 Cabral, on his way to India, took possession for Portugal at a point near 180 south latitude on the Brazilian coast. In the following year a Portuguese expedition, in which Americus Vespucius was pilot, explored the coast from 50 to 32s south latitude, dis covering the La Plata River on the way. It was to this voyage of Vespucius, made in the interest of Portugal, that America owes its name. First applied to South America, it was soon ex tended to the northern continent. A Portuguese voyage made in 1503 by Jaques, in search of a passage to the East, is said to have reached 520 south. Establishment of the Portuguese Empire in the East. — Gama's voyage was promptly followed by the founding of Portuguese colonies in the East. The chief actor in this work was Albur- querque, who accompanied an expedition to India in 1503 and became viceroy in 1509, an office which he held until his death in 1515. During his rule the Portuguese estabhshed themselves at Goa, which gave them control of the Malabar coast, and at Malacca, from which point they were able to control the trade of the Malay Peninsula and the Spice Islands. Ormuz was captured, making them supreme in the commerce of the Persian Gulf. In succeeding years they acquired Ceylon and estab hshed trading settlements in Burma, China, and Japan. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 25 Continued quest for a strait. — These Portuguese successes were an incentive to further Spanish efforts to find the strait. In 1506 Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, accompanied by Juan de Solis, in search of a passage explored the Gulf of Honduras and eastern Yucatan from Guanaja Islands, the western limit of Columbus's voyage, to the Island of Caria. In 1509 Solis, in the service of Spain, reached 420 south, while in search of the desired route. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa in 15 13 aroused Spain to renewed efforts to find the strait. Exploration was at once undertaken on the southern shores of Panama, and in 15 15 Solis again was sent down the Brazilian coast. Reaching the La Plata River, he was killed and eaten by the savages. Magellan and Elcano. — The solution of the problem of the southern strait was left for Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese who had seen service in the Far East. Returning to Portugal, he proposed to the king the opening of a route to the East by going west. His offer being refused, like Columbus he turned to Spain, where his plan found favor. Sailing with five vessels in 1519, he discovered the Straits of Magellan and crossed the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines, where he was killed in 152 1. Part of the crew, led by Elcano, continued round the world and reached Spain in September, 1522, after one of the most remarkable voy ages in all history. The mapping of the Gulf coast. — Meanwhile the outlines of the Gulf of Mexico had been made known, and by 1525 the con tinued search for the strait and efforts to settle on the mainland had carried Spanish explorers nearly the whole length of the North Atlantic coast. In 1508 Ocampo had circumnavigated Cuba. Sailing from Porto Rico in 15 13 Juan Ponce de Leon, who was interested in slave-hunting and exploration, discovered and coasted the Peninsula of Florida. Four years later C6rdova, under a license from Velasquez, governor of Cuba, explored Yucatan, finding signs of large cities and of wealth. The reports aroused new interest in the main land, and Velasquez sent out Grijalva, who coasted the shore from Yucatan to Panuco River, securing on the way twenty thousand dollars' worth of gold. To take advantage of Grijalva's discoveries, Velasquez organized another expedition and put it in charge of Hernando Cortes. Garay, governor of Jamaica, 26 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA also sent out an expedition, under Pineda, with instructions to seek new lands and look for a strait. Sailing north to the main land in 1519, Pineda completed the mapping of the Gulf by coast ing from Florida to Vera Cruz and back. On the way west he discovered the Mississippi River, which he called Rio del Espiritu Santo. On the strength of Pineda's discoveries, Garay now secured a patent to the northern Gulf shore, and undertook to colonize the province of Amichel. The North Atlantic coast.— The exploration of the North At lantic coast soon followed. In 1513 De Le&n had rounded the Peninsula of Florida. Eight years later Gordillo, sailing from Espafiola in the employ of Ayllon, and Quexos, a slave hunter whom Gordillo met on the way, reached the mainland at 330 30', near Cape Fear in a region called Chicora. Ayllon in 1523 secured a patent authorizing him to seek a strait in the north and found a colony. In Ayll6n's employ, Quexos in 1525 coasted north perhaps to 40A In the same year Stephen Gomez, under contract to seek a northern strait, descended the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida. Over the northern part of his route he had been preceded by the English explorer John Cabot (1497). With the return of Gomez the entire Atlantic shore from the Straits of Magellan to Nova Scotia had been explored by expedi tions made in the name of Spain. THE MAYAS AND THE NAHUAS A Double Movement. — Having subdued the islands and run the eastern coastline, the Spaniards proceeded to take possession of the mainland. To the southward they were attracted by trade, rumors of gold, and the hope of finding a strait leading to the East. To the westward they were drawn by the semi- civilized Nahuas and Mayas, who lived in substantial towns, possessed accumulated wealth, had a stable population used to hard labor, and were worth exploiting. The advance into the interior was a double movement, one proceeding north from a base on the Isthmus of Panama, the other radiating in all direc tions from the Valley of Mexico. Two Civilizations— The Nahuas occupied Mexico south of a line drawn roughly from Tampico through Guadalajara to the Pacific Ocean. The Mayas lived principally in Yucatan and THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) / 27' Guatemala. The Nahuas had acquired much of their culture from the Mayas, and the cultural areas overlapped. These peoples had several features in common. They lived in sub stantial pueblos, or towns, and practiced agriculture by means of irrigation, raising extensively maize, beans, potatoes, and tobacco. Maguey was a staple crop in the Valley of Mexico and henequen in Yucatan. Mayas and Nahuas both lacked impor tant domestic animals. They were dominated by a powerful priesthood and practiced slavery and human sacrifice. Maya Characteristics. — Certain features distinguished the two civilizations. The Mayas had imposing architectural struc tures devoted to religion, notably at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen Itza. They had made considerable advance toward written records in the form of ideograms. More than 1500 Maya manuscripts, written on henequen, have been preserved but are as yet in the main undeciphered. The Nahuas. — The Nahuas had made remarkable progress in astronomical calculations, and their worship was closely con nected with the planetary system. The most notable religious monuments were the pyramids which are widely scattered over the country. Some of these, it is believed, are of Maya origin. Calendars of great perfection had been devised, the famous Calendar Stone now preserved in the National Museum at Mexico being one of the rare treasures of archaeology. The Nahuas had achieved a more highly developed agriculture than the Mayas, had a stronger military and political organization, and larger and better constructed towns. Of these the most notable was Mexico (Tenochtitlan) . It was built in a lake in the center of the great valley of Anahuac, and had a population of perhaps 60,000 when the Spaniards came. Nahua History. — The Nahuas had come from the north about the time when the Germanic tribes were overrunning southern Europe. According to their own traditions the first Nahua tribe, the Toltecs, entered the Valley of Mexico in 596 A. D., and were overpowered by the barbarians whom they found there, but civilized them. In succeeding centuries they were followed by other Nahua tribes, whose names are now borne by numerous cities in the Valley of Mexico. Among the late comers were the Aztecs, who, according to tradition, founded their lake- 28 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA city in 1325 A. D. Their military stronghold was the crag of Chapultepec, where the presidential mansion of Mexico now stands. The Triple Alliance .—Among the numerous cities or pueblos built by these struggling tribes four emerged into prominence. First Atzcapotzalco, then Tezcuco, then Mexico acquired su premacy. Placing itself at the head of a triple alliance (Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tacuba), Mexico in the fifteenth century engaged in a series of conquests which carried the Aztec power to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Pacific Ocean, and well into the Maya regions of Central America. War became a national impulse, closely identified with the religion of which human sacrifice was a central feature. The "empire" was but a military overlordship, however, and had for its chief objects tribute and human beings for sacrifice. The hegemony was not secure, nor did it embrace all of the semi-civilized peoples. The Tarascans and other tribes to the west had resisted its power, and shortly before the advent of the Spaniards the Tlascalans to the east had defeated the Aztecs in battle. At the coming of the Europeans the "empire" was losing its hold. The subject peoples were becoming more restless under the burden of tribute; and the ruler, Montezuma II, was a superstitious fatalist. The Spanish conquerors arrived at the opportune moment for success. THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL AMERICA Castilla del Oro— At the same time that the islands other than Espafiola were being occupied, beginnings of settlement were made in Central America. In 1503 Christopher Columbus had attempted to establish a colony on the Veragua coast, but had failed. After several successful trading voyages had been made, however, two colonies were planned for the southern mainland. Ojeda received a grant called Uraba, east of the Gulf of Darien, and Nicuesa obtained a grant called Veragua, lying west of that Gulf. Ojeda founded a colony at San Sebastian (1509), which was shortly afterward moved to Darien, where Vasco Nunez de Balboa soon became the leading figure and governor ad interim (1511). Nicuesa's colony was founded at Nombre de Dios (1510), but it did not flourish. The Darien region became known as THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 29 Nueva Andalucia, and in 15 13 the whole southern mainland, excepting Veragua, Honduras and Yucatan, to the west and Paria, to the east, was reorganized into one grand jurisdiction called Castilla del Oro, and made independent of Espafiola. Balboa. — Hearing of gold and a sea toward the south, Balboa led a band of men in 15 13 across the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. The discovery was an important factor in leading to Magellan's great voyage, already recounted, and it set in motion a wave of explorations both up and down the Pacific coast, and led to the conquest of Peru. Balboa had made enemies, and he fell under the suspicion of the new governor of Castilla del Oro, Pedrarias de Avila, who arrived at Darien in 1 5 14 with a colony of fifteen hundred persons; but a concilia tion occurred, and in 151 5 Balboa was made Adelantado of the Island of Coiba, in the South Sea. To explore that water he built vessels on the north coast and had them transported across the Isthmus on the backs of Indians. The vessels proved unsea- worthy, and while Balboa was building two more at the Isle of Pearls, he was summoned by Pedrarias, charged with treason, and beheaded (15 19). Exploration on the South Sea. — Balboa was succeeded by Espinosa in charge of the southern coast. He at once began plundering raids westward by land, seeking gold and slaves. The South Sea now became the chief center of interest, and, to provide a better base, in 15 19 Pedrarias founded Panama, moved his capital thither, refounded Nombre de Dios, and opened a road across the Isthmus between the two places. Rapidly now the conquerors and explorers, under Pedrarias, pushed their way westward, by water and by land. With two of the vessels built by Balboa, in 15 19 Espinosa sent an expedition under Castafieda which reached the Gulf of Nicoya, some five hundred miles from Panama. In 1522 Andres Nifio and Gil Gonzalez Davila fitted out a joint expedition, planning to sail west one thousand leagues, to seek spices, gold, and silver. After sailing one hundred leagues westward, Gonzalez proceeded west by land, while Nifio continued with the fleet. Gonzalez reached and conquered the country bordering on the Gulf of Nicoya and Lake Nicaragua, places so named from local chieftains. Nifio sailed west to Fonseca Bay, thus coasting the entire length of 3° THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 31 Nicaragua. When the commanders returned to Panama they reported thirty-two thousand baptisms, and presents in gold and pearls worth more than $112,000. The Conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. — These profitable explorations stimulated renewed interest, and were followed by conquest and settlement in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Gon zalez desired to return at once to occupy the country which he had explored, and, meeting hindrance from Pedrarias, he went to Espafiola to organize another expedition, while awaiting royal consent. Meanwhile Pedrarias set about conquering Nicaragua for himself. With funds borrowed from Francisco Pizarro and others, he equipped a small expedition and sent it under Fran cisco Hernandez de Cordova. One of the commanders was Her nando de Soto, who later became famous in Peru and Florida. Proceeding westward, in 1524 Cordova founded Bruselas, on the Gulf of Nicoya, and parceled out the natives among the settlers. Continuing into Nicaragua, he founded the cities of Leon and Granada. In the struggle which followed, Bruselas was aban doned and the settlement of Costa Rica proceeded slowly. Gonzalez in 1524, having secured royal permission, entered Honduras from the northeast, with an expedition destined for Nicaragua. De Soto, sent against him by Cordova, was easily subdued, but Gonzalez was defeated by the agents of Cortes, who was now engaged in the conquest of Mexico. In Nicaragua Cordova revolted against Pedrarias and was executed. In 1527 Pedrarias became , governor of Nicaragua, where he ruled till 1 53 1. During all these wranglings the Indians were the chief sufferers. They were granted in encomienda, employed as beasts of burden, or branded and sold as slaves in Panama, Peru, or the West Indies. Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras. — Meanwhile the north-moving conquerors who went out from Panama had met and struggled in Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras with the companions of Cortes, moving southward from Mexico. The history of the conquest of these disputed regions, therefore, becomes a part of the story of the exploits of Cortes and his lieutenants, recounted below. Exploration of San Juan River. — One of the acts which relieve the bloody story of the career of Pedrarias was the sending in 32 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA 1529 of an expedition under Estete to find the outlet to Lake Nicaragua. Estete descended the San Juan River until a glimpse was had of the sea, but hostile Indians prevented him from reach ing it. It was believed that the lake and river drained a country rich with gold, and explorations continued. In 1536 the San Juan, with tributary branches, was explored by Alonso Carrero and Diego Machuco, under orders from the new governor of Nicaragua. Soon the lake and river became the principal high way from Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean, and to the Porto Bello fairs. The Dukedom of Veragua. — It was a long time after Nicuesa's failure in 15 10 before another attempt was made to settle Ve ragua, one reason being that the region was tenaciously claimed by the heirs of Columbus. In 1535 Alonso Gutierrez was made governor of Veragua, as agent of the widow of Diego Columbus, but misfortune attended his efforts to found a colony. Shortly afterward (1537) the discoverer's grandson, Luis, was made Duke of Veragua; several attempts to colonize it failed, however, and in 1556 the region was surrendered for a small pension. Continued struggle in Central America. — These conquests were but the beginning of a long struggle of the Spaniards with the natives in Central America. The first stages of the conquest were over by the middle of the sixteenth century, but many parts of the country were still unconquered at the end of the seventeenth. Some tribes, indeed, are unsubdued and uncivilized to this day. THE CONQUEST OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO The revolt of Cortes. — In the very year of the founding of Panama Hernando Cortes entered Mexico. The return of the expeditions of Cordova and Grijalva to the Mexican coast had caused excitement in Cuba. Governor Velasquez prepared an expedition to follow them up, and appointed Cortes to lead it. Becoming distrustful of his lieutenant, Velasquez sent messengers to recall him, but Cortes set forth, nevertheless. In defiance of the governor, on February 18, 1519, he left Cuba, a rebel, with eleven vessels, some six hundred men, and sixteen horses. Pro- THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) ^ ceeding to Tabasco and up the coast, he founded Vera Cruz, by whose cabildo he was chosen captain-general and juslicia mayor, and his position was thus given the color of legality. By this act Cortes placed himself under the immediate protection of the king. The march to Mexico. — On the way and while at Vera Cruz Cortes had learned that the Aztec "empire" was honeycombed with dissension, and that the subject peoples were burdened with tribute and filled with hatred for Montezuma, the native ruler at the city of Mexico. He therefore assumed the role of deliverer, and the Indians rallied to his standard. At Cempoalla he con nived at a revolt against Montezuma's tax gatherers. Scuttling his ships and thus cutting off all chance for retreat, in August he set out for Mexico. His march was a succession of audacious deeds. At Cempoalla he threw down heathen idols and im prisoned the chiefs. At Tlascala he was attacked by several thousand warriors, but his genius changed them into allies in his train. At Cholula, discovering a conspiracy, he raked the streets with cannon shot and burned the leaders at the stake. In triumph he entered the great pueblo of Tenochtitlan or Mexico. While lodged as a guest of Montezuma in the center of the city, he seized the Aztec ruler and held him prisoner. The loss and recapture of the city. — In the spring of 1520 Cortes learned that Panrilo de Narvaez had arrived at Vera Cruz with nearly a thousand men, under orders from Velasquez to arrest him. Leaving Pedro de Alvarado in charge, he hastened to the coast, won over most of Narvaez's men, and then hurried back to Mexico. During his absence the Aztecs had revolted, through the rashness of Alvarado. Soon after the return of Cortes the natives rose again, killed Montezuma, and replaced him by Cuautehmoc, a more vigorous leader. Cortes now sought safety in flight, but during the night retreat he lost more than half his men. This "unfortunate night" became known as "Noche Triste." But the defeat was only temporary. Raising new allies, Cortes conquered the towns round about Mexico, built a fleet at Tlascala, launched it on Lake Tezcuco, besieged the city, and by a combined attack, by land and water, on August 13, 1521, he recaptured Mexico, the most important native town in all America. 34 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Cortes's contest with Velasquez. — Knowing that Velasquez would oppose him, Cortes, while at Vera Cruz in 15 19, had at once sent agents, bearing rich presents, to represent him at the court of Charles V. Then began a three-year contest with the agents of the Cuban governor. The delay was fortunate for Cortes, for in the course of it he won favor by his remarkable feats of conquest. Through the influence of Fonseca, Velasquez secured the appointment of Cristobal de Tapia, an official of Espafiola, as governor of New Spain, to take charge of the government and investigate Cortes. But Cortes got rid of him as he had disposed of Narvaez. Arriving at Vera Cruz in De cember, 1 52 1, Tapia was met by a council of delegates from the conqueror and practically driven from the country, on the ground that new orders were expected from the king. Cortes made Governor and Captain-General. — Before this Cortes had sent Avila to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo to ob tain its favor. Scarcely had Tapia been ejected when Avila re turned with tentative authority for Cortes, subject to royal ap proval, to continue his conquests and to grant encomiendas. This greatly strengthened Cortes's position. Having succeeded so well in Espafiola, Avila was now sent to Spain. Here he triumphed also, for on October 15, 1522, the emperor approved the acts of Cortes and made him governor and captain-general of New Spain. The victory of Cortes was as complete as the discom fiture of Velasquez and Fonseca. Mexico rebuilt. Encomiendas granted. — The work of conquest on the mainland was accompanied by the evolution of government and the establishment of Spanish civilization, just as had been the case in the West Indies during the earlier stages of the strug gle. Wherever the Spaniards settled, they planted their political, religious, economic, and social institutions. Mexico was rebuilt in 1522 as a Spanish municipality, Pedro de Alvarado, the most notable of Cortes's lieutenants, being made first alcalde mayor. In the regions subdued the principal provinces were assigned to the conquerors as encomiendas. Much of the actual work of control was accomplished through native chiefs, who were as signed Spanish offices and held responsible for good order and the collection of tribute. This method was later adopted by the British in India. The Development of Southern Mexico, 1510-1543 36 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA THE SPREAD OF THE CONQUEST The semi-civilized tribes. — With the fall of the city the first stage of the conquest had ended. Within the following decade most of the semi-civilized tribes of southern Mexico and Central America were brought under the dominion of Spain. During this period Spanish activities were directed from the Valley of Mexico to the eastward, southward and westward. From the south came rumors of gold and reports of the South Sea, while to the north, among the barbarian tribes, there was little, at this stage of the conquest, to attract the conquerors. Factors in the conquest. — Several factors explain the marvel ous rapidity with which Spanish rule was extended. The con querors were looking for gold and accumulated treasure; not find ing it in one place they hastened to another, led off by any wild tale of riches. The fame of the Spaniards preceded them and par alyzed resistance. They were everywhere aided by great armies of allies, eager to help destroy their hated enemies. Finally, Cortes, himself a genius, was assisted by an able body of lieutenants; in the spread of the conquest Cortes remained the central figure, but the actual work fell mainly to Orozco, Alvarado, Olid, Sando val, Chico, Avalos, Montejo and other subordinates. Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and* Tehuantepec. — In the fall of 1520 Sandoval, in search of gold and to punish rebellious Indians, in vaded southern Vera Cruz with a handful of soldiers, aided by thirty thousand Indian allies. To hold the district he founded the towns of Medellin and Espiritu Santo. Before the expulsion of Cortes from the city, goldseekers had been sent to Oaxaca and Tehuantepec and were well received, but the "Noche Triste" was followed by a reaction. Orozco was sent, therefore, to sub due Oaxaca, which he reported to be rich in gold. In 1522 an attack by hostile neighbors called Alvarado to Tehuantepec. Gold was found, and as the district bordered on the South Sea, settlements were formed to hold it. Olid in Michoacan. — The same year, 1522, marks the exten sion of Spanish rule into Michoacan, the territory of the hitherto independent Tarascans. The cacique Tangaxoan visited Cortes and made submission, and in return Olid was sent to found a settle ment at Patzcuaro on Lake Chapala. Before the end of the year THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 37 part of the settlers moved to the seacoast and settled at Zacatula, in the modern state of Guerrero, where a post had been estabhshed. Colima and Jalisco. — From Michoacan the conquest at once spread north into Colima and Jalisco. Gold being reported in Colima, Avalos and Chico, lieutenants of Olid, entered the country, but were defeated by the natives. Thereupon Olid followed, subdued the mountain region by force, and founded the town of Colima (1524), which became a base for new ad vances. On his return to Mexico, Olid brought samples of pearls from Cohma, and reports of an Amazon Island ten days up the coast, where there were said to be great riches. To investigate these reports, in 1524 Francisco Cortes was sent north. He reached Rio de Tololotlan, and secured the allegiance of the "queen" of Jalisco, but found little gold and no Amazon Island. Amichel and Panuco. — In 1522 the Huasteca country, to the northeast, came under the control of Cortes. It was three years before this that Pineda, as representative of Garay, governor of Jamaica, had visited the region. Garay applied for a grant of a province called Amichel, extending from Florida to Mexico, and set about colonizing it. In 1520, before the patent was secured, a party of his men met disaster near Panuco River. Hearing of Garay's operations, in 1522 Cortes led forty thousand allies into the country, subdued it, and founded San Esteban, on Panuco River. In 1523 Garay led a colony to the same region, but found himself forestalled by Cortes, by whom he was sent to Mexico, where he soon died. The rivalry of the Spaniards encouraged an Indian revolt, but Sandoval, as agent of Cortes, put down the disturbance with extreme cruelty. In 1527 the Panuco district, under the name of Victoria Garayana was separated from Mexico, Nufio de Guzman being made governor, while the region called Florida, further north, was assigned to Panfilo de Narvaez. Guzman's rule of six months was character ized by attempts to extend conquests northward into Narvaez's territory, by wars with the Huasteca chieftains, and by constant slave-hunting raids, through which the country was nearly de populated. Alvarado in Guatemala and San Salvador. — By this time the conquests of Cortes and his lieutenants had extended into Cen tral America, where they encountered the agents of Pedrarias. 38 THE COLONIZATION O" NORTH AMERICA In 1522 embassies from the large cities of Utatlan and Guatemala had visited Cortes and made submission. In the following year Alvarado, with four hundred Spaniards and twenty thousand allies, entered the region and conquered the Quiches and Cakchi- quels. This task partially completed, he continued south and extended his conquests into San Salvador (1524). Olid and Casas in Honduras. — Cortes believed that Honduras was rich, and that a strait lay between it and Guatemala. More over, Gil Gonzalez and the agents of Pedrarias had begun to operate there. Consequently, at the same time that Alvarado went to Guatemala, Olid was despatched to Honduras. Reaching there in 1524 he tried to imitate his master's example by making a conquest for himself. He succeeded in defeating Gonzalez, as has been seen, but was in turn beheaded by Francisco de las Casas, who was sent by Cortes to overthrow him. During this struggle the city of Trujillo was founded. The march of Cortes to Honduras. — In doubt as to the wisdom of sending Las Casas after Olid, in October, 1524, Cortes set out for Honduras in person, with about one hundred and forty Span iards and three hundred Indians in his train, the latter led by three famous Aztec chiefs. In his rear was driven a herd of swine. The route lay through southern Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas, to Golfo Dulce, his way being obstructed by vast morasses, swollen streams, and flint-strewn mountains. In a single province fifty bridges had to be constructed in a journey of as many miles. In Chiapas it became necessary to bridge with trees a channel five hundred paces wide. On the way the Aztec chieftains, including the noble Cuauhtemoc, being charged with conspiracy, were hanged, an act which is variously characterized as a "necessary punishment" and a "foul murder." Leaving his cousin, Hernando Saavedra, in command as captain-general in Trujillo, Cortes sent his men home by way of Guatemala and returned by sea to Mexico in May, 1526. After attempting for two years to explore on the South Sea, in 1528 he went to Spain to refute his enemies, chief of whom was Nufio de Guzman, now president of the recently established Audiencia of Mexico. He returned two years later. Yucatan.— The conquest of Yucatan was begun in 1527 by Francisco de Montejo, an agent of Cortes. Initial success was THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 39 followed by native revolts, and it was 1541 before the conquest was made secure. There were frequent rebellions thereafter, but never again united resistance. Las Casas in Guatemala. — Thus far the conquest had been one of force. But now an example of the power of gentleness was furnished by Father Las Casas, the Dominican friar who had opposed encomiendas so vigorously in Espafiola. About 1532 he entered Nicaragua as a missionary, where he attacked the ill-treatment of the Indians. Being opposed by the governor, in 1536 he went to Guatemala. Shortly before this he had written a treatise to prove that conversion by force was wrong, and that only persuasion should be used. To test his views he was granted sole control for five years of a hostile region known as "the Land of War," and by mild means he and his companions soon con verted the district into a land of True Peace (Vera Paz) , as it is still called. Guzman in Sinaloa. — While Cortes was in Spain Guzman, fearing his own downfall, and hoping to save himself by offering new provinces to the king, undertook the conquest of northern Jalisco and of Sinaloa. Leaving Mexico in December, 1529, with ten thousand allies, he marched through Michoacan and Jalisco, leaving behind a trail of fire and blood, for which he has ever since been execrated. Part of Sinaloa was explored, and Culiacan was founded as an outpost in 153 1. The region subdued by Guzman was named Nueva Galicia, of which the conqueror became governor and Compostela the capital. ..Buffer province of Queretaro. — At the coming of the Spaniards the country north of the valley of Mexico had never been con quered by the Aztecs. The Spaniards, in turn, adopted the policy of entrusting its subjugation to native caciques, treating the region as a buffer Indian state. The leading figure in the conquest was a Christianized Otomi chief, named Nicolas de San Luis. By Charles V he was made a knight of the Order of San tiago and a captain-general in the army. Another Otomi cacique who played a similar though less conspicuous part was Fer nando de Tapia. The most notable event in the conquest was the reduction of Queretaro in 1531. For thirty years San Luis served the Spaniards in the control of the Queretaro border. 40 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA The Mixton War. — The first half century of expansion toward the north was closed by a widespread native uprising in Nueva Galicia which for a time checked advance in that direction and even caused a contraction of the frontier. Guzman had left Nueva Galicia in a deplorable condition. After several minor uprisings, the rebellious natives broke forth in 1541, during the absence of Governor Coronado and his army in New Mexico. The Indians refused to pay tribute, killed their encomenderos and the missionaries, destroyed the crops, and took refuge in the peholes or cliffs of Mixton, Nochistlan, Acatic, and other places near Guadalajara. The defence fell to Cristobal de Ofiate, lieutenant governor of Nueva Galicia. Pedro de Alvarado, who chanced to arrive from Guatemala at Navidad with a force of men, led them against Nochistlan and lost his life in the en counter. Viceroy Mendoza at last took the field with four hundred and fifty Spaniards and thirty thousand allies, and crushed the revolt. EXPLORATIONS IN THE NORTHERN INTERIOR AND ON THE PACIFIC FLORIDA De Leon. — While some conquerors were struggling in Central America, Mexico, and Peru, others were trying to subdue the vast northern region called Florida. In 15 14 Juan Ponce de Leon secured a patent to colonize Florida and Bimini, which he had explored in the previous year. Instead of proceeding to the task, however, he engaged in a war against the Caribs, and it was not until 1521 that he attempted to carry out his project. In that year he led a colony of two hundred men to the Peninsula, landed on the west coast, and tried to establish a settlement. But he was attacked by .natives, and driven back to Cuba, mortally wounded. Ayllon's colony on the Carolina coast. — To carry out his con tract to colonize Chicora, in July, 1526, Ayllon sailed from Espafi ola with six vessels and a colony of five hundred men and women, Dominican friars, and supplies, prepared to find a new home in Carolina. But the experiment was doomed to be another failure. Landing was first made on the river called the Jordan, perhaps THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 4I Cape Fear River. On another stream, perhaps the Peedee, the settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape was begun. But supphes gave out, and at the end of two years Ayllon died (October, 1528). Quarrels ensued, and in midwinter the survivors, only about one hundred and fifty now, returned to Santo Domingo. Narvaez. — At the same time the conquest of Florida was at tempted by Panfilo de Narvaez, the man who had been sent to Vera Cruz to arrest Cortes. In 1526 he secured a patent to the lands of Ponce de Leon and Garay. Raising a colony of six hun dred persons in Spain, in 1528 he reached Florida, landing near Tampa Bay. Hearing of a rich province called Apalachen (Apal- ache), he sent his vessels along the coast and himself marched up the peninsula at the head of three hundred men to find the Promised Land. He found the place sought near modern Talla hassee, but it proved to be a squalid Indian village of forty huts. A few weeks having been spent in exploration and warfare, Narvaez went to the coast near St. Marks Bay, built a fleet of horse-hide boats, and set out for Panuco. After passing the mouth of the Mississippi a storm arose, and all were wrecked on the coast of Texas. Cabeza de Vaca. — In a short time most of the survivors of Narvaez's party died of. disease, starvation, and exposure, or at the hands of the savages. Having passed nearly six years of slavery among the Indians, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the colony of Florida, with three companions, es caped westward, crossed Texas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Sonora, and in 1536 reached Culiacan, the northern outpost of Sinaloa, after a most remarkable journey. De Soto. — Vaca went to Spain (1537) to apply for the governor ship of Florida, but it had already been conferred on Hernando de Soto, who had taken a prominent part in the conquest of both Central America and Peru. In 1539 De Soto reached Florida with a colony of six hundred persons. Landing at Tampa Bay, as Narvaez had done, he soon set out to look for a rich prov ince called Cale. This was the beginning of an expedition lasting nearly four years, during which the Spaniards were led on by tales of gold and treasure from one district to another, hoping to repeat the exploits of Cortes and Pizarro. As he passed through the country De Soto imitated those captains by capturing the chiefs, 42 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA holding them as hostages, and compelling them to provide food and men to carry the baggage. Going to Apalachen he wintered there, meanwhile discovering Pensacola Bay. From Apalachen he went to the Savannah River, thence northwest to the North Carolina Piedmont, south toward Mobile Bay, northwest to the Mississippi near modern Memphis, westward across Arkansas into Oklahoma, thence down the Arkansas River to its mouth, where he died, in May, 1542, being buried in the Mississippi. Moscoso in Arkansas and Texas. — De Soto's followers, led by Luis de Moscoso, now set out for Panuco, crossing Arkansas to the Red River, then turning southwest through eastern Texas, perhaps reaching the Brazos River. Giving up the attempt by land, they returned to the Mississippi, built a fleet of boats, descended the river, and skirted the Texas coast, reaching Panuco in 1543. Thus ended the fourth attempt to colonize Florida. CIBOLA AND QUIVIRA Cortes on the South Sea and in California. — Another fine of advance toward the northern interior had been made by way of the Pacific slope. The discovery of the South Sea was followed immediately by exploration along the western coast. Balboa himself had begun that work, before his death in 1519. Espinosa had reached Nicaragua in 1519, and three years later Nifio had reached Guatemala. By this time Cortes had also begun opera tions on the South Sea by building a shipyard at Zacatula, hoping to discover a strait, find rich islands and mainland, reach India by way of the coast, and open communication with the Moluccas. In 1527 he sent three vessels under Saavedra across the Pacific. The operations of a new fleet built by him were hindered by the Audiencia of Mexico, but in 1532 he sent an expedition north under Hurtado de Mendoza, which reached RioFuerte in northern Sinaloa. In the following year another expedition sent by Cortes under Jimenez discovered Lower Cahfornia, which was thought to be an island and where pearls were found. The discovery of an island with pearls confirmed the geographical ideas of Cortes, and in 1535 he himself led a colony to La Paz, but within a few months it was abandoned. This was the first of a long series of efforts to colonize California. Explorations in the Northern Interior, 1513-1543 44 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Friar Marcos discovers Cibola. — Interest in the north country, both in Spain and America, was greatly quickened by the arrival of Cabeza de Vaca in Mexico after his journey across the con tinent. He had seen no great wonders, but he had heard of large cities to the north of his path, and it was thought that they might be the famed Seven Cities. The viceroy took into his service the negro Stephen, one of Vaca's companions, and sent him with Friar Marcos, a Franciscan missionary, to reconnoitre. In March, 1539, they set out with guides from Culiacan. Going ahead, Stephen soon sent back reports of Seven Cities, called Cibola, farther on. Friar Marcos hastened after him, and reached the border of the Zufii pueblos in western New Mexico, where he learned that Stephen had been killed. Re turning to the settlement, he reported that Cibola was larger and finer than Mexico. This story, of course, was the signal for another "rush," fike that to Peru a few years before. Ulloa rounds the peninsula of California. — Rivalry between Cortes and the viceroy regarding exploration was now keen, and about the time of the return of Fray Marcos, Cortes, hoping to forestall his competitor, sent three vessels north to explore under Francisco de Ulloa. One of the vessels was lost, but with two of them Ulloa succeeded in reaching the head of the Gulf of Cali fornia, and learned that California was a peninsula. Descending the Gulf he proceeded up the outer coast of California to Cabo del Engafio. The contest for leadership. — While Ulloa's voyage was still in progress, Cortes hurried to Spain to present his claim of exclusive right to conquer the country discovered by Fray Marcos and Ulloa. He never returned to Mexico. Other contestants arose. The agents of De Soto, who at the time was in Florida, claimed Cibola as a part of the adelantado's grant. Guzman claimed it on the basis of explorations in Sinaloa. Pedro de Alvarado claimed it on the ground of a license to explore north and west, for which purpose he had prepared a fleet. The Coronado expedition.— But the royal council decided that the exploration should be made on behalf of the crown, in whose name the viceroy had already sent out an expedition under Francisco Vasquez Coronado, governor of Nueva Galicia. To THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 45 coopei ate with Coronado by water, Alarcon was sent up the coast from Acapulco with two vessels. In February, 1540, Coronado left Compostela with some two hundred horsemen, seventy foot soldiers, and nearly one thousand Indian allies and servants. So eager were the volunteers that it was complained that the country would be depopulated. The expedition was equipped at royal expense with a thousand horses, fine trappings, pack-mules, several cannon, and with droves of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine for food. From Culiacan Coro nado went ahead with about one hundred picked men and four friars. Following behind their leader, the main army moved up to Corazones, in the Yaqui River valley, where the town of San Geronimo was founded and left in charge of Melchor Diaz. Zufii, Moqui, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande. — In July Coronado reached the Zufii pueblos, which he conquered with little difficulty. But the country was disappointing and the ex pedition resulted only in explorations. These, however, were of great importance. At Culiacan Alarcon procured a third vessel, then continued to the head of the Gulf, and ascended the Colorado (1540) eighty-five leagues, perhaps passing the Gila River. Shortly afterward Melchor Diaz went by land from San Geronimo to the Colorado to communicate with Alarcon, but failed and lost his life. During the journey, however, he crossed the Colo rado and went some distance down the Peninsula of California. Hearing of the Moqui pueblos, to the north of Zufii, in July Coronado sent Tobar to find them, which he succeeded in doing. Shortly afterward Cardenas went farther northwest and reached the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Moving to the Rio Grande, Coronado visited the pueblos in its valley and camped at Tiguex above Isleta. In the course of the winter the Indians revolted and were put down with great severity. Gran Quivira. — Meanwhile Coronado heard of a rich country northeastward called Gran Quivira, and in April, 1541, he set out to find it. Crossing the mountains and descending the Pecos, he marched out into the limitless buffalo-covered plains, the "Llanos del Cibola," inhabited by roving Apaches. Near the upper Brazos he turned north, crossed the Texas Panhandle and Oklahoma, and reached Quivira in eastern Kansas. It was prob ably a settlement of Wichita Indians. Disappointed, and urged 46 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA by his men, Coronado now returned to Mexico. Three fearless missionaries remained to preach the gospel, and soon achieved the crown of martyrdom. Coronado had made one of the epochal explorations of all history. The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico. — Coronado found large parts of New Mexico and adjacent regions inhabited by Indians who dwelt in substantial towns (pueblos) and possessed a civil ization similar to that of the Aztecs. Their terraced dwellings, which were also fortifications, were built of stone or adobe, and were several stories high. The inhabitants lived a settled life, practiced agriculture by means of irrigation, and raised cotton for clothing. They were constantly beset by the more warlike tribes all about them, and were already declining under their incursions. At the time of the conquest there were some seventy inhabited pueblos, whose population may have been from 30,000 to 60,000. The principal pueblo regions were the upper Rio Grande, the upper Pecos, Acoma, and the Zufii and Moqui towns. Remains of prehistoric pueblos occupy a much wider range in the Southwest, and are now the scene of important archaeological research. CALIFORNIA AND THE PHILIPPINES Alvarado's fleet. — Shortly after Coronado left New Mexico, two important expeditions were despatched by Viceroy Mendoza to explore in the Pacific. Magellan's voyage had been a signal for a bitter conflict between Spain and Portugal in the East, in which Portugal long had the upper hand. After the failures of Loaisa (1525) and Saavedra (1527) Charles V sold Spain's claims on the Moluccas to Portugal, but continued to claim the Philip pines. In spite of former disasters to eastern expeditions, both Cortes and Pedro de Alvarado planned discoveries in the South Sea. In 1532 Alvarado made a contract for the purpose, but was led off by the gold "rush" to Peru. In 1538 he obtained a new grant, authorizing him to explore "in the west toward China or the Spice Islands," or toward the north at the "turn of the land to New Spain." Early in 1539 he left Spain with equipment for a fleet, which he transported across Honduras and Guate mala on the backs of natives. On hearing of the discoveries of THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 47 Fray Marcos, he hastened north with his fleet, but stopped in Mexico, where he and Mendoza. who had already sent out Cor onado, made an agreement, as mutual insurance, to divide the profits of their respective explorations. Before continuing his expedition Alvarado was killed in the Mixton War (1541). This left the fleet in Mendoza's hands, and with it he carried out Alvarado's plans by despatching two expeditions, one up the California coast, the other across the Pacific. Cabrillo and Ferrelo. — The coast voyage was conducted by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, and was especially designed to look for a northern strait. Leaving Navidad in June, 1542, Cabrillo explored the outer coast of the Peninsula, discovered San Diego Bay, reached Northwest Cape (latitude 38°3i'), descended to Drake's Bay, and then returned to the Santa Barbara Channel, where he died. Sailing north again in 1543, his pilot, Ferrelo, reached the Oregon coast (42^°), returning thence to Navidad. Cabrillo and Ferrelo had explored the coast for more than twenty- three degrees, but had missed both San Francisco and Monterey bays. Villalobos. — The other expedition was led by Lopez de Villa- lobos, who was instructed to explore the Philippines and to reach China, but not to touch at the Moluccas. Sailing in November, 1542, he took possession of the Philippines, but, being forced to leave on account of native hostility, he was captured by the Portuguese. Villalobos died in the Moluccas, where the enter prise went to pieces. The expeditions of Coronado, De Soto, Cabrillo, and Villalobos brought to an end a remarkable half century of Spanish expansion in North America and in the Pacific Ocean. IHE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN Cortes as administrator. — Cortes was not a mere conqueror. He appointed officers, and issued general ordinances affecting nearly all lines of activity. Encomenderos were required to equip themselves for defense and to promote agriculture. Cortes himself became a great planter, notably at Oaxaca. He intro duced agricultural implements, opened a port at Vera Cruz, and established markets in Mexico City. In 1523 the king had for- 48 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA bidden encomiendas, but Cortes made so strong a protest on the grounds of policy and royal interest that the order was withdrawn. Royal officials arrive. — In 1524 a corps of royal officials arrived to take the places of those appointed by Cortes. Estrada came as treasurer, Salazar as factor, Albornoz, as contador, and Chi- rinos as veedor. They came empowered to interfere in the government of Cortes, especially in matters of finance, a pohcy quite in keeping with the general Spanish practice of setting one officer to watch another. The powers of Cortes curtailed. — The new officials were not slow to make trouble for Cortes. While he was in Honduras his enemies set about undermining him, both in Mexico and Spain. Salazar and Chirinos usurped authority, persecuted the con queror's partisans, confiscated his property, and spread reports that he was dead. At last the friends of Cortes rebelled, over threw the usurpers, Salazar and Chirinos, and sent for Cortes to return from Honduras. In May, 1526, he reached Vera Cruz. Two years of investigation and persecution by other crown officials followed. In response to complaints in Spain, Luis Ponce de Le6n was sent early in the same year as governor and to hold a residencia of Cortes, while the latter's jurisdiction as captain-general was lessened by the appointment of Nufio de Guzman as governor of Panuco. Ponce de Le6n died in July, leaving Aguilar as governor. Aguilar died early in 1527 and Estrada became governor. He interfered with Cortes's explorations in the South Sea, and banished him from Mexico City as dangerous, but the^breach was soon healed when both were threatened by the usurpations of Guzman. It was at this time that Cortes, finding his position unbearable, went to Spain for redress and to answer charges. The first Audiencia of New Spain. — In view of the disturbed conditions in New Spain, in 1528 Charles V created an Audiencia or supreme court for Mexico, and empowered it to investigate the disorders and hold the residencia of Cortes. It was composed of four oidores and a president. To the latter office was appointed Nufio de Guzman. He proved to be an extreme partisan against Cortes, and so avaricious that he soon won the hatred of almost everyone except a few favorites. The old friends of Cort6s stood by him and he secured the support of Bishop Zumarraga. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 49 Cortes made Marquis of the Valley.— The arrival of Cortes in Spain caused his detractors to slink from sight, and he was con ducted to court with almost royal honors. In consideration of his brilliant services, in T529 he was granted twenty-two towns, with twenty-three thousand vassals, with full civil and criminal jurisdiction and rentals for himself and his heirs. With these honors he was given the titles of Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, captain-general of New Spain, and governor of such islands as he might still discover in the South Sea. In 1530 he returned to New Spain, where he was acclaimed by the people, though opposed by the Audiencia. The second Audiencia. — The abuses of the first Audiencia led to its replacement in 1530 by a new corps of judges, of whom the president was Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal. The oidores appointed were Salmeron, Maldonado, Ceynos, and Quiroga. They were especially instructed to hold the residencias of their predecessors, restore the estates of Cortes, and consider the abolition of encomiendas. To replace control by encomenderos, local magistrates called corregidores were introduced. A few of these functionaries were appointed, but the colonists raised such a cry that little change was accomplished, and the Audiencia confined itself, in this particular, to checking abuses of the encomienda system. Quiroga later became bishop and civilizer of Michoacan, where he is still gratefully remembered. The viceroyalty established. — The difficulties of government and the spread of conquests made closer centralization necessary, and New Spain was now made a viceroyalty. The first incum bent of the office of viceroy was Antonio de Mendoza, a nobleman of fine character and ability. He arrived in 1535. As viceroy he was president of the Audiencia, governor, and captain- general, personally representing the king in all branches of government. The Audiencias of Panama and Guatemala. — Alvarado served as governor and captain-general of Guatemala through appoint ment by Cortes till 1528, when he was commissioned directly by the emperor. Though frequently absent, he continued in office till his death in 154 1. In 1537 Panama and Veragua were erected into the Audiencia of Panama, which was later attached to the viceroyalty of Peru, because the commerce of Peru crossed the 50 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Isthmus. Six years later the Audiencia of the Confines of Panama and Nicaragua was estabhshed. After various changes, by 1570 Guatemala became the seat of an Audiencia em bracing all of Central America except Panama, Veragua, and Yucatan. The New Laws. — Las Casas and others continued to oppose the encomienda system. In 1 539 the great missionary returned to Spain to conduct the fight. While there he wrote his celebrated works called The Destruction of the Indies and the Twenty Reasons why Indians should not be enslaved. His pleadings were not in vain, for in 1542 the Council issued a new Indian code called the New Laws, which provided that encomiendas should be abolished on the death of the present holders. But so great was the opposition that in 1545 the vital clauses of the ordinance were repealed. In Peru the attempt to enforce the laws even led to bloodshed. Mendoza sent to Peru. — Viceroy Mendoza continued to rule for fifteen years. He proved to be a wise, able, and honest admin istrator, who tried to improve the condition of both the colonists and the helpless natives. He prohibited the use of the Indians as beasts of burden. In 1536 he estabhshed the printing press in Mexico, the first book published on the continent appearing in 1537. In that year he founded the college of Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco for the education of noble Indians. He opened roads from Mexico to Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, Acapulco, Michoacan, Colima, Jalisco, and other distant points. In 1550 he was sent to rule in troubled Peru, where the Spaniards were duplicating the brilliant exploits of Cortes and his followers. READINGS SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST Armstrong, E., The Emperor Charles V.; Bourne, E. G., Spain in America, Ch. I; Chapman, Charles E., A History of Spain, 1-246, especially Chap ters X-XXII; Cheyney, E. P., European Background of American History, Ch. V; Hume, M. A. S., Spain, its Greatness and Decay; Hume, M. A. S., The Spanish People; Lane-Poole, S., The Moors in Spain; Lowery, W., Spanish Settlements within, the present limits of the United States, 1513- IS6s, PP- 79-ioi; Merriman, R. B., The Rise of the Spanish Empire; Pres- cott, W. H., Ferdinand and Isabella; Haring, C. H., Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs. THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543) 51 THE WEST INDIES, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MAGELLAN Allolaguirrc y Davale, D. Angel d(\ D. Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador de Guatemala y Honduras; Vasco Nuhez de Balboa; Bancroft, H. H., Central America, I, 183-247, 321-412, 478-511; Bourne, E. G., Spain in America, 20-53; IIS_I32; Fiske, John, The Discovery of America, I, 465-512, II, 184- 212; Fortier, A., and Ficklen, J. R., Mexico and Central America, 1-102; G :ardia, R. F., History of the Discovery and Conquest of Costa Rica: Guille- mand, F. H. H., Life of Magellan; Helps, Arthur, The Spanish Conquest, I, 89-142, 193-320; Lowery, Woodbury, Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States, 102-122; Richman, I. B., The Spanish Conquerors, 64-91, 139-154; Wright, I. A., The early History of Cuba, 1492-1586. CORTES AND HIS FOLLOWERS Bancroft, H. H., Central America, I, 522-64,3; Diaz del Castillo, Bernal, True History of the Conquest of New Spain; Fortier and Ficklen, Mexico and Central America, 181-238; Helps, Arthur, Life of Cortes; Life of Las Casas; The Spanish Conquest, III, 23-67, 164-289; McNutt, F. A., Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico, 43-67; The Letters of Cortes lo Charles V; Prescott, W. H., The Conquest of Mexico, Bks. II-IV; Bolton, H. E., The Spanish Border lands; Means, P. A., History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatdn and of the Itzas. EXPLORATIONS TO THE NORTH AND IN THE PACIFIC Bancroft, H. H., History of California, I, 64-81; Bandelier, A. D. F., The Gilded Man; Journey of Cabeza de Vaca {Trail Makers' Series); Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, I— II; Bolton, H. E., Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706 {Original Narratives Series), 1-39; Bourne, E. G., Spain in America, 158-174; Narratives of thc Career of Hernando de Soto {Trail Makers' Series); Brittain, Alfred, Discovery and Exploration, 343-361; Hodge, F. W., and Lewis, T. H., The Spanish Explorers in thc Southern United States, 1528-1543 {Original Narratives Series); Irving, Theodore, The Conquest of Florida; Lowery, Woodbury, Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States, 130-350; Richman, I. B., California under Spain and Mexico, 3-1 1; Schafer, Joseph, Pacific Coast and Alaska, 3-23; Winship, G. P., The Coronado Expedition (Bureau of American Ethnology, 14th Report, Part I.); The Journey of Coronado {Trail Makers' Series); Richman, I. B., The Spanish Conquerors, 91-139. CHAPTER III THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1643-1609) OLD AND NEW SPAIN UNDER PHILIP II Philip's inheritance. — Charles V's stormy reign came to a close in 1556, when he abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II, who inherited Spain with its colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche Comte, and the Netherlands. The imperial office and the Hapsburg possessions went to Charles's brother, Ferdinand I. The Protestant movement. — The Protestant movement, which began in Germany and Switzerland, spread into France, England, Scotland, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries. The Catholic church saw itself in danger of losing the religious su premacy in Europe, and put forth all its power to check it. Its three great agencies in the Counter-Reformation were the Council of Trent, the Jesuits, and Philip II. The Revolt of the Netherlands. — The Spanish king devoted all his resources to stamping out Protestantism in the Netherlands, France, and England. To the wealthy Dutch burghers Philip was a foreigner; they resented the quartering of his soldiers and they objected to his regent, the duchess of Parma, the king's half sister. The Inquisition had been introduced into the Nether lands by Charles V, and it became more active under his son. In 1566 the Dy&b, nobles headed a revolt, which was furthered by the ProtestarnjPeachers. The Duke of Alva was sent with an army to suppress it. William of Orange and other leaders fled the country, as did many Flemish weavers. Alva established a special court which became known as the Council of Blood; a reign of terror followed, thousands being executed. William of Orange, known as the Silent, in 1568 collected a small army and began the struggle for independence. After many years of warfare the Protestant provinces in _ the north gained their autonomy. The Defeat of the Armada. — In France the Protestant leader, Coligny, attempted to unite both Catholics and Protestants in a 52 THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 53 national war against Spain. This was frustrated by the Guises. Later, when they intrigued to place Mary Queen of Scots upon the Enghsh throne, Philip entered into their designs, but was pre vented from giving much assistance by the revolt in the Nether lands. The English retaliated by raiding the Spanish Main. The culmination of the struggle was the defeat of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, which freed England from the danger of invasion. In Spain Philip carried out his pohcy of expelling the rest of the Moors, the most industrious and enlightened of his subjects, and by rigorously pushing the work of the Inquisition. Spanish weakness. — The reign of Philip II had witnessed a vast change in Europe. England had become a Protestant coun try. In France the wars of religion had culminated by Henry IV ascending the throne. In the Netherlands the northern half had risen into an independent state. Portugal had become a Spanish province. In Spain the expulsion of the Moors, the con stant drain upon the country to carry on Philip's foreign enter prises, and the commercial losses inflicted by the Enghsh, had weakened the country to such an extent that it could no longer be looked upon as preeminent in Europe. Nevertheless, the Spanish colonies continued to develop and expand. The story of that expansion is the subject of this chapter. Luis de Velasco, second viceroy (1551-1564). — Viceroy Men doza was succeeded by Luis de Velasco, a member of a noble Cas tilian family, who took possession in Mexico in 155 1 and ruled till 1564. Velasco installed his rule by releasing 160,000 natives from forced labor in the mines. To put down disorder and protect the natives in 1552 he established in Mexico the Tribunal de la Santa Hermandad. A year later the royal University of Mexico was founded, the first in North America. During Velasco's rule the great canal of Huehuetoca for draining the City of Mexico was begun, 6000 Indians being employed in the work. Velasco was an expansionist, and vigorously promoted the colonization of Florida, the Philippines, and Nueva Vizcaya. Martin Cortes, second Marquis of the Valley. — At the same time with Velasco came Martin Cortes, son of the conqueror, and second Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. He possessed city property in Mexico, Oaxaca, Toluca, and Cuemavaca, and his estates were the richest in New Spain. Other encomenderos 54 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA looked to him as their protector against the royal officials and induced him to conspire for an independent crown. He yielded, but with six others was arrested in 1568. Two of the conspirators were executed, Cortes and the rest being sent to Spain. Expansion of the frontiers. — Having exploded for the time being some of the notions of great wonders in the far distant interior, the Spanish pioneers fell back on the established fron tiers, and by a more gradual and rational process extended them northward, much as the English a century later slowly pushed their settlements from the Atlantic shoreline across the Tide water and up into the Piedmont. On the Atlantic seaboard Spanish outposts were advanced from the West Indies into what are now Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and, momentarily, into Virginia. In Mexico, missions, mines, farms, and stock ranches advanced northward in regular succession or side by side. Between the return of Coronado and the end of the century the frontiers of actual occupation moved forward, roughly speaking, from Guadalajara, Queretaro, and Panuco, to a line drawn irregularly through the mouth of the Rio Grande westward to the Pacific, with many large spaces, of course, left vacant to be filled in by subsequent advances. The Spanish pioneers, like those of England and France, re corded their home attachments by the place names given their new abodes, and thus the whole northern district of Mexico was comprised within the three provinces of New Galicia, New Vizcaya, and New Leon. During the same period the Philippine Islands had been occupied as an outpost of Mexico. The Adelantados. — The latter sixteenth century was still within the age of the adelantados, when the development of the Spanish frontiers was left largely to men of means, obligated to bear most of the expense of conquering and peopling the wilder ness, in return for wide powers, extravagant titles, and extensive economic privileges. As types of these proprietary conquerors of the period there stand out Ibarra in Nueva Vizcaya, Menendez in Florida, Legazpi in the Philippines, Carabajal in Nuevo Le6n, and Ofiate in New Mexico. The period likewise was still within the age of the encomienda, when the right to parcel out the natives was inherent in the privilege of conquest. With the turn of the century the custom practically ceased, a fact which sharply THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 55 distinguishes Florida and New Mexico from the later frontier Spanish provinces of Texas, California, and Louisiana. A new spirit. — The age of wanton bloodshed, too, had largely passed. The New Laws, promulgated in 1543, stood for a new spirit, and royal authority had by now become somewhat estab lished on the frontiers. In proportion as the encotnenderos were discredited for their abuses and as their power over the Indians was checked, a larger and larger place was found on the frontier for the missionaries, to whom passed much of the actual work of subduing and controlling the natives. THE MINES OF NORTHERN MEXICO Audiencia and diocese of Nueva Galicia. — In 1544 Compostela became the seat of the new diocese of Nueva Galicia. Four years later the new Audiencia of Nueva Galicia was estabhshed there. About 1550 Guadalajara became the seat of both jurisdictions, and the judicial and ecclesiastical capital of all the country to the north and northeast, a position which it long occupied. The Audiencia district was subdivided into corregimientos, each under an alcalde, subject to the Audiencia. Within the corregimientos were Indian partidos, each under a native alcalde, subject to the encomenderos or the missionaries. The Zacatecas mines. — In spite of the check caused by the Mixton War, northward expansion in Mexico was soon stimulated by the discovery of rich mines, and by the ambitions of the new \iceroy. Mines developed in southern Nueva Galicia were soon eclipsed by those of Zacatecas, which were opened in 1548 by Juan de Tolosa, Cristobal de Onate, Diego de Ibarra, and Baltasar Trevifio. These men soon became the richest in America, and Zacatecas the first mining town in New Spain. The fame of thc "diggins" spread, and other parts of the country were for a time nearly depopulated by the rush of miners. Francisco de Ibarra. — Inspired by the "boom" at Zacatecas, the Audiencia of Nueva Galicia planned to subdue the districts of Sinaloa and Durango. Gines Vazquez de Mercado, sent for this purpose in 1552, wasted his energies in a fruitless search for a fabled mountain of pure silver, and was defeated by the Indians near Sombrerete. Martin Perez, sent by the Audiencia to the 56 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA same district in 1558, came into conflict with Francisco de Ibarra, agent of the viceroy. In 1554 Ibarra began a series of explora tions by means of which, in the course of eight years, he and his men opened in northern Zacatecas the mines of San Martin, San Lucas, Sombrerete, Chalchuites, Avifio, Fresnillo, and other places. To make these expeditions, he equipped himself at his own or his uncle's expense with soldiers, horses, Negro slaves, Indian servants, and droves of stock for food. He attracted miners and settlers by furnishing them with outfits and by giving them free use of mineral deposits. Nueva Vizcaya founded. — In 1558 Velasco planned to send Ibarra northward to pacify a region called Copala, but his de parture was delayed by the sending of the De Luna expedition to Florida. In 1562 Ibarra was made governor and captain- general of a new province called Nueva Vizcaya, comprising the unconquered districts beyond Nueva Galicia, to which Zacatecas remained attached. In the following year he founded Nombre de Dios and Durango, the latter of which became and long re mained the military capital of all the northern country. In the same year Rodrigo del Rio de Losa was sent with soldiers and miners to open the mines of Inde, and of Santa Barbara and San Juan in southern Chihuahua. The shortage of Indian la bor in the mines there resulted by 1580 in slave hunting raids down the Conchos River and across the Rio Grande into modern Texas. Ibarra on the Pacific slope. — Amid extreme hardships in 1564 Ibarra crossed the mountains to the westward, and conquered Topia, which he had hoped would prove to be "another Mexico." Disappointed in this, he spent two or three years in developing Sinaloa. Beyond Culiacan, on the Rio Fuerte (then called Rio Sinaloa) he founded the Villa of San Juan. From here with new recruits from Mexico and Guadalajara, in June, 1567, he set out northward. Ascending the Yaqui valley, at Zaguaripa he de feated the very Indians who had destroyed Coronado's town of San Geronimo. Crossing the sierra eastward, he emerged on the plains at the river and ruined pueblo of Paquime (Casas Grandes) in northern Chihuahua. Turning back along the eastern slope of the Sierras, he recrossed them, with terrible hardship, into the lower Yaqui valley. Returning to Chiametla, he died about w X »— I > v. i — i O 3 w > o The Advance into Northern Mexico, 1 543-1 590 58 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA 1570, after twenty years of exploring, mining, colonizing, and administration. He was one of the ablest of the second genera tion of colonizers in New Spain. Development of Nueva Vizcaya. — Shortly after Ibarra left Sina loa the Indians of San Juan revolted, drove out the encomen- deros, and murdered the friars; the settlement was therefore moved to the Petatlan (Sinaloa) River, and named San Felipe. In the last decade of the century a presidio and an Aztec- Tlascaltec colony were founded at San Felipe, and Jesuit mis sions were planted in the vicinity. East of the mountains, in Durango and southern Chihuahua, mining, stock raising, and agriculture developed side by side. In 1586, for example, Diego de Ibarra branded 33,000 head of cattle, and Rodrigo del Rio, then governor, 42,000 head. Several new mining districts were opened before the end of the century. In 1574 Nueva Galicia and Nueva Vizcaya (including Zacatecas and Sinaloa) had a population of 1500 Spanish families, perhaps 10,000 persons liv ing in some thirty settlements, about half of which were mining camps. Guadalajara had a population of one hundred and fifty families and Culiacan about thirty. The Franciscan missionaries had played an important part in the founding of Nueva Vizcaya. They accompanied or went before the explorers and estabhshed themselves at the principal mining camps and towns. In 1590 the custodia of San Francisco de Zacatecas embraced ten monas teries east of the Sierras. In 1591 the Jesuits entered the province. Queretaro, Guanajuato, and Aguas Calientes. — For twenty years after the battle at Queretaro (1531) the Chichimec border was left practically unsettled, under the control of native leaders. But the need of communication with the Zacatecas veins made its complete subjugation necessary, and Viceroy Velasco under took the task. In or about 1550 the town of Queretaro was founded, and Silao three years later. The marvelous Guanajuato mines were now opened; in 1554 the city of Santa Fe de Guana juato was founded; and shortly afterward rich veins were opened at Aguas Calientes. These "strikes" caused "rushes," just as those in Zacatecas had done, but they were offset by others in Durango, where Ibarra was operating. To secure further the roads to the mines, new towns and presidios were established THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 59 along the way, and thus San Miguel el Grande (Allende), San Felipe, Santa Maria de Lagos, Aguas Calientes, Ojuelos, Porte- zuelos, Jerez, and Celaya came into being. To supplement the presidios, strong houses (casas fuertes) were provided as camping stations for travelers and silver trains, and parties were equipped with fortified wagons or movable strong houses. San Luis Potosi and Southern Coahuila. — For some time the region of Charcas, now called San Luis Potosi, was a sort of No-man's-land between the westward, eastward, and northward moving columns of frontiersmen. It was the home of the power ful but savage Guachichiles. The definite conquest of the region, already known to explorers and missionaries, was begun about 1550 by Francisco de Urdifiola, who operated under Velasco 's orders, and who is said to have reached the vicinity of Saltillo and Monterey. The settlement of the district soon followed. Matehuala was founded in 1550, San Geronimo in 1552, Charcas in 1564, and the San Pedro mines about 1568. By 1576 San Luis Potosi, the site of rich ores, had become a villa, and before long was the seat of an alcaldia mayor. Mining developments spread northeastward from Zacatecas to Mazapil and Saltillo. By 1568 Mazapil was the seat of an alcaldia mayor, under the Audiencia of Nueva Galicia. In that year Francisco del Cano, sent by the "very magificent alcalde mayor," went north and discovered the "Lake of New Mexico," perhaps Laguna de Parras. In 1575 Francisco de Urdifiola, son of the former conqueror, is said to have settled sixty families at Saltillo, within the jurisdiction of Nueva Vizcaya. As early as 1582 a Franciscan monastery was established there, and in 1592 Saltillo was created a villa. The Tlascaltecan colonies. — Queretaro had been the scene of one interesting experiment in utilizing the natives as agents of control; in San Luis Potosi another was now tried. As a means of reducing the great central region, the plan was devised of planting in it colonies of Tlascaltecan Indians, to defend the settlers and to teach the rude tribes the elements of civilization. The Tlascaltecans had proved their loyalty in the days of Cortes, and this luyalty was insured by their exemption from tribute and by other privileges. The practice of using them as colonists in San Luis Potosi seems to have been begun as earl)' as 1580. 60 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA In 1 591 four hundred families were sent northward, most of them being distributed at various places in modern San Luis Potosi, but eighty famihes were estabhshed at Saltillo in a separate pueblo called San Esteban. Thence in later days little colonies were detached to aU parts of Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n, and Texas. Parras ; Urdifiola the Younger. — In 1594 Jesuits from Durango founded the mission of Santa Maria de Parras, and shortly afterward a colony of Spaniards and Tlascaltecans was estabhshed there. Of this district Urdifiola the Younger, iieutenant-governor of Nueva Vizcaya, became the magnate. He opened mines, subdued Indians, estabhshed immense ranches, and was veri table feudal lord. His principal hacienda was at Patos, but he had others, as at Parras and Bonanza. In 1594 he secured a commission to conquer New Mexico which was subsequently rescinded. A female descendant of his became the wife of the first Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo, a title created in 1682 and long held by the leading men of the northeastern frontier. Nuevo Leon. — A new jurisdiction was now carved out on the Gulf coast. In 1579 Luis de Carabajal, a Portuguese of Jewish extraction, secured a patent naming him governor and captain- general of the Kingdom of Nuevo Leon, a region extending two hundred leagues north and west from Panuco, and delimiting Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Galicia on the north and east. Cara- bajal's was the first conquistador's patent issued for New Spain based on the general ordinance of 1573 regulating new con quests. He was made governor and alguacil-mayor "for two fives," with a salary of 20,000 pesos and two encomiendas for him self. He had authority to grant encomiendas, and was obligated to make new conquests and settlements. Raising two hundred men in Spain and Mexico, he estabhshed headquarters for a time at Panuco, whence he made exploring, gold hunting, and slave hunting expeditions. Leon and Monterey. — Discovering minerals in the Sierra de San Gregorio, near the Rio Grande, in (or by) 1583, Carabajal founded there the city of Le6n (now Cerralvo). Securing other families from Saltillo, in 1584 he founded San Luis, near the later Monterey, and appointed Castafio de Sosa alcalde mayor. Slave hunting expeditions from Leon proved so profitable that soon two hundred or more adventurers were attracted to the THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (i 543-1609) 61 place, for the slaves found ready market at the mines of the in terior. When the viceroy checked the abuse, Leon was gradu ally abandoned. With another colony from Saltillo, Carabajal founded Nuevo Almaden, near the present Monclova. While thus engaged he was charged with heresy, arrested, and con demned by the Inquisition together with almost his entire family. In 1596 Luis de Montemayor, lieutenant-governor of the prov ince, founded Monterey with famihes from Leon and Saltillo. Three years later Montemayor was made governor, directly under the viceroy. In 1603 a Franciscan monastery was founded at Monterey, and became a new missionary center. Conflicts of jurisdiction between Nuevo Le6n and Nueva Vizcaya became chronic and a serious hindrance to prosperity. THE SETTLEMENT OF THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD Fray Luis Cancer. — Meanwhile Florida and the Philippines had been conquered and colonized. Shortly after Coronado re turned from New Mexico, the Moscoso party reached Panuco. Viceroy Mendoza, in spite of previous failures, was willing to try his hand in ill-fated Florida, and he offered to equip Moscoso and his men for another attempt, but they declined. Florida had been "running with the blood of Indians," but Fray Luis Cancer, a disciple of Las Casas, offered to try to subdue it by peaceful methods. With a royal hcense he equipped a vessel at Vera Cruz, and with a few companions went in 1549 to Florida to convert the natives. He was murdered by them, however, and his companions returned. De Luna and Villafane. — But Florida was thought to be rich, especially at Coca, in northern Alabama, and new attempts at settlement were made. In 1558 the new viceroy was ordered to colonize Santa Elena, the scene of Ayllon's failure on the Caro lina coast, and some other point not specified, the missionary work to be entrusted to the Dominicans. In the following year, therefore, Velasco sent Tristan de Luna, Coronado's second in command, from Vera Cruz with thirteen vessels and 1500 soldiers and colonists. Of the six captains three had been with De Soto, a fact which indicates the continuity of frontier interests. The expedition landed at Pensacola Bay. Three vessels sent 62 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA on to Santa Elena were storm-driven and returned to Vera Cruz. Establishing a garrison at Pensacola (Ichuse), De Luna moved about a thousand colonists inland to Nanipacna on the Alabama River, whence an expedition was sent north to Coca. In 1560 the colony returned to Pensacola, where De Luna was replaced by Villafafie, who had been sent with supplies from Mexico. In the following year Villafafie went with most of his colony to Santa Elena, but failed to make a settlement, and the Pensacola garrison was soon withdrawn. In view of these repeated dis asters, in 1 56 1 Philip II declared that for the present no further attempt should be made to colonize Florida. The French in Florida. — Notwithstanding this decision, there were reasons why Florida should be occupied. The route of the treasure and merchant ships lay through the Bahama channel, and French and English pirates had begun to attack them. To lessen the danger, vessels were ordered to go in company, and as early as 1552 a fleet of war vessels was sent to escort them to Havana. But a port was needed to give aid against the pirates, as well as to provide refuge from the violent storms on the Florida coast. Moreover, the French were operating on the northern Atlantic, and it was feared that they would occupy this region. This fear was realized in 1562 when Jean Ribaut led a French Huguenot colony to Port Royal, South Carolina. The colony miserably failed, but in 1564 another, led by Laudonniere, settled on St. John's River and built Fort Caroline. Just as Laudonniere was about to abandon the place, Ribaut arrived with a third colony, bearing instructions to fortify a position that would enable him to command the route of the Spanish treasure fleets. Menendez de Aviles, and the expulsion of the French. — Philip decided now to eject the French and colonize Florida, and en trusted the task to Menendez de Aviles, a great naval officer. He was made adelantado of Florida, and promised a private estate twenty-five leagues square, or some 300,000 acres. In return he agreed to take a colony of five hundred persons to Florida, build at least two fortified towns, and expel foreign "settlers and corsairs." In September, 1565, Menendez reached Florida and founded St. Augustine. Ten days later he marched overland against Fort Caroline, surprised and captured it, and mercilessly THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 63 Spanish Florida 64 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA slew most of its defenders. On the spot the garrison of San Mateo was estabhshed. Menendez's relentless deed caused an outburst of indignation in France, and perhaps only Catherine's rehance on Phihp in her troubles with the Huguenots prevented war. Vengeance was left to a private individual, Dominique de Gourgues. Getting up an expedition ostensibly to trade, in 1567 he went to Florida, and slew the garrison at San Mateo. The prisoners taken were hanged "not as Spaniards" but "as traitors, robbers, and murderers." New settlements in Florida. — Menendez planned great things. He would fortify the Bahama Channel, occupy Santa Elena and Chesapeake Bay, and in the latter seek the northern strait. As a base for expanding toward Panuco, he would occupy the Bay of Juan Ponce, and he had great hopes of agricultural prosperity, To carry out these plans, active steps were taken. Before Menendez returned to Spain in 1567, several new Spanish posts were founded between the point of the peninsula and South Carolina. San Mateo was reoccupied. At Charlotte Bay Men endez made an alliance with the much-feared Chief Carlos by marrying his sister, and founded there the presidio of San Antonio. Other garrisons were established on the peninsula at Ays, Santa Lucia, Tocobaga, and Tegesta. At Santa Elena, in South Caro lina, Menendez founded the colony of San Felipe, and in Guale (northern Georgia) he founded a presidio. Explorations in the Alleghanies. — In November, 1566, Men endez sent Juan Pardo from Santa Elena "to discover and con quer the interior country from there to Mexico," to join the two frontiers. Going northwest, he reached the snow covered Alle ghanies in western North Carohna, estabhshed two garrisons on the way, and returned. Boyano, left at one of the garrisons, made expeditions into the mountains, and in 1567 marched southwest to Chiaha near Rome, Georgia. Being joined there by Pardo, they set out "in the direction of Zacatecas and the mines of San Martin," in Mexico, but were turned back by Indian hostihty. On his way to San Felipe Pardo left two garrisons, which were soon massacred by Indians. The Jesuit missions in Florida. — In 1566 Menendez secured three Jesuit missionaries for Florida. Another band arrived in 1568, and went to Santa Elena, Orista, and Guale, where they THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 65 founded missions. At first they were successful, but in 1570 they were driven out by native opposition. By this time the garrison at Tocobaga had been massacred and those at San Antonio and Tegesta withdrawn on account of Indian hostility. The Virginia mission. — Father Segura, the Jesuit superior, now transferred his efforts to Chesapeake Bay, whither he went in 1570 with six missionaries. They founded a mission, perhaps on the Rappahannock, but soon all were slain. In 1 5 7 1 Menendez went in person to avenge the outrage. Two years later his nephew explored the entire coast from the Florida Keys to Chesa peake Bay. In 1573, the year before his death, Menendez's grant was extended west to Panuco. Franciscans on the Georgia coast. — The martyrdom of Father Segura and his band caused the Jesuits to abandon the field for Mexico, but in 1573 Franciscans began work in the province. Twenty years later (1593) twelve more arrived under Father Juan de Silva. From the central monastery at St. Augustine they set forth and founded island missions all up the Florida and Georgia coast, on Amelia, Cumberland, St. Simon, San Pedro and Ossabua islands. Fray Pedro Chozas made inland explorations, and Father Pareja began his famous work on the Indian languages. Owing to an Indian uprising in 1597 the missions were abandoned for a time, but were soon restored as a check against the English, who now entered Virginia. FOREIGN INTRUSIONS IN THE ATLANTIC The Spanish trade monopoly. — The French had been expelled from Florida, and the coast occupied up to Port Royal Sound, but freebooters continued to prey on treasure and merchant vessels. Spain undertook to preserve the trade and wealth of the Indies as an absolute monopoly. All trade must be conducted by Spaniards in Spanish vessels, from specified Spanish ports to specified American ports. This monopoly was objectionable not only to the traders of other nations but to the Spanish colonists as well. To this economic grievance was added the bitter hatred felt by Protestant Frenchmen, Englishmen and Dutchmen for Catholic Spain, whose subjects were regarded as lawful pre)-. 66 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA The merchant fleets. — To prevent the plundering of commerce in the Indies, by French, Enghsh, and Dutch, Spain was forced to adopt a system of fleets sailing periodically and protected by convoys of armed galleons. After 1561 it became unlawful for vessels to sail alone to the Indies, except under special circum stances. Two fleets left Spain each year, one for Tierra Firme and Nombre de Dios (later Porto Bello) and the other for Vera Cruz. In the later sixteenth century the Nombre de Dios fleet comprised as many as forty armed galleons, but thereafter the number was much smaller, as foreigners cut into Spanish trade. The Vera Cruz fleet comprised fifteen or twenty merchantmen convoyed by two galleons. At Nombre de Dios goods and trea sure from Peru and Chile were taken on. At Vera Cruz were gathered the exports from New Spain, the cargo from the Manila galleon brought overland from Acapulco, and the ten or twelve milhon dollars of royal revenues from the mines and taxes. The freebooters. — This arrangement was an improvement, but French, Dutch, and English freebooters hung in the wake of the fleets to plunder any vessel which fell behind the galleons, while smugghng and town-sacking grew in frequency with the growing jealousy and hatred of Spain. The prototype of the Enghsh freebooters was John Hawkins, whose fleet was destroyed by the Spaniards at Vera Cruz in 1567. More famous was Francis Drake, who in 1585, during his third marauding expedition, went to the West Indies with twenty-five vessels, captured Santo Domingo, held Cartagena for ransom, and in May, 1586, sacked and burned St. Augustine, Florida. Hawkins and Drake were only two of a score of English freebooters who in the later sixteenth century harried Spanish commerce and plundered the coast towns. In the list are the names of Oxenham, Raleigh, Grenville, Clifford, Knollys, Winter, and Barker. The last exploit of the century was Clifford's capture of San Juan, Porto Rico, in 1598. The English in the north Atlantic. — The voyages of Frobisher, Davis, and Gilbert in the northern Atlantic between 1576 and 1587, in search of the northwest passage, caused uneasiness for the security of Florida and -of the northern strait. Equally disturbing were the efforts of Raleigh and his associates to colonize Roanoke Island and Guiana. THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543 1609) 67 Decline of the West Indies.— The raids of thc freebooters, the restrictions placed on commerce, the decline of mining and of the native population, and the superior attractions of Peru, Central America, and Mexico, had greatly reduced the pros perity of the West Indies. In 1574 Espafiola had ten towns with 1000 Spanish famihes, and 12,000 negro slaves. The native population had dwindled to two villages. Santo Domingo, seat of the Audiencia and of the archdiocese, had seven hundred famihes. Cuba was less prosperous than Espafiola, and popula tion was still declining. The island had eight Spanish towns with a total population of some three hundred famihes and about an equal number of Indians. Santiago, once with a population of one thousand families, now had thirty. Havana, somewhat larger, was the residence of governor and bishop. Jamaica had three Spanish settlements and no Indians. Porto Rico, with three Spanish towns, had a population of some two hundred and eighty families, of whom two hundred lived at San Juan. The principal industries in all of the islands were sugar and cattle raising. There being no Indians in the West Indies now, there were no encomiendas. THE PHILIPPINES AND CALIFORNIA A new attempt in the East. — At the same time that Menendez was establishing the province of Florida, the right wing of the Indies, Legazpi was conquering the Philippines, the left wing. The principal result of the Villalobos expedition (1542) had been to give the name of the Philippines to the Lazarus, or Western Islands. For nearly two decades thereafter nothing was done to advance the interests of Spain in the Far East, but Portuguese profits in the spice trade were tempting to both sovereign and subject, and the king set about making a new effort to share in these advantages. The obvious base for such a trade was Mexico, and in 1559 Phihp ordered Velasco to equip two vessels for discovery in the western islands, to test the chance for profits and the possibility of a return voyage across the Pacific. This order was issued just at the time when Spain was attempting to occupy the Carolina coasts, with a view, in part, to finding a northern strait leading 68 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA to the Spice Islands. Thus were all these widely separated enter prises unified. The Legazpi expedition. — To lead the expedition, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi was chosen, with Fray Andres de Urdaneta as chief navigator. The spiritual work was entrusted to Urdaneta and a band of Augustmians. Owing to many delays it was November, 1564, when the fleet left Navidad. In February, 1565, seven months before Menendez reached Florida, Legazpi reached the Philippines. Three of the vessels were sent back with Urdaneta on board to discover a return route to New Spain. Instead of sailing east against wind and current, he turned northward beyond the trade belt, and entered that of the westerly winds. After a long and hard voyage he reached the American continent off the northern California coast, which he descended to Mexico. At last the Spaniards had discovered a way to return from the East safe from the Portuguese attacks. Meanwhile Legazpi had occupied Cebu. Portuguese resistance caused a removal to Panay, but in 157 1 Cebu was reoccupied and Manila founded. In the previous year Legazpi had received a commission as adelantado of the Islands, subject to the viceroy of Mexico. When Legazpi died in 1572 the conquest of the prin cipal islands had been effected and with httle bloodshed. In 1583 the Audiencia of Manila was estabhshed, subordinate to Mexico. The Manila galleon. — In 1580 Portugal was united with Spain, and, until 1640, when Portugal regained her independence, Manila was an important center for the commerce of the combined Span ish and Portuguese colonies. A regular trade was estabhshed from Manila to Mexico and Spain, but was restricted to one or two annual galleons each way between Manila and Acapulco. New interest in the California coast. — The development of the Philippine trade, the necessity of protecting it from other nations, continued interest in the Northern Mystery, and the opening of pearl fisheries in the Gulf of California, led to renewed exploration of the northern Pacific coasts and to renewed attempts to settle and develop California. The regular course of the east-bound Manila galleon lay along the path marked out by Urdaneta northeastward from Manila to about latitude 42, ° thence across the Pacific to the American CAPE BIANCO CAPE MENDOCINO 5W NICOLAS f\ l^i- SANTA CATAUNA \l SAN CU»ENli\ 1%. V1 \SANj>ie:§o Explorations on the California Coast, 1542-1603 (.9 70 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA continent off Cape Mendocino, and down the coast to Acapulco. The voyage was arduous. By the time the vessels reached the American coast half of the scurvy-afflicted crew and passengers were dead, and the vessels needed repairs. Hence a port of call was gravely needed for the Manila galleons. The Strait of Anian. — Moreover, Spanish interests in the Pacific were insecure. The Portuguese were no longer rivals, but French and Enghsh freebooters were active on the Atlantic and might venture upon the Pacific. Besides, there was the fear that the French, Enghsh, or Dutch, operating in the northern Atlantic, would discover the Strait of Anian and secure control of the direct route to the Spice Islands, just as Portugal had monopo lized the African route. Drake and Cavendish. — These fears were made realities in 1579 when Drake appeared on the California coast. In 1577 he had passed through the Straits of Magellan. Reaching the Pacific with only one vessel of the five with which he had started, he proceeded up the coast of South America, plundering as he went. In the harbour now known as Drake's Bay, just north of San Francisco, he refitted, claiming the country for England, and calling it New Albion. Drake then sailed to the East Indies, obtained a cargo of spices, crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Plymouth in November, 1580. He claimed to have discovered the Strait of Anian, and this further disturbed the minds of the Spaniards. For his daring voyage he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth. In 1586 Thomas Cavendish followed Drake's course. Reach ing the point of California, he plundered the Manila galleon, the Santa Ana, and burned it to the water's edge. The voyages of Drake and Cavendish were soon followed by the formation of the British East India Company (1600) and by conflicts with the Spanish merchants in the Orient. In the wake of the English came the Dutch, who had passed the Straits of Magellan before the end of the sixteenth century. Gali and Cermeno. — With the needs of the Pacific coast in view, Viceroy Moya Contreras (1 584-1 585) instructed Francisco de Gali to explore the northwestern coasts of America on his re turn from Manila in the galleon. Nothing came of Gah's orders, and Moya's successor discouraged further exploration. The sec- THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 71 ond Viceroy Velasco (1590-1595), however, took up Moya'splan, and in 1595 Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeno undertook to carry out the project on his return from Manila. He was wrecked at Drake's Bay, however, and his crew made their way to Mexico in an improvised craft. The plan of reconnoitering the coast with laden Manila galleons was now given up for one of exploring in light vessels sent out from the ports of Mexico. Vizcaino's colony. — Royal interest in the protection of Cali fornia was now combined with private interest in the pearl fisheries of the Gulf of California. Occasional expeditions had been made for this purpose since the days of Cortes and Alarcon. In 1595 Sebastian Vizcaino, who had been engaged in the Manila trade, and, indeed, had been on the Santa Ana when it was captured by Cavendish, secured a contract authorizing him to gather pearls, in return for subduing and colonizing California. Leaving Acapulco late in 1596 with three vessels and a good-sized company, he established a colony at La Paz and explored some distance up the Gulf. But disaster soon followed, and early in 1597 the survivors returned to Mexico. Vizcaino's exploring expedition. — Vizcaino attributed his fail ure to ignorance of the seasons, and proposed making another at tempt at settlement and pearl fishing. While this question was being discussed, the king in 1599 ordered the outer coast of Cali fornia explored again, with a view to finding a port for the Manila galleons. To conduct the expedition Vizcaino was chosen. Lea\ing Acapulco in May, 1602, with three vessels, he ran all the coasts covered by Cabrillo and Ferrelo sixty years before. At Magdalena Bay, Cerros Island, San Diego Bay, and Santa Catalina Island extensive explorations were made. The capital event of the expedition, however, was the exploration of the Bay of Monterey (probably entered by Cermeno) and its designation as the desired port. One of the vessels reached Cape Blanco, but San Francisco Bay was missed, as before. Plans to Occupy Monterey Bay. — Plans were now made for occupying the port of Monterey, but delays ensued and a new viceroy concluded that a port in the mid-Pacific was more needed than one on the California coast. Accordingly, in 161 1 Vizcaino was sent to explore certain islands called Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata, but the expedition failed. 72 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA THE FOUNDING OF NEW MEXICO Renewed exploration of New Mexico. — The expansion of Nueva Vizcaya and renewed activities on the Pacific coast in the later sixteenth century stimulated a new advance into New Mex ico. Coronado's expedition had proved disappointing, and for four decades no further explorations had been made in the region. Nevertheless, the tales of great cities had not been forgotten, and in the meantime a new line of approach to New Mexico had been opened by way of the central plateau. By 1580 mines and missions had reached Santa Barbara, while slave hunting expedi tions had descended the Conchos to the Rio Grande. Through reports given by the outlying tribes, a new interest in the Pueblo region was aroused. Rodriguez and Espejo. — To follow up these reports, with a view to missionary work, trade, and exploration, an expedition was organized at Santa Barbara in 1580 by Fray Augustin Rod riguez, a Franciscan lay brother, and Francisco Sanchez Chamus- cado. In the next year the party of three friars and nine soldiers and traders descended the Conchos River, ascended the Rio Grande to the Pueblo region, visited the buffalo plains, Acoma, and Zufii, and returned, leaving two friars at Puaray, one having been killed. In the following year a rescue and trading party was led to New Mexico over the same trail by Fray Bernaldino Beltran and Antonio de Espejo. The friars had already been slain by the natives, but before returning Espejo went to Zufii, Moqui, and western Arizona, where he discovered mines, return ing to Santa Barbara by way of the Pecos River. Plans to colonize New Mexico. — The expeditions of Rodriguez and Espejo aroused new zeal for northern exploration and settle ment, and there were dreams now, not only of conquering New Mexico, but of going beyond to colonize Quivira and the shores of the Strait of Anian. The king ordered a contract made for the purpose, and soon there was a crowd of apphcants for the honor. While these men were competing for the desired contract, Castafio de Sosa in 1590 led a colony from Nuevo Le6n up the Pecos to the Pueblos and began their conquest, but was soon arrested and taken back. Some three years later two men named Leyva and Gutierrez de Humana led an unlicensed expedi- THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 73 tion from Nueva Vizcaya to New Mexico, whence Gutierrez went to northeastern Kansas, and apparently reached the Platte River. Ofiate and the founding of New Mexico. — The contract to colonize New Mexico was finally assigned in 1595 to Juan de Ofiate, son of Cristobal, one of the founders of Zacatecas. In accordance with the ordinances of 1573 he was made governor, adelantado, and captain-general, granted extensive privileges, lands, and encomiendas, while his colonists were given the usual privileges of first settlers (primeros pobladores). It was Feb ruary, 1598, when Ofiate left northern Nueva Vizcaya with his colony. It included one hundred and thirty soldiers, some with their families, a band of Franciscans under Father Martinez, and more than seven thousand head of stock. Previous expedi tions had followed the Conchos, but Ofiate opened a more direct route through El Paso. Without difficulty he secured the sub mission of the tribes, settled his colony at San Juan, and dis tributed the friars among the pueblos. Onate's explorations. — Having established his colony, Ofiate turned to exploration in the east and the west. In the fall of 1598 Vicente Zaldivar was sent to the Buffalo Plains, while the governor set out for the South Sea. At Moqui he turned back, but Marcos Farfan continued west with a party, and staked out mining claims on Bill Williams Fork. Acoma rebelled at this time and as a punishment was razed. In 1599 Zaldivar was sent to the South Sea and seems to have reached the lower Colorado. Early in 1601 Ofiate, with seventy men, descended the Canadian River and crossed the Arkansas to an Indian settlement called Quivira, apparently at Wichita, Kansas. During Ofiate's absence most of the colonists deserted, but they were brought back, with reinforcements. Still bent on reaching the South Sea, in 1604 Ofiate descended Bill Williams Fork and the Colorado to the Gulf of California, where he got the idea that California was an island. He had reexplored most of the ground covered by Coronado and had opened new trails. But he had lost the confidence and support of the authorities, and in 1608 resigned and was displaced by a royal governor. Santa Fe Founded. — In 1609 Santa Fe was founded and be came the new capital. This event, which occurred just a hun- 74 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA New Mexico in Oiiate's Time (From Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico, p. 137) THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 75 dred years after the occupation of Darien, may be regarded as the culmination of a century of northward expansion. SPANISH ACHIEVEMENTS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY Population and industries. — The heroic age of Spanish coloni zation had now passed. The surprising results achieved in the New World during the first eighty years, not counting the work of exploration, are set forth in a description of the colonies in 1574 written by Lopez de Velasco, official geographer. At that time there were in North and South America about two hundred Spanish towns and cities, besides numerous mining camps, haciendas, and stock ranches. The Spanish population was 32,000 families, or perhaps from 160,000 to 200,000 persons. Of these about five-eighths lived in North America. In the two Americas there were 4000 encomenderos, the rest being mainly miners, merchants, ranchers, and soldiers, with their famihes. The population included 40,000 negro slaves, and a large ele ment of mulattoes and mestizoes. About 1,500,000 male Indians paid tribute, representing a population of 5,000,000. In many parts occupied by Spaniards there were no encomiendas, for the Indians had died out. Mining, commerce, cattle ranching, grain and sugar raising had been established on a considerable scale. Cities and towns. — Before the end of the sixteenth century most of the present-day state capitals and other large cities in Spanish North America had been founded. Mexico City had a popula tion of over 2000 Spanish families (perhaps 15,000 persons), Santo Domingo, Puebla, and Guatemala 500 families each, Trinidad (hi Guatemala) and Panama 400 each, Oaxaca 350, Zacatecas 300, Toluca, Zultepec, Vera Cruz, Granada, Chiapas, and Nombre de Dios 200 each, Guadalajara and San Salvador 1 50 each, and many others lesser numbers. Administrative divisions. — Spanish America was now divided into two viceroyalties, New Spain and Peru. New Spain included all of the American mainland north of Panama, the West Indies, part of the northern coast of South America, the Islas del Pon- iente, and the Philippines. It comprised the four audiencias of Espafiola, Mexico, Guatemala, and Nueva Galicia, the Audiencia of Panama being a part of the viceroyalty of Peru. The four 76 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA northern audiencia districts were subdivided into seventeen or eighteen gobiernos or provinces, corresponding closely to the modern states. The provinces were divided into corregimientos embracing Indian partidos. North America embraced twelve dioceses and the two archdioceses of Santo Domingo and Mexico. Churches and monasteries. — Many fine churches, some of them stiU standing, had been built in the larger towns. The Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians were well estab lished in New Spain, and the Jesuits had just begun their work. The friars were subject to their chapters and the Jesuits to their general in Spain. The Franciscans already had four provinces in New Spain, the Dominicans and Augustinians only one each. Hundreds of monasteries had been estabhshed, es pecially wherever there were Indians in encomienda. The ex pense of erecting them was borne jointly by king, encomenderos, and Indians. The Universities. — "Enthusiasm for education characterizes the earliest establishment of the Spanish colonies in America. Wherever the priests went, a school was soon estabhshed for the instruction of the natives or a college for its clericals who were already at work as well as for those who were soon to take holy orders. From the colleges sprang the universities which, in all the Spanish dominions, were founded at a very early date for the pursuit of the ' general studies ' which were at that time taught in the great peninsular universities of Alcala and Salamanca. Half a century before Jamestown was founded by the English, the University of Mexico was conferring degrees upon graduates in law and theology. Before the seventeenth century closed, no less that seven universities had been erected in Spanish America, and their graduates were accepted on an equality with those of Spanish institutions of like grade." (Priestley.) READINGS THE REIGN OF PHILIP H Chapman, Charles E., A History of Spain, Chapter XXXIII; Gayarre, C. E. A., Philip II of Spain; Hume, M. A. S., Philip II of Spain; Hume, M. A. S., Spain, Its Greatness and Decay; Hume, M. A. S., The Spanish People; Lea, H. C, A History of the Inquisition of Spain; Merriman, R. B., The Rise of the Spanish Empire; Prescott, W. H., History of the Reign of THE EXPANSION OF NEW SPAIN (1543-1609) 77 °kilip the Second; Cheyney, E. P., European Background of American His- ory, Chapter X. ADVANCE INTO NORTHERN MEXICO Bancroft, H. H., History of Mexico, II, chs. 22, 24, 34; North Mexican Slates and Texas, I, ch. 5; Cavo, Andres, Tres Siglos de Mexico; Coroleu, fos6, America, Historia de su Colon-izacidn; Frejes, Fr. F., Conquista de los Estados; Gonzales, J. E., Collecidn de Noticias; Historia de Nuevo Ledn; Leon, A., Historia de Nuevo Ledn; Mota Padilla, M., Historia de Nueva jalicia, ch. 23; Ortega, Fr. Joseph, Apostdlica Afanes. SETTLEMENT OF FLORIDA Hamilton, P. J., The Colonization of the South, chs. 1-2; Lowery, Wood- iury, Spanish Settlements, I, ch. 8, II; Shea, J. G., The Catholic Church in Zolonial Days, pp. 100-183. SETTLEMENT OF NEW MEXICO Bancroft, H. H., Arizona and New Mexico, 74-146; Bandelier, A. D. F., ^inal Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States (Papers of the Archaeological Institute of America, III-IV) ; Bena- rides, Memorial on New Mexico (Mrs. E. E. Ayer, trans.); Bolton, H. E., :d., Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 135-278; Davis, W. H. H., Spanish Conquest in New Mexico, 234-407 ; Farrand, Livingston, The Basis of Amer- xan History, 176-187; Lummis, C. F., Spanish Pioneers in the Southwest, 125- [43; Prince, L. B., Historical Sketches of New Mexico, 149-166; Twitchell, R.. E., Leading Facts of New Mexican History, I, 7-45, 252-333; Villagra, Caspar de, Historia de Nuevo Mexico. THE PHILIPPINES AND CALIFORNIA Barrows, D. P., A History of the Philippines; Blair and Robertson, Philip pine Islands, II, 23-330; Bolton, H. E., Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, H-133; Carrasco y Guisasola, Francisco, Documentos Referentes at Reconoci- niento de las Costas de las Calif ornias; Hittell, T. H., History of California, I, ?o-in; Richman, I. B., California under Spain and Mexico, 12-24; Robert son, J. A., "Legaspi and Philippine Island Colonization," in American Historical Association, Rpt., 1007, I, 145-165; Zarate, Salmeron, "Rela- :ion," in Land of Sunshine, XI, 336-346, XII, 39-48, 104-114, 180-187. CHAPTER IV THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES THE FRENCH BACKGROUND Mediaeval France and the Italian wars. — The history of Medi aeval France is largely the story of the struggle of the French kings to overthrow the feudal nobility and to perfect the govern mental machinery of absolutism. The process which began with the accession of Hugh Capet in 987 was practically completed by the end of the reign of Louis XI, in 1483. During the reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I, the great ambition of the French monarchs was to get control of Italy, a pohcy which brought them into conflict with Spain. The wars were barren of results as far as conquests in Italy were concerned, but the dangers to which France was exposed united the French people into a great nation, which was destined to be the leading con tinental power. The religious wars. — The Reformation spread into France, Calvinism being the form of Protestantism which there took root. Calvin's religious system had three distinguishing features: (1) the church was to be independent of any temporal power, (2) laymen and ministers were to join in the government of the church, and (3) a strict moral discipline was to be enforced. This program was distinctly democratic, and was certain to come into conflict with the absolutism of the crown. France became divided into two great parties. The Huguenots, as the French Protest ants were called, were found mainly among the rich burghers of the towns and the nobles of the country districts, their chief power being in southwestern France. They were also strong in Dauphine and Normandy. Their great leaders were Coligny and the Bourbon princes, the most distinguished of whom was Henry of Navarre. The Catholic party was headed by the Guises and Catherine de Medici. The kings during this period were mere puppets, who were used by the leaders to further their pohtical ends. 78 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 79 War broke out in 1562 and continued with occasional inter missions until 1 596. The most important events were the assassin ation of Francis of Guise in 1563, the ascendency of Coligny, dur ing which he tried to unite the nation in a war against Spain, the massacre of St. Bartholomew's in 1572, the organization of the Catholic League headed by Henry of Guise, his assassina tion in 1588, and the murder of Henry LTI the following year,- which made the way clear for Henry of Navarre to ascend the throne. In 1593 he accepted Catholicism. The last resistance in France was overcome in 1596, but war with Philip H continued two years longer. In 1598 Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which secured toleration to the Huguenots. Reforms of Henry IV. — During the religious wars, the nobles had regained some of their former power, and the ravages of war had almost ruined the industries of the country. Henry set to work to repair these conditions. The lesser nobles were forced to submit and the privileges of the more powerful were purchased. The king's great minister, Sully, carried out many of the economic reforms. The land tax called the taille, which rested most heavily upon the peasants, was more equitably distributed, and the hunt ing privileges of the nobles were decreased. New lines of agricul ture were introduced, marshes were reclaimed, and restrictions on the marketing of grain were removed. The king encouraged manufactures, especially of the more expensive fabrics, glass, and metal work. Commerce was stimulated by securing safe transportation along the post roads, by a system of canals con necting the Seine and the Loire, and by commercial treaties with foreign states. Attempts were also made to stimulate commerce and colonization by the formation of mercantile companies, and from this period date the first successful French colonies in America. Richelieu. — Henry IV was assassinated in 16 10, and his son, who ascended the throne as Louis XIII, was a child of nine years. During the regency of his mother, Mary de Medici, the nobles again became turbulent, the Huguenots revolted, and the pohcy of hostility toward Spain was reversed. The regent was under the influence of favorites who looted the treasury. Under such conditions a strong leader was greatly needed; the man of the hour was Richelieu. In 1624 he was placed in control of 80 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA public affairs, and for the next twenty years practically ruled France. His pohcy aimed to make France the first power in Europe. To accomplish this he worked at home to strengthen the power of the crown. Abroad he aimed to weaken the power of the Hapsburgs, to extend the boundaries of France, and to build up a colonial empire. • The chief steps by which his pohcy was carried out were as follows: La Rochelle, the great Huguenot stronghold, was cap tured and the power of the Protestants was curbed effectually; the intrigues of Mary de Medici were thwarted; an alhance was made with Sweden, and to weaken the Hapsburgs the power of France was used to assist the Protestants in Germany in the Thirty Years' War; a navy was built and important ports were fortified; to extend commerce and colonies, colonial enterprises were entrusted to exclusive corporations. During the admin istration of Richelieu the French hold upon eastern Canada was strengthened, settlements were made in Guiana and the West Indies, and an attempt was made to occupy Madagascar. The Council of State. — The work of strengthening the crown at the expense of the nobility was continued. The power of the nobles was maintained by their fortified castles and by their position as governors of provinces. An edict was issued for the destruction of aU but the frontier fortifications. Most of the work of administration was centered in the conseil d'etat, or council of state, which was the highest judicial tribunal. It also issued edicts, made peace or war, determined the amount and method of taxation, and acted as a high court of justice. In appearance this body was supreme, but in reality the power centered in the king and the chief minister, the other ministers being merely advisers. Local administration was taken from the nobles and was placed almost wholly in the hands of intendanls, who were officers of justice, police, and finance. Mazarin. — Richelieu died in November, 1642, and Louis XIII a few months later. Louis XIV was a child of five years and his mother, Anne of Austria, became regent. Mazarin, who was probably secretly married to her, was to rule France during the troubled minority of the king. It was a period of civil and foreign war, in which the minister found no time to devote to the development of colonies. The importance of the period Ues in THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 81 the fact that the great nobles were effectually quelled, that the absolutism of the crown was completely estabhshed, and that France proved herself superior to the power of Spain and the Hapsburgs. When Louis XIV took the reins of power in 1661 he was the most absolute and most powerful monarch in Europe. Colbert. — Colonial development during the reign of Louis XIV was due mainly to Colbert, who was given charge of the finances, of the navy, and of the colonies. The finances had become deranged under Mazarin, and Colbert attacked the abuses. To stimulate commerce and manufactures, he established a pro tective system, furnished governmental aid to companies, and granted monopolies. The royal navy and mercantile marine were greatly increased. To develop foreign trade, corporations were granted monopohes of the commerce of the West Indies, the East Indies, Senegal, and Madagascar. Colonies were fostered by paternalistic regulations. The system of Colbert, as time proved, was founded on mistaken principles, for monopoly and overregulation stifled the growth of trade and of the colonies. Although a vast area was brought under control, the colonies never attracted a large population, or were allowed a free growth of institutions. EARLY EXPLORATIONS AND COLONIZING EFFORTS First French voyages. — The first Frenchmen who visited America appear to have been Norman and Breton fishermen, who engaged in fishing off the Newfoundland coast perhaps as early as 1500. Sailors from Dieppe also visited the coasts of North and South America. Vague accounts have come down to us of attempts to explore the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1506 and 1508, and of an unsuccessful colony on Sable Island in 15 18. The first expedition under the government sanction was that of the Flor entine, Verrazano, sent out by Francis I in 1524. The details of the voyage are somewhat obscure. He probably explored the coast from Cape Fear to Newfoundland. Cartier and Roberval. — The wars between Francis I and Charles V prevented the French king from giving further atten tion to exploration until 1534, when Cartier was sent out with 82 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA two ships from St. Malo. He sighted land on the Labrador coast, passed through the straits of Belle Isle, and explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence, locating the Bay of Chaleurs, Cape Gaspe, and Anticosti Island, thence returning to France. In 1535 he again visited America in search of a passage to China. He sailed along the northern shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and entered the mouth of the river, soon becoming con vinced that the passage did not lead to the Far East. He stopped at the site of Quebec and later proceeded to the La Chine rapids, and to a hill which he named Montreal. He wintered at Quebec where twenty-five persons died of scurvy. The return to France was made the following summer. Exploration was again interrupted by the wars, and it was not until 1 541 that Cartier's third expedition sailed. Francis I had granted a commission to Roberval, a Picardy nobleman, as viceroy and lieutenant-general in Canada, Newfoundland, Lab rador, and neighboring lands, this being the first time that the name Canada was officially used. In the king's proclamation Canada was mentioned as the extremity of Asia. The ob jects of the expedition were discovery, settlement, and con version of the Indians. Cartier was appointed captain-general. He sailed in 1541, but Roberval remained in France to collect supplies and materials for defence. Cartier wasted six weeks in Newfoundland and then proceeded to Quebec, where the winter was spent in great hardship. The colonists started to return to France, but at St. Johns, Newfoundland, they met Roberval, who ordered them to return to Quebec. Cartier, however, disobeyed, and returned to France. Roberval proceeded to Quebec, where habitations were erected and the forts of Cartier repaired. Supphes, however, ran short, and during the following winter a third of the settlers died. A mutiny threatened and Roberval checked it with great harsh ness. After lingering a httle longer, the unfortunate remnant returned to France. In 1543 Francis I declared the Western Sea to be open to his subjects, but advantage of it was not taken, and it was over a half century before another attempt was made to colonize in the St. Lawrence Valley. Ribaut and Laudonniere. — The next colonizing efforts were of Huguenot origin, and were made at the suggestion of Coligny. H ECW ••^••'rr.-^'Jsr /J"%'AA.~ (f HOCHCLA^A (nONTREAl RtA'.HCD aM SECOND AND TH1KD VOYAGES. Cartier's Explorations, 1 534-1 542 en CD 84 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA In 1555 an attempt was made to found a colony in Brazil, but it was destroyed by the Portuguese. When Coligny developed his plan for an attack upon Spain, he determined to found a colony in the region then known as Florida. A Huguenot from Dieppe named Jean Ribaut was placed in command of the expedition, which set sail from Havre in 1562. Land was seen not far from the site of St. Augustine; they sailed northward and planted a settlement on Port Royal Sound, where thirty men were left. Ribaut explored the coast as far as the fortieth degree and re turned to France. Misfortune beset the colonists, and after great suffering they built a rude vessel and succeeded in getting back to Europe. In 1564 a large expedition was sent out under Laudonniere, which erected Fort Caroline on St. John's River. Dissensions and starvation played havoc with the colony, and when the English Captain John Hawkins offered to sell them a ship and provisions, they eagerly embraced the opportunity. When they were about to depart, Ribaut with seven vessels and six hundred soldiers hove in sight, and the idea of returning to France was abandoned. Philip II learned of the French colony, probably from Catherine de Medici, and in 1565 sent an expedition of nineteen vessels and fifteen hundred men under Menendez to destroy it. Ribaut's fleet was found near the mouth of the river but the larger craft escaped and Menendez, finding the rest in a secure position, proceeded southward about fifty miles and founded St. Au gustine. Ribaut followed but failed to attack, and shortly afterwards a hurricane dispersed the fleet. Taking advantage of the mis fortune, Menendez marched overland and surprised and cap tured Fort Caroline, putting most of the prisoners to the sword. A little later Ribaut and his followers feU into the hands of Menendez, and most of them were put to death. To avenge the butchery, the Chevalier de Gourgues, at his own expense, fitted out three small ships in 1567 and attacked the Spanish forts on the St. John's. They were captured and the garrisons slain. His force being too small to risk an attack on St. Augustine, De Gourgues returned to France, and Florida ceased to be a scene of French activity. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 85 ACADIA Colonization renewed. — The scene of the next colonization by the French was the region about the Bay of Fundy. After the religious wars, in 1598, the Marquis de la Roche landed two shiploads of colonists on Sable Island. Going in search of a site on the mainland, he encountered severe storms and returned to France. Five years later the survivors were rescued. The fur monopoly. — In 1600 a partnership was formed be tween Pontgrave, a St. Malo mariner, and two Huguenot friends of Henry IV, Chauvin, a merchant of Harfleur, and Sieur de Monts, the associates being granted a fur-trading monopoly. A settlement was made at Tadoussac, on the lower St. Lawrence, but it did not prosper; two trading voyages, however, proved profitable. Shortly afterward the company was reorganized, the king making De Chastes, the governor of Dieppe, his rep resentative. An expedition commanded by Pontgrave was sent out in 1603. Associated with him was Samuel de Champlain, who had already gained fame by a voyage to Spanish America and by his writings. A profitable trade in furs was carried on, and the St. Lawrence was explored as far as the La Chine rapids. Champlain also examined the Acadian coast as far as the Bay of Chaleurs. Port Royal. — Upon the return of the traders, De Chastes hav ing died, the king issued a patent to De Monts granting him viceregal powers and a trade monopoly between the fortieth and forty-sixth degrees. Settlements were to be founded and the savages were to be instructed in Christianity. In 1604 De Monts and Champlain sailed for Acadia. An unsuccessful at tempt at settlement was made at St. Croix Island and later the survivors moved to Port Royal. De Monts then returned to France to defend his rights against those who objected to bis patent, and Champlain busied himself with the exploration of the New England coast, on one expedition rounding Cape Cod. In 1607 it became known that De Monts's patent had been re voked, and Champlain returned to France. Acadia, 1610-1632. — In 1610 Poutrincourt reestablished Port Royal and soon afterward his son, Biencourt, was placed in com mand. The coast was surveyed as far as the Kennebec. Pont- 86 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA grave had a trading post at St. John, and this Biencourt captured. In 1 6 13 Port Royal was taken and burned by a Virginia expedi tion under Argall, but was soon rebuilt. In 1623 or 1624 Bien court died and his lieutenant, Charles de la Tour, succeeded him, Before his powers could be confirmed, Acadia, in 1628, fell into English hands, but was restored in 1632. Charnisay and La Tour. — Isaac de Rezilly was sent to receive the submission of the English, being shortly afterward succeeded by Charnisay. La Tour soon afterward received from the com pany of New France a grant at the mouth of the St. John's River, where he built Fort St. Jean. A civil war broke out in which La Tour finally secured aid from Boston. For a time he was successful, but Charnisay obtained help from France and La Tour was defeated. From 1645 to I05o Charnisay was su preme in Acadia. Upon his death La Tour was made governor and lieutenant-general, and the animosities of the past were dis sipated by his marriage to Charnisay's widow. English Rivalry. — In 1654 an English fleet captured the French forts, and Acadia remained under English rule until 1667, when ) it was restored to France by the treaty of Breda. THE ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY The founding of Quebec. — In 1608 De Monts obtained a re newal of his patent for one year, and, after consulting Champlain, he decided to found a settlement at Quebec. Champlain was ap pointed his lieutenant with full powers, and with two vessels he arrived at Quebec on July 3. A storehouse and dwelling were built surrounded by a palisade and ditch. Of the twenty- eight men who began the settlement, only eight survived the first winter, but considerable reinforcements arrived in the spring. In the summer of 1609 Champlain accompanied a war party of Algonquins and Hurons up the Richeheu River to the lake which bears his name, where a successful attack was made upon the Iroquois. The consequences of this act were far reach ing, for from that time the Iroquois confederation was hostile to the French, crippling the colony for many years. A new company formed. — De Monts's exclusive privileges were not renewed, but he was allowed to retain his position of king's representative. Seeing no chance for profit, he withdrew THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 87 from further activities in the New World. Another company was at once formed, composed of traders of Rouen and St. Malo. Champlain was retained by the new company. Champlain's explorations. — In 1613 Champlain explored the Ottawa River to a point about one hundred miles above the modern capital of Canada. In 16 15 four Recollet friars were induced to come to Quebec, this being the beginning of mis sionary activities in New France. The same year Champlain joined a Huron war party, passed up the Ottawa to Lake Nipis- sing, thence by the French River to Georgian Bay, being the first white man to find the way which eventually became the regular fur trader's route to the interior. Lake Ontario was also seen and crossed for the first time on this expedition. Fur trading was actively carried on, but because of dishonest deal ings the company gradually lost influence with the Indians, a condition which also hampered the missionaries. As the Rec- ollets met with httle success, in 1625 the Jesuits were induced to send out five representatives, thus beginning the activities of that order in New France. The Company of the Hundred Associates. — In spite of all the efforts which had been made, the financial results were trifling. So badly were affairs going that Richelieu determined to change the organization; in 1627 he estabhshed the Company of the Hundred Associates, who were to send out annually from two to three hundred settlers and a sufficient number of clergy to meet the needs. The company was to possess all lands between Florida and the Arctic Circle, and from Newfoundland as far west as it was able to take possession. With the exception of the cod and whale fisheries, the company was granted a complete monopoly of trade. The English occupation. — Before the company could land colonists, difficulties arose between France and England, and a fleet of privateers under Captain David Kirke raided the French possessions off Gaspe, capturing eighteen vessels which were carrying colonists and supplies to Quebec; after destroying the settlements in Acadia, Kirke sailed for England. The following year he landed at Tadoussac and sent three vessels to Quebec to demand its surrender. The place capitulated and over a hun dred of the inhabitants were sent to England. Upon their arrival, 88 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA it was found that peace had been made. Negotiations were ter minated in 1632, Canada and Acadia being restored to France. Last years of Champlain. Nicolet. — Upon his return Cham plain immediately repaired the buildings at Quebec, and es tabhshed a fort at Three Rivers to protect the Hurons against the Iroquois. From time to time Champlain had heard of a great waterway in the west. Believing that it might be a route to China, in 1634 he sent Nicolet on an exploring expedition. Nico let passed up the Ottawa, traversed Georgian Bay, and reached Sault Ste. Marie. He then explored the south shore of the upper peninsula of Michigan, and reached the southern extremity of Green Bay. From the Winnebagoes he learned of a "great water" three days' journey toward the south. After visiting the Illinois country, he returned without having reached the Missis sippi. In 1635 Champlain died; there was no master rnind to direct operations, and the colony languished. The Jesuits. — The first Jesuit superior was Father Le Jeune, who in 1632 was stationed at Quebec in the residence of Notre Dame des Anges, the parent establishment of the missions of New France. Le Jeune ministered to the Algonquins of the neighbor hood. In 1633 Breboeuf headed a group of missionaries to the Huron villages at the southern end of Georgian Bay, and in 1641 a mission was founded at Sault Ste. Marie, but it was not permanent. Pestilence and the war parties of the Iroquois graduaUy destroyed the Hurons; the Jesuits toiled amid scenes of famine, disease, and death, several succumbing to the hard ships, others suffering martyrdom. So constant were the attacks of the Iroquois, that in 1649 it was determined to establish a more sheltered mission on the Island of St. Joseph in Georgian Bay. The missions on the mainland being destroyed by the Iroquois, and the Hurons having been greatly reduced in num bers, in 1650 the Jesuits abandoned that region. Attempts to establish missions among the Iroquois also failed completely at this time. In the settlements the Jesuits were the most important social factor, until 1665 practicaUy controlling the hfe of the people. At Quebec they estabhshed schools for Huron and French boys, and at their suggestion the Ursulines opened a convent. Private endowments made possible a school for girls near Quebec and a hospital at Montreal. The French in Canada, 17th Century 00 o go THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA The founding of Montreal. — For the purpose of founding an evangelical colony, a group of religious persons at Paris formed an association called the Association of Montreal. The island on which the city now stands was purchased, and in 1641 De Maisonneuve, with a Jesuit priest and thirty-seven laymen, sailed from La Rochelle. After taking formal possession of the island, the party wintered at Quebec, and the following spring founded the town of Montreal. The New Company. — The Hundred Associates not having fulfilled their agreement regarding settlers, and the colony hav ing proved a financial failure, an arrangement was made in 1645 between the company and the inhabitants acting as a corporation, henceforth known as the New Company. The old company retained its governmental rights, but the fur trade was thrown open to the New Company on condition that it would assume the expenses of civil administration, defence, and religion, that it would bring in twenty settlers annually, and would pay to the old company a thousand pounds of beaver skins every year. Coureurs de bois. — Up to this time the fur trade had been carried on mainly at the settlements, but after the New Com pany was formed a larger number of men began to frequent the forests, giving rise to the type known as coureurs de bois. These were of two classes, those who merely traded with the Indians for peltries, and those who attached themselves to native tribes. This latter class lapsed into barbarism and became a lawless element which gave great annoyance to the officials. Later a third class of traders appeared when the governors were allowed to grant licenses to frequent the forests. Great abuses crept into the fur trade, large quantities of spirits being sold to the Indians, who were roundly cheated when intoxicated. It was the intention of the French government to restrict the trade to the settlements, but the officials usually winked at violations of the law, and some of them shared in the illicit trading. The most famous of the fur traders of this period were Radisson and Groseilliers, who, in 1658-1659 and possibly earlier, traded and explored in the country at the western end of Lake Su perior. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 91 REORGANIZATION AND THE IROQUOIS WARS A centralist system estabhshed. — As complaints arose regard ing the last governmental arrangements, the king changed the form of control, creating a council to consist of the governor, any ex-governor who might be in the country, and the superior of the Jesuits, who was later to give way to a bishop when one was appointed; these were to select for membership two inhabitants, or three if no ex-governor was in the colony. Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers were each to select a syndic, who could hold office for three years and could deliberate with but could not vote in the council. The centralist system, which Mazarin was perfecting in France, was thus established in Canada. Laval. — New France had been attached to the archbishopric of Rouen, and De Queylus, a Sulpician priest at Montreal, had acted as vicar-general for the whole colony. His followers hoped that he would be created bishop, but instead, in 1659 a Jesuit, the Abbe Laval, was appointed vicar-apostolic and Bishop of Petraea in partibus. After a spirited contest with De Queylus, Laval was successful in establishing his supremacy, the power of the Jesuits thus being assured. War with the Iroquois. — The following year witnessed a serious Iroquois outbreak. News arrived that twelve hundred warriors had gathered to wipe out the settlements. A young nobleman, popularly known as Dollard, conceived the quixotic scheme of intercepting a large force of Iroquois who had wintered on the Ottawa. With sixteen enlisted men and a few Hurons and Al- gonquins he proceeded to a pahsade at the great rapids of the Ottawa, and there met the Indians. Dollard and his followers were slain to a man, but so stubborn had been their resistance that the Iroquois retired to the forests and New France was saved. A regiment was sent out to protect the colony, forts were estabhshed along the Richeheu, and two expeditions were sent into the Iroquois country, the result being that a peace was made with the Indians which lasted for several years. Later an expedition was sent to the outlet of Lake Ontario to impress the savages with the power of France. The West India Company. — In 1663 the company of New France surrendered its rights to the king, who created a council 92 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA to consist of the governor, bishop, and five councillors chosen by them jointly. The following year, at the suggestion of Colbert, he chartered a new corporation known as the West India Com pany, to which was given a monopoly of all the trade of New France and the west coast of Africa, with the privilege of nom inating the governor of Canada. The office of intendant was also created to act as a check upon the governor. This official was to act as a legal and financial officer who was to report directly to the crown. The first intendant was Talon, who was a prominent figure for several years. The governor who was the mihtary, political, and administrative agent of the king, the in tendant, and the bishop were the real rulers of New France. Their divided authority and jealousies later led to frequent dis putes, which greatly retarded the development of the colonies. Talon. — It was Talon who first realized the possibilities of New France. To promote commerce he built a vessel which he despatched to the West Indies with a cargo of fish, staves, and lumber. He planned an overland road to Acadia and urged the occupation of the Hudson River VaUey, projects, however, which were not realized. At Quebec he erected a brewery and tannery. Young women were brought from France as wives for the colo nists and soldiers, and bounties were offered for the birth of children. In 1666 the total population was 3418; five years later it had increased to'6000. Seignorial grants. — To aid in colonization and protection Talon estabhshed a type of feudalism. Along the Richelieu River as high up as Chambly and along the St. Lawrence from the neighborhood of Montreal to a point several miles below Quebec, most of the lands were portioned out. The majority of these seignorial grants were made to officers of the regiment of Car- rigan, which had been stationed in Canada. Discharged soldiers were settled on the grants as tenant farmers. The seignorial holdings varied in size from half a league to six leagues on the river and extended back from half a league to two leagues. The buildings of the seigniory were the "mansion," which was usually a log house, a fort, chapel, and mill. The poverty of the pro prietor, however, frequently prevented the erection of some of the buildings, the mill sometimes being lacking or serving the double duty of fort and mill; on other grants chapel, mill, and THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 93 fort were never built. In the more exposed localities the houses of the tenants were built together in palisaded villages. On other grants the dwellings lined the shore, forming what were called cotes. Near Quebec Talon laid out a model seigniory and three model villages, each village being provided with a carpenter, mason, blacksmith, and shoemaker. But the settlers did not profit by the example and continued to build near the rivers. With the exception of Talon's villages, one could have seen nearly every house in Canada by paddling a canoe up the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu. One of the most famous seigniories in Canada was that of the Le Moyne family. THE WEST INDIES The Company of St. Christopher. — In 1625 a small brigantine commanded by Pierre d'Esnambuc and Urbain de Roissey, "the pirate of Dieppe," sailed to the West Indies. After escaping from a Spanish galleon near Jamaica, they proceeded to St. Christopher, where a settlement was begun. The following year the Company of St. Christopher was formed, and three vessels with over five hundred men set sail from France in 1627, but only half of them survived the voyage. Two settlements were formed, one at each end of the island, the English having al ready occupied the middle. In 1628 and 1629 about five hun dred more were sent out, and in the latter year ten vessels were despatched to defend the colonists. In spite of this a Spanish fleet broke up the settlements; the fugitives fled to St. Martin, and after a vain attempt to settle Antigua and Montserrat, most of them returned to St. Christopher, which had been aban doned by the Spanish. Only three hundred and fifty survived. Santo Domingo. — A few of them went to the northern coast of Santo Domingo, whence they carried on buccaneering enter prises against the Spaniards. After the Spanish attack the company did little to assist, and the colony was left to its own devices. Trade with the Dutch immediately sprang up and the settlers began to make a profit from tobacco. Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Tortuga. — In 1634 the Com pany of St. Christopher was bankrupt, and the following year it was reorganized as the Company of the Isles of America. Guade loupe and Martinique were immediately occupied. In 1640 the 94 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA English were expelled from Tortuga, and the island was occupied by Levasseur, who soon broke loose from the control of the com pany and conducted a pirate haven. Several of the smaller islands were also occupied. The French West Indies soon attracted a considerable immigration, in 1642 the population being esti mated at more than seven thousand. The tobacco business not continuing profitable, sugar began to take its place as the staple product. Due mainly to the clash of authority among officials, a condition which led to anarchy, by 1648 the company was bankrupt. Other Islands occupied. — Between 1649 and 1651 the various islands were sold to proprietors who ruled them until 1664. Be tween 1648 and 1656 settlements were made on St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, St. Croix, The Saints, Marie Galante, St. Lucia, and Granada, and by 1664 the French flag floated over fourteen of the Antilles. The sugar business proved to be exceed ingly profitable and cultivation of the cane made slave-labor desirable. Population increased rapidly, in 1655 the whites numbering about fifteen thousand and slaves being almost as numerous. During the period of the proprietors there was little restriction on commerce, most of the carrying trade passing into the hands of the Dutch. The Crown assumes control. — Colbert became controller- general of the finances in 1662, one of his functions being the con trol of the colonies. He determined to send a representative to assert the king's authority; in 1663 De Tracy was made lieuten ant-general in all the French colonies and was given supreme exec utive and judicial powers. The following year he sailed with De La Barre who was about to establish a colony at Cayenne. De Tracy soon estabhshed the king's authority and corrected abuses in the West Indies, and then proceeded to Quebec, where he re mained until 1667. The West India Company. — In 1664 Louis chartered the great company which was granted the mainland of South America from the Orinoco to the Amazon, the island of Cayenne, the French West Indies, Newfoundland, Acadia, Canada, the rest of the mainland of North America as far south as Florida, and the African coast from Cape Verde to the Cape of Good Hope. Former proprietors were to be compensated, and with the excep- The Caribbean Area in the Seventeenth Century 96 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA tion of the fisheries of Newfoundland, the company was to have a monopoly of trade and colonization for forty years. After considerable opposition the company succeeded in estabhshing its authority in the islands, but the war which broke out in 1666 between France, and England and Holland proved disastrous, a French fleet which was sent to protect the Antilles being de stroyed by the Enghsh. Colbert assisted the company financially, but it failed to become a profitable undertaking and in 1674 was dissolved. The inhabitants, however, continued to prosper, mainly because of the increasing number of independent mer chants who traded with the islands and the growing importance of the sugar industry. OPENING THE UPPER LAKE REGION AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY Two Lines of Approach. — The French had now established themselves firmly in the lower St. Lawrence basin and in the Caribbean area. From these two bases they now proceeded to the Mississippi Valley and the northern Gulf littoral. From the St. Lawrence they made their way over the portages to the tributaries of the Father of Waters. From the West Indies the Gulf of Mexico served as a highway. Occupation of the upper lakes. — After the failure of the Huron missions, the Jesuits extended their field of operations to the shores of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The mission at Sault Ste. Marie was revived; in 1665 La Pointe mission near the western end of Lake Superior was estabhshed by Father Allouez, who was succeeded by Marquette four years later. Be tween 1670 and 1672 St. Ignace, at Michilhmackinac, and St. Xavier on Green Bay (at De Pere) were estabhshed. In 1670 Talon despatched Saint Lusson to take possession of the North west; at a meeting of the tribes at Sault Ste. Marie the following year the sovereignty of the king over that region was proclaimed. Albanel was also sent to open communication between the St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay. Marquette and Joliet. — In 1672 Count. Frontenac became governor and lieutenant-general of New France. Shortly after his arrival at Quebec, at the suggestion of Talon, he sent the fur trader Joliet to find the Mississippi. At Michilhmackinac THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 97 he met the missionary Marquette, who decided to accompany him. On May 17, 1673, they started westward; after reaching Green Bay, they followed the Fox and Wisconsin rivers to the Mississippi, which they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas, just at the time when Father Larios was founding Spanish mis sions near the Rio Grande. Being convinced that the Mississippi emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, and fearing that they might' fall into the hands of the Spaniards, they determined to turn back. The return was by the Mississippi, the Ilhnois, and Chicago rivers and the western shores of Lake Michigan. Father Marquette returned to work among the Illinois, but was soon forced by illness to abandon the field. On his way north he died at the site of Ludington. His work among the Illinois was taken up by others, among them being Fathers Allouez and Hennepin. Fort Frontenac. — While Johet and Marquette were exploring the Mississippi, the governor was engaged' in founding Fort Frontenac, on the northern shore of the outlet of Lake Ontario, near modern Kingston, his purpose being to overawe the Iroquois, and to divert their trade and allegiance from the Enghsh. With the governor was La Salle, who later became commandant of the new fort. Frontenac's quarrels. — Shortly after Frontenac became gov ernor the king again changed the form of government. The coun cil was increased to seven members who held office directly from the king. Its chief function was judicial. A minor court called the prevote, having original jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases, was reestablished, appeals being taken from the prevote to the council. Frontenac, who was of an imperious nature and exceed ingly jealous of his authority, quarreled with the officials and clergy of Montreal, with Laval who had recently been made Bishop of Quebec, with the new intendant Duchesneau, and with the council. Regulation of the fur trade and questions of authority were the fruitful sources of disagreement. Under such conditions the colony did not advance rapidly. As Le Sueur says in his hfe of Frontenac, "The great trouble in Canada was that it was an overgoverned country. . . . What these people needed in the first place' was freedom to seek their living in their own way, and secondly, an extremely simple form of government." The constant bickering finally exhausted the patience of the 98 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA home government, and in 1682 both Frontenac and Duchesneau were recalled. La Salle's fur trade monopoly. — During Frontenac's admin istration La Salle was engaged in the exploration of the Illinois country and the Mississippi. Having secured a royal patent to build forts and engage in the fur trade in the interior, La Salle, with a party which included Tonty, an Itahan soldier of fortune, and the Recollet Hennepin, erected a fort at Niagara Falls and built a vessel caUed the Griffon, on which in 1679 they sailed up the lakes to Green Bay. The boat was sent back with a cargo of furs, but never reached its destination. The shores of Lake Michigan and the Ilhnois country were explored and Fort Crevecceur was erected near the site of Peoria. From there Accau and Hennepin were sent to explore the upper Mississippi. La Salle then returned to Fort Frontenac, crossing lower Michigan and following Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Exploration of the Mississippi. — While La Salle was gone, Tonty occupied Starved Rock, later known as Fort St. Louis, but a mutiny and an Iroquois invasion forced the French to return to Green Bay, so that when La Salle returned he found the country abandoned. After a fruitless search, he heard from the Indians of Tonty's whereabouts and hastened north to meet him. Together they returned to Fort Frontenac. Nothing daunted, they again sought the Mississippi. On December 21, 1681, they were again at Fort Miami, at the mouth of the St. Joseph River. On February 6, 1682, they reached the Mississippi, and arrived at its mouth in April, when they took formal possession of the great valley, naming it Louisiana in honor of the king. By the end of September they were back at Fort Miami, and in 1683 the leader returned to Quebec. La Salle's Colony on the Gulf. — La Salle now planned a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River, as a means of developing the fur trade, controlling the Mississippi Valley, providing a base for commanding the Gulf, and, in case of war, for attack on the coveted mines of New Spain. France and Spain were on the verge of war, and in 1683 French buccaneers three times sacked the Spanish settlement of Apalache. La Salle's pro posals were favored, therefore, by Louis XIV. In the summer of 1684 La Salle left France with a colony of some four hundred THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 99 people. In the autumn he reached the West Indies, the ketch St. Franqois having been captured by the Spaniards on the way. Continuing the voyage in November, La Salle missed the mouth l*% IT. PRUDHOMME. ~ss^~^Ri^er. jpnti?j.°?t" M v^ ^-±VC"~ 1686 <\. NASSONlTES«P\\ ij'fc tf'S -. V ftcM\ A. < >v% rtV. ^i^ 4 V \? I* ' AA \ V- Xs-. M '-K \?. A ft INDIAMS-JJNDltff VV V tAT^->^^-J^. ?c< JEAN ENtttWE V o?fc3 IIS8 ^-n \ ^%#2l~r \ FT. st. uSvu: "x \ 1685 ^T\3>y?--'*" *N Jiy \* 9/ \ ,v \. \js-, J \ \ 1 *., ^A ' La Salle's Colony on the Texas Coast, 1684-1689 of the Mississippi and landed on the Texas coast at Matagorda Bay. Tonty descended the Mississippi to cooperate (1686), but did not find his chief. On the way he built a small post on the Arkansas. Failure. — The expedition rapidly went to pieces. One vessel was wrecked in landing, and Beaujeu,,the naval commander, returned to France with a second, and part of the men and supphes. La Salle moved his colony inland to the Garcitas River, near the head of the Lavaca Bay, where he founded Fort St. Louis, and then began a series of expeditions northeastward in the hope of finding the Mississippi River. While engaged in ioo THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA exploring, the last of his vessels was wrecked. Through desertion and sickness the colony rapidly dwindled. On his third expedi tion northeastward, in 1687, La Salle reached the Hasinai {Cenis) Indians, east of the Trinity River. On his fourth expedition he was murdered by his companions near the Brazos River. The remainder of his party, led by Joutel, made their way to the Arkansas post and to Canada. In the fall of 1689 Tonty, in an effort to rescue La Salle's colonists, descended the Mississippi River, and made his way to the Cadodacho and Hasinai villages. Meanwhile the colony on the Gulf had been completely wiped out by an Indian massacre which occurred early in 1689. La SaUe's occupation of Matagorda Bay later became a basis of the claim of the United States to Texas. Explorers in the Southwest. — The failure of La Salle's colony did not put an end to exploration in the Southwest. Interest in a passage to the South Sea was perennial, and no tale of Spanish treasure was too glittering to find credence on the French frontier. Mathieu Sagean told of a golden country of the Accanibas, and Baron La Hontan of a Long River. The coureurs de bois were ever led west and southwest in their fur trading operations. The result was that in this western country traders from Canada roamed far and wide at an early date. A Canadian is known to have reached the Rio Grande overland before 1688 and by 1694 Canadian traders were among the Missouri and Osage tribes. The upper Mississippi — Duluth. — While La SaUewas operating in the Illinois country, others were at work in northern Wisconsin and Minnesota. In 1678 Duluth, a cousin of Tonty, left Montreal for the west. For several years he traded among the tribes west of Lake Superior. Hearing in 1680 that Frenchmen were near, he went in search of them, and found Accau and Hennepin, who had explored the upper Mississippi. Duluth went to France, where he secured a license to trade with the Sioux. In 1683 he returned to Wisconsin with thirty men, proceeded to the north shore of Lake Superior, and built forts near Lake Nipigon and Pigeon River. The highway from Brule River to the St. Croix became known as Duluth's Portage. In 1686 he erected a temporary fort near Detroit to bar the Enghsh traders. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 101 Le Sueur. — Between 1683 and 1700 Le Sueur, a prominent fur trader, operated in Minnesota and Wisconsin. In 1683 he was at St. Anthony's Falls. The Fox Indians of Wisconsin op posed the passage of the French to the Sioux and practicaUy cut off their trade route. For this reason Le Sueur protected the Brule-St. Croix highway. To effect this, in 1693 he built a fort at Chequamegon Bay, on the south shore of Lake Superior, and another on the Mississippi near the mouth of the St. Croix. This post became a center of commerce for the western posts. In 1697 Le Sueur was in France, where he secured permission to work copper mines near Lake Superior. In 1699 he went from France to Louisiana with Iberville. Thence, with twenty-nine men, he ascended the Mississippi to Blue River, Minnesota, and built Fort L'Huiller (1700) at Mankato, where he traded with the Sioux. Perrot. — In 1685 Nicholas Perrot, who had been in Wisconsin as early as 1665, and had acquired great influence over the western tribes, was made "commander of the west" and sent among the Sioux. In 1686 he built Fort St. Antoine on the Mississippi near Trempealeau, Wisconsin. Other posts estab hshed by him were Fort Perrot on the west side of Lake Pepin, Fort Nicholas at Prairie du Chien, and one farther down the Mississippi near the Galena lead mines, which he discovered and worked. The Illinois and Detroit. — In the Ilhnois country the French Jesuits labored from the time of Marquette, among his successors being Fathers Allouez and Hennepin. In 1699 a Sulpician mis sion was established at Cahokia and in 1700 the Jesuits moved down the Illinois River to Kaskaskia. A year later Detroit was founded to protect the route from Lake Erie to Lake Huron, cut off Enghsh trade with the Indians, and afford a base for the Illinois trade. Missionaries entered the region of the lower Missis sippi and the lower Ohio, where Tonty and other Frenchmen maintained a considerable trade. Traders on the Tennessee. — Because of Iroquois control of the country south of the Great Lakes and as far as the Tennessee River, the French in La Salle's time had little knowledge of the Ohio and its tributaries. At that period the Shawnee of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers were declining under Iroquois 102 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA attacks. On the upper Tennessee lived the Cherokees. In spite of the Iroquois, however, by the end of the century several coureurs de bois of Canada had ascended the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers, crossed the divide, and descended the Savannah River into South Carolina, in defiance of the government, which tried to maintain a trade monopoly. Their activities brought them into rivalry with the Enghsh on the Carolina frontier. Couture and Bellefeuille. — Among these pathfinders was Jean Couture, who had been left by Tonty at the Arkansas post. As early as 1693 he deserted the French colony and made his way overland to the English. In 1699 he was on the Savannah, where he proposed to lead the Enghsh to certain mines in the west. Returning, he led a party of Enghsh traders, sent by Governor Blake of South Carolina, up the Savannah, and down the Ten nessee and Ohio, in an attempt to divert the western trade from Canada to the Enghsh. In February, 1700, they reached the Arkansas River, where they were met by Le Sueur on his way up the river to Minnesota. At the request of Iberville, the new governor of Louisiana, the government now permitted Illinois traders to sell their peltry in Louisiana, to prevent them from carrying it over the mountains to the Enghsh. In 1701 a party of Frenchmen under Bellefeuille and Soton crossed the mountains to South Carolina, and attempted to open up trade. Returning they descended the Mississippi and visited Biloxi. It was now proposed, in order to stop the road to Carolina, that posts be es tablished on the Miami and the lower Ohio. For this purpose Juchereau de St. Denis established a post at Cairo in 1702. Through the establishment of Louisiana and the opening of trade with Canada, this danger was largely averted. READINGS EARLY EXPLORATIONS AND COLONIZING EFFORTS j Baird, C. W., Huguenot Emigration; Brevoort, J. C, Verrazano the Navi gator; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 90-112; De Costa, B. F., Verrazano the Explorer; French, B. F., Historical Collections of Louis iana and Florida, 117-362; Hamilton, P. J., The Colonization oftheSoutk, 27- 41; Hart, A. B., Contemporaries, I, 102-112; Leacock, Stephen, The Mariner of St. Malo; Lescarbot, Marc, History of New France; Munro, W. B., Cru saders of New France, 1 1-32 ; Murphy, H. C, Voyage of Verrazano; Parkman, Francis, The Pioneers of France in the New World, 1-228; Shea, J. G., in IHE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRENCH COLONIES 103 Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, II, 260-283; Tracy, F. B., Ter centenary History of Canada, I, 20-37; Winsor, Justin, Cartier to Frontenac, 1-47; Biggar, H. P., The Precursors of Jacques Cartier. ACADIA AND THE ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY Biggar, H. P., Early Trading Companies of Neiv France; Bourne, E. G, Voyages and Explorations of Champlain (Trail Makers' Series); Champlain, Samuel, (Euvres (Laverdiere, ed.) ; Colby, C. W., The Founder of New France; Dionne, N. E., Champlain; Grant, W. L., Voyages of Champlain {Original Narratives Series); Kingsford, William, The History of Canada, I, 147-294; Le Sueur, W. D., Frontenac, 1-60; Marquis, T. G, Thc Jesuit Missions; Parkman, Francis, Old Regime in Canada, 3-168; Pioneers of New France, 324-454; The Jesuits in North America; Thwaites, R. G., France in America, 10-48; Tracy, F. B., Tercentenary History of Canada, I, 41-279; Winsor, Justin, From Cartier to Frontenac, 77-183; Munro, W. B., Crusaders of New France. REORGANIZATION AND THE WEST INDIES Chapais, Thomas, The Great Intendant; Haring, C. H., The Buccaneers in theWest Indies in the XVII Century; Mims, S. L., Colbert's West India Policy; Munro, W. B., The Seigneurs of Old Canada; Parkman, Francis, The Old RSgime, 169-330. THE UPPER LAKES AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY Bolton, H. E., "The Location of La Salle's Colony on the Gulf of Mexico," in Mississippi Valley Historical Review, II, 165-182; Charlevoix, P. F. X., Histoire GSnlrale de la Nouvelle France (J. G. Shea, trans.): Cox, I. J., Jour neys of La Salle {Trail Makers' Series); Folwell, W. W., Minnesota, 59-65; Hamilton, P. J., The Colonization of thc South, 187-196; Kellogg, L. P., ed., Early Narratives of the Northwest {Original Narratives Series): Le Sueur, W. D., Frontenac, 61-169; Ogg, F. A., The Opening of thc Mississippi, 59- 163; Parish, J. C, The Man with the Iron Hand; Parkman, Francis, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West; Phelps, Albert, Louisiana, 6-20; Shea, J. G., Exploration of the Mississippi Valley; Thwaites, R. G., France in America, 48-71; Wisconsin, 40-71; Winsor, Justin, Cartier to Frontenac, 183-295. CHAPTER V THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) THE TUDOR PERIOD Periods of English activities. — While the French were colon izing Canada and the West Indies, and the Spaniards were open ing mines and ranches in northern Mexico, the Enghsh were founding still more vigorous settlements on the Atlantic sea board, in the islands, and in the region of Hudson Bay. The history of Enghsh activities in America before 1783 may be divided into four periods: (1) The Tudor epoch (1485-1603), which was a period of commercial expansion, exploration, and attempted colonization; (2) the Stuart and Cromwellian era (1603-1689), the period of colony planting; (3) the international struggle for territory (1689-1763); and (4) the struggle of apart of the Enghsh colonists for independence (1 763-1 783). Henry VH. — When Henry Tudor ascended the throne of Eng land a new era was ushered in. The continental possessions except Calais had been swept away in the Hundred Years' War. The Wars of the Roses had broken the power of the feudal barony, and the middle class Englishman had become the most important political element in the nation. The general form of the con stitution had become fixed, the functions of the three branches of the government, the king and his council, parhament, and the courts, having become fairly well defined. The work of Henry Tudor was to restore the finances, to build up commerce and industry, to keep England at peace, and at the same time, by a series of marriage alhances and by adroit diplomacy to raise England to her former position as a great European power. He also built up the kingship at the expense of a subservient parha ment. The English Reformation. — During the three succeeding reigns, England played little part in exploration. While Spain was founding her vast colonial empire, the attention of English- 104 THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) 105 men was centered on the European situation created by Charles V and on the great religious controversy, which resulted in the break with Rome and the establishment of the Anghcan church. Queen Elizabeth. — With the accession of Queen Elizabeth a new situation arose. To the Catholic powers, Elizabeth had no right to the throne of England. Phihp II of Spain hoped to restore the country to the Cathohc fold; his first wife was Queen Mary of England, and under his influence a short-lived Catholic reaction had been produced; if Elizabeth could now be induced to turn Cathohc and marry Phihp, England might be won back to the Roman church. Elizabeth, however, followed an independ ent course, dangling before the eyes of the Spanish ambassador the possibility of a marriage with Phihp, while perfecting the organization of the Anghcan church, increasing her hold upon the affections of her subjects, strengthening her treasury, army, navy, and defences, and stimulating industry and commerce. Her path was beset with additional difficulties, for the powerful Cathohc party in France was intriguing to place Mary Stuart, the queen of Scotland, on the English throne. To weaken her foes, Elizabeth aided the Huguenots, assisted the Dutch in their war against Spain, and connived with Enghsh mariners to raid the Spanish Main. In 1588 the patience of Phihp was exhausted, and he sought to humble the haughty queen by sending the Invincible Armada against England. A running fight occurred in the Channel and several of the galleons were sunk or driven on shore. The Armada entered the roads of Calais but a great storm shattered the fleet. Of the original one hundred and thirty vessels only one-third returned to Spain. The defeat of the Armada marks a turning point in Spanish and Enghsh his: tory. From that time Spain was thrown on the defensive and her power on the continent gradually declined, though her colonies continued to expand. England followed up her success by taking the offensive; an era of greater commercial activity fol lowed, and she soon entered upon her role of a colonizing nation. COMMERCIAL EXPANSION John Cabot. — The discovery of new lands in the west soon became known in England, and when the Venetian citizen, John Cabot, applied for letters patent to go on a western voyage, 106 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Henry VII readily comphed. In May, 1497, his ^single ship with eighteen men set sail from Bristol and crossed the north At lantic. It is impossible to state with certainty what part of the coast was visited, but it appears to have been in the neighor- hood of Cape Breton Island. The idea that Sebastian Cabot accompanied his father is generally rejected by the best authori ties. The importance of the voyage hes in the fact that it was used at a later date to strengthen the Enghsh claim to a large part of North America. "The following year John Cabot sailed for the new found land but never returned. The Newfoundland fisheries. — Cabot's voyage had another important result. He had discovered a convenient trade route to the fisheries of Newfoundland, and English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese fishing vessels soon swarmed the region. Enghsh ships are thought to have traded there regularly after 1502. Expeditions are known to have been made thither in 1527 and 1536, and before 1550 fishing fleets went from southern England to Newfoundland every spring and autumn. The Muscovy Company. — The latter half of the Tudor period witnessed the formation of great companies which reached out for foreign trade. In 1553 a group of London merchants de cided to make an attempt to reach China and the East Indies by a northern route. Under the command of Willoughby and Chancellor, three ships sailed along the Norway coast and rounded the North Cape. Willoughby and the crews of two of the ships perished on the coast of Lapland, but Chancellor entered the White Sea and penetrated to Moscow, where he was promised trading privileges by Ivan the Terrible. In 1555 the merchants who were interested in the expedition were granted a royal charter, the company being familiarly known as the Muscovy Company. Annual fleets were despatched to the White and Baltic seas, warehouses were established at various points in Russia, and the agents of the company extended their activities to the Caspian Sea, to Bokhara, and to Persia. In 1580 the Turks cut them off from the region outside of European Russia. Occasional unsuccessful attempts were also made by the com pany to reach China by the northern route. In 1579 the East land Company, a rival organization, was chartered to trade in the Baltic, and developed an extensive trade in Poland. THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) 107 The Levant Company. — English merchants also turned their attention to the Mediterranean to renew a trade which had for merly been of some importance. In 1581 a charter was issued to the Levant Company, which engaged in trading with the Turkish ports along the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The same year a charter was granted to the Venetian Company and in 1592 the two were combined as the Levant Company. Among those interested in the Mediterranean commerce were Sir Thomas Smythe and Sir Walter Raleigh, both of whom were important figures in the colonization of Virginia. Other groups of merchants opened trade with Morocco, and the Senegambia and Guinea coasts. In all of these enterprises Englishmen were reaching out for the trade with the East Indies, which had long been monopolized by the Portuguese. In 1581, the year in which the Levant Company was chartered, Portugal was incorporated with Spain, and hostility to that power added another incentive to reach the East. THE ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS John Hawkins. — Among those interested in the African trade was William Hawkins, who filled the important positions of mayor of Plymouth and member of parhament. He made three voyages to Guiana and Brazil. His son, John Hawkins, became one of the most famous mariners of his time. In 1562 he sailed for Africa to obtain slaves, which he disposed of in Espafiola. In 1564-1565 he engaged in a second voyage which resulted in great profit. A third voyage in 1567-1568 ended disastrously. The Spanish government had sent a fleet to stop the traffic; but in spite of it he forced an entrance to the West Indian ports and disposed of his cargo. Being driven by a storm into the harbor of Vera Cruz, he was attacked by a Spanish fleet and but two of the Enghsh vessels escaped. Drake and Cavendish. — Francis Drake, a nephew of John Hawkins, had accompanied him on his third expedition and had suffered the loss of his investment. He soon began a series of reprisals. In 1572 he made an unsuccessful attack on Nombre de Dios and ascended the Chagres River where he waylaid a train of mules laden with bullion. The example set by him was frequently followed by raids of English mariners in the following 108 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA decade. In 1577 another fleet sailed under Drake's command. After capturing several Spanish and Portuguese vessels on the African coast, the fleet crossed the Atlantic and attempted to pass through the Straits of Magellan. Only one vessel reached the Pacific. Drake proceeded up the western coast, plundering as he went. In a harbor known as Drake's Bay, north of San Francisco Bay, he refitted, and claimed the California region for the queen, calling it New Albion. He then sailed to the East Indies where a cargo of spice was obtained. From Java, Drake crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and proceeded to England, entering the harbor of Plymouth in November, 1580, having completed the first Enghsh circum navigation of the globe. In 1586 Thomas Cavendish followed almost the same course, plundered the Spanish commerce in the Pacific, and in 1588 completed the circumnavigation of the world. Besides Hawkins, Drake, and Cavendish a score of Eng hsh mariners engaged in raiding the Spanish Main. They were assisted financially by the queen and by many of her councillors who considered the raiding of Spanish commerce good business as well as good state pohcy. East Indian trade. — A party of Enghsh merchants had also succeeded in penetrating from the Syrian coast to India. The report of their journey and the voyages of Drake and Cavendish stimulated the desire to open trade with the Far East. The result was that in 1591 an expedition was fitted out which rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Ceylon, India, and the Malay Peninsula. Reports of the successes of the Dutch in the East Indies increased the interest of the Enghsh merchants, and in 1600 the East India Company was formed. SEARCH FOR A NORTHWEST PASSAGE Frobisher. — The unsuccessful attempts of the Muscovy Com pany to reach the East by a northeast passage led to the search for a northwestern route. The great exponent of the idea was Martin Frobisher. After vainly seeking many years for a patron who would furnish funds, in 1574 he received the support of Michael Lock, a member of the Muscovy Company, and the following year a royal license was granted to undertake the work. THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (14S5-1603) 109 In June, 1576, Frobisher sailed from England in command of three small vessels, only one of which reached America, The vessel passed along the Labrador coast, crossed the entrance of Hudson Strait, and coasted Baffin Land, entering the inlet now known as Frobisher 's Bay. Upon his return to England, Frobisher took back a large stone, which an assayer claimed contained gold. In consequence the queen and many influential men subscribed liberally for another voyage. The Company of Cathay was formed which was to have a monopoly in all lands to the westward where Enghshmen had not traded before. Ex peditions in search of gold were sent out under Frobisher in 1577 and 1578, but the rocks which were brought back proved to be worthless. Gilbert. — Among those interested in the search for a northwest passage was Raleigh's half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed that a colony might be estabhshed on the American coast. In 1578 he obtained a six-year monopoly of discovery and settlement in America. A fleet was equipped, but being twice scattered by storms, the attempt was abandoned. In 1583 Gilbert made a second venture. Arriving at St. Johns, Newfoundland, Gilbert informed the crews of the fishing fleet of his commission, and took possession in the name of Elizabeth. On the return voyage the Squirrel with Gilbert and aU on board was lost in a storm just north of the Azores. Davis. — In 1584 John Davis, Walter Raleigh, and others were granted a charter to explore a route to China and to trade in lands which might be discovered. Command of an expedition was given to Davis, who sailed from Dartmouth in 1585. The southern coast of Greenland was explored and Davis Strait was crossed, but the illusive opening was not found. In 1586 and 1587 Davis sought the passage but without success. ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION Raleigh and the attempted colonization of Virginia. — England's struggle with Spain for empire did not end with an attack on her fleets and her colonies. Men soon arose who dared to dispute Spain's monopoly by planting colonies in the lands claimed by His Cathohc Majesty. The leader in the enterprise was Sir no THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Walter Raleigh. In 1584 he received a patent similar to that of Gilbert. Two vessels were soon despatched under Amadas and Barlowe. They followed the southern route by the Canaries and the West Indies, and finally landed on Roanoke Island, taking possession of that region, which was named Virginia in honor of Ehzabeth, a name which was soon applied to the country from the Spanish settlements to Newfoundland. In April of the following year Grenville commanded a second expedition which took out the first colonists, who made a settlement on Roanoke Island. In 1586 supply ships were sent out, but they found the settlement deserted. Wearied by the hard winter, the settlers had accepted an offer from Sir Francis Drake, who had been raiding in the Caribbean, to carry them back to England. In 1587 another group of colonists including almost a hundred men, seventeen women, and several children, was sent out under Governor John White and landed at Roanoke. White returned to England, but owing to the naval war with Spain and other difficulties he was unable to go to Virginia again until 1591, when he found only deserted ruins. News of the Enghsh intrusion caused alarm on the Spanish frontier, and the governor of Florida in person led a counter expedition up the coast as far as Chesa peake Bay. To this day the fate of the Roanoke colony is a mystery, but hght on the matter may yet be shed by the Spanish archives. Raleigh's Orinoco expedition. — The discoveries of the Span iards in Mexico and Peru spurred the Englishman to attempt to find similar lands of treasure. A story became current that in the interior of South America on the upper waters of the Amazon and the Orinoco was a great kingdom, which contained a powerful city called Manoa. It was also believed that in the interior there was a mountain of sapphire and a land ruled by female warriors called Amazons. After the failure of the Roanoke enterprise, Raleigh became interested in this land of wonders, and in 1594 sent a vessel to the Guiana coast to obtain informa tion. The following year Raleigh himself made an exploration of the delta of the Orinoco and ascended the main stream a con siderable distance. But the city of Manoa proved elusive, sup plies ran short, and the expedition returned to England. THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603) 1 1 1 READINGS CABOT Bourne, E. G., Spain in America, 54-61; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 33-42; Fiske, John, Discovery of America, II, 2-15; Markham, C. R., Columbus, 226-233; Olson, J. E., ed., The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot. COMMERCIAL COMPANIES Cheyney, E. P., A History of England from the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth, I, 309-348, 375-422, 433-4591 Cunningham, William, The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times — The Mer cantile System, 214-279; Scott, W. R., The Constitution and Finance of Eng lish, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, II, 3-1 1, 36-52, 83- 89; Tilby, A. W., The English People Overseas, I, 38-43. SEA ROVERS, THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE, AND RALEIGH Buchan, J., Sir Walter Ralegh; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 115-140; Cheyney, E. P., A History of England from Ihe Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth, I, 349-374, 423-459; Corbett, J. S., Drake and the Tudor Navy; Sir Francis Drake; Hume, M. A. S., Sir Walter Ralegh; Nuttall, Zelia, New Light on Drake; Payne, E. J., Elizabethan Sea men; Scott, W. R., The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, II, 76-82, 241-245; Tilby, A. W., The Eng lish People Overseas, I, 24-38; Woodward, W. H., A Short History of the Expansion of the British Empire, 17-63; Wood, W., Elizabethan Sea-Dogs. CHAPTER VI THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES ENGLAND UNDER THE EARLY STUARTS, 1603-1640 James I. — When James Stuart came to the throne, he had an exalted idea of the kingship, believing that he ruled by divine right. The Tudors had wielded almost absolute power, the privy council overshadowing parhament. James naturaUy intended to rule in a similar manner, and resented any legislative action which tended to decrease his prerogative. He also stood as a staunch supporter of the Enghsh church. His foreign pohcy was based upon a sincere desire for peace. With this in view he ended the war with Spain and projected a marriage between his son and a Spanish princess. In the latter part of James' reign, when the Thirty Years' War broke out, the king hoped to become the arbiter of Europe. Though he failed in this, he at least had the satisfaction of keeping his country out of war. Charles I. — The Parliamentarians who had nursed their wrath during the reign of James, soon clashed with his successor. Charles I was a man of staunch self-righteousness, who had httle of phabihty and much of stubbornness in his nature. His idea of the royal prerogative was fully as exalted as that of his father. From the beginning of the reign, king and parhament clashed. When a war, which broke out with France and Spain, went badly, the unpopularity of the king increased. When he summoned parhament in 1628 to ask for supplies, he found that body unwilling to comply with his demands until he had signed the Petition of Right. The experience which the king had with parhament deter mined him to rule without it, and from 1629 to 1640 he carried on a personal government. Acting through his privy council, the king ruled England. His chief difficulty was to secure suffi cient revenue to carry on the government. Ancient feudal laws were resurrected and put into force. So long as no extraordinary THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 113 emergency arose the king was able to carry on the government. During this period the religious controversy was also becoming acute, the tyranny of Laud, the Archbishop of Canterbury, con stantly adding fuel to the fire. Puritans and Parliamentarians found a common ground of opposition. When the king attempted to force the Enghsh prayer book and church organization on the Scotch Prebysterians, war broke out. Charles found it necessary to summon parhament, whereupon he found religious and po litical opponents united against him. THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM OF THE EARLY STUARTS Early experiments. — During the reigns of the first two Stuarts a colonial administrative pohcy was developed. With James I permanent settlements began. They were regarded as dependent ' upon the crown rather than as an integral part of the state. The king created a Council of Virginia which was to have general control over settlements between 340 and 450 north latitude. But the council was short lived and the privy council soon be came the center of the colonial system. The connecting links between the settlers and the crown were the corporations which were granted jurisdiction over more or less definite areas. Both king and parhament claimed to have jurisdiction over the colonies, but the first two Stuarts were able to keep control in their hands. The privy council in charge. — The charters of the commercial companies could be annulled by the courts in suits brought by the crown. Such was the method followed when the charter of the Virginia Company was revoked; the work of administration then passed into the hands of the privy council. As this council was large and its duties numerous, the actual work was usually done by committees, such a committee being appointed to look after Virginia. Late in the reign of James I the crown also appointed commissioners to examine the state of the colony, and report on a form of government. Policy of Charles I. — Under Charles I, though the com missioners continued to attend to some business, most of the work of administration devolved upon the privy council. In 1631 the commission was revived, but in 1634 it was superseded ii4 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA by another at whose head was Archbishop Laud. This was made up of the highest officers of church and state, and it was given jurisdiction over all dependencies. Its chief acts required the approval of the crown, and as this could only be obtained through the privy council, it was responsible to that body. A standing committee of the privy council for foreign plantations was also appointed, the membership of this committee and the commission headed by Laud being identical. Sub-committees composed of men of lower rank but who had expert knowledge of colonial affairs were also appointed to assist the higher bodies. Special administrative bodies. — From time to time special bodies were created for aiding the development of commerce and industry. In 1622 James constituted a council of trade for investigating commerce, shipping, and industry. Charles I, in 1625, created a similar council, but it did not become very active, and soon its duties devolved upon a committee of the privy council, which investigated all phases of economic activity, the regulation of the tobacco industry of Virginia being one of the important subjects which occupied its attention. THE FOUNDING OF VIRGINIA Opposition of the Early Stuarts to Spain. — The settled pohcy of Spain was to maintain a territorial and commercial monopoly in all the lands west of the line of the treaty of Tordesillas. During the reign of Elizabeth, the mariners of England had struck at Spanish commerce and had made unsuccessful attempts at coloni zation; in the reigns of the first two Stuarts, serious attempts were made by Englishmen to wrest from the Spanish colossus some of his island possessions, and to occupy Guiana and portions of North America. The attitude of James I toward these enterprises depended upon the state of his negotiations with Spain. In 1604 a treaty was signed which brought the long war between the countries to an end. By the treaty the Enghsh crown surrendered the right of trade to the Indies. The Enghsh mariners snapped their fingers at the treaty and continued to visit the Indies, either running the chance of being taken as pirates, or registering their vessels under the flags of Holland or Savoy. The difficulties besetting this trade led some of the merchants to invest their capital in enterprises of colonization. dalis cm mW ns w en >hiW> wttf>> u cot-1> o ot-1 oI— I w Settlements in Virginia, 1634 ir6 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA The charter of 1606. — Between 1602 and 1606 several voyages were made to America, the most important being that of George Weymouth, who visited the New England coast in 1604; his favorable report greatly stimulated the desire to plant colonies. In April, 1606, a charter was drawn up which provided for two companies; one composed of men from London, familiarly known as the London Company, which was to operate between the thirty-fourth and forty-first degrees of latitude; the other made up of men from Plymouth, Bristol, and Exeter, known as the Plymouth Company, which was to plant colonies between the thirty-eighth and forty-fifth degrees. Each company was to have control of fifty miles both north and south of its first settle ment, a hundred miles out to sea, and a hundred miles inland. Neither was to settle within one hundred miles of the other. Each company was to have a council of thirteen persons, and each was to have the right to mine gold, silver, and copper; the king was to receive one-fifth of all the precious metals and one- fifteenth of the copper. No import duties were to be levied for seven years. The charter also provided that the Christian re ligion was to be spread among the natives. Colonists who went to the New World were guaranteed all the privileges of English men. Founding of Jamestown. — In August, 1606, Henry Challons was sent ahead in the Richard to select a site for the London Company, but was captured off Florida by a Spanish fleet and taken a prisoner to Seville. In December, three vessels, which belonged to the Muscovy Company, the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the Discovery, sailed for Virginia under the com mand of Sir Christopher Newport. They followed the southern route by the Canaries and the West Indies, arriving in Chesapeake Bay in May, 1607. Of the hundred and twenty colonists who had embarked, sixteen died during the voyage. Sealed instruc tions had been sent for the government and management of Virginia. When opened, they disclosed the names of the members of the council, a body possessed of executive, legislative, and judicial powers, presided over by a president. A site was to be selected on an island in a navigable river, marshy or heavily wooded ground to be avoided. Contrary to instructions, the site selected was on a swampy peninsula, located near the mouth THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES ij7 of the James River. Near the western end of the peninsula a triangular log fort was laid out. The settlement was in the district known to the Spaniards as Axacan, and not far from the site of the Jesuit mission founded in 1570. While the fortification was being built, Newport explored the James River as far as the site of Richmond. While he was gone, the Indians attacked the fort but were driven off. Besides the fortification, a church and storehouse were erected. In July Newport sailed for Eng land, taking with him worthless specimens of rock which were beheved to contain gold. Early difficulties. — Shortly after the departure of Newport the colonists began to suffer from famine, malaria, and Indian at tacks. President Wingfield husbanded the stores left by New port, an action which angered the settlers, and he was soon de posed. John Smith was sent to secure food from the Indians, and succeeded in obtaining a considerable supply. When New port returned in January, 1608, he found only forty survivors. During 1608 and 1609 the httle settlement was barely able to hold its own. The few additional settlers who came merely offset the ravages of disease and starvation. During this period John Smith appears to have been the chief factor in keeping the colony ahve. So precarious had conditions become by May, 1609, that he dispersed the colonists in groups, one being sent to live among the Indians, another to fish at Point Comfort, and a third to ob tain oysters. In July a vessel commanded by Samuel Argall arrived with supplies, bringing the news that the first charter had been repealed and a new one granted. Charter of 1609. — The lack of success in the original' venture had caused those interested to make an effort to enlarge the company. The incorporators of the charter of 1609 were fifty- six of the guilds and companies of London, and six hundred and fifty-nine persons, among whom were included twenty-one peers, ninety-six knights, eleven professional men, and fifty-three captains. The new company was to have the land two hundred miles north and two hundred miles south of Point Comfort and stretching from sea to sea west ajidjtarllrBffist^and the island's within one hundred miles of the coast. The government was vested in a council, which was given power to appoint its own officers, to make laws for the government of the colony, and to i-i8 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA take in new stockholders. The English church was established as the religion of the colony. The starving time. — In June, 1609, nine vessels commanded by Newport sailed from England with the new governor, Sir Thomas Gates, and about five hundred emigrants. Beset by pestilence and storms, many died on the voyage, about four hundred being landed at Jamestown in August. The vessel carrying the gover nor was stranded in the Bermudas, and he did not arrive at Jamestown until May, 1610. There he found the colonists in a frightful condition, dissensions among the officers, Indian attacks, disease, and starvation having brought the colony to the brink of destruction. Gates decided to give up the ill-fated attempt, and taking all the settlers on board, sailed down the James River, but met a vessel bearing the news that a new governor, Lord Delaware, had arrived at Point Comfort with supphes and a hundred and fifty emigrants. Gates immediately returned to Jamestown. Of the nine hundred persons who had been landed in Virginia during the first three years, only one hundred and fifty were alive upon the arrival of Delaware. Spanish resistance. — Spain regarded the Jamestown colony as an intruder, and both Spaniards and Enghshmen considered it as a menace to Spain's northern outposts, and to her merchant fleets, which passed close by on their homeward voyage. Dale remarked that the settlement "wyll put such a byt in our ain- chent enemyes mouth as wyll curb his hautynes of monarchic" Zuniga, Spanish ambassador to England, urged that "such a bad project should be uprooted now, while it can be done so easily." At Jamestown fear of a Spanish attack was almost constant, and Newport sought aid in England lest the "all devouring Spaniard lay his ravenous hands " upon the infant colony. Span ish resistance had already been felt by way of vigorous diplo matic protest and through the capture of the Richard in 1606. In 1609 a Spanish expedition was sent to Jamestown under Captain Ecija, commander of the garrison at St. Augustine. On July 24 Ecija entered Chesapeake Bay. Concluding that the settlement was too strong to capture with one small vessel, he withdrew, but on his way down the coast he conferred with the Indian tribes, and sent a delegation of natives overland to spy upon the THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES ng English. On Ecija's return to St. Augustine another native delegation was sent to Virginia from Florida by Governor Ybarra. The success of these embassies has been inferred from the Indian massacres at Jamestown in the following winter. Two years later another Spanish expedition was sent to James town. Captures were made on both sides and the episode was followed by a demand at the Enghsh settlement for reinforcements. Zufiiga continued to urge the destruction of the colony, but Phihp III temporized, allured by the hope of an Enghsh affiance and encouraged by his informants to believe that the struggling colony would fail through misery. Instead of dying out, however, as time went on Virginia waxed stronger, and soon became a base for attacks on Spanish commerce, as had been predicted. The founding of Jamestown in Axacan was the first Enghsh nibble at the Spanish mainland possessions, a process which continued for a century and a half. Delaware's governorship. — Delaware remained in Virginia less than a year, during which period new colonists arrived, the settlement at Jamestown was rebuilt, the Indians were driven from Kecoughtan, and forts Charles and Henry were estabhshed at the mouth of the James River. An expedition was also sent to the falls in search of a gold mine, but it found none. Delaware was unable to check the ravages of disease, and during the sum mer a hundred and fifty died. The governor left the colony in March, 1611, but remained in office until his death in 1618, dur ing which period the government was administered by deputy governors. Dale's strong hand. — Sir Thomas Dale was left in charge. He was a brusque old soldier who had seen service in the Nether lands, and during his administration, the colony was governed by military law. The men were forced to work hke slaves, and those who rebelled were punished with the greatest severity, several captured runaways being burned at the stake. The In dians along the James and York rivers were attacked; Pocahon tas, the daughter of Powhatan, was captured, and the hostage was used to force that powerful chief to make peace. Hearing of the French occupation of Acadia, Dale sent Captain Argall to destroy the settlements, 120 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Charter of 1612. — During the administration of Dale* a change was made in the charter, the powers of the council being con siderably enlarged. The Bermudas were also placed under its jurisdiction. The rights in the islands, however, were subse quently sold to some of the members of the London Company, who obtained a charter in 1614 under the name of the Somers Island Company. Change in the management of the company. — Sir Thomas Smythe had been the moving spirit of the company, but in spite of his efforts, the colony had proved a financial failure, and he was willing to let others carry on the enterprise. The central figure in the company after 1618 was Sir Edwin Sandys. Smythe had realized that it was necessary to change the communal form of ownership to one of landed proprietorship, and had issued in structions that fifty acres of land be assigned to every person who would transport one person to the colony. This pohcy was carried out by Sandys, and the "old colonists" were allowed to obtain larger tracts of land. House of Burgesses. — In April, 1619, Sir George Yeardley assumed control as governor of Virginia. He brought out in structions by which the inhabitants of each place and plantation were to elect two burgesses, who were to meet at Jamestown in a general assembly. This first representative assembly in Amer ica met in the church at Jamestown on July 30. It was com posed of the governor, councilors, and twenty-two burgesses. At the first session, the assembly sat in the two-fold capacity of law makers and court of law. Agricultural development. — The original instructions had pro vided that the products of labor should belong to the community instead of to the individual, an arrangement by which the sloth ful profited at the expense of the industrious. During the first season, only four acres were cleared and planted. The insuf ficiency of the supply of grain made it necessary to depend upon the Indians for maize. In 1608 John Smith succeeded in getting forty acres of land broken, and the following year this was planted to maize. Just before the arrival of Delaware, the at tempts at agriculture were abandoned, the colonists relying for subsistence on roots, herbs, nuts, berries, and fish. Delaware immediately set to work to right conditions, the hours of labor THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 121 being set from six to ten in the morning, and from two to four in the afternoon. When Dale took charge he forced the men to plant seed and assigned to each a garden. Livestock had been imported, and were allowed to roam at large in the woods. Dale erected a blockhouse on the mainland to protect them, and warned the settlers against letting stock wander. Henrico was selected as the site for another settlement and the town site of seven acres he caused to be fenced in. Other palings back of the settle ment were erected and within the fenced areas corn was planted. On the south side of the river fences were built which pro tected a circuit of twelve miles, the enclosed land being used for a hog range. The lands of the Indians near the mouth of the Appamatox River were seized, fenced, and planted with maize. In 1612 the cultivation of tobacco began, the first tobacco planter being John Rolfe, who had married Pocahontas. Tobacco soon became the only export, its cultivation absorbing the eco nomic life of the colony. To make certain of the food supply, Dale commanded that no one should be permitted to plant to bacco until he had planted two acres of grain. To encourage industry, Dale allowed some of the "old colonists" to lease three acres. He also put in force a rule that every man with a family who arrived in the colony should be provided with a house free of rent, tools, and livestock, and with subsistence for himself and family for the first year. If he confined himself to the plant ing of grain and vegetables, he was given twelve acres of fenced land. At the time of Dale's departure in 16 16 there were three hundred and fifty inhabitants settled at Henrico, Bermuda, West and Shirley Hundreds, Jamestown, Kecoughtan, and Dale's Gift. Immigration. — In 16 19 twenty negroes were brought into Vir ginia, the first blacks to be introduced. Up to this time there were few women in the colony, but the company succeeded in sending over several ship-loads of unmarried women. Upon arrival there was a speedy courtship, and the lucky swain gladly paid a hundred and twenty pounds of the best tobacco for the cost of transportation. In general the type of settler was excel lent, but in the later years of the company convicted felons and a large number of waifs and vagabonds from the streets of Lon- '122 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA don were sent. The emigrants who had no capital were usually indented servants, the terms of indenture varying from two to seven years. Growth of large estates. — In this early period began the for mation of great estates. The company retained twelve thousand acres for itself. As new officers were created lands were set aside to support them. The treasurer, marshal, and cape mer chant were each granted fifteen hundred acres, the physician and secretary five hundred acres each. The large estates were worked by tenants, the number on each estate being fixed by the company. Grants of large tracts were also made to groups of capitalists who agreed to bring out settlers. The Indian massacre of 1622. — The reaching out for new lands for tobacco culture resulted in encroachment upon the fields of the Indians. Angered by this the Indians suddenly attacked the outlying plantations, Jailing between three and four hundred persons, nearly one-fourth of the entire population. The plant ing of the crops was interrupted and a winter of hardship fol lowed. When the Indian maize crop was nearly ripe, the settlers ¦ retahated, almost exterminating the natives along the lower courses of the James and York rivers. Crown regulation of the tobacco industry. — To free himself from parliamentary control and to regulate industry, James I granted monopolies to private individuals. Royal commissioners were appointed to inspect the tobacco and to prevent smuggling, and planting in England was prohibited. In 1620 the London Company petitioned the king to do away with the tobacco mo nopoly and as a result the London and Bermuda companies were allowed to import fifty-five thousand pounds annually. The com panies immediately attempted to ship Virginia tobacco to Hol land; this led to a dispute with the privy council and the matter was discussed in parhament, where Sandys defended the right of free shipment. The dispute was settled by a compromise, by which the companies agreed to ship the entire product to Eng land, and no restriction was placed upon the amount which they might import. Neither side was entirely pleased with the arrangement and in November, 1622, an agreement was reached by the Lord Treasurer and the companies. The companies were given the THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 123 sole right for seven years to import tobacco into England and Ireland; they were to pay into the royal exchequer the net pro ceeds of one- third of all tobacco imported; no tobacco was to be planted in England and Ireland, and a small amount of Spanish tobacco was to be imported for three years. Like pre vious arrangements, this did not meet with the approval of all, and it was annulled in 1623, the companies being allowed the exclusive right to import tobacco into England and Ireland, except a small amount of Spanish tobacco, and to pay a duty of nine pence a pound. End of the London Company. — The king had looked with scant favor upon the administration of Sandys, for popular govern ment was not to the liking of James. Friction between the king and the company also added to the royal displeasure. James, who was personally opposed to the use of tobacco, was also trying to please the Spanish court, which made frequent protests against the Virginia enterprise. Internal dissensions also disturbed the company, a group headed by Sir Thomas Smythe being opposed to the Sandys faction. Royal commis sioners were appointed to examine the condition of affairs, and as a result of their report, in 1624 the charter of the London Com pany was annulled, the colony passing under the direct con trol of the crown. Increase of population by 1625. — When Charles I came to the throne Virginia contained about twelve hundred inhabitants, of whom nearly five hundred were servants, and about a hun dred were children. They were scattered through nineteen settlements, the largest being Ehzabeth City, which contained two hundred and fifty-seven inhabitants. Jamestown had thirty- three houses and a population of one hundred and seventy-five. Population in 1635. — By 1635 the population had increased to five thousand. The country had been divided into shires, which later were called counties. The six counties along the James River contained about four thousand inhabitants; Charles River County on the York River five hundred, and Accomac County on the opposite side of the bay four hundred. By 1640 the population had increased to seven thousand five hundred. Tobacco lands. — The most desirable lands for tobacco were the bottoms along the streams. Tobacco exhausted the soil 124 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA rapidly, three years being the usual hfe of a field. This made it necessary for the planter to take up new lands and increased his desire for larger holdings. Land patents were issued for large tracts, usually of from one hundred to three hundred acres, al though many obtained patents for a thousand acres. Charles I and the tobacco business.^Charles was opposed to the tobacco business, but he realized that it was necessary to the colony. The king favored Virginia by reducing the duty on tobacco and excluding the Spanish leaf from England and Ireland. But in 1627, when parliament had not granted adequate supphes to the crown, he renewed the monopoly. To put it in force, a proclamation was issued which forbade the annual importation of more than fifty thousand pounds of Spanish tobacco, prohibited the growing of the plant in England and Ireland, and made London the only port of entry. As the colonists objected to the monopoly, the king issued another proclamation, which provided that no colonial tobacco should be imported without special hcense and should be delivered to tobacco commissioners, who were to have the sole right of disposing of the product. The price was to be fixed by agreement between the shippers and commis sioners. Efforts were made to have the colony engage in the production of more substantial commodities, the planters being commanded to produce pitch, tar, potash, timber, iron, and salt, to plant vines and grain, and to search for minerals. The efforts of the king, however, were but partially successful, and tobacco remained the great staple. It had also become the medium of exchange, and though attempts were made to introduce a metallic currency, they did not succeed, in spite of the fact that the fluctu ating price of the staple made financial transactions difficult. Harvey's tobacco policy. — In 1630 Governor Harvey com menced his adrninistration. He immediately began to encourage the planting of grain and the raising of stock. The low price of tobacco at this time assisted him, and in 163 1 the colony was able to export a large quantity of grain. Efforts were also made to improve the quality of tobacco. A law of the colonial legisla ture of 1632 provided for five points of inspection. Storehouses were built where inspectors examined the stock and condemned the poorer qualities. The number of plants to be raised by each family was limited to two thousand, and not more than nine THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 125 leaves were allowed to be taken from a plant. In 1633 the number of plants per family was reduced to fifteen hundred. Enghsh merchants trading to the colonies purchased a considerable amount of tobacco, which they took in exchange for other com modities, for which they charged abnormally high prices. To right this and to increase the royal revenues, in 1634 the king again renewed the monopoly. When Governor Harvey attempted to contract for the crop, an acrimonious debate ensued. This, coupled with the fact that the governor attempted to assist Lord Baltimore's colonists, caused the council illegally to depose the governor. Continued efforts to enforce the monopoly. — The king con tinued to make efforts to enforce the monopoly. In 1638 he issued another proclamation, stating that it was necessary to regulate tobacco planting, to decide how much was to be imported, and to handle the product. The colony as usual objected. Owing to the troublous times in England, the proclamation was not strictly enforced and much tobacco was sold to other than govern ment agents. THE FOUNDING OF MARYLAND Calvert's attempted settlement in Newfoundland. — The north ern end of Chesapeake Bay was soon occupied by a rival tobacco colony, the proprietary province of Lord Baltimore. In 1609 George Calvert became a stockholder of the Virginia Company, and ten years later was made secretary of state by James I. His new office gave him an opportunity to begin an independent colony. In 1620 he bought the southeastern peninsula of New foundland from Sir William Vaughan, to whom it had previously been granted, and the following year sent out a few colonists. In 1623 the king granted him a charter for his colony, which was called Avalon. Two years later Calvert resigned the secretary ship. In spite of the fact that he had recently become a Cathohc, he was raised to the Irish peerage with the title of Baron of Balti more. In 1627 he visited Newfoundland with his family, but the inclemency of the climate convinced him of the undesirabihty of Avalon. Application for land in Virginia. — In 1629 Baltimore apphed for a grant in Virginia, to which colony he immediately proceeded. 126 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA There he met with a cold reception and shortly departed for England, where he made every effort to obtain a charter. The Virginians opposed him strongly, but in April, 1632, his suit was successful and the grant was made. George Calvert died Settlements in Maryland, 1634 the same month and the charter was drawn in the name of his son Cecilius. The charter. — The province was named Maryland in honor of Henrietta Maria, the wife of Charles I. In general it extended from the fortieth parallel to the southern bank of the Potomac River, and from the meridian which crossed the source of that river to the Atlantic; but the description of boundaries was so indefinite, because of the lack of precise geographical knowledge, that many disputes soon arose over ownership of territory. The government of Maryland was modeled upon that of the Palatinate of Durham, a feudatory on the border of Scotland THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 127 in which the bishop had almost absolute powers; but the lord proprietor of Maryland was restricted by several clauses in the charter. He was given the right to ordain, make, and enact laws, provided they were approved by the freemen of the prov ince, or by a majority of them, or by their delegates, and were not contrary to the laws of England. Baltimore was given very large judicial powers, such as the creation of courts and the par doning of criminals. He was also given the right to make ordi nances, provided they did not deprive any person of hfe, hmb, or property. The proprietor could collect taxes, make grants of lands, and create manors, over which the lord of the manor would have the rights of a feudal baron. The proprietor was also given control of ecclesiastical matters such as the power of appointing ministers and founding churches, which were "to be dedicated and consecrated according to the Ecclesiastical Laws of our Kingdom of England." The charter did not prohibit him from permitting the estabhshment of other churches, an omission which Baltimore used to assist the Cathohcs. The proprietor's motives, however, were not entirely religious; he no doubt desired to found an asylum for people of his own faith, but he was also a keen business man and desired to increase his worldly goods. The first settlers. — In October, 1633, Baltimore sent two small vessels, the Ark and the Dove, to Maryland. On board there were about twenty gentlemen, most of whom were Catholics, and prob ably two hundred laborers, the majority of whom were Prot estants. Among the influential members were the governor, Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, and the two councilors who were to assist him in the government. Three Jesuit priests accompanied the expedition, which arrived at the mouth of the Potomac in March, 1634. The site for a settlement was selected nine miles up St. George's River, a small stream which flows into the north side of the Potomac near its mouth, the place being named St. Mary's. The location was favorable, for it was surrounded by fields cleared by the Indians. The tribes in the neighborhood had been at war with the Susquehannas, and were glad to sell their lands and move across the Potomac. Trouble with Virginia. — William Claiborne had been the prin cipal opponent of George Calvert, when he attempted to obtain the charter for Maryland. In 1631 Claiborne had estabhshed t28 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA a settlement on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay, which fell within the bounds of Maryland. In 1634 Governor Calvert informed Claiborne that he would not molest the settlement, but that the owner of Kent Island must be considered as a tenant of the proprietor. Claiborne laid the matter before the Virginia coun cil, which decided that the Maryland charter infringed upon the rights of Virginia. A miniature war followed which was ended by a decision of the king, who ruled that the Virginia charter of 1609 had become null when the crown took over the colony in 1624, and that Kent Island belonged to Maryland. Religious, economic, and social life. — The rehgious hfe of the colony was greatly influenced by the presence of the Jesuits. Father White and his colleagues labored incessantly to convert the Protestant colonists and to establish missions among the Indians. In 1641 the Catholics made up about one-fourth of the population but included most of the influential families. The economic life of the colony developed much like that of Virginia, although unaccompanied by the great hardships of the James River settlements. Nor did the Indians prove as troublesome, although from 1639 to 1644 an expedition was sent against them each year. Tobacco cultivation became the principal occupation. The plantations developed along the rivers and the shore of the bay, for many years extending but a few miles inland. The manors usually contained from one thou sand to two thousand acres, although a few contained five thou sand acres or more, the lords of the manors being granted lands in proportion to the number of colonists they provided. Many of the large grants were later divided, and small proprietors increased in number. There was practically no town hfe, the seat of government containing only a few houses. There were few mills and no factories. Few roads were built, the water courses and the bay affording the principal means of communi cation. The government. — Cecilius Calvert never visited the colony, but he appointed all the important officers, who resided in the province. The chief of these was the governor, to whom the proprietor delegated most of his powers. He was at the head of military affairs. As chancellor he was the keeper of the seal and issued patents for land, commissions for office, and other THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 129 legal documents. As chief magistrate he appointed officers for the preservation of peace and the administration of justice, and had power to issue and enforce ordinances, to estabhsh ports, fairs and markets, to remit fines, and pardon all offenses except high treason. He could summon the legislative assembly, pre pare bills for its consideration, assent to the laws, and dissolve the assembly. He also acted as chief justice. Leonard Calvert occupied the position until 1647. Assisting the governor was a council. In 1636 it contained three members, but was gradually increased in size in later years. Before this body the governor brought matters of importance, such as the creation of offices, establishment of courts, granting of pardons, levying of taxes, issuing of ordinances, and mihtary expeditions. ' The legislative assembly at first was made up of all the free men, but as the colonists took up more distant lands, a custom of giving proxies grew up. The first assembly met in 1635, but about all that is known of it is that it attempted to initiate leg-- islation, to which the proprietor objected. The second assembly, which met in 1638, consisted of the governor and council, free men especially summoned by the governor, freemen present of their own will, and proxies. The governor presented a code approved by the proprietor, but it was rejected by the assembly. The same year the proprietor temporarily yielded the right of initiating legislation, authorizing the governor to consent to laws enacted by the assembly until the proprietor could examine them. In 1639 the local divisions, which were called hundreds, sent representatives. This assembly fixed its own membership, which was to be composed of councilors, persons especially sum moned, and burgesses elected in hundreds. The assembly sat at times as a law court, but most of the cases were brought be fore the governor and his councilors, who acted as associate justices, or before the local courts. THE BERMUDAS The Somers Islands Company. — Almost simultaneously with the occupation of the Atlantic seaboard, the English had been establishing vigorous colonies in the islands adjacent to North America. In 1609 a Virginia supply ship commanded by Sir George Somers was wrecked on one of the Bermuda Islands. i3o THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Upon his return to England, he interested people in the islands and in 1612 the Somers Islands Company was formed, most of the stockholders being members of the Virginia Company. Settlement and economic development of the Bermudas. — Set tlers were immediately sent out and the colony prospered from the first. In 1614 it contained six hundred persons. Fortifications were built, some tobacco was shipped, and a land survey begun which was completed in 161 7. By 1625 the population had in creased to between two and three thousand and a larger supply of tobacco was being produced than in Virginia. As in the James River settlements, there was considerable opposition to the gov ernment monopoly of tobacco, and in 1628 a petition against it was addressed to the crown. In 1631 the privy council decreed that only a moderate amount of tobacco should be planted, and the company succeeded in getting a complete monopoly of the trade. The low price of tobacco at that time caused the colo nists to devote themselves less exclusively to that business, and corn, potatoes, hogs, fowls, and fruit were produced in such quantities that the islands were able to export large amounts to the colonies on the mainland. The cedar forests also began to be utilized for ship-building. With the growth of the mainland colo nies, the Bermudas became of relatively less economic importance, but they continued to be considered an important naval base. Representative government. — The Bermudas were the second English colony to receive representative government. Besides the governor and council there was a general assembly, the first being held but a year after the establishment of the Virginia house of burgesses. GUIANA For a hundred years the Caribbean had been a Spanish sea. Hardy English mariners had frequently penetrated it, but always at their peril, and they had never seriously injured the Spanish colossus. To gain a foothold on its shores and to appropriate a portion of the commerce of tropical America became powerful forces in English activities. Expeditions.— During the closing years of the reign of Eliza beth, many English ships visited the coast of Venezuela to pro cure salt, and after the treaty of 1604 with Spain, to obtain SOMERSET ,EORqE 7. DAVIDS 15. ,COOP£RS IS. The Bermudas •13 2 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA tobacco. Several attempts were also made to explore and colo nize Guiana. In 1604 Captain Charles Lea planted a colony on the Wyapoco, but in two years abandoned the enterprise. Dur ing 1606-1607 Sir Thomas Roe traded along the Guiana coast and explored the swamps of the Cuyuni and Wyapoco. In 1608 Robert Harcourt and two associates received a patent to lands between the Amazon and Essequibo rivers. Harcourt with ninety-seven men landed in Guiana, but after a sojourn of three years he returned to England. Part of the settlers remained and scattered among the Indians. Harcourt attempted to obtain more capital, and in 161 6 another expedition was sent out but without success. Raleigh's last attempt. — Since the first year of the reign of James I, Raleigh had been imprisoned on a charge of conspiring against the king. But in 1616 he was released, and having obtained a commission as admiral, sailed for Guiana the follow ing year with a fleet of fourteen vessels. Attacked by the Span iards, he lost several vessels and returned to England, where, upon complaint of the Spanish ambassador, Gondomar, he was again imprisoned and soon after executed. North's expedition. — In 1620 an attempt was made to re organize Raleigh's company, and Captain Roger North was sent with one hundred and twenty men to Guiana, where they joined the remnant of Harcourt's colonists. But the attempt again failed because of opposition of the Spanish ambassador. THE LESSER ANTILLES The English occupation. — In a great half circle at the eastern end of the Caribbean are the Lesser Antilles. After the failures on the South American coast, the Enghsh grasped these out posts of the tropics and, side by side with the French, were soon firmly established across one of the principal highways of Spanish commerce. In 1623 St. Christopher was temporarily occupied and was actually settled in 1625. The same year (1625) Sir William Courten started the first colony in Barbados. In 1627 . Lord Carlisle received a grant which covered the Caribbees, and the following year the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery also obtained rights to Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados. In THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND INSULAR COLONIES 133 the contest between the claimants Carlisle won. He ejected Courten's settlers and estabhshed his own colonists. In 1628 Nevis was occupied. The following year the settlers on St. Christopher and Nevis were evicted by the Spaniards, but upon the retirement of the fleet the colonists returned to their planta tions. In 1632 settlements were made on Antigua and Mont- serrat. As in the Bermudas, tobacco became the leading crop, but later the production of sugar cane superseded it. Barbados soon contained 6,000 inhabitants and in 1639, when Virginia had a total population of about 7000, there were 20,000 plant ers in the islands governed by Carlisle. In the Lesser Antilles the proprietary form of government prevailed for half a century. . THE PROVIDENCE ISLAND COMPANY The Puritan leaders. — During the great struggle between king and parhament, several of the merchant princes were on the Puritan side. One of the most powerful of these was Robert Rich, Lord Warwick. He had been an active member of the Virginia and Somers Islands companies, of the Guinea and Guiana companies, and of the Council of New England. Closely associated with Warwick were Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, Sir Nathaniel Rich, and John Pym. As the parliamentary con test increased in intensity, these leaders decided to plant a Puritan colony in the Caribbean. The Providence Island Company. — The site selected was on one of the Mosquito Islands off the coast of Nicaragua. In 1629 a company was formed which was granted the greater part of the Caribbean Sea, from Haiti to the coast of Venezuela and to the mainland of Central America. Besides Jamaica, then in the possession of Spain, the Cayman Islands fell within these limits. The English fleet which was sent out in 1630 temporar ily occupied Tortuga, where colonists from Nevis had recently arrived, and the company asked that this island be included in the patent. The request was granted, but the English were able to hold the island only until 1635 when they were driven out by the Spaniards. The islands along the Mosquito coast were occupied by the company, and a project was formed to colonize the mainland. In 1635 Providence Island was unsuccessfully 134 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA attacked by a Spanish fleet, but in 1641 the Spaniards succeeded in overcoming the colony, thus for the time ending Enghsh opera tions on the Central American coast. READINGS VIRGINIA Becker, Carl, The Beginnings of the American People, pp. 65-80; Beer, G. L., The Origins of the British Colonial System, 78-175; Brown, Alexander, Genesis of the United States; The First Republic in America; Bruce, P. A., Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, I, 189-330; In stitutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century, II, 229-262; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 143-224; Doyle, J. A., English Colonies in America, I, 101-184; Eggleston, Edward, The Begin ners of a Nation, 25-97; Fiske, John, Old Virginia and her Neighbors, I, 40-222; Hamilton, P. J., Colonization of the South, 55-119; MacDonald, William, Select Charters Illustrative of American History, 1-23; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, I, 23-97; Scott, W. R., The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Com panies to 1720, II, 246-289; Tyler, L. G., England in America, 34-103; Tyler, L. G., ed., Narratives of Early Virginia; Wertenbaker, T. J., Virginia under the Stuarts, 1-84; Johnston, Mary, Pioneers of the Old South; Flippin, P. S., The Royal Government in Virginia, 1624-177 5. MARYLAND Brown, W. H., Maryland, 1-50; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 241-268; Doyle, J. A., English Colonies in America, I, 275-296; Eggleston, Edward, Beginners of a Nation, 220-257; Fiske, John, Old Vir ginia and her Neighbors, I, 255-275; Hall, C. C, ed., Narratives of Early Maryland; MacDonald, William, Select Charters, 53-59; Mereness, N. D., Maryland as a Proprietary Province; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, II, 58-79; Tyler, L. G., England in America, 118- 132. THE BERMUDAS AND THE CARIBBEAN Beer, G. L., The Origins of the British Colonial System, 12-20; Cunning ham, William, The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times, I, 331-3395 Lucas, C. P., A Historical Geography of the British Colo nies, II, 5-14, 43-50; Newton, A. P., The Colonizing Activities of the English Puritans, 13-282; Scott, W. R., The Constitution and Finance of English, Scottish, and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720, II, 259-299, 327-337; Tilby, A. W., Britain in the Tropics, 44-50. CHAPTER VII THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND THE PURITAN MOVEMENT IN ENGLAND The Puritans. — While the planting of colonies on the shores of Chesapeake Bay and on the Caribbean islands was in prog ress, other settlements were being formed in New England by Enghsh Separatists and Puritans. By the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth the Anghcan church was firmly established, but it was not long before groups within the church began to show dissatisfaction. At first protests were made against some of the ceremonies and formulas of the service. After 1570 the Puritans, as they were derisively called, began to object to the episcopal form of government and to advocate the Presbyterian or Calvinistic system, which was based upon the idea of a rep resentative form of church government. During the later years of the reign the Puritans laid more and more stress on morals. They believed that life should be sternly ascetic, that the Sabbath should be kept strictly, and that pleasures and extravagance should be suppressed. The Independents. — Most of the Puritans had no wish to withdraw from the church, but desired to reform it. A more radical group, however, who became known as Independents, looked upon the national church as an unholy institution con trary to scripture. They wished to reestablish the church as it was believed to be in the days of the Apostles. There were several groups of Independents or Separatists, the various groups being named after their leaders, the followers of Robert Brown being known as Brownists, those of Henry Barrow as Barrowists. They met in small groups which were called conventicles. The English church, through the Court of High Commission, pro ceeded with considerable severity against the Puritans, whom they attempted to make conform, but against the Separatists they showed no mercy, breaking up the conventicles, imprisoning many, and hanging some of the leaders. 135 r,36 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA James I and the Non-Conformists. — Soon after James I be came king, the Puritans presented a petition asking for changes in the church. The king called the Hampton Court Conference that he might hear the views of the various parties. James soon found that many of the Puritans believed in presbyteries, a form of government with which he had had unpleasant experi ences in Scotland, and he angrily ended the conference. Shortly afterward, because of the so-called "Gunpowder Plot," the king became convinced that he was personally in danger. From this time on he supported the Anghcan church. Severe laws were passed against the Catholics, and the laws against Non-Con formists were enforced with greater vigor. PLYMOUTH COLONY Failures of the Plymouth Company. — The Plymouth Company, which received its charter in 1606, took immediate measures to occupy its territories. In that year two unsuccessful attempts were made to found colonies. The information brought back, however, so interested the company that another expedition was fitted out the following year. Colonists were landed at the mouth of the Kennebec River; but great hardships were experienced during the winter, and in the spring the discouraged settlers abandoned the enterprise. Activity on the New England Coast, 1607-1619. — No success ful settlement in New England was made until 1620, but in the meantime the coast was frequently visited. In 1613 Captain Argall attacked the French settlements at Mount Desert, Port Royal, and St. Croix. The following year John Smith explored and mapped the New England coast. In 1615 he was made Admiral of New England by the Plymouth Company and he attempted to found a colony, but it proved a failure. Several fishing and trading voyages were also made under the direction of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, an influential member of the Plym outh Company. The Council for New England.— -The failure of the company to plant a colony led Gorges and others who were still interested to petition for a new charter; on November 13, 1620, the docu ment passed the seals incorporating the Council for New Eng- THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 137 land, which was given jurisdiction over thc territory from 40° to 480 north latitude. Origin of the Pilgrims. — The first permanent settlement in New England was not the work of the Council, but of a group of Independents. Separatist congregations were located at Scrooby, Gainsborough, and Austerfield, villages in Notting hamshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire. In the Scrooby con gregation were three men of unusual ability, Pastor John Robin son, Elder William Brewster, and William Bradford. To avoid persecution many Separatists had migrated to Amsterdam, and there in 1608 Robinson and his followers gathered, removing later to Leyden. From time to time a few others joined them, . among the late comers being John Carver and Miles Standish. Most of the congregation found the making of a livelihood among the Dutch extremely difficult. In spite of this, some of them enrolled in the University of Leyden and Brewster set up a print ing press from which appeared several theological works. Reasons for removal from Holland. — By 1617 the leaders de termined to seek new lands. Bradford in his History of Plymouth Plantation gives the following reasons for removal: (1) Daily life was so hard in Holland that few cared to emigrate there and in consequence the congregation did not grow; (2) many were growing old, and there was fear that the congregation would soon break up; (3) hfe was too hard for the children, and in addition many were slipping away, some becoming soldiers and sailors; it was also found that the morals of the young were endangered in the gay city of Leyden; (4) it was hoped to spread the gospel in remote lands. In addition, intermarriage with the Dutch had begun and it was evident that the little community would soon lose its Enghsh identity. Removal to America. — Guiana, New Netherlands, and Virginia were discussed as possible places for settlement, the last named being the final choice. A patent was obtained from the Virginia Company, and John Carver was made governor. Seven thou sand pounds were raised by Thomas Weston and other merchant adventurers to back the enterprise. A portion of the Leyden congregation sailed for England, and at Southampton met with Others from T.nnHnn whn hnr\ dptprminpd to inin thftm The 138 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA left England in the Mayflower and the Speedwell, but the latter proving unseaworthy, about twenty abandoned the enterprise. The Mayflower arrived at Cape Cod in November, 1620. The Mayflower Compact. — As the region was outside of the jurisdiction of the Virginia Company, the colonists on their own initiative drew up what is known as the Mayflower Compact, by which they combined into a civil body politic, and agreed to enact such just and equitable laws as were for the general welfare of the colony. After the signing of the compact, Governor Carver was confirmed in his office. The Mayflower Compact marks the origin of the Enghsh colony based upon a social com pact the basis of which was the will of the colonists rather than that of the sovereign. Of a similar nature were Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Haven, and New Hampshire in their inception, and in the latter half of the eighteenth century, when the fron tiersman had crossed the mountains and freed himself from the restraints of the tidewater governments, the social compact became the basis of western state making. Settlement at Plymouth. — Exploring parties were sent along the shores of Massachusetts Bay, and Plymouth was selected as the site for the colony, but the classic story of the landing on Plymouth Rock is now known to be only a romance. From the first settlers suffered exceedingly. Bradford describes the situation as follows: "But that which was most sadd and lamen table was, that in 2. or 3. moneths time halfe of their company dyed, espetialy in Jan: and February, being the depth of winter, and wanting houses and other comforts; being infected with the scurvie and other diseases . . . ; so as ther dyed some times 2. or 3. of a day, in the foresaid time; that of 100 and odd persons, scarce 50. remained. And of these in the time of most distres, ther was but 6. or 7. sound persons." Indians, fur trade and maize.— The region which the Pilgrims had selected for their first settlement was almost deserted by the Indians, many of them having been swept away by a plague. At some distance to the southward lived the Wampanoags, whose chief was Massasoit. Shortly after the arrival of the Pilgrims an Indian named Squanto, who previously had been carried to Europe by one of Smith's captains, appeared in the settlement. Squanto prevailed upon Massasoit to come to Plym- THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 139 outh, where a treaty of peace was made which lasted for fifty years. This led to the opening of a fur trade, which became the chief source of wealth for the colony. Squanto proved to be of great service, teaching the settlers the planting of maize and instructing them in hunting and fishing. Carver died in the spring of 1621, and Wilham Bradford was elected governor, a position which he held almost continually until 1657. In the fall the Fortune, poorly provisioned, arrived with thirty-five set tlers, an influx which led to another winter of hardship. The boat also brought a patent from the Council for New England. " Weston's rude fellows." — In May, 1622, sixty-seven persons arrived, having been sent out by Thomas Weston, who had ob tained a grant from the Council for New England. Later they moved to Wessagusset, where they hved a turbulent hfe. In 1623 the Indians to the northward planned to exterminate the Wessagusset settlers, who appealed to Plymouth for aid. Cap tain Miles Standish led a force against the Indians, who were so severely punished that peace was estabhshed. Expansion of Plymouth. — At first the wealth of the colony was held in a common stock. Bradford determined to assign a tract of land to each family, an experiment which greatly stimu lated industry. From this time the colonists were never in dan ger of starvation, and in a few years they were able to pay off their debts to the Enghsh merchants. To increase the fur trade, posts were estabhshed on Buzzard's Bay, on the Kennebec River, at Penobscot, and at Machias Bay, the two latter posts, however, being soon broken up by the French. A group of traders who estabhshed themselves at Merry Mount under Thomas Morton shocked the austere people of Plymouth, who in 1628 broke up Morton's establishment. A trade was opened with the Dutch, and in 1636 a fur trading post was estabhshed on the Connecti cut River. In 1624 there were one hundred and eighty settlers in the Plymouth colony, and in 1630 only three hundred; but after that the number increased rapidly, by 1642 the population being three thousand. Government of the colony. — The first governor exercised execu tive and judicial powers, and the same powers were vested in Bradford and an assistant. The number of assistants was in- 140 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTIL^AMERICA creased in 1624 to five and in 1633 to seven. The freemen com posed the legislative body, which was called the General Court, one of its sessions being devoted annually to the election of officers. In 1638 a representative system was introduced, Plym outh being allowed four delegates and other towns two each. Legally every freeman could vote, but in practice the suffrage was restricted to church members. Pastors and elders were elected by the adult males of each congregation, and attendance at church meetings was vigorously enforced. COLONIZING ACTIVITIES ON THE NEW ENGLAND COAST Land grants and settlements. — While Plymouth was develop ing, the Council for New England was attempting to settle the New England coast. The region from the Bay of Fundy to Narragansett Bay was divided among twenty patentees. Cap tain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges procured a patent to lands between the Kennebec and Merrimac rivers; Mason received lands between Salem and the Merrimac; Sir Robert Gorges ten miles of coast lands along "the north east side of Boston Bay," and Lord Sheffield and Lord Edward Gorges ex tensive tracts to the south of Sir Robert Gorges's lands. Lord Warwick also received lands on Massachusetts Bay. The gran tees obtained the assistance of English merchants, who, in 1623 established small settlements at Portsmouth and Dover, within the present state of New Hampshire, and at Saco Bay, Monhe- gan Island, and Casco Bay, within the modern state of Maine. Sir Robert Gorges made an unsuccessful attempt to plant a settle ment at Weymouth, and a group of Dorchester merchants planted a settlement on Cape Ann. Lyford, Oldham, and Morton. — In 1624 a group of colonists, including a minister named John Lyford, arrived at Plymouth. There he joined with John Oldham to get control of the govern ment. They were banished from the colony and went to Wey mouth, where they joined with Roger Conant and others, and moved to Nantasket. The foUowing year, on the invitation of the Dorchester men, Lyford, Conant, and Oldham moved to Cape Ann. This angered the Plymouth people, who had obtained a tract on Cape Ann from Lord Sheffield. Difficulties over fishing rights soon developed, and Miles Standish was sent to the cape THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND i4I with a troop of soldiers. A compromise was effected, but the Plymouth men soon abandoned the enterprise. The Dorchester men' found little profit in the business and in 1626 most of them departed. Oldham returned to Plymouth. Conant and three others remained, but shortly afterward removed to Naumkeag, the modern Salem. In 1625 a settlement was estabhshed a little north of Weymouth, where Thomas Morton became the leader. He established the Episcopalian service, set up a May-pole wliich became the scene of gaiety, and engaged in the fur trade, but Plymouth men^soon broke up the settlement. The Canada and Laconia companies. — When war broke out between England and Franpe in 1628, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason organized the Canada Company to conquer the French fur-trading colonies of Acadia and Canada, and in 1629 a fleet under Captain Kirke captured the French colonies, but in 1632 they were restored to France. The Maine proprietors also attempted to tap the fur trade of the Lake Cham plain region and accordingly, in 1629, obtained a grant embracing the lake country and a thousand acres of sea coast land, the terri tory being known as Laconia. A governor was appointed and attempts made to penetrate the fur country in the interior, but the efforts proved abortive. THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY Rev. John White's association. — The Reverend John White of Dorchester interested people in Lincolnshire and London, and formed an association, which, through the assistance of Warwick, in 1628 procured a patent for lands between the parallel which passed three miles north of the source of the Merrimac to that which passed three miles south of the head of the Charles River, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In September, 1628, John Endicott with about fifty followers arrived at Salem. The Massachusetts Bay Company. — Trouble for the new as sociation was brewing in England. Members of the Gorges family attempted to interfere with the new settlement, and Morton and Oldham joined with them. The new association, however, suc ceeded in defeating the former patentees, and in March, 1629, a royal charter was obtained which confirmed the grant made to Endicott and his partners. The new corporation was called the j42 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA "Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New Eng land." The administration was placed in the hands of a gover nor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants, who were to be elected annually by the freemen or members of the corporation. Four times a year the officers and freemen were to meet in a general court at which new freemen might be admitted to mem bership, subordinate officers might be appointed, and laws and ordinances enacted. On June 27, 1629, five ships with about four hundred settlers arrived at Salem. The Cambridge agreement. — At this time Laud had begun his persecution of the Puritans and the king had started on his career of personal government. Under these circumstances the Puritan leaders looked to the New World for an asylum. John Winthrop, a wealthy gentleman of Groton in Suffolk, who had been a fol lower of Warwick in parliament, now became interested in the Massachusetts enterprise. Winthrop and several prominent men of Cambridge met and agreed to emigrate to New England provided the charter and government might be legaUy transferred to America. The company decided to transfer the government. Winthrop was made governor, and Thomas Dudley deputy governor. The " Great Migration." — In June, 1630, eleven ships anchored at Salem and before the winter six more arrived, bringing in all over a thousand people. They found Endicott's followers in a deplorable condition. About one-fourth had died during the previous winter; many of the survivors were sick and there was a shortage of provisions. The new arrivals had brought only a hmited supply and for the first year famine stalked in the land. The dreary prospect caused about a hundred of the newcomers to return immediately to England. Winthrop and most of his followers removed to Charlestown. By December two hundred had died. Believing that the inadequate water supply at Charles- town was the main cause of sickness, the settlers began to scatter, and before the new year settlements had been started at Dor chester, Boston, Watertown, Roxbury, Mystic, and Lynn. The hardships endured by the followers of Endicott and Winthrop prevented many from coming during 1631 and 1632, but in 1633 a new wave of migration set in. Laud became arch bishop in that year and began a rigorous enforcement of the laws THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 143 against nonconformists. Many ministers with their congrega tions in consequence migrated. By the end of 1634 there were nearly four thousand settlers in Massachusetts. The migration continued until the outbreak of war in 1642, by which time the population had increased to about sixteen thousand. The form of government. — The charter vested the government in the governor, deputy governor, assistants, and freemen of the company but not more than twelve of the colonists were legally eligible to membership in the general court. Before disembarking this little group decided that each of the assistants should exercise the same powers as an English justice of the peace. The colony was to be governed by the common law of England, which was to be supplemented by bibhcal law. At the first general court, held at Boston, October 19, 1630, one hundred and nine men applied for admission as freemen of the corporation. This Win throp and his associates hesitated to grant, but finally they agreed to admit them, allowing them to elect assistants, but not to hold office. It was also provided that in future no person should be admitted as a freeman unless a member of some church within the colony. Though Winthrop and his followers at first claimed to be members of the Church of England, the necessities of the frontier soon asserted themselves, and each community became a political, economic, and a religious unit. The New England towns. — The New England towns were based upon the idea of group settlement and wherever New Englanders migrated the local organization was reproduced. As Professor Osgood says, "The settlement of a town normally began with the laying out of a village plot and the assignment of home lots. This to an extent determined the location of highways, of the village common, and of some of the outlying fields. On or near the common the church was built, and in not a few cases the site that was chosen for this building went far toward determining the entire lay-out of the town. The idea of a home lot was a plot of ground for a dwelling-house and outbuildings, for a dooryard and garden, and usuaUy also an enclosure for feeding cattle and raising corn." The first settlers located wherever they pleased, but the Mas sachusetts general court soon took over the superintendence of town founding and prescribed more or less definitely the bound- 144 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA aries of each town. The grants were made in tracts of thirty-six square miles or more. Within a town were many common fields mewburV-^™''"™ ipswich *" Cv~^\_^ ^ SALEM Kfto LYNNJU~' (fto HASSACHUSETTS ROXBURY^Mk - OORCHCSTERf «£ fl^ V\ SCITUATE *] MARSHFIELOV. DUXBURY x? PLYMOUTH* Principal Settlements in Massachusetts, 1630 which were handled by associated proprietors. The fields were surrounded by common fences and were cultivated by a joint sys tem. The herds were also held in common. The original grant ees and their legal heirs or successors made up the commoners or proprietors. Originally the town and the proprietors were THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND i45 approximately the same. An important function of the town meeting was in allotting land. Soon each community began to receive newcomers who were freemen but not proprietors. At first the proprietors were in control, but as the freemen increased in number frequent struggles occurred over the arrangement of town lands. The meeting house was the center of local hfe. There the town meeting was held and there the people repaired on the Sabbath. In early days the military stores and equipment were usually kept in the edifice and the men attended service with arms in hand. The town constructed and took care of the meeting house and the minister was supported by taxation. One of the early acts of each town was to establish a school, the meeting house frequently being used as a school-house. A representative system introduced. — The governor and assist ants soon found their power challenged. In 1632 a tax was voted for fortifying Newtown, the modern Cambridge. The tax caused considerable grumbling, and the general court decided that, in future, the governor and assistants should be advised in matters of taxation by two delegates from each town, and that all magistrates should be elected by the entire body of free men. In 1634 a committee of two freemen from each town de manded larger rights. The result was a representative system, each town sending representatives according to its size to meet with the general court. This system was in no sense a popular government, the franchise continuing to be restricted to a lim ited number of church members, the leaders of whom were dis tinctly aristocratic. The struggle with Laud. — The patentees who had been de prived of their rights found a ready listener in Archbishop Laud, who disliked the Puritan commonwealth growing. so lustily on the shores of Massachusetts Bay. Grounds for accusation were found in the fact that the Massachusetts magistrates expelled those who disagreed with their religious ideas. Complaints were filed with the privy council by Gorges and Mason, but a com mittee of the council in 1633 made a report which was favorable to the colony. In 1634 the attack was renewed, and this time with better success, for the king appointed the Commission for Foreign Plantations, headed by Laud, to take over the general 146 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA supervision of all the colonies. Immediately a demand was made for the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Governor Dudley and the assistants replied that the charter could not be returned except by order of the general court, which was not in session. They immediately fortified Castle Island, Dorchester, and Charlestown. In 1635 the coast of New England was reapportioned, Sir Ferdinando Gorges receiving the lands in Maine between the Penobscot and the Piscataqua, Mason receiving New Hampshire and northern Massachusetts as far as Cape Ann, and Lord Edward Gorges from Cape Ann to Narragansett Bay. The same year the Council for New England resigned its charter, and the king de cided to seize the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company. The pecuniary difficulties of the king, the destruction of a boat which was built by Mason and Gorges, and the death of Mason combined to help the colony. Though the charter was again demanded in 1638 by the lord commissioners, the general court refused to recognize the order, and the increasing difficulties of the king made it possible for the Massachusetts authorities to continue their independent course. expansion of the massachusetts bay colony rhode Island Roger Williams. — The power of the Massachusetts magistrates was exercised to maintain the ideal of a biblical commonwealth, whose principles were expounded by John Cotton of the Boston church. Those who did not agree were in danger. Among the dissenters was Roger Williams, a brilliant young student from Cambridge, who arrived at Boston in 163 1, where he was invited to become one of the ministers. He refused to commune with those who had not broken with the English church and repaired to Salem where he was invited to become the minister, but the general court prevented his ordination. Williams soon departed for Plymouth, where he devoted much time to the study of the Indians. He concluded that the title to land belonged to the natives and that the king had no right to grant it away, a view which somewhat disturbed Brewster and Bradford. He returned to Salem where, during the illness of Skelton, the THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 147 pastor, he occasionally preached; when Skelton died, Williams became the teacher of the organization. In his sermons he argued that church and state should be separate, and denied the right of the magistrates to regulate churches. He also con sidered it a sin to follow the forms of the established church. When the colony was attacked by Laud, the general court ordered that a new oath of fidelity be taken. Williams objected to en forced oaths, as he thought that they obliged wicked men to perform a religious act, thus invading the freedom of the soul. Providence plantation.— To punish Salem for harboring Wil liams, title to its lands on Marble Neck was refused by the general court and the town was denied the right of representation. Endicott yielded but Williams remained obdurate. In a letter to the churches he protested against the arbitrary act. Williams was summoned before the magistrates and in October, 1635, was sentenced to banishment. The sentence was not immediately enforced and at Salem he continued to be the center of a group of Separatists, who proposed to remove in the spring to the shores of Narragansett Bay. This again alarmed the magistrates, and they decided to send Williams to England. Hearing of the proj ect, he fled from his persecutors and found refuge among the Narragansett Indians. He was warned away from the territory of Plymouth, and in June, 1636, settled at Providence, where he soon had a considerable following, this being the first settle ment in Rhode Island. Title to the land was obtained from the Indians. As the Providence people were outside of any special jurisdiction, they established a government on democratic lines. Church and state were kept separate, no one being forced to support rehgion. In 1640 an agreement was drawn up which served as a form of government for several years. The governing body was composed of five men called disposers, who were chosen four times in each year. They disposed of the land and managed the common stock. The freeholders retained the right to ratify or disavow, in general meetings, the acts of the disposers. There was a lack of a strong executive and judiciary. Disputes were usually settled by arbitration, but as there was no authority to enforce the settlement, disorders frequently occurred. 148 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Anne Hutchinson. — No sooner had Wilhams been driven from Massachusetts Bay Colony than a second controversy shook the commonwealth. In the congregation of John Cotton was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. She became popular by ministering to the sick, and began to hold meetings for women, where the ser mons were discussed. Mrs. Hutchinson assumed the roll of teacher, discussing the questions of "a covenant of works" and "a covenant of grace." By the covenant of works she referred to the practice of the Catholic church, which considered penance, confession, and pilgrimages as means of salvation. By a coven ant of grace she meant that condition of mind of Protestant Chris tians which found peace in the thought of the holiness of Christ. She believed that the divine spirit existed in every true Christian. John Cotton and her brother-in-law, John Wheelwright, were held up as examples of those who lived in the covenant of grace. To many of the Boston leaders it seemed as if Mrs. Hutchinson claimed to be inspired, and they feared that her teachings would endanger the authority of the church. The Boston congregation spht into two factions. In Mrs. Hutchinson's party was Governor Harry Vane. On the other side were John Winthrop and the pastor, John Wilson. Cotton attempted to remain neutral but favored the Hutchinsonian party. The question soon became a bitter political quarrel be tween Winthrop and Vane. At the election in 1637 Vane was defeated. Without the support of the chief executive the follow ers of Mrs. Hutchinson soon lost power. A synod of ministers was held at Cambridge to root out the heresies. Cotton suc ceeded in making his peace with the magistrates, but Wheel wright was banished, as was Mrs. Hutchinson. She was allowed to remain in the colony during the winter, but early in the spring of 1638 Winthrop ordered her to depart. Settlements on Rhode Island. — She found a temporary asylum at Providence, but soon went to the island of Aquidneck, after ward called Rhode Island, where she joined her husband and some of her friends. The httle group of nineteen settlers con stituted themselves a body politic, electing William Cod- dington chief magistrate. Many emigrants joined the people of Portsmouth and in 1639 a new settlement was founded at Newport. THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 149 SETTLEMENTS IN THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY Early claimants.— One of the patentees who had received lands from the Council of New England was the Earl of Warwick, whose grant covered a large part of the Connecticut Valley. In 163 1 he transferred his rights to Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke and others, who contemplated founding a Puritan colony, but for several years they did nothing to settle their domain. In 1633 the Dutch erected a fort where Hartford now stands, and shortly afterward men from Plymouth built a trading post ten miles farther up the river. In 1635 the English patentees, wearied with the Providence Island project, sent out settlers under John Winthrop, Jr., who erected Fort Saybrook at the mouth of the river. Scarcely were the cannon in place when a Dutch vessel appeared, but finding the Enghsh strongly posted, the Dutch made no attempt to take possession. The migration of 1635-36. — A more important movement came from Massachusetts. Congregations from Watertown, Dor chester, and Cambridge, desiring better lands, migrated to the rich Connecticut Valley. The first Dorchester men arrived at Windsor in the summer of 1635. In June, 1636, the Rev. Thomas Hooker led the Cambridge people to Hartford, the rest of the Dorchester congregation joined those already at Windsor, and the people of Watertown settled at Wethersfield. By the end of 1636 eight hundred people were living in the three towns. An other congregation from Roxbury settled at Springfield. The Pequot War. — The Pequot Indians saw with chagrin the increasing numbers of the whites. The settlers also angered them by purchasing lands from the Mohegans, and ignoring the Pequot chiefs. In 1633 the Pequots had murdered a Virginia sea-captain named Stone, and Governor Winthrop had inquired concerning the homicide. In 1634, fearing the Dutch and the Narragansetts, the Pequots had sought an alliance with Massa chusetts Bay Colony. As a price of forgiveness for Stone's murder and for protection, Winthrop demanded heavy tribute. In 1636 John Oldham, who had come to collect the tribute, was murdered at Block Island. Though the Pequots were probably not guilty, Endicott led a force against them, destroying several wigwams and seizing considerable maize. Angered by the raid, 150 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA the Pequots attempted to form an alhance with the Narragan setts, but Wilhams prevented it, and in the ensuing war Mohegans and Narragansetts fought on the white man's side. In the spring of 1637 Pequots attacked Wethersfield. A general court was immediately convened at Hartford to take measures for protec tion, and an expedition was sent against the Pequot fort on the Mystic River, where the defenders were exterminated. Another stronghold to the westward was also destroyed. A remnant of the tribe was wiped out near New Haven by Connecticut and Massachusetts troops and the captives were made slaves, some being retained in New England, others being shipped to the West Indies. The Indian menace was thus removed and the settlers were free to push farther into the wilderness. " The Fundamental Orders." — In 1639 Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield formed a constitution, which provided that the freemen were to hold two general meetings each year. At one of these meetings the governor and assistants were elected, who, with four representatives from each town, were to make up a gen eral court with legislative and judicial powers. New Haven. — The successful issue of the Pequot War opened the Connecticut Valley to another important migration. This was led by Rev. John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, who had come to New England to plant a colony on purely theocratic lines. In 1638 they founded New Haven, and the foUowing year drew up a form of government. Citizenship was restricted to church membership and an annual general court of freemen was to elect a governor and assistants, who were to conduct ah governmental affairs, the only restriction on their authority be ing the law of Moses. Guilford, Milford, and Stamford sprang up in the neighborhood, and each adopted a similar form of government. Settlement of Long Island.— English settlements also appeared on Long Island. In 1632 Sir Edmund Plowden obtained a grant from Charles I of Long Island and a portion of the adjoining coasts. Three years later the Council for New England assigned Long Island to Sir William Alexander. In 1640 settlers from New Haven obtained a title to Long Island from Alexander's representative and settled at Southold. Others from Massachu setts attempted a settlement opposite Manhattan, but, being THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 151 driven away by the Dutch, moved to Southampton at the east ern end of the island. READINGS GENERAL Andrews, C. M., The Fathers of New England, passim; Becker, Carl, The Beginnings of the American People, 80-124. THE PURITAN MOVEMENT AND THE PLYMOUTH COLONY Adams, C. F., Three Episodes of Massachusetts History, I, 1-182; Arber, Edward, The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers; Bradford, William, History of Plymouth Plantation; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 271-321; Cheyney, E. P., European- Background of American History, 216- 239; Dexter, Morton, The England and Holland of ihe Pilgrims; The Story of the Pilgrims; Doyle, J. A., The Puritan Colonies, I, 11-81; Eggleston, Edward, The Beginners of a Nation, 98-181; Fiske, John, The Beginnings of New England, 60-87; Griffis, W. E., The Pilgrims in their Three Homes; Neal, D., History of the Pilgrims; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, I, 98-137; Palfrey, J. G., History of New Eng land, I, 101-238; Tyler, L. G, England in America, 148-182; Weeden, W. B., Economic and Social History of New England, I, 8-45 ; Young, Alexan der, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers; Usher, R. G, The Pilgrims and Their History. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY Buffington, A. H., "New England and the Western Fur Trade, 1629- 1675," in Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Publications, XXVIII, 160- 192; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 322-351; Doyle, J. A., The Puritan Colonies, I, 83-112; Eggleston, Edward, Beginners of a Nation, 188-215; Ellis, G. E., The Puritan- Age and Rule; Fiske, John, The Beginnings of New England, 88-1 1 1 ; Johnson, Edward, W onder-W orking Providence; Newton, A. P., The Colonizing Activities of the English Puritans; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, I, 141-199, 424-467; Palfrey, J. G, History of New England, I, 283-405; A Compendious History of New England, I, 91-133; Tyler, L. G, England in America, 183- 209; Weeden, W. B., Economic and Social History of New England, I, 47-164; Winthrop, John, Journal. RHODE ISLAND AND THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 362-411; Doyle, J. A., The Puritan Colonies, I, 1 13-199; Eggleston, Edward, Beginners of a Nation, 266-346; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, I, 224-254, 301-370; Richman, I. B., Rhode Island, a Study in Separatism, 13-61; Rhode Island, its Making and its Meaning, 3-62; Tyler, L. G., Eng land in America, 210-264; Weeden, W. B., Early Rhode Island. CHAPTER VIII THE ENGLISH COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, 1640-1660 POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION, AND EXPANSION Attitude of the colonies during the Puritan Revolution. — The personal rule of Charles I came to an end in 1641 and for eight years England was convulsed with civil war. During the struggle both Royalists and Parliamentarians claimed jurisdiction over the colonies, but neither was able to exert authority, and each colony followed its own course. The New England settlements were largely Puritan and naturally sided with parhament. In Maryland two factions formed, one Protestant, the other in favor of the Catholic proprietor. Virginia and the West Indies were almost entirely on the king's side. Incapable of rendering assistance, they attempted to maintain neutrality until the con test in England was decided. The Bermudas and expansion in the West Indies. — In the Ber mudas the colonists were divided, but the company leaders were Puritans. In 1643 the Independents seceded from the estabhshed Church, and two years later parliament granted freedom of worship in the islands. Religious feeling in the Bermudas led to a migration to a new asylum. In 1646 Captain William Sayle, who had been governor, led a colony to Segatoo, one of the Bahamas, which he now called Eleutheria, in allusion to the aim of the project. Later on Bermudans conducted extensive salt works in the Turks Islands in spite of frequent attacks by the Spaniards. The Commonwealth, 1649-1653. — The mihtary party, domi nated by Cromwell, drove from parliament all those who hesi tated to execute the king, the remnant being known as the Rump Parliament. It named a Council of State which was to carry on the executive work. The Commonwealth proceeded at once to *5* THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 153 overthrow its enemies outside of England. Rebellions in Ireland and Scotland were ruthlessly put down; the navy was greatly strengthened, and Admiral Sir George Ayscue was sent to the West Indies and Virginia If) overthrow the Royalists. Friction with the Dutch had been growing for some time, due mainly to rivalry for the commerce of the East and West Indies and the growing trade of the Dutch along the Atlantic seaboard. Naviga tion laws were passed in 1650 and 165 1 which were intended to de prive the Dutch of the trade of England and her possessions. War followed in 1652 and lasted for two years with varying success. Colonial administration during the Commonwealth. — Colonial administration was carried on by various committees of parha ment or of the Council of State. On March 2, 1650, the Council of State ordered that the entire council or any five of the members, should be a Committee for Trade and Plantations. In 1652 the Council of State appointed a standing committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs of which Cromwell and Vane were members. Special committees were also appointed from time to time to handle special colonial business or committees already in existence discussed matters referred to them. Acquisition of Jamaica. — In December, 1653, Cromwell was made Lord Protector for life and in 1654 the war with the Dutch was brought to a close. To divert attention from home affairs Cromwell desired a foreign war. West Indian expansion had brought England into close contact with Spain. The aggressive acts of the latter against the Providence Island Company and the intercepting of English ships, gave a ready excuse for re prisals. Admiral Penn sailed from England on Christmas Day, 1654, in command of a large fleet to attack the Spanish. An attempt to gain a footing in Espafiola was a complete failure, but Jamaica proved to be an easy prize and became a permanent English possession. Colonial administration during the Protectorate. — The Council of State lost most of its powers and became simply the advisory council of Cromwell. The committee system of the council was continued. In 1655 a special committee for Jamaica was ap pointed, and about the same time a Committee for Foreign Plantations. The Protector also obtained the assistance of a body of officers and merchants to advise regarding colonial affairs. 154 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA NEW ENGLAND DEVELOPMENT, 1640-1660 The period from 1640 to 1660 was one of practical independence for the New England colonies. This neglect and freedom from MARTHAS VINETAM) NANTUCKET IS. Settled areas in New England, about 1660 interference gave rise to three distinct developments: the for mulation of provincial codes of law, the confederation of the colonies and of settlements within colonies, and territorial ex pansion. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties. — The first of the colo nial codes to be formulated was the Massachusetts Body of Liber- THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 155 ties adopted by the general court in 164 1. It provided for the protection of the private and political rights of the individual, methods of judicial procedure, rights of women, children, serv ants, foreigners, and strangers, the protection of animals, and the rights of the churches. Death penalties were specified, the capi tal crimes being the worshiping of false gods, witchcraft, blas phemy, murder, manslaughter, kidnaping, bearing false witness, and treason. Provision was also made for trial by jury. The code was amended from time to time, arson, cursing or smiting of parents, burglary, and highway robbery being added to the list of capital crimes. The Massachusetts code became the basis of the Connecticut code of 1650 and the New Haven code of 1656. Causes of federation. — The development of self-government was fostered not only by neglect on the part of England, but also by the necessity of protection. Being hedged in on the north by the French and on the west by the Dutch, and with hostile Indian tribes encircling the English frontiers, the various groups of settlements were in danger. Massachusetts was strong enough to protect herself, but the settlements in the Connecticut Valley and on Long Island were menaced by the Dutch and Indians. One of the fruitful causes of dispute between New England and the Dutch was the fur-trade. The choicest hunting grounds to the west were possessed by the Dutch and Swedes. To obtain a foothold on the Delaware, the upper Connecticut, and the Hudson became a settled economic policy of several of the New England colonies and was a potent factor in the formation of the New England Confederation. To exploit the Delaware River trade a company was formed at New Haven and in 1641 a settlement was made at Varkens Kill on the site of modern Salem, New Jersey, and later another post was estabhshed at the mouth of the Schuylkill, above the Dutch and Swedish forts. The Dutch, probably assisted by the Swedes, destroyed the Schuyl kill fort, and the settlement at Varkens Kill did not prosper, most of the settlers dying or removing to New Haven. Mas sachusetts also attempted to obtain a share in the Delaware trade. In 1644 prominent merchants of Boston formed a com pany, but when their pinnace appeared in the Delaware, it was turned back by the Dutch, and shortly afterwards a small group of Boston traders were severely handled by the Indians. 156 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA The New England Confederation. — For several years plans for a confederation had been discussed, but the Dutch war against the Indians in 1642 and the struggle between De la Tour and D'Aulnay in Acadia brought matters to a head. At the general court which met at Boston on May 10, 1643, commissioners from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven signed a compact, Rhode Island and the settlements in Maine being excluded. The government of the confederation was placed in the hands of two commissioners from each of the four colonies. Internal affairs were not to be interfered with, but the confederation was to determine matters of war and foreign relations. Expenses were to be assessed on the colonies according to population. A vote of six commissioners was necessary to determine matters, the three small "colonies thus being able to override Massachusetts. The confederation contained two seri ous defects which eventually led to its abandonment. The central government had no authority .over individuals, and the equal vote of each colony violated the principle of representative government, Massachusetts having no more power then her weaker neighbors. Work of the Confederation. — No incident occurred to require action on the part of the confederation until 1645, when the Narragansetts attacked the Mohegans. A force of three hundred men was raised by the confederation, an action wliich brought the Narragansetts to terms without hostilities. When a society for the propagation of the faith was incorporated in England to assist the missionary efforts of John Eliot and Thomas Mayhew, the commissioners handled the funds. When questions of bound aries and customs arose, they were settled by the commissioners. When Massachusetts assisted De la Tour against D'Aulnay, the commissioners exerted their influence to keep the colony from interfering in French affairs. In 1650 a treaty was made between Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor, and the commissioners, with the result that the Dutch retained their fort at Hartford, but were otherwise excluded from the Connecticut Valley and the eastern part of Long Island. The Enghsh were granted the right of colonization on the Delaware, but when New Haven men attempted to found a settlement, they were turned back by the Dutch and the confederation failed to take action. When hostili- THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 157 ties broke out between the Dutch and Enghsh in 165 1, the three smaller colonies desired war, but the Massachusetts general court refused, and when Cromwell's fleet appeared at Boston in 1654 on its way to attack the Dutch settlements, Massachusetts continued her opposition. Possible comphcations were averted by the treaty of peace. The action of Massachusetts in the relations with the Dutch so weakened the confederation that it soon ceased to be an important factor in New England history. The Puritan movement into New Hampshire. — Massachusetts took advantage of the disturbed conditions in England to absorb the territory to the northward. In 1629 Mason had obtained a second patent for a tract extending sixty miles inland and lying between the Merrimac and Piscataqua rivers, which he named New Hampshire, and Mason and Gorges obtained title to lands between the Merrimac and Kennebec. In 1631 the two patentees and others obtained a tract of twenty thousand acres which included the Portsmouth settlement. In 1633 the English merchants who had founded Dover sold their shares in the settlement to Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, and others, a transaction which was followed by a Puritan migration. The same noblemen also obtained title to the Portsmouth settlement. During the Hutchinsonian controversy, Wheelwright and others found refuge at Dover, but shortly afterward estabhshed them selves at Exeter. Massachusetts claimed that the New Hamp shire settlements fell within her boundaries, and in 1641, upon the suggestion of Lord Saye and Sele and Lord Brooke, extended her jurisdiction over Portsmouth and Dover. In 1643 Exeter also came under the protection of Massachusetts. The incorporation of Maine with Massachusetts. — Several conflicting patents to lands in Maine were issued between 1630 and 1645. Few settlers came, the only new group of importance being the three towns of Georgiana (York), Welles, and Kittery on the Piscataqua. Massachusetts claimed that her charter entitled her to the Maine region, and in 1639 took the first step toward ownership by purchasing a tract on the Androscoggin River. When the region about Saco and Casco bays became a matter of dispute between rival patentees in 1644, the case was referred to the Massachusetts general court, but no decision was reached. When referred to the Enghsh commissioners for planta- 158 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA tions, the Gorges estate lost most of its property, being left only the settled region near the Piscataqua. In 1647 Gorges died and the settlers were left without guidance. Two years later the three towns declared themselves a body politic. In 165 1 Massa chusetts asserted her claim to the Maine region, and the Royahsts there found themselves powerless. The foUowing year the Massachusetts authorities ordered the survey of the Merrimac and estabhshed civil government at York. In 1653 all the settle ments in southern Maine accepted the jurisdiction of Massachu setts. The settlements about Casco Bay refused to submit until 1658, when they also acknowledged the authority of Massachu setts. Massachusetts hopes to obtain the trade on the Hudson. — In 1657 the general court of Massachusetts declared that the fur- trade ought to be controlled by the commonwealth and in the following year a report was made which showed that fur-trading privileges at Springfield, Concord, Sudbury, Lancaster, Groton, Marlborough, and Cambridge were farmed out to various in dividuals. In 1659 a company was formed whose main purpose was to obtain access to the fur-trade of the upper Hudson, but it failed to carry out the project. Connecticut. — In the Connecticut colony the period from 1640 to 1660 was one of expansion and consohdation. South ampton and East Hampton on Long Island, and on the mainland Farmington, Saybrook, New London, and Norwalk were brought under the jurisdiction of the colony. New Haven. — In the New Haven colony the danger from the Dutch and Indians in 1643 brought about a union of the isolated units. A constitution was adopted which restricted the suffrage to church rhembership. Minor cases were to be judged in each town, and a governor, deputy-governor, and three associates were to judge the more important cases. No provision for trial by jury was made. The general court, consisting of the magis trates and two deputies from each of the towns, was to meet at New Haven twice a year to enact laws. In 1649 Southold on Long Island, in 1651 Bradford, and in 1656 Greenwich were added to the New Haven confederation. Rhode Island. — Admission to the New England Confederation was denied to the Narragansett Bay settlements. Providence, THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 159 Portsmouth, and Newport had all been founded by outcasts from Massachusetts, and a fourth settlement of a similar nature was founded at Shawomet, now Warwick, in 1643 by Samuel Gorton. The danger from powerful and grasping neighbors caused Wil hams to seek a patent to the lands about Narragansett Bay, and on March 14, 1644, a patent was granted which allowed the in habitants of Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport to form their own government. The Warwick settlers were asked to join the others. In 1647 a code remarkable for its mildness was adopted, and by 1650 the government had been formed. The legislative powers were vested in a general court composed of six representatives from each town, the presiding officer of which was called a presi dent. In executive matters he was to be aided by an assistant from each town. Provision was also made for a treasurer, ser geant, general recorder, attorney-general, and solicitor-general. The president and assistants acted as a court for important cases, which were to be tried by jury. The legislative body and the court made the circuit of the towns. The initiative and referen dum were introduced, each settlement having the right to propose legislation, and acts of the general court were referred to the towns for ratification or rejection. Membership in a particular church was not made the basis of citizenship as in the other New England colonies. The disturbing element in Rhode Island at this time was Coddington. In 165 1 he obtained from the Council of State a commission as governor of the islands in Narragansett Bay, but his power was short-lived, for the following year Wil liams obtained a revocation of the Coddington patent and in 1654 was elected president of the confederation. VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND, 1 640-1 660 Virginia loyalists. — During the civil war Virginia remained loyal to the king. The large plantation owners, who were almost all members of the Estabhshed Church, were in control of the house of burgesses. The small landowners made up the minority. In this class were a few Puritans and many freemen who had formerly been indented servants. Their sympathies were on the side of parhament. Sir William Berkeley, who was appointed in 1642, was a staunch supporter of the king. His administra- ioo THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA tion seems to have been tempered with justice, and he showed little of the arbitrary attitude which appeared in his later career. Opechancanough's War. — The chief event in Berkeley's ad ministration was the Indian war of 1644. The plantations had graduaUy spread up the James and Rappahannock, encroaching upon the Indian lands. The chief Opechancanough planned to massacre the whites. On April 18 the outlying settlements were attacked and five hundred people were massacred. The gov ernor led several expeditions against the Indians, their crops and villages were destroyed, and their chief became a captive. While in captivity he was foully murdered. The Indians sued for peace, and in a treaty acknowledged the rights of the white man to all the lands between the York and the James as far as the faUs. Berkeley's struggle with the Commonwealth. — When the news of the death of Charles I reached Virginia, Berkeley proclaimed Charles II as king and the assembly declared it high treason to question his right to Virginia. Parhament decided to punish the colony by blockading it. Berkeley, nowise daunted, delivered a defiant address to the assembly, which warmly supported him. The blockade proved a failure, for Dutch traders sailed unmo lested into Chesapeake Bay. A group of Virginia parliamenta rians visited England and demanded that Berkeley be over thrown. The CouncU of State responded by sending out a fleet to subdue both Barbados and Virginia. Commissioners were also sent to Virginia to persuade the colony to submit peaceably. In the spring of 1652 when the fleet appeared in the James River, it found the governor prepared for resistance. The commissioners intervened, and by offering lenient terms, bloodshed was avoided. It was agreed that the colony should "voluntarily" acknowledge the authority of the Commonwealth, that the Virginians should have as free trade as the people of England, and that taxation was to be in the hands of the house of burgesses. Neither Berke ley nor his councilors were to be compelled to take the oath of aUegiance for a year, and the use of the Book of Common Prayer was permitted for a similar length of time. Berkeley retired from the governorship but remained in the colony. Government under the commonwealth. — The burgesses and commissioners proceeded to remodel the government. The house THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 161 Settled Areas in Virginia and Maryland, 1660 1 62 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA of burgesses was made the chief governing body, with unUmited powers except the veto of the Enghsh government. It was to elect the governor and council, specify their duties and remove them if they proved unsatisfactory. AU officials were also ap pointed by the burgesses. A period of prosperity. — The kingless period was one of pros perity for Virginia. In 1649 the colony contained about 15,000 people; in 1666 the population was estimated at 40,000. This great migration was recruited from various classes: Cavaliers who sought refuge after the death of the king, people who fled from the horrors of civil war, prisoners who were sent as indented servants, gentlemen, tradesmen, and laborers, aU found room in the abundant lands of tide-water Virginia. Maryland during the civil war. — During the first part of the civil war, Lord Baltimore leaned toward the royahst side, but in the colony there was a strong Protestant element, augmented by this time by Puritans from Virginia. In 1645 they got con trol and expelled the Jesuits. The following year Governor Calvert, who had been in England, returned and reestablished his authority, but his rule was shortlived, for he died in 1647. Puritan rule in Maryland. — Fearing that he would be de prived of Maryland, Baltimore veered to the parliamentary side and appointed as governor WilUam Stone, a prominent Virginia planter, and invited Virginia Puritans to settle in his territory. This was followed by a reUgious toleration act passed by the Maryland assembly in 1649. Baltimore's trimming, however, did not save him from trouble, for in 1650, when the Common wealth expedition was sent out, the commissioners were in structed to reduce all the Chesapeake Bay plantations. For a time Stone was left in authority, but in 1654 he was deposed and the government was placed in the hands of a council, at the head of which was a Puritan, WilUam FuUer. In the ensuing assembly the Royahsts and Catholics were barred. Baltimore ordered Stone to recover his authority by force, but he was defeated and imprisoned by the forces of FuUer, and four of his followers executed. Baltimore appears to have ingra tiated himself with Cromwell, for in 1657 he was restored to power. THE ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1640 TO 1660 163 READINGS NEW ENGLAND Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 414-420; Doyle, J. A., The Puritan Colonies, I, 220-319; Frothingham, Richard, The Rise of the Republic, 33-71; James, B. B., The Colonization of New England, 119-157; Mathews, L. K., The Expansion of New England, 31-34; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, I, 392-423; Palfrey, J. G., A Compendious History of New England, I, 247-268; Tyler, L. G., England in America, 266-281, 297-317. VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND Beer, G. L., The Origins of the British Colonial System, 340-424; Browne, W. H., Maryland, 72-104; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, I, 485-507; Doyle, J. A., Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas, 207-228, 314-327; Hamilton, P. J., The Colonization of the South, 118-122; Mereness, M. D., Maryland as a Proprietary Province; Osgood, H. L., The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, II, 58-87; Tyler, L. G, England in America, 105-117, 140-148; Wertenbaker, T. J., Virginia under the Stuarts, 85-114. CHAPTER LX THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES DUTCH EXPANSION Commercial expansion of the Netherlands. — During the reign of Phihp II occurred the revolt in the Netherlands. Spanish poUtical and commercial restrictions, and the estabhshment of the Inquisition, united the great commercial cities, the nobles, and the common people of the northeastern provinces in a rebel lion which did not cease until the HoUanders had secured virtual independence by the truce of 1609. During the struggle Dutch ships raided the Spanish and Portuguese trade routes. As early as 1577 a trade to the White Sea was begun. Soon Dutch ships were trading to Italy and the Baltic, and by 1598 they had ex tended their commerce to Alexandria, Tripoli on the Syrian coast, and Constantinople, to the Cape Verde Islands and the Guinea coast. The desire to reach India influenced Dutch states men to attempt to find a northeast passage. Between 1594 and 1597 four expeditions were sent out; they faUed to find the pas sage but gained considerable knowledge of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. East Indian trade. — For years Dutch sailors had been employed by the Portuguese and were well acquainted with the routes to India and America. In 1596 a company was organized to open a trade with the Far East; their fleet sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, stopped at Madagascar, and then proceeded to Java and the Moluccas, returning home the next year. Several companies were immediately formed, and in 1598 twenty-two vessels sailed by the Cape of Good Hope route for the East, and Olivier van Noort passed through the Straits of Magellan and circumnavigated the earth. In 1602 the States General chartered the United East India Company. Several fleets were despatched and succeeded in gaining a foothold in Ceylon and along the coasts of India, in Java, the Moluccas, and various 164 THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES 165 other places. The traders met with great opposition from the Portuguese and Spaniards, but when peace was made in 1609 the Dutch were given the right of trading to Spanish ports outside of Europe, and they soon firmly estabhshed their power in the Far East where they absorbed much of Portugal's commerce. Henry Hudson.— The East India Company hoped to find a shorter route to India and in 1609 employed an Enghsh mariner, Henry Hudson, to search for a northwest passage. Meeting with ice and storms, he headed his ship, the Half Moon, toward the west. Sighting land at Newfoundland, he examined the New England coast, rounded Cape Cod, and sailed to Virginia and southward. Turning north, he probably ran into Chesapeake Bay, certainly entered Delaware Bay, and then sailed northward to what is now New York harbor. The Hudson River was ex plored to a point above Albany and friendly relations with the Iroquois were estabhshed. The East India Company, however, was making such handsome profits in the East that the furs of New Netherlands fafled to attract it. The Cape Horn route discovered. — The Dutch were still hope ful of fmding another route to India, and when Jacques le Maire quarreled with the directors of the East India Company, he planned to form a separate corporation and seek a route south of the Straits of MageUan. The people of Hoorn assisted him in fitting out two vessels which were placed under the command of William CorneUaz Schouten. On the long voyage the smaUer vessel was destroyed, but Schouten with the larger one in 1616 discovered Cape Horn. Dutch activities in the Hudson River region, 1610-1621. — The Hudson River region was visited by traders in 1610-1611, and in 161 2 Dutch merchants sent Christianson and Block to Man hattan Island to engage in the fur trade. In 1613 Cornehus May was also sent over. The next year Fort Nassau, later named Fort Orange, was built near the present site of Albany. An extensive exploration of the coast was also made, Block sailing along the northern shore of Long Island, examining the lower waters of the Connecticut River, and exploring Narragan sett Bay and Cape Cod. The result of these activities was the formation in 1614, of the New Netherlands Company, which was 166 THE .COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA given the monopoly of the trade between the fortieth and forty- fifth paraUels. An important fur trade was rapidly developed in the Hudson Valley and exploration of the coast was continued. In 1616 Hendrickson examined Delaware Bay, and in 1620 the same region and Chesapeake Bay were visited by May. The southern extremity of New Jersey stiU bears the name of the Dutch explorer. The West India Company. — One of the most enterprising Dutch merchants was WUUam UsseUncx, who had long hoped to profit by the opening of West Indian trade. The idea was op posed by the East India Company and by some of the Dutch statesmen, especiaUy Olden Barnevelt, who feared that it would bring about new difficulties with Spain. In spite of this, Dutch vessels appeared in Guiana and the AntiUes, and in 1613 settle ments were attempted in Guiana at Essequibo and Berbice. In 1618 Olden Barnevelt fell from power and UsseUncx immedi ately became active in the formation of a company. In 1621 the West India Company was chartered, receiving a monopoly of Dutch trade for twenty-four years on the coast of Africa as far as the Cape, and for America and the islands east of New Guinea. Usselincx, believing that the directors had too much power and the shareholders too little, and desiring a colonizing rather than a trading corporation, severed his connection with the company and departed for Sweden, where he interested Gustavus Adolphus in commercial enterprises. Dutch settlements in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles. — Settlements were now established by the "Beggars of the Sea" aU the way from Brazil to Hudson River, and there were pros pects that the Caribbean Sea would become a Dutch instead of a Spanish lake. BrazU was the most important base. Bahia, taken in 1624, lost in 1625, and recaptured in 1627 by the celebrated Piet Heyn, was again lost, but by 1637 Olinda, Recife and Pernambuco had been captured in spite of determined resistance. Prince Maurice of Nassau now took possession of Brazil from Bahia to the Amazon River, and established there a Dutch state, with its capital at Mauritiopolis. In spite of liberal Dutch rule, however, and of an alliance now with HoUand against Spain (1641), the Brazfiians arose, and after years of heroic fighting expelled the intruders (1661). Meanwhile the Dutch had estab- THE DUTCH .AND SWEDISH COLONIES 167 lished colonies in Guiana at Berbice, Aprouage. and Pomeroon. as well as at Essequibo. In the AntiUes they had settlements at Curacao, Buen Aire, Aruba (1634 >, St. Eustatius. Saba 1035A and St. Martin (1638). During the same period the West India Company had estabhshed a flourishing colony on the northern mainland and called it New Netherlands. NEW NETHERLANDS Activities of the company. — Licenses were at once granted to several traders, who in 1622 visited the Hudson. Delaware, and Connecticut rivers and trafficked with the Indians as far east as Buzzard's Bay. Thirty famihes of WaUoons. Protestants from Flanders, were sent over in 1623, these being the first colonists. Most of them settled on Manhattan Island, at Brooklyn, and on Staten Island. A few migrated to the vicinity of Fort Orange near Albany, and others settled near the present site of Glou cester on the Delaware, where a new fort named Nassau was erected. Other settlers soon foUowed; the fur trade was devel oped; and by 1625 the success of the colony seemed assured. Government of the colony. — The West India Company was governed by a board of directors caUed the CoUege of Nineteen; of these eight were from Amsterdam, and to them was given the control of New Netherlands. In the colony the chief officer was the director-general. To assist him was a council invested with local legislative, executive, and judicial powers, subject to the supervision and appeUate jurisdiction of the Amsterdam direc tors. There were two minor officials, the "koopman" acting as comrnissary, bookkeeper, and secretary, and the "schout-fiscal" as an attorney and sheriff. Administration of Peter Minuit. — In 1626 Peter Minuit became the director-general. One of his first acts was to secure a title to Manhattan Island by purchasing it from the Indians at the nominal price of twenty-four dollars' worth of goods. A fort, the location of which is known to-day as The Battery, was immediately constructed. Near by was buUt the stone counting house with a thatched roof, and thirty bark houses straggled along the east side of the river, the meager beginnings of a great metropohs. Fearing for the safety of the httle groups of settlers Van Der Donck's Map of New Netherland, 1656 THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES 169 at Fort Orange and Fort Nassau, Minuit brought them to New Amsterdam, leaving only a few soldiers and traders at Fort Orange. Minuit's preparations for defence were not confined to for tifying the land. Conscious of foreign danger, inspired perhaps by the victories which Heyn was just now winning over Spaniards and Portuguese in the southern waters, and aided by two Belgian shipbunders, the governor built and launched the New Nether land, a vessel of eight hundred tons and carrying thirty guns. The ship cost more than had been expected, and the bills were severely criticized by the West India Company. The patroon system. — The returns from the southern raids made the smaU income from New Netherlands appear paltry, and the company decided to attempt an extensive colonization with a view to larger profit. A type of feudalism known as the patroon system was decided upon. The company reserved Manhattan Island, but other regions were opened to settlement. Each patroon was to receive lands four leagues along one side of a navigable river or two leagues on both sides and extending "so far into the country as the situation of the occupiers will permit," provided that within four years he settled fifty people over fifteen years of age upon. his lands. Patroons were forever to "possess and enjoy all the lands lying within the aforesaid Unfits, together with the fruits, rights, minerals, rivers, and fountains thereof," and were to have complete control over "fishing, fowling, and grinding." The fur trade was reserved by the company, but the patroons were aUowed to trade on the coast from Newfoundland to Florida and to ship goods to neutral powers; they could also engage in fishing and the making of salt. They were to satisfy the Indians regarding land titles and were given the right to estabUsh their own courts, from which appeal might be made to the director- general and his council. The colonists were exempt from taxation for ten years, but they could not leave the service of the patroon without his consent. The system was not intended to exclude other colonists who might come over and take up as much land as they could improve, but no colonists were to "be permitted to make any woolen, linen or cotton cloth, nor weave any other stuffs there." Patroons and colonists were "to find out ways and 170 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA means whereby they may support a Minister and Schoolmaster." The company promised to defend the colonists and to endeavor to supply them "with as many Blacks as they conveniently can." The patroons. — While the details of the charter were being discussed, several directors took advantage of the intended sys tem to secure large grants. Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blom- maert and several associates secured practicaUy aU of what is now Delaware and that part of the Jersey shore extending twelve miles north from Cape May and twelve miles inland. Kihaen van Rensselaer obtained the lands about Fort Orange, comprising what is now a large part of Albany and Rensselaer counties. Michael Pauw received title to Staten Island and the region where Jersey City is now situated. Godyn and Blommaert sent colo nists to Swannendael on the present site of Lewiston, but they were massacred by the Indians, the colonization of the grant was abandoned, and in 1635 the company purchased the lands of the patroons on the Delaware. In 1637 Pauw sold his holdings to the company. The Van Rensselaer tract remained in the possession of that family until after the American Revolution. Jealousies in the company, due to the securing of patroonships by some of the directors, and to the fact that the patroons attempted to obtain a share in the fur trade, and that Minuit appeared to be working in the interest of the great land holders, led to the recaU of the director-general. Attempts to secure the ¦ frontiers. — The new director-general was Wouter van Twiller. He had been a clerk in the West India Company's warehouse at Amsterdam, and probably owed his appointment to the fact that he was married to a niece of Van Rensselaer. One of his first acts was to secure possession of the Delaware. In 1633 a tract along the SchuylkiU was purchased from the Indians and a trading house was erected, the first in the present state of Pennsylvania. In 1635 a party of Virginians attempted to gain a foothold on the Delaware, but were expelled. On the Connecticut the Dutch had profited by the fur trade, but had never sent colonists to that region. In 1633 lands were pur chased from the Indians, and Fort Good Hope was built at mod ern Hartford, but the Puritan migration soon secured the Con necticut Valley for the English. THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES 171 Reforms.— Van Twiller and other officials appear to have profited by securing extensive land holdings on the islands at the mouth of the Hudson, Governor's Island deriving its name from the fact that Van Twiner owned it. Complaints began to be heard in the Amsterdam chamber and in 1637 Van TwiUer was removed from office, his successor being WilUam Kieft, who arrived in 1638. The new director-general immediately set about correcting abuses. IUicit fur trading and the sale of fire arms to the Indians were prohibited. The Amsterdam chamber removed some of the trade restrictions and made easier the ac quisition of land. The result was a considerable increase in the number of settlers, who came not only from the Netherlands, but from New England and Virginia as weU. Restrictions on manufactures were aboUshed and the Dutch Reformed Church was estabhshed. Difficulties.— Kieft's administration was beset by difficulties. In the Connecticut VaUey and on Long Island the Enghsh settle ments were increasing, and on the Delaware the Swedes had gained a footing. In the colony a disastrous Indian war brought devastation and ruin. The Indians on the lower Hudson and on Long Island had watched the growing settlements with alarm, an alarm which turned to resentment when they found the Iroquois supphed with firearms from Fort Orange, a privUege which was denied to them at New Amsterdam. Kieft increased the ill-feehng by demanding a contribution of corn, fur, and wampum. He also accused the Raritans of attacking fur trading vessels, and sent an expedition to punish them. In 1641 the Indians retahated by killing several settlers. Kieft and the twelve men. — Kieft promptly caUed together the settlers, who chose a committee of twelve to advise the director- general. Much to his disappointment, they counseled delay. In January, 1642, he again summoned the twelve, who consented to send an expedition against the Indians, provided Kieft should command it. At the same time they demanded that the council should contain at least five members and that the inhabitants should be aUowed greater freedom of trade. To these demands Kieft assented grudgingly, and to save further embarrassment, dissolved the committee. An expedition was sent against the Indians, but it accomplished nothing. I"2 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Indian hostilities, 1643-1645.— Early in 1643 the Mohawks attacked the river Indians who sought refuge near New Amster dam. Kieft determined to attack the fugitives, and eighty of :hem were massacred. The Long Island Indians were also plundered. Aroused by these acts, the Indians united and at tacked the settlers. The colonists who escaped fled to Fort Amsterdam. A lull occurred in the fighting whUe the Indians planted their crops, but hostilities were soon renewed. Kieft again summoned the people and a committee of eight was chosen who counseled war. Settlers and servants of the com pany were drilled, and fifty Enghsh also enlisted. A series of expeditions were despatched against the Indians, whose viUages were ruthlessly destroyed. In 1645 treaties were made with the various tribes, and the long war came to an end. One of the incidents of the war was the bunding of a waU across the lower end of Manhattan Island. It is from this that WaU Street takes its name. Stuyvesant, 1647. — Both in 2^ew Amsterdam and the Nether lands Kieft was blamed for the war. The West India Company decided to remove him, and Peter Stuyvesant, the director of Curacao, was appointed to succeed him. The first important act of Stuyvesant was to organize the council. PoUce regulations were made to control Sabbath-breakers, brawlers, and the sale of liquors. The court of justice was also organized, but the director-general required that his opinion be asked in all im portant cases, and reserved the right to preside in person when he saw fit. Popular representation. — WhUe Kieft was director-general, he had appealed to the people on several occasions. In answer to the public demand for representation, the councU recommended to Stuyvesant that it be granted. Accordingly, the director- general ordered an election at which eighteen were chosen, from whom Stuyvesant and the council selected nine. The nine were to advise and assist, when called upon, in promoting the welfare of the province, and were to nominate their successors. The director-general retained the right to preside at meetings. Struggle for municipal rights. — The trade restrictions of the West India Company were irksome to the people of New Amster dam, who hoped to right conditions by obtaining a larger share THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONTES 173 in the government. After considerable trouble with Stuyvesant, the nine men submitted to the States General a remonstrance set ting forth their grievances and a memorial suggesting remedies. They asked that the States General establish a citizens' govern ment, that colonists be sent over, and that the boundaries of New Netherlands be definitely established. The Amsterdam chamber opposed the petitioners, but in 1652 it decided to make con cessions. The export duty on tobacco was removed, the cost oi passage to New Netherlands was reduced, and the colonists were allowed to procure negroes from Africa. A •burgher" govern ment was allowed for New Amsterdam, the citizens being allowed a schout, two burgomasters, and five schepens, who were to form a municipal court of justice. They were not to be popularly elected, however, Stuyvesant being aUowed to appoint the mem bers. No sooner were municipal rights granted to New Amster dam than the settlements at the western end of Long Island demanded a larger share in government. A convention was held at the capital to formulate grievances. This was brought to an end by Stuyvesant, but a little later municipal rights were granted to several of the towns. A provincial assembly. — In 1664, during the war between Eng land and the Dutch, so great was the alarm at New Amsterdam, that a provisional assembly was elected, composed of two dele gates from each of the Dutch settlements, twenty-four represent atives in all. Little was accomplished by this body, however, for shortly afterward the colony passed into Enghsh hands. Economic development. — During the administration of Stuy vesant the material prosperity of New Netherlands steadily increased. He found New Amsterdam a town with straggling fences and crooked streets, and containing about five hundred people. Under his supervision it took on the appearance of a weU-kept Dutch town. In 1656 it contained a hundred and twenty houses and a thousand people. By 1660 it had three hundred and fifty houses. By 1664 the population increased to fifteen hundred. The area of settlement in New Netherlands had gradually expanded, covering Manhattan and Staten islands, the opposite Jersey shore, the western end of Long Island, both banks of the lower Hudson, a considerable district about Ft. Orange, and scattering settlements on the Delaware. The chief 174 THE COLONTZATTON OF NORTH AMERICA source of wealth was the fur trade which was carried on largely with the Iroquois who were friendly to the Dutch and hostile to the French- In 1656 Ft. Orange alone exported thirty-five thousand beaver and otter skins, but soon afterward the trade began to decline and agriculture increased in importance. When the province passed into English hands, the population had reached ten thousand. THE DUTCH AND THE SWEDES ON THE DELAWARE Swedish territorial and commercial expansion. — In the first half of the seventeenth century Sweden rose to the position of a first class power. When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne in 1611, Sweden was at war with Denmark, Russia, and Poland. After defeating each power, the king entered the Thirty Years' War as the champion of Protestantism, his victorious career coming to an untimely end at Liitzen. UntU 1654 Christina was queen but the real ruler was Oxenstierna, who piloted Sweden through the closing years of the war and secured advantageous terms in the treaty of peace. From 1648 until 1654, Sweden enjoyed peace, but the frivolities of the court ruined the possibili ties of greatness and the decline began. Charles X became king in 1654. and his brilliant but disastrous mihtary ventures re duced his country to a third-rate power. At the beginning of the period of Swedish greatness, her commerce was confined to the Baltic, but when nearly all the lands on its shores had been ac quired, Swedish statesmen looked forward to a wider commerce, a pohcy which brought them into rivalry with HoUand and Eng land. Numerous trading companies were formed, among the most important being the African and Russian companies, and the various organizations which operated on the Delaware River and in the West Indies. UsseUncx. — The attention of Sweden was drawn to the Dela ware by Usselincx, the promoter of the Dutch West India Com pany, who had left Holland in disgust and who hoped to interest the Swedes. In 1624 he laid his plans before Gustavus Adolphus; this resulted in the granting of a charter to The South Company to estabhsh trade "for Asia, Africa, America and Magellanica." Usselincx experienced great difficulty in raising money, and the directors ruined his schemes by diverting the capital to commer- THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES 175 cial enterprises in Sweden. In 1629 the company was reorganized and an attempt was made to trade with Spain, but this ended in disaster. Usselincx continued his endeavors, and in 1633 The New South Company was organized, but this like its predeces sors came to naught. The New Sweden Company.— The settling of the Swedes on the Delaware was directly due to the Dutchmen. Samuel Blom- maert and Peter Minuit. Blommaert held out the idea that the West Indies would be a market for Swedish copper; Minuit that the Delaware region offered a place for the fur trade and colo nization. Several other Dutch merchants were interested, and hah of the capital of the Swedish company was furnished by Hollanders. By 1637 the company was organized and the first expedition set saU. Fort Christina. — The two vessels arrived in the spring of 1638, lands were purchased from the Indians, fur trade opened, and a fort established on Christina Creek two mUes from the Delaware. The Dutch at Ft. Nassau protested, but were too weak to oust the newcomers. In 1640 two boats arrived with settlers and goods, large tracts of land at various points on both sides of the bay and river as far as Trenton were purchased, and farms and tobacco plantations were started. Governor Printz. — In 1642 the company was reorganized, the Swedish government taking part of the stock, the Dutch being eliminated. At the request of the Swedish council of state Johan Printz, a prominent officer in the army, became governor, a post which he filled until 1653. He erected Ft. Elfsborg and estabhshed his capital at New Gothenborg, where a fort was bvfilt. A blockhouse was also erected on the Schuylkill, other vantage points were occupied, and the Swedes soon secured the fur trade of the Delaware. From the first the weakness of the Swedish project was the lack of colonists, a few hundred being the total migration in the first ten years. In 1644 there were only one hundred and twenty men and a few women and children in the colony. During the next five years not a vessel arrived, and when Printz retired in 1653 there were only two hundred people in the colony. End of Swedish power on the Delaware.: — Stuyvesant de termined to get control of the river trade. In 1651 he went to 176 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA PEL OR WARES SOUTHWARCXON BOTH BANKS •flS£ fto/l" INDIAN • Brf1"*.^ Kll New Sweden THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH COLONIES i" the Delaware with a considerable force. In spite of protesis from Printz, lands were purchased from the Indians, and Ft. Casimir was bruit near the present site of New Castle, the other Dutch forts being abandoned. In 1653 the Swedish crown planned to help New Sweden. In the spring of 1654 about three hundred and fifty colonists were sent over under John Rising- He immediately seized Ft. Casimir. At Ft. Christina a town was laid out, new tracts were purchased from the Indians, and lands were assigned to the colonists. The action of the Swedes in seizing Ft. Casimir angered Stuyvesant. and he urged the West India Company to occupy New Sweden. In September. 1655. a Dutch fleet appeared in the Delaware, and the forts surrendered. thus ending the colony of New Sweden. ABSORPTION OF NEW NETHERLANDS BY THE ENGLISH Boundary treaty with New England — On the eastern frontier Stuyvesant had another difficult problem. English settlers were crowding into the Connecticut VaUey and onto Long Island. In 1647 Stuyvesant informed the New England officials that the Dutch claimed aU lands between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers, but the New Englanders ignored the claim. In 1650 Stuyvesant visited Hartford, where commissioners were ap pointed who agreed that Long Island should be divided by a line running along the western part of Oyster Bay; that on the main land the hne was "to begin at the west side of Greenwich Bay, being four miles from Stamford and so to run a northerly line twenty miles up into the country, and after as it shaU be agreed by the two governments of the Dutch and New Haven; provided the said line come not within ten miles of Hudson's River;" and that the Dutch were to keep their holdings at Hartford. The end of Dutch rule. — In 1659 Massachusetts asserted her claim to a sea to sea grant, and in 1662 the charter of Con necticut extended the bounds of the colony to the Pacific. In 1663 Stuyvesant visited Boston to attempt a settlement of ex isting difficulties, but to no avail, and upon his return he found that some of the Long Island settlements west of the line claimed to be under the jurisdiction of Connecticut. Dutch commis sioners were sent to Hartford, but without result, and the fol lowing year Connecticut asserted her rights to the whole of Long 178 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Island. In 1664 Charles II granted to his brother, James, the Duke of York, the whole of Long Island and aU the lands from the Connecticut River to Delaware Bay. A fleet was despatched to New Amsterdam, which surrendered without bloodshed, and Dutch rule in North America came to an end three years after it had failed in Brazil. READINGS THE DUTCH Blok, P. J.. History of tlie People of the Netherlands, HI, 267-303; Brod- heacL J. R.. History of the State of New York, I; Channing, Edward, History of tv. Unite! StcUs. I. 43S-484; Fiske, John, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. I; Goodwin, M. W., Dutch and English on the Hudson; Innes, J. H.. X-r- Amsterdam and its People; Jameson, J. F., ed., Narratives of New XahirlzrJs: Javier. T. A.. Dutch Founding of New York; MacDonald, WEaam. Seiea Charters, 43-50; O'Callaghan, E. B., History of New Nether- IckAs: Rc'x-s. E. H., Xew York, I, 19-119; Van Loon, H. W., The Golden Bcolk if the Dutch Navigators. THE SWEDES Acrdrus. Israel. History of Xrd- Sweden (Pennsylvania Historical Society, M:":::rs. XI); Holm, T. C.. Description of the Province of New Sweden (Pe-rsvivsiiia Historical Society, Memoirs, VII); Johnson, Amandus, The S's-sdish Sitiknxnts on ihe Delaware; Keen, G. B., in Winsor, Narrative and Cr;;:c