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HAR-MOAD

OR

THE MOUNTAIN OF THE ASSEMBLY

A SERIES OF ARCH^OLOGICAL STUDIES, CHIEFLY
FROM THE STAND-POINT OF THE
CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS

REV. O. D. MILLER, D.D.
MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY; OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
OF AMERICA; OF THE VICTORIA INSTITUTE, OR THE PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN, ETC.

WITH PORTRAIT OF THE A UTHOR AND
PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS

NORTH ADAMS, MASS.
PUBLISHED BY STEPHEN M. WHIPPLE
no Main .Street
1892

Copyright, 1891,
By S. M. WHIPPLE.
All rights reserved.

(SI

The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass , U. S. A.
Electrofcyped and Printed by H. 0. Houghtoa & Ccmpany.

PREFACE.

I SUBMIT to-day to the judgment of the public, and especially of
learned critics, the results, in part, of protracted and laborious re
searches in the department of antiquities. The particular field of
antiquarian studies to which in the main my inquiries have been di
rected comprehends the entire prehistoric period," especially in Asia,
including the primitive traditions of mankind and the origin of the
ancient civilizations. One of the principal objects which I have
had in view has been to ascertain the real character, and to trace
the actual origin, of those ideas that formed the theoretical basis of
the religious, political, and social institutions of the ancient world.
But a still more definite aim in this direction has been to discover
that primitive stratum of conceptions and doctrines which may be
regarded as fundamental to the two religions of the Bible, consti
tuting historically the germ of their development. Another prom
inent object has been to determine the locality, geographically, from
which these traditionary ideas, inherited alike by nations widely
separated, had been at first derived ; the locality, in fact, from which
the different races had departed toward the countries .occupied by
them since the opening of the historical period. In connection with
these matters I have made the attempt, however hazardous it might
at first seem, to fix chronologically the epoch by means of certain
astronomical data, to which the primeval traditions definitely ap
pertained. Aside from these more general topics other questions
have been treated, sometimes to the extent of entire chapters, for
the reason that they were important in themselves, and helped to
complete the view of antiquity embodied in the present work.
As regards the spirit in which these investigations have been
conducted, the reader will be of course the better judge ; but it

IV PREFACE.
has been my desire, so far as the nature of the subjects treated would
permit and my own qualifications allow, to regard everything from
the scientific point of view. In verifying the facts, the rule has
been to depend only upon the latest and best authorities at my
command, including, however, such writers of former periods as
were generally held to be reliable. To a considerable extent what
are termed the original sources have been consulted, especially the
cuneiform inscriptions ; but where this was impossible, in covering
so wide a field of investigation, I have usually relied upon those
authors only who are familiar with such sources. In all cases I
have labored to ascertain precisely the facts, and to place before
the reader the mofft available means of substantiating them. But
the same facts in the hands of various writers will often receive
quite different constructions ; and it is here principally, if anywhere,
that the critical ability and scientific spirit of an author exhibit
themselves. I believe that my readers will freely accord to me a
fair degree of merit in this respect. It is my misfortune, perhaps,
in conducting these researches to have been so little influenced by
the opinions and theories entertained by many very eminent au
thorities, and thus to have arrived at a general view of antiquity
equally opposed in some important respects to those received by
the different and conflicting schools of modern investigators.
The materials that have been actually of the most service to me
in attempting to solve the more difficult problems, pertaining espe
cially to high antiquity, affording oftentimes the only key to their
solution, are those derived from the valleys of the Euphrates and
Tigris, to a great extent embodied in the cuneiform inscriptions.
Aside from the books of Moses, I think these texts contain the
most ample and reliable notices pertaining to the primitive ages of
humanity of any known sources. Although they are neither so
voluminous nor ancient as the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt,
for instance, they certainly offer a better reflection of the original
Hamite development of Asia ; and this, as must be admitted, pre
ceded both the Aryan and Semitic. In consulting these texts I
have availed myself of the previous labors of cuneiform scholars in

PREFACE. V
Europe so far as possible, and my indebtedness to them has been
continually very great. But in the present state of cuneiform sci
ence every student has to rely chiefly upon himself ; and it has been
from the astronomical and mythological texts themselves that I
have derived the most valuable hints relative to the prehistoric
nges. In writing the present treatise" the attempt has been made to
adapt it as well to the ordinary reader as to those who have made
antiquities a special study. For the one class the extracts from
authors in foreign languages have been put into English, while for
the other class the references simply to the works cited would have
been sufficient, and even preferable. For similar reasons an Eng
lish transliteration of foreign terms has been given, without regard
to any uniform system, however, as the original text has been also
given in nearly all cases. For the convenience of those who may
wish to consult the authorities cited, a list of them has been pre
pared in which the titles of their works are given in full.
I have to regret exceedingly the state of circumstances which has
deprived me of the advice and assistance of competent critics in
working out those more difficult problems which I have deemed it
important to investigate, even without such aid. Nevertheless, I
believe that, by a singularly good fortune, certain important facts
have been established pertaining to the earliest periods of history,
the result of which must be to modify essentially the prevailing
theories respecting antiquity. Thus I shall indulge the hope that
my labors will contribute in some degree to advance our knowledge
of the remote past.
THE AUTHOR.
Wellesley, Mass., November, 1876.

HOW TO READ THIS BOOK.
Having read the preface, turn to page 413, and read " A Sum
mary of Results," and take special note of " the Cabiri " in section
172, amplified in chapter three. Then look at section 174, ampli
fied in chapter seven, and note the '¦'¦fourth'' region, or under world,
and its probable nonentity, page 201. Then, too, in the closing
paragraph of section 177, note the relation of Christ to the "tradi
tionary ideas of antiquity," that "all is fulfilled and realized in
Him," page 435. Turn, then, to page 16, and reaid the Scripture
there quoted, and note that the great Hamite-Cushite race from
the East was the first to settle Egypt and Babylon ; that this
Bible race can be traced to Mount Meru, on the high table-lands of
Central Asia ; that the races emigrating from that region can be
traced from thence to the four quarters of the earth, and that
however widely separated, they can be re-traced to their common
home, — the Eden of Genesis.
For " the fundamental law of mind and nature, as well as of all
historical development," read the first paragraph of section 57,
page 148, and note " identity in the different, assimilation of things
divided, separated." Then pass to section 100, for another law,
and note that " harmony is born of the reaction of contraries ; "
yea, " the identity of contraries^' page 266.
Make Plate IV., page 372, a study. Note on page 377 "the
principle of union in opposition," and its application to the signs
and constellations of the zodiac, with comments in section 152,
page 376.
The , author's philosophy crops out repeatedly in his work, and
may be specially noted in the last two sections.
Finally, reader, make this book a study, comprehend its thought,
live in that thought, and you will come to know that man once lived
in conscious unity with God and all created things.
S. M. WHIPPLE.
North Adams, Mass., August, lidh

WHAT THIS BOOK TEACHES.
FiEST and foremost, it teaches the personality of God ; that He
dwells somewhere, the same as man.
Symbolism is at the bottom of everything ancient. " Symbolic
writing was the most ancient among the cultured nations of an
tiquity " (page 32).
The shovel was the symbol of the primitive worship of mankind.
" The hearth, and the divinity of the hearth, constituted the focus
of all the ancient civilizations " (page 33).
" The God of the hearth was really the paternal head of the
household, and its members were his family" (page 34).
" The national God of the Jews was originally one with the
ancient Accadian or Cushite divinity of the hearth " (page 38).
" It was there that the institutions and civilizations of the ancient
world were cradled." " The consecrated hearth was His focus. His
altar, His house. His table. His fireside " (page 41).
" Such was one of the original conceptions of the Jewish theo
cracy." " This grand idea had been taught the world, earlier than
the time of Abraham, earlier than the Tower of Babel, and while
the Hamite and Semite, the Turanian and Aryan, were yet as one
family " (page 42).
" The notion that God dwells, inhabits, the same as man, was
everywhere fundamental ; and it was for this reason that tlie
naticJhal temple was considered God's house, and its altar the
National Hearth " (page 43).
" With the men of high antiquity God was not conceived as
wholly distinct from created nature. On the contrary, nature was
considered as the Face, the Name, the external manifestation of
divinity. As something purely universal and abstract, far removed
from the work of his own wisdom and power, the Deity was al
most wholly unknown in the first ages of humanity. . . . The
Divine Mind was everywhere present in the outward world, and

viu WHAT THIS BOOK TEACHES.
everything that had life was a symbol of God. . . . God is uni
versal, infinite, but not as an abstraction. He alone is really univer
sal who is present in his fullness in each and every particular. If
the Infinite dwells not in this tree and in this stone. He is nowhere.
If it is only beneath temple domes that the Deity takes up his
abode, primitive humanity was without a God, for then there were
no temples."
" It is mind alone that dwells,^ and it is matter alone that consti
tutes the dwelling. . . . God must dwell somewhere, the same as
man. This eternal law of all mind, which philosophy, science, and
speculative theology have now well-nigh forgotten, is that alone
which gives meaning to the phrase, ' House of God ' " (pages 61, 62).
" The assumption of the entire expanse of the sky as the abode
of the Heavenly Father was just that pantheistical conception ex
pressly discountenanced by the sacred writers, and the assumption
of a purely ideal region beyond the material heavens as such abode
found no justification in the sacred tradition ; this ideal region
was an additional world, superinduced upon the real cosmos, when
philosophy and science had consummated the divorce between mind
and matter, and it is just this divorce which is to-day undermining
the faith of mankind " (page 440).
Next to the personality of God is the chronology of creation, a
zodiacal chronology, the chronology of the stars ; whereon God in
his providence inscribed man's early history : his temptation, " the
fall," and a promised Redeemer in the seed of the woman ; — all
this, before there was an Abraham, a Moses or a Jew, or even
a written language. " The first prophecy ever uttered to man
. . . may be read to-day, as plainly inscribed on the celestial
sphere as in the third chapter of Genesis " (page 417).
It is my purpose now to interpret that early history and subse
quent revelations, in harmony with this book, the Old and -New
Testament scriptures, and my own individual experience.
I hazard nothing in saying that the spirit and intent of this
book is to teach a primitive revelation written in the heavens :
first, inscribed astronomically and zodiacally on the eastern sky ;
then, historically on the northern heavens which overlook " the
Mountain of the Assembly," the "Har-Moad" of Isaiah, the
Olympus of all Asia. Out from the Gan-Eden of Genesis  to tlie
east, to the west, to the south — tlie author has traced the earliest

WHAT THIS BOOK TEACHES. ix
traditions of mankind ; then, from the widely separated countries to
which the cultured races of antiquity had migrated, he has retraced
the same traditions to their common origin on the high table-lands
of Central Asia, "the home of all the traditions, the birthplace of
all the mysteries."
The traditions themselves fix the epoch of their birth, by reveal
ing the state of the heavens to which they all appertain, and
thus determine the chronology of creation.
That chronology is a three-strand cord, scientifically conceived
and inseparably bound together : one strand broken, all broken ;
one verified, all verified !
The first strand may be termed the creative epoch ; the second,
the celestial Eden ; the third, the primitive pole. Admit either of
these prime factors, and the other two have to be admitted. These
factors had their fulfillment more than ten thousand years before
our era (page 411).
Then, at the winter solstice, the, sign Capricorn was in the con
stellation Gemini, marking the creative epoch, the birth of the
organized world and the primitive man.
Then, at the vernal equinox, the sign Taurus was in the constel
lation Libra, or the Pincers of Scorpio, marking the celestial Eden
of the East, — the sacred mountain, the source of the four rivers,
the trees of life and knowledge, the first human pair, the serpent,
the great transgression, the fall, the expulsion, the cherubim, the
flaming sword, the seed of the woman, the promised Redeemer, the
hope of the world in all ages.
Then, at the creative epoch, the star Vega, in the constellation
Lyra, was marking the celestial Eden of the north, — the man, the
woman, the- serpent, the temptation, the great calamity, the Her
cules, the expected Redeemer, the hope of the heathen world.
These factors were in their respective places by virtue of the im
mutable \a.w, precession — the great "celestial clock " that keeps time
by centuries, and will keep it while the earth has an orbit round the
sun or the sun an orbit round a " vaster sun " — God ! whose presence
fills immensity ; whose substance permeates everything, animate or
inanimate ; whose power energizes the universe of mind and matter
in everlasting unity ; whose attributes are limited by his own crea
tion, in which He lives and moves and has his being, as man lives
and moves and has his being in Him, the supreme personality ; and

X WHAT THIS BOOK TEACHES.
yet, in everything, for everything, ruling everytliing in law, order,
and special providence ; the creator and destroyer of dynasties, of
kingdoms and empires according to His own will ; the foster-father
of every civilization, prescribing its boundaries ; the patron of every
religion, doing with His own whatsoever He will, in justice-love ^ to
all ; the hearth god of every dwelling, providing, directing, reform
ing, blessing ; rejoicuig with those who rejoice, sorrowing with
those who sorrow ; a present help in time of need ; the divinity in
everv soul created in His image ; disciplining that soul-image,
(divine and human,) into the likeness of Himself, Christ the su
preme example, — this is my conception of God ; ^ it is the under
lying conception of Dr. Miller's life-work ; the restoration to the
modern world of the ancient order of things ; a vindication of the
Old and New Testament scriptures ; a revelation of God's immanent
presence in the affairs of men, in the church, the state, the home,
the heart ; subduing, correcting, [mrifying, elevating, restoring man
to his first estate, through a, crucified and risen Redeemer, the
Christ, the Hercules, the seed of the woman that shall bruise the
serpent's head and redeem the human race. The Publisher.
November, 1891.
1 The justice of God is the love of God ; hence, _;asfee-love : the ground
thought of reform ; the underlying law of moral and spiritual growth ; the unseen
hand that smites to quicken, probes to cure, lacerates to heal ; kills, even, to
make alive. Such has been my experience, to know God's justice-\o\e ! Not
man's love, nor woman's love,- both partial and unjust, seeking its own and not
another's good. Divine love is not human love, nor is human love divine love, till
both blend in Justice-love to all, incarnated in the primitive man, and in all men, as
witnesses of His justice and judgment, here and hereafter, in the body or out, in
Heaven or in Hades.
2 As defined in this sentence of many members, and in the above note.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE AND
WORK, AND THE WRITER'S CONNECTION WITH
HIM IN THAT WORK.
Orlando Dana Milleb was born at Woodstock, County of
Windsor, State of Vermont, October 18, 1821.1
In boyhood, he joined the Methodist Episcopal Church, of which
his father was a member to the close of his life in 1878.
In 1845, he was graduated at Norwich University, Vermont ;
was accorded the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Military
Science and Civil Engineering, and subsequently the degree of
Master of Arts. After graduation, he entered the field of civil
engineering ; finding it unsuited to his tastes and mode of thought,
he left it for the law ; and finding that profession not adapted to
his aspirations, he entered the Christian ministry.
In 1848, he married Miss Cornelia M. Burton, Norwich, Ver
mont. To them were born three daughters. The youngest died in
infancy : the remaining two reside with their mother at South
Merrimack, New Hampshire.
For the first fifteen years after graduation, aside from the prac
tice of civil engineering and the study of law, he devoted his time
to Biblical studies and the modern languages. For twelve years of
that time, he had charge of parishes in the States of Vermont, Ohio,
New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. He was a member
of the Masonic order, and a Royal Arch Mason.
But it became evident to him that he was adapted to some other
work than the ministry, whereupon he resigned the pastorate of the
First Universalist Society of Nashua, N. H., and after an interval
of about five years, settled down to the study of the ancient lan
guages, especially the cuneiform and kindred tongues, that he
might become his own interpreter of Oriental thought.
1 The writer, Stephen Munson Whipple, was born at Whipple's Corners, town
of Pownal, County of Bennington, State of Vermont, May 6, 1821.

xii SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE.
After fifteen years' labor, which knew little abatement, his schol
arship, began to be recognized.
In 1875, he was elected a member of the American Oriental
Society, and subsequently a member of the Archaeological Insti
tute of America.
In 1880, the secretary of the Victoria Institute, or the Philoso
phical Society of Great Britain, thus wrote : —
"Sir, — The council presents its compliments, and sends a copy
of a paper recently read before this society, which it invites you to
join. . . . Should you kindly consent to prepare a paper for it,
the council will be much gratified."
In June, 1881, the secretary again wrote : —
" Sir, — I have the honor to convey to you the president and
council's invitation for you to join this society as a member or as
an associate."
To be elected, under the rules of that society, required the pay
ment of twenty guineas. This sum Dr. Miller did not feel able to
spare from his limited means, whereupon the Institute elected him
an honorary life member. In return for the honor thus conferred
upon hitn, he prepared a paper, which was read before the council
and printed in London. Thereafter, he was invited, through Pro
fessor Schrader, of Berlin University, to attend the world's congress
of Orientalists at Berlin ; and subsequently to attend the same
congress at St. Petersburg.
In 1882, he received notice from the Faculty of Tufts College
that, " with the unanimous approval of the Faculty and Board of
Trustees, our President honors our college by conferring upon vou
the honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity. . . . Permit me,"
writes the secretary of the Faculty, "to express my regret that we
have been so tardy in recognizing your merits. But the fact is,
we have been so attentive to our special work, and you have done
your work so quietly, that we were not aware, until quite recently,
what you were doing and what recognition your labors have re-
¦ceived by the scholars and learned bodies of America and Europe.
The honors you have received are indeed a very complimentarv
testimony to your scholarship, and, I have no doubt, most worthily
bestowed." It may not be without interest to the reader to know what papers
have been given to the public by Dr. Miller, and the circumstances
under which they were called forth, and where first published.

SKEI'CH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE. xiii
111 the April number of the "Bibliotheca Sacra" for 1875, there
appeared, in the editorial correspondence, two letters on " The Raw-
linson Theory respecting the Site of Ur of the Chaldees," — the first
from the pen of Rev. Lucien H. Adams, and the other, in reply,
embracing sundry criticisms, from the pen of Rev. Selah Merrill.
When these letters came under the observation of Rev. O. D. Mil
ler, he wrote a letter to the publisher, in which he says, " Rev. Mr.
Merrill's remarks, touching Ur of the Chaldees, aie well put, and
may be regarded as embodying the results of investigations to the
present time." This letter the publisher handed to Mr. Merrill,
who in a letter to Mr. Miller, under date of April 16, 1875, among
other things, said : " Our introduction has certainly been a novel
one, but none the less pleasant. From the tone of your letter —
which, by the way, there are not six men, and probably not over
four, in America who could have written the criticisms it con
tained," etc. And further, "By the way," Mr. Merrill inquired,
¦' to what denomination do you belong? " To which Mr. Miller
replied, " I am with the Universalists on the final destiny of man ;
in all else, I differ."
Thereafter, Professor Merrill took a friendly interest in Dr. Mil
ler, and commended him to the favorable notice of cuneiform
scholars and others of kindred thought.
When Rev. Mr. Peet proposed to publish an Oriental and Bibli
cal Journal, at Chicago, Illinois, Professor, now Dr. Merrill favored
the enterprise ; and when it was brought to the attention of Rev.
Mr. Miller, he consented to prepare articles on Oriental subjects to
be published in that journal, five of which appeared in the first vol
ume for 1880, as follows : —
" The Assyrio-Babylonian Doctrine of the Future Life, following
the Cuneiform Inscriptions ; " " The Antiquity of Sacred Writings
in the Valley of the Euphrates ; " " Accadian or SumeriHU ; "
" The Gan-Eden of Genesis ; " " The Pyramidal Temple." For
1881, three articles : " Solar Symbolism in the Ancient Religions : "'
" Symbolic Geography of the Ancients ; " " Dr. Brugsch-Bey, on
the Origin of the Egyptians, and the Egyptian Civilization." For
1882, "The Divinity of the Hearth;" and to it may be added,
" Testimony of the Cuneiform Texts to the Antediluvian Period of
the Mosaic History," which, as already noted, was read before the
council of tl.e Victoria Institute, and printed, in; London;.

xiv SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE.
These papers have been translated into other languages, and have
given to Dr. Miller whatever reputation lie may have as an Assyri-
ologist and cuneiform scholar.
Honors multiply. Among them, one may be noted here, from
" Tlie Cumberland Presbyterian Quarterly Review," edited by the
Theological Faculty of Cumberland University, Tenn.
In that review for April, 1883, in an article on "Eden: its
Location and Geography in the Bible and out of.it," Rev. Dr. Bu
chanan says : " For tiansktions of passages from the French found
below, I am under obligations to Rev. O. D. Miller, of Nashua,
N. H., whom Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of ' The American Antiquarian
and Oriental Journal,' says is the finest Assyriologist in America.
For several years, I have watched his papers in ' The American An
tiquarian and Oriental Journal,' with great profit and interest, and
can commend him as to candor and learning in antiquarian
studies." It may be said that these honors, from first to last, were wholly
unsouglit by the recipient; he was too modest and retiring to think
of preferment, always shrinking from contact with the world, and,
in his latter days, from men, except in his study ; there, scholars
were always welcome. One, in a letter addressed to the writer
dated Andover, Mass., September 1, 1890, says of him : —
"Dr. Miller was conspicuous for his modesty in his judgment of
himself and his work. He was sincere in his search after truth and
patient in all his investigations. He was brave and hopeful under
very trying pecuniary difficulties. He was appreciative of the ser
vices and work of other scholars to a degree far beyond what is
usually found among close students. In his faithfulness as a friend,
there was something manly and inspiring. His words were an en
couragement to perseverance and renewed effort in study, and from
his quiet home and life there went forth a perpetual blessing.
Yours sincerel}^
Selah Meeeill."
It was in his study, in our walks, in the forest, that I heard over
and over again, a hundred times repeated, the story of his life-work,
until I became familiar with its leading thought ; and being myself
an expert, I scanned his facts, probed his theory, and believed in
the outcome of his more than human effort to recover from oblivion
the " primitive revelation written in the heavens."

SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE. xv
The reader may naturally ask. How did Dr. Miller maintain him
self and those dependent upon him after withdrawing from the
ministry ? How did he obtain books and periodicals to carry on
his work ? These questions are answered, in part, in a " Memo
rial of a Scholar," published soon after his death, by Rev. Dr. Flan
ders : —
" I am glad," says the doctor, " to record that in his labor of love
he was assisted by Mr. S. M. Whipple, an old and devoted friend,
who not only sympathized with his desire for knowledge and his
lofty aims, but for many years took upon himself the maintenance
of his family, that he might pursue his cherished studies free from
care." It may be further said that rare and costly books, catalogued in
the libraries of Europe, were sought out and added to his library,
for study and reference, to fortify and strengthen his method of in
terpreting Oriental thought.
My acquaintance with Dr. Miller commenced in January, 1852,
and continued with slight interruptions to the close of his life in
1888. In the last days of 1863, — after the termination of a business
venture which proved disastrous in the extreme, without which,
perchance, this book had not been written, — I went to see him,
to persuade him, if possible, to enter upon the work foreshadowed
to him at Albany, N. Y., in the spring of 1851 : " There is a prim
itive revelation written in the heavens. Obey God, and thou shalt
read it, and leave it a legacy to the world."
It was here that my work commenced which enabled him to re-
ahze the promise made to him, thirteen years before. For a term
of years, he pursued his life-work in the way of preparation.
In October, 1869, he moved from New Hampshire, to Welleslry,
Mass., there to resume his work and carry it to completion. His
surroundings were all that he could wish or desire, — free from
care or reasonable anxiety ; free to follow the lead of the Divine
Power which he claimed was ever present to aid and direct his
work. That work was finished, and the preface written, in Novem
ber, 1876, and is now before the reader.
In the spring of 1877, the author conceived the idea that it was
not well for liim to be longer dependent upon another, and pro
posed a separation, he naming the terms, all of which were com-

xvi SKEI'CH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE.
plied with; and thus he was enabled to purchase a farm in the
vicinity of Nashua, N. H., and move on to it in June of that year,
with every prospect of enjoying that independence which his being
ever craved, but never realized.
Here it is due to both to say that in 1865 the twain entered
into a verbal covenant, that if one would devote his time and talent
to recover from oblivion "the primitive revelation written in
the heavens," the other would share equally with' him the proceeds
of his labors, as God should prosper him. And let me add, by
way of explanation, that, for twelve yeais, something more than
one iialf the proceeds of uiy labors passed directly or indirectly
through his hands, as the accounts kept by me clearly show. I
take no credit to myself for what I did for him and his family, that
he might do the woik appointed him to do. I simply did what I
was moved upon to do, — " Cast thy bread upon the waters ; for
thou shalt find it after many days."
By comparing dates, it will be seen that what has been given to
the public on Oriental subjects was published years after the
author's life-work was done, and the record of that work filed away,
against the time when God would call it forth to vindicate the
great and good men of the prehistoric past, the claims of the
Mosaic record, and the Christ of the Christian church. The time,
it would seem, is at hand, the conditions are ripe, for " the Primi
tive Revelation written in the heavens" — tlie " Har-Moad," tlie
" Mountain of tlie Ass-mbly," the Chronology of creation, wherein
lies the religion, tlie philosophy, the science of all created things,
expressed in the outward world in duality, male and female (sec.
179), but in God, joined in one androgynous unity, and hence He
is the Supreme Personality, in the likeness of which man was cre
ated, and thus became the microcosm of the universe, and the living
Temple of God.
After harvesting the crops of his newly acquired farm, he ap
plied himself to study, and the following letter best conveys the
harmony existing between us after separation. Nashua, N. H., January 17, 18'78.
Feiend Whipple, — Yours of the 11th instant came to hand
last night. I find, according to its terms, and the interpretation
it gives of your previous letter, that you are indeed doing better

SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE. xvii
than I asked, for which I am under much obligation to you, and
hereby tender many thanks. I have no doubt that you sincerely
design in the future to do better by me than I could even hope.
As for the funds for publishing the book, since you have such
an interest in it, and have contributed so much to it already, and
since, when published, it is to be dedicated to you, it is only proper
that you should be permitted to aid in its publication ; hence, what
you offer in this respect, also, is thankfully received.
I am now busy at work upon it. I shall attempt to improve it
here and there ; and now that you propose to bear the expense,
mostly, of publication, I shall feel that I can afford to go to con
siderable expense in collecting more authorities. Thine,
O. D. Miller.
Thereafter he revised, in part, Chapter XIII. of " the book ; "
otherwise, with the addition of several notes and " more authori
ties," it is the sarne as when finished in 1876.
In 1880, he summarized the zodiacal, astronomical, and historical
portions of this book ; and for the residue of time allotted to him to
work, he prepared an elaborate treatise on " The Eschatology of the
New Testament ; " setting forth the Bible doctrine of the last
things, which may be accepted as the complement of the first
things, or "the primitive revelation written in the heavens," to
be hereafter published, and thus link Genesis to Revelation, and so
round out the beginning and end of things temporal and eternal.
In the spring of 18S6, he sold his farm in Nashua and purchased
a place in South Merrimack, where his last days were spent in hope
that God would gird on anew his armor and give him a life-long
victory over- the adverse power of the unseen world; but alas for
human hopes, his work was done, however incomplete.
And yet, I have reason to believe that he lived at times the life
of God; lived in conscious unity with Him and wi:h nature, as did
the primitive man ; and I have reason to further believe that it
was the hope and aspiration of his life to realize in his own being
the words of Christ : " The prince of this world cometh, and hath
nothing in me" (.John xiv. 30). Rut he could not maintain that
unity against " the prince of this world ; " who, though often
" cast out," would come again, and that conscious unity would

xviii SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE.
depart, to be recovered, then lost, then recovered ; and so his spirit
alternated between the law of mind and the law of sin, — the flesh,
— till paralysis and the grave put an end to the conflict and brought
deliverance from " the body of this death " and the sore trials by
which " he was made perfect through suffering." He was a just
and loving spirit in a body of death ; but is now transferred to
the "Mount of the Divine Presence," to the city of the living God,
to enter upon a work for Christ and his church denied him in "the
body of this death " (Rom. vii. 24).
After an absence of four and a half years I went to see him. It
was in October, 1887, and I spent with him the sixty-sixth anniver
sary of his life on earth.
In August, 1888, I went to see him again, wisely and well,
for the shadows of evening had begun to gather around him ; but I
did not look upon his declining health and childish sleeps, in which
night lengthened into day, and day into night, other than the rest,
necessary to recuperation, newness of life, strength, and vigor, to
enable him to resume work, and carry out a long-cherished desire
to write the revelation of God in human historj^, especially in the
EXPEEIBNCE of INDIVIDUALS.
But he did not .see another anniversary, for on the 11th of Oc
tober, 1888, he slept the good sleep, to awake in the beautiful man
sions of " the j.ust made perfect," prepared for them from the foun
dations of the world.
And so we come at last to his life-work, and submit that work to
the candid judgment of the world ; confident that whoever makes
this book a study will come to know the primitive man ; come to
know the capacity of man to know God as a living presence in the
affairs of r-ei ; come to know the vital force of the words sincerely
uttered ; " Thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth, as it
is in heaven; " and so join hand and heart with the good and true
everywhere, and, with one united effort, lead man in the way of
supreme excellence ; " Be ye perfect, even as your Father in heaven
is perfect ;" and so fulfill the law of love, — love to God, love to
man, — for on this law depends the unity of all things, even Chris
tian unity, so dear to every believing heart.
S. M. W.
December, 1891.

GENERAL CONTENTS.
BOOK L
CUSHITE ARCHAEOLOGY.

CHAPTER L
PAGE
Cdshite Origi:-.' of the Sacred Writing, Language, and Litera
ture OF Babylon  .... 1

CHAPTER IL
The Divinity of the Hearth  '.  ,31
CHAPTER IIL
The Cabiri  65
BOOK IL
MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY.
CHAPTER IV.
Question of the Origin of the Documents, and of the Analo
gies existing between them  101
CHAPTER V.
Creation conceived as a Temple, and the Temple as an Image
of Creation  133
CHAPTER VI.
A Particular Heaven and Earth regarded as the Archetypal
Temple  167

XX GENERAL CONTENTS.
BOOK IIL
THE CELESTIAL EARTH.
CHAPTER Vn.
The Terrestrial Paradise assimilated to the Greek Hades . . 195
CHAPTER VIIL
The Theory op the Ancient Civilizations  ^. ... 233
CHAPTER IX.
The Earth Goddess  261
BOOK IV.
THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA.
CHAPTER X.
Zodiacal Arrangement of these Asterisms  283
CHAPTER XL
Zodiacal Arrangement of the Antediluvian Genealogies . . . 301
CHAPTER XIL
The Cherubim  324
BOOK V.
ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY.
CHAPTER XTIL
The Problem stated and its Chief Points eliminated .... 343
CHAPTER XIV.
Primitive Adjustment of the Zodiacal System  372

GENERAL CONTENTS. xxi
CHAPTER XV.
The Primitive Celestial Pole  394
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
CHAPTER XVL
A Summary of Results  413
List of Authors and their Works  441
PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS.
Portrait op Author  Frontispiece
Plate 1  33
Plate U  144
Plate HI. . .'  284
Plate IV  372
Plate V  395

HAR-MOAD.

BOOK I.
CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.
CUSHITE OEIGIN OP THE SACEED WRITING, LANGUAGE, AND
LITEEATUEE OE BABYLON.
Section 1. The problem whose solution is to be attempted in
this chapter is one upon which I should hesitate to enter, did it not
seem forcibly to present itself, as the first difficulty to be encoun
tered, in the investigations to which the following pages are devoted.
The cuneiform system of writing, together with the more ancient
language and literature of which it was made the depository, is to
constitute one of the chief sources of information upon the subjects
treated in the present volume. It would be desirable, if possible,
not only to determine who were the inventors of this paleographical
system, but to fix ethnologically their character, as well as to clas
sify their language and literature. To be able to settle these points
satisfactorily would facilitate in some measure the investigations to
follow, although it could not be said by any means to constitute
their basis. But unfortunately these questions are involved in
obscurities and difficulties, the nature and extent of which can be
fully appreciated only by those who have devoted to them the most
careful consideration. I am aware that, among cuneiform scholars,
a theory has been adopted, being now held by the majority, pro
bably, which affirms the Turanian, or more definitely the Ugro-Fin-
nish character of the people, language, literature, etc., to which we
refer ; and that for a still more specific and local designation, the

2 HAR-MOAD.
term Accadian, derived from Ahhad, Biblical " Accad " is coming
gradually into use; if not for its technical accuracy, at least for the
sake of convenience and uniformity. At first, I adopted without
hesitation the theory and terminology here indicated. But every
subsequent attempt to give a scientific account of them, especial y
in view of the recent discussions of these questions in France, only
served to render apparent the extreme uncertainty in which the
entire subject is involved. The very pertinent and suggestive
remarks of M. Ernest Renan, in his annual report to the Asiatic
Society of France, for the year 1875, the substance of which as
bearing upon our subject will be hereafter presented, have finally
afforded me the hint that has determined the course of investiga
tions in the present chapter. M. Renan has employed the term
Cushite, a title that suggests at once the theory and terminology
in perfect accord with the Mosaic account of the original settlement
of the Euphrates valley, and which ought, when properly applied,
to offer a satisfactory explanation of all the facts pertaining to our
problems. Indeed, the hypothesis, substantially, long since pro
posed by the Messrs. Rawlinson, if it had been more critically and
consistently worked out, contained all the elements of a complete
solution of these questions. I cannot hope by any efforts of my
own to supply fully the defects of the hypothesis here alluded to,
but the materials so abundantly supplied by others, together with
the suggestions afforded by the recent discussions ofFrench Assyri-
ologues, ought to constitute some ground of confidence in a partial
success in this direction. I avail myself, first, of the advantage of
M. Renan's valuable and critical remarks.
Sec. 2. In the year 1874, M. Jos. Hal^vy had submitted a learned
paper to the Asiatic Society, in which he strongly protested against
the theory, to use his own expression, of " the pretended Turanians
of Babylon ; " insisting upon the strictly Semitic character of the
population, language, literature, as well as paleographical system
appertaining to the Chaldseo-Assyrian empires.^ Although not him
self a specialist in cuneiform studies, his familiarity with the Ham
ite and Semitic formations of language enabled M. Hal^vy not only
to expose the weaker points of the Turanian hypothesis, but to
develop some quite serious objections to it. Dr. Jules Oppert, hav
ing been one of the founders of cuneiform science, and being one of
'^Journal Asialique, June, 1874, pp. 461-536.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 3
the first, if not the very first, to proclaim the Turanian origin of the
Babylonian civihzation and culture, was naturally the one to whom
all eyes were turned for the defense of a theory which had been
adopted by the majority of cuneiform scholars, but which was now
assailed with such power. Dr. Oppert is a man of great ability,
as well as learning, and his reply was worthy of his distinguished
reputation.^ It proved, to say the least, that M. Hal^vy's argument
was in no sense a finality. The fact that the primitive language,
as it appears in the earliest inscriptions, was so different from the
Semitic, or the Semitic-Assyrian, as to render the bilingual texts
necessary, the translation of one idiom into another, was seen at
once to be fatal to the extreme Semitic theory. On the other hand,
it was to be admitted that M. Hal^vy had essentially weakened the
ultra-Turanian hypothesis. The inquiry at this stage of the discus
sion almost forced itself upon the minds of scholars : whether a
middle ground did not exist between the two extremes ? In other
words, was it not possible to suppose here an original Hamite or
Cushite formation, which had served as the basis of Babylonian
civilization and culture ? It is at this point that the remarks of
M. Renan should be introduced. With his habitual caution under
such circumstances, this eminent critic proceeds : —
" We doubt then, even now, notwithstanding the impression
made upon us by the learned authorities, and by certain facts suffi
ciently striking, whether the foundation of the Assyrian civilization
was Turanian. We do not believe, on the other hand, that it was
Semitic. We regard our position as unaffected by the proofs,
according to which M. Oppert was able to show twenty years since,
that the cuneiform system of writing was an importation, and that,
in the Assyrian texts, properly speaking, it was applied to a lan
guage for which it was never invented. For what language was this
invention ? We fear to add only new elements to a confusion worse
than that of Babel, in reminding you of a class of scholars some
twenty years ago, among whom I esteem the venerable Baron
D'Eokstein, now too much neglected, as holding the first rank,
scholars who ventured, rashly without doubt, to designate this
primitive formation by the name of Cushite, placing it in affinity
with the Hamite civilization. This Hamite and Cushite founda
tion, constituting the two civilizations of Egypt and Assyria, equal
in antiquity, closely resembling each other, and withal anterior to
the entrance of the Aryans and Semites into history, was for us a
1 Journal Asiatique, May-June, 1875, pp. 442-497.

4 HAR-MOAD.
seducing hypothesis. It is easy to find a better one, without doubt,
but the proof is wanting ; and we still refuse to see in the most
ancient civilization of Babylon the work of Finns and Lapps." ^
In his annual report the year before, M. Renan had alluded to
these questions, and had used the following language : —
" If we employ the term Turanian in its strict sense, if we attri
bute the origin of the refined civilization of Babylon to the Turks,
Finns, and Hungarians, to races, in fact, who have only destroyed,
but have never created a civilization of their own, we simply declare
that this astonishes us." ^
Thus, M. Renan is unable to see in the Lapps and Finns, or in
any people directly related to them ethnologically, for whom it
would be impossible otherwise to prove a world-historical impor
tance, the real founders of a civilization that filled all antiquity
with its renown. He would much prefer to recognize here the
mental and physical activity of a race that never failed to mark its
progress with powerful dynasties, with monuments of industry and
grandeur. It would be very difficult for any one, I think, not to
be more or less affected with similar sentiments. But as regards
the hypothesis put forth by him, the author here referred to makes
no pretensions to originality. On the contrary, he but asks for a
reconsideration of the views of a former period, advanced by those
to whom modern criticism is indebted for many of its most splendid
achievements. In other words, the Cushite origin of the Chaldaeo-
Assyrian civilization, which is substantially the basis upon which
the Messrs. Rawlinson labored long since to solve the problem be
fore us, constitutes for him the true point of departure, if we would
arrive at permanent and satisfactory results.
Sec. 3. The theory of the eminent English authorities just
named, as I have already expressed the opinion, contained the prin
cipal elements of truth, respecting the subject upon which we have
entered. Some defects in the method of working it out, if my esti
mate of their labors here is correct, were the chief cause of its being
to a great extent abandoned by cuneiform scholars, and of the adop
tion of the extreme Turanian hypothesis as the substitute. As a
basis of further criticism and progress, it will be most convenient to
present in some detail the scheme which was formerly proposed by
these authors. In the 11th essay published in the first volume of
1 Journal Asiatique, July, 1875, pp. 39, 40. a Ibid., July, 1874, p. 42.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 5
the new version of Herodotus by Rev. Geo. Rawlinson, the preface
to which is dated January, 1858, it is probable that we should find
the views of Sir Henry Rawlinson at this period, although his ini
tials are not attached to this paper in the American edition of the
work. At the early stage of cuneiform researches here indicated,
it would be unreasonable to demand matured opinions on such a
difficult subject, even from the founders of the science, among whom
Sir Henry is to be placed in the foremost ranks. In the essay to
which I refer, the Turanians are regarded as the primitive popula
tion, settled in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris. At that
epoch linguistic differences had not become very marked ; but grad
ually the Hamite or Cushite formation made its appearance, and
out of this Semitism was developed ; an event which the author is
inclined to date from about 2000 years B. C. In his table of eth
nological affinities appended to the essay, the writer places the
Hamites, including the Susianians, Chaldseans, etc., in the general
category of Turanian populations. But it is clear that he does not
consider the Turanians, strictly so termed, as the inventors of the
cuneiform system of writing, and the founders of the Babylonian
civilization. It is only when the original Turanian has developed
itself into the Hamite or Cushite formation that this invention
and civilizing process definitely take place. Thus their really
Cushite or Hamite origin is the hypothesis to which the mind of
the author is evidently inclined, at this early stage of cuneiform
research. We subjoin here some extracts embodying his views,
from which our interpretation of them has been drawn : —
" The monuments of Babylon furnish abundant evidence of the
fact that a Hamite race held possession of that country in the ear
liest times, and continued to be a powerful element in the popula
tion down to a period but very little preceding the accession of
Nebuchadnezzar. The most ancient historical records found in the
country, and many of the religious and scientific documents to the
time of the conqueror of Judsea, are written in a language which
belongs to the AUophylian family, presenting affinities with the
dialects of Africa on the one hand, and with those of high Asia on
the other. The people by whom this language was spoken, whose
principal tribe was the Akkad, may be regarded as represented by
the Chaldseans of the Greeks, the Casdein of the Hebrew writers.
This race seems to have gradually developed the type of language
known as Semitism, which became in the course of time the general
language of the country ; still, as a priest-caste a portion of the

6 HAR-MOAD.
Akkad preserved their ancient tongue, and formed the learned and
scientific Chaldseans of later times."
" The early Babylonian language, in its affinity with the Susianian,
the second column of the cuneiform trilingual inscriptions, the
Armenian cuneiform, and the Mantchoo Tartar on the one hand ;
with the Galla, the Gheez, and the ancient Egyptian on the other,
may be cited as a proof of the original unity between the languages
of Africa and Asia; a unity sufficiently shadowed out in Genesis
(x. 6-20), and confirmed by the manifold traditions concerning the
two Ethiopics, the Cushites above Egypt, and the Cushites of the
Persian Gulf. Hamitism, then, although no doubt the form of
speech out of which Semitism was developed, is itself rather Tura
nian than Semite."
" The primitive or Turanian character of speech exhibited a power
of development, becoming first Hamite, and then, after a consider
able interval, and by a fresh effort, throwing out Semitism. It is
impossible to say at what exact time the form of speech as Hamite
originated. Probably its rise preceded the invention of letters,
and there are reasons for assigning the origination of the change to
Egypt." " The development of Semitism, as has been already re
marked, belongs to the early part of the 20th century B. c, long
subsequently to the time when Hamite kingdoms were set up on
the banks of the Nile and of the Euphrates." ^
Sec. 4. We have introduced some of the briefer extracts at the
close, with a view to indicate Sir Rawlinson 's general ideas, at the
time, as regards the actual period to which the rise of Hamitism
should be assigned. He very prudently declines to fix the date,
and it would be hazardous for any one to do so even at the present
day. However, as he dates the rise of Semitism in the 20th cen
tury B. c, long after the development of Hamitism, he could not
assign the latter consistently to a period later than the 24th or
25th century before our era. The author's chronological estimate
for the rise of Semitism is remarkably correct, even in the light of
all the facts known to-day ; for it would be difficult to prove the
existence of this form of speech at a period much earlier. The
indications are, however, that Hamitism preceded by some centu
ries the dates assigned to it above. According to the views of M. F.
Lenormant, a Cushite development existed at Babylon long prior
to the era of Urukh, or Lik-Bagas, the earliest known king of Chal-
da;a.2 As to the period of Urukh's reign. Rev. Geo. Rawlinson
remarks : —
1 Rawlinson's Herodotus, i. p. 525, note ; and pp. 526, 533, 534.
2 Vid. La Magie, pp. 295, 29H.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 7
" We must place his accession at least as early as B. o. 2326 ; pos
sibly it may have fallen a century earlier." ^
These data seem to necessitate a chronology, for the origin of the
Cushite development of Babylon, of at least 2500 to 3000 years
B. c. But as regards the ethnological character of the language,
writing, and literature of which there is here question, it is apparent
that Sir Henry was strongly inclined, when he wrote the foregoing
extracts, to the Hamite or Cushite hypothesis. He places the in
vention of letters after the development of Hamitism. But he
identifies the Cushites with the Accadians, and likewise with the
ChaldiBans. Here are two elements of confusion, judging from the
standpoint of cuneiform scholars. The Accadians are now sup
posed, by the majority of Assyriologues, to have been Turanians,
strictly speaking ; while others regard the Chaldseans of Babylon as
properly Semites. The classification of the Hamites under the gen
eral category of Turanian populations, regarded from the point of
view now generally adopted, is not sufficiently definite for scientific
purposes, and tends to complicate the problem before us. Never
theless, the affinities traced, and correctly too, between the sacred
language of Babylon and the Galla, Gheez, etc., of Africa on one
hand, and the languages of high Asia on the other, point toward
a mingling of Hamite and Turanian elements in one general devel
opment, which might be designated either as Hamite or Turanian,
yet too loosely for the purposes of strict accuracy. The Hamite
element allies itself to the dialects of Africa, and the Turanian to
those of high Asia ; there is a marked difference between them ;
and it is necessary to maintain this distinction if we would attain to
anything like scientific results. It was chiefly for the want of this,
as it appears to me, that the theory proposed by the Messrs. Raw
linson, as a solution of the problem in question, proved to be quite
inadequate, at the same time that it involved nearly all the elements
of a correct solution. We pass now to a consideration of the views
of Rev. Geo. Rawlinson, who devotes an entire chapter to the sub
ject before us, in the second edition of his " Five Monarchies," etc.
The author's theory may be inferred generally from the subjoined
passage : —
" On the whole, therefore, it seems most probable that the race
designated in Scripture by the hero-founder Nimrod, and among the
1 Five Monarchies, i. p. 156.

8 HAR-MOAD.
Greeks by the eponym of Belus, passed from East Africa, by way
of Arabia, to the valley of the Euphrates, shortly before the open
ing of the historical period. Upon the ethnic basis here indicated,
there was grafted, it would seem, at a very early period, a second,
probably Turanian element, which very importantly affected the
character and composition of the people. The Burbur or Akkad,
who are found to have been a principal tribe under the early kings,
are connected by name, religion, and in some degree by language,
with an important people of Armenia, called Burbur and XJrarda,
the Alarodians (apparently) of Herodotus. It has been conjectured
that this race at a very remote date descended upon the plain coun
try, conquering the original Cushite inhabitants, and by degrees
blending with them, though the fusion remained incomplete to the
time of Abraham. The language of the early inscriptions, though
Cushite in its vocabulary, is Turanian in many points of its gram
matical structure, as in its use of post-positions, particles, and pro
nominal suffixes ; and it would seem, therefore, scarcely to admit of a
doubt that the Cushites of Lower Babylon must in some way or other
have become mixed with a Turanian people. The mode and time
of the commixture are matters altogether beyond our knowledge." ^
The author does not state definitely, in the foregoing extract, to
which of the two peoples brought into view by him he would at
tribute the sacred writing and science of Babylon, and the original
foundation of her civilization. But the language following seems
to imply that the Cushites were the principals in this work : —
" For the last three thousand years, the world has been mainly
indebted for its advancement to the Semitic and Indo-European
races ; but it was otherwise in the first ages. Egypt and Babylon,
Mizraim and Nimrod, both descendants of Ham, led the way, and
acted as the pioneers of mankind in the various untrodden fields of
art, literature, and science. Alphabetic writing, astronomy, historv,
chronology, architecture, plastic art, sculpture, navigation, agricul
ture, textile industry, seem, all of them, to have had their origin in
one or other of these two countries." ^
1 Five Monarchies, i. pp. 64, 65.
'^ Ibid., p. 60. From the author's language cited in the text, we would natu
rally infer the Cushite origin of the cuneiform system of writing. But formerly
Sir H. Rawlinson had been strongly inclined to trace the origin of this system
to the Hamites of Egypt. Thus he observed ; 
"Whether the cuneiform letters, in their primitive shapes, were intended, like
the hieroglyphs, to represent actual objects, and were afterwards degraded to their
present forms; or whether the point of departure was from the hieratic or per
haps the demotic character, the first change from a picture to a si<Jn havino- thus
taken place before As.syria formed her alphabet, I will not undertake to decide-

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 9
Sec. 5. Such are the principal points in the theory relative to
the problem before us, as it passed from the hands of the author in
1871, the date of the volume from which the quotations have been
made. The last extract seems to affirm the Cushite origin of the
Babylonian civilization in all its characteristics. Yet the author
appears in other passages to attribute all this to the Chaldseans ;
and by the Chaldseans he means, as expressly stated by him, the
mixed population composed chiefly of Cushites from Africa and
Turanians from the north, together with a less proportion at first
of Semitic and even Aryan elements. As relates to our general
problem, and especially with a view to definite conceptions, the
term Ohaldcean ought to be excluded from the discussion, since it is
connected in the past, and even in the present state of science, with
so many different and quite, contradictory ideas. Hardly two writ
ers could be named who attach to this term precisely the same eth
nological value ; and it is to me somewhat doubtful whether Rev.
Rawlinson himself employs it uniformly in the same sense. The
designation of the Babylonian civilization, therefore, as Chaldsean
appears to me quite objectionable, since the true import of this title
is far from being settled. Another point made by the author, in
volving no small degree of uncertainty, is the supposed conquest of
the Cushites' of Babylon at a remote period, by a Turanian race,
the Burbur or TJrarda, descending from the mountains of Armenia.
Directly opposed to this view is the opinion of many Assyriologues,
that an original Turanian population was conquered by a Semitic
race. It would be difficult to reconcile those two suppositions, and
much more so, to produce really conclusive evidence in favor of
either of them. The ground here is debatable even at the present
hut the whole structure of the Assyrian graphic system evidently betrays an Egyptian
origin." — Commentary on the Cuneif. Inscript. of Babylonia and Assyria. Lon
don, 1850, p. 4.
This extract was penned as early as 1850. No one now would think of deriv
ing the cuneiform system from Egypt. It is curious to note the great changes
that have taken place in the views of cuneiform scholars since the foregoing
extract was published. That the cuneiform system originated in high Asia, in
stead of in Egypt, or in a region far to the north or northeast, in relation to
Babylonia, seems at the present day to be a well-established fact. As regards the
original form of the characters, there seems to be no proof that they were pic
tures of concrete objects. What is termed their hieratic form, which rarely shows
any trace of hieroglyphism, was probably primitive. There exists no proof to the
contrary.

10 HAR-MOAD.
time, and it is thus an element of doubt, so far as concerns our
general problem. But the most objectionable position assumed by
the author is that which derives the primitive Cushite population
of Babylon from East Africa, or the Ethiopia above Egypt. The
Cushites of Africa, judging from the notices of them upon the
Egyptian monuments, had not assumed any importance at the com
mencement of the Middle Empire, dating from the twelfth dj'nasty.^
An emigration to the Euphrates before this period, therefore, is
hardly to be supposed ; and one subsequently to it would not an
swer the conditions of the problem, for Babylon must have been
settled long before. Again, the earliest traditions of Southern
Arabia are directly in conflict with Rev. G. Rawlinson's views re
specting such an emigration. According to the investigations of M.
Caussin de Perceval, followed by tho^e of M. F. Lenormant, the
first Cushite dynasty of Southern Arabia, under the name of " The
Adites," was founded by colonists from the Euphrates, being over
thrown about eighteen centuries B. C. It was followed by another
Cushite dynasty bearing the same name, which was destroyed by
the Joctanian Arabians.^ Now, the commencement of the first
dynasty, whose overthrow is dated 1800 years B. c, must be carried
back to at least 2000 years before our era, at which period a move
ment of Cushite populations takes place from the Euphrates into
Arabia. It will be seen at a glance that these data do not admit of
any such emigration from East Africa, through Arabia, to Babylon,
as Rev. Rawlinson supposes. Finally, our author's position is
opposed to the usual interpretations of the Mosaic account of the
first settlement of Babylon. The direction of the movement of pop
ulations to the land of Shinar, under the leadership of Nimrod, is
said to have been from the east instead of from the west or south
west : that is to say, from the African Ethiopia.
It will be seen, from the foregoing remarks, that the solution of
the problem upon which we are engaged, as originally proposed by
Sir Henry RawHnson, and more recently worked out by Rev
George Rawlinson, must be regarded as defective in some impor
tant particulars ; although, as I have already expressed the convic
tion. It contains all the essential elements of a satisfactory theory
1 Vid. F. Chabas, Etudes L'Antiq. Historique, p. 132.
^ Vid. Lenormant, Man. d'Hist. Ancienne, etc., t. iii. pp. 256-258 ; and 261-

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 11
upon the subject to which it relates. So far as I know, a really sci
entific value was never claimed for it ; nothing more, in fact, than
a statement of the leading facts, together with such inferences drawn
from them as the authors believed legitimate. For strictly scientific
purposes, the theory was put forth in terms too general, and it
lacked certain critical distinctions that would be desirable, so far as
the state of knowledge permitted. It is quite possible that at the
present writing the authors themselves have modified their views
somewhat, and, indeed, I believe Sir Henry is to-day much inclined
to favor the Turanian rather than the Cushite hypothesis. Be this
as it may, it was quite certain that cuneiform scholars would not be
long satisfied with a theory involving so many points of doubt. The
attempt would be made to narrow the problem down, to reduce it
to as few elements as possible ; and we pass now to an examination
of the later phases assumed by these questions ; to the opinions, in
fact, as at present held by the majority of Assyriologues.
Sec. 6. The two ethnic titles — admitting for the present that
they have strictly an ethnological value — which appear most fre
quently in the cuneiform texts, relating to the ancient populations
settled upon the banks of the Euphrates, are Sumir and Akkad, des
ignating the countries, or Sumeri and Akkadi, applied to the people
inhabiting them. As usually held, the first named were properly
Semites, while the others were Turanians. Dr. Jules Oppert, how
ever, maintains that the Sumeri were the real Turanians of Baby
lon, the Akkadi being regarded by him as a Semitic population.
Not to enter here upon a discussion of this question, the opinions of
the majority will be adopted. The Accadians, then, were properly
the Turanians of the Euphrates valley ; and they were, as now
held, the inventors of the cuneiform system of writing, as well as
the founders of the Babylonian civilization. They were the Finns
and Lapps to which M. Renan has alluded. Of course, he does not
believe the Accadians were such ; and even the advocates of the
Turanian hypothesis regard them as only distantly related to the
Lapps and Finns of modern times. Mr. George Smith gives ex
pression to the present views of most cuneiform scholars in the pas
sage here subjoined : —
" Intimately connected with these historical studies is the ques
tion of the origin and history of the great Turanian race which first
established civilization in the Euphrates valley. It is the opinion

12 HAR-MOAD.
of the majority of Assyrian scholars that the civilization, literature,
mythology, and science of Babylon and Assyria, were not the work
of a Semitic race, but of a totally different people, speaking a lan
guage quite distinct from that of all the Semitic^ tribes. There is,
however, a more remarkable point than this ; it is supposed that at
a very early period the Akkad or Turanian population, with its
high cultivation and remarkable civilization, was conquered by the
Semitic race, and that the conquerors imposed only their language
on the conquered, adopting from the subjugated people its mytho
logy, laws, literature, and almost every art of civilization. Such a
curious revolution would be without parallel in the history of the
world, and the most singular point in connection with the subject
is the entire silence of the inscriptions as to any such conquest.
There does not appear any break in their traditions, or change in
the character of the country to mark this great revolution, and the
question of how the change was effected, or when it took place, is at
present quite obscure." ^
If Mr. Smith had aimed to overthrow completely the hypothesis
which he explains, it would be difficult to conceive a more effectual
method of doing so than by the statements contained in the last
half of the foregoing extract, assuming them to be correct, which
they undoubtedly are. It is morally impossible that a series of cir
cumstances, such as he describes, should occur in the natural history
of any nation or country. As the writer well observes, it would be
" without a parallel in the history of the world." According to the
terms of the description, the Semites must have been in a semi-bar
barous condition ; an ignorant, nomadic race, at the period of their
conquest of the highly cultured Accadian population ; for they are
said to have borrowed from the conquered people " its mythology,
laws, literature, and almost every art of civilized life." In the first
place, then, for a rude, uncultured race to impose its language upon
a highly civilized people, at the same time adopting its mythology,
literature, science, institutions and laws, and even its mode of writ
ing, is virtually a contradiction of terms. If, however, such an
anomalous event be supposed, for the conquerors to so obliterate all
traces of a revolution thus radical that the keen eye of modern
criticism is unable to detect them, and to show that the continuity
of development has been interrupted, the chain of traditionary ideas
broken, must be regarded, I think, as wholly incredible. Reverse
all the conditions of this statement ; say that it was a cultured race
^ Assyr. Discoveries, pp. 449, 450.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 18
that imposed its language, literature, institutions, and laws upon a
people ignorant and barbarous, effacing from history all indications
of the previous condition, — there is then nothing in the proposition
that is repugnant to reason. But it would require sufficient proof
of such a change as having taken place, before assuming it as a
basis of scientific conclusions. According to the supposition this,
too, is wanting. Regarding, then, the language of Mr. Smith as
embodying the actual conditions of the problem, the only natural
solution of it is that no such revolution as supposed Tias ever
occurred in the valley of the Euphrates.
Sec. 7. The passage cited from Mr. Smith in the last section,
although it seems to embody his own views upon the subject, was
never intended as a formal and critical statement of the Turanian
hypothesis relative to the origin of the Babylonian civilization. In
fact, the ground assumed is an extreme one as compared with the
opinions of some of the most distinguished advocates of the theory
referred to, among whom I include especially M. F. Lenormant.
This eminent French Assyriologue has been inclined heretofore to
admit the existence of a powerful Cushite influence in the early his
tory of Babylon, and since the discussions of these questions in
France, to which reference has been made, he appears to be still
more positively disposed in this direction. In view of the remarks
of M. Renan in 1874, M. Lenormant expresses himself as follows :
" It will be seen that I am far from attributing to the Turanians,
primitively settled in Chaldsea, the entire work of the high civili
zation of Babylon. I see here only one of its factors, and this not
the most important." " In this great and learned civilization the
principal and the most noble part has proceeded from the Cushito-
Semitic element, from the element of which the Assyrian language
became the national idiom." " Babylon in particular, at least
the Babylon of historical epochs, has been always preeminently
Cushite." 1
The positions assumed in these extracts do not differ widely from
the views put forth by Sir H. Rawlinson, as already presented. A
blending of Turanian and Cushite influences is expressly held, and
by far the greater importance is attached to the Cushite element.
On the whole, it is sufficiently obvious that something of a reaction
has taken place in the author's mind, mainly due to the profound
1 La Magie, pp. 305, 306.

14 HAR-MOAD.
criticisms of M. Renan. Indeed, M. Lenormant is free to admit
that he may have been somewhat unguarded in his statements here
tofore. We have not space here to present in detail, and in his own
language, M. Lenormant's present standpoint respecting our general
problem, but substantially his positions are the following : 1st. At
Babylon, as well as throughout Western Asia, perhaps, the really
primitive layer of population was Turanian. Not much importance
is attached to it, however, in the work of Babylonian civilization.
2d. Somewhat later, the Cushite race took possession of Babylonia
in particular, and then commenced definitely the civilizing process.
The arts and sciences were cultivated, such as astronomy and archi
tecture, and the astro-mythology was developed. 3d. Still later,
perhaps, the Akkadi, related ethnologically- to the Finns and Lapps,
more directly to the Urarda of Armenia, descended upon the plains
of Chaldsea, bringing with them the original system of writing in its
cruder form, from which the regular cuneiform of later epochs pro
ceeded. The Accadians were agriculturists preeminently, addicted
to magic, and to the worship of the natural elements. 4th. The
Babylonian civilization as known to us was the product of the
admixture of all these elements, the Cushite or Cushito-Semitic
influence being usually in the ascendant. The population last des
ignated appertained to the Sumir, perhaps the Shinar of the Mosaic
text ; while the Akkadi, occupying principally the country of Chal-
daaa, were Turanians strictly speaking, and properly the Kaldi, or
the Chaldseans, in relation to whom so much uncertainty has ex
isted. I think the foregoing outlines represent fairly the scheme as at
present held by M. Lenormant, whose opinions, certainly, upon sub
jects so familiar to him are entitled to very serious consideration.
The marked difference, in several important particulars, between this
theory and that already set forth by Mr. Smith will be readily rec
ognized, and the variations also from the opinions of the Messrs.
Rawlinson on various points are not less notable. But, on the
whole, M. Lenormant's present views are a partial return to the
old Cushite hypothesis, with which we started upon these investiga
tions. That in which he most essentially differs from this scheme
to-day, pertains to the original invention of the cuneiform system
of writing, which he still holds to have been a work of the Ac
cadians, or, in other words, the Turanians of Chaldsea. This point is

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 15
to me the most obscure, and the least satisfactory, of any included
in the author's theory. Were the Cushites of Babylon destitute of
any system of writing, prior to the settlement of the Accadians in
Chaldaea? It would be extremely difficult to sustain such a thesis,
and would tend to throw many obstacles in the way of the solution
of our problem. The oldest inscriptions of Chaldsea, being exclu
sively of the hieratic or primitive type, appertain to the period of
Urukh, or Lik-Bagas, as M. Lenormant proposes to read this name,
and cannot be dated earlier than 2500 years B. C. At this time,
according to our author's own showing, in a passage to be hereafter
cited, the Cushite civilization of Babylon had attained no incon
siderable development ; and even Lik-Bagas himself was but an
imitator of Babylonian usages and a convert to the Cushite religion.
Yet during all the period prior to this date, we are to suppose the
Babylonian development had proceeded without a paleographical sys
tem, being finally indebted to the Accadians of Chaldsea for one
which had been an importation from some region of high Asia.
But another objection to the ground here assumed is one which no
man can better appreciate than M. Lenormant himself. I refer to
the vital connection which exists between the sacred science and
traditions of Babylon on one hand, and on the other, the very
characters, the paleographic symbols, by which these notions have
been recorded. This point will be more fully illustrated in the two
chapters immediately following the present. Suffice it to say here,
that the vital connection between the notion and written symbol is
such, in a great number of instances, as to preclude the idea of their
separated development in connection with the Babylonian science.
Both the notion and symbol belonged originally to the scientific sys
tem under the forms in which it has been transmitted to us. For
illustration take the hieratic form of the Accadian U, " to measure,
a measure, a cubit," etc. This character appertained to the metrical
system of Babylon, and to the method of land-divisions, from the
moment of its origin. It was never borrowed from a different race,
and afterwards adapted by the Cushites of Babylon to their sacred
science. The scientific conception, the written symbol, and the reg
ularly developed system in which both are embodied, at the very
earliest period to which the inscriptions pertain, were the product
of the same spiritual genius. The sacred science and the sacred
writing of Babylon had a common origin. One was not Cushite,

16 HAR-MOAD.
and the other Turanian or Accadian ; both were Cushite, or, if not,
both were Accadian.
Sec 8. The reader is now fully prepared to realize the nature
and extent of the difficulties connected with the problem upon
which we are engaged. They do not afford much encouragement
toward an attempt, on our own part, to establish something definite
relative to the questions before us. Nevertheless, it is necessary to
abandon here the course of merely negative criticism, and, if pos
sible, to sketch the outlines of a theory that shall satisfy all the
conditions of this complicated subject. Some fundamental position
ought to be seized upon as a fixed point of departure ; and I believe
this may be found in the Mosaic account of the first settlement of
the Euphrates valley by emigrants from the East under the leader
ship of the Cushite hero Nimrod. The following passages from the
Biblical text embody the substance of the narrative to which we
allude : —
" And Cush begat Nimrod : he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was
a mighty hunter before the Lord : wherefore it is said. Even as Nimrod the
mighty hunter before the Lord. And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel,
and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land
went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah,
and Resen between Nineveh and Calah : the same is a great city." (Gen.
X. 8-12.)
" These are the families of the sons of Noah, after their generations, in their
nations : and by these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood. And
the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech. And it came to pass,
as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar;
and they dwelt there. And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick,
and burn them throughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they
for morter. And they said. Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top
may reach unto heaven ; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad
upon the face of the whole earth. And the Lord came down to see the city and
the tower, which the children of men builded. And the Lord said, Behold, the
people is one, and they have all one language ; and this they begin to do : and
now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do. Go
to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not under
stand one another's speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence
upon the face of all the earth : and they left off to build the city. Therefore is
the name of it called Babel ; because the Lord did there confound the language
of all the earth : and from thence did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face
of all the earth." (Gen. x. 32-xi. 1-9.)
The precise character of the genealogy contained in the tenth
chapter is sufficiently indicated in the last two verses. It is not
exclusively a genealogy in the ordinary and modern sense, nor is it,
on the other hand, entirely geographical, as some exegetes have
held. It was uniformly the practice in high antiquity for a political

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 17
community to trace its descent from one ancestral head, just as the
Jewish nation was regarded as wholly descended from Abraham.
The Mosaic genealogy, then, as here referred to, embodies the double
conception : 1st. Of a literal descent from a common ancestry ; 2d.
Of distinct nationalities proceeding therefrom, located geographi
cally in different quarters of the world. These two ideas are de
finitely embodied in the expression : " After their generations, in
their nations" (x. 32). It would be decidedly erroneous, I think,
to interpret the text .as revealing simply a system of colonizations
from one nation and geographical locality to another. Hence, in
tracing a descent of Cush from Ham, and of Nimrod from Cush,
Moses does not mean that Cush and Nimrod proceeded from the
land of Ham, that is to say, from Egypt. Yet this appears to be
Rev. Mr. Rawlinson's view of the matter, when he derives the
Cushites of Babylon f i-om East Africa.^
The Mosaic narrative, as contained in the eleventh chapter
(ver. 2-9) was intended obviously to describe the very first settle
ments in the land of Shinar, after the deluge, and not simply a
conquest of peoples previously inhabiting the country. The city
of Babylon was not in existence prior to this emigration. The
original founding of Babylon, therefore, and of the cities surround
ing it, must be attributed to these colonists, journeying from a region
eastward to the land of Shinar. These emigrants must thus be
regarded as actually the founders of the Babylonian- kingdom and
civilization. The question arises, then, Who were these colonists
from the east ? Were they principally Cushites under the leader
ship of Nimrod, or some other people of whom we have no definite
knowledge ? It is obvious that the sacred writer, in the tenth chap
ter (ver. 10-12), intends to attribute the foundation of the Babylo
nian kingdom in the region called Shinar to Nimrod ; and, at a sub
sequent period, the founding of the Assyrian kingdom in a country
outside of and to the north of Shinar, to Asshur. Thus, we must
identify the first settlement of Babylon and building of the tower
with the beginning of Nimrod's kingdom consisting of Babel, Erech,
Accad, and Calneh. It would be very difficult to establish a begin
ning for the Nimrodic empire at a period before or after the build
ing of the tower ; for universal tradition and the opinions generally
of critics tend equally to place these events in close connection with
* Vid. Five Monarchies, i. p. 54.

18 HAR-MOAD.
each other, although they are narrated in different chapters^ of the
sacred text. So far, then, as concerns the Mosaic record, it is plain
that we ought to attribute the origin of the civilization of Babylon
to a people who had migrated from the east under the leadership
of Nimrod, the Cushite.
Sec. 9. According to the views of Rev. G. Rawlinson, as already
exposed, the Cushites originally settled upon the banks of the Eu
phrates had migrated through Arabia from East Africa, a region to
the west or southwest instead of east in relation to Babylonia.
We have objected to this opinion : 1st. That the Cushite settlement
in Africa was no more ancient, probably, than that in the Euphra
tes valley ; 2d. That this scheme is directly opposed by the earliest
traditionary notices relative to Southern Arabia ; Sd. That the
Mosaic text connects the original settlement of the land of Shi
nar with a popular emigration, under the conduct of Nimrod, from
a country situated in the east in relation to Babylon. Now, are
there any evidences proving the existence of a primitive Cushite
population, more or less advanced in civilization, inhabiting a coun
try far to the east as regards the Euphrates valley ? If a people
thus described and located were known, and could be referred to a
very high antiquity, such a fact would tend to explain and confirm
the Mosaic account of the first settlement of Shinar by a Cushite
emigration from the east, sufficiently advanced in architectural ideas
to undertake the building of an immense tower. The following
notices from M. F. Lenormant will furnish us the desired informa
tion : —
"The Bible, in the recital relative to Eden, which has been pre
served by Moses under a traditional form exceedingly ancient, and
certainly anterior to Abraham, places a country of Cush upon the
borders of Gihon, or the Oxus, and a country Havilah or Khavila,
a name which is that of one of the sons of Cush, upon the Pison,
that is to say, the upper course of the Indus. Thus, we are shown
here a Cushite people inhabiting the two slopes of the Indian Cau
casus, long before the Aryan development, and from whom has been
derived the name of the Hindu-Cush. Herodotus, who reports the
traditions which he had collected at Babylon, characterizes distinct
ively the inhabitants of Gedrosia as Cushites, directly related to the
dark tribes of the Indus, since he qualifies them as Ethiopians. The
Baron D'Eckstein has proved that the Aryans of India originally
designated this race by the term Sudras, whom they had supplanted
in their rich domains included in the region called by the generic

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 19
name of Kausikas, preserved at a later period in certain sacerdotal
families, deriving their origin from the people occupying the coun
try before the Aryans, and who were admitted by the latter to their
own rank. This term Kausikas is manifestly one with Kush
(Cush)." 1
In a word, the author shows from his own researches, following
those of Dr. Lassen and the Baron D'Eckstein, that a Cushite pop-
* Manuel Hist. Anc. Orient., iii. pp. 417, 418, etc.
Dr. J. Grill (Die Erzvaler der Menschheit, etc., i. pp. 250-279) has developed
quite recently a similar order of facts, derived from Hindu sources, to those
upon which M. Lenormant bases his opinions. They tend to confirm the hy
pothesis of an extremely ancient Cushite civilization in the region to the north
west of India. Dr. Grill is, however, as it appears to me, wholly unauthorized
to consider these Cushites either as Aryans or as ancestors of the Hebrews. If
the Hebrew Scriptures have in any way been indebted to Cushite traditions, it
was mediately through the Babylonian civilization ; not in any sense directly from
the Cushites of India. The author's theory, that the Mosaic account of Eden is
of Aryan origin, really derives no support from the fact of this Cushite civiliza
tion of India ; for the latter evidently preceded the Aryan development, and
especially the entrance of the Aryans into India. The Hindus, as stated in
the text, were greatly indebted to the Cushites, who were far more advanced.
Another German author, Hr. Ernst von Bunsen, adopts the theory of a Cushite
civilization in the region of the upper Indus at an early period (^Biblische Gleich-
zeitigkeilen oder Uebereinstimmende Zeitrechnung bei Bdbyloniern, Assyrern, Aegyp-
tem, und Hebraern. Berlin, 1875, pp. 53, 54).
At the last session o£ the International Congress of Orientalists at St. Peters-
bur^', in September, 1876, Dr. Schmidt of Gevelsberg exhibited the first pages
of a work, in which some entirely new views are presented on the subject of the
origin of the Hamite civilization, especially the Egyptian. In substance, his
opinions are the following : —
" Leaving aside the relation of the Chinese to the ancient Egyptians, since I
have not the materials necessai-y to this subject, I have put forth the opinion in
my work, that (he Egyptians are the most ancient people among tho=e whom I
call the Aniieno-Caucasians. Their civilization had its birth in Mesopotamia.
From there, their civilization traversed the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and Ethiopia ;
and passed from thence to the valley of the Nile. After the expulsion of the
dynasty of the Medo-Iranians, of Sha-suor Sakes, the Egyptian kings carried
their civilization into Syria and Assyria. It was to the powerful impulsion of
this civilization that Semitic Assyrians owed the development of their civiliza
tion." — Bulletin du Congres International des Orientalistes, etc. p. 89.
Such views, put forth before such an august body, are entitled to great respect.
Yet it is difficult to perceive by what process the autlior could fully sustain them.
I cite them here to show the improbability of the first origin of Babylonian civil
ization from Afiica. Certainly, as it seems to me, the people who built the brick
pyramid in stages at Sakkara, in Egypt, must have emigrated from the Euphra
tes, rather than those who built the pyramid of Borsippa, from the Nile valley.

20 HAR-MOAD.
ulation occupied the region of the Hindu Caucasus, long before the
Aryan developments ; that they had occupied India before the Ar
yans entered this country, extending themselves along the banks of
the Indus to its mouth, and thence upon the shores of the Indian
Ocean westward to the Persian Gulf and mouth of the Euphrates.
When the Aryans entered India the Cushites settled there were
well advanced in civilization, and became literally the teachers of
their ruder conquerors. The facts here brought to light accord pre
cisely with the Mosaic accounts, as we have construed the narrative
relative to the first settlement of Babylon by a colony from the
east, under the leadership of the Cushite hero Nimrod. The abso
lutely primitive Cush or Ethiopia, as thus appears, was located
around the waters of the upper Indus, and it was from thence that
the emigration took place to the land of Shinar. By what route
the Nimrodic expedition to Babylonia proceeded, whether along the
shores of the Indian Ocean and thence up the Euphrates, or by a
more direct and northern course, it is impossible to decide.
The theory which derives the Cushites of Babylon from the east,
according to our interpretation of the language of Moses, finds defi
nite support in the primitive traditions of the country of the Eu
phrates, as shown by the cuneiform inscriptions. Thus, we have
the frequent expression Kharsak-Kurra, for the Accadian, or " Bit-
Kharris of the east," for the Assyrian, designating the supposed
primitive abode of man, and the seat of a civilization prior even to
that of Babylon. A slightly different phrase is " Bit-Kharris of the
east, the father of countries," in which we recognize the sacred
locality from which, according to tradition, the civilizers of Baby
lon had departed on their westward journey. Rev. A. H. Sayce
explains the phrase Kharsak-Kurra by " mountain of the world," and
is inclined to locate it in the " Highlands of Elam," the modern
Susiana ; but this geographical scheme for the great Asiatic Olym
pus is essentially erroneous, as will be shown in a future chapter.
The region designated is the high table-land of Central Asia. ^
1 1 see that Dr. Schrader, in a critical paper upon the " Origin of the Chal-
dajans, and the Primitive Home of the Semites," inclines to derive the first Cushite
settlers of Babylon under Nimrod from Southern Arabia, thus favoring substan
tially Rev. G. Rawlinson's views {Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgend. Gesellschaft,
Leip., 1873, pp. 419-422). But the primitive Babylonian tradition which em
bodies itself in the phrase, "Bit-Kharris of the east, the father of countries,"
cannot be construed with reference to Southern Arabia. We have, 1st. The fact

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 21
Sec. 10. We return now to the tower of Babel, and the tra
ditions centring in and around it. It is supposed by most cunei
form scholars to be identical with the ruins of the pyramidal tem
ple of Borsippa, whose modern name is Birs Nimrod, " mound or
tower of Nimrod," from which Sir H. Rawlinson obtained formerly
some inscribed cylinders, giving an account of the restoration of the
structure by Nebuchadnezzar, after it had remained for a long pe
riod in a state of decay. The subjoined passage from one of these
inscriptions, as translated by M. Lenormant, is quite important :
" The temple of the seven lights of the earth, the monument of
the traditions of Borsippa, had been constructed by the most ancient
king ; he had given it an area (at the base) of 42 agrarian meas
ures ; but he had not completed it to the top. Since the days of
the deluge (ultu yum rikut^, it had been abandoned without repair
ing its water courses ; thus the rains and tempests had destroyed
the construction in crude brick, and the facings in burnt biick were
cracked, so that the mass of crude brick had crumbled into the shape
of cones." ^
There have been many versions, by different Assyriologues, of
this particular passage in the text of Nebuchadnezzar, the majority
of them being substantially alike except as regards the phrase,
" since the days of the deluge," which Sir H. Rawlinson and other
English scholars render " since the days remote," without any spe
cial reference to the deluge. The whole question depends upon the
true reading of the cuneiform text in this place. If the reading is
ultu yum rikut, as maintained by M. Lenormant, then his transla
tion as given above is correct. But Sir H. Rawlinson's reading of
the original here is ultu yumi ruquti, which is an ordinary expres
sion employed in the inscriptions for " days remote," or " ancient
times," without reference to any particular event such as the deluge.
Certain circumstances strongly favor M. Lenormant's proposed
reading, which had been adopted long before by Dr. Oppert. 1st.
The pyramidal temple at Borsippa, and the one at Babylon were
traditionally regarded as absolutely primitive structures in the val
ley of the Euphrates, being the original types of all others. 2d.
of a very early Cushite civilization in the region of the upper Indus. 2d. The
Mosaic account of the migration " from the East." 3d. The Biibylonian tradition
pointing directly to the east. These facts perfectly harmonize with and confirm
each other. It is very difficult to resist the conclusion dictated by them.
1 Vid. Frag, de Berose, p. 352.

22 HAR-MOAD.
Cuneiform scholars are for the most part agreed that the pyramid
of Borsippa is to be identified definitely with the tower of Babel.
3d. Is a philological question pertaining to the two terms rikut and
ruquti ; M. Lenormant contends that the latter reading involves a
permutation of the sounds k and q, which is contrary to prevailing
usage in the texts. As he has devoted a special consideration to
this one point, it is probable that his views are correct, and as they
are supported substantially by Dr. Oppert, I believe it is safe to
adopt the rendering, " since the days of the deluge ; " involving
thus a direct allusion to the traditionary events recorded by Moses.
The name Borsippa is often written in the texts with the characters
Bora-sip-ki, which M. Lenormant interprets as a mystical title having
the sense of " city of the confusion of tongues," or of " the stutter
ing of words." 1 It is somewhat doubtful, I think, whether this
interpretation is legitimate, but as I have not seen it called in ques
tion, it may be provisionally adopted. An ancient and mystical
name of Babylon is written with the signs Din-tir-ki, which M.
Lenormant renders " city of the root of languages." ^ This inter
pretation is sustained by the ordinary meaning attached to the
characters, and it points to the tradition of the original unity of
language. The more frequent mode of writing the name of Baby
lon in the inscriptions is with the Accadian characters Kd-An-ra-ki,
literally, " the gate of the god of the deluge ; " but its Semitic
reading would be Bah-ilu, " gate of Ilu," or El, supreme divinity
of Babylon. This is the origin of the name Babel, as employed by
Moses. It has been supposed by some that Borsippa was included
anciently within the walls of Babylon.
The facts placed here before the reader will be seen to confirm lit
erally the Mosaic account, considered as a faithful echo of primitive
tradition respecting: 1st. The original unity of language; 2d. The
building of the tower of Babel and the confusion of tongues ; 3d.
The connection of this event with Nimrod, as indicated in the mod
ern name, Birs Nimrod. All this goes to establish the hypothesis
that the colonists from the east, from the primitive Ethiopia near
the headwaters of the Indus, under the conduct of Nimrod, were
actually the founders of the Babylonian civilization. Our interpre
tation of the Mosaic text to the effect that this emigration was really
from the east, is confirmed by the expressions already referred to,
1 Vid. Frag, de Berose, p. 349. 2 Ibid.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 23
as often found in the inscriptions, relating to the " Bit-kharris of
the east, the father of countries," etc.
One other fact deserves to be noted in connection with the py
ramidal temples of Borsippa and Babylon, which, as we have said,
were regarded as the primitive and typical structures of this class
in the country of the Euphrates. These edifices were built of brick,
and in stages retreating one upon the other. It is remarkable that
what is now regarded by Egyptologists as the most ancient py
ramidal structure in the valley of the Nile is that of Sakkara, the
primitive site of Memphis, which is constructed also in stages and
of brick, according to the express statement of M. Lenormant.^
Mr. Birch, of the British Museum, in a recent work published by
him, conveys a different impression as to the materials employed;
for he says : " It was constructed of calcareous stone and granite, and
had seven steps like the Babylonian towers." ^ In relation to the
seven stages, like the pyrsimid of Borsippa, it is probable that Mr.
Birch is correct, but I think he is in error as to the material em
ployed. M. Lenormant's statement is explicit and repeated, to the
effect that the great pyramid of Sakkara was constructed of brick.
This is confirmed by the following observation of Mr. Bayard Tay
lor: " As we passed the brick pyramid of Sakkara," etc.^ Other
pyramids in stages, much smaller, located in the same region, are
built of stone; and it is probable that the error into which Mr.
Birch appears to have fallen is due to this fact. As regards the
primitive character of the edifice to which we refer, the opinion of
M. Lenormant, as just cited, is confirmed by the remarks of Aug.
Mariette-Bey : " At the Great Pyramids, we find nothing anterior
to Cheops." " Sakkara, on the contrary, exhibits monuments at
each step that embrace all the long period comprised between the
first dynasty and the emperors." " It is, in effect, upon the northern
plateau of Sakkara that are seen the most ancient monuments of
Egypt." * From the foregoing notices, then, it is safe to infer : 1st.
That the great pyramid of Sakkara was constructed in stages, and
of brick; 2d. That it was absolutely the primitive pyramidal struc
ture in the Nile valley ; 3d. That it was strictly analogous in its
1 Ibid., p. 363.
2 Ancient History from the Monuments, Egypt, p. 25.
* Journey to Central Africa, p. 69.
* Muse'e A Boulaq, etc., p. 287. Cf. Aperfu de Vhistoire ancienne d'Egypte, p. 76.

24 HAR-MOAD.
character to the pyramids of Babylon and Borsippa, these being the
most ancient in the valley of the Euphrates.
Sec. 11. In the facts brought to light in the last section, we have
the basis of some important conclusions, to which we invite particu
lar attention : —
1st. The pyramids of Borsippa, Babylon, and Sakkara in Egypt,
belong to the same chronological epoch ; and M. Renan is correct
in the opinion already expressed, that the two civilizations of the
Nile and Euphrates were " equal in antiquity." But this epoch,
which is, so to speak, historical as pertains to Egypt, had become
purely legendary at Babylon, for the reason that the primitive
monuments maintained no such state of preservation, as in the val
ley of the Nile. The pyramid of Sakkara is wholly exceptional in
its character, so far as concerns Egypt. Nothing of the kind ap
pears either before or after it in the country. It marks, thus, a dis
tinct epoch, and this the primitive one. It shows that when the
Hamites entered Egypt, they carried with them the same tradi
tionary notions as those which prevailed originally at Babylon ;
although shortly after, these ideas took on a different material
expression. Now, if we assume that the pyramidal temples of
Babylon appertained to a period much later, it will be very difficult
to account for the origin of the conceptions embodied in them. If
the Babylonians had derived their notions from the Nile valley at a
later epoch, they would have been different, since in this country
the style of such structures had been essentially modified. If
we would derive these architectural ideas from the far East, from
Central Asia, very much depends upon the date assumed. It is
probable that the pyramidal temple was absolutely primitive in all
Asia, but at a very early period it had assumed the style of the
pagoda in Central and in Farther Asia. Thus, everything forcibly
tends to fix a high antiquity for the pyramids of Babylon and Bor
sippa, equal even to that of the brick structure of Sakkara in Egypt.
That an original type of these pyramids in stages, built up in the
mass, did exist in Eastern Asia may be inferred from the fact that,
in Central America, we have the same primitive style of sacred
edifices, evidently of Asiatic origin. But everything forces us to
assume an immensely remote period, if we say that the temples of
Babylon were derived either from Africa or Central Asia. The
only easy and natural inference is, that the Hamites settled Egypt

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 25
and the Cushites Babylon, at about the same epoch, both having
emigrated from Centrsd Asia, and carrying with them the same
architectural notions. This supposition fully accords with the Mo
saic narrative, and it would be difficult to frame a different scheme
that would thus accord, and at the same time harmonize with all
the essential facts.
2d. The founders of the civilization of the Euphrates and of the
Nile were equally members of the great Hamite race. As M.
Renan has said, they were " equal in antiquity, closely resem
bling each other, and, with all, anterior to the entrance of the Ar
yans and Semites into history." There is here absolutely no ques
tion as to the Aryans and Semites ; so that the problem is narrowed
down to that between the Hamites and Turanians ; or, as regards
the country of the Euphrates, between the Cushites and Accadians.
The subjoined extracts from a recent work by M. Lenormant ought
in such case to settle the question : —
" It is a very striking fact, and one already noticed by many
scholars, that at the base of all the pyramidal temples of Ohaldcea
strictly speaking, at Ur, at Erech, Nipur, and Larsam, we find uni
formly the name of the same king inscribed upon the bricks, which
I would read Lik-Bagas (Urukh). ' In all Chaldsea,' observes Rev.
G. Rawlinson, 'so far as the explorations have been at present ex
tended, we find no trace of a sacred monument that can be assigned
reasonably to a date anterior to this monarch.' His inscriptions are
the earliest of any at present known ; yet he belongs fully to the
historical period, and it cannot be said that he opens an era, like
that of Menes in Egypt. The temples in form of a pyramid, with
stages retreating one upon the other, were thus recent in Chaldcea,
as compared with those in the country of Shinar, or Sumir, where
the indigenous traditions, like that of the Bible, associated the con
fusion of tongues with the construction of the original edifice of this
class ; and where, as in respect to the pyramids of Babylon and
Borsippa, they did not pretend to attribute them to any king
belonging to the historical dynasties, making use rather of the
expression in such cases of ' the king very ancient,' or ' the most
ancient king.' But in the country of Akkad (Chaldsea), instead
of being a fact equally primitive and indigenous, the construction
of edifices of this type is in reality only an imitation of the usages
of Babylon ; an imitation undertaken and pursued in all the cities
at the same epoch, and by one and the same monarch, who, instead
of belonging to the traditionary period, appertained strictly to the

26 HARr-MOAD.
historical epoch." " Now, it is necessary to go farther, and to dis
tinguish Babylon in the primitive ages as Cushite, from Chal
dsea, which remained for a long period almost wholly Accadian,
or Turanian." ^
In what sense, then, the reader will now naturally inquire, does
M. Lenormant still hold to the Accadian or Turanian origin of the
Babylonian civilization ? The answer must be: Mainly as regards
the system of writing. Contrary to the statement as already cited
from Mr. George Smith, our French Assyriologue maintains that
Lik-Bagas borrowed from Babylon, not only its sacred architecture,
but its mythology, its science, if not also its industrial arts, institu
tions, and laws. It is the paleographical system, almost exclusively,
for whose Accadian or Turanian origin he still contends. Consist
ently with the foregoing extracts, it is difficult to perceive how he
could maintain much, if anything, more than this ; and it appears
to me impossible now to sustain even such an hypothesis. I insist
again that the Cushites of Babylon could not have remained des
titute of a paleographic system during the long period prior to the
time of Lik-Bagas ; could not have attained to the advanced state
of development supposed by M. Lenormant, without such a system.
There exist to-day undiscovered in Babylonia inscriptions apper
taining to a period long before Lik-Bagas ; inscriptions in a charac
ter which produced the cuneiform, or in some other yet unknown ;
the primitive Phoenician, perhaps, or the Himyaric of a date ante
rior to any that scholars are at present willing to allow.^
1 La Magie, pp. 295, 296, 298.
° Sir H. C. Rawlinson many years since held the following language relative to
the paleography of the primitive Babylonians : " The Babylonian is unquestion
ably the most ancient of the three great classes of cuneiform writing. It is well
known that legends in this character are stamped upon the bricks which are ex
cavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia, Baliylonia, and
Chaldaa, that possess the highest and most authentic claims to antiquity, and it
is hardly extravagant, therefore, to assign its invention to the primitive race
which settled in the plains of Shinar." " It is natural to infer from tlie peculiar
form of cuneiform writing that, in all ages and in all countries, it must have been
confined exclusively to sculptures and impressions. In Babylonia and Assyria
there was certainly a cursive character employed in a very high antiquity, syn
chronously with the lapidary cuneiform." {The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at
Behisteen. London, 1846. Pp. 20, 31.)
M. E. Renan maintained long since, that no Semitic language ever existed in a
written form that had not an alphabet peculiar to itself of the general Phoenician

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 27
M. Lenormant, in the foregoing passages, has sketched with a
masterly hand the exact state of the facts according to the latest
developments. Neither in the tenth chapter of Genesis, nor in the
Iz-dhu-bar Tablets, in both which the hero-founder of the Babylo
nian kingdom is so often mentioned, — since Jg-cZAM-Jar and Nimrod
are held to be the same,^ — do we have any mention of the city of
Ur, the Biblical " Ur of the Chaldees," which was the chief capital
city of Lik-Bagas. It is evident that this city did not exist at the
period to which the account of Genesis and the Iz-dhu-bar legends
pertain. If, then, the inscriptions of Lik-Bagas are the earliest yet
known, which is true, and notwithstanding he must be assigned to
the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth century before our era, it is obvi
ous that these are not the origin of writing in the valley of the
Euphrates. The hieroglyphic system of writing is known to date
from the earliest dynasties in Egypt, and there is much reason for the
supposition that the Hamites had invented this system even before
the time of Menes, the first historical king. The near relationship
of the Cushites to the Hamites leads to the inference that the Cush
ites likewise had possessed a similar system at an epoch not much
later. The explorations thus far have not been by any means so
thorough at Babylon and the surrounding district as at Nineveh;
and it cannot be said of Babylonia, as of Chaldsea, that its earliest
inscribed monuments are already known.
Sec. 12. As before remarked, the Aryan and Semitic elements
are completely eliminated from our problem, since the Babylonian
type; and that such a mode of writing must have existed at Babylon at a very
early period (Histoire generale, pp. 70-75). Thus, I have expressed the opinion
in the text that either the cuneiform system of writing, or some other allied to
the Phoenician, was absolutely primitive at Babylon. Its renowned civilization
never o-rew up without a paleographic system from the start. The probabilities
are that this was the primitive cuneiform.
1 Dr. J. Oppert, at the last session of the International Congress of Oriental
ists, took grounll against the identification of Iz-dhu-bar and Nimrod ; and he
held that Nimrod was not the name of a person, but of a, people {Bulletin des
Congres des Orienialistes, etc., p. 124). I do not think, myself, that there exist
sufficient grounds for the identification of these two personages. I have merely
followed the opinions of Mr. George Smith, in a matter not at all vital to my
subject. Dr. Oppert presented to the Congress alluded to a new version of the
Iz-dhu-bnr tablets, in which he differs somewhat from the views of Mr. Smith,
and which, I suppose, will appear in the regular publications of the Congress.

28 HAIUMOAD.
civilization obviously dates from a period prior to the entrance of
the Aryans and Semites into history. So far as relates to the Ac
cadians or Turanians of Chaldsea, this element may be also ex
cluded, for it cannot be traced to a period earlier than Lik-Bagas,
who was really a convert to the religion, and an imitator of the
usages, appertaining to the Cushites of Babylon. The question
before us now rests between the Cushites on one hand, and a pos
sible Turanian element prior to the ancient Chaldsean dynasty
headed by Lik-Bagas. We know that there was an Akkad in the
valley of the Euphrates long before the earliest of the monarchs of
ChaldiEa, as the name occurs in the list of cities constituting the
beginning of Nimrod's kingdom. More than this; it is probable
that the Akkad of Nimrod's time was not situated in Chaldsea, but
in the vicinity of Babylon itself. Mr. George Smith remarks:
" The capital of Sargon (the ancient^ was the great city of Agadi,
called by the Semites Akkad, mentioned in Genesis as a capital of
Nimrod (x. 10), and here he reigned for forty-five years. Akkad
lay near the city of Sippara on the Euphrates and north of Baby
lon." " I have only recently discovered the identity of Akkad with
the capital of Sargon." ^ In a matter of such importance, and one
upon which there has been so much doubt and discussion, it is to be
regretted that the author offers no proof of the foregoing statement.
Nevertheless, one circumstance tends powerfully to support it. In
the symbolical geography of Sargon the ancient, which appears to
be fundamental in the mythological and astrological texts attributed
to him, Akkad is considered as situated at the centre of the world,
surrounded by four countries located exactly in the direction of the
cardinal points. Now we know that Agani, probably the same as
Agadi mentioned by Mr. Smith, was the capital of Sargon's empire.
It is wholly improbable that he should take an Akkad in Chald^a
as centre of his symbolical system of geography, instead of his own
city or country. The Akkad, therefore, of the texts of Sargon was
his own capital city, and this was the Akkad also of Nimrod's time.
Another consideration \ends to support Mr. Smith's hypothesis
above stated. According to the Mosaic text, the Biblical Akkad
was situated within the limits of Shinar. Now Shinar must be
distinguished from Assyria, on one hand, since Asshur went forth
from Shinar to found the Assyrian kingdom ; and it is probable, on
1 Assyrian Discoveries, p. 225, and note.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 29
the other hand, that Shinar should be distinguished from Chaldsea.
This tends definitely to fix the locality of the original Akkad in the
vicinity of Babylon, outside of either Chaldsea or Assyria. The
facts here brought out, if one considers a moment their bearings,
completely overthrow the Turanian hypothesis as regards the origin
of the Babylonian civilization, if we are to identify the supposed
Turanians with the Akkadi, or Accadians. Attribute, if you please,
this civilization to Akkad, yet the Akkad of Nimrod's era was in
cluded in his kingdom ; the Cushites under Nimrod were the ruhng
class ; and it was to the ruling class, in such cases, that the entire
culture, as well as civil and religious functions appertained. This
remark applies as well to the paleographic system. Trace its origin
to the Akkadi, yet the ruling class among the Akkadi of primitive
times were Cushites, and they must have been the inventors of the
system. It is probable, in fact, that these primitive Accadians were
themselves Cushites. For myself, I am unable to perceive how it
is possible to avoid the conclusions here deduced. Nor do these rest
wholly on Mr. Smith's proposed identification of Akkad with the
capital city of the ancient Sargon. We might have said long ago :
Yes, the Accadians were the inventors of the cuneiform writing and
the civilizers of Babylon ; but the Cushites were the ruling element
of population among the primitive Accadians of the Euphrates val
ley, and to this preponderating element is due the invention and
civilizing process, even if the Accadians themselves were not Cush
ites. But the discovery made by Mr. Smith, and the other con
siderations urged by myself, render the basis of these conclusions
much more solid and reliable. The Turanian hypothesis, then,
must be abandoned, or it must be divorced from the population
termed Akkadi in the cuneiform texts ; and this is precisely that
which Dr. Oppert believes to have been done already; that is to
say, he claims that the Akkadi were properly Semites, while the
Sumeri were the Turanians of Babylon, the founders of its civiliza
tion, and the inventors of its paleographical system.
Sec. 13. We have not been willing, in these researches, to
enter upon the question raised by Dr. Oppert, which has remained
principally up to the present time as between himself and M. Lenor
mant. Outside of France, very few, if any, Assyriologues have
adopted the doctor's theory, although it has been supported on his
part with great ability. As regards the Sumeri, it is not easy to fix

30 HAR-MOAD.
any special locality for them from the texts, nor to assign to them
any definite chronology. The terms Sumir and Sumeri seem to ap
pertain, at least under their present form, rather to the historical
than the legendary period. They do not occur in the Mosaic text,
nor in the " Izdhubar Tablets." Nevertheless, under a different
form, it is possible that Sumir was really very primitive. M. Lenor
mant supposes that Sumir and the Biblical Shinar were originally
the same ; and I believe that Dr. Oppert formerly favored this as
similation, being, in fact, the first to suggest it. In such case, we
find here no objection to the Cushite hypothesis assumed by us,
since, according to all known facts, the Cushites were the original
ruling class in the land of Shinar. Again: a very ancient title
assumed by the monarchs especially of Chaldsea was the Accadian
Uvgal ki Engi ki Akkad, which Dr. Oppert and Mr. Smith render
"king of Sumir and Akkad." M. Lenormant maintains that ki
engi means simply "a country," and translates the phrase "king of
the country of Akkad." It is probable, however, that Engi is the
name of a particular country, for it is preceded by the determina
tive ki in the same manner as Akkad. Now the word Akkad is sup
posed to signify " highland," and Engi is interpreted by Dr. Oppert
as " true-lord." The inquiry, then, is quite pertinent: What per
sonage, as " true-lord," has furnished thus the name of the country
called Engi? We cannot long hesitate in saying that it must have
been Nimrod, primitive ruler of Shinar; and the proposed assimila
tion of this Biblical name to Sumir on^ygoes to confirm the sugges
tion here made. Thus, I believe it is unnecessary to devote much
space here to show that the word Sumir affords no serious objection
to the Cushite theory, to establish which has been the leading aim
of the present chapter. That this hypothesis is wholly free from
doubt and difficulty is not pretended ; but it appears to me to offer
the most plausible explanation of all the facts ; and it is in perfect
accord with the Mosaic narrative, of which also it affords through
out a striking confirmation.^
1 In the Journal Asiatique for March- April, 1876, M. Halevy returns to the
question of the origin of the cuneiform system of writing, and in a paper occupy
ing nearly two hundred pages, attempts to show that its originators were Semites,
that is to say, the Assyrians. In other respects, the paper is very valuable ; but
it will hardly convince Assyriologues that the Semites were the authors of this
paleographical system. They will share rather the views of M. Renan, in his very
last annual report, published in the Journal of July, 1876, now just at band,
namely, that it is " little satisfactory " (vid. p. 42).

CHAPTER II.
THE DIVINITY OE THE HBAETH.
Sec. 14. That the original character of the systems of writing
prevailing among the ancients was hieroglyphic, not excepting that
from which our own alphabet was derived, is the hypothesis now
generally and tacitly received among the learned ; and according to
the opinion usually held by Assyrian scholars, the cuneiform sys
tem constitutes no exception to this rule. I have been surprised at
times at the very slight indications and, as it appeared to me, quite
insufficient proofs upon which writers have applied the hypothesis
named in particular cases, among which I include especially the
ancient Phoenician and the Accadian or Cushite systems. It will
be hazardous, perhaps, to call in question the fundamental accuracy
of the hieroglyphic principle, in its application to the paleographic
systems of antiquity. But the more I have investigated the sub
ject the firmer has been my conviction that this principle has been
too hastily adopted in some instances, and too exclusively applied in
all. That the first system of writing known to men consisted sim
ply of pictures of concrete objects, or in other words of pure hiero
glyphs, appears to me extremely doubtful, notwithstanding the gen
eral tendency among the authorities to support this view. But I
would hold the advocates of the hieroglyphic theory strictly to their
definitions and doctrines. When a concrete object has acquired
a symbolical character, and this fact has constituted the obvious
motive of selecting an image of it for paleographic purposes, we
have then, not hieroglyphic, but symbolical writing. Take for ex
ample the Hebrew letters Aleph, "ox;" Beth, "house, temple;"
Teth, "serpent;" Kaph, "hand;" Nun, "fish; " Ayin, "eye;" and
Tau, " cross ; " admit that these characters were originally pictures
of concrete objects, and represented phonetically their names ; yet
this does not prove that they were hieroglyphs in the strict sense of

32 HAR-MOAD.
the theory. Every one of them had acquired a symbolico-religious
character, and as such was celebrated throughout all antiquity.
It could be readily shown that the religious notions attached to them
were far more ancient than any known written monuments. The
selection of the images of these objects, therefore, as paleographic
signs, was no mere picture writing, but was rather, and in the
proper sense, symbolical. This method having been once established,
an extension of it subsequently to objects destitute of any symbolic
import would be quite natural ; and I believe that such was the
case among the Chinese and Egyptians. In regard to the Accadian
or Cushite system, from which the cuneiform was derived, the hiero
glyphic theory has been quite too hastily adopted. The recent
important admission of M. Lenormant, that the existing hieratic
type of the characters was probably the primitive one, must be con
sidered as fatal to this theory as applied to them.^ Undoubtedly,
we have here many concrete objects represented as the original
basis of the characters employed ; but it would be easy to show
that the objects themselves had acquired a symbolic import, and
were for this reason selected for paleographic purposes. In gen
eral, then, my hypothesis is as follows : symbolic writing was the
most ancient among the cultured nations of antiquity ; but subse
quently, and with certain peoples, the original method was extended
to objects to which no sesthetical ideas were attached. This theory
accords perfectly with the universal tradition respecting the inven
tion of writing, at the same time that it accounts for all the facts
now known. I do not take into consideration here the crude at
tempts at picture writing existing among certain savage tribes or
semi-barbarous races, for the simple reason that there exists not the
slightest proof that they were the most ancient known to man.
Sec. 15. The archeological studies proposed for the present and
next succeeding chapter will be based to a considerable extent
upon various cuneiform characters, under their most ancient or
hieratic form ; these being taken for the most part at their ideo
graphic value. For this reason it has seemed necessary to insist at
the outset that these characters are not mere figures of concrete
1 Vid. Etudes Accadiennes, t. i. pt. 3d, p. 7. The author's repertory of Acca
dian signs, contained in this part of the work cited, will constitute our authority
upon the values of the signs, except in cases specially noted. It is, so far as I
have knowledge, the latest and most complete treatise upon the subject.

1—1

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 33
objects, but that they attach to themselves an exalted and instruc
tive symbolism, highly important to be considered, and constituting
a proper subject for archeological investigation. The reader finds
in our first plate several groups of paleographic signs, to which re
ference will be had in these studies, the greater portion of them
belonging to the cuneiform system of writing ; while the others,
either appertaining to other systems, or strictly to the art monu
ments, will be explained in their proper connection. The charac
ters are arranged in couplets or triplets, as the case may be, having
the hieratic form on the left and the corresponding modern form on
the right ; the small letters being introduced for convenience of re
ference. For the value of these characters, I shall follow chiefly the
excellent treatise by M. Lenormant, which was cited in the last sec
tion (note 1). The signs marked a, b, and c of the first group are
only so far different as would be necessary to distinguish readily
between them, and it is natural to infer that they appertained ori
ginally to a class of conceptions not less intimately connected. They
constitute the objects to which our first attention will be directed.
The second character,, or the one marked b, appears to involve the
central idea of the whole, and its Accadian values are as follows :
Ni, " to sweep, to scrape, to clean ; shovel, hearth, God ; " Kisal,
"altar, sacrifice;" Zal, " joint, vicinity, or neighborhood " (Rep.
142). It cannot be denied that the shovel is a concrete object, and
one sufficiently ordinary and humble; but who can fail to admire
the artistic skill that has raised this common utensil of the house
hold to the rank of a symbol of the primitive worship of mankind
— that of the hearth ! The hearth, and the divinity of the hearth,
constituted the focus of all the ancient civilizations. It was around
the firesides of primeval humanity that those elemental organiza
tions were formed, those social and semi-political customs instituted,
and religious conceptions and sentiments nurtured, which subse
quently, by the simple process of expansion and reduplication, devel
oped themselves into tribal anti national institutions. The hearth
was the family altar, and the cheerful blaze kindled upon it was the
symbol of the divinity who presided over the destinies of the house
hold, seeming to share in its fortunes, receiving the grateful remem
brance and adoration of its members. The altar of the tribe was its
hearth, and the national altar was the national hearth ; the same
notions and customs were transferred from one to the other, being

34 HAR-MOAD.
modified only so far as necessary to adapt them to the changed cir
cumstances. The God of the hearth was really the paternal head of
the household, and its members were his family. So, too, when the
same divinity had been transferred to the national altar, he became
the father of the nation, while all the members of the commonwealth
were his children. The entire territory belonging to the state was
a common patrimony, and the stateitself an organization of brothers
and sisters, whose focus was the national hearth or altar. It was im
possible for a stranger to become a member of the commonwealth
except by regular adoption into some family. This principle of
adoption was an important feature of the patriarchal institutions.
By a fiction of law, a stranger could be made a regular member of
the household, and admitted to the family sacra or worship, being
thence regarded as a blood relation, descended from the same ances
tral head. The custom of adoption had a religious as well as politi
cal significance, even from its origin ; and this explains the fun
damental importance attached to it by the Jewish and Christian
sacred writers. It was only upon the principle of adoption that the
Gentiles could be admitted into the family of Jehovah, and be
accounted as regular descendants in the ancestral line of Abraham.
It was only in this way that they could be admitted to the divine
sacra, and be permitted to feast upon the great Sacrifice, which
was Christ.
Sec. 16. When it is found that the Accadian character whose
usual reading is Ni had the meaning of hearth, altar, God, this is
sufficient to demonstrate that the God Ni was the hearth-divinity
of the Accadian or Cushite race. The cuneiform texts afford but
little information respecting the special character and primitive wor
ship of this divine personage, except the one great fact which will
be developed hereafter. The general absence of this name from
the ordinary lists of divinities favors the supposition that the wor
ship of Ni had been very ancient, but had fallen into neglect at the
period to which the existing monuments pertain. But the peculiar
nature of the house-gods of antiquity may be learned from the
classic nations, particularly the Romans, or Etrusco-Romans. It is
now known that the Etrusco-Roman civilization was derived, in a
great measure, from the valley of the Euphrates. Thus, it is prob
able that we may find in the Roman cultus of the Penates and
Lares of the Latin nation a reflex of the religious conceptions and

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 35
customs centring in the primitive Cushite god of the hearth.
Dr. William Smith has the following notice of the Roman house-
divinities : —
" Penates, the household gods of the Romans, both those of a
private family and of the state as the great family of citizens.
Hence we have to distinguish between private and public Penates.
The name is connected with penus, and the images of those gods
were kept in the penetralia, or the central part of the house. The
Lares were included among the Penates ; both names, in fact, are
often used synonymously. . . . The Lares, however, though in
cluded in the Penates, were not the only Penates ; for each family
had usually no more than one Lar, whereas the Penates are always
spoken of in the plural. . . . Since Jupiter and Juno were regarded
as the protectors of happiness and peace in the family, these divin
ities were worshiped as Penates. Vesta was also reckoned among
the Penates ; for each hearth, being the symbol of domestic union,
had its Vesta." " Most ancient writers believe that the Penates of
the state were brought by ^neas from Troy into Italy, . . . and
were preserved first at Lavinium, afterward at Alba Longa, and
finally at Rome. ... At Rome they had a chapel near the centre
of the city in a place called Sub Velia. As the public Lares were
worshiped in the central part of the city and at the public hearth,
so the private Penates had their place at the hearth of every house,
and the table also was sacred to them. On the hearth a perpetual
fire was kept up in their honor, and the table always contained the
salt-cellar and the firstlings of fruit for these divinities. Every
meal that was taken in the house thus resembled a sacrifice offered
to the Penates, beginning with a purification and ending with a
libation, which was poured either on the table or upon the hearth.
After every absence from the hearth, the Penates were saluted like
the living inhabitants of the house ; and whoever went abroad
prayed to the Penates and Lares for a happy return, and when he
came back to his house, he hung up his armor, staff, and the like,
by the side of their images." (Class. Die, art. Penates.)
It is observed by another author that : " In general, and as prin
cipal tutelary divinities, the Penates bore the name of great gods
(magni dii, Oeoi fnyaXot, hwaroV). It was doubtless from this fact that
they were identified with the great gods carried from Accadia to
Saraothraee" (Bernard, Die. Myth., art. Penates). On the sub
ject of the expansion or reduplication of the family organization
into that of the tribe and nation, Mr. H. S. Maine remarks : —
" In most of the Greek states and in Rome there long remained
the vestiges of an ascending series of groups out of which the state

36 HAR-MOAD.
was at first constituted. The family, house, and tribe of the
Romans may be taken as the type of them, and they are so de
scribed to us that we can scarcely help conceiving them as a system
of concentric circles, which have gradually expanded from the same
point. The elementary group is the family, connected by common
subjection to the highest male ascendant. The aggregation of fam
ilies forms the gens or house. The aggregation of houses makes
the tribe. The aggregation of tribes constitutes the common
wealth. Are we at liberty to follow these indications, and to lay
down that the commonwealth is a collection of persons united by
common descent from the progenitor of an original family ? Of
this we may at least be certain, that all ancient societies regarded
themselves as having proceeded from one original stock, and even
labored under an incapacity for comprehending any reason except
this for their holding together in political union. The history of
political ideas begins, in fact, with the assumption that kinship in
blood is the sole possible ground of community in political func
tions." 1
It rarely happened, however; that all the members of a common
wealth, or of a single tribe even, were actually descended from the
same ancestor. They were considered as such on the principle of
adoption only, as Mr. Maine has explained. The reader will not
fail to recognize, in the foregoing remarks, some of the most impor
tant facts and conceptions underlying the two religions of the Bible;
and, indeed, all the ancient religions and civilizations were, in a
great measure, founded upon these principles.
Sec. 17. We comprehend now the character of the divinity
of the hearth ; and the full significance to be attached to the paleo
graphic symbol Ni, designating the hearth, the altar, the deity.
But the most important fact of all is, that the Accadian or Cushite
God Ni was one and the same personage with Yahveh, or Jehovah,
of the Old Testament. If the cuneiform inscriptions contain but
few notices respecting the hearth-god in question, they at least
afford abundant proof of the statement just made. In the Sylla
baries the Accadian Ni is repeatedly equated to the Assyrian, that
is to say, to the Semitic Yorhu (Nos. 685-687). In the text here
cited, the term Yor-hu is put for the three values of our Accadian
sign, namely, Ni, Zal, and Hi, the latter being correctly inter
preted " a god " by Mr. Norris.^ That the Accadian Ni is trans
lated by the Assyrian or Semitic Ya-hu, and that the latter is put
1 Ancient Law, pp. 123, 124. 2 Assyr. Die., ii. p. 476.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 37
for a divinity, are points upon which it is impossible to raise a doubt.
Two other texts cited by Mr. Norris, by comparing them . together,
show that Ya-hu was considered a name of divinity. Thus, a king
of Hamath is mentioned, whose name is written Ilu-bi'h-di in one
instance, and 11 Yahu-bi'h-di in a different text.^ Jl or Ilu was
the supreme divinity of Babylon, being one with the Hebrew El.
In the second example given above, Ya-hu, preceded by II as char
acteristic of divinity, takes the place of Eu, name of the Baby
lonian deity, in the first example. Here are two distinct proofs
that Ya-hu is taken as a name of God. First, we have the substi
tution of Ya-hu for Eu ; and secondly, Ya-hu is preceded by the
determinative of divinity. In view of these facts. Dr. Schrader
has well expressed the conclusion that, as Bu equals the Hebrew
El, so Ya-hu must be one with the Hebrew Yahu, Yahveh, or Jeho
vah ; especially as the Jewish Scriptures consider Jehovah and El
as the same personage.^ If now any doubt remains respecting the
identity of the Assyrian Ya-hu with the Biblical Yahveh or Jeho
vah, it is removed by the fact of the occurrence in the texts of two
kings' names, Jehu and Jehoahaz, both containing the Hebrew
element Yahu, Yaho, or Yahveh in composition. Thus, Jehu is
written in the cuneiform by Ya-hu-a ; while in the other case we
have Ya-hu-ha-zi for Jehoahaz.^ These examples show that it
was customary with the Assyrian scribes to write the name of the
Hebrew national divinity in the manner here indicated, and that
they considered the Assyrian Ya-hu equivalent to the Hebrew Yahu
or Yahveh.
1 Assyr. Die., p. 482.
2 Vid. Schrader, Keilinschrift. u. d. Alt. Test., pp. 3-5, where the same texts
are cited, and a like inference drawn to that set forth by us, but without refer
ence to the Accadian God Ni.
" Norris, ii. pp. 476, 477. M. James Halevy, in a recent critical paper relat
ing to the cuneiform writing, affords a direct confirmation of our position, that
the god Ni was a divinity of the hearth. To the character iVi he attaches the
senses of " sojourn, abode, the god Jahu" identifying Jahu with the Greek 'A.6s,
answering to the god Hea (.lour. Asiatique, March-April, 1876, pp. 260, 266).
This proves that Ni was primitively associated with the house, the family. As
for the god Hea, M. Lenormant has well interpreted the name itself as signifying
"abode," "dwelling,"' etc. The resemblance of Hea to Jehovah, as manifest
especially in Christ, is illustrated in various facts to be hereafter developed.
Indeed, Hea takes the title Auv Kinuv (^3^3 H^'n)> i° tbe texts, which signifies
Existent Being; the first element being the same Semitic radical from which the
name Yaveh, or Jehovah, is formed.

38 HAR-MOAD.
The Accadian term Ni, then, is not identical with the Assyrian
Ya-hu, for they belong to different languages. But the Assyrian
word must be taken as a translation of the Accadian, both terms
being put for one and the same divine personage. The result is,
from the data that have been now submitted, that the national God
of the Jews was originally one with the ancient Accadian or Cush
ite divinity of the hearth. The fact thus brought to light is of
very great importance, though it will be received with some hesi
tancy among Biblical scholars. Nevertheless, the proofs are direct
and positive, and I entertain no doubt of the correctness of the
conclusion to which the data have conducted me. But it would be
quite illegitimate to infer, from the assimilation here established,
that the Jehovah of the Old Testament was originally regarded as
a divinity of inferior rank, like some of the house-gods of antiquity.
It has been seen that the Accadian God Ni was ccmsidered the same
personage as the Semitic Ilu, II, Hebrew El, whom the sacred
writers identify with the Jehovah of the Jews. As before observed.
El was the supreme divinity of Babylon, and it is well known that
He was held primitively in the highest estimation by the entire
Semitic race. In addition to this, we have seen that, among the
Romans, the highest divinities were worshiped as Penates, such as
Jupiter, Juno, and Vesta, and that the Penates themselves received
the title of " great gods." Vesta was characteristically a divinity
of the hearth, yet she received the highest honors. Dr. Smith has
the following remarks relative to her character and worship : —
" Vesta, one of the great Roman divinities, identical with the
Greek Hestia, both in name and import. She was the goddess of
the hearth, and therefore inseparably connected with the Penates ;
for JLneas was believed to have brought the eternal fire of Vesta
from Troy along with the images of the Penates ; and the prsetors,
consuls, and dictators, before entering upon their official functions,
sacrificed, not only to the Penates, but also to Vesta at Lavinium.
In the ancient Roman house, the hearth was the central part, and
around it all the inmates daily assembled for their common meal
(coena) ; every meal thus taken was a fresh bond of union and
affection among the members of the family, and at the same time
an act of worship of Vesta, combined with a sacrifice to her and the
Penates. Every dweUing-house, therefore, was in some sense a
temple of Vesta ; but a public sanctuary united all the citizens of the
state into one family." (Class. Die, art. Vesta^

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 39
It has been already shown that the divinity of the hearth was
transferred successively to the altar of the tribe, and thence to that
of the nation, which was thus the national hearth. In those in
stances where the national divinities were really different from the
primitive house-gods, the former must have been a later conception ;
for the family was the original unit of society, from whose expan
sion or reduplication the tribe and state were subsequently formed.
The divinity of the hearth was thus not only primitive, but was
the exclusive object of worship in the first ages of the world. Such
was the Accadian God Ni, identical with Yahveh of the Hebrew
Scriptures. Sec. 18. A comparison of the chief attributes of the Jehovah of
the Old Testament, and of the essential relations He sustained to
the Israelitish people, with the principal features of the Cushite
divinity Ni, as interpreted by the notions and customs of the
Etrusco-Romans, will contribute materially, not only as additional
evidence of the original identity of the two divine personages, but
as an important key to the underlying conceptions of the Mosaic
religion, which, if they were insisted upon by the writers of former
periods, have fallen into general neglect, and have been often called
in question by more modern authorities. With a view to such
general comparison, I introduce here some lengthy extracts from
the learned Dr. Cudworth, which will admirably serve our pur
pose : —
" In like manner, I say, the eating of sacrifices, which were God's
meat, was a federal rite between God and those that did partake of
them, and signified there was a covenant of friendship between him
and them ; for the better conceiving whereof, we must observe that
sacrifices, beside the nature of expiation, had the notion of feasts,
which God himself did, as it were, feed upon, which I explain
thus : when God had brought the children of Israel out of Egypt,
resolving to manifest himself in a peculiar manner present among
them, he thought good to dwell amongst them in a visible and ex
ternal manner, and therefore, while they were in the wilderness,
and sojourned in tents, he would have a tent or tabernacle built, to
sojourn with them also. This mystery of the tabernacle was fully
understood by the learned Nachmanides, who in few words, but
pregnant, thus expresseth it ; that is, the mystery of the tabernacle
was this, that it was to be a place for the Shechinah, or habitation
of the divinity to be fixed in ; and this, no doubt, as a special type
of God's future dwelling in Christ's human nature, which was the

40 HARr-MOAD.
true Shechinah. But, when the Jews were come into their land,
and had there built them houses, God intended to have fixed a
dwelling-house also ; and therefore his movable tabernacle was to
be turned into a standing temple.
" Now the tabernacle or temple being thus as a house for God to
dwell in visibly, to make up the notion of a dwelling or habitation
complete there must be all things suitable to a house belonging to
it. Hence, in the holy place, there must be a table and a candle
stick, because this was the ordinary furniture of a room, as the fore
commended Nachmanides observes : He addeth a table and a can
dlestick, because these suit the notion of a dwelling house. The
table must have its dishes, and spoons, and bowls, and covers,
belonging to it, though they were never used, and always be fur
nished with bread upon it. The candlestick must have its lamps
continually burning. Hence also there must be a continued fire
kept in this house of God's upon the altar, as the foeus of it, to
which notion, I conceive, the prophet Isaiah doth allude (xxxi. 9),
which I would thus translate : Who hath his fire in Sion, and his
focus in Jerusalem.
" And besides all this, to carry the notion still further, there must
be some constant meat and provision brought into this house, which
was done in the sacrifices that were partly consumed by fire upon
God's own altar, and partly eaten by the priests, which were God's
family, and therefore to be maintained by him. That which was
consumed upon God's altar was accounted God's mess, as appeareth
from the first chapter of Malachi (v. 12), where the altar is called
God's table, and the sacrifice upon it God's meat : ' Ye say, the
table of God is polluted, and the fruit thereof, his meat, is con
temptible.' And often in the land the sacrifice is called God's (anb)
bread or food.
" The sacrifices, then, being God's feasts, they that did partake of
them must needs be his guests (convoB), and in a manner eat and
drink with him. And that this did bear the notion of a federal
rite in the Scripture account, I prove from that place (Lev. ii. 13) :
' Thou shall not suffer the salt of the covenant of thy God to be
lacking ; with all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt.' Where the
salt that was to be cast upon all the sacrifices is called the salt of
the covenant, to signify that as men did use to make covenants by
eating and drinking together, where salt is a necessary appendix,
so God by these sacrifices, and the feasts upon them, did ratify and
confirm his covenant with those that did partake of them, inasmuch
as they did in a manner eat and drink with him. For salt was ever
accounted amongst the ancients a most necessary concomitant of
feasts, and condiment of all meats. . . . And therefore because cov
enants and reconciliations were made by eating and drinking, where

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 41
salt was always used, salt itself was accounted among the ancients
a symbol of friendship (amicitice symbolum.)" ^
Sec. 19. It will be impossible not to recognize in the foregoing
extracts the various notions and customs, modified to adapt them to
the purposes of a commonwealth, that originally pertained to the
divinity of the hearth, before families had reduplicated into tribes,
and tribes into nationalities. To complete the comparison, how
ever, it will be necessary to introduce here a brief explanation of
the two cuneiform signs a and c, in the group upon which we have
been engaged. For the first we have the values : RH, " to make,
to construct ; " Kak, " to make, to complete, all ; " Pd, " to make,
to construct." The character marked c stands for Ir, " fruit, em
bryo, foetus ; " Sukal, the same (Rep. 141, 143). The typical
constructions were the house and the temple, primitively consid
ered as one ; and the typical fruits were the products of the field,
and the first-born child, through whom the inheritance of the family
was to be perpetuated.
These conceptions, together with the various facts that have
been now collected into view, will enable us to transport ourselves,
so to speak, to the hearth-stones of primitive humanity. He who
illumes both sun and star, and kindles the fires upon creation's
hearth-stone, had thus early in the history of our race taken up
his abode in human habitations. He who is enthroned in the
heavens, who issues from the gates of morning with beams of
light, that fall on the world in golden showers, had sought an abid
ing-place with his rational creatures. But Be was not a guest
beneath the humble roof which He had chosen for his temple, and
where men and women first learned to worship, to love, and to obey.
They were His guests, His people. His sons and daughters. That
was His house, His table. His fireside. The consecrated hearth,
whose mystic flame was the symbol of his own divine existence,
was His focus. His altar. It was there that the institutions and
civilizations of the ancient world were cradled, and it was He who
had forged their nerves and sinews with his own hands. It was
from the hot bosom of the domestic hearth, under the watchful care
of its presiding divinity, that those giants leaped forth who were
the first founders of religions and of states, and it was the divine
artisan, with the chimney-corner for his smithy, who welded those
1 Intellect. System, etc., ii. pp. 536-639.

42 HAR-MOAD.
bonds of human society which were destined to unite all the fami
lies and kindreds of earth in one brotherhood.
But it was not as a simple taskmaster that the Deity thus early
selected the family circle for his favorite abiding-place. He knew
that, if anywhere on earth, there would be love, between father and
mother, brother and sister. It was his nature to love, and only in
the circle of loving hearts could He find a home. The world with
out was beautiful, the heavens were peopled with shining hosts, and
the earth, from her mountain peaks to her ocean depths, was alive
with the living forms which He had created. He could dwell on
those heights where the thunders and the lightnings have their
birth ; in those deep watery caverns whose floors are studded with
pearls ; or beneath the shady oaks and pines where the zephyrs play
and the birds sing. But it was man alone whom He had created in
his own image, and whom He loved with a father's affection. It
was thus with the sons and daughters of men that He desired to
dwell, and into their habitations that he wished to be received. He
would share their lot and destiny, would be their provider, protec
tor, their friend and their God, if they would only love Him. From
the bright morning when the bridal pair first invoked his presence
and blessing upon the hearth, through all the long years of toil and
struggle, till the frosts gathered upon their heads, and finally the
crimson sea had frozen over in their hearts, He would be with
them, and abide with them, and be their God forever. The first-
fruits of the harvest and the first-born of the household should be
his, and every feast and joyous festival should be sacred to Him, as
a pledge of his friendship, as a covenant of salt between Him and
them ! i
Such was one of the original conceptions of the Jewish theocracy.
Earlier than the time of Abraham, earlier than the tower of Babel,
and while the Hamite and Semite, the Turanian and Aryan, were
yet as one family, this grand idea had been taught the world. We
have the proof in the existence of the Accadian or Cushite Ni, a
term that, while it designated the God of the hearth, proved to
have been one with Yahveh of the Hebrew Scriptures, was at the
same time a suffix pronoun of the Cushite tongue, and thus apper
tained to the primitively developed stages of this ancient language.
1 [What goes before was condensed into an eight- page article and published in
The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal, July, 1882. S. M. W.]

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 43
As a pronoun it involved the notion of possession, being put for the
possessive case. The hearth as a possession, and so the first-born
child, were co-related and typical ideas ; and the connection of the
God Ni with Yahveh, as divinity of the hearth, calls forcibly to
mind the joyful exclamation of the first mother, when she said : /
have gotten a man from Yahveh (Gen. iv. 1). Thus early invoked
at the firesides of our race, on the multiplication and expansion of
families into tribes, and of tribes into nationalities, the divinity of
the hearth was transferred from one to the other, presiding thus at
the inauguration of states and of national religions, the Hebrew
among the rest. The notion that God dwells, inhabits, the same as
man, was everywhere fundamental ; and it was for this reason that
the national temple was considered God's House, and its altar the
National Hearth.
Sec. 20. To bestow upon any object an individual name is in so
far to distinguish it from the mass, and actually to raise it to a
higher rank in our conception. If a race of men were discovered,
of which the individuals had no personal names, this fact alone
would be conclusive as to the exceedingly low order of development
of the race itself. For a domestic animal to receive a particular
name, learning to recognize and answer to it, is really to distinguish
it from the generality and in a measure to elevate it. With the
ancients, much importance was attached to personal names, these
having usually a symbolical import, which could be etymologically
explained. The true title of the Deity, considered as a personal
name, instead of a general or generic one, was held in the highest
veneration, being supposed not only to express the nature of God,
but to be in some sense the Deity himself in his external manifesta
tion. To call upon this na7ne of God was to enter into a concrete
personal relation with him. In fact, where the Deity is habitually
addressed in worship by generic titles, or by those that have become
such practically in conception, it is evidence that men have ceased,
in a measure, to enter into that intimate, personal relation with the
Divine Being that those of antiquity believed themselves to do.
This leads us to our second group of cuneiform characters.
The signs marked from a to e of the second group, in their hie
ratic form, present a striking analogy in their construction, leading
to the inference that the notions attached to them must be also fun
damentally related. For the character a we have the values : Mu,

44 HAR-MOAD.
"to give, to call, name, memorial, year" (Rep. 24). The sign b is
put for Gi, "flame ; to found, foundation ; to deport, to transport ; to
restore" (Rep. 85). The next in order is Zi, "to live, life, soul,
person, spirit ; regulation, rule, law " (Rep. 84). Then follows Ri,
" to heap up, column, to elevate, elevation ; to rise, appearance, as a
star " (Rep. 87). Finally is Ar, whose meaning is not given by M.
Lenormant, although it must signify "vineyard, palm-tree," accord
ing to the texts which will be cited hereafter. The Accadian Mu
is found ordinarily in the Assyrian texts as the monogram for Sam,
" name," and Sanat, " year." The character Gi, " flame," has been
recognized by Sir H. Rawlinson as a monogram for the Scythic or
Accadian Fire-god. The sign Ri is often employed as a monogram
for the goddess Is-tar, or Babylonian Venus. The last character,
Ar, is strictly composite, being constituted of the sign Ri and the
Accadian Si, " eye, face, presence, prospect, country " (Tlep. 359).
It will be evident, even from a superficial view of these hieratic
symbols, that they represent material objects, either natural or arti
ficial, and it will be necessary, if possible, to ascertain what they
are. The second hieratic form for Mu, if placed uprightly before
the eye, seems to show for itself that it was intended for a bush or
tree. The other form, although constructed somewhat differently,
must represent the same object. The two figures, then, being sim
ple variants of the characters before us, must be taken for a bush
or tree ; one presenting this object approximatively in its natural
form, while the other shows an artificial tree, similar to those which
appear so frequently upon the ancient art monuments. If now we
compare these two forms with that marked b, and thus with each
one of the series, it will be seen that the gradations from one to the
other are perfectly natural, affording only sufficient variations to
distinguish between them as paleographic symbols ; and the conclu
sion becomes obvious that the sacred tree, so celebrated in the reli
gions of antiquity, formed the original basis of all these characters.
This supposition will become more and more apparent as we pro
ceed with these investigations.
Sec. 21. If the hieratic form of Zi, signifying " life, soul, spirit,"
etc., represented a tree, this must have been no other than the
"tree of life;" and as the traditions pertaining to this one object
evidently formed the staple element in all the religious conceptions
of this class, so the character Zi may be considered naturally the

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 45
centre of the group to be studied. The Scriptures afford but few
notices of the tree of life, serving to convey a definite idea of it, but
these few are very significant, and, taken in connection with other
facts now known, it will be possible to deduce some conclusions of a
nature quite important and reliable. The Revelator alludes to this
subject in the following terms : —
" And he shewed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding
out of the throne of God and of the Lamb. In the middle of the street of it, and
on either side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of
fruits, and yielded her fruit every month : and the leaves of the tree were for the
healing of the nations." (Rev. xxii. 1, 2.)
In addition to the foregoing, and uniformly interpreted by exe
getes as relating to the tree of life, is the language of Ezekiel : —
" And by the river upon the bank thereof, on this side and on that side, shall
grow all trees for meat, whose leaf shall not fade, neither shall the fruit thereof
be consumed (exhausted); it shall bring forth new fruit according to his months,
because their waters they issued out of the sanctuary ; and the fruit thereof shall
be for meat, and the leaf thereof for medicine." (Ezek. xlvii. 12.)
The data upon which both these passages substantially agree are,
1st. The tree is planted upon both banks of the sacred river, this
having its source under the sanctuary or beneath the throne of God.
2d. It produces a fruit-harvest each month, there being twelve dur
ing the year. 3d. The fruits serve the purpose of food, and the
leaves that of medicine. Professor INIoses Stewart has some very
judicious remarks upon the first text cited above, which I sub
join :
" The writer conceives here of the river as running through the
whole city ; then of streets parallel to it on each side ; and then, on
the banks oi the river, between the water and the street, the whole
stream is lined on each side with two rows of the tree of life. The
phrase (fvAoi/ ^w^s) is generic, and means something equivalent to
our word grove. Producing twelve fruit-harvests, not (as our ver
sion) twelve manner of fruits. In order to afford an abundant sup
ply for all the inhabitants, it bears twelve crops in a year instead of
one." 1
In short, the Revelator depicts here the highest ideal of an Ori
ental city, with its luxurious gardens, abundantly supplied with
pure water and food-trees, like the sacred river and tree of life of
the traditional paradise ; and we know now, not only that these rich
gardens of the Eastern monarchs were termed " paradises," but
that they were often expressly designed as imitations of the first
* Commentary on the Apocalypse in loc.

46 HAR-MOAD.
abode of humanity on earth. The question arises here, whether
any of the sacred trees of antiquity, known to us as such, answers
exactly, or nearly so, to the Biblical description of the " tree of life."
I think the Orientalist will hardly hesitate in naming the palm-tree,
especially the date-palm. The following, from the pen of M. F.
Lenormant in reference to Chaldsea, bears directly upon the point
before us : —
" It was the palm, the tree that furnished the major portion of
food to the inhabitants, and from whose fruit a fermented and
exhilarating beverage was derived, the tree to which they attributed,
in a song mentioned by Strabo, as many blessings as there are days
in the year ; — it was the palm, we say, which was regarded in this
country as the sacred tree, the tree of life." ^
In another treatise, the same author speaks of Arabia : " I have
shown from the testimony of the monuments that the palm was the
tree of life, the sacred tree par excellence in a portion of Chaldsea.
It was the same in many localities of Arabia ; this was the tree to
which they devoted most frequently their adoration." ^ But that
which tends to exclude all doubt in reference to the point in ques
tion is the statement of Professors Roediger and Pott, in the criti
cal paper cited below. They say : " A branch of the palm served
as a symbolical designation of the year, in the Egyptian hiero
glyphic writing, because the palm engenders each month, or twelve
times during the year." ^ It is a characteristic of this celebrated
tree that it throws out new blossoms every few weeks, so that it is
not unusual to behold ripe fruit and new blossoms at one and the
same time. I had hesitated to consider the statement of Professors
Roediger and Pott as wholly reliable, having been made at a time
when the facts were not so well known as at the present day. But
all doubt is removed by an Assyrian cylinder, from which a cut is
given in a work just published by Mr. George Smith, entitled " The
Chaldsean Account of Genesis." The scene represented is the bat
tle between Bel and the Dragon (p. 99), having a cosmic-al import,
but at the same time a reference to the calendar. On either hand
is shown a palm-tree, each having six branches of fruit, three on
one side and three on the other side of the trunk, suspended from
1 Frag, de Berose, p. 330. ^ l,gttres Assyriolngiques, ii. p. 104.
' Kurdische Studien, von E. Roediger u. A. F. Pott; Zeitschrift fur die Kunde
des Morgenlandes, von Chr. Lassen, B. vii. H. 1, Bonn, 1846, pp. 104, 105.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 47
beneath the outspreading branches. Here, then, are the twelve-
fruit-harvests literally represented to the eye. A much superior
engraving from this cylinder was published many years since by M.
F. Lajard, but the twelve bunches of fruit are not quite so fully repre
sented.^ That this cylinder had a cosmical import is shown from
the facts developed by Mr. Smith, and its reference to the calendar
is proved, not only by the twelve fruits of the palm, a recognized
symbol of the year, but by the crescent exhibited in the field, with
the three projections from the outer surface, denoting obviously the
three phases of the moon. The demonstration, therefore, is com
plete ; the palm considered as a sacred tree answers precisely to
the Biblical description of the tree of life. If it was not regarded
by the sacred writers as the tree of life itself, there can be no ques
tion that it had been selected as a type of it.
Sec. 22. In connection with the palm, whose monthly harvests
not only yielded an abundance of food, but from which also a fer
mented beverage was manufactured, it seems proper to introduce
here a brief consideration of the cuneiform Ar, whose signification
of " vineyard " and " palm-tree " has been already suggested. In
the New Syllabaries (No. 125), a second equation of the Accadian
Ub, " region " (Rep. 266), has Ar in the first column, and Karmu
in the third, or Assyrian column. As for Karmu, it is assimilated
by Dr. Delitzsch to the Hebrew Kerem (0.713), "a park of noble
plants, a garden," especially a " wine-garden, or vineyard." ^ The
connection of Karmu, in the sense of " vineyard," with the Accadian
Ub, " region, cardinal point," is perfectly natural, since the vine
yards of antiquity were considered as a species of templum, being
laid out with especial reference to the cardinal regions. But the
primitive application of the word Karmu, Hebrew Kerem, was
doubtless as a designation of the palm, particularly the date-palm,
from the fruit of which, instead of from the grape, it is probable
that the ancients first manufactured wine. Hr. Leo Reinisch has
developed a class of facts tending to establish the declaration just
made, from which he draws the conclusion as follows : " The most
ancient artificial drink known to our primitive ancestors was thus
the palm-wine ; but subsequently, when the manufacture of wine
from the grape was discovered, the same name was applied to the
* Vid. Culte de Venus, plate iv. No. 12.
2 Assyrische Studien, Heft i. p. 134.

48 HAR-MOAD.
new product." i In fact, it results from the investigations of this
author, and from those of Professors Roediger and Pott, in the place
already cited, that the term Karmu, as designating the palm, thence
put for palm-wine and vineyard, and under the various modified
forms of Kerem, Kurma, Karma, Khorma, Karm, etc., etc., prevailed
from Armenia in the north to Middle Africa in the south, so that
the equation of the Accadian Ar to the Assyrian Karmu seems a sat
isfactory indication of the senses which I have attached to it. It is
probable that it designated a watch-tower also, the ancient vineyards
being provided with such structures from which to guard the pro
ducts from depredations. As before stated, Ar is a composite sign,
consisting of xS'*, " eye," and Ri, "column." Thus, just as Si+e,
eye H- temple or tower, means "astronomical observation, observa
tory " (Rep. 363) ; so Si-ri, forming the character Ar, might well
be put for " the watch-tower of a vineyard," although it appears pri
marily to have designated the tree from which the products of the
garden were derived. It is worthy of note in this connection that
the Mosaic account of Noah's " vineyard " has the Hebrew Kerem
in the original, leading to the conjecture, at least, that it was not a
grape-garden, but a palm-garden, which was planted by Noah after
leaving the Ark.
We have seen that the tree of life was regarded preeminently as
a food-tree, and it was for this reason that other fruit-bearing trees,
especially the oak, certain species of which afforded an esculent pro
duct, came to be considered sacred, and were held in great venera
tion. It is a remarkable fact that the term most frequently denot
ing the oak, as it appears under various forms in the Aryan lan
guages, was derived from the same original theme, which produced
another class of words relating to the process of eating ; thus indi
cating a very early association of the conceptions of food and of
eating with the oak, considered as a food-tree. Probably it was
owing to its usefulness in this respect that the oak was venerated as
a sacred tree by so many and so widely separated branches of the
Aryan race. But there are other important ideas connected with
the primitive Aryan root just referred to, quite essential to our
present researches ; and it will be desirable to group them together
with those already noticed, in the natural order of their develop
ment. We have, then, 1st. The root Bhag, " to allot, to impart,
1 Einheitl. Ursprung d. Sprachen d. Alt. Welt., i. p. 842, note.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 49
to apportion, especially food to be eaten." 2d. The substantive
form, masculine, Bhaga, or Baga, literally " the apportioner, he
who allots, a portion;" then "bread-lord, lord of bread;" and so
" Lord " in general, " divinity ; " employed at an early period as
name of the Sun-god. 3d. From the idea of abundance of food is
derived that of " luck, good fortune, well-being," and thence the
" God of fortune. Lord of destiny." 4th. From the notion of food
again proceeds the feminine form Bhdga or Bdga, denoting the
oak-tree, considered especially as a food-tree, corresponding to the
Latin Quercus, Greek Phegos, both derived originally from the
root Bhag. 5th. Those derived forms signifying " portion, portion
of food, meal-time," also " to enjoy, to eat," etc.^
Sec. 23. In the cuneiform texts appertaining to the Achseme-
nian period, Baga occurs frequently as the equivalent of the Accadian
An, Babylonian Hu, that is to say, as highest divinity like the Per
sian Ormuzd, but at the same time as God in general. When
written phonetically, we usually find it with the characters Ba-ga ;
but I have noticed the forms Bak and Bak-da (ba-ak and ba^ak-da),
in composition with other names. In all these cases, it is. evident
that Baga represents a male divinity, although, the term is often
applied to female divinities in Aryan mythology. As a female
divinity, or goddess, Bdga must have been known to the Chaldseans
from the earliest period ; for we have the phrase An Bagas, the
" Goddess Bagas," in the name of the monarch who heads the list of
the ancient Chaldsean kings. That is, the name which was formerly
read Urukh is probably, according to M. Lenormant, to be more
correctly read Lik-Bagas, or Lik An Bagas. In an inscription of
Dun-gi, son of this ancient monarch, as published in the last volume
of the "Cuneiform Inscriptions," the father's name is written
phonetically Ba^ga-kit? The element kit is obviously here a simple
adjunct, the same as in the name Bil-kit, "Lord of the Abyss," ac
cording to which Bonga-kit would mean " Baga of the Abyss." We
have likewise the phrases Ba-ga-ra and Ba-ga-ra-kit, going to show
that Baga, or Bagas, is really the true reading, and that kit is merely
an adjunct.^ Thus, if we adopt the reading Ba-ga, justified by the
1 Pick, Woerterl. d. Indog. Sprachen, i. pp. 154, 687. Cf. Curtius, Grundzuge,
p. 298, etc.
2 4th Rawl. PI. 35, No. 2. Cf. Lenormant, Etudes Accad., t. i. pt. 3d, p. 76.
8 3d Rawl. PI. 67, No. 2, lines 48, 49 ; and 4th Rawl. PI. 5, col. 2, lines 42, 46.

50 HAR-MOAD.
facts just noticed, its identity with the Aryan Baga seems quite
apparent. The final s results doubtless from the Accadian value of
khas (Rep. 2), the six-rayed star inclosed in a square, constituting
the monogram for Bagas; but it is proved non-essential by the
phonetics Ba-ga-kit of the inscription of Dungi, already cited. The
six-rayed star, having the value of khas, "to strike violently, to
cut," etc., answers precisely in meaning and form to the " wheel,"
ordinary mythological symbol of the Goddess of fortune, or of
destiny; another indication of the connection of the Accadian
Ba-ga with, the Persian Baga, " God of fortune." That An Bagas
is a female, divinity, a goddess, appears from the fact that the
same characters occur in several texts, as the title of such a person-
age.i But we find Baga, evidently as a title of divinity, in a connection
still more unexpected than that with which we were last occupied.
According to Dr. D. Chwolsohn, the Haranite Sabseans, living in
the midst of a Semitic population, and evidently Semites them
selves, celebrated the mysteries of Shemal, or Samael, in an under
ground room like a cave, which was termed by them the " House of
Bogdariten ; " and the initiates were called the " Sons of Bogdari-
ten." This name Bogdariten, as the author states, proceeds from
Bogdariun, plural of Bog-dar, in which the Slavic Bog, one with
the Persian Baga, appears at a glance. Among the ceremonies of
these mystics was that in which they partook of bread prepared in
the manner of the shepherds ; another in which they partook of
food and wine ; and still another custom was the preparation of
cakes consisting of meal, kneaded with the boiled flesh of a male
child offered in sacrifice ; and these cakes served as a mystical bread
during the entire year. The sanctuary itself being a cave, and the
custom of preparing a kind of bread after the manner of the shep
herds, lead to the conclusion, as Professor Chwolsohn thinks, that
these mysteries pertained to a very early epoch, and were probably
founded on the worship of the cave-dwellers themselves.^ Consider-
1 2d Rawl. PI. 64, 3; Obs. lines 17, 18 ; and 3d Rawl. PI. 69, No. 1 ; Obs. 1. 25.
An Bagas is here put for mother of En-ki-ga-hit, or " Lord of the region of the
Abyss." Enkigakit is explained in other places as the God Hea. Mr. George
Smith has a different reading for the name of this goddess, which is probably cor
rect. Yet for the Accadian I prefer the one here adopted, as it appears to be
well supported.
" Ssabier u. d. Ssabismus, ii. Excursus to chap. ix. pp. 319-364.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 51
ing the connection of this sanctuary with the Persian Baga, " Lord
of bread," together with the mystical food prepared in the manner
stated, it is probable that we should see here a reference also to
the oak, denoted by the term Baga, considered as a sacred tree,
especially a food-tree. The God Shemal, Hebrew Semol, who con
stituted the central point of these mysteries, was the great divinity
of the north, the word Semol being an ancient Semitic term put for
the north, and North Star. Seven great gods were associated with
Shemal, probably the seven planets ; also seven genii, supposed to
be the seven stars of the constellation of the northern Dipper. In
relation to these seven stars, Shemal .as polar-star constituted the
Eighth, calling to mind the Eighth Cabiriac divinity ; and the high-
priest, or hierophant, who presided over the initiations, was called
Kabir, that is to say, one of the Cabiri.i
Like the Aryan Bdga, the Semitic Hu, Hebrew El, is closely con
nected with the oak-tree. The term El (bs) signifies the " Strong
One," thence put for the Almighty. According to Dr. Fiirst (Heb.
Lex, sub vac). El is equivalent to a-yil (^MH), also the " Strong
One," but otherwise denoting the " tall, strong tree," particularly
the oak. We read that " Abraham planted a grove in Beer-sheba,
and called there on the name of the Lord (Yahveh), the everlasting
God" (El olam ; Gen. xxi. 33). The original for "grove " in this
passage is Eshel (btt's), which is singular, though some exegetes
maintain that it has a generic sense, and may properly denote a
" grove " instead of a single tree. It occurs in two passages only
besides this (1 Sam. xxii. 6; and xxxi. 13), and in the last the idea
of plurality is absolutely excluded. In fact, it is rendered " tree,"
the singular, in both instances. Gesenius, Rosenmuller, and others
regard the Eshel as a Tamarisk ; but Professor Bush observes that
" Among the ancient versions some render it by oak or oak-grove,
and others, like the English, simply a grove" (notes in loc). But
the tamarisk is a species of oak, so that the reference would be much
the same in either case. It is far more probable, I think, that Abra
ham planted a single tree, an oak or tamarisk, calling there upon the
name Yahveh, identified with El as the everlasting God. This was
in accordance with prevailing custom, which, in the time of Abra
ham, had not been perverted to idolatrous purposes.
Sec. 24. We proceed now to the especial consideration of the
1 Ibid.

52 HAR-MOAD.
character Mu, having the sense of " to give, memorial, name, year."
As already stated, the Accadian Mu is the ordinary Assyrian mono
gram for Sanat, " year." Thus, if the character itself represents
a tree, the sacred tree, and especially the palm, is obviously intended.
We have seen that the palm, from the fact of its engendering each
month, producing twelve fruit-harvests during the year, was chosen
as a symbol, and even paleographical symbol, of the year. While
the Egyptians selected a simple branch of the palm for this purpose,
the Accadians or Cushites represented the tree entire, sufficiently
contracted, however, for convenience in writing. Do we not have
here a direct indication, not only that this paleographic symbol was
in use, as such, before the separation of the Hamite race, but that
the Egyptian system of writing was at first symbolical? Be this as
it may, the proof here afforded that the hieratic character Mu was
intended for the sacred tree must be considered, I think, quite satis
factory. The sign Mu occurs also in the texts as the ordinary Assyrian
monogram for Sam or Sum, Hebrew Shem (:';'), " name ; " and it
may be interpreted as memorial name, since this character attaches
to itself both these significations. Another fact not yet noticed,
but quite important in the present connection, is that Mu is usually
employed in the Accadian as a personal pronoun, first person, sin
gular, denoting thus the Person, the Ego, or the I am, humanly
speaking ; and it shows that the two conceptions of " name " and
"person" were intimately associated. In view of these considera
tions, and of the fact that the hieratic form of this paleographic sign
evidently represents a bush or tree, it is probable we should see here
some relation to the remarkable circumstance, which is thus recorded
in Scripture : —
" Now Moses kept the flock of Jethro his father in law, the priest of Midian :
and he led the flock to the backside ot the desert, and came to the mountain of
God, even to Horeb. And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame
of fire out of the midst of a bush : and he looked, and, behold, the bush burned
with fire, and the bn<h was not consumed." " And God said unto Moses, I am
that I am : and he said. Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, / am hath
sent me unto yon. And God said moreover unto Moses, Thus shalt thou say unto
the children of Israel, The Lord God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the
God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath sent me unto )'ou : this is my name
for ever, and this is my memorial unto all generations." (Ex. iii. 1, 2; and 14,
15.) The definite association of the name of God, the Divine Word,
with the sacred tree, particularly the Fire-tree, must have been very

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 53
ancient and widely prevalent. In the primitive epochs, it was cus
tomary to generate the fire, whether of the hearth or of the altar,
by means of the friction of two pieces of wood. As the hearth was
the primitive altar, and its flame the natural symbol of the hearth-
divinity, whose character doubtless constituted the basis of all the
fire-gods of antiquity, this method of generating fire naturally
attached to itself a peculiar significance and sanctity ; and it was in
the midst of the flames thus generated that the Divine Being was
believed to manifest himself to man, and to communicate with the
world. The two pieces of wood employed for this purpose were called
Arani by the Aryans. M. L^on Carr4 cites two texts from the
Gathas, constituting the most ancient portions of the Zend-Avesta,
in which Sraosha or Serosh, the personification of the Word of
Ormuzd, and through whom the Good Spirit communicated to men,
is directly referred to in connection with the Arani : —
"Thou didst command me not to create, without having first
received a revelation ; not till Craosha should come with majestic
truth ; — he who deigns to reveal the wisdom by means of the two
pieces of wood destined to generate the fire." " May the instructed
man, who thinks only of truth and of the two lives, O Ahura! may
his language be free, and may they hear his words of truth, promul
gated by thy brilliant and beneficent fire, produced by the friction
of two pieces of wood." ^
Rev. Mr. Rawlinson has the following in relation to the general
attributes and office of Serosh : —
" Armaiti, however, the genius of the earth, and Sraosha or Serosh,
an angel, are very clearly and distinctly personified. Sraosha is
Ormazd's messenger. He delivers revelations, shows men the
paths of happiness, and brings them the blessings which Ormazd
has assigned to their share. Another of his functions is to protect
the true faith. He is called in a very special sense, ' the friend of
Ormazd,' and is employed by Ormazd not only to distribute his
gifts, but also to conduct to him the souls of the faithful, when this
life is over, and they enter on the celestial scene." ^
According to the views of Professor Theod. Benfey, Baga was
conceived also as the Divine Word, and nearly allied to Serosh. Re-
1 L'Aneien Orient, ii. p. 319, and note. The author quotes from Langlois' ver
sion. The second-hand translation given above is probably faulty, but that which
relates to the connection of Serosh with the Arani is doubtless sufficiently accu
rate. 2 Five Monarchies, ii. pp. 326, 327; cf. pp. 336-339.

54 HAR-MOAD.
ferring to the Greek names Bagarazos and Bagaios, this writer
observes : " They appear to me derived from the frequently occur
ring term Baga, ' the Sacred Word.' " Upon the name Bigtan, a
loan word from the Persian occurring in the Bible, the same author
says : " This appears to me to be Baga-tanu, ' the Word having a
Body ; ' in a similar signification we have tanumanthra applied to
the Ized Craosha." ^
Sec. 25. In connection with the fire-tree, it will be most con
venient to introduce here some remarks relative to the character
Gi, signifying " flame, foundation, to found, to transport, to deport,
to restore." In the foundation of a new state, nothing was esteemed
more important by the ancients than the transportation of the
sacred fire from the altar or hearth of the parent state to that of
the new colony. It seems probable that there is some reference to
this custom in the notions of "flame, transportation, foundation,"
etc., appertaining to the sign Gi. Mr. Norris states the fact that
Gi, preceded by the determinative of divinity, is believed by Sir H.
Rawlinson to be the Scythic, or Accadian fire-god ; and that it is
sometimes substituted for the Accadian characters Ne and Iz-bar,
ordinarily put for the fire-god.^ The sign Iz, in the name Iz-bar,
has the meaning of " wood, tree " (Rep. 233) ; while Bar, among
others, has the sense of " to burn " (Rep. 69). All this goes to
show that the primary notion of flame, heat, fire, and thence of the
fire-god, was intimately connected with the tree, from which fuel
was derived. The term Iz-bar, " tree, to burn," as name of the fire-
god, shows for itself a primitive association with the hearth and the
altar, originally one and the same thing ; but the sun, as primary
source of all heat, was doubtless at a very early period considered
as a fire-divinity. A well-known title of this god was Bar-sam,
that is, " Bar by name," or whose name is Bar, " to burn," forcibly
calling to mind the Name Yahveh, proclaimed from the burning
bush of Mount Horeb. We see, then, from the data here estab
lished, not only the connection of Gi with the sacred tree, espe
cially considered as the fire-tree, but the definite association of the
Divine Name with it. Connected with the facts having a similar
bearing, presented in the previous, section, it will be difficult not
to admit the habitual association of the Divine Word or Name,
* Monatsnamen, pp. 198, 199 ; cf. p. 67.
" Assyr. Die, i. p. 342 ; Furst, Heb. Lex. art. nai

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 55
on the part of the ancients, with the sacred tree, and especially
the fire-tree. Not only this, but it is evident that all these notions
must be referred primitively to the hearth, the family altar, where
the first flames were kindled, the first bread consecrated, and the
first offerings presented to God ; where, in fact, the Sacred Name
was first invoked by mortal man. But upon the connection of the
Divine Name with the sacred tree in general, and especially upon
its reference to the external manifestations of the Deity, consid
ered as his Other, his Face, that is to say, his Feminine Form, I
wish to present some extracts from the pen of M. De Vogiie,
which, although quite lengthy, are too important not to appear
here : —
" Like the supreme divinity of the Egyptians, Baal was not abso
lutely distinct from created nature, at least in the epochs of history
accessible to our researches ; as early as we are able to penetrate
into the annals of the Canaanitish populations, we find the worship
of Baal associated with certain trees and stones, considered as
abodes of the Divinity (bsTl"'^), or Beth-el. In other words, they
adored in God the hidden spring of nature, the principle of life that
animates the material."
" The first formula that we recognize is that so often repeated
in the inscriptions of Carthage, in which the goddess Tanit is
called Phan-Baal (b3?2"1D). This expression signifies properly,
fades, persona Baalis, and M. de Saulcy has very happily rendered
the first by ' Manifestation of Baal.' M. Zbtenberg has demon
strated that it contains also the idea of. conjugal union. Tanit,
then, does not differ essentially from Baal ; this is, so to speak, only
the subjective form of the Primal Deity ;. a second Divine Person,
sufficiently distinct to be associated conjugally, yet no other than
the Deity himself in his external manifestation."
" The second formula is more explicit ; Astarte, the goddess of
Sidon, associated with Baal of Sidon in the inscription of Eshmuna-
zar, is qualified as Sam-Baal (hvn-'aw), Nomen Baalis. The abstrac
tion is more pure here than in the preceding example. At Car
thage the goddess was a divine person ; but here she is only, so to
speak, a theological locution. This is Baal less under another
aspect than under another name, although the personality is
enough distinct for them to be designated as male and female divin
ities ; the author of the inscription employs the plural ;- he calls
them the gods of the Sidonians. Astarte, then, is the personifica
tion of the Divine Name ; of that Name to which all the religions
of antiquity have attributed a mysterious power. This is as if
Sam-Yahveh (mni-Dtt?) had taken a body. Already in the Bible

56 HAR-MOAD.
this expression is found employed in an active acceptation, that
relates more to the numen (power) than the nomen (name) ; it is
applied to the external manifestations of divine power. It is by
virtue of the Sam (ott?) that the angel works, charged with commu
nications to men ; it is the Sam also who resides in the temple of
Jerusalem. But while the Jews preserved the abstract value of
this expression, the Phoenicians had given it a distinct existence;
they made of it a special divinity by an operation similar to that
according to which they deified the Face of their God. One will
not deny, however, that an analogy exists between the two phrases
Sam-Baal and Phan-Baal. Gesenius had traced the connection of
Sam-Yahveh with Phan-Yahveh, at an epoch when the Phoenician
inscriptions were wholly unknown or imperfectly explained." ^
The substantial accuracy and great value of the views expressed
in the foregoing passages have been adverted to frequently by Eu
ropean scholars. We see here how the sacred name of divinity
gave rise to the conception of a distinct goddess, who was adored
often under the form of sacred trees or stones, with which this
divine name was usually in such cases associated. A striking ex
ample of this is the term Semiramis, a title of the Assyrian Venus,
and which Drs. Movers and Gesenius substantially agree in explain
ing as " the most exalted name." ^ We have seen that Abraham
planted a tree in Beer-sheba, calling there upon the name Yahveh
(^r[^rV'CW), identified with El as the everlasting God. The Patri
arch Jacob likewise, in memory of his vision of the mystical ladder,
set up a stone, and poured oil upon the top of it, calling the name
of that place Beth-el (bs-i'T'a), "the House of El" (Gen. xxvii. 18,
19). We see that these notions and customs were universal at this
early period, and it is evident that it was only much later that they
became associated with polytheistic and idolatrous conceptions.
The Hebrews, as correctly observed by M. De Vogiie, preserved
the abstract value of the terms Sam and Phan, applied to the Deity,
denoting thereby the external manifestations of divine power ;
while the other Semitic races, for the most part, gave to these attri
butes a distinct existence under the form of a goddess conjugally
related to the primal divinity. As M. Zotenberg has shown, these
1 Melanges d'' Arch. Orient, pp. 52-55. Cf. Syrie Centrale, p. 53 note, for a
substantial confirmation of the author's views.
2 See Dr. K Schlottmann; Die Inschrift Eschmunazars, etc., pp. 75-79 and
142-146 ; Movers, Phcenizier, i. p. 634; Gesenius, Heb. Lex. art. rii';;-i>r»27-

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 57
expressions primarily involve the idea of conjugal union, and it
was but natural that they should give rise, sooner or later, to the
conception of a female divinity more or less distinct from the
primal Deity. With the Hebrews, this dualism applied more to
the relations between the divine and human, God and the Church.
Sec. 26. Of the group constituting the subject of our present
study, the only remaining character is that of Ri, "to heap up,
column, to rise, appearance of a star." It has been already observed
that Ri is an ordinary monogram for the Goddess Is-tar, the Baby
lonian Venus ; and we find this character thus employed in its
hieratic form in the very earliest texts now known. The conical
stone (for which was often substituted a heap of stones, implied in
the sense of " to heap up," in other words, the Betyle, the Beth-el),
appertained to the Goddess Ri, or Is-tar, as is now generally under
stood by Oriental scholars. But the Asherah (rnttJs), from the
root Ashar (~iffi>s), "to be blessed, to be happy," to which frequent
reference is made in the Hebrew Scriptures, was also dedicated to
Venus, particularly as the goddess of fortune, proceeding from the
idea of happiness, of well-being, expressed in the root Ashar. The
Asherah, however, was usually made of wood, consisting of a tree
or trunk of a tree artificially fashioned, and thus briefly described
by Dr. Gesenius : " A statue, image, of Asherah, made of wood ; a
wooden pillar of great size, which on account of its height was
fixed or planted in the ground." " Of the ancient versions some
render this word Astarte, others a wooden pillar, others a tree ; —
by which they seem to have understood a sacred tree " (Heb. Lex.
Art. rntI7M). In a list of stars contained in an Assyrian tablet,
Venus is styled the Star Izlie, " the star of fortune," as interpreted
by M. Lenormant and Dr. Oppert. The name Iz-li-e, since the first
syllable means "a tree," shows that the planet Venus derives this
title from some kind of a sacred tree ; and from M. Lenormant's
transliteration of the term (bvv), I am persuaded that it should be
identified with the Hebrew Eshel (btt7S), " the oak or tamarisk,"
planted by Abraham at Beer-sheba.^ This assimilation of Izlie to
Eshel, as a species of oak, calls to mind again the term Bdga, under
its feminine form, frequently applied to the oak ; and thus also the
goddess Bdga, as mistress of fortune, the same as Is-tar or Venus.
I Lettres Assyriologiques, ii. p. 162. Cf. 3d Rawl. PI. 57, 6, 1. 51. Mr. Norris
cites various texts in which Izli occurs as a tree (Assyr. Die, i. p. 346).

68 HAR-MOAD.
Another circle of ideas deserves a brief notice in this connection.
We have seen that Baga, as title of the lord of bread, thence as
god of fortune, ruler of destiny, proceeds from the root Bhag, " to
allot, to award, to apportion," especially food or bread to be eaten.
Along with Gad (ib) lord of fortune, supposed to be the planet
Jupiter, the majority of the Semites of Western Asia adored a
female divinity, Meni ("'at:), mistress of fortune, usually assimilated
to the planet Venus. Now Meni is derived from Md-ndh (n3C), " to
divide out, to allot," involving thus the same primary conceptions
as the Aryan Bhag, from which Baga is derived. There is also the
obsolete root Manan (^3X3), having the same sense of "to allot, to
divide out ; " and from this comes the word Manna (Heb. in), the
name of the food upon which the Israelites subsisted in the wilder
ness. It is remarkable that the Manna of Arabia and other coun
tries of Western Asia is derived from the tamarisk, a species of the
oak-tree. We have here a complete, and in every particular an exact
parallelism, between the Aryan and Semitic conceptions, proceeding
primarily from roots' signifying to allot, to apportion, thence applied
to food derived from the oak, and finally to the idea of god or god
dess of fortune. The manna is a kind of gum, having a sweet taste
like honey, that exudes from the leaf or bark of the tree, on being
punctured by a species of insect. The Arabians call this the gift
or food of heaven. Many exegetes still maintain that the manna
upon which the Israelites subsisted was different, and was miracu
lously provided. But the fact that a food in all respects similar,
and having the same name, is produced even to-day in the same
region of country tends strongly in favor of the naturalistic view.
No additional facts are required to establish the point that the
Accadian Ri represented originally a form of the sacred tree, and
that it appertained definitely to the Asiatic Venus. Nor does it
seem necessary to adduce further proof by way of substantiating
our general theory, not only of the highly symbolical character of
the entire group of signs forming the subject of these studies, but
of their direct primary reference to the sacred tree. Nevertheless,
I desire to cite one more illustration from the art monuments, that
seems to embrace in one all the conceptions which have been devel
oped thus far, relating to the subject before us. I refer to the eagle-
headed man from the Nimrod sculpture, represented in a plate
opposite page 102 of Mr. Smith's " Chaldsean Account of Genesis,"

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 69
already cited in these researches. These man-eagles, so often ap
pearing upon the Assyrian monuments, are the especial guardians
of the sacred tree, and correspond remarkably with the Garuda of
the Hindu tradition. Upon the sacred basket held in the left hand
of the figure here alluded to, the mystical tree appears under a form
more simple than is usual to find it ; and it admits of a ready ex
planation of the symbolism attached to it. We have here a plain
trunk planted uprightly in the ground, like the Asherah described
to us by Dr. Gesenius. From this are seen twelve arms branching
off at right angles to it, six upon one side and six upon the other.
It is plain that these represent the calendar, the two halves of the
year, six months in each. This explains to us fully the Accadian
Mu, Assyrian Sanat, " year." The rays of light proceeding from
the top of the column, intended for seven, or the seven planets, as
will be seen by a comparison with the other cuts of the sacred tree
given by Mr. Smith, not only confirm the notion of an astronomical
reference, but give us the additional idea of flame, of the fire-tree,
answering to the cuneiform sign Gi. Finally, the simple fact that
this tree is guarded by the man-eagle proves its reference to the tree
of life, to which corresponds the character Zi, " to live, life, soul,"
etc. An indirect relation to the sign Ar might be traced through
its signification of the palm, shown to have been a recognized sym
bol of the calendar.
Sec. 27. During the investigations of the present chapter, the
materials have seemed constantly to multiply upon our hands ; and
though much of importance has been excluded, these pages will
doubtless appear to the reader too much crowded with individual
facts and details ; and to avoid the confused impression that might
otherwise be left upon the mind, it will be necessary to recapitulate
briefly the chief points upon which we have been occupied, and
which we have labored to establish. Undoubtedly the character of
the Jehovah of the Old Testament presents individual attributes
that closely resemble the fire-gods of antiquity. This fact has been
frequently noticed by Orientalists, and has been often made the
subject of critical research. Dr. Movers has pointed out the an
alogy existing between Jehovah considered as a destroying power
and the Moloch of the Canaanitish worship. M. Obry has traced
the resemblances between the national God of the Jews and Agni
of the Hindu religion. The data that have been presented in the

60 HAR-MOAD.
present chapter, relating to this point, all tend to the conclusion
that these striking analogies are chiefly due to the fact that the
primitive object of the worship of mankind' was unquestionably the
divinity of the hearth. For the populations of ancient Italy and
Greece, it would be easy to verify this last statement. It is well
known that Agni of the Hindus was primitively a hearth -god.
We have shown that the Accadian Ni was such, and that this per
sonage was one with Jehovah of the Hebrew Scriptures. I am con
fident that the same general statement could be shown to apply to
all the cultured nations of antiquity. Although conceptions more
or less distinct, yet similar in character, were applied to the sun as
the ultimate source of all heat, I believe that the fire-god was first
worshiped at the hearth-stones of primitive humanity.
But little doubt can be entertained, I think, that the conceptions
centring in the Aryan Baga or Bdga, lord or mistress of bread,
and thence of fortune and destiny, to which those connected with
the Semitic Mann or Meni present in all respects exact correspon
dences, — but little doubt can be entertained, I say, that all these
ideas, and the customs originating from them, appertained primi
tively to the hearth and to the divinity of the hearth ; to those
early stages of society when the food-tree furnished the staple pro
ducts for the support of human life. Applied at first, perhaps, to
the master and mistress of the house, as apportioners of food to the
inmates, they were naturally transferred to the divinity presiding
over the well-being and fortunes of the family, who then became in
a mystical and religious sense the apportioner of food, the lord of
bread. As it was here that the first covenants of salt were ratified
between God and man, so here the first allotment of bread was
shared between them, in token of perpetual friendship. The judi
cious remarks of Dr. Cudworth which have been cited, relating to
the feast upon the sacrifice considered as a federal rite between
God and man, receive here a striking confirmation, the origin of
such customs being now clearly demonstrated. Their significance
as fundamental conceptions of the Mosaic religion has been already
adverted to, and will not fail to be appreciated by the reader.
As the altar and the hearth were originally one, and as the flames
had occasionally to be rekindled upon the hearth, the Arani, or two
pieces of wood destined to generate the fire, became thus a necessity
of every household, and the veneration paid to the fire so mysteri-

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 61
ously produced, so appropriate a symbol of the Deity himself, was
naturally transferred in a measure to the fire-tree from which the
Arani had been derived. Both the tree that furnished the fuel for
the hearth and the food for the table would attach to themselves a
sacred character. They afforded the necessary sustenance of life, as
well as the means of life's chief conveniences and comforts. As the
generous tree from whose branches they plucked their daily food
seemed so essential to the continuance of mortal existence, the
transference of their ideas to the tree of life par excellence, from
whose products the life beyond the tomb was sustained, was but
natural to those with whom the present and future existence
appeared to be merely a continuance, one of the other, although
under changed and improved circumstances.
The veneration of certain trees, considered as abodes of divinity,
was at the first no such vulgar superstition as has been supposed by
some modern writers. M. De Vogiie has very correctly observed
that, with the men of high antiquity, God was not conceived as
wholly distinct from created nature. On the contrary, nature was
considered as the Face, the Name, the external manifestation of
divinity. As something purely universal and abstract, far removed
from the work of his own wisdom and power, the Deity was almost
wholly unknown in the first ages of humanity. The house which
He had built was also his own habitation. The Divine Mind was
everywhere present in the outward world, and everything that had
life was a symbol of God. The process was therefore wholly logi
cal and normal by which a natural object, distinguished from the
mass by its remarkable characteristics, or by some consecrating cer
emonies, was conceived as a dwelling-place of God, who might be
thus approached by his rational creature man, and his Sacred Name
invoked. Things in general were as chaos, as nonentity, to the
apperceptions of the first men. Everything appeared to them in
the concrete. Nor was this by any means an incorrect view. Mod
ern physical science demonstrates to-day the great truth, announced
many years since by. Mr. J. B. Stallo as an axiom of nature-philos
ophy : " Life only then appears when the whole energizes in a part,"
and the immortal Goethe had long before said : " If you would
appreciate the whole, you must recognize the whole in the small
est." 1 God is universal, infinite, but not as an abstraction. He
1 Philosophy of Nature, pp. 14 and 15, note.

62 HAR-MOAD.
alone is really universal who is present in his fullness in each and
every particular. If the Infinite dwells not in this tree and in this
stone. He is nowhere. If it is only beneath temple domes that the
Deity takes up his abode, primitive humanity was without a God,
for then there were no temples.
Sec. 28. But that which many modern writers have failed most
essentially to appreciate, in the religious conceptions and customs of
high antiquity, regards the one great idea fundamental in all the
facts which have been grouped together in the present chapter,
and which has been already insisted upon, namely, that God
dwells, inhabits, the same as man. It is mind alone that dwells,
and it is matter alone that constitutes the dwelling. To conceive
of mind without a dwelling is to regard it as an abstraction instead
of a reality. It is impossible for the human soul to enter into intel
ligent, personal relation with the storm-cloud, the whirlwind, or
with empty space. If God would communicate with man, it must
be through the concrete, through the particular ; the Deity must, to
this end, subject himself to the limitations of time and space, must
unite the universal in the individual as one ; — in a word, God must
dwell somewhere, the same as man. This eternal law of all mind,
which philosophy, science, and speculative theology have now well-
nigh forgotten, is that alone which gives meaning to the phrase,
" House of God." Whether it be, therefore, the burning bush of
Horeb, the oak of Beer-sheba, or the unhewn stone of Bethel;
whether it be the temple on Mount Sion, the church of St. Peter,
or the humble chapel by the wayside ; if the Infinite Mind be not
conceived as dwelling there, neither does the finite mind enter into
intelligent, personal relation with him. The same principle ap
plies with nearly equal force in reference to the sacred name of
God. With the ancients, if the Deity was not known by his
personal name. He was as a stranger to them. To invoke the
Divine One by merely generic titles was to them as if we should
say Thou Man ! or Thou Woman ! to a near and dear friend. As
already observed, to those of the earlier ages, things in general
were as chaos, as nonentity. That which manifested itself in the
concrete was to them the truly existent ; and it was only under a
personal name that they knew how to commune with God. Practi
cally, according to their philosophy, to conceive the Deity as merely
the Universal, the Infinite, and under terms having a like general

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 63
import, was to banish Him from the human soul, from the sanctu
ary, and even from creation itself.
It is certain that the divinity was not thus conceived in the pri
mitive worship of mankind. The Deity is not too great to be good,
too powerful to aid the weak, too infinite to exclude him from the
humble hearth where tried souls wrestle with adversity. We
obtain a glimpse of the hard lot and sadness, as well as the difficul
ties, attending the ordinary life of man in the first ages of the world,
and while as yet the earth was unsubdued, in the language of
Lamech at the birth of Noah : " And he called his name Noah, say
ing, This same shall comfort us concerning our work and toil of our
hands, because of the ground which the Lord hath cursed " (Gen.
V. 29). A comfortable home, a cheerful blaze upon the hearth, a
table supplied with food for the support of life, and above all the
gift of sons and daughters to love, were the chief temporal blessings
that Providence could bestow upon those with whom the terrible
calamity that had befallen the first human pair was still fresh in
mind. But the unsettled state of society, the increasing wicked
ness of mankind, with even the brute creation and rude elements of
nature to contend with, rendered everything precarious and uncer
tain ; and it was then, if ever, that the rational creatures of God
needed his protection, and his personal, immediate presence with
them. The exiles from the peaceful bowers of Eden had not been
deserted by the Divine One in whose mercies they still trusted.
It was now their loss and not his anger that He remembered. He
had created them that He might love them, and in the midst of
their misfortunes He would mingle the tokens of his kindness with
the bitter fruits of their transgression. It was thus that He became
a dweller in human habitations, and was invoked as the God of the
hearth, as the Lord of bread. The flames kindled there, gener
ated from the sacred fire-tree, and the table which was there spread
with the products plucked from the sacred food-tree, were the most
significant symbols of God's friendship for man, and of man's
dependence upon the bountiful Provider. Humble indeed were
these first tabernacles in which the Infinite and Finite mind cov
enanted together, and simple was the repast in which the Divine
and Human ratified the pledges of mutual fidelity. But immortal
destinies were being moulded there, and the Lord of destinies was
present to superintend the process. The blaze kindled upon those

64 HAR-MOAD.
hearths had been brought, not from Troy, but from the sun ; and
its forked tongues were the tongues of prophecy, proclaiming the
results of the divine economy on earth.
But time's noiseless shuttles flew rapidly to and fro ; generations,
like clouds, flitted across the mirror of life, and they who had con
secrated the ancient hearths with their tears became the progenitors
of powerful tribes, the ancestral heads of flourishing states. The
God of the fathers has now become the national divinity, and He
whose mess was once the humble product of the food-tree receives
the united offerings of a prosperous commonwealth, bound together
by the ties of a common lineage. The traditions, the ideas and
customs, associated with the primitive worship, may be traced in
the solemn rites and imposing ritual constituting the national cultus.
Thus it was that He who had been invoked at the hearth-stones
of the Hebrew patriarchs was worshiped on Mount Sion by the
assembled tribes of Israel, whose destinies He had wrought out amid
so many fiery ordeals.
But the divine name which had been proclaimed from the burn
ing bush of Horeb was yet to take a body ; and the sacred tree,
whose fruits were " for meat, and the leaves thereof for medicine,"
was yet to be transplanted, not upon Mount Sion, but upon Cal
vary, — "I am that bread of life " (John vi. 48). This, then, is, the
Lord of Bread ; of that Bread gathered from a Food-tree whose
fruits can never be exhausted. This, too, is now the Divinity of
the Hearth ; He who dwells to-day in the habitations of men.

CHAPTER IIL
THE CABIEI.
Sec. 29. In the legend upon ther signet cylinder of Lik-Bagas
(for we prefer this reading to that of Urukh) who heads the list of
ancient Chaldsean kings, so far as known, this monarch assumes the^
title of Pa-te-shi, an expression often occurring in the cuneiform
texts, having the sense of " master, pontiff, sovereign-pontiff, or
priest-king." ^ Lik-Bagas was literally a priest-king, like Mel-
chizedek, who was king of Salem, and at the same time a priest
of El-elyon, or the "Most High God" (Gen. xiv. 18). Abraham
must have recognized at once the exalted character of Melchizedek,
for he was born in " Ur of the Chaldees," which was the chief cap
ital of Lik-Bagas, and the order of priest-kings was well known at
Babylon. At the earliest period of which the inscriptions afford
us any knowledge, the country of Assyria also was governed by sov
ereign-pontiffs, or Pa-te-shi, though they seem to have been tributary
to Chaldsea or Babylon. The term Pa-te-shi, for which Assyrio
logues often substitute the reading of Pa-te-si, must be regarded as
a technical expression, designating a class of personages universally
recognized, and in whom the kingly and sacerdotal characters were
united. Coming down to the era of Nebuchadnezzar, we find that
this monarch applies to the god Marduk, the patron divinity of
Babylon, the phrase Pa-te-shi tsi-ri ; and Nebuchadnezzar himself
frequently assumes the same title, from which it appears that the
locution was employed in reference equally to certain deities and
to men in high official stations.^ But it is,. I think, satisfactorily
shown, from the critical investigations of Rev. A. H. Sayce and M.
Grivel, that the god Marduk, whose name very frequently appears
I 1st Rawl. PI. 1, No. 10. For the meaning of this term consult Lenormant,
Etudes Accadiennes, t. i. pt. 1st, p. 49, and pt. 3d, p. 77.
^ 1st Rawl. PI. 53, col. 1, 1. 4, 5. Cf. Oppert, Etudes Assyriennes, pp. 26, 27.

66 HAR-MOAD.
in the inscriptions under the Accadian form Amer-ud, was in point
of fact no other than the Biblical Nimrod, Cushite founder of the
primitive Babylonian kingdom ; although Mr. George Smith, in his
recently published work, objects to this view.^ He urges that the
god Marduk was regarded as creator of the world, like the Baby
lonian Bel or Belus, and could not have been at first merely a dei
fied mortal. The author forgets, however, that Bel, as creator, and
Marduk, as patron deity of Babylon, were originally two distinct
personages, whose characters were blended only at an epoch much
later, as long since established by Sir H. Rawlinson, and more
recently by M. Lenormant.^ The philological and other evidences
adduced by M. Grivel and Rev. A. H. Sayce should be regarded as
conclusive, as it appears to me, until proofs of an equally critical
character are discovered, tending to destroy their force. But to
return ; it is obvious that the entire phrase Pa-te-shi tsi-ri was
employed technically, also, the same as Pa-te-shi when used alone.
As the latter designated the entire class of sovereign-pontiffs, the
former must have been limited in its application to those of a high
rank. In this sense it is probable that we should interpret the full
phrase, when assumed by Nebuchadnezzar as his own title, and
likewise when bestowed upon the god Marduk, shown to have been
one with Nimrod. The connection of Nimrod with the temple
structures of Babylon and Borsippa, to which the inscription of
Nebuchadnezzar just cited largely relates, was fully established in
the first chapter. It will be interesting, then, to study briefly the
particular notions inherent in the two expressions, Pa-te-shi and
Pa-te-shi tsi-ri, assumed as official titles by the ancient rulers of the
country of the Euphrates.
We have first the sign Pa, explained by M. Lenormant as fol
lows : " to anoint, royal unction, power ; " also Khat and Kun, " the
rising day, the dawn" (Rep. 234). Then follows Te, "foundation,
base, duration," etc., with the Assyrian value of " corner-stone,"
(Rep. 355). The third character is Shi, " horn, to strike with the
horn, blow, side ; to accomplish, to fill " (Rep. 125). Of the term
Tsi-ri, the first element has the sense of " to see, view, appearance,
1 Vid. the critical papers of Rev. A. H. Sayce and M. Grivel, in Trans. Bib.
Arch. So. London, ii. pp. 243-249 ; and iii. pp. 136-144. See Mr. Smith's objec
tions in Chaldman Account of Genesis, p. 180.
2 Rawl., Herod., i. pp. 483, 484, 512, 513. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 67.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 67
to rise, as a star " (Rep. 195). The sign Ri, " column," etc., is
already familiar to the reader. A very frequent monogram for the
god Nabu, assimilated to the planet Mercury, being thus the same
as the Egyptian Thoth and the Greek Hermes, was the Accadian
Pa, designating him as the patron of religious and civil institutions,
as he who anoints both king and priest, bestowing upon them the
divine unction and power. The same symbol in the sense of the
opening day, the dawn, refers to Mercury as morning star, as he
who foretells the sunrise. In this phase of his character, Nabu is
the instructor and prophet par excellence ; accordingly one of his
titles is Dun-pa-uddu, " peaceful prophet of the rising sun." The
Accadian Te, Assyrian Temin, is particularly employed with refer
ence to constructions, especially of a sacred character, as temples or
towers, and denotes the base, the foundation, the corner-stone ; but
it is necessary always to bear in mind that at Babylon, and gener
ally throughout the country of the Euphrates, the materials for such
structures were rather brick than stone ; hence the language of Gen
esis : " And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mor
ter" (xi. 3). The great tower at Babylon is termed by Nebuchad
nezzar, "the temple of the foundation (Te) of the earth." ^ The
element Shi or Si was highly symbolical, the same as the two
characters just explained. The horns of the taurus and buffalo
were types of strength and impetuosity ; then there was the horn
of the altar, of the ship, the crescent ; finally, the horn of the tower
and of the sacred mountain. In a hymn to Marduk, the tower at
Babylon is termed the " horn of the habitation," alluding to the
upper sanctuary ; and in another hymn to the great mountain of
Bel, the scribe speaks of its " horn as a ray of the luminous sun, as
the star of heaven that announces the day, completing its efful
gence." 2 The mountain peak catches the first beams of the sun,
and thus foretells the approaching light, the same as the morning
star. In the term Tsi-ri there is also a latent symbolism, since the
first element relates to the appearance, rising of a star, while Ri,
" column," also " rising of a star," has frequent reference to Venus,
Babylonian Is-tar. All the indications, then, inherent in the char
acters composing the two expressions being studied, seem to direct
the mind toward the east, as the region where the great rising takes
1 1st Rawl. PI. 54, col. 3, 1. 15.
2 Vid. Lenormant, Premieres Civilisations, t. ii. pp. 174, 175.

68 HAR-MOAD.
place, from whence the light approaches ; that region where wisdom
was first revealed and the first foundations laid. That which com
pletes the view is the fact that the entire phrase, Pa-te-shi tsi-ri is
explained by Dr. Schrader as " Sublime Master." ^
I have already insisted upon the idea that the expression here
referred to is not simply laudatory and general, but technical ; and
this results not only from what has been before stated, but from the
assimilation of the term Pa-te-shi by Dr. Schrader, in the place just
cited, to the Hebrew Pat-tish (c£7""K)Q), " hammer," a well known
symbol of the Cabiri, whose mysteries were celebrated throughout
antiquity. In fact, a term denoting the " hammer " was the name
of one of the chief Cabiriac divinities. A still further confirmation
of our view here, amounting almost to a demonstration, is found in
the term Patceci, habitual designation of the pigmy images of the
Cabiri. Much doubt has existed as to the true etymology of the
word Patceci, but Dr. Movers is probably correct in deriving it from
the Greek verb Patasso (irarda-a-w), " to beat, to pound, to knock,"
from whence Patceci, "a hammer."^ The sense of Patasso, "to
pound, to knock," answers precisely^ to that of Shi or Si, " horn, to
1 Keilinschrift. u. d. Alt. Test. p. 276. The Assyrian scholar might well
object to the analysis given in the text of the phrase Pa-te-shi tsi-ri, if it is to be
taken as a purely Semitic expression. But Dr. Oppert has well observed, that it
is a "designation from a source non-Semitic " (Etudes Assyriennes, p. 27). It
is evidently Accadian, or Cushite, in its origin, the characters composing it being
employed, not merely phonetically, but ideographically. My conjecture is, that
Pa-te-shi especially appertained to the Cabiriac craftsmen, originally designating
the Gavel, perhaps made of " horn," and taken as symbol of the highest author
ity. In such case, the relation of this term to the Hebrew Pattish, " hammer,"
and to Patceci, applied to the Cabiriac images, would be easily explained. I ven
ture to submit another conjecture, relative to the qualifying word Tsi-ri ; or Tsi-ru,
if it is really to be taken as Assyrian. Both elements composing it refer among
other things to the appearance, rising of a star, or celestial orb, in the east. The
application of this term to Nimrod as Sublime Master finds its explanation in the
fact that Amer-ud, name of the god Marduk, and from which that of Nimrod is
derived, literally signifies "the circle of the sun; " thus, Ud " Sun " -\- Amer " to
go in a circle." The meaning of "ridge, back," given to this word by Dr.
Delitzsch (Assyr. Studien, p. 17, note 2), might well arise from the sun's ap
pearance above the mountain ridges of the east. The notion of " sublimity "
would naturally proceed from the same phenomenon. But the technical, and
even mystical, import of the phrase in question is that upon which I especially
insist. ^ Phcenizier, i. p. 653.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 69
strike with the horn, blow," etc. We assume without hesitation,
then, the original identity of the two terms Pa-te-shi and Patceci,
as denoting primarily " a hammer," and thence as symbolical desig
nation of the Cabiri, the reputed sovereign-pontiffs, or priest-kings,
like those of the valley of the Euphrates. We have, 1st. Their
exact phonetical equivalence ; the reading Pa-te-si, often adopted
by cuneiform scholars, can hardly be distinguished from Pa-toe-ci, so
frequently applied to the Cabiriac images. 2d. The assimilation of
Pa-te-shi by Dr. Schrader to the Hebrew Pat-tish " hammer "
accords perfectly with Dr. Movers' derivation of Patceci from Pa^
tasso, denoting thus " a hammer." 3d. Both terms were unques
tionably employed with reference to a priest-class, in whom the
civil and sacerdotal functions were united. The data thus briefly
presented must go far to establish the conclusion, not only that the
priest-kings of the Chaldseo-Assyrian empire were Cabiri, techni
cally so designated by the term Pa-te-shi so often applied to them,
but that the chief builders of the tower of Babel, identified with
that of Borsippa, were also Cabiri, among whom the Cushite hero
Nimrod, under the title of Pa-te-shi tsi-ri, was recognized as a Sub
lime Master.
Sec. 30. It will be necessary now to call attention to the third
group of characters, extending from a to g, as exhibited in the first
plate. The couplet marked a shows the Accadian Tag, " to extend,
to dispose in layers, a layer of brick ; to prepare, to complete ; sen
tence, augury;" Tak, "fear" (Rep. 173). It will be seen that
the hieratic form of the next couplet is only a variant of the one
just explained, and it has actually the same phonetic power. Tag,
signifying " a stone " (Rep. 163). It is probable that the same
original symbol, denoting " a stone," was slightly modified at a sub
sequent period, when brick were substituted for stone in the Eu
phrates valley, in order to designate this new material used for the
same purpose. In the third character we find the two forms of Te,
Assyrian Temin, " foundation, corner-stone," etc., as set forth in
the previous section. The similarity in form so apparent in these
three signs is strictly paralleled by the direct analogy existing
between the conceptions involved in them. The triplet marked d
and d' is an important one, with the value Ak, " to make, to labor,
to build, to superintend, to create " (Rep. 91). Then follows the
composite sign e, whose value is Akka, " to elevate, to exalt, to sus-

70 HAR-MOAD.
tain, to favor, to delight in," having the Assyrian reading Ram with
the same sense (Rep. 279). The two sets of parallel lines marked
/belong to the Egyptian system of writing, with the phonetic
power of Sesun, signifying " eight ; " and the couplet g, concluding
the group, affords two examples from the " eight Kuas," so called,
constituting a primitive mode of Chinese writing. The forms
marked/ and ^ will be more fully explained in their proper connec
tion. The Accadian Tag, "stone," must have been a very primitive
word for " mountain," characteristically the region of stone ; and
this term occurs frequently in the names of mountains in Central
Asia, as, for example, the Belur-tag. The two forms Tag and Tak
are only variants of each other, the sounds k and g constantly inter
changing in the inscriptions. The form Tak is obviously the pri
mary one, both being compound syllables, which may be resolved
into either Ta-ka oi' Ta-ak ; and instances might be cited where
Tak is written phonetically according to both methods. But Ta-ak
alone affords us an intelligent etymology of the word. The ele
ment Ak signifies " to make, to build," and Tak denotes the mate
rial for constructions, whether brick or stone. The term Akka is
found very frequently preceded by the determinative of locality, as
Ki-akka, place, exalted ; that is, " sanctuary, temple." For this
reason it may be inferred that Ak, "to build," etc., not only helps
to form the word Tak, material for building, but Ki-AS.-ka, the
building itself. According to the opinion of M. Lenormant, Akka
forms the ground element in the name Akkad ; thus Akka, "to ele
vate," and Akku, " very high, supreme," conduct to Akka-d, " ele
vated, mountainous country," from which the author infers that the
Akkadi, or Accadians, were originally " mountaineers, highland-
ers." 1 As already suggested, the term Tag or Tak, the same as
Akkad, must have denoted primitively a mountain, as in the name
Belur-to^; so that the fundamental relation of all these words, with
the element Ak for their common base, is a matter in relation to
which not much doubt can be entertained.
The sign Ak constitutes another monogram for Nabu, the Baby
lon Mercury ; and its sense of " to make, to build, to create," shows
that, originally. Mercury attached to himself a definite cosmical
character among the Babylonians, the same as with the Egyptians.
1 Etudes Accadiennes, t. i. pt. 1st, p. 39.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 71
It is necessary to connect with this Accadian or Cushite symbol the
two sets of parallel lines marked / and appertaining to the Egyp
tian writing. In an excellent and critical treatise on the Nomes
of Egypt, Jacques De Rougd has the following in reference to Her-
mopolites : —
" The ancient nome was Un, chief place Sesun, later Hermopolis.
The term Sesun in the Egyptian language designates the numeral
eight. This number relates to the eight gods who assisted Thoth
(Mercury) in his character as creator of the world. Thoth, the god
of intelligence, the inventor of writing, compared by the Greeks to
Hermes, had his principal cultus in the city of Sesun." ^
If now we compare the Accadian Ak with the Egyptian Sesun,
it will be seen at once that a direct relation exists between them,
not only in respect to the form of the two paleographic symbols,
but also as regards the conceptions attached to them. First, and
with reference to the form of the two characters, the two sets of
parallel lines, four in each, giving rise to the conception of " eight,"
is very prominent in both examples. In the cuneiform sign, we
have a middle equatorial line, answering to the primary division of
the cosmos ; while the same idea is expressed in the Egyptian char
acter by the two distinct groups of lines. The cuneiform symbol is
sometimes constructed with four squares above and four below this
middle line ; showing that the reduplication of four into eight is
fundamental in the conception of this figure, and that it must have
appertained originally to it, the same as to the Sesun of the Egyp
tian writing. Secondly, and as regards the notions attached to
these figures, both are connected with the god Mercury, under the
various names of Nabu, Thoth, Hermes, etc. ; and in both cases the
notion of fabricating, building, creating, is fundamental. As the
Egyptian Sesun definitely related to the cosmical character of Mer
cury, there can be no doubt of a similar reference involved in the
Accadian Ak, taken as a monogram of this divinity. A compari
son of the two symbols demonstrates, it seems to me, not only a
common origin of the characters themselves, but of the ideas asso
ciated with them.
With the two figures just studied, it is necessary to connect the
specimens of Chinese writing marked g in our group. It is remark
able that the same numeral "eight" reappears here, and that the
1 Monnaies des Nomes de I'Egypte, p. 25.

72 HAR-MOAD.
fundamental reference is to the cosmos, the creation of the world.
The basis of the Chinese characters is the continuous line denoting
" unity," and of the broken line symbol of " duality " as generated
from the primal unit. The two then give birth to four, and the
four to eight. In the Yi-king we have the following statement of
the cosmical doctrines attached to these symbols : " The great sum
mit engenders the two principles ; the two principles engendering
the four forms ; and the four forms producing the eight kuas." ^ It
should be remarked that the number eight is not represented in any
character, as in the Egyptian Sesun ; but by eight distinct groups
of parallel lines, variously arranged, and derived from the two fun
damental principles. But this number is just as prominent, never
theless, and the reference to the cosmos is undoubted ; so that the
Accadian Ak, Egyptian Sesun, and Chinese Kuas exhibit at a
glance their direct relation to each other, both in form and in the
ideas attached to them. They may be traced respectively to the
earliest historical period of the populations employing them ; show
ing that they were not derived the one from the other, but had a
common origin, probably outside the countries occupied subse
quently by these nationalities.
Sec. 31. From the Cushites of Chaldsea, the Hamites of Egypt,
and the Turanians of China, we pass to the Aryans of Central
Asia, and the races diverging from this common centre. The
Aryan radical Ak, " to penetrate, to pierce, to enter with force, to
reach," etc., constitutes the theme of a multitude of words under
different forms, some of them obviously related to our subject.
1st. Akana, " stone, whetstone," from which is the Sanskrit Asna,
"stone, sling-stone," together with various other Aryan words
denoting implements obviously made of stone, such as the " spear,
javelin," or anything sharp, pointed. 2d. The forms Aha, " sharp,
pointed, summit, peak," evidently of a mountain; Akra, "sharp-
point," and Akri, " angle, corner," like that of a corner-stone.
3d. Akman, " stone," and " heaven ; " the Sanskrit form denotes
" a stone," while that of the Zend signifies " heaven." To the
same belongs the Greek Akmon or Acmon (aKfiov), " father of Ura-
nos " (heaven), also " anvil." The Greek Akmon, " anvil," was
another name applied to one of the chief Cabiri, to be compared
1 Vid. Dr. G. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinoise, pp. 246-261, where the eight
Kuas and their reference to the cosmos are fully treated.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 73
with the Hebrew Pat-tish, " hammer." 4th. Aktan, " eight," and
Aktama, " the eighth ; " to which belong the Greek and Latin
Okto and Octo, " eight." ^ The derivation here shown of the
Aryan word for the numeral " eight " is quite important, and it
merits a particular attention. From its theme Ak, " to pierce, to
penetrate," together with its cognates, such as Akana, " stone,"
Akra, "sharp-point," and Akri, "corner, angle," it is plain that the
material object, constituting the basis of the notion of " eight " in
this case, is no other than a stone with its sharp angles and corners.
But it is necessary to conceive a definite and limited number of
these angles or corners, corresponding to the numeral itself. In a
word, a dressed stone with eight corners, having thus a cubical or
oblong form, constituted the original symbol of the notion involved
in Aktan, the Ayran numeral " eight." But I wish to add here
another radical from the same family of tongues, together with
some of its derived forms. The root Tak, varied to Taks, signifies
" to hew, to make, to work," etc. It is obvious that the material
to be hewed, or wrought upon, might be either wood or stone;
though the derivatives contemplate for the most part only wood
as the material. 1st. Taksan or Takshan, " worker in wood,
hewer of wood, carpenter." 2d. Takstan, " maker, master-work
man ; " also Zend Tashtar and Sanskrit Tr'ashtar, " master-work

man

"2

I think the most rigid linguistic criticism ought to admit an
original and direct relationship between the Aryan radicals Ak and
Tak and the Accadian terms Ak and Tak, together with the derived
forms respectively appertaining to them. The simple element Ak,
whatever its origin, seems to constitute the essential base of all.
We proceed to point out briefly some of the more obvious connec
tions existing between the two groups of words.
1st. We have the name Tashtar, varied to T/ashtar, the form
Takstar being primary to both, with the signification of " master-
workman " common to all. The radical element is Tak, " to hew,
to make," phonetically identical with the Accadian Tak, " stone,"
in which the syllable Ak, " to make, to build, to create," is obvi
ously involved. But Ak is the monogram for the god Nabu, Egyp-
1 Pick, Worterb. de I. G. Sprachen, i. pp. 4, 5, 7. Cf. Curtius, Grundzuge,
pp. 130, 131.
2 Pick, ibid., pp. 86, 87. Curtius, ibid., p. 219.

74 HAR-MOAD.
tian Thoth, whose cosmical character has been already established.
It is remarkable that Tashter is likewise recognized as creator, or a
cosmical divinity, in Aryan mythology.^ It is impossible not to
see here a primitive connection between Tashtar and the Baby
lonian and Egyptian Mercury in the character of worker, builder,
creator, and especially of cosmical agent.
2d. The Aryan Aktan, " eight," to be compared with the paleo
graphic symbols, namely, the Accadian Ak, the Egyptian Sesun,
and the Chinese Kuas, in all of which the notion of " eight " and a
distinct reference to the work of creation are to be regarded as fun
damental. We have shown that the material basis of the concep
tion of eight as denoted by the term Aktan, was an eight-cornered
stone dressed in the form of a cube ; significant type of construc
tions in general, and especially of the fabrication of the world by
the great Master-Builder.
3d. The form Akman, " stone," symbol also of " heaven," is of
especial importance. The corresponding Greek form, Akmon, con
stitutes the title of the father of Uranus, " heaven ; " but it signi
fies likewise an " anvil," and is the name of one of the chief Cabi
riac divinities. It is a very singidar and seemingly inexplicable
circumstance that the same Aryan term should signify " a stone,"
then " heaven," then again " an anvil," being finally appropriated
as the name of a Cabirus. Nevertheless, the facts which we pro
ceed to notice in some detail will tend not only to explain these
apparent contradictions, but to afford a better stand-point for con
templating the various affiliations of ideas previously noticed.
In the Phoenician mythology the eighth son of Sydik is called
Eshmun, whose name signifies the " eighth," and he was thus reck
oned the eighth Cabirus, in relation to the other sons of Sydik.
Eshmun represented " heaven," that is, the heaven of fixed stars,
regarded as the eighth celestial region in relation to the seven plan
etary spheres, assimilated to the seven brothers of Eshmun.^ It is
probable that the Phoenician Eshmun and the Aryan Akman, with
the softened form Asman, were primitively put for the same concep
tion at least, if they were not the same word ; and they contribute
much to explain each other. Eshmun represents " heaven," and
1 Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, pp. 177, 278.
2 Vid. Movers, Phcenizier, i. pp. 227-236. Cf. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose,
pp. 382, 383.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 75
Akman signifies " heaven." Eshmun signifies the " eighth," being
put for the eighth celestial region, and Akman, since it denotes
" heaven," and is radically akin to Aktan, " eight," evidently referred
to the same celestial region. Again, Akman denotes a " stone," as
well as " heaven," in which case it is evident the stone is a
symbol of heaven. But a rough, unhewn stone would never be
taken as such symbol ; hence, it is almost necessary to conceive here
an eight-cornered stone, a cube. Finally, we know that Eshmun
was a title of the eighth Cabirus, and that the Greek Akmon was
actually the name of a Cabiriac deity. It is thus quite certain
that this Greek Cabirus was tjhe eighth, and that the ancient form
Akman had a similar reference. It is impossible not to admit the
common origin of these various conceptions, and their primary refer
ence to the cubical stone as symbol of the eighth region of heaven.
But the Greek form means also "an anvil." This may be explained
by the fact that the first anvils were meteoric stones, or masses of
iron that had fallen from heaven. M. Lenormant shows that the
first workers in this metal employed the meteoric iron, and not that
produced from ores, and that the Greek for iron, sideros, is related
to the Latin sidus, sideris, " a star." ^
Sec. 32. We thus account readily, and probably correctly, for
the transfer of the Aryan Akman, " a stone," to signify a meteoric
stone, and thence " an anvil." But does this prove that Akman
originally designated a meteoric stone ? I think not ; but this is
an important inquiry to be now considered. In the first place,
then, it is only under the Greek form, and only in the Greek lan
guage, if my impression is correct, that this Aryan term ever signi
fies " an anvil," and this appears to be, therefore, the only reason
for supposing that it denoted, primarily, a meteoric stone ; — a rea
son quite insufficient. Secondly, all the analogies derived from its
root Ak, and its cognate terms, such as Akra, Akri, especially
Aktan, tend to the conclusion that the ordinary stone was origi
nally intended. Finally, we are to consider here that an inclosed
cubical space, like the stone dressed in this form, usually represents
heaven in ancient architecture. The superior sanctuary of the
temple of Borsippa, dedicated to Mercury, and forming the eighth
stage, was in the form of a cube, as represented in the cut in Rev.
Mr. Rawlinson's " New Version of Herodotus " (ii. p. 482). As the
I Premieres Civilisations, i. pp. 88, 89.

76 ' HAR-MOAD.
other stages symbolized the seven planetary spheres, the superior
or eighth stage must be taken for the eighth celestial region, the
heaven of the fixed stars, corresponding to that to which Eshmun
was assimilated. The Holy of Holies in the Hebrew tabernacle
was in the form of a cube, and was put for the heaven, as will
appear in a future study. The stone, therefore, to which the term
Akmon referred was evidently a dressed stone with eight angles,
and it is quite certain that no meteoric stone had been given this
form, for the purpose of serving as such symbol.
As Akmon, put for the " anvil," was the name of a Cabirus whose
symbol was the anvil, so Akman, denoting a dressed stone, was evi
dently the name of a Cabirus who had such stone for his sj'mbol.
This personage must have been conceived as the stone par excel
lence. In both instances the symbol related to the eighth celes
tial region, being that to which the Phoenician Eshmun was
assimilated, a name which is probably only a Semitized form of
Akmon. The Cabiri were evidently associated with this symbol,
whether as denoting the cubical stone or the anvil ; and it follows
that the Cabiriac fraternity were originally workers in stone,
instead of in iron and the metals generally. This is the point to
which we have wished to conduct the reader, by the most rigid
analysis of the facts and ideas constituting the data before us. The
steps by which we have arrived at this result may be re-stated
briefly as follows : —
1st. The Aryan term Akman designated primitively " a stone ; "
at the same time, and under its Greek form Akmon, it was appro
priated as a name of one of the Cabiri. Under this Greek form, it
denoted also the anvil, symbol of the Cabirus thus called. Every
thing indicates that the anvil was at first a meteoric stone, and it is
easy thus to explain the transfer of the term AJcman from " a stone "
to " an anvil." All depends now upon the question, whether
Akman designated primitively the meteoric stone as a symbol of
heaven, or a stone having the ordinary composition of this class of
materials ? If the meteoric stone was the primitive conception
involved in the term, then the Cabiri were workers originally in
metals, the meteoric iron being one of them. But the indications
are very strong, and I presume it could be fully demonstrated, that
Akman, "stone," meant primitively a stone of the ordinary com
position.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 77
2d. But a rough, unhewn stone, being similar to all others and
quite ordinary, would never be selected as a symbol of heaven ; and
since the cube was usually taken to represent the heaven of the
fixed stars, it is safe to infer that a dressed stone having a cubical
form was literally that which was designated primitively by the
word Akman in its double sense of " stone " and " heaven." This
supposition fully explains the origin of the notion of " eight," evi
dently " eight corners or angles," involved in the term Aktan, and
it would be impossible to offer any other rational explanation of
such origin.
3d. The simple existence of a stone thus wrought, with which
were connected symbolical ideas of the nature already indicated,
presupposes the existence also of a regularly organized craft of
workers in stone ; for among laborers promiscuously associated no
such ideas would be likely to prevail. This organized craft could
be no other than the Cabiriac fraternity ; and the evidences tend
to show that the very term Akman was the name of a Cabirus.
Recall here the Greek form Acmon, title of a Cabiriac divinity,
and the Phoenician Eshmun, a term obviously related to Akmon in
its softened form Asman; a word also appropriated as the name of
the Cabirus who represented heaven, the same region otherwise
denoted by the two forms of the Aryan word.
4th. We must conclude, then, that the Cabiri were originally
workers in stone ; that as such exclusively, they belonged to the
period before the discovery of the art of working metals, that is to
say, to the stone age. Subsequently, they became workers in met
als likewise, when the Aryan word primitively denoting a dressed
stone with eight corners was transferred to a meteoric stone used
as an anvil.
6th. But a dressed stone, with notions of a symbolical and sacred
character connected with it, supposes a sacred edifice, a temple, for
which it is designed as material for construction. The Cabiri
were thus originally an organized temple-craft ; and the symbolical
conceptions connected with the material thus wrought and em
ployed by them presuppose the existence of certain esoteric ideas
peculiar to their organization ; in a word, it is necessary to admit
here the existence of a Traditional Doctrine of the Templum.
Sec. 33. The statement last made must be considered as im
mensely important, if it is to be admitted as correct. The data

78 HAR-MOAD.
upon which we have proceeded thus far do not appertain to the
later epochs of antiquity, but to the very earliest periods, even to
the night of ages, when the light of the most primitive civilizations
known to us was just dawning upon the world. If, then, we show
the existence of a regularly organized priest-class, in whom the civil
and sacerdotal functions were united ; if we show that this organi
zation was in fact a temple-craft, including within itself different
grades from the priest-king, the Sublime Master, to the superin
tendent of constructions, and even the hewer of stone and maker
of brick ; if we show finally, that certain esoteric ideas, peculiar to
this craft and relating to constructions of a sacred character, had
been handed down, amounting, in fact, to a Traditional Doctrine of
the Temple ; the importance of such facts once fully verified cannot
be overestimated. Of course it is to be expected that statements
of such a nature will be received with extreme hesitation ; and my
efforts will be to place the matter in the clearest possible light.
We have introduced already some proofs, of a nature quite con
clusive, that the Cabiri, as an organized priest-class, were the chief
constructors of the pyramid of Borsippa, usually identified by cune
iform scholars with the original tower of Babel. In addition to
these proofs, it will be regarded as significant, if we find that the
Cabiriac worship was actually connected with this very structure.
In his account of the repairs of the pyramid of Borsippa, which had
been left in an unfinished state, Nebuchadnezzar says that he com
pleted it to the top according to the original design. The restora
tion of it, as represented by Rev. G. Rawlinson, already cited on this
point, shows seven stages retreating one upon the other, whose dif
ferent colors are interpreted hj Assyriologues as denoting the seven
planets. Above all, constituting the eighth stage, was the sanctu
ary of a cubical form, and this was dedicated especially to Nabu, or
Mercury. The exact agreement in conception of this eighth stage,
representing obviously the heaven of the fixed stars, with the char
acter of the Phoenician Eshmun assimilated to the eighth celestial
region, has been noticed by Dr. Movers and M. Lenormant, who see
here an indication of the connection of the Cabiri with this temple
structure.! This conjecture is confirmed by the fact that Mercury
himself, to whom the superior sanctuary was dedicated, was reck
oned as one of the Cabiriac divinities. Drs. Movers and Gesenius
1 Movers, Phcenizier, p. 528 ; Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 388.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 79
have shown that Mercury, or Hermes, under the names Cadmilus
and Casmilus, was included among the Cabiriac deities adored at
Samothrace, whose mysteries were so celebrated in antiquity.^ But
the indications are even more positive, as we shall see : —
" The pyramidal temple of the Chaldseans," observes M. Le
normant, " was as an imitation, an artificial reproduction, of the
mythical 'mountain of the assembly of the stars,' the Har-Moad
of Isaiah (xiv. 4—20), which sacred tradition placed in the north,
and of which there is yet question in the sacred books of the Men-
dffians." ^
The author alludes here to the diluvian mountain, identified tra
ditionally with the sacred mount of paradise, first abode of human
ity. It was directly from this diluvian mountain that the founders
of Babylon had journeyed, when they came to the plains of Shinar,
and undertook the building of the tower identified with that of
Borsippa. Now this pyramid of Borsippa was mystically called
Bit-Zida, " temple of the right hand." It was thus, according to
M. Lenormant just cited, an artificial Mount Ida, " mountain of
the hand ; " and it was with the Mount Idas of antiquity that the
Cabiriac worship and mysteries were especially associated. The
same author describes minutely an ancient cylinder, upon which a
pyramid in stages is represented, with a colossal hand erected upon
the upper stage, around which are grouped eight personages, obvi
ously intended for the eight Cabiri, who, according to the mystical
idea involved, are born from the hand. The author has no doubt
of the reference of this cylinder to the tower of Borsippa ; and it
affords a complete explanation of the phrase Bit-Zida, " temple of
the right hand," applied to it." ^
The fact, then, of the primitive association of the Cabiri and the
Cabiriac cultus with the pyramid of Borsippa, and consequently
with the tower of Babel itself, is here clearly demonstrated. That
the chief personages engaged in this construction were a temple-
craft, and that they possessed certain esoteric doctrines relative to
the temple, is quite apparent from the circumstances now familiar
to us, and the data already established render it difficult to enter
tain serious doubts upon the matter. The seven stages are the
seven degrees of the temple, corresponding to the seven planetary
1 Movers, Phcen., i. pp. 520-622; Gesenius, Man. Phcen., pp. 404, 405.
2 Frag, de Berose, p. 358. ^ Ibid., pp. 381, 382, 385-387.

80 HAR-MOAD.
orbits ; and these are expressly compared by M. Lenormant and Dr.
Movers to the seven sons of Sydik, whose Cabiriac character is
well understood. Then the eighth stage or degree, answering to the
eighth celestial region, the heaven of the fixed stars, is not only
dedicated to Mercury, one of the Cabiriac deities, but its direct con
nection with Eshmun, the eighth son of Sydik and eighth Cabirus,
has been already established. The pyramid itself is styled by
Nebuchadnezzar " the temple of the seven lights of the earth ; " a
phrase whose mystical import, in connection with the seven degrees
of the structure itself, is apparent at a glance. In addition to these
facts, we should call to mind here the connection of Nimrod with
this temple-structure, to whom Nebuchadnezzar applies the phrase
Porte-shi tsi-ri, or " Sublime Master ; " appropriating often the
same title himself. The technical application of the term Pa-te-shi
to the priest-kings of Babylon on the one hand, and its identity
with the word Patceci on the other, an ordinary designation of the
Cabiriac images, are points with which the reader is already fami
liar. Another circle of conceptions previously developed has an
obvious connection with the subject matter now before us. Nabu,
or Mercury, is a Cabiriac divinity, and the eighth stage of this
tower, representing heaven, is especially dedicated to him. One of
the monograms for Nabu is the sign Ak, " to make, to build," etc.,
whose relation to the Accadian Tak, " stone " or " brick " as a sub
stitute for stone, whose relation also to the Aryan Ak, from which
are derived Akman, " stone, heaven," and Aktan, " eight," Aktama,
" the eighth," are points that have been fully illustrated. We see
here certain mystical ideas, evidently originating in Central Asia,
and around the " mountain of the assembly of the stars," to which
M. Lenormant alludes ; ideas brought by the Cushite emigrants from
the east to Babylon, and these reembodied in an artificial moun
tain of degrees, an imitation of that from which they had journeyed.
These ideas have obvious reference to the temple ; and they consti
tute a Traditional Doctrine of the Templum. The various consid
erations that have been presented leave no doubt, as it appears to
me, upon this important point.
Sec. 34. Another proposition is to be stated here. Not only had
there been inherited by the Cabiri a Traditional Doctrine of the
Temple, but this Doctrine had for its basis their theory of the Cos
mos and of the Creation of the World. In the first place, the

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 81
pyramid of Borsippa was designedly and strikingly a representation
of the cosmos, or world. Its summit, or eighth stage, was a sym
bol of the heaven of the fixed stars ; the seven stages descending
from thence represented the seven planetary spheres ; while the
foundation was put for the earth. In this foundation was the sanc
tuary of the god Anu, who has the mystical title of Susru, " the
founder ; " that is, the founder par excellence. In artistic concep
tion, then, this tower "united the heavens and the earth," just as
the sacred mountain of tradition was conceived to do, and of which
it was an imitation. We have here an explanation of the really
double sense involved in the singular expression of the Mosaic
record applied to this tower, " whose top may reach unto heaven "
(Gen. xii. 4). This rendering is sufficiently correct, but the refer
ence is probably to the fact that this structure was artistically con
ceived to unite heaven and earth. An equally correct translation
adopted by some exegetes would be : " whose top may represent
the heaven." We have seen that the superior sanctuary in the
form of a cube, constituting the eighth stage, was held especially to
represent the heaven of the fixed stars. But it is hardly necessary
to add further illustration, that the tower of Borsippa was the mate
rial expression of certain traditionary ideas in reference to the tem
ple, and at the same time relating to the cosmos, the creation of
the world.
Again, the Cabiriac divinities themselves were usually conceived
as engaged in the work of creating the world. M. Lenormant takes
particular notice of this fact.^ As shown by his monogram AJc, " to
make, to build, to create," the Babylonian Mercury was primi
tively regarded a cosmical divinity. The- Egyptian Mercury, or
Thoth, was assisted by the eight gods in superintending the work
of creation. Thus, Mercury was unquestionably a cosmical agent,
and was at the same time a Cabiriac deity. The Aryan Tashtar
was conceived as creator, then as master-workman, and again as
one of the Cabiri.^ These examples will suffice to establish the
cosmical character of this circle of divine personages. We see,
therefore, that cosmical doctrines and doctrines of the temple were
blended together ; the temple itself being designed as an image of
the cosmos. The three phases of character, as creative powers, as
1 Frag, de Berose, pp. 382-385.
2 Lenormant, Premieres Civilisations, t. i. pp. 87, 140.

82 HARr-MOAD.
priest-kings, and as a temple-craft, are in reality so blended in the
Cabiri that it is often difficult to distinguish between them. They
were preeminently the founders in every sense : founders of the
world, of civil and religious institutions, and of temples and sacred
edifices generally. Their esoteric doctrines, traditionally inherited,
appertained alike to all these subjects. But that which applies
equally to all, and confirms all, is the number " eight," obviously
relating at one time to the cosmos, then to the temple, then again
to the Cabiri, reappearing constantly under various and most strik
ing symbols. We have the eight lines or squares in the Accadian
sign Ak, in the Egyptian Sesun, the Chinese Kuas ; we have, too,
the eight-cornered stone, the eighth stage of the temple, inclosing a
cubical space ; and finally the eighth Cabirus, and the eight gods
assisting Thoth in the work of creation. M. Lenormant develops
the fact that an inclosed cubical space as the temple, and a dressed
stone, either square or cubical, as image of the Deity, were tradi
tional ideas among the ancient Arabians, in conformity with which
they constructed their sacred edifices. The Chaaba at Mecca was
of this form, and the legends affirmed that it was of heavenly origin,
having been adored by the angels even, being finally brought from
heaven to earth by Adam, the first man. The celebrated black
stone of the Chaaba was supposed also to be of heavenly origin.
Originally its color was a pure white, but it had turned black in
consequence of the sins of mankind. The Arabians were passion
ately fond of this stone. On being restored to its place, after hav
ing been at one time taken away by enemies, the people bestowed
the most lavish affections upon it, caressing and kissing it even, and
condoling its dark color as attributable to their own transgressions
and the sins of the world.^
Thus, among the populations the most widely separated in anti
quity, from the Mongolians of the distant east to the Pelasgic na
tions of the west, and from the Hamites of Africa, the Cushites of
Chaldsea, to the Aryan races of high Asia, we trace the existence of
certain traditionary ideas pertaining to creation and the cosmos,
to the temple and to constructions of like sacred character ; ideas
so characteristic in their nature and in the symbols by which they
were expressed, as to render it impossible, on one hand, not to iden
tify them at a glance, and on the other hand, to account for their
1 Lettres Assyriologiques, t. ii. pp. 123, 124, 140, 160, 151.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 83
singular resemblances wherever found, either upon the ground of
mere accident, or of natural and normal development; ideas, there
fore, whose community of origin anterior to the existence of these
diverse nationalities is necessary to be supposed ; for we have traced
them even beyond the historical period in every instance. The
Accadian Ak and Tak, the Egyptian Sesun, and the Chinese Kuas,
and so the Aryan radicals, Ak and Tak, the Phoenician Sydik,
and thus the various symbolical and legendary conceptions con
nected with them, all appertain to epochs prior to history, so that
the propagation of these notions and symbols from one country to
another at later periods is entirely out of the question. Their ori
gin must be assigned, in fact, to the first ages of humanity, and
from the same primitive era must date the existence of that myste
rious class of personages through whom these doctrines were trans
mitted to subsequent ages. These personages, whoever they were
and by whatever name we call them, were the founders of the
ancient civilizations, the first prophets and teachers of mankind ;
they built the first temples, they made the first scientific discov
eries, and they were the first inventors of the useful arts.
Sec. 35. We proceed now to the consideration of the Cabiri as
fire-gods and workers in metals. As such they undoubtedly per
tain to an immensely remote epoch, for Tubal-Cain, who is usually
identified with this class of personages, lived a thousand years
before the deluge, being " an instructor of every artificer in brass
and iron " (Gen. iv. 22). Notwithstanding this high antiquity, I
still maintain the hypothesis that the Cabiri were originally work
ers in stone. Modern science estabhshes the fact that the stone age,
as a distinct era, preceded that of metallurgy. This accords per
fectly with our theory and with the data already introduced in this
discussion. Everything indicates, to my mind, two distinct char
acteristic phases in the history of the Cabiri, although investigators,
so far as my knowledge extends, have never made this a special
point of inquiry. The name Enoch occurs twice in the antediluvian
genealogies of Genesis, the first as applied to the son of Cain, and
then, in the line of Seth, to the son of Jared. The meaning of this
name as often given by exegetes is " the initiated," and is derived
from the verbal root Khdnak (tran), " to straiten, to choke, to suf
focate," also, " to be narrow, strait, close." In relation to Enoch
Dr. Gesenius observes : " The later Jews, founding a conjecture on

84 HAR-MOAD.
the etymology of the name, make him out to have been not only
the most distinguished of the antediluvian prophets, but also the
inventor of letters and learning, and have forged in his name a
spurious book (comp. Jude v. 12). These fables are current also
among the Arabs, by whom he is called Idris, i. e., " the learned "
(art. tjiiP). There must have been, in my view, something more
than a simple etymology at the foundation of the traditions to which
Dr. Gesenius alludes. Dr. D. Chwolsohn cites a large list of
authorities, tending to show that Enoch, or Idris, was considered
identical with Hermes, was a renowned prophet, the founder of
states and religions, inventor of letters, author of sacred books, etc.,
etc.! The traditions to this effect appear to have been widely pre
valent ; too much so, in fact, to be easily traced to the later Jews.
But even the etymology of the word points directly to Thoth, or
Hermes, whose recognized symbol was the serpent. The term
Khanak, " to choke, to straiten," is compared by Dr. Gesenius
himself to the Latin Angere, derived from the same theme which
gives Anguis, " serpent." Dr. Chwolsohn alludes likewise to the
tradition that Enoch, Idris, identified with Hermes, was the father
of Tat, Ssa, Aschmun, etc. (i. p. 788) ; and the last must be the
Same personage as the Phoenician Eshmun, whose symbol was also the
serpent. Admit that, so far as we are now able to trace them, these
traditions belong to later epochs ; yet there is such a consistency in
them with the religious ideas of Western Asia that it is impossible
not to attach to them considerable force. The idea that certain
sacred writings, attributed to Seth, or Enoch, or to both, were pre
served from the destruction of the deluge, and transmitted to the
after world, has been usually discarded by modern writers ; but
such a tradition is expressly supported by Berosus in his account of
the deluge, and it will be shown in another chapter that certain
Babylonian monarchs not only credited it, but caused diligent search
to be made for the corner-stones of ancient temples, with which
copies of sacred writings were believed to have been deposited. For
the rest, Mr. George Smith recognizes the name Enoch in the in
scriptions, under the form Emuk or Enuk, " wise." ^
We have seen that the Dioscuri were reckoned among the Cabi
riac divinities of Samothrace. The reference is to Castor and Pol-
1 Ssabier, i. pp. 787-792.
2 Chald. Account of Genesis, p. 296.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 85
lux ; that is to say, to the zodiacal constellation of Gemini. These
personages have always a mixed character, partly divine and partly
human. They were typically the brothers, and it was on account of
their fraternal attachment that Neptune rewarded them with the
control of winds and storms, for which reason they became the pro
tector divinities of the sailors. In their chief character they were
the powerful helpers of man, and thence termed Anakes, from
Anak, " master of the house, lord, thence king." Their images
were placed upon the prows of Phoenician ships, and were like the
Patcesi, the term which we have found employed as general desig
nation of the Cabiri, and which has been traced to the Hebrew
Pat-tish, " hammer," and finally to the Accadian Pa-te-shi, " mas
ter, pontiff, priest-king," etc. Always bearing in mind that at
Babylon "they had brick for stone," we may trace a direct connec
tion of Castor and Pollux, or of the constellation Gemini, with con
structions in brick. The Accadian Uku, " brick " (Rep. 529), is
the monogram for the month answering to Gemini, denoting the
" month of constructions in brick." We have thus another indica
tion of the association of the Cabiri with the tower of Babel, and of
the technical use of the term Pa-te-shi, one with Patceci, amongst
them. Sec. 36. It is the place here to take note of the fragmentary
inscriptions recently translated by Mr. George Smith, and supposed
by him to refer to the building of the tower of Babel. Fragmen
tary they are indeed, for hardly a single sentence appears entire.^
Only the first column, consisting of sixteen lines, many of them
broken up, affords direct evidence of a reference to the building of
some sort of structure, probably a tower. The lines 8-14 are toler
ably perfect, and are thus rendered : " (small) and great he con
founded their speech. Their strong place (tower) all the day they
founded ; to their strong place in the night entirely he made an
end. In his anger also word thus he poured out : (to) scatter
abroad he set his face, he gave this? command, their counsel was
confused" (pp. 160,161). A reference to Babylon going imme
diately before, and still earlier to a personage who " against the
father of all the gods was wicked," help to fix the allusion to the
tower of Babel. Other expressions occur tending to the same con
clusion. Every one will regret with Mr. Smith that the inscrip-
1 Chaldman Account of Genesis, pp. 160-163.

86 HAR-MOAD.
tion is go sadly defaced and broken, and until further discoveries
are made nearly everything in relation to it must be considered as
conjectural. Even its reference to the tower of Babel is by no
means certain, but it is probable that such is the case. Not having
" The Egypt of Herodotus " at hand, in which Mr. Kenrick treats
more at length upon the subject before us, I place below some quo
tations from an " abstract" of his remarks by another author, who
notes especially the following points : —
" The existence of the worship of the Cabiri at Memphis under a
pigmy form, and its connection with the worship of Vulcan (Phlha).
The coins of Thessalonica also establish this connection ; those
which bear the legend ' Kabeiros ' having a figure with a hammer
in his hand, the pileus (cap, symbol of freemen) and apron of Vul
can, and sometimes an anvil near the feet." " The Cabiri belonged
also to the Phoenician theology. The proofs are drawn from the
statements of Herodotus. Also the coins of Cossyra, a Phoenician
settlement, exhibit a dwarfish figure with the hammer and short
apron, and sometimes a radiated head, apparently allusive to the
element of fire, like the star of the Dioscuri." " The fable that one
Cabirus had been killed by his brother or brothers was probably a
moral mythus representing the result of the invention of armor."
" The worship of the Cabiri furnishes the key to the wanderings
of jEneas, the foundation of Rome, and the war of Troy itself, as
well as the Argonautic expedition. Samothrace and the Troad
were so closely connected in this worship that it is difficult to judge
in which of the two it originated, and the gods of Lavinium, the
supposed colony from Troy, were Saraothracians. Also the Palla
dium, a pigmy image, was connected at once with ^neas and the
Troad, with Rome, Vesta, and the Penates, and the religious belief
and traditions of several towns in the south of Italy. Mr. Kenrick
also recognizes a mythical personage in ..^neas, whose attributes
were derived from those of the Cabiri." ^
There appears much disagreement among ancient authors as to
the exact number of the Cabiri, and I desire to consult here one or
two modern authorities upon this point. Dr. Wm. Smith's notices
of the Dactyli, identified with the Cabiri, afford valuable informa
tion upon this and also other matters : —
" Dactyli, fabulous beings, to whom the discovery of iron and the
1 Occult Sciences, by Smedley, Thompson, etc., pp. 161-163. Connect the
two relations of Eneas to the Cabiri, as above, with the facts stated by Dr.
Wm. Smith, respecting the Penates, the augurial temple, etc., showing in this
way that the Cabiri were a temple-craft and the Roman augurs Cabiri.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 87
art of working it by means of fire was ascribed. Their name. Dac
tyls, that is, Fingers, is accounted for in various ways : by their
number being five or ten, or by the fact of their serving Rhea just
as the fingers serve the hand, or by the story of their having lived
at the foot of Mount Ida in Phrygia as the original seat of the Dac
tyls, whence they are usually called Idsean Dactyls. In Phrygia
they were connected with the worship of Rhea. They are some
times confounded or identified with the Cusites, Corybantes, Cabiri,
and Telchines. This confusion with the Cabiri also accounts for
Samothrace being in some accounts described as their residence.
Other accounts transfer them to Mount Ida in Crete, of which
island they are said to have been the original inhabitants. Their
number appears to have been originally three : Celmis (the smelter)
Damnamenus (the hammer), and Acmon (the anvil). Their num
ber was afterwards increased to five, ten (five male and five female),
fifty-two, and one hundred." (Class. Die, art. Dactyli.) i
The connection of the Cabiri with the Mount Idas (mountains
of the hand) of antiquity has been already noticed. Authors
usually agree, also, that they were the same as the Cusites, Cory
bantes, and Telchines. Their number is thought to have been
originally three by Dr. Smith, and he gives their names, among
which Acmon is familiar to us. For Celmis, " the smelter," I am
unable to suggest an etymology ; and as for Damnamenus, " the
hammer," it hardly merits one. The term Patceci, assimilated to
the cuneiform Pa-te-shi, and the Hebrew Pat-tish, " hammer," as
heretofore set forth, may be regarded as a more original and pro
bably primitive designation of this Cabirus. But the number three,
in my view, refers simply to the chief Cabiri, and does not include
the entire class. The subjoined remarks by Sir G. Wilkinson are
valuable as relating to this question : —
" Most authorities agree that they varied in number, and that
their worship, which was very ancient in Samothrace and Phrygia,
was carried to Greece from the former by the Pelasgi. Some
believe them to have been Ceres, Proserpine, and Pluto, and others
add a fourth, supposed to be Hermes, while others suppose them to
have been Jupiter, Pallas, and Hermes." " The name Cabiri was
doubtless derived from the Semitic word Kabir, ' great,' a title ap
plied to Astarte (Venus), who was also worshiped in Samothrace."
" The eight great gods of the Phoenicians, the offspring of one great
1 Connect what Smith says of Ida, Rhea, etc., with what M. Obry shows of
Ida, Rhea, and also Dr. Grill, as connected with Chaos, Meru, etc., etc., and
cuneif. Ria.

88 HARr-MOAD.
father, Sydik, the ' just,' were called Cabiri, of whom Eshmoun was
the youngest, or the eighth, as his name imports, the Shmoun,
' eight ' of Coptic, and the theman or saman of Arabic, and she-
monah of Hebrew. This Eshmoun was also Asclepius." " Herod
otus mentions the Egyptian Cabiri at Memphis, whose temple no
one was permitted to enter except the priest alone ; they were said
to be sons of Vulcan or Phtha, and, like that god in one of his char
acters, were represented as pigmy figures. It is not impossible that
the Cabiri in Egypt were figured as the god Phtha-Sokar-Osiris,
who was a deity of Hades, and the three names he had agree with
the supposed number of the Cabiri of Samothrace. The number
eight might also be thought to accord with that of the eight great
gods of Egypt. Ashmounayji, the Coptic and modern name of
Hermopolis in Egypt, signifying the ' two eights,' was connected
with the title of Thoth or Hermes, ' lord of the eight tregions.' " i
It would accord perfectly with the genius of ancient mythologies
to suppose the existence of a Cabiriac triad consisting of three
chief personages ; and that they were often limited to this number
considered as divinities cannot be doubted. Nevertheless, if we look
to Egypt, Phoenicia, and to Chaldsea, evidently the more primitive
seats of the Cabiriac worship, we find the number eight almost
always connected with these divinities. There were the eight gods
assisting Thoth in the work of creation, the eight sons of Sydik,
and the eighth stage of the tower of Borsippa dedicated to Mercury,
one of the Cabiri. It is probable, therefore, that this number was
in some sense a typical one. It was sometimes, however, inci-eased
to nine. The Phoenician Sydik, father of the eight Cabiri, was not
unfrequently included with them, being thus the ninth. So the
Egyptian Thoth, assisted by the eight great gods in the work of
creation, was himself a Cabirus, and would constitute the ninth.
Nevertheless, as cosmical agents, and as denoted by their various
symbols already studied, it is obvious that the numeral eight is to
be regarded as paramount in its application to them.^
Sec. 37. The extracts introduced into the last section are numer
ous and quite lengthy, but it is believed the reader will see in them
a value sufficient to entitle them to a place in connection with our
subject. They serve to complete the view of the personages, and
of the ideas associated with them, of which there has been question,
1 In connection with Phtha, cite Marcite, Mother of Apis, and Maspero on
Epistolary Class of Texts, which I have otherwise referred to.
2 Vid. Rawl. Herod, ii. p. 82, note 9.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 89
as well as to substantiate various statements heretofore made,
which had been left for the time being without direct proof. More
than all else, I prefer to state important facts in the language of
some leading and recognized authority in such matters, when it is
convenient to do so. But the most recent treatment of this subject,
and one thoroughly scientific in its character, is that of M. F. Le
normant, to which reference has been already made in the foregoing
pages. Several points are quite clearly brought out by the author,
which have not as yet received a special notice in our own re
searches. Insisting, as we have done, upon the extreme antiquity,
even prior to all the ancient civilizations of which we have any
knowledge, to which primitively these organized communities,
workers in metals, appertained, the author proceeds to trace defi
nitely their origin, ethnologically and geographically considered.
They were in his view Turanians, and their original seats were the
high table-lands of Central Asia, near the great plateau of Pamir ;
the precise locality, according to the traditions of the Aryan and
Semitic races, which constituted the first abode of humanity .^ It
was thus around the common centre, from which subsequently the
various races of men diverge, that the Cabiriac fraternities were
first formed ; and in this particular the Mosaic allusion to Tubal-
Cain, in connection with the art of working metals, accords per
fectly with the results of modern research. But M. Lenormant
quotes largely from the previous investigations and writings of the
Baron D'Eckstein, whose name every French scholar mentions with
reverence. This great Orientalist thus alludes to the special char
acteristics of these ancient patrons of industrial art : —
" On one side are the races addicted to the magical cultus of the
gods of metallurgy, and on the other side we find certain mystical
and secret corporations, whose chiefs superintend their labors, serv
ing as their pontiffs and sacerdotal confreres, traditionally illus
trious. The Vedas, the Zend-Avesta, the mythology of the Thra-
cians, of the Pelasgi, Celts and Germans, overflow with traditional
notices of the affiliations of these divine workers, of a doubtful char
acter, but parallel to the deimones of the ancient classical authors.
Inventors, instructors, magicians, benefactors, and malefactors in
one, when the memory of these corporations becomes effaced, they
remain engraven upon the minds of men as dreaded and unpropi-
tious powers." ^
1 Premieres Civilisations, t. i. pp. 98-126. s Ibid., pp. 139, 140.

90 HAR-MOAD.
The nature of the occupation of these ancient smiths, the scenes
of their labors in the deep mountain gorges, or in the bowels of the
earth, and everything, in fact, connected with their art, would give
rise naturally to a thousand vagaries and images of a frightful
character, tending to associate them with the regions of darkness
and wicked dsemons. Not only this, but their superior knowledge
and civilization, as compared with the surrounding nomadic tribes,
and even with the shepherds and agriculturists, rendered them an
object of dislike and hatred on the part of the populations surround
ing them. At a very early period they were driven out of their
original seats, and the Baron D'Eckstein states that they were actu
ally persecuted at times, being often forced to change their locals
ties. This author remarks : —
" There was an end to this primitive influence of the civilizing
fraternities, an eclipse of these races of men more advanced in
knowledge than the shepherds, than the Aryan and Semitic races
even ; and hate succeeded to the recollection of their superior cul
ture. Above all, the Aryans of Bactria and of India distinguished
themselves by their aversion for these nefarious corporations, for
these worshipers of the serpent-gods, for these priest-kings, who
had the flaming dragon for their emblem ; this Azdehak of Afghan
istan and the anti-Iranian Media ; this type of the royalty of drag
ons, of mythical Aztahak, so termed by the Armenians, of Asty-
ages, as styled by the Greeks. Indeed, wherever the Aryan deities
appear, their heroes, priests, warriors, shepherds, and laborers all
carry defiance to the serpent-gods and serpent-men ; they combat
these robbers, these tradesmen, these sons of the Chthonian Hermes,
god of highways, etc. ; they pursue them throughout the three
worlds ; they expel them from heaven, from the atmosphere ; and
finally to exterminate them they descend even into the abyss
below." 1
Yet it was from these corporations, so detested and persecuted,
that the Aryans, especially of India, received their first knowledge
of the arts and sciences, and it seems that some of their members
were even admitted into the Brahmanic priesthood.^ The dragon
as an emblem of royalty was primitive among the Chinese, but
was probably derived from these Cabiriac corporations. This will
1 Vid. Premieres Civilisations, p. 141. Here these corporations are connected
with Hermes, Mercury, or Cabirus.
2 Vid. Ibid., p. 100. Cf. Lenormant, Manuel d'hist. de VOrient, t. iii. pp. 432-
437, etc.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 91
appear all the more reasonable when we compare the circle of ideas
attached to the eight kuas, previously alluded to, relating directly
to the cosmos, with the fact that the dragon was also a fundamen
tal character in the Chinese cosmogony. However this may be, we
obtain here a glimpse of the varied fortunes of these first civilizers
of the world, of the hatred with which they were regarded by the
ignorant populations surrounding them, and of the distorted rep
resentations of their character transmitted to the after-world by
those very races who had so profited by their industries, superior
culture, and civil and religious institutions.
Sec. 88. We return here briefly, upon the question of the priority
of the Cabiri considered as a temple-craft and as workers in stone,
to those who were the inventors of metallurgy, constituting a kind
.of metal-craft. It is probable that after the discovery of the art of
working metals, the two orders, or better, the two branches of one
and the same order, existed side by side, and so continued even to a
late epoch. But the temple-craft was evidently the most ancient,
and was, so to speak, the parent of the metal-craft. We have a
plain indication of this fact in the later modification of the charac
ters of some of the Cabiriac deities, to correspond with the new
occupation and the circle of conceptions connected with it. The
Aryan Tashtar affords us here a striking example. M. Lenormant,
in the learned paper so often cited, thus alludes to this personage in
his association with metallurgy: " The invention appeared so mar
velous and so beneficent that the popular imagination conceived it
as a gift of the gods. Thus the pretended inventor was usually the
mythological personification of fire, the natural agent of this class
of labors ; such is the T/achtri ( T/ashtar) of the Vedas, the He-
phcestos of the Greeks, the Vulcan of the Latins." ^ The etymology
of the name Tashtar from Tak or Taks, " to hew," from which
come the substantive forms Takstar and Tashtar, " masterwork-
man," proves that this personage had no connection originally
with metals, since the process of "hewing" relates to wood and
stone, not to metallic substances. That Mercury was a Cabiriac
divinity has been sufficiently established ; and his most frequent
symbol was the dressed stone, either a square or cube, known under
the name of " Hermes." His connection with sacred edifices, espe
cially temples, is also to be considered. These facts show that the
^ Premieres Civilisaliuiis, pp. 86, 87.

92 HAR-MOAD.
character of Mercury, as one of the Cabiri, appertains rather to
temple-structures than to fabrications in metals. Yet the fire-god,
specially worshiped by the metallurgists, is expressly assimilated
to Mercury in some very ancient texts. Such assimilation has its
exact correspondent in the case of the Aryan Tashtar, but it could
have occurred only as a secondary and later phase of Mercury's
character, as a divinity appertaining to the temple-craft. The
Dioscuri were included among the Cabiriac deities at Samothrace.
The reference here is to Castor and Pollux, assimilated to the con
stellation Gemini. The monogram for the month answering to
Gemini, in the Babylonian calendar, is the cuneiform sign denoting
a brick ; from whence is the phrase, " month of the brick," or
" month of constructions in brick," applied to this zodiacal division.
This circumstance plainly indicates that, in the Euphrates valley,
the Dioscuri were primitively associated with the temple-craft ;
and it has been already observed that they were typically the
brothers. These considerations, in addition to those heretofore pre
sented, must be regarded as conclusive, I think, that the Cabiri
were originally workers in stone, perhaps in both wood and stone ;
and that as such they constituted a regularly organized temple-
craft, whose chiefs united in themselves the kingly and sacerdotal
functions. The same functions were united also in the principal
personages of the metal-craft. Whether as belonging to one or the
other order, these were really the founders of the ancient civiliza
tions, the primitive instructors of mankind in the useful arts and
sciences, as well as in religious knowledge.
Such, we are now fully authorized to say, in view of all the facts
presented, was the origin of priest-craft and king-craft, to use here
the form of expression frequently adopted by some modern writers,
applied as opprobrious epithets to those who endeavored to conduct
the affairs of mankind before these writers were born. Doubtless,
these ancient constructors and fabricators were men, inheriting the
frailties common to humanity in all ages. On the other side, the
facts now before us tend unmistakably to the conclusion that, while
the races surrounding them were in a state of semi-barbarism, if
not of actual savagism, these primitive " corporations," so properly
termed by Baron D'Eckstein, were engaged in the pursuits of regu
lar industry, practically laying the foundations of social order and
of human progress. It was they who adjusted the first corner-

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 93
stones, who built the first forges, who founded the first dynasties.
If civilization is to be esteemed a blessing, if civil and religious
institutions are of any value to man, the priest-kings of antiquity
are entitled to the credit of having originated them, or the teachings
of universal tradition are at serious fault. The oldest historical
records presuppose their existence and labors, all the mythologies
exhibit more or less distinct traces of them, and the earliest monu
ments known to the world were but the material expression of their
doctrines. Whether as Pa-te-shi or Cabiri, whether as Dioscuri
or as Dactyli, these mysterious personages were those who kept
the records of the unknown past, who preserved for us the sacred
tradition and science, relating alike to the beginning and to the end
of things. It is probable that their doctrines were but illy under
stood by their less cultured contemporaries, and the distorted repre
sentations of their character, on the part of their enemies, their
conquerors and persecutors, in fact, render it all the more necessary
that we should discriminate in our judgment of them, and, above
all, refuse to become ourselves the inheritors of the prejudices of
those who were often the most indebted to them for their own
advancement. From the data which have been placed before the reader in the
present chapter, nothing appears more obvious than the fact that
the foundations of the world's civilization were laid in wisdom, and
not in ignorance ; were laid by men of intelligence, and not by be
nighted savages. Not one of the ancient civilizations was of sponta
neous growth, having its origin in the crude notions and customs of
savage tribes ; not one of them but had its genealogy that can be
traced back into the darkness of ages prior to its own existence, for
the fundamental ideas upon which it was based ; ideas so profound,
that the wise ones of antiquity considered it an honor to have been
instructed in them. Show us, then, the first temple constructed
upon the earth : we will show that it had a model, and that this
model was the universe itself ; the house that God built ! Show to
us the first civilized community among men : we will prove that
this also had its model ; that it was conceived as an image of the
heavens ; of the order and harmony in which the heavenly bodies
move ; and, compared with the surrounding chaos and barbarism, it
literally was such ! But we are anticipating here, to some extent,
the results of future investigations. What we do show, however,

94 HAR-MOAD.
is the existence of an ancient order of priest-kings, of an origin so
remote that even the earliest traditions afford us no notice of it, of
which, indeed, it might well be said that it was without beginning,
and the question remains to us, whether it has had an end ?
Sec. 39. There are no documents known to the world where
the allusions to the symbols common to the Cabiri are so frequent,
and where the ideas associated with these symbols are so funda
mental, as in the books of the Old and New Testament. These
striking analogies, which will be more definitely set forth in a few
moments, naturally conduct to a standpoint from which to view the
religions of the Bible, especially that of the Hebrews, which has
been rarely adopted, but which is becoming more and more neces
sary in the light of modern investigations, demonstrating the prior
existence of so many ideas, heretofore regarded as peculiar and es
sential to the Mosaic religion. I adopt here, with only slight quali
fications, the opinions of A. W. von Schlegel, as cited by Dr.
Movers : —
" The more I investigate the history of the ancient world, the
more firmly I am convinced that a pure worship of the Supreme
Being was primitive among the cultured nations ; but that the
magical power of nature over the human imagination at this period
gradually gave rise to polytheism, so that in the end the spiritual
element in the popular belief was completely obscured ; while the
sages alone preserved the ancient mysteries in the sanctuary." ^
I should account for the rise of polytheism upon other grounds
than those indicated by Von Schlegel ; and, indeed, M. Mariette-
Bey for Egypt and M. De Vogiie for Western Asia generally have
definitely traced the process which resulted in this lamentable cor
ruption of religious ideas. However, that the truth was once known
among men, and that subsequently it was obliged to seek refuge in
the sanctuaries and in the mysteries, accords perfectly with the re
sults of my own investigations, and I had long since adopted this
view. The same, also, as applied to the opinions of Dr. Movers
himself, expressed in the following : —
" Neither from the historical nor from the theological standpoint
can I regard the Mosaic religion as a development out of paganism,
but rather, and in the sense of the sacred writers themselves, as a
restoration of the pure worship of a more primitive epoch ; a wor
ship which, at different periods, among the Israelites and their fore-
1 Vid. Movers, Phcenizier, i. p. 313.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 95
fathers, had become more or less corrupted ; first, and according to
Biblical accounts, by Abraham's ancestors in Chaldsea." ^
Since Christianity is, in respect to many of its fundamental ideas,
but a higher statement of the Mosaic religion, I think Dr. Movers'
views, with some qualifications, should be applied to this system
also ; and it is principally upon these grounds that I interpret the
facts already developed, and yet to be developed, in the present
treatise. The frequent reference by the sacred writers to the dressed stone,
as a symbol of the Messiah and of his church, is a matter familiar
to every student of the Scriptures. We cite here a few instances.
1st. Jacob's significant allusion to Joseph, a recognized type of the
Saviour : —
" From thence is the shepherd, the stone of Israel " (Gen. xlix. 24). " The
stone which the builders refused is become the head stone of the corner " (Ps.
cxviii. 22). " Behold, I lay in Zion for a foundation a stone, a tried stone, a
precious corner stone, a sure foundation" (Is. xxviii. 16). "And are built
upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being
the chief corner stone ; in whom all the building fitly framed together groweth
unto a holy temple in the Lord ; in whom ye also are builded together for a
habitation of God through the Spirit " (Eph. ii. 20-22).
Even more frequent are the figures drawn from the process of
metallurgy, and from the element of fire as a purifying agent : —
" Whose fire is in Zion, and his furnace in Jerusalem " (Is. xxxi. 9). "The
house of Israel is to me become dross : all they are brass, and tin, and iron,
and lead, in the midst of the furnace ; they are even the dross of silver. . . .
As they gather silver, and brass, and iron, and lead, and tin, into the midst of
the furnace, to blow the fire upon it, to melt it, so will I gather you " (Ezek.
xxii. 18, 20, etc.). "And I will bring the third part through the fire, and will
refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried" (Zeoh. xiii.
9). " For he is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' sope : and he shall sit as a
refiner and purifier of silver : and he shall purify the sons of Levi, and purge
them as gold and silver " (Mai. iii. 2, 3). ¦ " He shall baptize you with the Holy
Ghost, and with fire " (Matt. iii. 11).
Undoubtedly, we are to attribute somewhat in these examples
to the ordinary poetic spirit ; much less, however, as regards the
symbol of the dressed stone. But in both cases, the figures so
exactly accord with the character of Jehovah, and with the under
lying conceptions of the two systems of the Bible, that it is difficult
not to see here a natural and direct inheritance, on the part of the
sacred writers, of the customary parlance of the ancient temple-
craft on one hand, and that of the metal-craft on the other. What
1 Ibid., p. 315.

96 HAR-MOAD.
language could point any more significantly to such a conclusion
than the following ?
" For we are labourers together with God : ye are God's husbandry, ye are God's
building. According to the grace of God which is given unto me, as a wise mas-
terbuilder, I have laid the foundation, and another buildeth thereon. But let
every man take heed how he buildeth thereupon. For other foundation can no
man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. Now if any man build upon
th.\s foundation, gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, stubble; every man's loork
shall be made manifest : for the day shall declare it, because it shall be revealed
by fire ; and the fire shall try every man's work of what sort it is. If any
man's work abide which he hath built thereupon, he shall receive a reivard. If
any man's work shall be burned, he shall suffer loss : but he himself shall be saved ;
yet so as by fire. Know ye not that ye are the temple of God, and that the Spirit
of God dwelleth in you? " (1 Cor. iii. 9-16).
Here are not less than a score of words, whose mystical intent
might well be insisted upon, and their reference primarily to the
" corporations " of which there has been here question.
Sec. 40. Whatever may be thought of the connection of the
order of priest-kings to which Christ belonged, which was certainly
historical, and which was recognized by Abraham in the person of
Melchizedek ; whatever we may say of the connection of this mys
terious order with the one whose character and history we have
attempted to trace, it must be admitted that the sacred writers
regarded the Messiah as the Great Master, as the Rock of Ages, the
stone par excellence ; and not less, as the Fire that shall try every
man's work. Indeed, who were the " wise men " that came from
the East to salute the young Prince of the manger? They were
Magi (Gr. /xayoi) ; they were fire- worshipers. The " star " which
they had seen in the east was the "bright and morning star;" the
Dun-pa-uddu, " peaceful prophet of the rising sun." In Mr. Smith's
recent work, " The Chaldsean Account of Genesis," the author gives
three cuts, illustrative of the fragmentary inscriptions which he
thinks related to the building of the tower of Babel. The cylinders
from which these cuts are taken certainly represent the operations
of building, of some construction in brick or tiles.^ Three person
ages are seen upon each cylinder, two engaged in adjusting the tiles,
the third being regarded by the author as a divinity. This leads
me to doubt whether these representations relate definitely to the
1 Pp. 158, 169. For another cut, quite similar to the third one given by Mr.
Smith, and in all respects allied to the same class of representations, see Revue
Archeologique, Paris, 1874, September, Plate XV., No. 3, being one among many
Babylonian cylinders studied by M. E. Soldi.

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 97
tower of Babel ; for it is obvious here that both gods and men are
engaged in the work, and that, as shown in the second cut, the work
is about being finished. The symbolical animals crowning the top
of the columns, the folded arms of the superintendent of construc
tions, in an attitude of repose so different from that shown in the
other examples, plainly indicate that the work hastens to comple
tion. But more significant than all else of this idea is the fourth
personage shown in this cylinder upon the extreme right. He is ob
viously a messenger, who goes to proclaim the happy consummation
of the labors. In one hand he carries a branch. He is represented
as hastening through the valleys and over the mountain heights ;
and in the east is seen a star, which has already mounted above the
horizon.^ He is a messenger ; and it is evident that he proclaims
good news. There were two classes of messengers in antiquity ;
those who brought good news, and they who proclaimed evil tidings.
From some peculiarity in their dress, or in the symbols borne by
them, it was possible to distinguish them afar off, and while they
were yet on the distant mountain-tops. It is this circumstance that
the prophet has improved in the highly poetic passage : —
" How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good
tidings, that publisheth peace ; that bringeth good tidings of good, that publish-
eth salvation; that saith unto Zion, Thy God reigneth ! " (Is. Iii. 7).
Having a like reference to constructions, and to the victorious
branch, symbol of new creations, are the following : —
" Behold, I will bring forth my servant the Branch. For behold the stone that
I have laid before Joshua" (Zech. iii. 8, 9). "Behold the man whose name is
The Branch ; and he shall grow up out of his place, and he shall build the temple
of the Lord : even he shall build the temple of the Lord ; and he shall bear the
glory, and shall sit and rule upon his throne ; and he shall be a priest upon his
throne " (vi. 12, 13).
These Babylonian cylinders, then, in which, as usual, we see the
substitution of brick for stone, represent the progress and final com
pletion of the work upon which these craftsmen, divine and human,
are mutually engaged and laboring together. The messenger with
branch in hand, as he traverses the mountain heights, and the flam
ing star already risen in the east, proclaim equally the glad tidings
1 For evidence that it is a branch held in the hand of this personage, compare it
with those of the sacred tree represented on p. 91 of the same work. Still better,
compare the trees shown in Rawlinson's Five Monarchies, i. p. 348. That this
personage traverses mountains is proved by a comparison of this cut with the
mountains shown in another plate in Rev. George Rawlinson's work just cited.
Ibid., p. 466.

98 HAR-MOAD.
that the work is done, and that the glorious morning has dawned.
One loves to dwell upon these messengers of promise, who have
come down to us through the ages ; upon these great prophets and
kings, instructors and civilizers of the world, who have kindled the
beacon flames on the holy mountains of the past, and as signal lights
reflected across the centuries, mementos of humanity's struggles,
and prayers, and sacrifices, yet beautiful harbingers of final victory.
They warn us of dangers, they exhort us to labor, they encourage
our hopes, imploring us above all to keep the fires renewed, and to
transmit the signals to our own posterity.
The investigations of the present chapter suffice to prove that the
principle of order has existed on the earth from the beginning ; that
barbarisrri has had its antagonists and civilization its champions
since the very first act in the great historical drama. The human
spirit did not slumber through a long night of ignorance, all uncon
scious of its power and of the propitious destinies that invited it to
activity. The first storm-cloud spreading its dark wings along the
horizon, the first thunder-bolt shot from its ragged breast, would
teach man the necessity of self-protection, even if there was no God
to direct his faltering steps, no inspiration to guide his efforts in
the midst of a strange life and a strange world. But the genius
that could vie with the modern artist in sketching a group of ani
mals in the reindeer period would soon penetrate into the deeper
secrets of nature, and bring to a tolerable state of perfection some
of the more useful arts.^ I do not admit, however, that there was
1 Vid. the specimens shown in Sir J. Lubbock's Origin of Civilization, pp. 24-
26, and note the important admission that races of an epoch long subsequent were
far inferior in artistic skill. But compare with these forced admissions of the
author the following frank statements of M. Paul Broca, Secretary of the Anthro
pological Society of Paris, relating to the same specimens : —
" It is hard to conceive how men destitute of the use of metals were able to
fab|ricate of bone, ivory, the antlers of the reindeer, an infinite variety of very
delicate utensils ; to carve, I had almost said to chisel, elegant forms, and to
represent by designs engraved in line on the handles of their instruments the figures
of different animals. These figures are distinguished by an exactness and artistic
skill truly remarkable, and to find in an equal degree the sentiment of art "it
would be necessary to revert, through many centuries, to the better times of
Greece. They form a contrast so absolute with the rude delineations traced on
some Celtic monuments {of a far later period), that it might be asked whether
they have not been designed since the historic era by fugitives who may have sought
refuge in the caves of our ancient troglodytes. But what other than the man of
the quarternary period could have designed in Europe on the bones or horns of
the reindeer the figure of a species of elephant which differs from all living

CUSHITE ARCHEOLOGY. 99
no Divinity shaping the course of history in those primitive ages.
He whose fiery breath melts down sun and planet, ceaselessly roar
ing in the great furnace of existence, kindles the flames also upon
the tongue of the prophet ; and the Divinity who merely veils him
self behind the living screen of nature, steps forth anon to lead a
chosen race through unknown paths, prompting it to illustrious deeds.
It is of such races that the redeemers of the world are born. It was
of such men, cradled at the hearth-stones of primeval humanity, with
the fire-god for their foster-father, that the first priesthoods were
formed, the first mystic corporations organized, and it was through
these that the sovereign-pontiffs of antiquity might trace their line
age back almost to the natal hour of humanity itself. It was these
mystic fraternities, in fact, with their strong hands clasped across
the dark periods, the frightful chasms of the world's history, like
iron links bridging the abyss that roars below, through whom the
sacred inheritances of previous epochs were transmitted, to become
the germinal centres of new creations and of new eras. Finally, I
believe that it was from this race of civilizers, lovers of truth, of
justice, and of humanity, that a precious stone was chosen as the
foundation of our own era ; He who, when the sacrificial floors were
to be re-sanded, and a new victim slain, placed the cup of suffering
to his own lips, and ratified the eternal covenant with his own
blood. I conclude the present chapter with the following extract,
taken from a work already once cited : —
" After all that has been written, perhaps the symbol of Vulcan
and the Cabiri may be studied with most effect in the Mosaic scrip
tures. Among the Harleian Manuscripts is a copy of the consti
tution of an ancient body of Freemasons, prefaced by a short his
tory, commencing as follows: ' If you ask me how this science was
species ? This race of men, so interesting through its civilization, led a peace
able existence. A skull found in the grotto of Bruniquel, of which M. Brun has
sent us the photograph, is distinguished by the purity of its form, the softness of
its outlines, the little prominence of the apophyses, the slight depth of the muscu
lar insertions, characters incompatible with the violent habits of a savao-e or bar
barous race. What, then, became of this indigenous civilization, so orio-inal, so
different from all those which are known to us ? Was it modified by slow de
grees and transformed to the extent of becoming at last wholly unrecognizable ?
No ; it has disappeared in the mass without leaving any trace, and everything
tends to the belief that it perished by force." (Smithsonian Reports, 1868, nn.
388, 389.) ^^
The same old story from the beginning of the world — barbarism obliterating
in a day what only the toils of centuries had been able to accomplish!

100 HAR-MOAD.
first invented, my answer is this : That before the general deluge,
which is commonly called Noah's fiood, there was a man called
Lemeck, as you may read in the 4th of Genesis, whoe had twoe
wives, the one called Adah, the other Zilla ; by Adah hee begot
twoe sones, Jabell and Juball ; by Zilla hee had a Sonne called
Tuball and a daughter named Naahmah ; these fewer children
found y" beginning of all y'' craft in the world ; Jabell found out
geometry and hee divided fiocks of sheep and lands ; hee first built
a house of stone and timber ; Jubell found out musick ; Tuball
found out the smyths trade or craft alsoe of gold, silver, copper,
iron and Steele,' etc. This Tubal or Tubalcain we may pretty
safely identify with Vulcan, the symbol of material art, or of the
man understanding and working in nature. It is only in the inter
pretation of this symbol, and its connection in Genesis, that we can
ever hope to discover the beginning of the ancient mysteries and of
that system of religion and philosophy that overspread Asia and
Greece. In working such a problem, the births of these ' fewer
children ' must be looked at as so many successive manifestations of
the spirit in man, producing, in fine, the Greek understanding, and
the magic of Samothrace and Thessalonica. Naahmah, the last
born, is the virgin Wisdom, that lies deepest in human understand
ing; and hence the mystic prophecy that Tubalcain, in the last
days, shall find his sister Naahmah, who shall come to him in golden
attire." i
^ Occult Science, p. 165. The above extract, and those previously given, are
from the article on the Cabiri, by E. Rich, Esq., England. We do not fully in
dorse the speculations ot the author, but value the quotation simply for the facts,
and the singular item of Masonic history given. Our investigations are in no
sense related to masonry, except in so far as the facts gleaned from antiquity may
be construed in this light. Our search is for the simple, naked truth, without
reference to any existing organizations, political, religious, or mystical. One
thing, however, is certain : the Masonic Order of to-day does not date from
ancient Rome, according to the theory of an eminent French writer belonging to
this fraternity. Its history evidently goes back into the night of ages. The
Roman temple-craft derived their origin from the valley of the Euphrates, since
the civilization of Rome is now known to have been derived, in a great measure,
from this region, of all which constant accumulations of proof will be found in
the chapters following.

BOOK n.
MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY.

CHAPTER IV.
QUESTION OF THE ORIGIN OE THE DOCUMENTS, AND OE THE
ANALOGIES EXISTING BETWEEN THEM.
Sec. 41. Li the light of present knowledge, it is necessary to
admit the existence of written documents at an epoch far more
remote than the critics of a former period believed themselves
authorized to suppose. The hieroglyphic system of Egypt seems
to have been coeval with the earliest monuments, and the hieratic
Accadian is supposed by some to have been brought to the Euphra
tes valley by the founders of the Babylonian civilization. So far as
shown by any discoveries yet made, written documents existed in
Babylonia and Chaldsea contemporaneously with the oldest cities
and temples. Everything indicates, in fact, that the Hamites
learned to write before they entered Egypt, and the Cushites also
before they immigrated to the plains of Shinar. In neither coun
try do the monuments afford the slightest hint that the system of
writing had been invented after its settlement by the races creating
these monuments ; on the contrary, this invention appears in both
instances as a traditionary inheritance from an unknown period.
But while these statements must be regarded as, in some measure
at least, justified by well-known facts, it is difficult for scholars to
attach much credit to those traditions, so vridely prevalent in West
ern Asia, that certain sacred writings had existed even in antedilu
vian times, being preserved from destmction by the waters of the
deluge and transmitted to subsequent ages. Yet the fragments of
Berosus, regarded so reliable in all other matters, afford direct tes-

102 HAR-MOAD.
timony to the reality of even this supposition. In the account of
the deluge transmitted by Berosus the following passages occur : —
" God appeared to Xisuthrus (the Chaldsean Noah) in a dream,
and warned him that on the fifteenth day of the month Dsesius,
mankind would be destroyed by a deluge. He bade him bury in
Sippara, the City of the Sun, the extant writings, first and last, and
build a ship," etc. " They who had remained in the ark, and not
gone forth with Xisuthrus (after the waters retired), now left it
and searched for him, and shouted out his name ; but Xisuthrus
was not seen any more. Only his voice answered them out of the
air, saying, ' Worship God ; for because I worshiped God am I gone
to dwell with the gods ; and they who were with me have shared
the same honor.' And he bade them return to Babylon, and re
cover the writings buried at Sippara, and make them known among
men ; and he told them that the land in which they then were was
Armenia. So they, when they had heard all, sacrificed to the gods,
and went their way on foot to Babylon, and, having reached it,
recovered the buried writings from Sippara, and built many cities
and temples, and restored Babylon." ^
According to Berosus, the city where Xisuthrus lived before the
deluge was the Larsam of the inscriptions, the modern Senkereh,
situated to the south of Babylon. Sippara, where the sacred books
were buried, was situated to the north of Babylon. Both cities
were noted seats of the worship of the Sun-god, to whom magnificent
temples had been raised at a ver}' early period. We see, then, that
the existence of sacred writings even before the deluge, and their
preservation and transmission to the post-diluvian world, is expressly
affirmed by Berosus, whose remarkable fidelity on all other points
relating to antiquity is now generally admitted. But another tra
dition prevailed in ancient times quite similar to that just noticed,
and it tends to support it in some measure. Alluding to the chil
dren of Seth, third son of Adam, Josephus says; —
" They also were the inventors of that peculiar sort of wisdom
which is concerned with the heavenly bodies and their order. And
that their inventions might not be lost before they were sufficiently
known, upon Adam's prediction that the world was to be destroyed
at one time by the force oi fire, and at another time by the violence
and quantity of water, they made two pillars ; the one of brick, the
1 Vid. Rawl., Five Monarchies, i. pp. 145, 146. Rev. Mr. Rawlinson's version
of these " Fragments " is an improvement upon Cory's, and to be preferred for
accuracy.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 103
other of stone ; they inscribed their discoveries on them both, that
in case the pillar of brick should be destroyed by the flood, the
pillar of stone might remain and exhibit those discoveries to man
kind, afld also inform them that there was another pillar of brick
erected by them. Now this remains in the land of Siriad to this
day."i Dr. Whiston, the translator of Josephus, appends a note to the
above, in which he remarks : —
" Although the main of this relation might be true, and Adam
might foretell a conflagration and a deluge, which all antiquity wit
nesses to be an ancient tradition, — nay, Seth's posterity might en
grave their inventions in astronomy on two such pillars, — yet it is
no way creditable that they could survive the deluge." (Op. cit.)
M. Lenormant adopts the conjecture of M. Maury, that the pil
lars to which Josephus alludes, traditions concerning which are
known to have been current among the Jews, are in reality but
another form of the Babylonian tradition of the deluge, and thus
observes : " The history of the pillars in the land of Siriad is, then,
as M. Maury had conceived, only a variant of the special Chaldsean
tradition of the deluge." ^ Both M. Lenormant and Professor
Chwolsohn take note of the passage in the Egyptian Manetho,
strongly suspected to be spurious, but to the effect : That the first
Thoth, or Hermes, before the deluge inscribed upon pillars the
principles of knowledge in hieroglyphs and in the sacred language ;
and that after the deluge the second Thoth translated the same
into the popular language.^ Professor Chwolsohn, as previously
cited in these pages, shows that this ancient Thoth was identified
by various writers with the Biblical Enoch, and that he was consid
ered the author of sacred writings.*
It is altogether probable, whether we admit the real existence of
these pillars or not, that the tradition concerning them should be
credited originally to those ancient " corporations " whose singular
history we attempted to trace in the last chapter, and who were
specially engaged in fabrications in brick, stone, and the metals
generally. Indeed, I think that the tradition as handed down
varied at times with respect to the materials employed for erecting
1 Antiq. of the Jews, B. I. ii. 3. Whiston's version.
^ Frag, de Berose, p. 276.
« Vid. Frag, de Berose, p. 269 ; Ssabier, i. p. 784.
« Ssabier, i. pp. 781-794.

104 HAR-MOAD.
these pillars, affirming that, while one was of brick, as best adapted
to resist the element oifire, the other was of cast brass, as admira
bly calculated to resist the force of water. Be this as it ipay, we
see here how extensively prevalent in antiquity were the ideas that
the art of writing existed even before the deluge, and that the
sacred science had been transmitted by some means from the ante
diluvian to the post-diluvian world. One has to yield very much to
the influence of incredulity not to admit that there must have been
some real basis for all these legends. But the tradition as pre
served by.Berosus, relating to the sacred writings buried during the
deluge, deserves, of the two, the most serious consideration, and we
proceed to show that this account of Berosus must have been fully
credited by the monarchs of Babylon.
Sec. 42. The evidences to be here adduced are drawn from the
inscription of Nabunahid, well known to Assyrian scholars, in which
this monarch gives an account of repeated excavations at Sippara
for the discovery of certain mysterious tables supposed to have been
buried beneath the foundation-stone of the temple Ulbar, situated
in that part of the city known under the name of Agan6. The
subjoined remarks of M. Lenormant, relating to Berosus' state
ments concerning the sacred writings, will serve the purpose of in
troduction to the matter before us : —
" This history of the tables containing the principles of all know
ledge, revealed by the theophanies of Anu (Gr. Cannes), which
had been buried by Xisuthrus at the time of the deluge in order
that they might be transmitted to the post-diluvian world, had
been, as we have shown, the source of the legend quite similar
relating to the columns of Thoth or Seth in the land of Siriad, to
which the Pseud o-Manetho -^.lludes. Josephus says that these pil
lars existed even in his time ; and here we believe to have again a
Babylonian tradition attaching itself to a real fact, which is revealed
to us by the fragments of the Barrel (inscribed cylinder) of Nabu
nahid discovered at Mugheir, the ancient Ur, now preserved in the
British Museum.^ We learn from this, in effect, that when Saga-
raktiyas, a king of the first historical dynasty of the Chaldseans,
who was certainly contemporaneous with the kings of the ancient
empire in Egypt, reconstructed the pyramidal temple of the goddess
Anunit, called Ulbar, situated in that part of Sippara known as
Agan^, he made certain mysterious tablets in imitation of those car
ried by Xisuthrus from Larsam (modern Senkereh), his native city,
1 Vid. 1st Rawl. PI. 69.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 105
to Sippara, and buried them under the corner-stone of the temple
Ulbar. These tables were probably thought to be copies of those
that had been buried at the time of the deluge, and thus the king,
himself really historical, thought to give to his reconstructed edifice
a more august consecration in realizing a fabulous tradition. In
the course of centuries these tables buried by Sagaraktiyas had
become themselves famous and legendary ; they had come to be
regarded probably as the originals of those of Larsam, hidden for
the first time by Xisuthrus. Thus, at an epoch anterior to the thir
teenth century before our era, the king Kuii-galzu, who appertained
to the fourth or fifth dynasty of Berosus, made excavations in the
mass of the pyramid in search of these tables, but without success.
Similar labors were undertaken by the kings of later periods, always
for the same purpose, yet with no result. It was only at the period
shortly before the ruin of the Babylonian power that Nabunahid,
after protracted efforts, succeeded finally in discovering the tables
buried by Sagaraktiyas." ^
M. Lenormant then gives a translation of those portions of Nabu-
nahid's inscription that relate to these mysterious tablets, supply.
ing occasional expressions where the lines are broken, the sense
being obvious ; and these portions of the text are too important not
to find a place here. Instead of M. Lenormant's version, however,
I take for basis that of Dr. J. Oppert, as improved by M. J.
Menant, recurring to M. Lenormant's translation in certain places,
where his rendering is more clear than others : ^ —
" The tables of Larsam had been deposited under the foundation-
stone (Temin) of the temple Ulbar, at Agan^, in ancient times, by
Sagaraktiyas, king of Babylon, and Naram-Sin, his son, my prede
cessor; they had not seen the light before the glorious days of
Nabunahid, king of Babylon. Kuri-galzu, king of Babylon, who
preceded mej made search for them, but'he did not find the corner
stone of the temple Ulbar, and thus he made this inscription: 'I
have searched for the corrrer-stone, and I have not found it.' Assur-
akhi-idin (Assarhaddon), king of the country of Assur (Assyria),
king of legions, made search for them." (Vid. col. ii. II. 28-35.)
Three lines are wanting here, after which the inscription con
tinues : —
'¦'¦ Nabw-kudurri-ussur (Nebuchadnezzar), king of Babylon, son of
Nabur-bal-usur, my predecessor, with the aid of his army, searched
for the foundation-stone of the temple Ulbar, and did not find it.
1 Frag, de Berose, pp. 291-293.
2 For Menant's version see Babylone et la Chaldee, pp. 266-258.

106 HAR-MOAD.
And I, Nabunahid, king of Babylon, restorer of Bit Saggater and
of Bit-Zida, in my victorious years, adoring Istar of Agan^, my
mistress, I have caused a pit to be excavated. The gods Shamas
and Bin directing me, I have searched for the corner-stone of the
temple Ulbar, for my own happiness. With the constancy worthy
of a king, I have directed my army in the search for this founda
tion-stone, where Nebuchadnezzar during three years (180 days?)
had opened a trench for the excavations. They have explored to
the right and to the left, before and behind ; and I have searched,
and I have not found it. Then they say : ' We have searched for
this foundation-stone, and we have not found it. The tempest of
waters has inundated everything and has ruined all.' " (Col. ii. 11.
40-57.) There occurs now a long break in the inscription. But it ap
pears that it gave an account of a second search, under the auspices
of Nabunahid ; for, where in the third column the text becomes
legible again, this monarch goes on to say : —
..." the temple of Sin . . . and this temple ... of the tem
ple Ulbar . . . for the construction of this temple . . . I have
found the corner-stone of the temple Ulbar, and have read the name
of Sagaraktiyas at the bottom " (Col. iii. II. 15-22.)
Then follows the private inscription of Sagaraktiyas himself, as
copied by Nabunahid : —
" Sagaraktiyas, veritable shepherd, august lord . . . me. I say
this : The god Shamas and the goddess Anunit have called me to
govern the country and the people ; they have filled my hand with
the tributes from all nations. I say this : The temple of light,
the temple of Shamas, my lord, at Sippara, and the temple Ulbar
of Anunit, my mistress, at Sippara, had been overthrown even to
the base, by Za-bu^um in the days remote. I have cleared away
the basement, I have laid bare the foundations, I have "removed the
heaps of earth, I have disengaged the walls, I have completed the
protections of the base ; I have examined its foundations, I have
transported new earth, I have leveled off the foundations, I have
raised above it the first stage, to the glory of Shamas and Anunit,
for my happiness. May they accord to me their constant protec
tion. May they prolong my days, may they restore to me my first
life, and may they perpetuate in this palace my years of happiness ;
may they protect the writing of this monument, and may they
enhance the glory of my name." (Col. iii. 11. 20-40.)
There are various renderings of this inscription of Sagaraktiyas,
substantially alike, but differing in some details. Following this.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 107
Nabunahid continues, so far as relates to the tables, in this lan
guage : —
^ " It is thus that I have found . . . the name of Sagaraktiyas,
king of Babylon, my predecessor, who had constructed the temple
Ulbar in Sippara, in honor of Anunit, and who had placed there
the foundation-stone. I have replaced in the foundations the Bar
rel of the East, the Barrel of the West, and the foundation-stone of
the front ; I have renewed the exterior of the temple Ulbar, and I
have achieved its magnificence." (Col. iii. 11. 41-46.)
The monarch closes with a prayer to the " Great Divinity " for
his own protection, and for the protection of his heart's hope, his
son Bel-sar-ussur (Belshazzar) ; little dreaming of the sad destiny
that was so soon to overtake him, and which has been so graphi
cally related by the prophet Daniel (chap. v.).
Sec. 43. According to the " Fragments of Berosus," the abode of
Xisuthrus before the deluge had been at Larancha, the Larsam of
the inscriptions, the modern Senkereh. The writings buried at
Sippara, as Berosus states, had been recovered after the deluge, and
considering the fact of its being the native city of Xisuthrus, it is
natural to infer that they had been restored to Larsam. This
explains the phrase " Tables of Larsam," as it occurs in the inscrip
tion of Nabunahid. It was obviously a technical and current ex
pression, designating the sacred oracles preserved from the destruc
tion of the deluge; and it might be applied as well to officially
executed copies of those writings as to the oricrinals. All this
appears perfectly rational, provided we admit that any such writ
ings as supposed ever actually existed ; and this is the very point
which the modern critic will be most likely to contest. It is evi
dent that M. Lenormant doubts the literal existence at Larsam of
any such documents ; hence he feels at liberty to attribute to the
king Sagaraktiyas an act of deception, in making certain " myste
rious tablets in imitation of Xisuthrus," and in attempting to give
a more "august consecration" to his reconstructed edifice, by real
izing in this manner a " fabulous tradition." I think the author
attributes here too much to the negative tendencies of modern criti
cism, and not enough to the intelligence and sincerity of the great
men of the past. Were such monarchs as Kuri-galzu, Assarhad
don, and Nebuchadnezzar, to say nothing of Nabunahid, in their
long and laborious search after the " Tables of Larsam," after all

108 HAR-MOAD.
but the ignorant dupes of a pious trick performed by Sagaraktiyas,
with a view to increase his own reputation and popularity ? But
it is too late now to doubt the real existence of sacred writings at
Babylon, dating from a period so remote that it is impossible to
assign to it any definite chronology. If the verbal extracts from
those documents, transmitted to us by Berosus, were not enough,
then the " Deluge Tablets " and still later the " Creation Tablets,"
discovered and translated by Mr. George Smith, afford sufficient evi
dence upon this point. It is almost certain, in fact, from the cir
cumstances connected with these new documents discovered by Mr.
Smith, that even before the time of Sagaraktiyas, whom M. Menant
would assign to the nineteenth century B. c, certain tablets of a
sacred character like those of Larsam were known to exist ; so that
there is not the slightest ground for attributing any unworthy
motive or act to this ancient monarch, The documents buried by
him beneath the corner-stone of the temple Ulbar were genuine ;
they were the original " Tables of Larsam," or official copies of
them. It is upon this supposition alone that we can account ration
ally for the subsequent and protracted efforts to rediscover them,
as detailed in the inscription of Nabunahid.
At first I had seriously doubted whether Nabunahid actually
found the " Tables of Larsam." He alludes definitely to the cor
ner-stone as being discovered, and even copies the inscription of
Sagaraktiyas relating to the reconstruction of the temple Ulbar ;
but this private document in no sense answers to the Sacred Tables,
for which so long search had been made. It must be, then, the
" Barrel of the East " and the " Barrel of the West," replaced in
the foundations by Nabunahid, which are to be identified with the
" Tables of Larsam." Such being the case, they probably remain
there to the present hour ; for the ruins of Sippara have never been
seriously disturbed by modern explorations. I consider it safe to
identify these Barrels with the Sacred Tables, first, because they
are the only documents alluded to as being found, except the pri
vate inscription of Sagaraktiyas ; and, secondly, for the reason that
all the Assyriologues seem to take it for a fact that the " Tables
of Larsam " were actually discovered. Thus M. Lenormant, as
previously cited, observes : " Nabunahid, after protracted labors,
succeeded finally in discovering the tables buried by Sagaraktiyas."
M. Menant remarks : " It was alone under the last king of Baby-

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 109
Ion that the tables of Sagaraktiyas were found." ^ Finally, Dr.
Oppert has the following allusion to the matter : " The Babylonian
king relates how he searched for and found the corner-stone of the
temple Ulbar at Sippara, where the tables of Larancha (Larsam)
had been deposited. All the monarchs before had searched for
them in vain, Kuri-galzu, Assarhaddon, Nebuchadnezzar, — all had
attempted to arrive at this result, which the last king of Babylon
attained." ^ All depends upon the point whether the Barrels of
the East and West can be properly identified with the " Tables of
Larsam ; " and here I submit what appear to be the opinions of the
eminent authors cited.
Thus, the tradition which Berosus records, to the effect that cer
tain sacred writings had been preserved from destruction during the
deluge and transmitted to the post-diluvian world, was in no sense
a superstitious, vulgar notion. It was believed, and so fully cred
ited by the early monarchs of Babylon that they were willing to
employ their armies in undertaking immense labors of excavations,
searching for supposed copies of them. They believed, moreover,
in the literal existence of the " Tables of Larsam," and we trace
definitely the prevalence of this idea two thousand years before our
era. Still more, it is necessary to admit that such tables really ex
isted ; for the supposition is groundless which attributes an act of
pure invention and deception to Sagaraktiyas with respect to the
documents deposited by him in the foundations of the temple Ulbar.
That which confirms all is the recent discovery by Mr. Smith of
various tablets perfectly answering to the character of these sacred
writings, and whose original date evidently paralleled that of the
reign of Sagaraktiyas himself. We proceed now to the investiga
tion of the general characteristics and the comparative analogies
of these ancient documents under the different forms in which we
possess them, and so far as they relate to cosmogony.
Sec. 44. Allusion has been made to the theophanies or manifes
tations of the god Anu, the Greek " Cannes ; " it is from the sacred
writings attributed to Cannes that Berosus takes the account rela
tive to the creation, which is as follows, according to the version of
Rev. George Rawlinson : —
" In the beginning all was darkness and water, and therein were gen-
1 Babylone et la Chaldee, p. 97.
2 Hist. Chaldee et d'Assyrie, p. 23.

110 HAR-MOAD.
erated monstrous animals of strange and peculiar forms. (a) There
were men with two wings, and some even with four, and with two
faces ; and others with two heads, a man's and a woman's, on one
body ; and there were men with the heads and the horns of goats,
and men with hoofs like horses, and some with the upper parts of
a man joined to the lower parts of a horse, like centaurs ; and there
were bulls with human heads, dogs with four bodies and with fishes'
tails, men and horses with dogs' heads, creatures with the heads
and bodies of horses, but with the tails of fish, and other animals
mixing the forms of various beasts. Moreover, there were mon
strous fish and reptiles and serpents, and divers other creatures,
which had borrowed something from each other's shapes, of all
which the likenesses are still preserved in the temple of Belus. A
woman ruleth them all, by name Omarka, which is, in Chaldee,
Thalatth, and in Greek, Thalassa (or 'the sea'). Then Belus
appeared, and split the woman in twain ; and of the one half of her
he made the heaven, and of the other half the earth ; and the beasts
that were in her he caused to perish. (5) And he split the darkness,
and divided the heaven and the earth asunder, and put the world
in order ; and the animals that could not bear the light perished.
Belus, upon this, seeing that the earth was desolate, yet teeming
with productive power, commanded one of the gods to cut off his
head and to mix the blood which flowed forth with earth, and form
men therewith, and beasts that could bear the light. So man was
made, and was intelligent, being a partaker of the divine wisdom.
Likewise Belus made the stars, and the sun and moon, and the five
planets." ^
There are some variations in the above translation from that of
Cory, as copied by Mr. George Smith.^ I note these differences
according to the letter in the foregoing extract. At a, Cory's ver
sion adds the words, " which were produced of a twofold princi
ple." At b, Cory has the sentence : " All this was an allegorical
description of nature. For, the whole universe consisting of mois
ture, and animals being continually generated therein, the deity
above-mentioned took off his own head, upon which the other gods
mixed the blood as it gushed out, and from thence formed men.
On this account it is that they are rational, and partake of divine
knowledge." Rev. Mr. Rawlin.son takes this sentence to be an in
terpolation, and so far as relates to cutting off the head of Belus, and
the formation of man from the blood mixed with earth, it evidently
1 Vid. Rawlinson, Five Monarchies, i. pp. 142, 143.
^ Chaldcean Account of Genesis, pp. 40-42.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. Ill
is a corruption ; for a like description occurs again in a connection
more natural. The same cannot be said, however, of the other por
tion of the passage : "All this was an allegorical description of
nature," etc., which has every appearance of being genuine. There
are some phrases employed where Cory's rendering is preferable,
even if it is not quite so literal, as, " cut the woman asunder," in
stead of " split the woman in twain ; " so, too, " divided the dark
ness, and separated the heavens from the earth," instead of " split
the darkness, and divided the heaven and the earth asunder." The
Babylonian cosmogony contemplates the work of creation as a two
fold operation ; first, as a process of division, secondly, as an act of
generation. The same ideas are fundamental in the Mosaic text.
The art-monuments, representing the first stages of creation, are
found to vary according to one or the other of these ground concep
tions, and the language descriptive of the same frequently shows a
corresponding variance, or the same terms may be taken in a dou
ble sense. Sometimes the creative agent is figured with sword in
hand, about to cut the woman asunder ; and at others, as the mind
or spirit brooding upon and impregnating the watery chaos. But I
wish to present here a portion of Rev. Mr. Rawlinson's comments
upon the text of Berosus, as translated by him in the foregoing
extract : —
" It has been generally seen that this cosmogony bears a remark
able resemblance to the history of creation contained in the opening
chapters of the book of Genesis. Some have gone so far as to
argue that the Mosaic account was derived from it. Others, who
reject this notion, suggest that a certain ' old Chaldee tradition '
was ' the basis of them both.' If we drop out the word ' Chaldee '
from this statement, it may be regarded as fairly expressing the
truth. The Babylonian legend embodies a primeval tradition com
mon to all mankind, of which an inspired author has given us the
true ground-work in the first and second chapters of Genesis. What
is especially remarkable is the fidelity, comparatively speaking, with
which the Babylonian legend reports the facts. While the whole
tone and spirit of the two accounts, and even the point of view from
which they are taken, differ, the general outline of the narrative in
each is nearly the same." ^
The chief points in which the author considers the Mosaic and
Babylonian cosmogonies different are more definitely stated in the
two notes appended to the above, which I subjoin : —
I Five Monarchies, i. pp. 143, 144.

112 HAR-MOAD.^
" The Chaldee narrative is extravagant and grotesque ; the
Mosaical is miraculous, as a true account of creation must be ; but
it is without unnecessary marvels, and its tone is sublime .and sol
emn." " In Genesis the point of view is the divine : ' In the
beginning God created the heaven and the earth, and the Spirit of
God moved upon the face of the waters.' In the Chaldee legend
the point of view is the physical and mundane, God being only
brought in after a while as taking a certain part in creation."
That which is really " grotesque " in the Babylonian account is
the long and detailed description of the preexisting chaos, which,
in the Mosaic text, is cut down to a single verse : " And the earth
was without form and void ; and darkness was upon the face of the
deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters "
(Gen. i. 2). In a literary point of view one cannot hesitate to pre
fer the simple grandeur of the Mosaic description, although the fun
damental idea is substantially the same in both narratives as con
cerns this chaos. It might be some justification of the Babylonian
description of the preexisting chaos to say that it is " allegorical,"
as is especially claimed for it in Cory's version of this document.
Another element of the grotesque here is the personification of
chaos under the form of a woman ; but this arose from the funda
mental doctrine of the " active and passive powers of the universe,"
so widely held in antiquity, according to which matter was con
ceived as passive, as female, while mind or spirit was regarded as
active, and as male. There is here really no difference in doctrine,
but rather in the habits of thought leading to a different mode of
treating the subject, in the apprehension of the most important facts
to be presented, whether the original chaos, or the subsequent pro
cess of creation. The Mosaic account curtails the description of
chaos, while the Babylonian gives to this subject by far the great
est prominence. The one describes the creative process minutely,
while the other sums up all in a few sentences. Nor is there an
essential doctrinal difference as relates to the fundamental process
of creation. It is conceived in both accounts as a process of divi
sion ; division of the primordial chaos, heaven being formed of one
portion and the earth of the other. That which really constitutes
" the beginning," a preexisting chaos, on one hand, or the first cre
ative act calling forth the chaos from nonentity, on the other
hand, is the one point, if anywhere, in respect to which a wide doc
trinal distinction is to be discovered. The Babylonian system

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 113
assumes the watery chaos as this "beginning ¦, " but as usually in
terpreted the Mosaic account assumes an absolute creation of chaos
as the beginning.
Sec. 45. The one great question here regards the assumption of
a purely spiritual existence as prior to all matter on one side, or
the eternity of mind and matter as one twofold principle, on the
other. The Babylonians held the doctrine last indicated; while
Biblical exegetes, for the most part, give a construction to the very
first verse of Genesis which implies the opposite idea. M. F.
Lenormant has correctly apprehended this whole subject in his
excellent "Commentary upon Berosus," and his views merit a care
ful study : —
" We do not believe ourselves wanting in respect for the Holy
Writings, in revealing the striking analogies in form which exist
between the Biblical and Babylonian cosmogonies. These analogies
are such in all their characteristic details that it is impos.sible for
us not to consider the account of creation in Genesis, as well as that
of the deluge, as ante-Mosaic documents preserved by oral tradi
tion, and inserted in the first book of the Pentateuch ; documents
the existence of which was admitted and demonstrated in the sev
enteenth century by a great Catholic critic, Richard Simon, of
whom Bossuet has well said, that hardihood in exegesis inclines to
a severe orthodoxy. In my eyes, these two documents constitute
an ancient traditional recital, carried from Chaldeea by the Abra-
hamites in their migration from Ur to Canaan."
"But if the rSdacteur oi Genesis has admitted this recital into
his work, almost without any changes, he has given it a sense en
tirely new, and diametrically opposed to that held by the Chaldaean
priesthood. An abyss, in effect, separates the two conceptions of
the Biblical and Babylonian cosmogony, notwithstanding the strik
ing resemblances in the external form. On one side we have the
eternally existent material organized by a demiurge, who emanates
from its own bosom ; on the other the universe is ci-eated ex nihilo
by the infinite power of a divinity purely spiritual. To give to
this recital, repeated in the sanctuaries of Clialdgea, a sense entirely
new; to transform the pantheistic conceptions the most material
and gross into the light of true religion ; ... it has sufficed for the
rSdacteur of Genesis to add at the commencement of the whole,
and before the description of the chaos, with which the Chaldsean
and PhcBnician cosmogonies began, this simple verse: 'In the be
ginning God created the heaven and the earth.' Thus, the free act
of a spiritual creator is placed before the existence even of chaos,
which the pagan pantheism believed anterior to all ; this chaos, the

114 HAR-MOAD.
first principle for the Chaldseans, from whence even the gods them
selves emanated, became a creation that the Eternal caused to appear
in time."
"As the lamented Abb^ Le Hir, with his profound philological
science, has observed: 'God commences by drawing from nonentity
the elementary material. All other interpretation of the first verse
of Genesis is without support. It is not without intention, that
Moses has employed the verb Bara (s~i3), opposing it to other verbs
occurring in the same account with the sense of ' to make, to fash
ion, to form.' The first term (Bara) expresses more than this.
In the constant usage of the language, it denotes an operation more
divine, more radical, more creative than the others. In the present
instance, it cannot be distinguished from them in sense, if it does
not express the idea of creation, properly speaking." ^
It is impossible not to admire the profound insight and critical
ability exhibited in these extracts ; and I wish I could conscien
tiously admit the author's remarks to be perfectly sound throughout.
One thing is obvious : he has seen clearly the exact point of mate
rial difference, if any, between the Mosaic and Chaldsean cosmog
onies. But M. Lenormant's argument, based upon the sense of the
Hebrew verb Bara (s~)3), is, in my view, a failure; although the
meaning attached to this term by him, that of a creation ex nihilo,
is usually maintained by exegetes. The reasons for doing so, how
ever, are rather theological than etymological. All Hebrew schol
ars admit that the primary sense of Bara is " to cut, to cut out,
to carve," and thence " to form, to create, by cutting or carving,"
a process implying necessarily a preexisting material. But that
which completely refutes the arguments of M. Lenormant and the
Abb^ Le Hir is the fact that Bara occurs again in the twenty-first
verse, applied to the creation of whales : " And God created great
whales, and every living creature that moveth," etc. It would be
ridiculous to maintain here a creation ex nihilo. I shall return to
the consideration of this important word Bara, important for the
Babylonian as well as Hebrew cosmogonj% in another connection.
For the present, and so far as relates to a comparative analysis of
the two systems, it is evident the primitive idea was one and the
same in both accounts.
No one can doubt that, as a literary production, and as an appro
priate description of the work of creation, the Mosaic account is
1 Frag, de Birose, pp. 72-74.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 115
infinitely superior to the Babylonian. The distinguishing charac
teristics of the Hebrew narrative are its extreme brevity on all
points, and the perfect order and consecutiveness in the development
of the system. The Babylonian account, on the contrary, expands,
amplifies at each stage, and there is confusion in the order of events
described. We see this disposition to enlarge, to go into details, in
the description of chaos, as given by Berosus. In the documents
translated by Mr. George Smith, the same characteristic will appear
at other stages of the narrative. If we had the entire Babylonian
record in a state of complete preservation, doubtless it would occupy
many chapters, instead of one or two, as found in Genesis. Has
the Babylonian narrative been enlarged and amplified from a briefer
original ? or, rather, has the Mosaic account been abridged from
primitive documents much more extensive ? These are matters
very difficult to decide. My opinion is, that the Babylonian system
has been more or less corrupted by additions, and that there were
originally in the Hebrew documents some details which do not now
appear. Sec. 46. The most valuable among Mr. Smith's important dis
coveries in the field of cuneiform researches is the " Chaldsean
Account of Genesis." With Mr. Smith's translation, together with
the chief portions of the original text, as published in Dr. Delitzsch's
recent work,i it is possible to gain quite a clear idea of this new
addition to cuneiform as well as to Biblical literature. As the
tablets are quite fragmentary, affording but few continuous narra
tives, I select the portions more with reference to other accounts
than to the order given them by the translator. The following
relate to the primordial chaos, for the most part, corresponding to
the second verse of Genesis, and to the main portion of the " Frag
ments of Berosus," already given : —
A. " (1) When above, were not raised the heavens ; (2) and
below on the earth a plant had not grown up ; (3) the abyss also
had not broken open their boundaries; (4) the chaos (or water)
Tiamat (the sea) was the producing-mother of the whole of them.
(5) Those waters at the beginning were ordained ; but (6) a tree
had not grown, a flower had not unfolded. (7) When the gods had
not sprung up, any one of them ; (8) a plant had not grown, and
^ Assyrische Lesestucke, etc., Leipzig, 1876, pp. 40-45. Probably the text has
been published in England, but I have not been able to obtain it from this
source.

116 HARr-MOAD-
order did not exist ; (9) were made also the great gods, (10) the
gods Lahmu and Lahamu they caused to come . . . (11) and they
grew . . . (12) the gods Sar and Kisar were made . . . (13) A
course of days, and a long time passed . . . (14) the god Anu . . .
(15) the god Sar, and " i . . .
The chaos personified by a woman, as in Berosus' account, is first
described ; then the generation of the principal cosmical potencies
in pairs, as Lahmu and Lahamu, Sar and Kisar, after which a course
of days, a long time passes. This evidently marks the first stage,
answering to Gen. i. 1, 2, or perhaps to 1-5, including the first crea
tion day of Moses. But I think the whole should be confined to
the first two verses of Genesis. We see here an entire absence of
the description of strange and monstrous forms inhabiting the pri
mal chaos, such as we find in Berosus. There exists something
corresponding to this, however, in the Cutha legend relating to the
same subject, where the lines 10-23, as rendered by Mr. Smith, read
as follows : —
B. " Men with the bodies of birds of the desert, human beings
with the faces of ravens ; these the great gods created, and in the
earth the gods created for them a dwelling. Tamat (Tiamat) gave
unto them strength, their life the mistress of the gods raised, in the
midst of the earth they grew up and became great, and increased
in number; seven kings brothers of the same family, six thousand
in number were their people ; Banini their father was king, their
mother the queen was Milili, their eldest brother who went before
them, Mimangab was his name, their second brother Midudu was
his name (the names of the other brothers wanting)." ^
The foregoing passage shows that Berosus has faithfully reported
the Babylonian conceptions, relative to the monstrous inhabitants
of chaos, and moreover that, they dwelt upon the earth. This cor
responds to Genesis ; for it was the earth which was " without
form, and void," not the heaven. Tiamat ruled over them on the
earth, also giving them life and strength, so that they grew up in
the midst of the earth, and became great, increasing in number.
We proceed now to that portion of the tablets pertaining to the
heavenly bodies, corresponding to the verses 14-18 of the Mosaic
narrative : —
C. " (1) It was delightful, all that was fixed by the great gods.
(2) Stars, their appearance (in figures) of animals he arranged.
' Chaldcean Account of Genesis, pp. 62, 63. ^ Ibid., p. 103.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 117
(3) To fix the year through the observation of their constellations,
(4) twelve months (or signs) of stars in three rows he arranged,
(5) from the day when the year commences unto the close. (6)
fie marked the positions of the wandering stars (planets) to shine
in their courses, (7) that they may not do injury, and may not
trouble any one, (8) the positions of the gods Bel and Hea he
fixed with him. (9) And he opened the great gates in the dark
ness shrouded, (10) the fastenings were strong on the left and
right. (11) In its mass (that is, the lower chaos) he made a boil
ing, (12) the god Uru (the moon) he caused to rise out, the night
he overshadowed, (13) to fix it also for the light of the night until
the shining of the day, (14) that the month might not be broken,
and in its amount be regular. (15) At the beginning of the month,
at the rising of the night, (16) his horns are breaking through to
shine on the heaven. (17) On the seventh day to a circle he be
gins to swell, (18) and stretches toward the dawn further. (19)
When the god Shamas (the sun) in the horizon of heaven, in the
east"! . . .
Mr. Smith has sufficiently pointed out the resemblances existing
between the foregoing passage and the Mosaic account of the fourth
day of creation. This part of the Babylonian narrative was consid
erably longer than is shown here, yet it all appertained to the same
subject, which is condensed in Genesis into five or six verses, af
fording another illustration of the disproportion of matter included
in the two accounts. The next portion of the Babylonian text, ren
dered by Mr. Smith, is too fragmentary to be of much service to us.
It relates to the production of " living creatures," and corresponds
to the sixth day of creation as described in Genesis. There should
be here an account of the creation of man; but this part of the
tablet is almost wholly destroyed. The following, however, has
some relation to the subject : —
D. " (5) The god Ziku (noble life) quickly called ; director of
purity, (6) good kinsman, master of perception and right, (7) causer
to be fruitful and abundant, establisher of fertility, (8) another to
us has come up, and greatly increased, (9) in thy powerful advance
spread over him good, (10) may he speak, may he glorify, may he
exalt his majesty. (11) The god Mirku (noble crown) in concern
raised a protection, (12) lord of noble lips, savior from death, (13)
of the gods imprisoned, the accomplisher of restoration, (14) his
pleasure he established, he fixed upon the gods his enemies, (15)
to fear them he made man, (16) the breath of life was in him. (17)
1 Ibid., pp. 69, 70.

118 HAR-MOAD.
May he be established, and may his will not fail, (18) in the mouth
of the dark races which his hand has made. (19) The god of noble
lips with his five fingers sin maybe cut off; (20) who with his
noble charms removes the evil curse. (21) The god Libzu wise
among the gods, who had chosen his possession, (22) the doing of
evil shall not come out of him, (23) established in the company of
the gods, he rejoices their heart."
We give below the address of the divinity to the newly-created
human pair, before the event of their transgression.
E. " (8) Every day thy god thou shalt approach (or invoke,) (9)
sacrifice, prayer of the mouth and instruments . . . (10) to thy
god in reverence thou shalt carry. (11) Whatever shall be suitable
for divinity, (12) supplication, humility, and bowing of the face,
(13) fire thou shalt give to him, and thou shalt bring tribute, (14)
and in the fear also of god thou shalt be holy. (15) In thy know
ledge and afterwards in the tablets (writing), (16) worship and
goodness shall be raised, . . . (19) the fear of god thou shalt not
leave, . . . (20) the fear of the angels thou shalt live in . . . (23)
When thou shalt speak also he will give." ^ . . .
That which related to the fall of man is wanting ; but the .curse
pronounced upon man after the transgression is thus rendered : —
F. " (12) Lord of the earth his name called out, the father Elu
(13) in the ranks of the angels pronounced their curse. (14) The
god Hea heard and his liver was angry, (15) because his man had
corrupted his purity. (16) He like me, also Hea, may he punish
him, (17) the course of my (his?) issue all of them may he remove,
and (18) all my (his?) seed may he destroy. (19) In the language
of the fifty great gods, (20) by his fifty names he called, and
turned away in anger from him. (21) May he be conquered and at
once cut off. (22) Wisdom and knowledge hostilely may they injure
him. (23) May they put at enmity also father and son and may
they plunder. (24) To king, ruler, and governor, may they bend
the ear. (25) May they cause anger also to the lord of the gods,
Merodach. (26) His land may it bring forth, but he not touch it ;
(27) his desire shall be cut off, and his will be unanswered ; (28)
the opening of his mouth no god shall take notice of ; (29) his back
shall be broken and not healed; (30) at his urgent trouble no
god shall receive him ; (31) his heart shall be poured out ; and
his mind shall be troubled ; (32) to sin and wrong his face shall
come. '^ . . .
Sec. 47. The primeval chaos of the Babylonian cosmogony, as
1 Chald. Acct. of Genesis, pp. 82, 83. ^ jbij.^ pp. 73, 79. « Ibid., pp. 84, 85.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 119
portrayed to us in the " Fragments of Berosus," was inhabited by
various species of monstrous composition, of which it is necessary to
give here, if possible, some rational explanation, (a) " There ap
peared men, some of whom were furnished with two wings, others
with four, and with two faces. They had one body, but two heads ;
the one that of a man, the other of a woman." It is perfectly easy
to recognize here the representations of the original androgynous
divinity, symbolizing the " twofold principle" from which everything
proceeds ; and which so often appear upon the art monuments.
Anu and Anatu were conceived as such androgynous principle ; and
were assimilated respectively to heaven and earth, the upper and
lower hemispheres. Alluding to Anu, Mr. Smith remarks : " He
represents the universe as the upper and lower regions, and when
these were divided, the upper region or heaven was called Anu,
while the lower region or earth was called Anatu ; Anatu being
the female principle or the wife of Anu." " When Anu repre
sents height and heaven, Anatu represents death and earth ; she is
also lady of darkness, the mother of the god Hea, the mother pro
ducing heaven and earth." ^ The same notion was expressed by
the two halves of the sphere. When Anu represented the superior
heaven, Anatu was put for the inferior hemisphere, (b) " Other
human figures were to be seen with the legs and horns of a goat."
The god Pan, and the satyrs generally, were usually figured in this
form upon the monuments. Pan was put often for the cosmos, or
world-all, and his flute is supposed by some to refer to the harmony
of the spheres, (e) " Some had horses' feet, while others united the
hind quarters of a horse with the body of a man, resembling in
shape the hippocentaurs." The celestial horses, as found upon our
modern sphere, answer precisely to this description, (c?) " Bulls
likewise were bred there with the heads of men." The human-
headed bulls of Assyria are well known. These were the Lamassu
of the inscriptions. Two classes were recognized ; the Lamassu of
heaven and the Lamassu of earth. Those of heaven could be no
other than the celestial Taurus. (e) " And dogs with fourfold
bodies terminated in their extremities with the tails of fishes." On
the ancient spheres, two dogs were represented as guardians of the
limits of the sun's northern and southern course ; and it is probable
there is a reference to them in this passage. They were conceived
1 Ibid., pp. 54, 55.

120 HAR-MOAD.
always as having a monstrous form. (/) " Horses also with the heads
of dogs." Such figures may have existed upon the ancient sphere,
and upon some art monuments, but I am not able to recall any such
representations, (g') " Men, too, and other animals, with the heads
and bodies of horses, and the tails of fishes." We naturally call to
mind here the centaurs and the constellation Capricorn ; both apper
taining to the sphere, and similar to this description, (h) " In addi
tion to these, fishes, reptiles, serpents, with other monstrous animals."
The constellations offer exact correspondences to all these forms.
In the majority of instances, then, it would be easy to identify
these monstrous animals with those figured even upon the modern
sphere, and it is probable the ancient sphere contained many more
of them.
" A woman ruleth them all, by name Omarka, which is in Chal
dee Thalatth, and in Greek Thalassa, or 'the sea. ' " Sir H. Raw
linson and M. F. Lenormant agree in identifying the name Omarka
with the Um-Uruk of the inscriptions, signifying "mother of
Erech." As for the other name, Thalatth, Sir H. Rawlinson holds
the following : " Now the goddess thus indicated is well known to
the Assyrian student under the name of Te-li-ta. . . . She is the
goddess of the Bar (Bara), which is the first element in the name
of Bar-zip (Bara-zif) or Borsippa." ^ Sir Henry's authority for
asisimilating Te-li-ta to the goddess Bara appears to be the cunei
form phrase which reads thus : an nin bara = te-li-ta, " the divine
mistress Bara is Te-li-ta." ^ It is evident, then, that the Thalatth
of Berosus, identified by Mr. Smith with the Tiamat, or Ti-sal-mat,
of the " Creation Tablets," may be considered one with the " mis
tress Bara " of the cuneiform text just cited.
The Accadian Bara signifies " altar, glory ; to perfume, perfume "
(Rep. 318) ; and it has a variant often confounded with it, with
the values Sara, "to commence, commencement" (Rep. 319). As
the term Bara is composite, it may be resolved into its two ele
ments, the first of which is Ba, " to tear, to cut, to fabricate, to
labor " (Rep. 108) ; and the second Ra, " inundation, deluge," etc.
(Rep. 303). The waters of the deluge were assimilated frequently
to those of the primal chaos ; and the god Hea, who appears so
prominently in the "Deluge Tablets," is represented also as im-
1 Vid. Rawl. Herod., i. p. 602, and note 3,
8 Vid. Rawl. PI. 59, Revs. 1. 16.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 121
pregnating the water of chaos.^ The two elements, therefore, Ba,
" to cut, to divide," and Ra, " watery chaos," constituting the name
of the goddess Bara, assimilated to Thalatth or Tiamat, involve
the double conception of the division of chaos, the separation of the
primordial sea, out of the two portions of which heaven and earth
were formed. But more than this, the variant of Bara is Sara,
having the sense of " commencement," or of " a beginning." We
might almost say that the expression Sara-\- Bara involved the ex
press notions, " In the beginning the waters of chaos were divided."
The Babylonian zodiac was employed for marking the divisions
of three distinct periods of time : 1st. The twelve hours of the day,
called har-bu, or " double hours ; " 2d. The twelve months of the
year ;^ and 3d. The twelve divisions of the great cosmical year,
which opened at the very dawn of creation.^ Each of these periods
commenced with the sign Aries, or the Ram, if we admit that the
hours of the day were reckoned from evening, as in the first chapter
of Genesis : " And the evening and the morning were the first
day," etc. Hence, the zodiacal sign Aries marked the three com
mencements, — the beginning of the day, the beginning of the
year, and the beginning of the cosmical year, of time itself, marked
by the first creative act. What we have to say now is that the
cuneiform character Bara, having its variant of Sara, constitutes
the monogram for the first month of the Babylonian year, answer
ing to this identical sign Aries, or the Ram. In other words, this
character Bara, thus employed, marked the beginning of the day,
of the year, and of the world.
Sec. 48. It results, from the data presented in the last section,
1st. That Anu and Anatu, as the original androgynous principle,
were assimilated to the two halves of the Babylonian sphere, the
upper and lower hemisphere, or the superior and inferior heavens ;
and that these were put respectively for the two chief divisions
of the cosmos, or heaven and earth. Ample proof of these state
ments will appear in future chapters. 2d. That the majority of
monstrous forms inhabiting the primal chaos, as described by Bero
sus, may be recognized even upon the modern sphere, leading to
the inference that originally all of them were to be found figured
there. 3d. That the goddess Thalatth, Te-li-ta, or Ti-sal-mat, who
1 Vid. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 68.
2 Ibid., pp. 188-191, and 234-236 ; where the existence of these three time
periods is fully shown.

122 HAR-MOAD.
represents the chaos in the Babylonian system, is definitely assimi
lated to the zodiacal sign Aries, under the name Bara, or the
" mistress Bara ; " that very sign which marks the primary division
of the sphere from west to east into the upper and lower hemi
spheres, otherwise put for heaven and earth, the chief divisions of
the cosmos. 4th. The name Bara, and its variant Sara, in their
combined import, distinctly involve the notions : {a) of a watery
chaos; (b) of its being cut asunder; (c) at the beginning of all
things ; (d) as the first act in fabricating the world. In view of
these facts I think that it may be considered as established that the
Babylonian sphere was taken as a symbol of the cosmos ; and that its
primary divisions and orderly arrangement for the purposes of a
calendar and other practical uses were held to represent the process
of creation and the development of order out of the original chaos.
This primal chaos was represented by the sphere in its unformed,
confused state, prior to its systematic division and arrangement ; and
the constellation Aries, where all the periods commenced, marked
the beginning of all things, as well as the primary division of the
cosmos symbolized by the two hemispheres.
I have not space in the present chapter to offer further proofs of
the important hypothesis just stated ; but the course of our investi
gations in the chapters following will lead naturally to other facts,
fully demonstrating the correctness of the position here assumed.
My aim here has been to arrive, by a process as direct as possible,
to the proper standpoint from which to study the Babylonian cos
mogony and its relations to that of the Mosaic record. We return
now to a comparison of the Hebrew and Babylonian representa
tions of the primitive chaos, a point upon which the subjoined
remarks of Mr. Smith have a direct bearing : —
" It is evident that, according to the notion of the Babylonians,
the sea was the origin of all things, and this also agrees with the
statement of Genesis i. 2, where the chaotic waters are called mnn,
' the deep,' the same word as the Tiamat of the Creation text and
the Tauthe of Damascius." " Beside the name of the chaotic deep
called mnn in Genesis, which is, as I have said, evidently the Tia
mat of the Creation text, we have in Genesis the word inn waste,
desolate, or formless, applied to this waste. This appears to be the
tehuta of the Assyrians — a name of the sea-water (Hist, of Assurb.
p. 69) ; this word is closely connected with the word tiamat or
tamtu, the sea. The correspondence between the inscription and

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 123
Genesis is here complete, both stating that a watery chaos preceded
the creation, and formed, in fact, the origin and groundwork of the
universe. We have here not only an agreement in sense, but, what
is rarer, the same word used in both narratives as the name of this
chaos, and given also in the account of Damascius." ^
The author goes on to identify the word Tiamat with Thalatth,
also, as it occurs in Berosus' account. The important facts above
stated, in relation to which no doubt seems to exist, have a bearing
equally important, and deserve a careful study. The same term
employed in Gen. i. 2, to designate the primal chaos, this being the
Hebrew Tehom, " the deep," occurs in the Babylonian account as
personal name of the goddess Tiamat, or Thalatth, representing
this chaos. Did the redacteur of Genesis borrow this expression
from the Babylonians, rejecting its mythological sense, converting
a personal name into an ordinary word ? Or, did the Babylonian
account borrow from that of the Hebrews, adding to an ordinary
designation of " the deep " a strictly pei'sonal and mythological con
ception ? Or, again, did both systems derive this word from an
account still more original, each giving to it its own local interpre
tation, in accordance with the spirit of the two peoples and their
respective religions ? These are difficult questions to answer satis
factorily, and it is probable that different views will prevail in rela
tion to the subject. But one fact favors strongly the opinion of the
priority, and even originality, of the Babylonian conception. It is,
that even the Mosaic account conceives creation as in some sense
a generative process ; and this notion is not only fundamental in the
Babylonian cosmogony, but it accords perfectly with the prevailing
ideas and habits of thought in antiquity. In such case, then, the
idea of a passive, a female principle, associated with the primal
chaos, is quite natural, and almost necessary. Nevertheless, the
Hebrew verb Rd-khaph (nnn), in the expression, "And the Spirit
of God moved upon the face of the waters," answers better to the
ancient doctrine of " the mundane egg " than to that of a goddess.
Whatever view is adopted, we have to admit that the Babylonian
mode of conception is not without justification, even as compared
with Genesis.
Sec. 49. We come again to the question as to what constitutes
the " beginning " in these two cosmogonies. At first view there
1 Chaldcean Account of Genesis, pp. 64, 65.

124 HAR-MOAD.
appears here a difference in the mode of expression, if not in funda
mental idea. The Babylonian system assumes the chaos as the
" beginning," while the Mosaic account represents the act, implied
in the term Bara, as the " beginning." But we have seen that the
woman, personifying the chaos, is considered in the inscriptions
as the goddess Bara. What are the evidences that the Hebrew
and Accadian Bara were originally one and the same word ? 1st.
Their exact phonetical equivalence. 2d. They both involve the
notion of "cutting, carving, dividing," and thence that of "fabri
cating, creating," by means of cutting and dividing. 3d. Both
appear to have had reference primarily to the customs of the altar,
especially the cutting up of the victims destined for the sacrifices.
The Accadian word signifies " an altar," while the Hebrew Bara is
strictly cognate with Bd-rdh (m3), "to cut, to cut asunder," from
which comes Be-reeth (n'*~i3), " covenant," from the idea of cutting
up the victims offered in ratification of the covenant. 4th. The
Accadian Ba-ra involves the notion of " division of the waters,"
referring to the waters of the deluge assimilated to those of chaos;
while the Hebrew term signifying also " to cut, to divide," is put
in direct connection with the watery chaos. 5th. The Accadian
character constitutes the monogram for the first month of the year,
answering to the zodiacal Aries, and marks thus the " beginning "
of the day, of the year, and finally of the cosmical period, which
opened at the instant of the Mosaic " beginning," denoted by the
Hebrew Bara. 6th. The Accadian monogram marks also the pri
mary division of the sphere into two equal portions, these being
assimilated to the two chief divisions of the cosmos, or heaven and
earth. If we adhere to the primary sense of the Hebrew Bara, it
denoted the primary division of chaos into two portions, heaven
being constituted of one, and the earth of the other. Admit, as we
do, the sense of " created " for the Hebrew term ; yet the creation
involved necessarily a process, and this process was one of " cut
ting," of " division." ^
1 The manuscript of the present work had been completed, so far as con
cerns the text, when the Bibliotheca Sacra (Andover, Mass.) for July, 1876,
came to hand. In the article entitled, " An E.xposition of the Original Text of
Genesis I. and II.," by Rev. Samuel Hopkins, the author repudiates the notion
of "creation ex nihilo," as implied in the Hebrew Bara (pp. 512-615). In fact,
this writer's exegesis of Gen. i. 1,2, agrees very nearly with what we have

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 125
Such remarkable coincidences, and so many of them, must be
considered as demonstrative ; the two words were originally one ;
and this had a technical usage in both systems, as implying the fun
damental notions of creation and the creative process. It results
also from these data that the idea of a creation from nonentity, or
ex nihilo, attached to the Hebrew Bara, as advocated by M. Lenor
mant and the Abb6 Le Hir, as well as by most exegetes, is perfectly
foreign to the doctrine as well of the Mosaic as of the Babylonian
cosmogony. The dogma of a purely Spiritual Existence separate
from and prior to all material existence cannot be deduced from
either system, and it was probably unknown to the world at the
period when these cosmogonies were originated. Mr. Smith has
stated the simple truth on this point in this passage already quoted :
" The correspondence between the inscription and Genesis is here
complete, both stating that a watery chaos preceded the creation, and
formed, in fact, the origin and groundwork of the universe." As to
what constitutes the " beginning " in the two cosmogonies, if we
admit a common origin of the Hebrew and Accadian Bara, the
difference resolves itself into that between the two usages of the
same word ; one as a substantive, being only another name for the
chaos, yet involving the ideas of division and fabrication ; the other
in a verbal sense denoting division and creation, with special refer
ence to chaos, and the universe formed from it.
The next point of comparison between the two cosmogonies, for
which the Babylonian documents afford a sufficient basis, is that
which relates to the heavenly bodies. The cuneiform text apper
taining to this subject, as rendered by Mr. Smith, is that which we
have marked C. We have here about thirty lines, instead of the
brief summary of Berosus, and the five or six verses of Genesis.
The importance attached to this portion of the labor of creation,
even in the Hebrew system, is seen in the fact that an entire day is
devoted to it. The resemblances between the two documents in
certain parts are very striking ; but the cuneiform text includes
much in relation to which the Mosaic account is entirely silent.
explained as " the beginning," according to the Babylonian cosmogony, although
he evidently conceives an abstract Spiritual Existence prior to all matter. It is
obvious, I think, that the Mosaic doctrine implied a division of a previously exist-
ino- chaos as the first act of creation ; and such seems to have been the universal
traditionary idea.

126 HAR-MOAD.
This extra matter has obvious reference to the first risings of the
sun, moon, and planets, fixing their orbits and the like. In some of
the ancient mythologies, there were reckoned three distinct phases
of the sun's course ; there was the nocturnal sun, the winter's sun,
and the sun of the primordial night of chaos ; and to each of these
was attached its appropriate rising. Ideas of this nature were asso
ciated with Osiris among the Egyptians. Something similar was
held also with respect to the moon. The moon was thought by the
Egyptians to have made its first rising at Hermopolis, and the sun
at Heracleopolis.^ These notions appear to have been quite ancient
among the Hamites of Egypt, and were probably such with the
Babylonians. It is by no means certain, therefore, as one might at
first conclude, that they were interpolated into the Babylonian cos
mical system at some late epoch. " The great gates in the darkness
shrouded," mentioned in the ninth line of the text, appear to be the
gates of the sun. According to classic authors, recently confirmed
by the investigations of Professor Romieu, the Egyptians located
the solar gates, called " Keiits,'' at the points where the sun attained
the summer and winter solstices, or in the signs Cancer and Capri
corn. We shall cite Professor Romieu on this matter in a future
chapter. The tenth line of the text has the words : " The fasten
ings were strong on the left and right." This must refer to the
north and south poles; for Su-me-la, or Su-mi-lu, which in the ori
ginal is put here for the " left," is a term usually designating the
north, or north pole, in the inscriptions. Mr. Smith's interpretation
of these two lines appears to be somewhat different, but my view
conforms more, I think, to prevailing ideas. " In its mass (in the
lower hemisphere) he made a boiling ; the god Uru (the moon) he
caused to rise out" (11. 11, 12). This is evidently the moon's pri
mordial rising at the beginning of time ; at the commencement of
the first month and the first year of the world. The notion of " a
boiling " is not peculiar to the Babylonian text ; it is plainly implied
in the Hebrew term Tehom, designating the chaos.
Sec. 60. But that portion of this text which most resembles
the Mosaic account of the fourth day's labor is the following :
" Stars, their appearance (in figures) of animals he arranged. To
fix the year through the observation of their constellations, twelve
months (or signs) of stars in three rows he arranged, from the day
1 Vid. De Roug^, Nomes de I'Egypte, p. 25.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 127
when the year commences unto the close. He marked the positions
of the wandering stars (planets) to shine in their courses, that they
may not do injury, and may not trouble any one " (11. 2-7). This
language certainly presupposes the existence of the sphere and of
the constellations ; and the labor here consists simply in arranging
and methodizing them for the purposes of a calendar. The ruling
expression is, "he arranged," not, as in Genesis, "God made," or
" let there be." One naturally conceives here the Babylonian
sphere in its primitive, confused, chaotic state. A multitude of
constellations, or figures of animals having a monstrous form, had
been marked out in the heavens according to fancy or some precon
ceived notion, and these had served the crude purpose of marking
the seasons, and had been handed down from father to son. But
there existed no order here, no fixed and scientific arrangement.
The goddess Tiamat, or Thalatth, ruled over this incongruous mass,
and thus she was the producing mother of all. There came a time
when order was introduced into this chaos. The primary divisions
of the sphere were definitely located, the zodiacal constellations
were arranged to correspond with the months, the calendar was
fixed. A consummate wisdom and an exalted symbolism presided
over this work ; for there was embodied here the cosmogony, the
historical tradition, the religious system, and almost the entire
sacred science of Babylon. We have not space in the present con
nection to detail the evidences in support of this last statement;
but they will be constantly multiplying upon our hands throughout
the present work. Suffice it to say, that the primary division of
the sphere into two equal portions from east to west, marked by
the month Bara and the sign Aries, represented the first act of
creation, the division of chaos; and the two halves of the sphere
thus divided were assimilated, the one to heaven ruled by Anu, the
other to the earth ruled by Hea. The earth was then the abyss,
corresponding to the watery signs of the zodiac. It was this region,
with the exception of the labors of the fourth day, to which all the
subsequent acts of creation appertained. We shall see in a future
chapter that even the terrestrial paradise was mystically located in
the inferior hemisphere.
As before remarked, the two accounts, in the portions referred to,
are very similar; particularly as regards the fourteenth verse in the
Mosaic text : " And God said. Let there be lights in the firmament

128 HAR-MOAD.
of heaven to divide the day from the night ; and let them be for
signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years." The definite allu
sion to the "signs" and to " years," relating thus to the calendar,
can hardly be distinguished in idea from the Babylonian text,
though the language is not the same. We have seen that the ac
count furnished by the tablets presupposes the existence of the
heavenly bodies, of the constellations, of the sphere, in fact, and
that the labor bestowed is merely in arranging them, in reducing
them to order. Does the Mosaic text imply all this ? The refer
ence to the "signs" is certainly very significant. We know now,
from the tablets, that the zodiacal signs were originally intended.
Nor do the expressions " let there be " and " God made," as usually
interpreted, differ materially in sense from the phrase " he ar
ranged," in the Babylonian account. Professor Bush remarks:
"The original word for 'made,' is not the same as that which is
rendered ' create.' It is a term frequently employed to signify
constituted, appointed, set for a particular purpose or use " (notes
in loc). The idea, then, is almost identical with that expressed by
the terms " he arranged." This is not in either account a creation
de novo ; and the reference to the " signs," understood in our pres
ent light derived from the tablets, presupposes the existence of the
constellations, if not of the zodiac itself ; and the work of arrang
ing, appointing, with a view to a calendar, seems to be implied
equally in both texts.
Briefly now, upon the disproportion of matter included at this
point of the two narratives. The question occurs here again :
which account has been derived from the other? Or have both
drawn from a common text earlier than either? It would be easy
to say that the Mosaic text has been abridged from the Babylonian ;
but it would be very difficult to prove it. There are some things
extremely puerile, savoring of gross ignorance and superstition, in
the Babylonian text, suggesting the idea of later additions, as this
relating to the planets: "That they may not do injury, and may
not trouble any one " (1. 7). They were " wandering stars," and
the intention appears to be to allay any fears of collisions and
catastrophes. But, on the other hand, the reference to the first
risings, and opening of the first month, points to notions really
ancient, and strictly appertaining to the cosmical systems of anti
quity. There does not exist in this any evidence of later additions.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 129
On what theory, then, shall we account for the disproportion of
matter in the two texts which in other respects exhibit such an
exact correspondence ? I think the difference which is here so
apparent is mostly due to the fact that the Cushites of Babylon,
like the Hamites of Egypt, had taken the sphere as the symbol of
the cosmos, and as the embodiment of their cosmical doctrines. It
is on this ground that it is possible to explain the long description
of the preexisting chaos in the account of Berosus, and which is
almost wholly absent from the Mosaic text. The notions of the
first risings, also, connected with those of a primordial sun and
moon, located in the lower hemisphere, seem to belong to the same
symbolic mode of representing the cosmos. The celestial gates, and
fastenings of the left and right, belong to the same category of
ideas. But in addition to all this, we must take into consideration
the polytheistic conceptions involved in the Babylonian text, which
hardly appertained to the primitive period. For the most part,
everything relating to these habits of thought has been excluded
from the Mosaic text ; and for this reason it is far more brief upon
nearly all the points treated. There are certain portions of the
Creation Tablets in which it is easy to detect expressions of a late
origin compared with the main course of the narrative. In the
address to the newly created human pair, which we have marked
E, we have allusion to " instruments," to written " tablets," to
"tribute," the "bowing of the face," etc., demonstrating that the
document in its present form is not primitive.
Sec. 51. In the text marked I), the eighteenth, line, occurs the
phrase, " In the mouth of the dark races which his hand has made."
The original for "dark races" is zalmat-gaqadi,. as read by Mr.
Smith ; and the translator has the following important statement in
connection with this subject : —
" It appears from line 18 that the race of human beings spoken
of is the zalmat-qaqadi, or dark race, and in various other fragments
of these legends they are called Admi or Adami, which is exactly
the name given to the first man in Genesis. The word Adam used
in these legends for the first human being is evidently not a proper
name, but is only used as a term for mankind. Adam appears as
a proper name in Genesis, but certainly in some passages is only
used in the same sense as the Assyrian word, and we are told on
the creation of human beings (Gen. v. 1) : ' In the day that God
created man, in the likeness of God made he him ; male and female

130 HAR-MOAD.
created he them ; and blessed them, and called their name Adam,
in the day when they were created.' It has already been pointed
out by Sir Henry Rawlinson that the Babylonians recognized two
principal races : the Adamu, or dark race, and the Sarku, or light
race ; probably in the same manner that two races are mentioned in
Genesis, the sons of Adam, and the sons of God. It appears inci
dentally from the fragments of inscriptions that it was the race of
Adam, or the dark race, which was believed to have fallen, but
there is at present no clue to the position of the other race in their
system." ^
Upon the term Adam (nis). Dr. Gesenius has the following:
(1) " A man, a human being, male or female, properly our red,
ruddy (from c-ih ' to be red '), as it would seem." (2) " A man,
not a woman." (3) " Any man, any one." (4) " Adam, proper
name of the first man. Gen. ii. 7, sq. At least in these passages
?IS assumes the nature of a proper name in a certain degree "
(sub voc). Dr. Ernest Muir considers the collective sense, desig
nating humanity in general, as fundamental in the word Adam,
and upon this ground accounts for the fact that it takes no plural
form.2 The name of the second son of Adam, or Abel, is also ha
bitually employed in the cuneiform text in a generic sense, as desig
nating a son in general, instead of as a personal name ; thus Ab-lu,
"a son" in the Assyrian, is the exact equivalent of the Accadian
Tur-us, " male child, or son." ^ It is probable that the name of
Cain had a like generic meaning, i. e. " offspring," considered as a
"possession." It is found under the substantive form in the Him
yaric inscriptions, denoting " a possession " in general.* All the
facts, then, tend strongly to support the Babylonian view of the
two races, and of the generic sense of these names. The Mosaic
text cannot be said positively to contradict this theory, but on the
contrary it lends more or less direct support to it. Who were these
sons of Elohim said to have intermarried with the daughters of
Adam ? (Gen. vi. 1, 2). The opinion heretofore held by exegetes,
that these " sons " were descendants in the line of Seth, and these
" daughters " the posterity of Cain, although attended with difficul
ties, has seemed to be the most reasonable. But in the light of the
" Creation Tablets " and of the facts developed by Sir H. Rawlin-
1 Chald. Acct. Genesis, pp. 85, 86. ^ ^gj. Wurzehcorterb., p. 359.
* Vid. Norris, Assyr. Die, i. p. 9. Cf. Schrader, Keilinschriften, etc., p. 106.
* Vid. Lenormant, Doc. Math., notes, pp. 129, 180.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 131
son the problem assumes quite a different aspect. It looks as
though Adam and Eve ought to be interpreted as the Primitive
Church, instead of as the First Human Pair ; and numerous pas
sages might be cited from the New Testament to confirm this
theory. Paul to the Ephesians says (v. 31, 32) ; " For this cause
shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall be joined unto
his wife, and they two shall be one flesh. This is a great mystery :
but I speak concerning Christ and the church." Here the identi
cal language addressed by Adam to Eve (Gen. ii. 24) is inter
preted with reference to Christ and the church. We shall return
to these questions in the sequel of the present work.
The actual occurrence of the name Adami or Adam, in these
new documents translated by Mr. Smith, in connection with the
facts before developed, seems to exclude all doubt as to the primi
tive and direct relationship existing between the two narratives.
Only two suppositions are admissible hereafter: one account has
been derived from the other, or both have been drawn from the
same original, more primitive than either. Nor was the original,
from which these two cosmogonies proceeded, a simple oral tradi
tion, but rather a written document. The identity of terms, the
similarity of expression, which appears here would not be found in
two separate oral traditions, even if they did proceed from the same
source. It is a question of some importance here : whether this
original document was written in the cuneiform character, or in
some other ? It would be difficult to prove the existence of the
Hebrew or Phoenician character at Babylon as early as the time
of Abraham ; or of any other system except the cuneiform. It
is probable, then, that the document here assumed as primitive
was written in the character last designated. The original of
both these narratives of creation was thus a cuneiform text. It
must have been preserved in the sanctuaries of the valley of the
Euphrates, and under the supervision of the priests or priest-kings
appertaining to them. Nevertheless, I do not believe that the
" Creation Tablets " truly represent the documents assumed here as
primitive. They are a later, more popular, and in some respects a
corrupt version of the original cosmical narrative. The allusions to
" instruments " in worship, to " bowing of the face," to the " tab
lets," in the address to the newly created human pair, as already
suggested, are expressions inconsistent with a truly archaic and

132 HAR-MOAD.
primitive account of the creation. There was a more ancient, more
pure, and less extended account ; one more ancient than the Assyr
ian copies, or the Accadian texts from which the copies were made.
Whether this really primitive text will ever be discovered or not is
of course very doubtful ; but if it exists to-day it is not in the ruins
of Nineveh ; it must be sought, if anywhere, among the ruins of
those cities nearer the mouth of the Euphrates ; in Babylonia, or
even in lower Chaldsea.
But the tradition of the creation did not first take its rise in the
valley of the Euphrates, nor yet in the " highlands of Elam," where
some Assyriologues would locate the Karsak Kurra of the inscrip
tions, or the " mountain of the world." The great Olympus of all
Asia was situated far to the north and east, in relation to Baby
lon ; and it was from thence that this tradition was derived. But
of this hereafter. I am not able to prove that the temple-craft,
whose history was attempted to be traced in the last chapter, were
actually those through whom the sacred writings pertaining to cre
ation, the deluge, etc., had been transmitted to historical times ;
yet I am unable to resist the conviction that such was the fact. It
is possible that the future may confirm this hypothesis, or, perhaps,
demonstrate that it has nothing to support it. Certainly, the exist
ence of sacred writings at a period immensely remote, if not even
before the deluge, was sufficiently indicated by the data presented
at the opening of the present chapter. It was shown, also, that
these writings were supposed to have been deposited under the
corner-stones of temples. All this favors the supposition that the
temple-craft had some active connection with such documents and
their transmission to the historical period. The further progress of
our investigations will develop facts showing that this conjecture is
at least a consistent one.

CHAPTER V.
CREATION CONCEIVED AS A TEMPLE, AND THE TEMPLE AS AN
IMAGE OF CREATION.
Sec. 52. In the religious and philosophical conceptions of high
antiquity, the process of creating the world and the method of con
structing the temple were regarded as fundamentally the same,
namely, that of DIVISION. It was for this reason that the notions
of the cosmos and of the temple were usually assimilated to each
other. Not only was the ground conception of this process one of
division, but it was derived originally from the customs of the altar,
the practice of dividing, of cutting up, the victims destined for the
sacrifices. In the ratification of covenants the victim offered was
divided into two portions placed side by side, or in case of its being
cut into several pieces these were arranged in two rows, between
which the contracting parties passed, both being sprinkled with the
blood of the victim by a third person styled the mediator. There
are three words belonging to as many different languages, and even
families of languages, which are more or less directly connected
with this subject, and it will facilitate these investigations to
devote a special consideration to them, together with some of their
cognate expressions.
1st. The Hebrew Bara (s~i3), upon which we have already
made some comments. It will save frequent citations to state
here once for all that my usual authorities in Hebrew lexicography
have been, and will continue to be, Drs. Gesenius and Fiirst, to
gether witii Dr. Bresslau, who chiefly follows Fiirst.^ The term
Bara is thus defined : (1) " To cut, to cut out, to carve, to form by
cutting or carving." (2) " To form, to create, to produce." (3) " To
beget, to bring forth." (4) " To feed, to eat, to grow fat, from the
^ Vid. Robinson's Gesenius' Heb. Lex. ; Fiirst, Heh. u. Chald. Schulwoerterb. ;
Bresslau, Heb. and Eng. Die. The full titles are given in the list of authorities.

134 HAR-MOAD.
idea of cutting up food." The word is equivalent to Barah (nna),
which signifies : (1) " To cut, to cut asunder." (2) " To eat," like
Bara No. 4. From this last comes Bereeth (n"*"!?) : " Originally,
the cutting of animals of sacrifices ; transferred to covenant, treaty,
on account of the custom to pass between two rows of animals cut
for sacrifices." It will be seen at a glance that the fundamental
conception of each of these terms corresponds exactly to the first act
of creation as described in the " Fragments of Berosus " previously
cited : " All things being in this situation, Belus came and cut the
woman (personifying chaos) asunder, and of one half of her he
formed the earth, and of the other half the heavens." In this case
the two portions of the victim slain corresponded to the two chief
divisions of the cosmos, or to heaven and earth. The notion
obtained very anciently that creation was in some sense a sacrifice,
and we see here how closely related were the two ideas as shown in
the etymological relation of Bara, " to create," to Bereeth, " cove
nant," ratified by sacrifices. It was in strict accordance with con
ceptions of this kind that a new covenant or dispensation estab
lished between God and man, which was sealed by a sacrifice, was
often conceived as a new creation, or a new heaven and earth.
2d. The Accadian Bara has been already partially explained,
but it is necessary to add here a few remarks. The signification
of "cutting," and thence of "fabricating," has been shown to be
inherent in the first element Ba, and the signification of " altar "
attached to the term sufficiently indicates a primary reference to
the practice of cutting up the victims. We have seen that Bara
was connected with the zodiacal sign Aries, or the Ram, as mono
gram for the first month of the Babylonian year. The entire Ac
cadian name of this month was Bara-saggar, " the altar of recti
tude," literally, " the altar that makes right." Aries marked the
commencement of three distinct periods of time, that of the day,
the year, and of the great cosmical year, which was supposed to
begin with the very dawn, the first act of creation, this act being
one of division, of cutting, correspondent to the customs of the
altar. It was doubtless the practice at Babylon to sacrifice a ram
at the beginning of each day, and also at the commencement of
each year ; for this reason a ram might be conceived to have been
offered at the opening of the great cosmical year, which would give
rise naturally to the notion expressed by the Revelator, of the

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 135
"Lamb slain from the foundation of the world" (Rev. xiii. 8).
The reference of this word to the goddess Bara, representing the
primal chaos, has been shown, and also the fact that it marks the
primary division of the sphere through the sign Aries, whose two
halves symbolized, as will be shown, the two chief divisions of the
cosmos. We shall see hereafter that the sphere was conceived as a
zodiacal temple, whose chief departments corresponded to the two
hemispheres. The analogy, therefore, between the temple and the
cosmos, on one hand, and between the first act of creation and the
practice of dividing the victim, on the other, reappears here very
clearly. 3d. We come now to the Greek Temenos, the Latin Templum,
" a temple." The Greek verb Temno, from which Temenos is de
rived, has the primary sense of "to cut, hew, cut to pieces;" (1)
of men, " to cut, wound, maim ; " (2) of animals, " to cut up, cut
to pieces, to slaughter, to sacrifice ; " hence, " a covenant, truce,
made with sacrifices." The substantive Temenos denotes " a piece
of land cut or marked off, assigned as a private possession ; " "a
piece of land marked off from common use and dedicated to a divin
ity " (Liddell and Scott, Gr. Lex. sub voc.). The Latin Templum
has about the same sense and etymology ; thus, " a space marked
off," particularly, in the language of augury, " an open place for
observation," " the extent or circuit of the world," " a consecrated
or sacred place, a sanctuary." The Latin Tempus, " time," is de
rived from the same theme ; thus, " the root Tern, from which the
Greek Temno, properly denotes a section, portion, division ; in par
ticular of time, a period of time, daytime, and time in general"
(Andrews' Lat. Die. sub voc). At the base of all these forms is
the Aryan radical Tem or Tam, " to cut, to divide." There seems
to be some difference of opinion, however, as to the corresponding
forms of this root in the older branches of the Aryan family. The
" St. Petersburg Dictionary," as stated by Professor Curtius, classes
it with the Sanskrit Tamdlas, " sword," and Tamas, " darkness,"
the ground signification being that of " darkness " (Grundziig, p.
221). But its original sense of " to cut, to divide," its reference to
the customs of the altar, and finally its application to a cut off sec
tion of space, considered as a temple and a divided portion of dura
tion, giving rise to the notion of time, are points upon which no
doubts can be entertained. That the forms Temenos and Templum

136 HAR-MOAD.
were put for the entire circuit of the world, for the cosmos itself,
is also well known.
Let us see now what notions are common to these terms just
noticed, either as etymologically involved in their signification, or
as closely related to them by association of ideas. 1st. We have
the sense of " cutting, division, separation." 2d. A reference to
the customs of the altar, the practice of cutting up the victims to be
offered. The Greek Temenos and the Accadian Bara directly imply
this, and the Hebrew Bara is nearly allied to Bereeth, having the
same reference. 3d. The idea of a temple. The sacrifices were
naturally associated with the temple. The Greek Temenos, Latin
Templum, are ordinary words designating such structures. The
Accadian Bara marked the primary division of the zodiacal temple.
A like reference of the Hebrew Bara can be traced only indirectly.
4th. The notion of time. We have the Latin Tempus, "time."
The Accadian Bara marked the commencement of three distinct
time periods, one of which was the great cosmical year. The He
brew -Sara is directly associated with the "beginning" of time
itself, corresponding to that of the cosmical period. 5th. The cos
mos. The two Aryan terms, Temenos and Templum, were often
applied to the cosmos, conceived as a temple, and the Accadian and
Hebrew words were directly associated with the process of creation.
If we institute a comparative analysis, then, of the conceptions
attached to these three words, the resultant principle as underlying
all seems to be quite apparent, namely, that the fundamental doc
trine of creation and of the temple was the same, being that of divi
sion, and that this was derived primarily from the customs of the
altar, the practice of dividing the victims destined for the sacri
fices. Sec. 53. We proceed to offer some definite proofs relative to cer
tain statements heretofore made, which were only partially substan
tiated at the time, or left entirely without support. First, then,
as regards the zodiacal temple, in the syllabaries the Accadian Ki,
signifying " place, ground, earth," is equated to the Assyrian As-ru
(Syl. No. 181), which has consequently the same meaning. Now
As-ru, like the Assyrian Asar, was put for the inferior hemisphere
of heaven, as in the phrase pal-asar, " son of the lower hemi
sphere," and it designated also a certain class of temples conceived
as images of the inferior heaven. Referring to the two orders of

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 137
temples representing the two halves of the sphere, M. F. Lenormant
remarks : —
" They are designated, in effect, the first by the signs Bit-khi-ra,
the second by the signs Bit-mat ; that is to say, by the same ideo
graphic notation as the two halves of the celestial sphere ; the
As-ru and the Laq-qadu or Bit-Sadu, the inferior and superior hea
ven, the nadir and the zenith. These are, then, two temples
united, yet placed in opposition, as image of the two hemispheres
of the universe, the inferior and superior, the infernal and celes
tial." 1
It is beyond question, therefore, that the Babylonians regarded
their sphere in the fight of a temple, or as two temples placed in
opposition, yet united in the same manner as the two hemispheres.
We shall see hereafter that this mode of conception was by no
means peculiar to the Babylonians, but was common to many
nations surrounding them. In fact, the idea of the " celestial
gates " so prevalent in antiquity only lends support to the statement
here made, since the celestial gates presuppose a celestial temple.
It was stated in the last chapter, and it has been repeated in this,
that the two halves of the Babylonian sphere were put for the two
chief cosmical divisions, or heaven and earth. Mr. George Smith
has been already cited to the effect that Anu "represented the
universe as the upper and lower regions, and when these were di
vided, the upper region, or heaven, was called Anu, while the lower
region, or earth, was called Anatu, Anatu being the female principle
or wife of Anu." But that which the author styles here "the
earth " was assimilated to the inferior heavens, or the lower hemi
sphere. Anu was put for the upper hemisphere, and Anatu for the
lower. This is proved by various facts ; among others, that both
are often equated to the Accadian An, " heaven ; " one as the supe
rior heaven, the other as the inferior.^ The goddess Tiamat, who
personifies the watery abyss, or chaos, evidently appertains to the
inferior heavens, and as such is the same as Anatu, producing
mother of heaven and earth ; yet she is represented as on the earth,
1 Frag, de Berose, p. 392. Cf. pp. 133 and 134, note.
2 Vid. 3d Rawl. PI. 69, No. 1, Obs. 11. 1, 2. The divine name which Mr. Smith
reads Anatu is, I suppose, the Accadian Turn. In the text cited the Accadian
An is equated first to the god Anu, and then to the goddess T'um or Anatu;
and as Anu is certainly put for the upper, Anatu by opposition must answer to
the lower heaven ; yet, as the author correctly says, she represents the earth.

138 • HAR-MOAD.
and likewise the chaos itself, as noted in the last chapter. But it
will suffice for the present to add here the fact just developed, of
the assimilation of As-ru to the Accadian Ki, " earth," on one side,
and to the inferior heavens, represented by the temples Bit-khi-ra,
on the other. It is perfectly apparent, then, that the two halves
of the Babylonian sphere were taken as symbols respectively of
heaven and earth, the two chief divisions of the cosmos. The tem
ple and the cosmos are here shown in direct relation to each other,
both being represented by the sphere or zodiac.
The same connection of ideas may be established with respect to
the Hebrew tabernacle. The Holy of Holies, or interior sanctuary,
as all tends to show, represented heaven. According to the Epistle
to the Hebrews, the entrance of the high-priest once a year, and on
the great day of the atonement, into the Holy of Holies, was a type
of Christ's entrance into heaven itself. This interior sanctuary was
thus put for the heavens as one of the chief divisions of the cosmos ;
and from this fact, it is necessary to infer that the outer tabernacle
represented the other chief division, or the earth. All this was
long since established by the critical researches of Dr. Bahr, who
writes substantially as follows : —
"Humanly speaking, and according to prevailing ideas which
were familiar to the Hebrews, the building constructed for the
Deity, the house in which God dwelt, was the creation itself, includ
ing heaven and earth. In general, all the works of God were con
ceived as buildings ; insomuch that the creation of Eve was repre
sented as a building (Gen. ii. 22; ba^tiah, 'to build'). But,
especially, the created world is described in the technical language
peculiar to architecture, as in Job xxxviii. 4-7.
" This symbolical character, which attaches generally to the
sacred edifice, lends significance to the details of its description ; and
it affords for us, likewise, a better explanation of its order and ar
rangement. It falls principally into two chief divisions, of which
one (the Holy of Holies) takes in a special sense the name of the
whole, — the dwelling, the house, or the tent of God. With the
Hebrews, accordingly, of the two divisions of creation itself, the one,
the heaven, was regarded as the peculiar abode of Divinity. By
analogy, therefore, it is necessary to regard the especially so-called
dwelling as an image of the heavens, while the court corresponds
to the other chief division of the world, or to the earth." ^
1 Symbolik des Mosaische Cultus, i. pp. 77-79. The language of Job, cited by
Dr. Bahr is quite remarkable, and is as follows : " Where wast thou when I laid

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 139
Dr. Bahr shows that the ordinary terms employed in the Hebrew
text, applied to the tabernacle as a conceived dwelling of God, such
as Beth, " house," Ahel, " tent," and Mishkan, " dwelling," are
equally used to designate the heavens as God's dwelling-place. The
denial on the part of certain modern critics that the Jewish temple
was conceived properly as a " dwelling of God," except perhaps as
a dwelling of the Sam, or "name" of Jehovah, is, in my view,
without a single valid reason; and it contravenes not only the
fundamental principles of the Mosaic system, but its entire spirit.
Jehovah was primitively the Divinity of the Hearth ; and the
Mosaic cultus was an expansion of this idea, as shown in our sec
ond chapter. The doctrine that God dwells, inhabits, the same as
man, is both fundamental and vital to the two religions of the
Bible. The two words designating the " temple " in the Old Testa
ment, Beth and Hekal, mean " house ; " and it is impossible legit
imately to attach to them a sense different from that of a dwell
ing. The word Beth is an ordinary word for '• house " in all the
Semitic tongues. The other term, Ile-kal, is now known to have
been borrowed from the Accadian language. Thus, the Accadian
E, "house," and gal, or kal, "great," means "great house," or
"palace." It frequently designates "a palace" in Hebrew; and
this was its primitive sense in the sacred language of Babylon.
But the first element e, or he, preceded by the characteristic of
divinity, is the ordinary cuneiform expression for "heaven" put in
opposition to "earth." Hence, as Dr. Biihr has correctly main
tained, the especially so-called dwelling of God, that is to say, the
Holy of Holies, represented the " heaven " as one of the chief divi
sions of the cosmos ; and by analogy the outer tabernacle was put
for the " earth." For the same reason, also, it inclosed a cubical
space, like the superior sanctuary of the pyramidal temple, and
similar to the cubical stone, both being the recognized symbolical
modes of representing heaven, as proved in the third chapter.
the foundations of the earth ? declare, if thou hast understanding. Wlio hath
laid the measures thereof, if thou knowest ? or who hath stretched the line upon
it ? Whereupon are the foundations thereof fastened ? or who laid the corner
stone thereof ; when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God
shouted for joy V " The allusion in the closing language to the cosmical morning,
when the heavenly bodies made their first risings, and the harmony of the spheres
was first evoked, is quite significant ; and we shall see hereafter that it accorded
perfectly with notions prevailing at a very early epoch.

140 HAR-MOAD.
Sec. 54. If the Holy of Holies represented heaven, and the outer
tabernacle the earth, then the vail suspended between and separat
ing them ought to denote the primary division of the cosmos, cor
responding to the fundamental division of the Babylonian sphere
from west to east, marked by the Accadian monogram Bara;
symbolizing the first act of creation, or the division of the primal
chaos into two portions, from which heaven and earth were consti
tuted. We have quite a demonstrative proof of this in the mono
gram Bara, whose ordinary Assyrian equivalent is Pa-rak-ku (Syl.
No. 255), this being one with the Hebrew Pa^ak (tJ"iB)» " to break,
to break down, to separate," from which comes Pd-ro-heth (np'iS),
" a vail, curtain of separation, which separated the Holy of Holies
from the outer sanctuary in the tabernacle." ^ Dr. Delitzsch, as
cited below, assimilates the Assyrian Pa-rak-ku, equivalent of the
Accadian Bara, directly to the Hebrew Pa-ro-keth, " vail " of the
tabernacle. We see, then, that this vail involved the same notion
as the Accadian monogram Bara, which marked the division of the
zodiacal temple from west to east through the sign Aries, or the
Ram, and that both had primary reference to the separation of
chaos and the formation of heaven and earth. Thus, at every step
the doctrine previously announced comes more clearly into the fight
and assumes fundamental importance ; namely, creation and the
temple proceed from one and the same ground thought, that of divi
sion ; and this had its origin in the customs of the altar, the divi
sion or cutting up of the victims offered in sacrifice. The Ram,
or Aries, to which Bara corresponds in the zodiac, was one of the
animals usually selected for such purposes; as for instance, the
Ram offered in ratification of the covenant between God and Abra
ham (Gen. XV. 9-17 ; xxii. 13-18).
The difference between the Assyrian and Hebrew methods of
representing the cosmos by means of the temple was mainly in this :
while the Assyrians employed two separate edifices, one put for
I Vid. Delitzsch, Assyr. Studien, H. i. p. 127, note. The author objects to the
signification of "altar " for the Assyrian Pa-rak-ku; but his reasons for it are not
pertinent. The idea of "division," "cutting," appertains especially to the
altar, and is inherent in the Accadian Bara. At the same time, the notion of the
vail, separating the two chief apartments of the temple, and symbolically repre
senting the primary division of the chaos, is also perfectly in accord with the facts
already developed in these pages. The author is thus correct in assimilating the
Pa-rak-ku to the Hebrew Pa-ro-keth, " vail."

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 141
heaven and the superior hemisphere, the other for the earth assimi
lated to the lower hemisphere, the Hebrews embodied the same
notions in the two chief apartments of one and the same edifice,
these being divided by a vail. The genesis of the Hebrew taber
nacle from the pyramidal temple is now perfectly plain. For the
superior sanctuary of a cubical form representing heaven, and con
stituting the eighth stage of the pyramid, the tabernacle substitutes
the Holy of Holies, also of a cubical form, representing the celes
tial region. The seven stages of the pyramid, symbols of the seven
lights of the earth, are replaced by the candlestick with seven
branches, placed in the outer sanctuary. The base of the pyramid
and the sanctuary therein answer to the outer tabernacle, both being
designed to represent the earth. The pyramidal temples, as Dr.
Bahr has shown, were primitive in all Asia. But with the Phoeni
cians and Hebrews the same doctrines had been given a material
expression somewhat different. The design in all was to represent
by an artificial structure, as a fit abode of the divinity, the house
built by the Deity himself, or in other words, the cosmos, such being
the archetypal abode of the Supreme Being. All the ancient cos
mical theories centred in these fundamental ideas.
The statement has been made that the world, or cosmos, was
regarded as a temple by the classic nations. This is a fact too well
known to require much testimony in substantiating it. Dr. Bahr
cites a multitude of authorities to this effect, whose names even are
too numerous to appear here ; and we must refer the learned reader
to the various passages quoted by him.^ The author himself re
marks : —
" As before said, it is a conception not at all peculiar to the
Hebrews, but common to all the (ancient) nations, and inseparable
from their notion of God, to represent the world as a building or a
house of the divinitj% and the heaven as his especial dwelling-place.
The universe, but in a special sense the heaven, is the real, true
temple, built by the Deity himself ; and this, as the original tem
ple, constituted the model, the archetype, of all those constructed by
man." ^
Beside the authorities pertaining to India, China, Egypt, and
Babylon, the author musters the writings of Philo, Plutarch, Clem-
* Vid. Symbolik, etc., i. pp. 91-103, text and notes.
« Ibid., pp. 94, 96. •

142 HAR-MOAD.
ent of Alexandria, Macrobins, Varro, etc., in support of the above
statement. Herr Nissen, in a recent and critical treatise upon the
temple, holds substantially the same opinion, especially with respect
to the classic nations.^ But these references will suffice on a point
so generally understood among scholars.
Fundamental in all these ideas is the notion that God dwells,
which was inseparable from the notion itself of divinity. The uni
verse, or the house built by the Deity for his own habitation, is thus
the model upon which all artificial temples or dwellings of God are
constructed. From thence proceeds the fact, as already stated, that
the theories of the cosmos and of the temple are substantially the
same ; so that if we would understand the ancient cosmogonies, it
is necessary first to study the doctrine of the temple. Undoubtedly,
the divinity of the hearth was one of the chief producing causes
which determined the course of thought in antiquity, in relation to
these subjects ; hence the fact that every house was in some sense a
temple. It is upon the same ground of the fundamental relation of
the temple to the cosmos that the chief divinities of the ancient
temple-craft were uniformly regarded as concerned in the fabrica
tion of the world. But it is hardly necessary to add more testi
mony exclusively designed to establish the fundamental principle
that the process of creating the world and the method of construct
ing the temple were esteemed the same, and that this process was
believed to be one of division. The progress of these investigations
will tend continually to the support of this doctrine, which is al
ready, I presume, quite apparent to the reader's mind. It is on
account of its superlative importance that I desire to place it
beyond all question.
Sec. 55. We proceed now to the study of the practical applica
tion, in constructing the temple, of the principle of division upon
which we have so much insisted ; upon the particular methods, also,
according to which it was attempted to model the temple after its
archetype, the cosmos. The original temple of the Etrusco-Romans
will serve an admirable initiative to this part of our subject. We
introduce here several extracts from Dr. William Smith's " Diction
ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities." Upon the subject of the
Auspices, the author has the following : —
" The ordinary manner of taking the auspices was as follows. The
* Das Templum, pp. 2-4.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 143
augur went out before the dawn of day, and, sitting in an open place
with his head veiled, marked out with a wand the divisions of the
heavens. Next he declared, in a solemn form of words, the limits
assigned, making shrubs or trees, called tesqua, his boundary on
earth correspondent to that in the sky. The templum augurale,
which appears to have included both, was divided into four parts :
those to the east and west were termed sinistrce (left) and dextrce
(right) ; to the north and south, anticce (before) and posticce (be
hind)." (Art. Auspicium.)
In this instance, the person is supposed to face the south; in
which case the left hand would be east, the right hand west, etc.
In Western Asia, according to a very ancient custom, the spectator
was supposed to face the east in such manner that the left or left
hand was put for the north, the right hand for the south, etc. The
terminology of the cuneiform texts supposes this custom, and it
seems to have been common to all the Semitic nations ; thus, the
Hebrew Semol, Aramean Shemal, Assyrian Su-mi-lu, English Sanv-
uel, signified " left, left hand," and ordinarily designated the north,
north pole, or North Star. The Accadian terminology conforms to
the same ideas. The Etrusco-Roman method was different, for
reasons which Dr. Smith will explain in another extract. We see
that the augural temple was laid out with reference to the cardinal
points, or the primary divisions of the heavens from east to west
and from north to south. This is important to bear in mind ; and
not less the fact, also, that the temple thus constructed was sup
posed to include two elements: a cut-off space on the earth's sur
face correspondent to a similar space in the heavens, these being
put in direct relation to each other. The system of land measuring
involved a further development of these principles, and Dr. Smith
thus explains it : —
" As partitioners of land, the Agrimensores were the successors
of the augurs, and the mode of their limitatio (divisions) was de
rived from the old augural method of forming the templum. The
word templum, like the Greek temenos, simply means a division ;
its application to signify the vault of the heavens was due to the
fact that the directions were always ascertained according to the
true cardinal points (a). At the inauguration of a king or consul,
the augur looked toward the east, and the person to be inaugurated
toward the south. Now, in a case like this, the person to be inaug
urated was considered the chief, and the direction in which he
looked was the main direction. Thus we find that in the case of

144 HAR-MOAD.
land surveying the augur looked to the south ; for the gods were
supposed to be in the north, and the augur was considered as look
ing in the same manner in which the gods looked upon the earth
(b). Hence the main line in land surveying was drawn from north
to south, and was called Cardo, as corresponding to the axis of the
world ; the line which cut it was termed Decumanus, because it
made the figure of a cross, like the numeral X (c). These two lines
were produced to the extremity of the ground which was to be laid
out, and parallel to these were drawn other lines, according to the
size of the quadrangle required (d). The limits of these divisions
were indicated by balks, called limites, which were left as high
roads, the ground for them being deducted from the land to be
divided." (Art. Agrimensores.)
We add here several notes, in the order of the letters introduced
into the foregoing extract, and shall be obliged in some instances to
refer to the characters which the reader finds engraven in our sec
ond plate.
(a) Dr. Smith seems to think that the application of the terms
templum and temenos to the vault of heaven, conceived as a temple,
was in a measure accidental, growing out of the practice of mark
ing out the divisions according to the directions of the cardinal
points. In my view this application proceeded from fundamental
ideas. That which constituted a templum, a temenos, was division,
according to the meaning of these terms. It was the primary divi
sions of the celestial space that constituted it in general a temple,
and the corresponding divisions of the earth's surface that made it
also a temple ; and, in fact, any space thus divided, limited, was a
tem, a temple, so constituted by the simple act of division.
(b) The conception locating the divinities in the north was very
ancient, and widely prevalent ; it was doubtless of Asiatic origin,
and our future investigations will tend to explain the reason of it.
That the main line was considered that drawn from north to south,
called Cardo, is a matter of some doubt, I believe, but it is not
of material consequence to us at present.
(c) There were certain doors, or gates, turning on pivots project
ing from the ends, and belonging to the temples, palaces, and even
private dwellings in common use among the Romans. They were
called Cardo, and Mr. Smith has these remarks in reference to
them : —
" TJie form of the door above delineated makes it manifest why

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 145
the principal line laid down in surveying land was called Cardo ;
and it further explains the application of the same term to the
north pole, the supposed pivot on which the heavens revolved. The
lower extremity of the universe was conceived to turn upon another
pivot, corresponding to that at the bottom of the door ; and the
conception of these two principal points in geography and astronomy
lead to the application of the same term to the east and west also.
Hence our four points of the compass." (Art. Cardo.)
The author himself shows here very plainly that the conception
of the entire cosmos included between the two poles, as a house, or
temple, must have been fundamental and quite primitive among the
Romans. Nothing more conclusive could be desired, to the effect
that the coismos and the temple were associated, and that the theory
of both had for its base the notion of division. Every building, in
fact, whose divisions corresponded to the cardinal regions was in
some sense a temple and an image of the world. The two lines
called Cardo and Decumanus cut each other in a manner to form
the image of a cross. These were the fundamental divisions, not
only of the cosmos, but of the temple and the system of land sur
veying. This calls to mind the symbol of the god Anu at Babylon,
whose mystical title was Susru, " the founder," represented by the
figure b shown in the first group. It had reference to the four car
dinal positions of the sun in its annual course.
(d) With the system of parallel lines cutting each other at right
angles, forming thus the plot of ground marked off into identical
squares, compare the figure h, first group. This is the Accadian
sign U (Rep. 238), " to measure, a measure, a cubit," etc. ; and it
is a determinative of names of measure in the metrical system of
Babylon. Various analogies, not less striking, will be hereafter
pointed out between the notions prevalent among the Romans and
those expressed by the written symbols employed in the valley of
the Euphrates.
Sec. 56. It appears from the statement of Dr. Smith introduced
in the last section : 1st. That the augurial temple united a parti
cular celestial, as well as terrestrial space, corresponding to each
other, and put in direct relation. 2d. That the spaces thus divided
off were located with special reference to the cardinal regions. 3d.
That the system of territorial divisions, and of partition of the soil,
was derived from the method of constructing the temple. 4th. The
gate called Cardo, from which term our word cardinal is derived.

146 HAR-MOAD.
was assimilated to the axis of the world, thus proving that the
notions of the cosmos and temple were associated, proceeding funda
mentally from that of division. The four apartments of the augu
rial temple are illustrated in a diagram by Herr Nissen. ^ The
figure shown answers precisely to the cuneiform character marked
e, first group. The data thus derived chiefly from Dr. Smith are
very important, as proving the fact of a conceived fundamental re
lation between the temple and the cosmos, and of a direct analogy
in respect to their theories. The cardinal divisions of the cosmos
constituted it a temple, and the divisions of the temple, according
to the cardinal regions, constituted it an image of the cosmos. But
Herr Nissen, in the excellent treatise already cited, has several
statements confirmatory of those made by Dr. Smith, and others
explanatory of different points connected with our subject, which
ought to appear here. Referring to the main divisions of the tem
plum are the following passages : —
" The limitation (division) proceeds from the cardinal regions ; a
line from east to west, cut by another at right angles, drawn from
north to south, forms the basis of the entire system." "The doc
trine proceeds from the first and most simple division, suggested by
nature, that is, into a day-and-night side." " The midday line
(meridian) is termed Cardo, because the heavens turn like a gate
upon its hinges." " The first or common form of the limitation is
the centuriation or division into like squares." ^
The division into a day-and-night side is suggestive of the first
day of creation : " And God divided the light from the darkness ;
and God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night ;
and the evening and the morning were the first day " (Gen. i. 4, 5).
The Romans began the day at evening, agreeing thus with the
method in Genesis. But this division into a day-and-night side was
from north to south, like the Cardo ; while the fundamental divi
sion was that of chaos from east to west, forming the two hemi
spheres assimilated to heaven and earth. As the notion of the
temple proceeded from that of division, so the town or city divided
into squares and the entire territory of the state cut up into dis
tricts were both regarded in some sense as temples. The author
explains this matter in the subjoined extract : —
" The principles according to which the city was laid out were
1 Das Templum, p. 16. * Ibid., pp. 11, 13, 20.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 147
those of the system of land measuring. The Decumanus and Cardo
maximus determined the direction of the two principal streets of
the city, dividing it and the territory occupied by it into four
regions. In the various diagrams illustrating the scheme of these
divisions, the cross forms the basis. Our authorities represent those
forms as most complete where the intersection of the Decumanus
and Cardo maximus falls exactly in the centre of the city, or the
forum ; and it is from this point, through four gates, that the two
main lines extend each way over the entire country, which is thus
like the city divided into four regions." ^
Ancient Peru, according to Mr. Prescott's history of its conquest,
was laid out upon the precise plan here indicated. Not only the
city, but the state itself, was thus regarded as a great temple. The
ceremonies in founding a town or city, described by Herr Nissen,
are quite interesting, and we shall find here an explanation of the
system of " balks," to which Dr. Smith has alluded : —
" The ancient Italian town did not originate, like those of the
middle ages and of modern times, by a slow process of growth from
the house to the hamlet, and from the hamlet to the town. It was
created at once by a single politico- religious act. The memory of
the founder was perpetuated, and his veneration constituted an
important part of the worship of the commonwealth. Not only
the memory of the founder, but that of the year and day of its
foundation was also perpetuated by annual festivals. From this
cause, a regular ritual for foundations had grown up. The founder
of a town, according to Cato, yoked to a plough a bull and a cow,
the bull upon the right and the cow upon the left, the cow inside
and the bull outside. With his head veiled, he ploughed around
the space designated for the site of the town, taking care to turn
all the sods inward ; for the turf marked the line of the wall, and
the furrow that of the ditch. Where a gate was to be located for
passage in and out of the town, he lifted the plough out of the
ground, and carried it over the required distance." ^
This explains the system of " balks " to which reference has
been made. The author shows that the military camp and even
the vineyard, by reason of these divisions, since they were laid out
with reference to the cardinal regions, were regarded in some sense
as temples. The same, also, as regards the private dwellings.
Everything, in fact, to which the fundamental notion of division
pertained was a temple. I close the extracts for the present, from
this valuable treatise, with these remarks of the author : —
^ Das Templum, pp. 58, 59. ' Ibid., pp. 55, 56.

148 HAR-MOAD.
" All historical development proceeds from two co-related ideas,
property and secure possession. Both are summed up in the notion
of division, separation. As the nation separates itself from the
mass of nationalities, the race from the races, so the town is an off
shoot from other towns, the class from other classes, the house from
other houses. This notion of separation, of division, was incorpo
rated by the ancients in the Templum, Greek Temenos, 'a cut-oft'
section,' from the root tem, ' to cut.' " ^
Sec. 57. Identity in the different assimilation of things divided,
separated, is the fundamental law of mind and nature, as well as of
all historical development. That the ancients thoroughly appreci
ated it is a fact so apparent that M. Lenormant and M. De Vogue
have even reproached them for this Hegelian principle. Hegelian,
or not, it evinces a profound insight into the nature of things, a
clear perception of laws which modern physical science demon
strates to-day to be fundamental. The reduplication of identical
squares, resulting from the process of division, is a perfect geomet
rical expression of these ground thoughts. A single square was the
basis of, and so to speak identical with, the whole. It might be cut
up into smaller ones, each like the whole, or it might be redupli
cated indefinitely, in such manner that the whole would be like its
least portion. In general, all space, the entire sphere, might be
represented by a single square. This being divided off according to
fixed methods and certain fundamental ideas became thus a sym
bol of the cosmos. The heavens and the earth might be and actu
ally were delineated according to this simple scheme. Every coun
try, every city and town, and even private dwelling, was thus an
image of heaven and earth ; and as one was a temple, all were for
the same reason temples ; as one was a cosmos, a world, so all were
such ; thus law, unity, light, penetrated through all. But the sys
tem which prevailed among the Etrusco-Romans was derived, in its
main features, from the valley of the Euphrates. This fact is
becoming now more and more apparent, as the results of cuneiform
research are being developed. Mr. George Smith only gives expres
sion to the opinions justified by these researches when he says : —
"The value of the Assyrian and Babylonian mythology rests not
only on its curiosity as the religious system of a great people, but
on the fact that here we must look, if anywhere, for the origin and
explanation of many of the obscure points in the mythology of
1 Das Templum, p. i.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 149
Greece and Rome. It is evident that in every way the classical
nations of antiquity borrowed far more from the valley of the
Euphrates than that of the Nile, and Chaldsea, rather than Egypt,
is the home even of the civilization of Europe." ^
It is usually held by scholars that the Romans were mainly in
debted to the Etruscans for their sacred science, and it is through
the Etruscans principally that we trace this science to the Babylo
nians, or more properly, perhaps, the Chaldseans. Augury, espe
cially, as practiced by the Etrusco-Romans, was derived in its main
features from Chaldsea ; and the augurial temple in which the au
spices were taken constituted the basis of the system. M. F. Lenor
mant, after identifying various customs of this class prevailing
among the Romans with those described in the cuneiform texts,
very justly concludes as follows: "All these analogies are such that
they tend to make us see in the Etruscans the disciples and direct
inheritors of the auspices and divinations practiced by the doctors
of Chaldsea and Babylon." ^
But the Asiatic origin of these notions pertaining to the temple
will be still more apparent as we see them in their more primitive
form embodied in the various symbols exhibited in our second
plate, to which we give now a more particular attention.
The figure marked a of the first group exactly represents the
basis of the Roman system of limitation or division as already set
forth in the language of Herr Nissen. It is not precisely the hie
ratic form of the Accadian Bar, but if the two strokes were given
the wedge shape we should have the modern form of Bar ; a sign
which with the phonetic value of mas signifies " to cut, to separate,
sword ; " also " a measure of capacity " (Rep. 69). It is analogous
to the figure b, to which Susru, the mystical name of Anu, is
attached, designating him as the " founder " par excellence. This
is the Cannes of Berosus, who founds the Babylonian civilization.
In the bilingual phrase, which explains this figure by the term
Susru, it is preceded by the sign Gur repeated, which singly has
the sense of "to create." But the well-known cosmical character
of Anu and the reference of this figure to the four positions of the
sun, answering to the cardinal regions, sufficiently indicate the ref
erence to the cosmos and temple. The couplet c is the Accadian An,
^ Assyr. Discoveries, p. 451.
^ Les Sciences Occultes en Asie; La Divination, p. 120.

150 HAR-MOAD.
" elevated, heaven, God " (Rep. 4), and is the universal characteris
tic of divinity preceding all divine names. Cuneiform scholars,
for the most part, believe it to have been intended for a " star,"
being thus a proof of the hieroglyphic theory applied to this system
of writing, and of the existence of star worship at the time of its
invention. This appears to me far from correct. The character
An, taken alone, does not signify a " star," and there is no evidence
that it ever had this meaning. Moreover, the Accadian has quite
another term for " star," namely, Mul. The original reference of
the figure was doubtless to the eight celestial regions, four primary
and four intermediate ; and hence the meaning " elevated, heaven,
god ; " but of this hereafter. The couplet d exhibits the simplest
element of a divided field or plot, the square. It is the Accadian
Gil, " to inclose, to unite, to assemble," and probably an " in-
closure" (Rep. 489). It represents the ground plan of one of the
principal classes of temples in the valley of the Euphrates. As a
paleographic symbol, it forms the basis of about twenty others ;
and its thoroughly symbolical character is susceptible of the plain
est demonstration. The couplet e is only a fuither development of
that just considered, and of the fundamental notion of division. It
exhibits, as before observed, the form of the augurial temple of the
Etrusco-Romans. . The triplet/ appertains to the Chinese writing,
showing for the first and second forms the ancient and modern char
acter Tsing, " a well," denoting also " union, friendship." It is the
name of the constellation Gemini; and the third form of the charac
ter represents precisely the Spartan symbol of the Dioscuri, identified
with Gemini in the western mythology. These were the Brothers,
par excellence. The symbol was constructed with four pieces of wood,
crossed in the manner shown in the figure. It will appear here
after that this symbol represents exactly the conceived geographical
centre of the universe, according to the traditional notions of all
Asia ; and it will be seen at a glance that it must be taken as the
least unit of all geographical as well as political divisions, to which
may be added those of the temple ; for all these were in fact funda
mentally related to each other. A further development of the trip
let/ is the figure^, consisting of nine identical squares, in which
the nine digits are so arranged as to equal the sum fifteen, in
whatever direction three consecutive numbers are added. It was
termed the "planetary seal," or "magical square," and was sup-

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 151
posed to represent the cosmos or universe. The central division,
with the numeral five, symbolized the soul of the world ; the eight
squares surrounding it being put for the elements fire, air, water,
and earth, male and female. The figure of a man was represented
upon the seal, and this denoted that man was taken for the micro
cosm, or universe in miniature. I derive these from Dr. Biihr,
and shall return to their consideration in the next section .^ The
couplet h in the group before us has been already explained. Its
signification of "measure, to measure, cubit," etc., shows its funda
mental relation to the system of land measuring, which at Rome,
and probably at Babylon, had its origin in the augurial temple.
Sec. 58. A brief investigation of the second group of charac
ters, as shown in the same plate, will conduct to the generalizing
principle of nearly all the facts which have been thus far intro
duced into the present chapter. The three forms marked a are the
Accadian Mai, "to complete, to accomplish, to fill; to inhabit,
house ; " also E, " house, temple " (Rep. 144, 244). In the hieratic
type, we have the old Accadian or Cushite notion of the temple.
It forms the basis of over a dozen composite signs, of which the
others shown in the same group are examples. In the other char
acters, as will be noticed, the four perpendicular lines on the left
are contracted to two, and the horizontal ones so far reduced as to
leave an open space for the introduction of other signs, forming
thus composite symbols. We introduce here a brief notice of the
other characters, and then return to the one marked a.
The couplet b has the value Kisal, " altar, sacrifice " (Rep. 146).
The altar of course appertains to the temple. But note the strik
ing symbolism attached to this sign. The two parallel lines in
closed are the Accadian Tab, "to adjust, to place," etc. (Rep. 140).
It is the altar that adjusts, makes right, and such is the notion here
involved. We pass now to the couplet d, which has the values Dak,
" cave, vault ; " Dir, " blue, deep blue " (Rep. 130). The two con
ceptions of " temple " and " cave " call to mind the "cave worship
ers ; " but this cave is the blue vault of heaven, of which the cave
temples were conceived as imitations. Even artificial caves were
made for this purpose, as is proved by the etymology of the term
Dak, evidently a contraction of da-ak, or da, " to excavate," and ak,
" to make ; " hence, " to make an excavation " (Rep. 91, 309). The
1 Symbolik, etc., i. p. 158.

152 HAR-MOAD.
two forms marked c are the Accadian Gan, "view, presence, in-
closure;" 6^^-?^M, " presence, plain, field;" ^ar, " summit, point"
(Rep. 155). Gan is identical with the Hebrew term (]3) in the
phrase Gan-Eden, " Garden of Eden." The value Kar, " summit,"
referred probably to the traditional mount of paradise. The in
closed figure, exhibiting a field cut up into squares, has not been
recognized separately in the inscriptions, so far as I know, but it is
found in the Egyptian writing as a determinative of home, settled
district, cultivated earth, answering well to the conception of Gan-
Eden. Finally, the couplet e has the values Neu, Ekhi, Luku, all
signifying " mother " (Rep. 148). The eight-rayed star inclosed is
the Accadian An, " elevated, heaven, god," as heretofore explained.
Here the notions of " temple," " heaven," " divinity," combine in
that of " mother." Was the typical idea of mother she who should
bring forth the " promised seed," the divine one ? No more exalted
conception of maternity ever entered the mind of man. The
mother here is herself a goddess, or her offspring is a god ! Com
pare this sign with the Egyptian method of representing the notion
of maternity, for an illustration of the difference between hiero
glyphism and symbolism !
We return to the character marked a, signifying " house, temple,
to complete, to accomplish," etc. The completion of the house for
the habitation of man, of the temple for the habitation of God,
were joyous events that might well be compared to the accomplish
ment of the work of creation itself, when God rested from his
labors. Nor were these ideas wholly unrelated ; on the contrarj"^ an
inherent analogy existed between them, for the temple and the cos
mos involved precisely the same theoretical principles, and were
regarded as types of each other. Compare here the nine identical
squares on the left of the Accadian Mai, "house, temple," with
those of the " magical square," already referred to, which was sup
posed to represent the cosmos. The hieratic form of Mai, "tem
ple," evidently had a celestial as well as terrestrial reference. We
see here primarily a celestial field limited and divided off, with a
view to locate the position of certain asterisms, while the parallel
lines projecting toward the right served the purpose of recording
their names. It obviously represented also a corresponding system
of divisions on the earth's surface, constituting thus a regular augu
rial temple such as Dr. William Smith has described to us. Our

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 153
Accadian character may be taken for a definite type of this augu
rial temple, as recognized by the Chaldsean priesthood. Its analogy
with the " magical square," as explained, is very striking, and clearly
indicates the assimilation of the temple to the cosmos, both proceed
ing from the one idea of division, limitation. We see here, in the
sign Mai, as compared with the mystical square, an illustration of
the practical application of the principle of division in constructing
the temple and in representing the cosmos. The central division
really symbolized the centre of the universe geographically, as well
as philosophically the soul of the world. The eight divisions sur
rounding it were the eight regions of space, in relation to which we
shall cite hereafter some authorities. But in a philosophic point of
view, they were taken for the four elements, male and female,
amounting to eight. The ajiplication of the principle of division
here exhibited was undoubtedly very ancient, and it appears to have
been extensively prevalent. Nevertheless, it was not the only
method, nor was it apparently exclusively orthodox. With the
Romans, as we have seen, only four divisions were employed, these
corresponding to the cardinal regions. The two chief apartments
of the Hebrew tabernacle served the same purpose, as they rep
resented the two chief divisions of the cosmos, heaven and earth.
Everywhere the fundamental idea of cutting, dividing, prevailed,
but its practical application in moulding the temple into an image
of the cosmos seems to have varied with different peoples. Even
the numbers twelve, sixteen, thirty-six, etc., appear to have been
adopted at times, but these were merely expressions of fundamental
ideas, and are probably not to be regarded as in any sense typical.
The numbers eight and nine, however, must have been very an
cient, and had become in a measure traditional, as we shall soon
show. These two modes were not essentially different ; for all de
pended upon the manner of representing the central space, whether
as a square surrounded by eight others, or as a common divergent
point from which the eight regions radiated, as represented in the
eight-rayed star, or Accadian An, to which reference has been
made. Another point of difference is to be noticed here. It is evident
that the theoretical divisions of the temple, particularly of the
augurial temple, were not literally represented always in material
structures, at least so far as regards the ground plan. The nine

154 HAR-MOAD.
divisions of the Accadian character Mai must be taken as in some
sense embodying the doctrine of the temple; but no edifices of
this class in the valley of the Euphrates were thus divided off, so
far as my knowledge extends. The same probably might be said
of the Roman temples, as compared with the plot marked out by
the augur in taking the auspices. It is a fact that the axis of the
Roman temple, as actually constructed, rarely corresponded to any
one of the cardinal regions, while the augurial temple was designed
with especial reference to them. Nevertheless, both were conceived
as images of the cosmos. It would be difficult to explain, perhaps,
precisely how the doctrines of the one were materially embodied
in the other, yet originally they must have been closely related.
It is quite obvious that, in some instances, while the chief apart
ments represented the chief divisions of the cosmos, the others were
materially expressed by means of ascending stages, or by a certain
mystical arrangement of steps leading from one apartment to an
other. In some way, as we may justly infer, the fundamental con
ceptions were always materially expressed ; but it would require a
separate treatise to explain the various methods in detail.
Sec. 59. Having sufficiently verified the general principle,
namely, that creation was conceived as a temple, and the teinple
as an image of creation, the process of division being regarded as
fundamental in both ; having also illustrated the practical applica
tion of the system of divisions in constructing the temple after the
model of the universe, it remains to submit some evidences tending
to show the origin of these notions, as well as their immense anti
quity. In doing so, still other proofs of the correctness of the
views already put forth will be found multiplying upon our hands.
We return to the consideration of the magical square marked g in
the first group, especially in connection with the figure that pre
cedes it, being the third form of the triplet /, the Chinese character
Tsing, " a pit or well," also " union, friendship." As before said,
the Spartan symbol of the Dioscuri, one with Gemini, or the Twins,
was constructed of four pieces of wood crossed in the manner shown
in this figure. The zodiacal sign Gemini is but a contraction of the
same symbol. The ancient Chinese form shows " a well " m the
centre, with the four pieces of wood so arranged as to prevent
the debris from falling back into the pit. As before observed, the
third form answers exactly to the least unit in geographical and

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 155
political divisions, as well as those in land surveying, and we pro
ceed to show that it represented the geographical centre of the
earth. M. Lenormant remarks as follows : —
" We have noticed already the system of geography, essentially
symbolic and inspired by religious conceptions, which plays a fun
damental part in the Book of Astrology, compiled by the orders of
King Sargon, the ancient, some two thousand years before our era.
He considers the country of Accad or Chaldsea as situated at the
centre of the universe, and bounded by four countries that cor
respond exactly to the four cardinal regions : llama is east, Martu
is west, Gutium is north, and Subarti is south." ^
It will be seen that this symbolical scheme of geography, so sin
gular in its nature, is perfectly represented by the figure constitut
ing the Spartan symbol of the Dioscuri; and as Akkad is here put
for the centre of the world, so the symbol itself represents this cen
tre. But the notion had been inherited traditionally by the Acca
dians, in common with other ancient nations widely separated.
The author just cited continues : —
" This system offers the most striking analogies with that of the
division of India by the Aryans into four regions, east, south, west,
and north." "Thus, we know that for the Aryans of India, this
systematic division of the vast region where they had established
themselves was a reproduction of their symbolical and legend
ary conception of the world, divided into four Mahadvipa, great
islands, or continents, grouped according to the four cardinal re
gions around the central continent Madhyadvipa, in the midst of
which Meru elevated itself, watered by the four rivers descending
from the sacred mount." ^
Mt. Meru was supposed to be situated geographically at the cen
tre of the universe ; so that we have here the same scheme as that
pertaining to Accad and India. The allusion here is to the sacred
mount of paradise, the abode of the first human pair, which has
been identified with the plateau of Pamir, situated east of the Cas
pian Sea. This, too, was traditionally of a square figure, bounded
by four countries like Accad, and M. Lenormant traces to it, as the
divergent centre of the human races, this entire system of sym
bolical geography, as will appear in the subjoined extract : —
" In order to discover the origin of the analogy, so direct, or
1 Frag, de Birose, p. 321. 2 ibid., p. 322.

156 HAR-MOAD.
rather the identity, between the geographic system of the Chaldsean
book of astrology and the conceptions of India, it is necessary to go
back to the common source of primitive tradition respecting the ter
restrial paradise, considered as a plateau of a square figure, having
its four sides turned toward the four cardinal points, surrounded by
four great countries also facing the cardinal regions, and watered by
four rivers that take their rise from the central plain." i
We shall treat more at length upon these primitive traditions
centring in Mt. Meru in another chapter. The symbolical geogra
phy of Accad, like that of the Aryans of India and various other
nations of antiquity, was a sacred inheritance from the conceived
first abode of humanity, to which also a similar scheme was at
tached. As this paradisiacal mountain was regarded as the centre
of the world, so were all imitations of it. In every instance the
scheme answered geographically to the geometrical figure constitut
ing the symbol of the Dioscuri ; that is, a region conceived as a
square bounded by four others situated in the direction of the cardi
nal points. The limits of these four countries joining the central
one were of course well defined ; but the outer limits were not sup
posed to be known, and were left as indefinite. The constellation
Gemini, to which the Chinese Tsing was applied, was regarded as
the celestial " well," the source of the celestial waters ; and in this
respect answered to the Hindu conception of the heavenly Ganges,
from which the four sacred rivers of paradise were supplied.^
Thus, the symbol of the Dioscuri is by this means directly con
nected with the paradisiacal mount, conceived centre of the world,
and divergent point of all geographical divisions. Again, in Asiatic
mythology this asterism was associated rather with the first human
pair than with the two brothers. Castor and Pollux, as in the west
ern mythologies. The Hindu zodiac represents the sign Gemini
by a man and woman, instead of by two male figures.^ The Hindu
Tama and Tami, conceived as the first human pair, derive their
names from Gem-ini, denoting the constellation which, in China,
1 Frag, de Birose, p. 322.
2 Vid. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinois, p. 406. Cf., for the verification of the
various statements in the text relative to Tsing, pp. 405-411 and 673-681. On
the celestial Ganges consult Obry, Du Berceau, etc., p. 19.
^ Asiatic Researches, ii. p. 303, plate opposite. Cf. Schlegel, op. cit., from
whom it appears that the Egyptians and other nations represented Gemini by a
man and woman.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 157
was represented as the celestial " well." ^ Here we trace again the
direct connection of the symbol in question with the sacred mount
of paradise. Finally, M. Lenormant has stated the fact that the
pyramidal temples of Chaldsea were considered as imitation, as arti
ficial reproduction, of the traditional mount of paradise (Sec. 33).
This notion of a terrestrial region, then, conceived in the form of a
square, and bounded by four countries facing the four cardinal
points, — this notion, I say, inherited from the paradisiacal mount
regarded as central point of the universe, was associated definitely
with the Chaldsean temple, since the latter was expressly designed as
an imitation of the sacred mountain. Hence, the temple itself was
regarded by analogy a centre of the universe, like Mt. Meru. It was
quite common in antiquity to represent the national temple as the
geographical centre, not only of the territory belonging to the state,
but of the world itself. The divisions of the national domain into
provinces, proceeding from the temple as the common centre, were
thus allied to the geographical divisions of the world. The original
type of the entire system was the sacred mount, traditionally the
abode of primeval humanity. The Spartan form of the character
Tsing, connected, as we have seen, with the traditional geography
of paradise, was thus associated with the temple conceived as an
artificial reproduction of the mount of paradise ; and in either case
it represented the centre of the universe, as well as the unit of all
geographical and territorial divisions. The association of this sym
bol is proved again from the fact that Gemini answers to the Ac
cadian month called " month of the brick," or " month of construc
tions in brick." The symbolical scheme of divisions, then, of which
Accad formed the centre, similar to that in vogue among other
nations widely separated, was only part and parcel of the theory of
the temple and of the cosmos which had been inherited in common
from the primitive home of mankind.
Sec. 60. But the Chaldsean temple, as shown by the cuneiform
character Mai, was connected not only with the Spartan symbol
referred to, but with the system of nine identical squares, constitut
ing the planetary seal, designed especially to represent the cosmos.
This shows that the two figures were fundamentally related to each
1 Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, p. 45. The author states that Tama
was traditionally the first man, Tima, his sister, the first woman, and he derives
the name etymologically from the Latin gem-ini.

158 HAR-MOAD.
other, and to the entire system of divisions which has been ex
plained. In China the character Tsing, " a well," was directly
associated both with the partitions of the soil designed for cultiva
tion, and with the territorial divisions of the state into provinces,
in each case connected likewise with the system of nine squares.
Dr. Schlegel thus describes the allotments of the soil constituting
the unit of Chinese society : " In antiquity nine lots of cultivators
formed a well ; four wells formed an inclosure, and four inclosures
formed a community." ^
In this scheme, 9x4x4 = 144 families as constituting a commu
nity. The number 144 occurring in a connection so singular re
minds us of some of the mystical numbers employed in the Apoca
lypse by the Revelator. But we see here the character Tsing, cor
responding to the symbol of the Dioscuri applied to the zodiacal
sign Gemini, and connected with the traditional geography of Eden
as centre of the world, placed in direct relation to the other figure
consisting of nine squares, representing alike the cosmos and the
Chaldsean temple. Another fact stated by Dr. Schlegel, in the
words of an extract from the Chinese writings, is still more remark
able : —
" Since nothing is comparable to water for the purpose of level
ing, it is for this reason that the constellation Tsing is the image of
rules for founding the state, for tracing out the plan of the capital,
for the demarcation of desert places, and for the divisions of the
soil." 2
The term Tsing, denoting " a well," put also for the source of
celestial waters or the constellation Gemini, became the symbol of
the level, of equality, since water in a basin was the primitive instru
ment for determining levels, or differences in altitude. It became
also a symbol of an equal and just distribution of the soil, probably
derived from the original custom of apportioning nine lots to a well,
as set forth in the preceding extract. But it was, more than all
this, directly associated with the regulations for founding a state,
and for laying out the plan of the capital, for the territorial divi
sions, etc. It is impossible not to see in these notions a traditional
inheritance, on the part of the founders of Chinese civilization,
of the same doctrines concerning the temple, the method of land
1 Uranographie Chinois, pp. 222, 223. ^ Ibid., p. 408.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 159
division, and of geographical divisions generally, which have been
found to exist among the Etrusco-Romans and the populations of
the Euphrates valley, — a traditional inheritance, I say, common to
these various nationalities so widely separated. That which tends
most strongly to prove this community of origin is the fact that the
Chinese Tsing, corresponding to the Spartan symbol of the Dios
curi, and referring always to the constellation Gemini, appears
everywhere to represent the fundamental conception.
I wish to add here some further testimony relating especially to
the system of nine squares, representing alike the cosmos and the
Chaldsean temple. In reference to the territorial divisions of the
ancient Chinese empire. Dr. Bahr remarks : —
" The entire earth was divided into nine countries ; the emperor
was styled the regent of the nine earths, and the highest officers
of state, the mandarins, were divided into nine orders. Under the
successors of the ancient Emperor Yao, who constructed the
nine canals, the kingdom was divided according to the four cardinal
regions, and four mountains were taken as corresponding to these
regions ; over each a chief ruler was placed, and twelve mandarins,
answering to the twelve zodiacal signs, ruled over the people.
Somewhat later, the entire kingdom was divided into nine pro
vinces, each of which had its ruler, but the middle province Ki was
governed by the emperor, and the palace was situated in the centre
of it." 1
It will be seen from the foregoing that the system of nine squares
was applied on a grand scale to the earth, which accords with the
notion of the cosmos as represented by it ; and then to the nine
provinces of the kingdom, evidently conceived for this reason as an
image of the world. The middle province Ki, with the palace in
the centre, symbolized the geographical centre of the universe, to
be compared thus with Accad in the mystical geography of the
early Chaldseans. But a still earlier territorial division of China
was according to the cardinal regions, four mountains being assumed
as corresponding to them.
Sec. 61. We show now the prevalence of the same method of
divisions among the Aryans of India, but derived by them tradi
tionally from Mt. Meru, reputed abode of the first men. In rela
tion to the seven great insular continents of the world, we have the
following : — 1 Symbolik, i. pp. 12, 13, notes.

160 HAR-MOAD.
" Jambu-dwipa is in the centre of all these ; and in the centre of
this continent is the golden mountain Meru." " I have thus briefly
described to you, Maitreya, the nine divisions of Jambu-dwipa." ^
A passage previously cited from M. Lenormant has made us
acquainted with the fact that the system of five regions, one central
and four surrounding it, as represented by the Spartan symbol, had
formed the basis of political divisions in India, and that this had
been derived from traditional notions centring in Mt, Meru. In
the above extracts the method of nine divisions is associated with
the same locality. The two systems were thus connected in India
as well as in China ; and it is evident that in both countries these
conceptions had been inherited from a common source, that source
being the sacred mount, the primeval home of man. The four
mountains assumed by the Chinese as corresponding to the four
cardinal divisions of their country were connected by the Hindus
with their Meru as abutting or supporting mountains, these being
located also, as supposed, according to the cardinal points. This
mountain system, consisting of five summits, connected with the
central region of the world, and with the theory of the cosmos, in
fact, must have been recognized in China, and was doubtless the
basis of the notion of four mountains, to which we have alluded.
Among the ancient Chinese the tortoise was a symbol of the cos
mos; the upper half or back of the shell, with its thirteen divisions,
representing the heavens, that is, the sun and twelve zodiacal con
stellations ; while the lower half of the shell, having nine divisions,
was put for the earth, the other chief division of the cosmos. Dr.
Schlegel cites the following legend : —
" To the west of the mountain Youen Kiao is situated the lake
of the stars, which is a thousand Chinese li in length. In this lake
exists a divine tortoise, having eight feet and six eyes. Upon its
back it carries the image of the Northern Measure (constellation of
the great Dipper), of the sun, of the moon, and of the eight celes
tial regions. Upon its lower shell it has the image of the five sum
mits and of the four canals." ^
The five summits referred to are evidently the same, traditionally,
as the Hindu Mt. Meru, flanked by four others according to the
directions of the cardinal points. The conception in both cases is
only a variation of that of the five countries, one conceived as cen-
1 Vishnu Purana, pp. 166, 178. 2 Uranographie Chinois, p. 61.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 161
tral, the others bounding it on the four sides. The constellation of
the Dipper, to which allusion is made, fixes the original reference of
the legend to Mt. Meru, since this asterism is uniformly associated
with the sacred mount in Aryan tradition, as well as in that of the
Semitic races. The four canals are obviously to be compared with
the four sacred rivers, issuing from a common source. It is, then,
in view of the facts now placed before the reader, no longer to be
doubted that the symbol of the Dioscuri represented the geographi
cal centre of the world, and that it was closely connected with the
magical square, as a further development of it, representing vari
ously the notions of the cosmos or the nine earths, as in China, and
finally the augurial temple of the Chaldseans, as shown in the
hieratic sign for temple, the Accadian Mai. It is a fact not less
certain, that these two geometrical figures embodied certain tradi
tional conceptions, relating alike to the temple and the cosmos,
which had been inherited in common by nations the most distantly
separated in antiquity ; inherited from that central region in high
Asia which passed for being the first abode of man on earth.
The tortoise, as we have seen, was regarded by the ancient
Chinese as a symbol of the cosmos. Upon its back were supposed
to be found, among others, the images of the " Northern Bushel," or
the constellation of the great Dipper, and of the " eight celestial
regions." Here we have placed in immediate relation to each
other : 1st. The notion of the cosmos ; 2d. The seven stars of the
chariot, or great Dipper ; 3d. The eight celestial regions. These
stars were definitely associated in Hindu tradition with the summit
of Mt. Meru, which was supposed to pierce the heavens precisely
at the north celestial pole, termed by them the Su-Meru. It was
upon the summit of this mountain, around which these seven stars
were thought to turn, that they located the palace of the gods,
which was thus regarded as the heaven par excellence. It answered
literally to the Cardo of the Romans, symbolized by the pivot pro
jecting from the top of the door or gate termed Cardo, as explained
by Dr. Smith. This word involves the notion of " swinging," as a
gate on its hinges. Now the region of the sky thus indicated con
stitutes the exact point of intersection of the equinoctial and solsti
tial colures, corresponding to the four regions, which, with the four
intermediate ones, evidently comprise the "eight celestial regions"
referred to in the Chinese legend of the tortoise. Thus, the gen-

162 HAR-MOAD.
erative point of those regions was the Su-Meru of the Hindus, the
Cardo of the Romans; and, as must be now obvious, this was the
very point indicated by the eight-rayed star, Accadian symbol of
" heaven, god," etc., in the most ancient inscriptions of Chaldsea.
This star, I say, was intended to represent the generative point of
the eight regions of heaven, and this proposed assimilation affords
a perfect explanation of its three senses, " elevated, heaven, god."
If the Accadian An, therefore, ever denoted " a star," it could have
been no other than the North Star, conceived as divergent point of
the principal divisions of the cosmos.
Sec. 62. The eight celestial regions were definitely associated
by the Chinese, as proved by the legend of the tortoise, first, with
the cosmos itself, of which the tortoise was a symbol ; and, secondly,
with the sacred mountain, the Meru of the Hindus, Albordj of the
Persians, Gan-Eden. of the Hebrews. The allusion to the seven
stars of the Dipper, and to the five summits, renders it certain that
these notions were attached traditionally by the Chinese to the
sacred mount otherwise regarded as the birthplace of humanity.
Thus, the earliest recollections, not only of the Hindus, the Per
sians, and Hebrews, but those also of the Chinese, centred in this
one locality ; the Har-Moad of Isaiah, of which we shall have to do
hereafter. It is obvious that there were two methods of represent
ing these eight regions geometrically, both of which were associated
traditionally with Mt. Meru. One was by means of the eight
squares surrounding a central one, as seen in the cosmical seal, and
in the Accadian sign Mai, signifying "a temple." Another mode
was to represent these regions by diverging lines from a common
centre, as in the Accadian character An. Both figures symbolized
the chief divisions of the cosmos. The subjoined passage from the
Rig- Veda, cited by M. Carr^, shows that the Hindus, as well as
Chinese, received the notion of eight regions : " Savitri (the sun),
the god with an eye of gold, illumes the eight regions of the
earth, the beings who inhabit the three worlds." ^ The three worlds
were heaven, earth, and the atmosphere. Each was divided into
the same number of regions, and Mt. Meru united them all as their
common centre. It was from this point that all the divisions of the
cosmos diverged. Usually the four rivers were located in the direc
tion of the four cardinal points; but the Buddhists of Thibet made
' IJAncien Orient, i. p. 47.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 163
them correspond with the four intermediate points.^ But both
Brahmans and Buddhists appear to have held in common the doc
trine of eight regions diverging from Meru.^ Thus, in China and
in India, the system of nine squares and of eight regions had
everything in common, except that in the last instance a geometrical
point of intersection was substituted for the central square in the
former. Both figures were associated with the primary divisions of
the cosmos, and definitely with Mt. Meru as conceived centre of the
world. The number eight, which appears here in reference to the four
primary and the four intermediate regions, diverging from the
traditional mount of paradise, obviously has some fundamental con
nection with the eight Cabiriac divinities engaged in the work of
creating the world. Recall here the facts developed in the third
chapter, respecting the Accadian Ak, the Egyptian Sesun, and
Chinese Kuas, paleographic symbols in which the numeral eight
appears in each instance, as relating definitely to the work of crea
tion, "and to the deities engaged m it. Thus, the Sesun of the
Egyptians is explained by M. De Roug^ as referring to the eight
gods who assist Thoth in superintending the labor of creation ; and
Sir G. Wilkinson finds an allusion in the same character to the
eight regions ruled by Thoth or Mercury. The Babylonian Mer
cury had for his sanctuary the eighth stage of the temple of Bor
sippa, which represented the heaven of the fixed stars, and we have
learned from M. Lenormant that this and indeed all the pyramidal
temples of the Euphrates valley were but artificial reproductions of
the sacred mount of paradise, whose summit, as we have shown,
formed the generative point of the eight regions. Mercury was a
Cabiriac divinity, the Dioscuri were also worshiped as such, and all
are found associated with this mountain of the world, from whence
the divisions of the cosmos take their rise. The priests who pre
sided over the mysteries of Shemal in the city of Haran were called
Kabis, that is, " Cabiri," and Shemal himself, as put for the North
Star, was esteemed the eighth in relation to the seven stars of the
great Dipper. He was thus the eighth Cabirus, definitely asso
ciated with the celestial region termed Su-Meru by the Hindus,
Cardo by the Romans, Su-mi-lu in the cuneiform texts ; that is to
^ Vid. Obry, Du Berceau, etc., p. 31.
2 On this point, see Obry, ibid., pp. 165, 166 ; cf. pp. 23, 27, 45, etc.

164 HAR-MOAD.
say, the identical point in the heavens from which the chief divi
sions of the cosmos were generated, and by reference to which the
divisions of the temple were also located. This whole doctrine of
the temple and of the cosmos is by these data definitely connected
with the Cabiri ; and we thus prove beyond doubt the truth of the
statement put forth in our third chapter, that the doctrine of the
temple, together with the cosmogony closely related to it, had been
transmitted to historical times through the ancient temple-craft.
The theory of the temple and of the cosmos, inherited by them
from the first ages of the world, from the sacred mount, in fact,
traditionally the primitive home of man, was that to which mainly
the mysteries of the temple-craft appertained. The sacred moun
tain, of which the pyramidal temple was an imitation, was the
model, the original type, of all such constructions. The cosmogony,
both in theory and in tradition, was connected with the temple, and
with its archetype, the mount of paradise. The fundamental con
ception of division appertained to all ; and as the augurial temple
included a celestial space correspondent to a terrestrial space. So the
pyramid was conceived to unite the heaven and earth, just as the
sacred mount united the paradise of the gods with that of the first
¦men. Thus, in view of all the facts now before us, there can be
no doubt as to the origin of the profound system of ideas which
has constituted the subject of our present study ; nor can there be
any reasonable question as to the medium of the transmission of
these doctrines from the first ages of the world to the historical
period. Sec. 63. As already stated, the image of a man was engraven
upon the mystical square representing the cosmos, which denoted
that man was conceived as a microcosm, or the universe in min
iature. We have traced the system of divisions which this symbol
of nine squares presents to the sacred mount itself, traditionally the
birthplace of humanity. This accords perfectly with the history of
creation, in which the formation of man, and especially his introduc
tion into the terrestrial paradise, constituted the crowning work of
the cosmos, appertaining to the last, the seventh, day of the creation
week. Finally, in the New Testament, man himself appears as the
temple, a building of God, a dwelling-place for the Divine Spirit ;
and this solves the enigma as pertains to the cosmogony,* to the
temple, and to man. We must advance one more step, however, in

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 165
order to realize it in all its significance. The pyramidal temple had
its eighth stage in the form of a cube, corresponding to the eighth
division of the cosmos, the eighth celestial region, the eighth Cabi
rus, whose symbol was the cubical stone. The Scriptures recognize,
in point of fact, an eighth day of creation, completing the octave.
The Revelator thus alludes to it : —
" And he carried me away in the spirit to a great and high mountain, and
shewed me that great city, the holy Jerusalem, descending out of heaven from
God, having the glory of God : and her light was like unto a stone most precious,
even like a jasper stone, clear as crystal; and had a wall great and high, and had
twelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels, and names written thereon, which
are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel : on the east three
gates ; on the north three gates ; on the south three gates ; and on the west three
gates. And the wall of the city had twelve foundations, and in them the names
of the twelve apostles of the Lamb. And he that talked with me had a golden
reed to measure the city, and the gates thereof, and the wall thereof. And the
city lieth foursquare, and the length is as large as the breadtli : and he measured
the city with the reed, twelve thousand furlongs. The length and the breadth and
the height of it are equal. And he measured the wall thereof, a hundred and forty
and four cubits, according to the measure of a man, that is, the angel." (Rev.
xxi. 10-17.)
To show the connection of the above language with the idea of
the original cosmos, it suffices merely to quote the opening verses
of the same chapter : —
" And I saw a new heaven and a new earth: for the fir.<!t heaven and the first
earth were passed away; and there was no more sea. And I John saw the holy
city, new Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride
adorned for her husband. And I heard a great voice out of heaven saying, Be
hold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they
shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be their God "
(vv. 1-3).
The most remarkable points to be noted in these passages are :
1st. The holy city incloses a cubical space, like the Holy of Holies
of the Hebrew taberilacle ; like the sanctuary constituting the
eighth stage of the pyramidal temple; like the Arabian Chaaba,
also, whose model was supposed to have been brought frpm heaven
by the first man Adam. To these must be added the dressed stone
of a cubical form, symbol of heaven, and likewise of the eighth
Cabirus. 2d. The obvious reference to the zodiacal temple, corre
sponding to the eighth celestial region, evinced by the twelve gates,
the names of the twelve tribes of Israel, and the twelve apostles.
3d. The connection with the cosmos, consisting of the two chief
divisions, or heaven and earth. 4th. Its direct relation to man con
sidered as the microcosm ; its measures are assimilated mystically

166 HARr-MOAD.
to the measure of a man; calling to mind the image engraven upon
the mystical square. 5th. The notion of a dwelling-place for the
deity, upon which we have insisted in connection with the ancient
doctrine of the temple. 6th. And finally, the great and high moun
tain, in which we have obviously a reference to the traditional
mount of paradise, with which all these conceptions were asso
ciated. We see in the doctrines set forth in the present chapter the vital
connection between the first chapters of Genesis and the last chap
ters of Revelation. The Biblical anthropology is a perfect corre
spondent of the Biblical cosmogony. To heaven and earth answer
the ordinary dualistic division of soul and body. The particular
threefold division of the cosmos into heaven, earth, and the atmos
phere, constituting the three worlds of the ancient Semitic and
Aryan conception, correspond to the trichotomistic powers of man,
the spirit, soul, and body. Thus, man is the true temple, the real
cosmos. The fundamental relation of the cosmos and temple, and
of man to both, each conceived as a dwelling of God, constitutes the
ground thought of the two religions of the Bible.

CHAPTER VI.
A PAKTICULAB HEAVEN AND EARTH EEGABDED AS THE ARCHE
TYPAL TEMPLE.
Sec. 64. In the Mosaic and Babylonian accounts of creation, the
formation of man is conceived as the crowning work of Divinity.
In Genesis, the narrative continues with a description of the origi
nal abode of humanity, prepared oy the Deity himself ; and of the
intimate personal relations existing at this early period between the
Creator and his rational offspring. If this portion of the account is
to be taken in any sense as literal, according to the usual interpre
tation of it by exegetes, it is necessary to give a fixed locality on
the earth's surface, not only to the Garden of Eden itself, but to
the personal appearance of the Divine Being in his intercourse with
the first human pair. No direct communications could be imparted
to man by the Deity that were not subject strictly to the limitations
of time and space. Undoubtedly, therefore, a very great signifi
cance attached to this particular region during the life of Adam
and Eve, and through all subsequent times within the traditional
memory of their posterity. Not merely the life's experience and
particular historical events connected with this primitive abode,
but the image of its physical characteristics and geographical fea
tures would mingle with the saddened recollections of the past,
and be engraved upon the mind of succeeding generations. Nor
is it to be supposed that our first parents and their immediate de
scendants confined their observation and study to the configura
tion of the earth upon which they dwelt, or even to the natural
objects with which they were surrounded. The sky, the heaven
that spread its curtain over their heads, decorated with brilliant
stars, and especially the sun and moon, — these objects also at
tracted their gaze and study. We are the more justified in such
a supposition, since the narrative of the first chapter of Genesis

168 HAR-MOAD.
devotes a particular account, and the fourth day of creation, to the
arrangement of the heavens.
Thus, a fixed locality upon the earth's surface, and a well-defined
circle of stellar observation, limited by their visual range, together
with all the more prominent objects in both fields of view, would be
brought naturally into immediate association, and be indelibly im
pressed upon the minds of the first men. It is morally certain that
these various surroundings would give a deep coloring to the entire
development of this primitive race, and, aside from their own acts
and history, constitute the chief elements of those traditionary ideas
transmitted to subsequent ages. It is equally certain, on the other
hand, that those traditionary conceptions, in so far as they related
to terrestrial objects, would pertain to a particular portion of the
earth's surface, and not to the earth in general, except in a vague
and indefinite manner ; that, also, 'in so far as they related to the
stellar world, this would not be the vast expanse of the sky collec
tively taken, but a well-defined and limited region of the heavens,
characterized by special features. A particular earth and a partic
ular heaven, these put in direct and so to speak concrete relation
to each other, would constitute exclusively the cosmos, or world, in
which the practical development of primitive humanity had taken
place. The same reasons apply in respect to personal intercourse
between God and man, which is represented as existing at this
period. The special relation to man here supposed, from the nature
of the case, must give to the Deity an individual and local charac
ter, subject to the limitations of time and space, as all personal
intercourse between rational beings on earth must be ; and this,
even though the Divine Being was conceived abstractly as filling
all space. In different terms, the Deity must be conceived, under
such circumstances, literally to dwell somewhere, to inhabit some
place, the same as man ; and this notion of a dwelling-place, applied.
to the Divinity, constituted, in the minds of antiquity, one of the
essential characteristics of the temple. Judging from the nature of
the cosmos in which the intellectual and spiritual existence of the
first men must have had its birth ; judging, too, from the arrange
ment of the temple structures, which at subsequent epochs were
supposed to represent heaven and earth ; it is possible to form some
idea as to the character of the originally conceived dwelling-place of
Divinity, when as yet no artificial structures of this kind existed.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 169
It consisted, in fact, of that particular and primitive heaven and
earth here supposed ; with which, therefore, the archetypal temple
was identical. In a word, as will be shown hereafter, the heaven
itself was esteemed the especial abode of the Divine Existence and
the celestial paradise ; while the earth itself was the abode of man,
regarded as a terrestrial paradise ; and the personal intercourse be
tween God and the first human pair, as represented in Genesis,
presupposes an open communication existing from one dwelling
place to the other.
Sec. 65. The remarks that have been submitted thus far, being
. mostly of an a priori nature, will be thought to require an empirical
basis, in order to give them in any sense a scientific value. This
basis is to be sought in the concurrent traditions of the old world
respecting the cradle of the human race, in so far as they are to-day
available to the critic. The generalizing principles upon which it
will be attempted to classify these data may be expressed in the
following leading propositions, namely : —
1st. There existed a particular, primitive, and traditionary hea
ven and earth, these being put in direct relation to each other ; one
regarded as the especial abode of the Divine Powers, the other as
that of the first men.
2d. The conceived primary divisions of each, together with the
central points of their supposed generation, coincided exactly in one
case to those in the other.
3d. By virtue of these divisions, and upon principles heretofore
established, such heaven and earth constituted at once the original
cosmos and the archetypal temple.
The first and most vital inquiry for us now is, whether the origi
nal abode of man on earth can be, with some degree of -certainty,
definitely ascertained ? in other words, whether the geographical
.scheme of Genesis, pertaining to the Garden of Eden, admits of
being precisely located ? If this can be done, the elements of the
foregoing propositions will be by this means fully supplied ; since
the particular earth being ascertained, its co-related stellar region
becomes also known. The evidences tending to locate the terres
trial paradise must constitute for us, then, those of the first class ;
though no more conclusive, as we shall find, toward establishing
our general theory than those pertaining to the traditional celestial
paradise. It will be, by a comparative analysis of both orders of

170 HAR-MOAD.
proofs, that they will be found to afford mutual supports and con
firmations of the hypothesis with which we are to be occupied.
First, then, as respects the locality of the Gan-Eden of Genesis.
Before the opening of the present century, the investigations of
scholars relative to this subject had been productive of no results,
except to render it hazardous for the reputation of any critic to
attempt even the solution of such a problem. The first series of
investigations, so far as my personal reading extends, that gave
promise of ultimate success in this direction were those conducted
by Colonel Wilford, and published in the " Asiatic Researches," dat
ing from about the year 1818. Subsequently, many of the leading
Orientalists of Europe applied their learning and critical ability to
the solution of the same question, till now a well-defined theory
respecting the subject is unhesitatingly adopted by a large class of
learned critics. Although the hypothesis originally put forth by
Colonel Wilford has not been supported in many important details
by subsequent writers, owing to the unreliable character of some
sources upon which he was at that early period obliged to depend,
he was able to establish certain fundamental data that have served
the basis of more recent researches. These are substantially as
follows : —
1st. That there exists a remarkable agreement respecting the
first abode of mankind between the earliest and most authentic
traditions, preserved by the two great branches of the Indo-Euro
pean race, namely, the Aryans of India and those of ancient Persia.
2d. That a like substantial agreement may be traced between
the Aryan traditions generally and those of the Semitic race ; par
ticularly the Hebrew account of Genesis.
3d. That the common point of departure for all these races had
been outside the countries occupied by them subsequently, and since
the opening of the historical period.
It was proved, for instance, that the Sanskrit-speaking popula
tions of India had not at first occupied this country^, but had mi
grated from another region, entering India from the northwest.
So, too, the earliest records of the Zend or Persian tribes, although
in a measure indistinct, rendered it evident that this race had jour
neyed originally from a country much farther east and north. The
Book of Genesis also afforded intimations that the people primi
tively settled in the valley of the Euphrates had arrived upon the

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 171
plains of Shinar by migrating from the east. The question was
still a very difficult one, but it had been simplified and reduced to a
more scientific form. Everything seemed to conduct to the region
of the Hindu Caucasus as that where the earliest traditions of the
races ought to converge. The essential conditions of the problem,
as admirably stated by M. Ernest Renan many years since, were
in general these : —
1st. To find a region whose natural characteristics and geo
graphical features corresponded to the uniform traditions respecting
the primitive home of man.
2d. A region whose situation was such, with reference to the
peoples preserving those traditions, that it was possible for each and
all to have departed from it toward the countries subsequently in
habited by them.
3d. A region to which, by the aid of their traditions and histori
cal records, as well as by the assistance of linguistic science, tracing
the origin of names of mountains, rivers, etc., it was possible to
retrace the steps of these peoples along the routes originally taken
by them in their migrations from this central point of divergence.
It is not too much to say that where these essential conditions of
the problem before us have been clearly apprehended and strictly
adhered to by scholars in their investigations, there has been sub
stantial uniformity and agreement in the results obtained by them.
Guided by these principles, the researches of such able critics as
Ewald, Lassen, Burnouf, Obry, Renan, Lenormant, and others have
all tended to one conclusion, namely, that the original abode of
these various races, the cradle of humanity, in fact, was the great
plateau of Pamir, situated on the high table-lands of Central Asia,
near the point where the mo'untains of the Belurtag unite them
selves to the Himalayas. If some eminent scholars have come to
conclusions different from these, it has been generally due to the
fact, either that their criticisms were purely of a negative character,
tending to no fixed result, or that they have neglected the funda
mental conditions of this problem, assuming points of departure
from which it was certain that some of the i-aces never did depart.
There is not the slightest evidence, for instance, that the Aryans of
India ever migrated from Ararat in Armenia, from the " highlands
of Elam," or the banks of the Euphrates. But there is much proof
tending to show, on the other hand, that the Aryans entered India

172 HARr-MOAD.
from the northwest ; that the Medo-Persians migrated from beyond
the Caspian ; and that the Semitic tribes, or at least the first civil
izers of Babylon, came from the east. It is unnecessary, however,
to dwell at greater length upon the conditions of this problem.
Sec. 66. It would lead us far astray from the main object in
view to enter here upon labored investigations touching the details
of this particular topic, based upon the original sources. Indeed,
this work has been already and repeatedly gone over by some of
the ablest critics of the present day. The principal facts pertain
ing to the question are well established, and the necessary conditions
to be observed in relation to it have been explained. I merely serve
myself, therefore, with some extracts from authors who have most
thoroughly explored the entire field, and have reported the conclu
sion at which they have arrived. I commence with M. E. Renan
as follows : —
" Thus, everything invites us to place the Eden of the Semites
in the mountains of Belurtag, at the point where this chain unites
with the Himalayas, toward the plateau of Pamir. . . . We are con
ducted to the same point, according to E. Burnouf, by the most
ancient and authentic texts of the Zend-Avesta. The Hindu tradi
tions, also, contained in the Mahabharata and the Puranas, converge
to the same region. There is the true Meru, the true Albordj, the
true river Avanda, from whence all rivers take their source, accord
ing to the Persian tradition. There is, according to the opinions of
almost all the populations of Asia, the central point of the world,
the umbilic, the gate of the universe. There is the Uttara-kuru,
' the country of happiness,' of which Megasthenes writes. There
is, finally, the point of common attachment of the primitive geogra
phy, both of the Semitic and Indo-European races. This coinci
dence is one of the most striking results to which modern criticism
has conducted ; and it is remarkable that it has been reached from
two opposite directions at one and the same time, namely, through
Aryan studies on one hand, and Semitic studies on the other." ^
Prior to the investigations of M. Renan, in the article referred to
here, M. Obry had published an extended review of two hundred
pages, devoted exclusively to the same problem. The subjoined
extract exhibits the conclusions in part, as stated summarily at the
close of his work, to which this writer had been conducted : —
1 Histoire generale des Langues Semitiques, etc., pp. 480, 481. Cf., by the same
author, De V Origine du Langage, pp. 228-230. Both treatises contain excellent
criticisms upon the topic in question.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 173
" I believe to have sufficiently established in the course of this
essay : 1st. That the Semitic traditions, or better, the Semitico-
Hamite, are in accord with the Aryan traditions, in placing the
cradle of the human race to the north of India ; that is to say, in a
country east in relation to the Semites, etc. 2d. That this region
was from the first conceived as identical with that upon the moun
tains of which the ark of Noah rested after the deluge, as well as
that of Xisuthrus and of Manu-Vaivasvata. 3d. That as Genesis
affirms that the descendants of Japhet, Shem, and Ham emigrated
from the east to Babylon, it is necessary to follow inversely this
route, in order to find the first abode of man ; that is, to pass from
the Semitic Ararat to that which I call the Aryan Aryaratha,
named Meru by the Hindus, Albordj by the Persians, and Eden by
the Hebrews. 4th. That originally Eden, Albordj, and Meru were
all conceived as one and the same plateau of" a square figure, having
its four sides turned toward the four cardinal points ; and of such
immense elevation that it seemed to confound itself with the hea
vens, the abode of the Superior Powers. 5th. That this high
region, suspended, so to speak, between heaven and earth, and con
ceived as the cradle of the human race, passed for being watered by
a single river, but which divided itself from thence into four
branches, flowing toward the four great countries surrounding it,
also facing the four cardinal regions. 6th. That the orientation of
the four rivers (that is, their direction toward the cardinal points),
and their issue from a common source, constituted in some sense
two fundamental conditions of the primitive abode of humanity." ^
A remark or two here relative to the two fundamental conditions
alluded to by M. Obry in the last sentence quoted. Universal tradi
tion does assume four rivers, the same as described in Genesis ; it
assumes their issue, also, from a common source, or at least a com
mon region of country from which all take their rise. In a certain
sense, finally, tradition assumes the orientation of these rivers. In
this respect, however, there was a variation between the cardinal
and the intermediate points of the compass. The Buddhists, as
cited by M. Obry himself, located these rivers in the direction of
the intermediate regions ; and there is reason to believe that such
notions prevailed at Babylon. In all cases, nevertheless, the idea
of a certain orientation was fundamental, as this author insists.
These were the essential characteristics of the country which, ac
cording to tradition, had constituted the first abode of humanity.
A region without four rivers, these diverging from a common centre,
1 Du Berceau, etc., pp. 187, 188.

174 HAR-MOAD.
and flowing in opposite directions toward four quarters of the globe,
could not be identified with the geography of the Eden of Genesis.
Here we have an essential condition of the problem before us that
must not be neglected. It is remarkable that there exists but one
such region on the earth, and it is that to which M. E. Renan and
Obry allude in the extracts cited. It will be noticed that M. Obry
confirms the authorities cited in the last chapter, relative to the
special configuration of the traditional Eden. It was of a square
figure, its sides oriented, and surrounded by four great countries
also oriented. Uniform tradition agreed likewise in this particular.
Sec. 67. The most elaborate and recent discussion of the sub
ject before us, so far as I am aware, is that of M. F. Lenormant in
his excellent commentary upon the " Fragments of Berosus," already
frequently cited in these pages. As his opinions agree so nearly
with those of the authors just quoted, it is unnecessary to reproduce
them here in detail. He proves the substantial agreement of the
Hindu and Persian traditions respecting the locality of the sacred
mount, the Eden of Genesis, and then shows that the Mosaic ac
count points definitely to the same region. He observes : —
" That the Biblical description of Eden relates to the same coun
try as the other (the Aryan) traditions passed in review by us is a
point upon which all scholars are to-day agreed, and it is established
by abundant proofs." ^
But the most recent statement of the hypothesis, supported by
the evidences adduced by the authors already referred to, is that by
the distinguished Orientalist, M. G. Maspero. He does not appear
to have gone over the entire ground anew, upon the basis of the
original sources, but the various points referred to by him have
been well established by other scholars, and his summary of the
conclusions is an excellent one, which is here reproduced. Alluding
to the ancient races, he remarks : —
" All have preserved, mixed with the vague legends of their
infancy, the tradition of a primitive country, which, had been in
habited by their ancestors before their dispersion. It was a high
mountain, or better, an immense plain, of a square figure, so ele
vated that it seemed to be suspended, so to speak, between heaven
^ Frag, de Birose, p. 308. Cf. pp. 299-314, for a discussion of all the points,
which is very able and critical. The author adheres strictly to the conditions of
the problem, and but one result was possible.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 175
and earth. From the interior rose a great river, which was divided
from thence into four arms or branches, which flowed toward the
four surrounding regions. There was the navel of the world, the
cradle of the human race. The peoples situated between the Medi
terranean and Tigris located this legendary country in the east ;
while the populations of Iran (ancient Persia) and India conceived
it to be situated in the north. The moderns have succeeded in
determining its site more definitely than the ancients were able to
do. They have placed it in the mountains of the Belurtag, near
the place where this chain unites with the Himalayas, upon the
¦plateau of Pamir. There in effect, and there alone, we find a
country which satisfies all the descriptions, geographically speaking,
preserved in the sacred booksof Asia. From the plateau of Pamir,
or better, the mountain mass of which this region is the central
plain, four great rivers take their rise, the Indus, the Helmend, the
Oxus, and the Jaxartes, which flow in directions the most diverse,
well answering in this respect to the four rivers of sacred tradi
tion." 1
For the most part, the investigations of learned critics relative
to the situation of the Gan-Eden of Genesis have been based upon
the Semitic and Aryan traditions, with very little reference to those
preserved by the so-called Turanian races. The reason has been
that the Turanians, if we except the Chinese and those assumed to
have founded the Babylonian civilization, have preserved no such
distinct recollections pertaining to the original home of man, not
having possessed from early times a written literature. Nor has
the literature of the Chinese and that of the Babylonians been so
thoroughly investigated by scholars generally. Nevertheless, cer
tain facts are now known, some of which have been already pre
sented to the reader, which go to confirm our hypothesis respecting
the actual position of the sacred mount, traditionary abode of the
first men. Since China is situated to the southeast in relation to
the plateau of Pamir, we ought to be able, according to the condi
tions of our problem, to trace the origin of the Chinese in the north
west in relation to the region occupied by them in historical times.
On this point Professor W. D. Whitney observes : " The origin of the
Chinese people is to be sought — if it be possible ever to trace back
their movements beyond the limits of their own territory — in the
northwest." ^ This statement is abundantly supported by the facts
^ Histoire Ancienne, etc., p. 132.
2 Oriental and Linguistic Studies, 2d series, p. 63.

176 HAR-MOAD.
developed in Dr. Schlegel's recent and voluminous work upon
Chinese astronomy.^ It is necessary to recall here the cosmical
legend of the tortoise, as presented in the last chapter. The matter
of the five summits, of the eight regions, and the constellation of
the "Northern Measure," that is, the seven stars of the great
Dipper, all tend to connect the primitive Chinese tradition with
the Meru of the Hindus, the Albordj of the Persians, the Eden of
Genesis. With reference, now, to the Babylonians, the frequent
allusion in the cuneiform texts to the " Bit-kharris of the east, the
father of countries," as already mentioned, affords sufficient indica
tions of the existence of traditions similar to those recorded in the
first chapters of Genesis. But I consider the attempt of some Eng
lish Assyriologues to locate the origin of these traditions, and thence
the Mosaic geography of Eden, in the "highlands of Elam," or in
the valley of the Euphrates itself, as based wholly upon erroneous
ideas. It is quite probable that certain names of rivers and moun
tains had been transported from the east, and applied to correspond
ing objects in a country farther west. But the conditions of our
problem absolutely forbid the assumption of either Elam or Chal
dsea as the cradle of humanity. One of these conditions regards
the peculiar geographical features, in themselves of an extraordinary
character. Another is constituted of the concurrent traditions
pointing to a fixed locality, preserved by peoples widely^ separated
in historical times. Finally, we have to trace these populations,
with the aid of their traditions, and by other helps, back to the
original point of common divergence, and by some route physically
possible. Those who are familiar with the facts pertaining to our
subject will recognize at once the impossibility of assuming any
other terrestrial region as the birthplace of humanity than Central
and Northern Asia, if all these conditions are to be observed. But
it is a most remarkable circumstance that the plateau of Pamir
literally fulfills all of them.
Sec. 68. But there is another condition of the problem before
us, upon which critics have never insisted, so far as I know, but it
1 Uranographie Chinois, pp. 729-736. The extravagant theory of the author
as to the antiquity of the Chinese nation may well be doubted. But it results
from his investigations that the origin of this people is to be traced to the ele
vated plains of Central Asia, to the same region, in fact, already assumed as the
primitive home of man.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 177
seems to me very essential, and not to be neglected. I allude to the
astronomical element involved in nearly all the ancient traditions
relating to the sacred mount of paradise. With the particular
earth inhabited by the first men, whose geographical features were
so extraordinary, were directly connected certain stellar objects of
a character not less notable, which constituted the particular heaven
of primeval tradition, thus completing the notion of a well-defined
celestial space united with a corresponding terrestrial space, pre
viously shown to have characterized the old augurial temple of the
Etrusco-Romans. We enter now upon the consideration of the
astronomical element referred to, deriving our first notice from
the pass:ige in the prophecy of Isaiah, which reads as follows: — ¦*
"For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my
throrie above the stars of God : I will sit also upon the mount of the congrega
tion, in the sides of the north : I will ascend above the heights of the clouds ; I
will be like the Most High " (xiv. 13, 14).
This remarkable text has become quite celebrated among Orien
talists, as will be seen from the frequent allusions to it to be cited
hereafter. The Hebrew name of Divinity employed in the ex
pression " the stars of God " is El (bs), while that occurring in the
phrase "Most High " is Elyon (ivby), both being titles of the Deity
common to all the Semitic nations, and thus, as Professor Max
Miiller has fully shown, to be referred to the period before the
Semitic race had separated into distinct branches. The Har-Moad,
or " mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north," better
rendered, perhaps, as " mountain of the assembly in the extreme
north," was undoubtedly, as long since suggested by Dr. Gesenius,
the great Asiatic Olympus, the supposed residence of the gods. In
the phrase " stars of God," that is, the stars of El, there is an allu
sion to a particular and remarkable asterism in the northern hea
vens, the identification of which is no longer a matter of doubt
among leading Orientalists. I refer to the seven stars of the
" Chariot," or " great Dipper," in the constellation of the Great
Bear, whose slow, rolling motion about the north polar star has been
remarked by the men of all ages. Its uniform and direct associa
tion with the traditional mount of paradise is the point to be estab
lished. Dr. Gesenius observes : —
" The place mentioned in the words of the king of Babylon
(Is. xiv. 13), the mountain of assembly (of the gods), is probably
the Persian mountain El-Burj, El-Burz, called by the Hindoos

178 HAR-MOAD.
Meru, supposed to be situated in the extreme north, and, like the
Greek Olympus, regarded by the Orientals as the seat of the
gods." ^
The stars of El, then, were associated with Mt. Meru, the
Albordj of the Persians, the Eden of Genesis. Relative to this
point, and in allusion to Mt. Meru, Colonel Wilford remarks : —
"As it is written in the Puranas, that on Mount Meru there is
an eternal day for the space of fourteen degrees round Su-Meru
(the celestial pole), and of course an eternal night for the same
space on the opposite side (or south pole) ; the Hindus have been
forced to suppose that Su-Meru is exactly at the apex, or summit of
the shadow of the earth ; and that from the earth to this summit,
there is an immense conical hill, solid like the rest of the globe, but
invisible, impalpable, and pervious to mankind; on the sides of
this mountain are various mansions, rising in eminence and preex-
cellence, as you ascend, and destined for the place of residence of
the blessed according to their merits. God and the principal deities
are supposed to be seated, in the sides of the north, on the summit
of this mountain, which is called also Sabha, or of the congregation.
This opinion is of the greatest antiquity, as it is alluded to by
Isaiah, almost in the words of the Pauraiiics. This prophet, de
scribing the fall of the chief of the Daityas (the Babylonian king?),
introduces him, saying, ' That he would exalt his throne above the
stars of God, and would sit on the mount of the congregation in the
sides of the north.' " ^
The idea that an eternal day exists for " fourteen degrees round
Su-Meru," or the north polar star, probably arose from the fact
that the asterisms situated near this point never set, never leave
the visible heavens, as do those constellations more distant from the
pole. It will be seen that Mt. Meru was conceived as an immense
conical hill, whose summit penetrated the heavens in the region of
the celestial pole or Su-Meru ; and thus, that the mountain itself
literally united the heavens and earth like a vast column. Colonel
Wilford also identifies the Har-Moad of Isaiah with Mt. Meru. But
I wish to submit a passage here from the pen of Rev. A. H. Sayce,
as follows : —
" The innumerable gods and goddesses, demigods and heroes,
of the Accadians were adopted by the Assyrians in their popular
1 Robinson's Gesenius' Heb. Lex., Art. t^^-q. Cf. Gesenius' Jesaia, notes in
loc. ; and Beylage I., especially, p. 326, b. ii.
2 Asiatic Researches, vol. vi. pp. 488, 489.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 179
mythology, in the larger proportion of cases, without any change of
name. Even temples of Kharsak-kurra, or ' highland of the east,'
'the mountain of the world,' and cradle of the Accadian race and
ritual, are founded by Assyrian monarchs. Nay, we find the same
starting point of Turanian civilization mentioned in the Old Testa
ment ; Isaiah (xiv. 13) sets the king of Babylon on ' the mountain
of the gods ' or ' world,' which the Jew, who had identified Accad
or Urdhu, ' the highlands,' with Ararat ( Urardhu) of the same sig
nification, places in the north. Both Accad and Armenia are called
in the inscriptions Burbur or ' summits.' " ^
Sec. 69, I am not sure that Rev. A. H. Sayce would identify this
" mountain of the world," the Har-Moad of Isaiah, with the " high
lands of Elam," or of modern Susiana ; but this seems to me Impos
sible. 1st. The stars of El are directly associated by Isaiah with
the " mount of the congregation, in the sides of the north." This
sacred mountain is in the extreme north, not in the east simply,
which, in reference to Akkad, was the exact direction of Elam.
Besides this, no tradition connects with the " highlands of Elam "
any such asterism as the stars of El, or such as universal tradition
associated with the true Asiatic Olympus. 2d. The allusion of
Isaiah, according to the general opinion of the best exegetes, was
definitely to Mt. Meru, the Persian Albordj. But more especially,
now, with reference to the seven stars of the chariot in connection
with the diluvian mountain which uniform tradition regarded as
one and the same with the mount of paradise. M. Obry, in allu
sion to the identity of the two mountains, remarks as follows : —
" But in taking this for our base, w'e are able to demand to-day,
whether the Ararat of Genesis was the same as the Ararat of sub
sequent Biblical writings? Or, in other terms, whether this name,
of doubtful origin, is not a corruption of an Aryan term, either
Zend or Sanskrit, namely, Aryaratha, '¦ chariot of the Aryas;' a
vague designation of a mountain of the north, situated outside
Armenia, and, for instance, to the north of Media, Persia, or even
Bactria, as was conjectured in the last century by the learned Abb^
Millat? — this mountain being thus named, for the reason that
around its summit was thought to turn the chariot of the sevens
Maharchis of the Brahmans, the seven Amschaspands of the Per
sians, or the seven Kokabim of the Chaldseans ; that is to say, the
chariot of the seven stars of the Great Bear." " That the Chaldse
ans had inherited these mythical ideas is proved by the complaint
of Isaiah upon the fall of the ungodly monarch of Babylon : ' this
^ Trans. Bib. Arch. Socielyj vol; i. p. 299.

180 HARr-MOAD.
star of morning, son of Aurora, this oppressor of nations, who
boasted not to descend like other kings into the depths of Sheol, but
to ascend above the stars of the mighty God, and to take his place
by the side of the Most High, upon the mountain of the assembly '
(Hebrew Har-Moad) ; that is, assembly of the cheba-kokabim, or
seven stars of the Great Bear, on the sides of the north." ^
These views respecting the transfer of the name Aryaratha,
" chariot of the Aryas," from Meru of the Hindus to Ararat in
Armenia, and the identification of the same stellar group to which
the name alludes, with the stars of El, are fully adopted by M.
Lenormant in the subjoined extract : —
" M. Obry has shown that the mountain regarded by the Aryans
as the original and sacred abode of humanity had at first received
in their traditions the name of Aryaratha, ' chariot of the Aryas ; '
for the reason that around its summit was thought to turn the
chariot of the seven Bramanic Maharchis, of the seven Persian
Amschaspands, and of the seven Chaldsean Kokabim; that is to
say, the chariot of the seven stars of the Great Bear. This title
Aryaratha is the original of that of Ararat ; and it was only at a
later period that the Aryan tribes, emigrating into Armenia, trans
ferred it to a mountain in that country, otherwise called Mt. Masis."
" The pyramidal temple of the Chaldseans was an imitation, an
artificial reproduction of the mythic ' mountain of the assembly of
the stars,' the Har-Moad of Isaiah, which sacred tradition placed in
the north." 2
The author refers, in the two passages above cited, to one and
the same mountain, the Meru of the Hindus. Thus, " the chariot
of the Aryas," rolling upon the summit of Meru, designates the
same stellar group as that which Isaiah refers to as the stars of El ;
both associated with the traditional mount of paradise. But con
nected with this circle of ideas is another fact of considerable im
portance, and one derived from a well-known cuneiform passage.
Rev. A. H. Sayce has referred to the temples of Kharsak-kurra, a
phrase otherwise read Bit-kharris, and interpreted by this writer as
" mountain of the world." These were the pyramidal temples in
imitation of the traditional mount of paradise, to which M. Lenor
mant alludes. Connected with the structures called Bit-kharris, or
Kharsak-kurra, was another class termed Arali ; and a certain text
makes special mention of both as the abode of the great divinities ;
1 Du Berceau, etc., pp. 5-7.
2 Frag, de Berose, pp. 302, 358 ; cf. pp. 317, 318.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 181
referring, however, not to the artificial reproductions, but to that
particular celestial region of which these were imitations. I quote
the rendering of the text by M. Lenormant, with his comments
attached : —
" * Nisruk, Sin, Shamas, Nabu, Bin, et Adar, and their great
spouses, who reign eternally in the interior of the great Bit-Harris
of the east, and of the country of Aralli.' This is, as we find, a
luminous and celestial region like the east, which serves as the resi
dence of the great divinities, and of which the temples Arali are
the image. Such a conception accords perfectly with that of the
Qaq-qa-du or Bit-Sadu ; that is to say, with the culminating portion
of the superior hemisphere of heaven. As to Bit-Harris, ' the
house well built,' which the passage cited represents as the palace
of the gods, it is situated at the same time in the Kurra and in the
Arali ; that is to say, in the east, and in the direction of the point
which serves as the pivot of rotation of the superior heavens ; and
we believe that it is necessary to place at the summit of the para
disiacal mountain of the northeast, which unites the heavens and
earth like a vast column, the Har-Moad of Isaiah, of which we have
studied already the conception." ^
Sec. 70. The concurrent opinions of so many learned critics
upon the various points now before us is a fact quite unusual ; and
it goes to establish the following conclusions : —
1st. That the " mountain of the assembly," to which the prophet
Isaiah alludes, is none other than the traditional mount of paradise ;
the Eden of Genesis, Meru of the Hindus, or Albordj of the Per
sians. 2d. That according to the most ancient traditions pertaining to
this sacred mount, there had been uniformly associated with it a
particular and notable asterism, namely, the chariot of the seven
stars of the Great Bear, with which the north polar star itself was
put also in direct relation.
3d. That consequently, from the singular allusion of the prophet
to the " stars of El," in relation to which Elyon is considered above
and " Highest," these two Hebrew names of the Deity must have
been in some way connected with the same group of stellar ob
jects, and this from the earliest periods to which the development
of Semitism is to be referred.
It is probable that the statement last submitted will be received
» Frag, de Birose, p. 393.

182 HAR-MOAD.
with some surprise on the part of Biblical critics, and not less with
hesitancy. But even the etymology of the term El, as generally
sanctioned by Hebrew scholars, affords a striking confirmation of
the thesis above stated. It seems to be well understood that this
name El (bs), "the Strong One," is derived from ool (b^is) ; and
that the notion of rolling, turning, is fundamental in both expres
sions. Hence, the meaning of "Strong One, or Mighty One," has
proceeded in some way from that of " to roll, to turn." Dr. J.
Furst explains this upon the principle that "the idea of rolling
gradually merges into that of strength" (art. bns). But it is
hardly possible that the simple conception of " rolling," without the
aid of any special circumstances, ever suggested the idea of infinite
force, leading to the selection of this term as a synonym for the
Almighty. If, however, we connect with this notion the remark
able allusion of Isaiah to the " stars of El," to the chariot of seven
stars rolling around the celestial pole, the double conception of
turning and of strength will at once strike the mind. As M.
Dupuis remarked long ago, but without any reference to this He
brew divine name, the revolution of the immense mass of starry
heavens upon a single, fixed point in the northern hemisphere
would naturally attract the attention of the first men ; and they
would instinctively concentrate around that point the vast assem
blage of force sustaining this mass and causing it to revolve.
Thus, El v/as the "Strong One," who upheld the vast fabric of the
world and caused it to turn on its eternal pivots. The fact that this
title of divinity occurs in the composition of names in both lines of
genealogy from Adam before the deluge, and that neither line,
owing to an original feud between them, would be likely to adopt a
divine name from the other, tends to show that the term El, as
applied to the divinity, was traditionally connected with Gan-Eden
itself, or with that sacred summit around which turned the fiery
wheels of the celestial chariot.
The fact that the Aramaic populations of Northern Mesopotamia,
and especially the Sabseans of Haran, one of the oldest cities of the
world, in which the family of Abraham sojourned for a time after
their migration from " Ur of the Chaldees," had preserved tradi
tions quite in accord with those alieady passed in review is a mat
ter familiar to Orientalists. These recollections of the primitive
ages of humanity, constituting some of the most important ele-

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 183
ments of their original cultus, were embodied especially in the so-
called " mysteries of Shemal," Hebrew Semol, a particular and
critical investigation of which was published several years since by
Professor D. Chwolsohn, of St. Petersburg, to which reference has
been before made.^ This ancient Semitic word Shemal, or Semol,
which appears in the Assyrian texts under the various forms of
Su-mi-lu, Su-me-lu, and Sa-me-la, signifies literally " the left, the
left hand," thence employed from a very remote period to denote
the north, north pole, etc., corresponding precisely to the Su-Meru
of the Hindus. As stated by M. Obry, the Buddhist designation
of Su-Meru is Su-mi-lu ; and this is exactly the Assyrian Su-mi-lu,
applied to the same stellar region.^ It is well known that the
Haranites associated the chariot of the seven Stars of the Great
Bear with their worship of Schemal, who was thus in relation to
them, like the Hebrew Elyon in relation to the " stars of El," con
sidered the eighth.^ The reader will see at once in the character
of this Haranite divinity, and in the mysteries connected with his
cultus, an important confirmation of the views which have been ex
pressed relative to the great Asiatic Olympus, to which the Hebrew
prophet alludes.
Finally, we recall here the Chinese legend of the tortoise, taken
as a symbol of the cosmos. The upper portion of the shell repre
sented the heavens, and the lower portion the earth. But we see
at a glance that it is not the heavens and earth in general which is
intended, but a particular and limited celestial space put in direct
relation to a correspondent terrestrial region. Upon the back of
the tortoise were the images of the eight celestial regions, and in
connection with these the constellation of the " Northern Measure,"
which Dr. Schlegel fully identifies with the group of seven stars,
of which there is here question. Obviously, these eight regions had
their common point of divergence in the pole star, the Su-Meru of
the Hindus, as suggested in the last chapter. Placed in direct rela
tion to these celestial representations were the images of the five
summits and the four canals, whose reference to the traditional
Eden, and exact accord with the Hindu conceptions relating to the
same locality, was also pointed out in the chapter preceding.
1 Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, St. Petersburg, 1856, vol. ii. pp. 319-364.
2 Du Berceau, etc., p. 83, note 4.
8 Ibid., p. 7. Cf. Lenormant, Frag, de Birose, pp. 318, 319.

184 HAR-MOAD.
Thus, we supply here another indispensable condition of the
problem which relates to the precise geographical locality of the
Eden of Genesis, as supposed divergent centre from whence
the races departed to the various countries occupied by them since
the opening of the historical epoch. It was a region with which
certain peculiar geographical features, certain uniform traditions,
and lastly certain stellar groups were invariably associated. It is
one of the most notable facts pertaining to Oriental research that
all these conditions should be literally supplied by a fixed and well-
known locality on the earth's surface, from whence, above all others,
it is quite easy to suppose the various races who now people the
earth first departed.
Sec. 71. It is, then, a matter in relation to which it is impossi
ble to entertain serious doubts, that the earliest traditions trans
mitted to us respecting the primitive home of mankind comprised
the two chief elements insisted upon in the introductory remarks of
the present chapter ; namely, a special reference to a particular
region of the starry heavens, placed in direct relation to a partic
ular portion of the earth's surface, regarded as the cradle of human
ity. That the stellar space thus associated with the terrestrial
abode of the first men was conceived uniformly as the especial
dwelling-place of the divine powers is also a well-established
point ; and it fully explains the existence of the notion in almost
all antiquity that the seat of the heavenly hierarchy was in the
extreme north. In fact, this highest central region of the northern
heavens was deemed a celestial paradise, with which was connected
the terrestrial by means of the sacred mount itself, that united the
heavens and earth like a vast pyramid or column. On this point,
the following observations of M. Obry have a direct bearing : —
" From all antiquity, the populations of Asia have regarded the
blue vault of the firmament as a garden of delights, tapestried with
brilliant stars like stones of fire." " As the radiance of the snow
capped mountains mingled with the azure of ethereal space, blend
ing with it in the distance, the paradise of the gods appeared to
confound itself with that of the first men ; and to express this
vague notion, they formed the Sanskrit phrase Svarga-bhoumi,
' celestial 'earth.' " ^
We are prepared now to trace the genesis of the ancient temple,
• I Du Berceau, etc, pp. 173, 174.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 185
not merely with respect to and by means of its form, but through
direct tradition derived from the primitive abode of humanity.
M. Obry has shown that the diluvian mount and the mount of
paradise were uniformly identified in primitive tradition. This
fact was noticed and insisted upon by the older mythologists ; and
no doubt exists in relation to it. These two mountains identified
as one, we are now able definitely to locate on the earth's surface,
and to show that all the traditionary conceptions relating to it
regarded a particular earth with peculiar geographical features, and
a particular heaven embracing astronomical characteristics not less
remarkable. The earth thus designated was the terrestrial para
dise, abode of primeval humanity. The heaven put in direct rela
tion to it was conceived as the celestial paradise, the seat of the
divine hierarchy. The two were united by the sacred mountain
itself, like a vast pyramidal column reaching from earth to heaven.
Recall now the fact stated by Moses that the founders of Babylon
had journeyed from the east to the land of Shinar, and had there
undertaken to build an immense tower, whose top should reach the
heaven, or, in other words, should represent the heaven ; a tower
which cuneiform scholars usually agree to identify with the pyram
idal temple of Borsippa, in all respects similar to the brick pyramid
of Sakkara in Egypt, belonging obviously to the same chronological
epoch. Recall the fact also, as stated by M. Lenormant, and which
we are now able to confirm, that the pyramidal temple of the
Chaldseans was an imitation, an artificial reproduction, of the tradi
tional mount of paradise, the Har-Moad of Isaiah, located far to
the east and north, with which the stars of El, the seven stars of
the chariot, had been uniformly associated.
In the passage from Nebuchadnezzar's inscription relating to the
tower of Borsippa, a rendering of which was given in the first chap
ter (sec. 10), this structure is styled "the temple of the seven
lights of the earth." The word " earth " here is not fully correct.
The original is Arir-ki, "the astronomical, heavenly, or divine earth,"
distinguished from the ordinary geographical earth by the deter
minative An, " elevated, heaven, god." The allusion is obviously
to the sacred mount of the east, from which the builders had re
cently migrated, and of which this structure was an artificial repro
duction. The seven lights of this " divine earth," therefore, were
the seven stars of the chariot, associated in tradition with the mount

186 HAR-MOAD.
of paradise, the cradle of humanity. The seven stages of the
pyramid denoted primarily these seven luminaries, the stars of El;
and thus, the edifice might significantly be termed Bab-el, " gate of
El," or Kd-an-ra, " gate of the god of the deluge," in reference
both to the diluvian mount on one hand, and to the Har-Moad on
the other. The direct traditional origin of the pyramidal temple
from the mount of paradise is thus placed beyond question. It
was an image of the cosmos, consisting of the two chief divisions,
heaven and earth, as shown in the last chapter. But this cosmos
was the primitive one known to man ; it consisted of the partic
ular heaven and earth of primeval tradition, that is to say, the
celestial and terrestrial paradise united together by the sacred mount.
The eighth stage, of a cubical form, like the Holy of Holies of the
Jewish tabernacle and the cubical stone of the temple-craft, repre
sented this particular celestial region, the Su-Meru of the Hindus,
the Shemal of the Haranites, the Su-mi-lu of the cuneiform texts,
one with the Su-mi-lu of the Buddhists of Central Asia. The base
ment of the pyramidal temple, like the outer court of the tab
ernacle, represented the earth ; but this was a particular earth, the
"divine earth," the terrestrial paradise. The seven stars were
denoted by the golden candlestick, correspondent to the stages of
the pyramid. It has been supposed that the seven stages of the
tower of Borsippa related to the seven planets, since they were col
ored differently, and according to the mystical theory which appro
priated a particular color to each planet. All this is quite prob
able, for according to the primitive conceptions everything revolved
around the sacred mount as the central point of the universe ; the
fixed stars, the planets, but particularly the seven stars of the
chariot, the divine Rishis of the Hindus. The Haranites united
the cultus of the planets with that of these seven stars, in the mys
teries of Samael ; and it is quite probable such was the case at
Babylon. In any event, there must have been a direct reference
to the " stars of El," in the phrase to which we allude : " the seven
lights of the divine earth." This supposition is confirmed by the
remarks of M. Lenormant, relative to the temples Bit-kharris and
Arali, representing the rotating centre of the superior hemisphere
of heaven. But in addition to these facts, tracing the origin of the
temple through tradition to the sacred mount of paradise, we should
recall the proofs presented in the last chapter, tending to connect

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 187
the system of nine squares, represented in the Accadian sign Mai,
" temple," and in the mystical seal symbolizing the cosmos ; we
should recall, I say, the fact of the direct connection of this system
of divisions with the traditional centre of the world, the Meru of
the Hindus, the Eden of Genesis. Little doubt can exist that the
primary notion of the augurial temple of a square figure exactly
oriented, involving a particular stellar space placed in relation to a
terrestrial one, had its origin likewise in the holy mount of the
east, uniting a particular heaven and earth, constituting, in fact, the
real cosmos known to the first men. Indeed, I believe that all
the ancient cosmogonies, as well as the primitive doctrine of the
temple, pertained originally to this particular heaven and earth, and
not to the heaven and earth in general.
Sec. 72. The mysteries of Shemal, according to the researches
of Professor D. Chwolsohn, and as previously stated, were cele
brated annually at different periods of the year in an underground
room or cave; and this writer judges, with much reason, that they
had some connection with the primitive cave worship, which was
held in such veneration in all antiquity. Usually, these cave mys
teries comprised seven degrees of initiation, as illustrated so fre
quently by the ancient art monuments, where a rocky ascent, a stair
case, or mystical ladder, exhibiting seven stages, is represented.^
These degrees of initiation had reference, probably, to the seven
stars of the chariot, to which were joined the seven planetary
bodies in the cultus of the Haranite Sabseans ; and as Shemal was
unquestionably connected with the north, the celestial pole, the Su-
Meru of the Hindus, these mysteries must have had reference to the
sacred mount of paradise, of which the pyramidal temples with
their seven stages were artificial reproductions. On the top of these
pyramids was erected the sanctuary of a square or cubical form,
constituting thus the eighth stage. This sanctuary, or eighth stage,
in relation to the other seven, held the precise position that Shemal
did in relation to the seven stars of the chariot; and so, of the
Hebrew Elyon, the " Highest," with reference to the " stars of El."
It is remarkable that this term Elyon ('ji'^br), from a-ldh (nb^), " to
go up, to mount, to ascend," strictly related, therefore, to the form
6-ldh (nbr), "an ascent, steps, stair-way," and to a-lia-ydh (n^b^),
" loft, upper chamber, put for the chambers of heaven," both derived
1 Vid. De Hammer, Culle de Mithra, PI. V.

188 HAR-MOAD.
from the same verbal root, had reference originally to the degrees
of ascent, but especially to the highest, the eighth, corresponding to
the Phoenician Eshmun, " the eighth," all of which, in my view,
points to a primitive connection with the paradisiacal mount, and to
that particular stellar region associated with it, whose peculiar and
striking features were well calculated to give birth, under all the
circumstances, to this entire circle of primitive ideas.^ As expressly
held by M. F. Lenormant, in which he but supports the views of
his lamented father, M. C. Lenormant, the vision of Jacob's ladder,
which also united the heaven and earth, in memory of which the
patriarch erected a pillar, giving it the significant name of Beth-el,
or " house of El," pertained to the same category of conceptions as
the pyramidal temple itself; and an important proof of such as
similation is that the Egyptian hieroglyph of a pyramid in stages
has the value dr, "a ladder," from the verb ar, "to ascend.". ^
With respect to the primitive cave worship, of which that paid
to Shemal was as ancient, probably, as any, we are not to conclude,
as some modern writers have done, and as Professor Chwolsohn
himself is inclined to do, that it pertained to a crude, savage condi
tion of humanity. The archetypal cave, to which the mysteries of
Shemal related, was, as heretofore affirmed, the celestial vault, the
central, polar region of the heavens, to which the very name Shemal,
like the Hindu Su-Meru, definite!}'- appertained. The cuneiform
¦ texts afford direct proof that this particular stellar space was con
ceived as a vault, a cave. First, the Accadian character, usually
employed ideographically to denote the heavens, Assyrian Samu,
has the value E, signifying " vault, house " (Rep. 254). Secondly,
the Accadian dak, "cave, vault, blue" (Rep. 130), denotes astro
nomically the " star of the vault ; " and this is equated in the texts
to the god Mak-ru, the name of Mercuiy corresponding to the
zodiacal sign Leo.^ Hence, the star of the vault, or cave, was asso
ciated in some way with the extreme north, the most elevated region
of the heavens. It was this celestial cave, therefore, to which the
mysteries of Shemal, celebrated in an artificial one, had especial
1 For the astro-religious conception of the god Eshmun, see Movers, Phcenizier,
i. pp. 527-636. Cf. Lenormant, Frag, de Birose, pp. 382-389.
^ Frag, de Birose, pp. 358, 359 ; also De Rouge, Chrestomathie Egyptienne, pt.
1st, p. 73, a, 40.
s 2d Rawl. PI. 49, No. 3, 1. 30, and 3d Rawl. PI. 53, No. 2, Obs. 1, 6.

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 189
reference. Shemal, as being the eighth in relation to the seven
stars of the chariot, must have been the eighth Cabiriac divinity,
since the high-priest who presided over the mysteries was especially
called Kabir, that is, a Cabirus.
Whether we speak of the pyramidal temple, then, which Dr.
Bahr has shown to have been primitive in all Asia, or of the sacred
caves, in which many have thought to find the original type of all
edifices devoted to the worship of God, it is above all apparent,
from the data now before us, that we have to go to the paradisiacal
mountain for the absolutely primitive model of all of them. The
mysteries of Shemal referred to it, and the proofs now before us are
abundant to the effect that the two Semitic titles of divinity. El,
the " Strong One," and Elyon, the " Highest," were originally asso
ciated with the order of ideas centring in the same traditional local
ity. Here was the birthplace of all the mysteries, of all the cos
mogonies, of the primitive doctrine of the temple. Here was the
original Beth^el, "house of El," the "gate of heaven," the "lad
der " that reached from earth to heaven. The conical stone, even,
which appertained to the mother goddess, was only a miniature
mountain of paradise.
Sec. 73. We wish to recall, now, the three fundamental pro
positions with which we entered upon the investigations of the
present chapter. 1st. There existed a particular, primitive, and
traditionary heaven and earth, these being put in direct relation to
each other, one regarded as the especial abode of the divine powers,
the other as that of the first men. 2d. The conceived primary
divisions of each, together with the central points of their supposed
generation, coincided exactly in one case to those in the other. 3d.
By virtue of these divisions, and upon principles heretofore estab
lished, such heaven and earth constituted at once the original cos
mos and the archetypal temple. The primaiy division of the cos
mos was coincident with the very first act of creation, the separa
tion of chaos, out of the two portions of which heaven and earth
were formed. All the ancient cosmogonies represent this first act
as one of separation, and never as a creation from nonentity. It is
obvious that the Mosaic text ought to be interpreted in harmony
with uniform tradition derived from the same primitive source.
But the cosmos to be understood here, as must be now apparent to
the reader, does not regard the heaven and earth in general, but

190 HAR-MOAD.
the particular and limited heaven and earth known to the first men,
and to which exclusively all the traditions relate. In other words,
the cosmos here intended consisted of the celestial paradise on one
hand, and on the other, of the terrestrial paradise, these being
placed in direct relation, and united by the sacred mount. I think
it is safe to affirm that the cosmical doctrines of antiquity were
thus originally limited in their application. The Hindu cosmogony
was evidently associated with Mt. Meru. Such must have been the
case with the Chinese system. The images upon the upper and
lower shell of the tortoise, as we have seen, related exclusively to a
particular celestial and terrestrial space, coinciding exactly with the
Hindu tradition centring in Meru. The fact that the Mosaic and
Babylonian accounts of creation conclude with the formation of
man, placing him in a certain and definite locality on the earth's
surface, this being identical with that of Meru, tends strongly in
favor of the same conclusion. It was only in a vague sense that
the heaven and earth in general were included. The entire notion
of the cosmos had preeminently a local origin and reference. All
the temples constructed in imitation of this cosmos had a similar
limited reference. They represented the celestial and terrestrial
paradises, one as the especial dwelling of the divinity, the other as
the abode of the first men. The pyramidal temple, aS' M. Lenor
mant has correctly observed, was definitely an artificial reproduc
tion of the sacred mount. The Hebrew tabernacle had its genesis
from the pyramid, and thus embodied a like traditional idea.
The primary division of the cosmos, as represented in the Baby
lonian sphere, was that from west to east through the sign Aries,
corresponding to the Accadian monogram Bara, which, as title of
the goddess Bara, related to the woman Thalatth, or Tiamat, per
sonification of chaos. According to this, the superior hemisphere
must be assimilated to the dwelling of the divine powers, to the
celestial paradise, and the lower to the primeval abode of man, or
to the terrestrial paradise. The fact that the terrestrial paradise
had been definitely located in the inferior hemisphere will be fully
substantiated in the chapters immediately following the present.
The centres respectively of these two divisions of the cosmos,
as known to the primitive man, coincided exactly one with the
other. Meru was centre of the earth, and located precisely under
Su-Meru, central point of the lieavens ; while the sacred mountain

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 191
united the two. With Su-Meru, of course, are to be identified the
Haranite Shemal, the Su-mi-lu of the cuneiform texts, and finally
the Cardo of the Latins. The term Cardo is that from which the
word Cardinal is derived, applied to the four principal points of
the compass. It was applied, as we have seen, to a species of gate
or door, having pivots projecting from each end, upon which the
door turned. These pivots symbolized the two poles of the cosmos,
the Su-Meru on one hand, and the Ku-meru on the other. The gate
itself referred to that of the cosmical temple, of which the ordinary
temple was an image. Again, the Cardo denoted the main line in
land surveying; this being drawn from north to south. The gods,
as Dr. William Smith has further told us, were supposed to be
seated in the north, and looked upon the earth in the same direc
tion as that face'd by the augur. The seat of the gods as here
assumed is now explained. The region referred to was the sum
mit of the sacred mount, the Su-Meru of the Hindus, Har-Moad of
Isaiah, Bit-kharris of the cuneiform text, Shemal of the Haranite
Sabasans. This line drawn from north to south, as will be readily perceived,
united the two centres respectively of the celestial and terrestrial
paradises. As represented upon the sphere, it would unite the two
poles of the universe, cutting the line drawn from west to east
through Aries at right angles. We should have thus the image of
a cross, which Herr Nissen has stated formed the basis of the entire
theory of the temple. The point of intersection, properly speaking,
should be identified with Su-Meru-, or the north pole, where the sol
stitial and equinoctial colures intersect each other. Here was the
central point of divergence of the eight celestial regions, four primary
and four intermediate, as was fully shown in the last chapter, and as
all the circumstances compel us to assume. With these eight celes
tial regions, of which, as I believe, the eight-rayed star, constituting
the hieratic form of the Accadian An, " elevated, heaven, god," was
intended as a symbol, the eight terrestrial regions in all respects
coincided. These were the divisions of the cosmos as known to the
first men, and the two paradises, thus divided and thus united by
the sacred mount, were at once the world and the temple, of which
all subsequent temple structures were artificial reproductions. The
plateau of Pamir, where modern criticism has definitely fixed the
locality of the sacred mount, constitutes, in fact, the great water-

192 HAR-MOAD.
shed of all Asia, being for this reason regarded as the dome of the
world. It would be here naturally that the dry laud would first
appear, whether at the time of the creation of man, or at the period
of the deluge. The representation of this elevated region by a
pyramid in stages doubtless proceeded from the notion of vast nat
ural terraces rising one upon the other, from the country below to
the elevated plain of Pamir. This region is not what would be
called to-day either productive or salubrious. But there are evi
dences that the climate has materially changed within the period
when it was first occupied by man. In fact, the earliest portions of
the Zend-Avesta record distinct notices of this gradual modification
of climate, from one of remarkable salubrity to one of intense
severity, where there were ten months of winter to two of summer,
according to the traditional conception.
Sec. 74. It is evident that, geographically speaking, and so far
as concerns all historical tradition, we h-ave arrived now at the pri
mitive starting-point of humanity on earth. Additional evidences,
tending to the same conclusion, will be constantly presenting them
selves during the entire progress of the investigations contained in
this treatise. But I believe these three chapters on the ancient
cosmogonies, especially the Mosaic and Babylonian, have sufficed to
settle the question as regards the original centre of the populations,
institutions, and sacred traditions of antiquity. I do not speak here
of the geological evidences now supposed to exist, thought by many
to fix the origin of man at an epoch so immensely remote as to ex
ceed all previous conceptions, and even the most extravagant theories
of former periods. That to which I refer is the earliest tradition
ary epoch of human existence. In this regard I am confident that
antiquity does not afford a single reliable notice that conducts us
beyond Mt. Meru. This was preeminently and in all respects the
Beginning. In relation to this point, as the reader now fully per
ceives, modern criticis'm establishes the truth and integrity of the
Mosaic account in a manner the most complete. ,
Nothing results more plainly from these investigations than the
one great fact that the standpoint of the Mosaic and Babylonian
cosmogony, and indeed of all the ancient cosmical theories, was very
far different from that of modern geology. I am not prepared to
take the position that the Mosaic and Babylonian accounts of crea
tion contain no reference, fundamentally, to physical ideas, to the

MOSAIC AND BABYLONIAN COSMOGONY. 193
origin of the material universe in the modern sense. It is to be
admitted, perhaps, that a purely physical philosophy is in some way
involved. But as must be now apparent, the standpoints respec
tively of " Genesis and geology " are so essentially diverse that the
attempt to construe one by the other, and to reconcile both upon
one and the same basis, is to undertake the solution of a problem
whose constituent elements are, in many respects, fundamental mis
conceptions. Instead of a literal HISTORY of creation, in the modern
sense, I see in these ancient cosmogonies the groundwork of the
primitive PHILOSOPHY of the universe, of man, and of human civili
zation, in the widest and most comprehensive view of these subjects.
Not history, but philosophy, — this expresses precisely my theory.
Physical ideas form the base of the system, sublime religious con
ceptions the apex. Human nature in its original condition, and in
its intimate relation to the Divine Being, constitutes the point of
view for the whole. The idea of the first covenant established
between God and humanity is the central one of all ; and this
accounts for the fact that the notion of division, derived originally
from the customs of the altar, appears throughout as the ground-
conception. The cosmos is conceived as a temple, a house, a dwell
ing-place of the Almighty. The temple artificially constructed is
an image of the cosmos, and as such is likewise a dwelling of God.
Finally, it results that man is the true cosmos, the real temple, the
actual abode of the Divine Spirit. In other words, the church con
stitutes the sum and substance of the entire theory. The primitive
church was the primitive cosmos, the first heaven and earth. The
creation of a new heaven and earth imparts the foundation of a new
church, of a new divine dispensation; another step to regain the
lost paradise.
Such were some of the grand and noble conceptions that pre
vailed at the starting-point of humanity, geographically and histori
cally speaking, and so far as the earliest traditions known to anti
quity afford us the slightest .hint. It would be difficult indeed,
as already observed, to go back of Mt. Meru. It was there that
the human race was cradled. It was there that the ancient reli
gions and civilizations had their birth. It was there, on that sum
mit which penetrated the rotating centre of the celestial sphere,
around which rolled the flaming chariot of the immortal powers,
that heaven and earth, the divine and human, were first united in

194 HAR-MOAD.
blissful fellowship, in happy intercourse. To retrace those mystical
stages down which the fall of man precipitated the posterity of
Adam has been the profound, earnest problem of all the religions
of the world. Yes, and the sacred mountains up whose mystic
steps the races have labored to ascend, whether Ararat or Kharsak-
kurra, whether Sinai, Gerizim, or Sion, have all had their root, their
traditional origin, in the mountain of the assembly of the stars, on
the sides of the north ; and it will be there, if ever, that the hope
ful prediction of the prophet will find its spiritual fulfillment :
"And he will destroy in this mountain the face of the covering cast
over all people, and the vail spread over all nations " (Is. xxv. 7).

BOOK in.
THE CELESTIAL EARTH.

CHAPTER VIL
THE TERRESTRIAL PARADISE ASSIMILATED TO THE GREEK
HADES.
Sec. 75. The time has been when many learned critics, not
without much reason, considered it a matter of uncertainty whether
the Garden of Eden ever had an actual existence on the earth's
surface. In the absence of reliable data from which to proceed in
attempting to fix geographically its location, the only resort was to
speculation ; and, as frequently occurs in such cases, the multiplicity
of conflicting theories put forth tended to throw doubt upon the
entire subject. But in view of the facts and considerations pre
sented in the last chapter, together veith the concurrent opinions of
so many distinguished Orientalists, it is impossible to give place to
any further skepticism in relation to the matter. The traditional
mount of paradise had an actual historical and geographical exist
ence, and its locality on the earth's surface has been definitely ascer
tained. On this point M. Lenormant makes the following observa
tions : —
" The primitive Meru is situated to the north, in relation even to
the first habitations of the Aryans upon the soil of India, in the
Pendj^b and on the banks of the upper Indus. Nor is this a fabu
lous mountain, a stranger to terrestrial geography. The Baron
D'Eckstein has demonstrated its real situation towards the Serica
of the ancients ; that is to say, in the southwest part of Thibet." ^
Thus, it is necessary to give to the Mosaic description of the
1 Frag, de Berose, pp. 300, 301.

196 HARr-MOAD.
Garden of Eden a literal construction : 1st. So far as regards the
existence of such a region on the earth possessing the geographical
characteristics set forth in the narrative. 2d. So far as relates to
the fact that this region was the abode of the first progenitors of
mankind. In a word, we are forced to consider the Gan-Eden of
Genesis, otherwise called the terrestrial paradise, as a literal his
torical and geographical fact. Such being the case, it is a most sin
gular and seemingly inexplicable circumstance that this traditional
abode should have been subsequently transferred in conception to
the under world, and assimilated to the state of the dead, to the
Greek Hades. That such a transfer had been made by the Hebrews
in our Saviour's time is manifest from his language addressed to the
penitent thief on the cross : '• Verily I say unto thee, To-day shalt
thou be with me in paradise " (Luke xxiii. 43). The term " para
dise," as here employed, is evidently put for the state of the dead,
for Hades. It cannot be interpreted abstractly as " a state of hap
piness," according to Dr. Barnes (notes in loc), for it had a definite
theological sense among the Jews, connected with the Eden of
Genesis on one hand, and with the world of disembodied spirits
on the other. Alluding to the Jews, Dr. Campbell remarks : —
" The Greek Hades they found well adapted to express the He
brew Sheol (state of the dead). This they came to conceive as
including different sorts of habitations, for ghosts of different char
acters. And though they did not receive the terms Elysium, or
Elysian fields, as suitable appellations for the regions peopled by
good spirits, they took, instead of them, as better adapted to their
own theology, the Garden of Eden, or Paradise, a name originally
Persian, by which the word answering to garden, especially when
applied to Eden, had commonly been rendered by the Seventy. To
denote the same state, they sometimes used the phrase Abraham' s
bosom-, a metaphor borrowed from the manner in which they
reclined at meals." ^
The same author observes in another place : —
" When our Saviour, therefore, said to the penitent thief on the
cross : ' To-day shalt thou be with me in paradise,' he said no
thing that contradicts what is affirmed of his descent into Hades,
in the Psalms, in the Acts, or in the Apostles' Creed. Paradise is
another name for what is, in the parable (of Lazarus and the rich
man), called Abraham's bosom." ^
1 Campbell's Gospels, Dissertation vi., sec. 19. 2 Ibid., sec. 21.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 197
Christ's descent into Hades was not inconsistent with the notion
of his entrance into paradise at death, for the reason that the two
regions had been assimilated to each other. Paradise had come to
be regarded as a particular apartment of Hades. But the Hebrews
were not alone in having made this transfer of paradise, whose his
torical and geographical character has been demonstrated by mod
ern criticism, to be the under world, or state of the dead. It is
known to scholars that a certain class of ideas prevailed in antiquity,
of which the phrase " celestial earth " may be taken as expressing
the underlying conception. Beside the allusions to this subject by
some classic authors, it appears that the Hindu and Persian sacred
books contain occasional references to it, and among these, the pas
sage already cited from M. Obry, relating to the Sanskrit phrase
Svarga-bhoumi, "the celestial earth," affords a direct example.
This conception of a celestial or heavenly earth, as.it formed itself in
the minds of different peoples in antiquity, was obviously connected
originally with the traditional abode of the first men, or the sacred
mount of paradise, with which, as shown in our last chapter, the
diluvian mount on whose summit the ark of Noah rested after the
flood had been uniformly identified. But this celestial earth, also,
together with various notions associated with it, and with the dilu
vian mountain, had been transferred to the under world, to the
Greek Hades, in fact, and I proceed to offer some proofs, not only
of the association of the celestial earth with Mt. Meru, but of the
singular transformation of ideas to which we allude.
Sec. 76. In order to place the passage relating to the celestial
earth, previously quoted from M. Obry, in immediate connection
with other remarks by the author appertaining to the same circle
of ideas, it will be introduced again among the subjoined extracts
referring to Mt. Meru and the goddess lira, or Ida, personification
of it: —
" We see that this name, which in the Vedas is variously writ
ten as Ha, Ida, lira, or Ira, designated primitively ' the earth,' as
has been observed already by M. Wilson and M. Lassen. We may
conclude with M. A. Kuhn and M. Alfred Maury that the Greek
name Era, and that of Ireland Ire, ' earth,' came from the Sanskrit
Ira, and afterwards that the title of the goddess Rhea was formed
from it by metathesis. But as Ida of the Vedas was a veritable
Parvati, or ' mountain goddess,' it is allowable, perhaps, to find
here the origin of the name Ida applied to certain mountains in
Phrygia, Crete, etc."

198 HAR-MOAD.
" It is understood, also, that Meru with its four great supports, or
abutting mountains, rises in the middle of the central continent
Madhya-dvipa, itself very elevated, to which they give these vari
ous titles : Svarga-bhoumi, ' celestial earth ; ' Souvarnorbhoumi,
' earth of gold ; ' Akrida-bhoumi, ' earth of pleasures ; ' Touchita-
bhoumi, 'earth of joy,' but more generally those of Ila-varcha, Ila-
vrita, Ila-varta, 'section, province, or region of Ila^ daughter and
wife of Manu, and considered the mother of the human race."
"As the light of the snow-capped mountains mingled with the
azure of ethereal space, blending with it in distant perspective, the
paradise of the gods appeared to confound itself with that of the first
men ; and to express this vague notion they formed the Sanskrit
phrase Svarga-bhoumi, ' celestial earth.' " ^
These extracts go to establish the various points : 1st. That the
celestial earth was associated directly with Mt. Meru. 2d. That
the goddess Ira, or Ida, primitively put for the " earth," was con
nected likewise with this sacred mountain. 3d; That Ida was the
reputed mother of the human race ; in which character she is to be
identified, of course, with the mother of Eden. There can be no
doubt, therefore, of the reference of this circle of conceptions to the
traditional paradise. Their subsequent transfer to the under world,
termed Hades by the Greeks, is the next point to be investigated ;
and here I serve myself with some lengthy extracts from the great
1 Du Berceau, etc., pp. 22, 23, note, 174, note. We shall see that this " celestial
earth " = Svarga-bhoumi, otherwise termed Souvarna-bhoumi, or " earth of gold,"
was one with the Aralla of the cuneiform texts, situated, like Mt. Meru, in the
extreme north. According to Dr. Oppert, in a recent treatise, this Aralla, or
Arallu, was also situated in the north, and was conceived " the earth of gold,"
like the Souvarna-bhoumi of the Hindus. Dr. Oppert's language is as follows :
" The Babylonian Noah, Xisuthrus, was translated to an eternal life without
passing through death ; other indications of the same species are found in the
texts distinguishing the sojourn of the living from that of the dead ; this last is
called the country of Arallu. In the conception of the Assyrians, this locality
was found in the country of the north, the region of the disappearance of the
sun. This country of Arallu is at the same time the earth of gold (according to
the ancients the hyperborean country was rich in gold), and it is very probable
that the name of the lake of Aral is but a relic of this ancient Assyrian name."
(De rimmortalite de I'dme chez les Chalde'ens, p. 4.)
The Aralla was one with the Mat Nudea, or Hades, of the cuneiform texts,
into which the goddess Ishtar descends, a notice of which will be given in the
sequel of the present chapter. The conception of the north as the region of the
disappearance of the sun is hardly rational. The true explanation of it is that
the Aralla, as we shall show, was identified astronomically with the lower hemi
sphere of heaven, where the sun does disappear.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 199
work of Dr. G. S. Faber, which not only go to establish the fact of
the transformation in question, but will afford other valuable mate
rials for future use. The author proceeds : —
" Such being the universal intercommunion between the moon
and the earth, the great mother being alike deemed a personifica
tion of each, both these planets bore the common name of Olym-
pias, or Olympia ; by which was meant the world ; for Mount
Olympus, as we have already seen, was no other than the Indian
Mount Ilapu, or Meru, which is fabled to be crowned with the mun
dane circle of Ha or Ida. Accordingly the moon was deemed a
sort of celestial earth, bearing a close affinity to this our nether
world." " This will lead us to understand the import of some very curious
particulars which Plutarch mentions as being presented to the
imagination of Timarchus, in 'his vision of the infernal regions.
The friendly spirit, who acts the part of an hierophant (for the
pretended vision seems evidently to describe the process of an initi
ation), informs him that Proserpine is in the moon, and that the
infernal Mercury or Pluto is her companion. This moon is wholly
distinct from the celestial (astronomical) moon ; being what some
call a terrestrial heaven or paradise, and others a heavenly earth.
It belongs to the genii or deified mortals, who tenant the earth ;
and it is described as wearing the semblance of a floating island.
It is surrounded with other islands, which similarly float on the
bosom of the great Stygian abyss ; but it is loftier than them all,
and therefore not equally exposed to the destructive fury of the
infernal river. In this navicular moon or lunar island there are
three principal caverns. The largest is called the Sanctuary of
Hecate; and here the wicked suffer the punishment due to their
crimes. The other two are rather doors or outlets than caverns ;
the first looking towards heaven, the second towards the earth.
These serve for the ingress and egress of souls ; for the moon is
the universal receptacle of them ; into her they enter by one door,
and from her they issue by the other door. She receives and gives,
compounds and decompounds ; and on her depend all the conversions
of generation. While the moon thus floats on the waters of the
Styx, the infernal river strives to invade and overwhelm it. Then
the souls through fear break forth in loud lamentations ; for Pluto
seizes upon many who happen to fall off. Some, however, who are
plunged in the raging flood contrive, by dint of great exertion and
good swimming, to reach the shores of the moon ; but the Styx,
thundering and bellowing in a most dreadful manner, does not
allow them to land. Lamenting their fate, they are thrust headlong
into the abyss, and are hurried away to partake of another regener
ation."

200 HAR-MOAD.
" Here, therefore, we may perceive the origin of that singular
intercommunion between the earth, the moon, a ship, and a floating
island, which may be traced throughout the whole system of pagan
ism in every quarter of the globe. The earth was a greater world ;
the ark, a smaller world ; the earth, a greater ship or floating island ;
the ark, a smaller ship or floating island. But the lunette was the
astronomical symbol of the ark. Therefore the moon became at
once a ship, a floating island, and a celestial earth. Hence, what
was predicated of the one was also predicated of the others ; and as
the ark was a floating moon, as the earth was a ship, and as the
moon was a boat and a heavenly earth and a floating island, one
and the same goddess was deemed an equal personification of them
all ; one and the same set of symbols was employed equally to typ
ify them all. Accordingly, the great mother is declared to be at
once the earth, the moon, and a ship ; nor is this singular inter
mixture of ideas to be found only in a single country ; it pervades
the whole pagan world, and thus affords an illustrious proof that
all the various systems of Gentile idolatry must have originated
from some common source. That source was the primeval Baby
lonian apostasy." ^
Sec. 77. That Babylon was one of the great centres of religious
corruption in early times is not to be doubted; yet in the light
of present knowledge, it would be impossible to trace to this
source exclusively all the idolatrous conceptions and customs of
antiquity. But Dr. Faber's analysis of some of these ideas, as con
tained in the foregoing extracts, is mostly correct, and it is very
able. To those not familiar with Asiatic mythology, however, the
above statements will appear somewhat intricate and confused ;
and it will be necessary to offer some comments in explanation : —
1st. It is a fact that the great goddess was ordinarily identified
with both the earth and moon ; and it was owing to the resem
blance of the lunette to a ship floating on the bosom of the celestial
sea that the same goddess was assimilated to a ship, especially to
the diluvian ark.
2d. The notion of a floating island appears to have reference to
the summit of the mountain on which the ark rested, as it rose
above the immense ocean of devastating waters, seeming like an
island floating upon its dark abyss. Thus the ark and the floating
island were assimilated to each other, and both these to the earth
and moon. * Origin of Pagan Idolatry, vol. iii. pp. 5, 13, 14, 21.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 201
3d. The ark was conceived as a world, since during the deluge it
contained all that remained of the human race ; and the earth was
regarded as a ship, a floating island, for the reason that the summit
of the diluvian mountain projecting above the watery abyss was for
the time the entire earth then visible.
These remarks, it is believed, will sufficiently explain the origin
and nature of the singular conceptions to "which Dr. Faber alludes.
I think his statements are substantially correct, and the elucidation
of them just offered is probably the true one. It is this moon,
assimilated to the earth, to the ark, to the great goddess, and to the
diluvian mount, the latter identified with the mount of paradise,
which is variously termed a celestial or heavenly earth, a terrestrial
heaven, etc., correspondent to the Sanskrit phrase Svarga-bhoumi, " a
celestial earth," applied to Mt. Meru, traditional abode of the first
men. The most extraordinary circumstance connected with this
circle of conceptions is that the whole has been transferred to the
infernal regions, to the Greek Hades. The sacred mount of para
dise, regarded as the cradle of humanity, being the Gan-Eden of
Genesis, has been demonstrated to have had an actual historical
and geographical existence. The diluvian mountain was identified
with it, and was thus not less historical. To the same locality the
celestial earth had been assimilated. Yet everything has been
transferred to the under world, to the state of the dead, and tire
sacred mount, conceived as a ship, floats on the bosom of the Sty
gian abyss. I doubt whether the entire field of antiquarian re
searches affords a . fact so remarkable and seemingly so unaccount
able. It exhibits a widespread and complete misconception, at a
later epoch, of traditionary ideas relating to the first ages of the
world. In point of fact, a, fourth and wholly factitious division or
region, of which the primitive man had not the slightest conception,
has been added to the cosmos; a circumstance that demands a
brief yet careful study in the present connection.
According to the traditions most primitive among the ancients,
the cosmos or universe consisted of two principal divisions, the hea
ven and the earth. But equally primitive, if not more so, and
extensively prevalent, especially among the Aryans, was the notion
of three regions or divisions, usually called the " three worlds,"
these being regarded as heaven, earth, and the intervening space, or
the atmosphere. The idea of a. fourth world or region, as included

202 HAR-MOAD.
in the cosmos, never entered the mind of man during the first ages.
It is only at a later epoch that the notices of another division of
the cosmos, of an under world, a subterranean region, becomes more
and more frequent in the sacred writings of the ancients. We sub
mit here some quotations illustrating the primitive conception. M.
Carr4 gives the following passages from the Rig-Veda: —
"O Agni! The three' worlds, the earth, the heaven, and the
atmosphere, are thy work. By thy light thou hast illuminated the
heaven and the earth." " Of the three worlds, two appertain to
the domain of Savitri (the sun) ; the third (the earth) is the abode
of Yama (god of the dead) and the sojourn of the dead." ^
M. Carr6 makes the perfectly correct statement in a note as fol
lows : "The Aryans recognized three worlds, the heaven, the
earth, and the intermediate s[)ace." ^ The second passage cited
above from the Rig- Veda contains a very important statement in
relation to the point before us. Yama, to whom the third world or
the earth appertains, was the reputed first man, and his sister Yami
the first woman, the two corresponding to Adam and Eve of Gene
sis. The Persian Yima, the same personage as the Hindu Yama,
was traditionally the founder of paradise.^ At the same time Yama
was regarded by the Hindus as god of the dead, and as such the
earth or the third world appertained to him, and the earth is ex
pressly represented in the foregoing passage as "the sojourn of the
dead." Notwithstanding these ideas the Aryans held distinctly the
doctrine of a future life. Something quite similar to the character
of Yama as god of the dead is that of the Babylonian divinity Hea,
in allusion to whose wife, Gula, Rev. A. H. Sayce remarks : —
" Gula, ' lady of the house of death,' was the wife of Hea, the
earth, and so originally the same as Nin-ki-gal, ' lady of the great
earth,' the queen of Hades. Nin-ki-gal was a form of Allat or
Istar ; and the name Bahu (one with Gula) is merely the Bohu
(inn) of Genesis, the primeval * wasteness ' or chaos of night and
the under world." *
Some confusion of statement appears here, growing out of the
anomalous circumstance of which there is question. The term
^ L'Aneien Orient, t. ii. pp. 46, 55.
" Ibid., p. 46, note 3.
' Professor Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, p. 45.
* Jour. Bib. Arch. Society, London, vol. iii. p. 173, note 3.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 203
Nin-ki-gal means, literally, " mistress of the great earth ; " from
which it is evident that her peculiar domain was the earth, the
third world or division of the cosmos according to the Aryans, and
not the fourth region or world understood as Hades. Again, Hea
is often qualified as " lord of mankind," at other times as " dwell
ing in the great deep ; " while Rev. A. H. Sayce in the above note
assimilates him to the " earth ; " yet he answers in Babylonian
mythology to the infernal Mercury or Pluto, god of the dead.
Finally, Bahu, the Bohu, or chaos of Genesis, assimilated to Gula
by Rev. A. H. Sayce, although " lady of the house of death," ap
pertains strictly to the earth, for, according to the Mosaic text, it
was the earth which was " without form and void," etc. Tiamat
idso, in the Babylonian account of creation, who represents the
chaos, has her domain upon the earth. In all the cosmogonies the
earth constitutes the very lowest region known and recognized.
No fourth world is ever mentioned. Thus, what are termed the
"infernal regions" by Dr. Faber, denoted by the Greek word
Hades, must be regarded as a later conception, to which primeval
tradition makes no allusion. This was literally a fourth and wholly
imaginary division, that had been added to the cosmos of primitive
times. Sec. 78. Our investigations thus far have sufficiently established
the fact that the traditional mount of paradise had been conceived
as a terrestrial heaven, or a celestial earth ; and that this, together
with the sacred mount itself, under the form of a floating island,
ship, or ark, had been transferred at a later period to an under
world, answering to the Greek Hades, constituting thus a fourth
division of the cosmos entirely unknown to primitive tradition, and
wholly inconsistent with the actual historical and geographical char
acter of the Gan-Eden of Genesis, as verified in the last chapter.
This anomalous circumstance in the historical development of
religious ideas is without parallel, and it challenges an attempt on
our part at some rational explanation of it, which will be made in
the sequel of this chapter. But as preparatory to this, it is neces
sary for us to study more thoroughly the conception of the so-called
celestial earth, or terrestrial heaven ; and such is the labor upon
which we now enter. In this study, the cuneiform texts will be
found, I think, to afford us the most reliable and adequate informa
tion.

204 HAR-MOAD.
There are two cuneiform phrases very frequently put in the rela
tion of opposition to each other in the texts, although their employ
ment separately is perfectly legitimate and even more frequent.
One of these is the Accadian An-e, the Assyrian reading of the
same characters being H-same. This is the ordinary expression for
" heaven," considered as a divinity. The literal sense of the Ac
cadian phrase is heaven -1- vault, or house, hence the " heavenly
house." The other locution to which I refer is the Accadian An-ki,
Assyrian Il-irziti. The sense attached is " the earth " considered
as a divinity or goddess. Assyriologues are probably correct in
referring the phrase to the earth goddess. Bat An-ki means liter
ally heaven + earth ; that is, "celestial or heavenly earth." Allu
sion has been made to this expression once before, but it is neces
sary to bestow upon it now a more particular attention, since it
evidently answers in the cuneiform texts to the Sanskrit phrase,
Svarga-bhoumi, or " celestial earth," being the precise topic of our
present research. When not preceded by the determinative An,
the element Ki has the sense of " place, ground, earth," ordinarily
put for the geographical earth. It constitutes also the determina
tive of place, district, city, etc., as in Bar-sip-ki for Borsippa, Bdb-
el-ki for Babylon. Obviously, then, there is a marked difference in
sense between Ki and An-ki, although cuneiform scholars do not
usually make any distinction in practice. Mr. Norris has very hap
pily expressed the notion to be attached to An-ki as follows : " The
sphere ; the astronomical earth, distinguished from the geographical
earth by the determinative (An)."^ This appears to me exactly
the fundamental idea, but it does not by any means complete the
conception involved. An astronomical earth could be no other
than a terrestrial field divided off according to the cardinal regions,
like the augurial temple for example, and put in direct relation to
a correspondent celestial space. But there are two cuneiform pas
sages, one of which has been already noticed, that go to fix pre
cisely the traditionary import of the Accadian An-ki. The tower
,of Borsippa is termed by Nebuchadnezzar, " the temple of the
seven lights of An-ki" ^ The tower of Babylon is styled by the
same monarch, "the temple of the foundation oi An-ki." ^ These
1 Assyr. Dictionary, iii. p. 939.
* Bit urme 7 il-irziti (^An-ki), ibid.
^ Bit temin il-irziti (An-ki"), ibid.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 205
temple structures were regarded as primitive in the valley of the
Euphrates, being erected soon after the Cushite emigration from
the east to the land of Shinar. They were, in fact, as we have
seen, designed expressly as imitations of the diluvian mount, identi
fied with that of paradise. The phrase An-ki, therefore, has a
direct reference to this sacred mountain, conceived as the abode of
primeval humanity. Such being the case, there can be no doubt
that we ought to connect with the Accadian An-ki precisely the
same notion as involved in the Sanskrit expression Svarga-bhoumi,
" celestial earth," applied to the same traditional locality. The
particular heaven and earth united by Mt. Meru are thus expressly
denoted by the two elements of the Accadian, as well as by those
of the Sanskrit expression, namely, heaven + earth, or " heavenly
earth." Again, the Vedic goddess lira, or Ida, a name denoting pri
marily the " earth," was associated by the Hindus with their Meru,
and this affords another point of connection with the Babylonian
tradition. As before stated, the cuneiform expression An-ki is often
interpreted by Assyriologues in special reference to the earth god
dess, with which Is-tar, the Babylonian Venus, is frequently assimi
lated. M. Obry conjectures that the Vedic Ida may have some
connection with the Mt. Ida, " mountain of the hand," of Phrygia,
Crete, etc. Venus was doubtless under some form associated with
the Mt. Idas of antiquity, and there is much reason for the supposi
tion that the primitive Mt. Ida was Mt. Meru itself. The follow
ing distich, as rendered by Mr. Fox Talbot, shows that Is-tar was
associated with such sacred localities : —
" But Ishtar smiles upon him with a placid smile,
And comes down from her mountain, unvisited of men."^
Having traced the connection of An-ki, considered as a celestial
earth, with the sacred mountain of the north and east, it is proba
ble that the same phrase as denoting the earth goddess, assimilated
to Is-tar, had a like reference ; and we may thus identify the moun
tain of Is-tar with that to which the Vedic Ida appertained. In
either case, this is probably the great mother, the mother of Eden,
in fact, whose immediate relation to the celestial earth will be
abundantly established as we proceed, and may indeed be presup
posed from the facts already before us.
1 Vid. Trans. Bib. Arch. So., ii. p. 31.

206 HAR-MOAD.
Finally, the seven stars of the chariot, traditionally associated
with Meru of the Hindus, the Eden of Genesis, and the Har-Moad
of Isaiah, have been identified with the "stars of El," to which the
prophet alludes. The Hebrew El is the same as the cuneiform II
or Ilu, and Mr. Norris cites a certain text which connects this
divine personage with the celestial earth, thus : " The god II, the
ornament of the celestial earth." ^ We should compare this quali
fication of the god II with that applied to the tower of Babylon
or " gate of II," " the temple of the foundation of the celestial
earth ; " also to the tower of Borsippa, " temple of the seven
lights of the celestial earth ; " evidently referring to the seven stars
of El, or U, associated with the sacred mountain. Thus, it is ob
vious from the data now before us that the Accadian An-ki,
whether as a celestial earth, as the mother goddess, or as associated
with the god II, Hebrew El, is to be referred primarily and tradi
tionally to the Kharsak-kurra, " mountain of the world," identified
with the Gan-Eden of Genesis. The pyramidal temples were in
a certain sense material expressions of this heavenly or celestial
earth, at the same time that they were artificial reproductions of
the mount of paradise, to which these various conceptions origi
nally appertained. The antiquity of these notions also must have
been very great, for the earliest temple structures in the Euphrates
valley had a direct reference to them as their material embodi
ment. Sec. 79. Mr. Norris, as already cited, connects with the Accadian
An-ki the notion of the sphere, and of an astronomical earth. Both
are involved strictly in the idea of a celestial earth, which is liter
ally an astronomical earth. Nevertheless, the special relation of
this phrase to the Babylonian sphere, which, as has been shown,
was taken as a symbol of the cosmos, needs some further elucida
tion. A certain bilingual text affords us some very valuable equa
tions for our present purpose, among which I select the following :
1st. An = the god Anu. 2d. An — the goddess Tum, or Anatu.
3d. An-ki = the god Anu and the goddess Turn? I suppose it is
the Accadian Tum which Mr. George Smith reads Anatu, wife of
Anu? But formerly he read the same character Anunit, I believe,
1 Assyr. Die, iii. p. 940 : il II Supar il-irziti (An-hi).
2 3d Rawl. PI. 69, No. 1, Obs. II. 1-3. Cf. 2d Rawl. PI. 54, No. 3, Obs. 11. 2, 3.
8 Chald. Acct. of Genesis, pp. 54, 55.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 207
which is possibly the same as Anatu, though this appears not to
have been so understood heretofore.^ The Accadian Tum is the old
Hamite or Cushite name of a deity assimilated to the lower hemi
sphere of heaven, a personage which appears as a goddess in the
cuneiform texts, but as a male divinity in the hieroglyphic inscrip
tions of Egypt. They are the same astro-mythological character,
as will appear hereafter, and since they are such I prefer the read
ing Tum to that of any other ; but that the goddess is the wife of
Anu is not to be overlooked. Mr. Smith's remarks relative to these
two divinities, a portion of which have been before cited, are quite
important to us here, and will be reproduced : —
" He (Anu) represents the universe as the upper and lower
regions, and when these were divided, the upper region, or heaven,
was called Anu, while the lower region, or earth, was called Anatu."
" Anatu, the wife or consort of Anu, is generally only a female
form of Anu, but is sometimes contrasted with him ; thus, when
Anu represents height and heaven, Anatu represents depth and
earth ; she is also lady of darkness, the mother of the god Hea, the
mother producing heaven and earth." ^
But both Anu and Tum are equated to An-ki, that is, to heaven
+ earth, which proves Mr. Smith's remarks upon their respective
characters to be correct. They must equally represent the upper
and lower hemispheres of heaven, since each is equated to the Ac
cadian An, " heaven, god," etc. The term An in this case must be
taken in the sense of heaven. Thus, Anu is heaven, and Anatu,
or Tum, is heaven ; but these are the two halves of the sphere
placed in opposition to each other, like the Qaq-qa-du and As-ru,
symbolized by the two orders of temples, the Bit-mat and the Bit-
khi-ra, heretofore explained to us by M. Lenormant. The apparent
contradiction in conceiving one and the same goddess to represent
the earth at one time, and the inferior hemisphere of heaven at
another, is due to the fact already insisted upon by us that the
Babylonians assimilated the lower half of the sphere to the earth.
I propose soon to offer still further proof of the fact of such as
similation. But that which is to be particularly noticed here is
the exact equivalence of the two cuneiform phrases, namely, An-ki,
heaven -f earth, considered as a " celestial earth," and Anu and

1 Vid. Assyr. Discoveries, p. 173, 1. 3
2 Chald. Acct. of Genesis, pp. 54, 55.

208 HAR-MOAD.
Tum, heaven -V earth, regarded as mythological or astro-mytholo
gical characters, personifying heaven and earth. I have shown that
An-ki related especially to the sacred mount, uniting a particular
celestial and terrestrial space, of which the pyramidal temple was
an imitation, and to which was applied the Sanskrit phrase Svarga-
bhoumi, " celestial earth." It will be easy to show now that the
primary reference of Anu and Tum, as astro-religious representa
tions of heaven and earth, was also to the traditional " mountain of
the world." We note, first, the following passage from Mr. George
Smith: —
" The heaven or region of the blessed was called Samu, and was
divided into various sub-regions bearing different names, the high
est being the ' Heaven of Anu,' the supreme celestial god." ^
Thus, the heaven which Anu especially represents is not the en
tire expanse of the sky, but the highest central region ; that is to
say, the region of the polar star, one with the Su-Meru of the Hin
dus. This and no other, as is well known to Assyriologues, is the
" heaven of Anu," usually so designated in the texts. But another
proof comes readily to our hand here. The seven stars called Sabi,
or " Seven," in the inscriptions, evidently those of the chariot, and
one with the " stars of El," were directly associated with Anu, as
will appear from the words of M. Lenormant following : —
" Perhaps it is necessary here to note the facts furnished by a
tablet of the British Museum not yet edited, which seems, in effect,
to identify Anu with a god named Sabi. This name, which signi
fies ' seven,' is written with the numeral 7, followed by the pho
netic compliment bi. The god Sabi is then the ' god seven,' or per
haps more exactly the ' god of the seven,' the god who presides
over the group of seven other divinities, and unites them. This is
only a different mode of expressing the notion involved in the name
Ashmunu or Eshmun (the eighth). Thus, ^wm identified with Sabi
is precisely Anu in relation to the group of seven planets, united in
the_ cultus of the tower of Borsippa." " In all cases, we compre
hend now how the myth of the Cabiri born from the hand of Anu
is applied to the pyramid in stages at Borsippa, which is the ' tem
ple of the seven lights,' and at the same time the ' temple of the
divine hand.' " ^
We connect and confirm here so many points at once that it is
necessary to particularize them. 1st. The tower of Borsippa is
1 Assyr. Discoveries, p. 221. ^ prag. de Berose, pp. 389, 390.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 209
called Bit-Zida, " temple of the right hand ; " and the myth of the
Cabiri born from the hand, among whom the PhoBnician Eshmun
was reckoned " the eighth," was shown to have been connected with
this very tower, in our third chapter. 2d. Under the name Sabi,
" seven," M. Lenormtmt would identify Anu, who had his sanctuary
in the basement of the tower of Borsippa, with the Cabirus called
Eshmun, or "the eighth," in relation to the other seven. 3d. But
M. Lenormant sees here only a reference to the seven planets;
while it is obvious to me that the primary allusion is to the seven
stars of the chariot, associated with Mt. Meru. The reasons are
manifold in proof of it. (a) The tower of Borsippa was an ex
press imitation of the sacred mount, (b) Eshmun, Anu, like the
Haranite Shemal, represented the highest celestial region, which
was "the eighth," and was identical with the Su-Meru of the Hin
dus, (c) The stars of El, in relation to which Elyon represented
the Highest, were connected traditionally with the same terrestrial
and celestial localities. 4th. We have another proof here that the
primitive Mt. Ida was Mt. Meru, to which the Vedic Ida apper
tained, since it has been shown that the pyramid of Borsippa, imi
tation of the sacred mount, was otherwise regarded as a Mt. Ida, or
mountain of the hand. 5th. The tower of Borsippa, besides the
title of "temple of the right hand," was especially called the " tem
ple of the seven lights of An-ki," or " the celestial earth," which
was certainly connected with Mt. Meru.
Sec. 80. We return now to the consideration of the identity of
An-ki with Anu and Tum, according to the bilingual texts already
cited. The first element An answers here to Anu, and the second
element Ki to Tum, or Anatu. We see here that the reference is to
a particular heaven, the so-called " heaven of Anu," and not to
celestial space in general ; another proof that the eight-rayed star,
constituting the hieratic symbol of An, related to the rotating cen
tre of the superior heavens, and was no mere hieroglyph of a star.
This was the "heaven " par excellence, associated with the mount
of paradise. Anatu, or Tum, consequently, was not put for the
earth in general, but for the particular earth related definitely to
the "heaven of Anu," that is to say, the terrestrial paradise. But
the traditional paradise had been transferred to the infernal re
gions ; and Mr. Smith's language will afford evidence that such had
been the case even among the Babylonians. After alluding to the

210 HAR-MOAD.
divisions of heaven, of which the highest was the " heaven of Anu,"
in the passage last cited from this author, the heaven thus desig
nated being regarded as the abode of the blest, he adds the follow
ing : " Hell, on the other hand, was generally called Mat-nude, or
Aralli, but has various other titles " (op. cit.). Mr. Smith gives a
long and graphic description of these regions, which I introduce.
First, however, I wish to show that Mat-nude, or Aralli, termed
" hell," by the author, and obviously one with the Greek Hades,
designates precisely the region put in opposition to the " heaven of
Anu," represented by the goddess Turn, wife of Anu. We have
three bilingual phrases which go to establish the identity here
claimed, and that in the clearest manner. They are as follows : ^ —
A-ra-li = A-ral-li.
Bit-mat-bat — A-ral-li.
( U-ru-gal) tum = A-ral-li.
In the first equation, the Accadian A-ra-li is explained by the
Assyrian form of the same word, or A-ral-li. In the second, the
Accadian Bit-mat-bat, or properly E-kur-bat, is equated to the same
Assyrian expression. Finally, the Accadian Tum, with the spe
cial Assyrian reading of U-ru-gal in this instance, is also explained
by Aralli; which Mr. Smith assumes as only another name for
Mat-nude, the infernal regions. Hades of the Greeks. The equation
of Tum, in the bilingual phrase just quoted, to Aralli, only another
name for Mat-nude, or Hades, proves the assimilation of Tum, or
Anatu, wife of Anu, and otherwise put for the "earth," to the
lower hemisphere, or under world, to which Ishtar descends. I
reproduce now in full Mr. Smith's description of the two regions
respectively of Anu and Tum: —
" The abodes of the dead were supposed to consist of two regions,
one in the sky, presided over by Anu the god of heaven and Bel
the god of the earth, and the other beneath the world, presided over
by Hea the god of the ocean and infernal regions. In the upper
regions, or heaven, were the abodes of the blessed ; there the de
parted wore crowns, they drank beautiful waters, and consorted with
the gods ; but the notions of glory and honor at that day come out
in the description of the inhabitants of this happy region ; they are
the kings and conquerors of the earth, the diviners and priests and
great men, in fact, the strong and successful among mankind. On
the other hand, the description of the infernal regions is most vivid
1 Vid. 2d Rawl., PI. 30, Revs. 11. 11-13.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 211
and powerful, and is almost the same as that in the splendid inscrip
tion of the descent of Ishtar into Hades, where we read : —
" (1) To Hades the land of my knowledge ;
(2) Ishtar, daughter of Sin, her ear inclined ;
(3) Inclined the daughter of Sin her ear ;
(4) To the house of the departed, the seat of the god Iskalla ;
(5) To the house from within which is no exit ;
(6) To the road the course of which never returns ;
(7) To the place within which they long for light;
(8) The place where dust is their nourishment, and their food
mud; (9) Light is never seen, in darkness they dwell;
(10) Its chiefs also, like birds, are clothed with wings ;
(11) Over the door and its bolts is scattered dust.
" This dark region, where the inhabitants in their hunger devour
filth, and thirst for light, is guarded by seven gates, and surrounded
by the waters of death ; it is the home of the weak and conquered
ones, of wives who stray from their husbands, and men who abandon
their wives, and disobedient children. These are represented as
weeping in misery and corruption in their dark and eternal prison-
house, ' the place from which there is no return.'
" By the power of Hea, who here corresponds to Pluto, the lord
of Hades, the ghost of Heabani was delivered from this hell, and,
rising out of the earth, soars up to heaven. These religious ideas
are remarkable on account of their close similarity to those of later
religions and subsequent races, and their importance is increased by
their antiquity, as at the latest they date more than two thousand
years before the Christian era." ^
Then follows the reference to the "heaven of Anu" on one
hand, and to Mat-nude or Aralli, regarded as Hades, on the other,
in language already quoted from the author. There can be no
doubt that the foregoing exposition of rehgious ideas, prevailing in
the valley of the Euphrates two thousand years B. C, is correct and
faithful. Mr. Fox Talbot, in several learned papers published in
the " Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archseology," London,
already cited in ^hese pages, has fully confirmed Mr. Smith's state
ments above by evidences drawn from the legend of Ishtar's descent
into Hades, and from other sources. But the religion of Babylon
was predominantly astral, as all Orientalists are aware, and an astro
nomical element is undoubtedly fundamental in all these concep
tions as exposed by Mr. Smith. The descent of Ishtar into Hades is
» Assyr. Die. pp. 220, 221.

212 HAR-MOAD.
really a descent into the inferior heaven, to meet her beloved Adonis,
or the sun-god, who has met with a violent death, and is now in the
lower hemisphere. Ishtar is delivered from Hades, or Mat-nude, by
Hea himself, just as Heabani was, only in a different manner. But
while the astronomical element referred to was at the base of, and
really primitive in, these religious conceptions, it had become wholly
misconceived and perverted. The absolutely primary reference
had been to the mount of paradise, of which, as shown in a previ
ous chapter, the two halves of the celestial sphere were taken as
symbols, the upper being put for the celestial paradise, the abode
of the great divinities, of whom Anu was chief, and the lower half
for the terrestrial paradise, to which Tum or Anatu, as wife of
Anu, ought to appertain as great mother. But the terrestrial para
dise, symbolized by the lower half of the sphere, had been trans
ferred to a fourth world, to the infernal regions, to the Greek
Hades, as previously shown in the extracts from Dr. Faber, and as
evinced still more plainly in the foregoing quotations from Mr.
Smith. Here is evidently a terrible confusion of ideas, a manifest
misinterpretation of primitive doctrines, a network of inconsisten
cies, from which it is necessary to work ourselves out, and explain
the causes which have led to it.
Sec. 81. To this end, it is advisable to recapitulate briefly here,
as an aid to the memory, the principal points that have been estab
lished in the few last sections.
1st. The primary reference of An-ki, conceived as a heavenly or
celestial earth, was to the traditional mount of paradise, uniting a
particular heaven and earth, to which primeval tradition especially
pertained. The proof of this reference is : (a) That the two
pyramidal temples, the most ancient and typical representations of
the paradisiacal mountain, were styled, one, " the temple of the
foundation of (An-ki) the celestial earth ; " the other, " the tem
ple of the seven lights of (An-ki) the celestial earth." (b) The
obvious connection of these seven lights with the seven stars of the
chariot, or great Dipper, with which also the seven planets had been
united in the cultus of different peoples, (c) The exact agreement
in the meaning of An-ki with the Sanskrit Svarga-bhoumi, or " celes
tial earth," definitely applied to the sacred mount, and proving that
such notions were ordinarily attached to it.
2d. The exact equivalence of An-ki in such original reference to

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 213
the mythological titles Anu and Tum. This is shown: (a) By
their equation to each other in the bilingual text cited, (b) By
the fact that Anu represents the highest and central region of the
heavens, correspondent to the Su-Meru of the Hindus, and viewed
as the original seat of the gods, as in fact the celestial paradise.
The fact that 7\im or Anatu, as wife of Anu, is put in opposition to
him, representing the lower region, the earth, proves her primitive
assimilation to the terrestrial paradise, united to the " heaven of
Anu " by means of the sacred mountain itself, (c) By the other
title of Anu, or Sabi, by which he is assimilated to Eshmun, " the
eighth," also put for the highest heaven, and obviously termed " the
eighth" in relation to the seven stars of the chariot.
3d. The identity of the region denoted by the title Tum with
the Aralli, the Mat-nude, conceived as the infernal abode, like the
Hades of the Greeks. This is proved: (a) By the cuneiform
phrase that explains the Accadian sign Thim by the Assyrian Aralli.
(b) By the fact that the term Aralli, as proved by a certain text
cited and explained by M. Lenormant, whose language has been
previously introduced, related to a traditional region, " the Aralli
of the east," put in direct relation to the Bit-kharris, or palace of
the gods, identified with the Su-Meru of the Hindus, consequently
with the " heaven of Anu ; " that is to say, with the rotating cen
tre of the superior heavens.
4th. All goes to show that at Babylon, as well as by the authori
ties referred to by Dr. Faber, the terrestrial paradise as a celestial
earth had been transferred to the Greek Hades. Some confusion
will arise here in the absence of an explanation. Anu represents
originally the upper and lower regions, as already stated by Mr.
Smith. So An-ki primarily includes the celestial and terrestrial
space, united by the sacred mount ; that is, the heaven and earth of
the original cosmos. But when the two regions were separated,
Anu was put for the upper, and Anatu or Tum for the lower.
Thus, heaven is always male, and earth uniformly female. On the
same principle, An-ki, as female, came to represent exclusively the
divine earth, put in opposition to An-e, Assyrian H-same, or divi
nized heaven. The texts often place the two in contrast, just as
Anu and Tum are so conceived. Thus, An-ki came to denote ex
clusively the terrestrial paradise, regarded as a " celestial earth,"
though the notion of a particular heaven united with it was always

214 HAR-MOAD.
involved, and was indeed primary. It is, then, this particular celes
tial earth as distinguished from the heaven of Anu, from the para--
disc of the gods, that was transferi-ed to the infernal regions repre
sented by the Greek Hades.
It will be better here to offer a concise statement of my theory
as to the causes which led to this transfer, this singular perversion
of primitive doctrines, so that the reader will be able to occupy the
same standpoint as myself in relation to the evidences which have
been and are to be introduced. Such a statement can be made now
to advantage, whereas before it would have loaded the memory
with too many important ideas, all of them somewhat complicated,
at the starting-point.
1st. It has been shown in a previous chapter that the Babylonian
sphere had been taken as a symbol of the cosmos. The two divi
sions, the upper and lower hemispheres, represented respectively the
two chief divisions of the cosmos, namely, heaven and earth, the
upper portion being put for heaven, and the lower for the earth.
In this way, the zodiacal temple, with its main line of separation
drawn through the sign Aries, denoted by the Accadian Bara, cor
responded precisely to the Hebrew tabernacle, with its two apart
ments separated by a vail. The term- Bara equals the Assyrian
Pa-rak-ku, which Dr. Delitzsch, heretofore cited, compares with the
Hebrew Pa-ro-keth, denoting the vail of the tabernacle.
2d. But the original cosmos, that to which in point, of fact the
earliest traditions referred, consisted of the particular heaven and
earth known to the first men, and which had been conceived, the
one as the celestial paradise, especial seat of the divine powers,
the other as a terrestrial paradise, happy abode of primeval human
ity. These two abodes, therefore, constituting the original cosmos,
were symbolized by the two divisions of the" Babylonian sphere,
since it had been taken to represent creation in its chief apart
ments. The upper portion, the superior heaven, was put for the
celestial, and the other, the inferior heaven, for the terrestrial para
dise. Hence, this lower hemisphere had a double assimilation to
the earth and to the terrestrial paradise, just as the upper hemi
sphere represented heaven and the celestial paradise.
3d. The assimilation of the inferior portion of the sphere to the
earth, to a particular earth, identical with the paradise of man,
had been neglected, had been in fact forgotten. A sufficient proof

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 215
of this neglect is the fact that it is necessary to-day to enter into
these labored investigations in order to prove the reality of such
original assimilation. The fact that a terminology, also, primitively
applicable only to a particular and limited celestial and terrestrial
space, was afterwards interpreted of the entire heavens and earth,
and is so generally understood by scholars at the present day, is
another proof that a great and primitive doctrine appertaining to
the cosmos and to the zodiacal representation of it had been at an
early epoch almost entirely forgotten. Yet not entirely, for I think
it had been preserved' in the mysteries, and a careful comparative
study of the cuneiform texts relating to these matters shows that
the priest-kings of Babylon had perpetuated the ancient dogma on
which so much really depended.
4th. The consequence of the neglect referred to was that the
inferior hemisphere, corresponding to our nadir, instead of being
understood as symbolically the earth, according to the dogmas of
the zodiacal temple, became the " under world," the " region of
darkness," the "infernal abodes," the Hades of the Greeks; and
the terrestrial paradise, the celestial earth, originally identified with
the lower hemisphere, was consequently in the same way referred
to this fourth world, of which the first men had no conception. I
speak here of a fourth world in relation to the " three worlds " of
the early Aryan tradition and sacred books. It is obvious that the
superior and cosmical triad of Babylon, consisting of Anu, Bel, and
Hea, had reference to a similar division of the cosmos into three re
gions. But Hea, as we see from Mr. Smith, was at a later epoch
assigned, as god of the dead, to this fourth region wholly factitious.
Sec. 82. A fact that goes far to demonstrate the general theory
just set forth is the definite location, on the part of the ancients, of
the Greek Hades, and particularly of the infernal river, the Styx,
in the inferior heaven or lower hemisphere. Its astronomical locality
was well understood and exactly described. It will be sufficient for
us upon this point to cite a passage from Professor A. Romieu's
critical treatise upon the " Egyptian Deoans," being a series of let
ters addressed to Dr. Lepsius. But before introducing this passage,
it is necessary to produce another one relating to the gates of souls,
located one in the upper, the other in the lower hemisphere, and
which is as follows : —

216 HAR-MOAD.
" We recognize on divers sides the general conception of two
celestial gates, situated upon the milky way, giving passage to hu
man souls ; by one of these gates the souls descend from the most
elevated, regions of space, which they were supposed to inhabit
(before birth), and by the other they return towards their first
abode, after having accomplished the period of sojourn on the earth
that had been allotted to them. The precise position of these gates
of the firmament varies somewhat with different authors ; but all
agree, nevertheless, that the gate by which the descent is made was
situated in the northern heavens, and the other in the southern."
" Permit me, monsieur, to recall here the passage of Macrobius
which develops the point in question : ' Behold the path by which
the souls descend from heaven upon the earth (at birth). The
milky way extends so far in the lieavens that it cuts the zodiac at
two points, in Cancer and in Capricorn, two signs that give their
names to the tropics. The physicists call these two signs the gates
of the sun, because they mark the limit of the sun's northern and
southern course, which never passes beyond them. It is, they say,
by these gates that souls descend from heaven upon the earth, and
remount from the earth toward heaven. It is by that of men, or
by Cancer, that the souls take their route toward the earth, and it
is by Capricorn, or gate of the gods, that they return to the seat of
their own immortality, where they are numbered with the gods ;
this is that which Homer has figured in the cave of Ithaca.' " ^
The anthor shows that these gates were called Kents by the
Egyptians, and he attempts to locate them definitely upon the
Egyptian sphere. The Kents do not correspond exactly with the
signs Cancer and Capricorn, yet they appear to have been situated
at opposite points in the two hemispheres. It is in treating upon
the position of these gates of the souls, as they pass from heaven
into the body at birth, and from the body at death toward heaven,
that Professor Romieu fixes the locality of the infernal river, or
Styx, in the inferior heavens : —
" The astrologue Firmicus informs us that the Styx takes its rise
in the eighth degree of Libra ; we know that the positions of the
Greek constellations have submitted to variations in process of time,
of which we have to-day no precise knowledge, and particularly in
respect to Libra, which did not exist primitively upon the Greek
sphere. Nevertheless, according to the position of the curve, which
fixes the first d^can of the (southern) Kent, we see that this curve
ought to pass near that part of the celestial sphere where the astro-
logues place the eighth degree of Libra. This leads us to con-
J Decan du del Egyptien, pp. 16, 17,

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 217
elude that the Styx was simply the Egyptian idea of the Kent,
transported into the Greek religion, and the coincidence of the two
risings affords a confirmation of all the preceding. The identity
of the two myths being admitted, we ought to note this passage of
the Georgics where, in speaking of the antarctic pole, Virgil says :
' But the dark Styx and the infernal shades behold that (pole)
under their feet.' This situation of the Styx and of the ghost,
enabling them to behold the south pole, and to approach it, seems
to indicate that the Styx, and consequently the Kent, extended
itself far to the south, from whence it results that the four d^cans
of this Kent had been placed upon the milky way."^
That which results absolutely from the facts developed in the
two extracts from Professor Romieu is : 1st. The primitive astro
nomical character of the infernal river, the Styx, the " Stygian
abyss," as termed by Dr. Faber; consequently of the Greek Hades,
also, since the Stygian sea is definitely located in Hades, or the
under world. 2d. The location astronomically of this river, and
thus of Hades, in the inferior hemisphere, the river itself taking
its rise in the sign Libra, and stretching off to the south pole. 3d.
The astronomical character of the gates of souls, the Egyptian
Kents, and their connection in some sense with this infernal abode
and river. What we have now to do is to connect with these facts
Dr. Faber's description of the celestial earth, otherwise termed a
terrestrial heaven or paradise, under the form of a ship, or floating
island, conceived as floating upon this Stygian abyss, whose terrific
waves and tempests engulf the unfortunate souls who are unable
to secure a foothold upon the island. It seems to me that these
facts ought to be regarded as perfectly conclusive to the effect that
the terrestrial paradise, or celestial earth, had been primitively as-
1 Ibid., p. 22. The entire distich cited by the author from the Georgics is as
follows : — ''Hie vertex nobis semper sublimis: at ilium
Sub pedibus Sty.'t atra videt, Manesque profundi." (i. 242, 243.)
" The north pole is always elevated above us ; but that (the south pole) the
dark Styx and the infernal shades behold under their feet." With the ancients
the north celestial pole was the centre of the heavens, like our zenith, and the
south pole was thus like our nadir. A recent annotator of Virgil observes :
" Videt, of course, does not mean that the south pole is actually visible from the
¦shades." But this is precisely what Virgil does mean, and the fact stated by
Firmicus, that the Styx takes its ri.se in the eighth degree ot Libra, proves the
definite location astronomically of all these ideas in the inferior heavens.

218 HAR-MOAD.
similated astronomically to the inferior hemisphere, and that at a
later period, by some singular misconception, this traditional abode
of the first men had been converted into the Greek Hades, astro
nomically located also in the lower hemisphere. We cannot assume
here, in accordance with the principles of the school of M. Dupuis,
that all these conceptions were purely astronomical from the begin
ning, and that no really historical and geographical element at
taches to them. The historical and geographical facts have been
demonstrated as absolutely primitive, and it has been shown that
the sphere had been taken as a symbolical representation of them.
The superior and inferior hemispheres were regarded as symbols
respectively of the two principal divisions of the cosmos, that is to
say, of the particular heaven and earth known to the first men, con
ceived as a celestial and a terrestrial paradise. But the assimilation
of the lower hemisphere to the earth had been forgotten, and as a
consequence this hemisphere had assumed the character of a dis
tinct cosmical region lower than the earth, becoming thus the under
world, the abode of darkness and of the dead. Still, the tradition
of paradise attached to it, and consequently the primeval abode of
humanity was transferred also to the Greek Hades, whose astro
nomical location in the inferior heavens has been fully established.
Sec. 83. V/hile upon the subject of the Egyptian sphere, it will
be well to introduce some other facts connected with it which relate
to our general topic. In his treatise upon the "Nomes of Egypt,"
M. J. De Roug^ has the following relative to Heliopolis : —
" The god of Heliopolis was the sun under its two principal
forms: Tum, that is to say, 'the hidden sun,' the sun of the pri
mordial night before its manifestation to the world ; and Ra, the
sun after its birth." ^
M. Eugene Gr^baut translated an Egyptian hymn to Ammon
Ra, in which occurs this sentence : " Sole form who produces all
things ; the sole One who produces all beings ; men are issued from
his eyes, and his words become gods." To which the translator
adds the following comments in a note : " That is to say, according
to ray view, men are produced from the luminous manifestation of
Tum, the god ' who exists alone in the abyss of waters.' As diurnal
sun he rises upon the world vivified by the light of his eyes, when
all beings take their birth. His word becomes the gods ; the texts
1 Nomes de I'Egypte, p. 38.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 219
say habitually, ' the gods issue from his mouth,' that is to say, he
manifests himself by his word, the truth." ^ Another fact in rela
tion to the Egyptian Tum is to be noted. An ancient scribe em
ploys the following language in praise of his master, the king :
" Thou dost enter thy palace, as Tum into the solar mountain." ^
According to Champollion and Dr. H. Brugsch, the " solar moun
tain " was located in the zodiacal sign Libra, and connected with
it were represented the mother goddess and her child Harpocra-
tes.* I have already expressed the opinion that the Accadian and
Egyptian Tum should be identified as a primitive Hamite divinity
connected with the lower hemisphere. The different local devel
opments of one and the same original character, so frequent in
mythology, are not at all surprising. Their primitive sameness
may be inferred : 1st. From the phonetical identity of the two
names. 2d. From the fact that both appertain to the inferior
heavens. 3d. From their connection with a sacred mountain. The
Egyptian Tum was associated with the solar mountain, located in
the sign Libra, consequently in the east. A bilingual phrase seems
to put the Accadian Tum in. relation to a sacred mountain, thus,
" The sublime mountain of Tum is Istar." * The phrase Tul-ku,
which I render " sublime mountain," is the Accadian name of the
seventh month, which corresponds to the sign Libra, in which the
solar mountain of the Egyptians was represented, together with
the mother goddess and her child. The mountain of the Accadian
Tum is identified with Is-tar in the text cited, who was considered
the goddess mother. The coincidences here are very striking, and
if we call to mind the facts heretofore presented tending to connect
Is-tar with Mt. Meru, under the name of Ida, it will be necessary
to admit that the Egyptians had preserved a tradition of the para
disiacal mountain, and of the mother of Eden, recording them, so
to speak, in their sphere. With the fact of Turn's association with
a sacred mountain, should be connected also the data previously
1 Revue Archeologique, June, 1873, p. 387, text, and note 3.
2 Vid. M. G. Maspero, Bibliotheque des Haules Etudes, Genre epistolaire chez
les Egyptiens, etc., p. 96.
^ Brugsch, Noucelles Recherches, etc., pp. 55, 56.
^ 3d Rawl. PI. 68, Col. 2, Obs. 1. 27. The text has the reading: An Tum tul-
kv^ga^An Ts-tar. The element Tul has the sense of " mound, column, ram
part," and is sometimes applied to mountains.

220 HAR-MOAD.
established in this chapter which tend to identify Anu and Tum
with the particular heaven and earth known to the first men, that
is to say, the mount of paradise.
Having determined the locality, astronomically, of the Greek
Hades and of the Stygian abyss, it will be possible with greater
certainty to ascertain the precise domain of Hea, whom Mr. Smith
very properly represents as god of the dead, ruler of the infernal
regions, like the Pluto of classic mythology, to whom in fact Hea
has been frequently compared. A cuneiform text well known to
Assyriologues contains a list of the twelve names of Mercury, one
to each month of the year, assumed by this planet successively as it
attends the sun in its annual course. In the Assyrian month Adar,
corresponding to the sign Pisces, or the fishes. Mercury takes the
name of Kha An Hea, " fish of the god Hea." ' This seems to
connect Hea definitely with the inferior hemisphere, and especially
with the zodiacal division Pisces. Moreover, in such connection he
seems to be a form of Mercury ; and this explains the phraseology
of Dr. Faber in depicting the vision of Timarchus, as already cited,
namely, " the infernal Mercury or Pluto." We know now that
this infernal Mercury appertained to the inferior heavens, and thus
we have a double proof that Hea had his domain in the same astro
nomical locality. Not only his character, so similar to that of Pluto,
but his connection with the sign Pisces, go to establish this point.
Again, a tablet giving the thirty-six titles of Hea, who rules the
infernal world, has the two following as first and second : " Lord of
the earth (Ki)," and "Lord of the celestial earth (An-ki)." ^ This
is an important text for our present purpose. Hea appears as lord
of the earth, of the celestial earth, and of the infernal regions.
He is termed in other places lord of mankind ; and the name of
his wife is Nin-ki-gal, " mistress of the great earth." All this is
perfectly consistent with our theory. The primitive earth known
to mankind was the celestial earth, the terrestrial paradise. It had
been assimilated to the lower hemisphere ; and it is this region that
becomes the especial domain of Hea as ruler of the under world,
converted by misapprehension into a world by itself, distinct from
the earth, and identical with the Greek Hades. It is to this abode,
and floating on the Stygian river taking its rise in the sign Libra,
1 3d Rawl. PI. 53, 2 Obs. 1. 13.
8 2d Rawl. PI. 65, Col. 2, 11. 17, 18.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 221
that the terrestrial paradise has been transferred under the form of
a floating island.
Sec. 84. I wish to introduce here some other leading facts tend
ing to establish our general theory, drawn from the legend of Ishtar's
descent into Hades, some passages from which, as rendered by Mr.
Smith, were presented before (Sec. 80). This legend, being indeed
a fine literary production, has been a favorite study among Assyrio
logues. M. Lenormant has published two or three versions of it,
the later improvements on the first ; Mr. Fox Talbot has given to
the public as many more, and Mr. George Smith one or two. Dr.
Schrader devoted a special study to the subject some time since,
and recently Dr. Oppert has done the same. So far as relates to
a true rendering of the text, there is now a substantial agreement
among cuneiform scholars. But its real intent and meaning are
probably not yet fully understood. That an astronomical element
is fundamental in it is apparent not only from internal evidence,
but is naturally to be inferred from the fact that the religion of
Babylon was preeminently astral. But we seem to be gradually
accumulating overwhelming proofs that the astronomical element in
the ancient religions, especially the Chaldseo-Assyrian, was at the
first thoroughly symbolical, relating to traditions and doctrines more
primitive, but whose real import had been at later epochs sadly mis
conceived and perverted.
A remark or two here in relation to some of the principal char
acters which appear in this legend, and to some circumstances con
nected with it. Ish-tar, as we know, was the Babylonian Venus,
answering to the goddess of love of Greek mythology. Upon the
real object of her descent into Hades, Mr. Talbot observes : " I con
jecture that she was in search of her beloved Thammuz-Adonis, who
was detained in Hades by Persephone or Proserpine." ^ Thammuz
or Adonis, as is well known, was the sun of the lower hemisphere,
the youthful sun-god, who had suffered an untimely and violent
death. He is detained in Hades by Proserpine, companion of the
infernal Mercury or Pluto, according to the vision of Timarchus,
already related to us by Dr. Faber. In the opinion of Mr. Talbot,
Proserpine is to be identified with Nin-ki-gal, "mistress of the
great earth," wife of Hea, whom Mr. Smith has compared to Pluto.^
1 Records of the Past, vol. i. p. 142.
^ Ibid., p. 143, note 2.

222 HAR-MOAD.
Both Hea and Nin-ki-gal play important parts in the legend to
which we refer. Respecting the object of Ishtar's descent, namely,
to meet her beloved Adonis, the D-u-zu or Tur-zi of the cuneiform
texts, M. Lenormant holds substantially the same views as those
expressed above by Mr. Talbot.^ Hence, as Adonis represents the
sun in the inferior heavens, like the Egyptian Osiris, it is necessary
to locate in this astronomical region the particular Hades into
which Ishtar makes this descent. The notions respecting this abode
of the dead, as set forth in the legend, may be gathered from the
portion of it already -cited from Mr. Smith's version. This local
ity into which Ishtar descends is also definitely fixed by the proofs
heretofore introduced lelating to the domain of Hea, and conse
quently of his wife Nin-ki-gal.
We wish to study now the import of some of the expressions
employed in designating the region to which Ishtar goes to meet
her beloved. I shall refer to the lines already presented from Mr.
Smith's version on one hand, and on the other to the original text
as published by Mr. Talbot, some of whose notes are to be cited
below.2 In the first line: "To Hades," etc., the cuneiform for
" Hades " is Mat-nudea, literally " land of no return." There
seems to be no question as to the meaning of the phrase. Its Ac
cadian etymology would be mat, " land," nu, " no, not," and de,
"to return." The second name for the same region occurs in the
fourth line : " To the house of the departed," etc. The text has
Bit-E-di-e ; and the rendering " house of assembly," suggested,
but not adopted by Mr. Talbot, would be much better. Of this,
however, hereafter. In the fifth line we have the cuneiform Bit
sha E-ri-bu, rendered: "To the house from within which," etc., by
Mr. Smith. This version is far from being literal, although on the
whole it is not objectionable. E-ri-bu, as Mr. Talbot observes,
must be allied to the Greek Erebos, " region of darkness," "under
world," having original reference to the place where the sun sets at
night, and like the Egyptian Amenti, " west,". put for the abode of
the dead, where the sun descends at close of day. But E-ri-bu in
* Premieres Civilisations, t. ii. pp. 94-96. Dr. J. Oppert gives countenance to
the same view, L'lmmortalite de I'dme chez les Chalde'ens, p. 4.
^ For this text, see Tram. Bib. Arch. So., vol. ii. pp. 179-212. The most of it
is now published likewise in the fourth volume of Cuneiform Inscriptions, often
cited in these pages as 4th Rawl.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 223
our text has a verbal sense, that of " entering " in opposition to
departing. " The house of entering, from which is no departing,"
conveys the idea with sufficient exactness. The terms Erib and
Atzu, placed here in relation, as Mr. Talbot states, mean his setting
and his rising, when applied to the sun. It is evident that they
have nearly these senses in the present instance. But in the sixth
line Mr. Smith has the rendering : " To the road the course of
which never returns." For " road," the text employs Khar-ra-ni,
" road, path," which is an ordinary term designating the " zodiac,"
and there seems to be a reference, a sort of double allusion to the
zodiac, the same as to the west, in the use of E-ri-bu.
We return now to the phrase in the fourth line: Bit-E-di-e,
" house of the departed," as interpreted by Mr. Smith. The fol
lowing valuable note relative to this expression is by Mr. Talbot :
" Hades is here called Bit Edi or Bit Hedi, ^^l? rVD., ' the house
of Assembly,' because the spirits of all past generations are assem
bled there, Heb. m57, coetus, conventus, turba. In the Syriac New
Testament, Si~I"T37 is continually used for ' Ecclesia,' the assembly.
Similarly in Job xxx. 23, Hades is called ~fj7ia n"'3? 'the house of
assembly,' to which is added >ri bsb, ' of all living.' " " Consider
ing this eastern usage of the word Hedi, mi;, I think it probable
that the Greek ' Hades ' is derived from it." ^
" The Semitic Hedi (m?) is thus defined by Dr. Furst : " An as
sembly, a congregation, especially of Israel, but also the members
of a family, or house ; also, host or mob that join for a certain pur
pose " (sub voc). Its application to the dead in the Hebrew is
quite exceptional, to say the least. It is one of the ordinary ex
pressions for "the congregation" of Israel, assembled before the
tabernacle or in the temple. Under the Syriac form, and in the
New Testament, as remarked by Mr. Talbot, it is put for the " Ec
clesia," the congregation or church. As for the Hebrew Moad
("jsia), its application to the dead in the passage. Job. xxx. 23,
cited by Mr. Talbot, is the only instance, I believe, of its employ
ment in this sense. Its primary meaning is " appointed time, fixed
time, festival ; " thence put for appointed assembly, usually des
ignating the " congregation, assembly " of the house of Israel, like
the term just explained. But notwithstanding these facts, Mr.
Talbot's statements in the foregoing extract appear to be correct.
1 Trans. Bib. Arch. So., vol. iii. p. 125.

224 HAR-MOAD.
His assimilation of the cuneiform Bit Hedi (Bit-E-di-e) to the
Hebrew word first referred to admits of no doubt, and his con
jecture that the Greek Hades was derived from it may be accepted,
at least for the present.
Sec. 85. We have in the data comprehended in the last section
another series of striking confirmations of our position that the
infernal abodes, understood as the Hades of the Greeks, were defi
nitely located astronomically in the inferior heavens, the region into
which "the sun descends as it sets in the west, and which answers in
some sense to our nadir. There can be no doubt that the Egyp
tians located their Amenti or Hades astronomically in precisely the
same locality. Various other facts revealed by a comparative study
of different cuneiform expressions might be introduced as a still
further support of our theory. Among these is the bilingual equa
tion of the Accadian An-ki to the Assyrian Il-sar, in which Sar,
the Accadian Khi, " to be good, to be happy," is a monogram for
Assur, or supreme divinity of the Assyrians.^ The later form of
Sar is Asar, and its reference to the inferior heavens is proved by
the phrase j?a^asar, " son of the lower hemisphere." For the pre
sent, however, we will consider the fact of the astronomical loca
tion of both the celestial earth and the Greek Hades in the inferior
heavens as sufficiently established. Indeed, no point in the whole
domain of antiquities was ever better supported than the proposi
tion referred to by the evidences already presented. Again, the very
name for Hades, the cuneiform Bit-E-di-e, Semitic Hedi, to which
Mr. Talbot would trace the origin of this Greek term, as we find
it employed in the fourth line of the legend in question, affords
another proof of the conversion of the terrestrial paradise, regarded
as a celestial earth, into the infernal regions as conceived by the
Greeks. It was shown in our chapters on the temple and cosmos,
especially the fifth and sixth, that the Hebrew tabernacle and tem
ple were architectural imitations of the traditional mount of para
dise, the same as the pyramidal temples of the Euphrates valley.
This mountain is termed the Har-Moad, or " mount of assembly,"
by Isaiah, evidently in strict analogy with the sense of Beth-Moad
and Beth-Hedi or Hedah, designating the " congregation " of Israel,
assembled before the tabernacle or in the temple. Bishop Lowth
1 Vid. 2d Rawl. PI. 54, 3 Obs. 1. 6. This identification of the two expres
sions, An-ki and An-khi, the Assyrian ll-sar, admits of no doubt.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 225
puts the Har-Moad and Beth-Moad, equal to the Beth-Hedi, in direct
relation (note Is. xiv. 13) ; and we show that the latter, as a place
of " assembly," was an imitation architecturally, an inheritance
traditionally, as regards the former. But the Beth-Hedi, imitation
of the paradisiacal mount, central object of the Israelitish congrega
tion and church, is only another name for the infernal regions in
the legend of Ishtar, regarded also by Mr. Talbot as having fur
nished to the Greeks their name Hades. A similar transfer of
ideas is seen in reference to Beth-Moad, as it occurs in the passage
cited from Job, where this location denotes the region of the dead.
In a word, we have here the most striking proof that Hades and
the church, whether that of the Hebrews, or the " Ecclesia " of the
New Testament, originally meant the same thing ; that their tra
ditional origin was the terrestrial paradise ; the connection with
which of the Accadian An-ki, the Sanskrit Svarga-bhoumi, ;ind the
celestial earth of the vision of Timarchus reported by Dr. Faber,
may be regarded as already fully established. As previously
stated, the primary^ cause of the singular perversion of original doc
trines, which we behold in the transformation of the terrestrial par
adise into the Greek Hades, arose from the neglect or forgetfulness
of the fact that the lower hemisphere, taken as a symbol of the first
abode of humanity, was at the same time assimilated in conception
to the earth itself ; originally the particular earth identical with
paradise. But that which had a powerful tendency in the same
direction, as we can now fully appreciate, was the fact that the
sun's course had been taken as a symbol of human existence. The
following statements of M. Mariette-Bey will serve us here as illus
tration and proofs : —
" Originally Osiris is the nocturnal sun ; he is the primordial
night (like the Egyptian Tum) ; he precedes the light ; he is con
sequently anterior to Ra, the diurnal sun. From this principal
character flows a multitude of allegories, which are grouped
around Osiris, making of this personage a type of divinity the most
curious to study. The life of man had been assimilated by the
Egyptians to the course of the sun above our heads ; the sun that
sets and disappears below the horizon is the image of the death of
man. Hardly has this supreme moment arrived, when Osiris takes
possession of the soul, which he is charged to conduct to the eternal
light. Osiris, they say, had formerly descended upon the earth.
The good being par excellence, he had softened the manners of men

226 HAR-MOAD.
by persuasion and beneficence. But he had fallen into the snares of
Typhon, his brother, the genius of evil, and while his two sisters,
Isis and Nephthys, collected the fragments of his body which had
been thrown into the river, the god was raised from the dead,
appearing to his son Horus," etc. " The image of death had been
derived from the sun, as it disappears at the horizon of evening ;
but the resplendent sun of morning was taken as a symbol of the
second birth into a life which this time knows no death." ^
Another instance of the assimilation of the sun's course to human
existence, quite similar to the one just noticed, appears in the double
character of the Hindu Yama, reputed first man, yet unquestion
ably assimilated to the sun. Conceptions of a like nature prevailed
at an. early epoch among the Chinese. It will be easily perceived,
then, since the descent of the sun below the western horizon was a
type of man's death, and its reappearance in the east a type of the
resurrection to a new life, how powerfully such conceptions would
tend to locate the Egyptian Amenti, the Greek Hades, in precisely
that astronomical region where we find situated the abode of the
dead, according to the conceptions of many peoples of antiquity.
But so long as this portion of the sphere was assimilated to the
1 Muse'e a Boulaq, etc., pp. 100, 101. It is remarkable that the transcription of
the name of Osiris, when written with vague vowels is Asar (vid. E. De Rouge,
Chrestomathie Egyptienne, pt. 1, p. 73), a reading identical with the Assyrian
Asar, signifying the lower hemisphere. The Assyrian term is the name of the
chief divinity, whose monogram is the Accadian Khi, " to be happy, to make
happy," designating this deity as the " good ; " thus An Khi is the " god good."
The hieratic form oE Khi is identical with that of Zid, " the sun." The two
phrases An-khi and An-ki are often equated in the texts. These facts seem to
warrant the following conclusions : — •
1st. That the Assyrian God Asar was originally one with the Egyptian Asar,
or Osiris. They were botli solar deities, both being forms of the sun in the lower
hemisphere. They were both esteemed the "good "par excellence, a,nd their
names were phonetically identical.
2d. We have thus another evidence of a community of ideas at an extremely
remote epoch, inherited by the populations of the Nile valley and those settled in
the country of the Euphrates and Tigris.
3d. Both the Assyrian and Egyptian Asar, as the "good being," the " benefi
cent," seem to have been connected or identified closely with the "celestial
earth." The cuneiform An-khi and An-ki are equated to each other ; and in the
" Litany of the Sun," translated by M. Naville, that which he renders the Empy
rean is the peculiar abode of Osiris, and it answers very nearly to the " celestial
earth " transferred to the inferior 'heavens (vid. note 1, chap. xvi. upon this last
point, p. 425).

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 227
earth as one chief division of the cosmos, in strict harmony with the
primitive doctrines of the zodiacal temple, it would be impossible to
suppose a factitious world of which the first men had no ideas. So
long, too, as the earth, to which all the cosmogonies originally
related, was recognized as the particular earth identical with the
traditional paradise, there was no danger that it would develop itself
into the later Hades of Greek mythology. In reality, the Hebrews
of Moses' time had preserved the primeval doctrine in its purity,
or better, Moses had restored it. He maintained the strict relation
of the Beth-Moad, " house of the assembly," to the Har-Moad,
" mount of the assembly," from which the former had been tra
ditionally derived, being architecturally an imitation of it. This
fact, finally, reveals the fundamental connection of the Mosaic cos
mogony, as previously interpreted in these pages and represented
in the Har-Moad, with the Mosaic theocracy represented in the
Beth-Moad, or Beth-Hedah.-
Seg. 86. As observed in the last section. Bishop Lowth assumes
a direct relation of the Har-Moad, in a theological or religious sense,
to the Beth-Moad. Our investigations have served to demonstrate
this relation in a traditional sense. The Beth-Moad, or Hebrew
tabernacle, was expressly designed, like the pyramidal temples of
the Euphrates valley, as an imitation, an architectural reproduction
of the Har-Moad, or the " mountain of assembly " in the sides of
the north, traditional abode of primeval humanity. In other terms,
the two apartments of the tabernacle were intended to represent the
celestial and terrestrial paradise, united by the sacred mountain,
of which Mt. Sion and all the sacred mountains of antiquity were
but reflections. Bishop Lowth's language is as follows : —
" ' ITie mount of the divine presence ' (Har-Moad). It appears
plainly from Exod. xxv. 22, and xxix. 42, 43, where God appoints
the place of meeting with Moses, and promises to meet with him
before the ark, to commune with him and to speak unto him ; and
to meet the children of Israel at the door of the tabernacle ; that
the tabernacle, and afterward the temple, and Mount Sion whereon
it stood, was called the tabernacle, and the mount, of convention,
or of appointment; not from the people's assembling there to per
form the services of their religion (which is what our translation
expresses by calling it the tabernacle of the congregation), but
because God appointed that for the place where He himself would
meet with Moses and commune with him, and would meet with the

228 HAR-MOAD.
people. Thereiove, Har-Moad (1v^^2—^Pl), ov Ohel-Moad(-[V'\'D-bni^),
means the place appointed by God where he would present himself,
agreeably to which I have rendered it, in this place, 'the mount of
the divine presence.' " (Notes, Is. xiv. 13.)
Undoubtedly, the idea of an immediate divine presence is implied
in both expressions, the Har-Moad and Beth-Moad. The Accadian
character Gan, a phonetic value assimilated to the Hebrew Gan in
the phrase Gan-Eden by most Assyriologues, whose hieratic form
has been exhibited and explained, has the especial sense of presence,
as if in direct allusion to the idea upon which Dr. Lowth insists.
Nevertheless, the notion of the divine presence on one hand does
not exclude, but rather presupposes that of assembly, of congrega
tion, on the other. In either case, the relation of the Beth-Moad
to the Har-Moad, in a religious, and we may add, in a politico-reli
gious sense, is clearly recognized. It is with the Har-Moad, or
" mountain of assembly " in the extreme north, that the prophet
directly associates El and Elyon, and likewise the " stars of El,"
evidently the seven stars of the chariot, represented, as I have sup
posed, by the golden candlestick with seven lights. This par
ticular region of heaven, the celestial paradise, was the especial
dwelling-place of divinity, of which the Holy of Holies was designed
as a symbol. We see here a confirmation of the doctrine main
tained by Dr. Bahr, that the Hebrew tabernacle was properly con
ceived as a dwelling of God, a doctrine upon which we have also so
much insisted. The Holy of Holies was religiously and traditionally
a representation of that particular heaven regarded as the seat of
the divine hierarchy in the primitive tradj^tions of all Asia. This
was the abode of El, or of El-elyon, "the Most High God," whom
Abraham expressly identifies with the Yahveh or Jehovah of the
Old Testament (Gen. xiv. 22). We have shown the original ref
erence of An-ki, " the celestial earth," to the same sacred locality
conceived as the dwelling of El in connection with that of primeval
humanity. It is through this Accadian expression that we are able
to prove the existence of similar ideas at Babylon to those just
noticed among the Hebrews. As heretofore cited, we have the
phrase Il-su-par Il-irziti (An-ki), " El, the ornament of the celes
tial earth." But a variant of the name of Babylon affords us a still
more direct connection, namely Bab-il il4rziti, " gate of the God
of the celestial earth." ^ The expression Bab-il, " gate of El," an-
1 Vid. Norris, Assyr. Die, i. p. 70.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 229
swers very nearly to the Hebrew Beth-Moad, with the idea of
" celestial earth " attached, all referring primarily to the traditional
mount of paradise; These doctrines were primitive, no doubt, to
the entire Semitic race, and were directly associated with El. Moses
restored them to their pristine purity. At Babylon they had
been perverted in a measure by the transfer of Beth-Hedi, equal to
Beth-Moad, to the under world conceived like the Hades of Greek
mythology. The Mosaic books contain nothing of this nature.
Among the Haranites, also, a corruption had taken place. The
divine names Elyon and Shemal, Hebrew Semol, appear to have
referred equally to the rotating centre of the northern heavens,
with which the "stars of El," the "Strong One," were directly asso
ciated. But with Moses, Elyon was not the " Highest " in relation
to El, that is, was not superior to El, since such a conception was
polytheistic. The two names were held to denote the one God, El-
elyon, " El the Highest." With the Haranites Shemal, answering
to Elyon, was put for the pole star, considered thus as higher, as
superior to the stars of El. In other words, and according to Jew
ish tradition, Shemal, English Samael, was primitively the highest
archangel, but he aspired to the rank of supreme divinity, in conse
quence of which he fell from his first estate, and became the chief
of rebellious angels, identified with Satan.^ Although as a divine
name, Shemal seems to have pertained to the early epochs of Se
mitic development, a false notion had been associated with it by the
Haranites, and it was thenceforth rejected by the Jews. It is the
same blasphemous idea that the prophet attributes to the king of
Babylon, supposing him to say in substance : " I will ascend above
the stars of El, and seat myself by the side of Elyon, the very
highest in relation to them " (Is. xiv. 13, 14). This was to put
Elyon higher t\\An. El, and also to exalt himself to a higher estate,
that of the Haranite Shemal, whom the Hebrews supposed to have
fallen into the depths of Sheol.
As before observed, the Hebrews had preserved the original and
true sense of the Beth-Hedi, as relating to the mount of paradise,
and thence also the " celestial earth " identified with it.^ It was
1 Vid. Chwolsohn, Ssabier, ii. p. 221 ; whose various extracts from rabbinical
writings are given, relating to Samael,
2 It is not to be doubted, however, that the Jews of our Saviour's time had
conceived the notions of different paradises, the heavenly, the earthly, and the

230 HARr-MOAD.
embodied likewise in the earliest temple structures of the valley of
the Euphrates, and even temples called Aralli were constructed by
the Assyrian monarchs, which shows that the term Aralli put for
the under world, or Greek Hades, in one instance, was in such case
a corruption of the original notion, placing it in connection with
the sacred mount of the east, of which the temples Aralli were
imitations. Our further investigations relating to the "celestial
earth " will have regard to the primitive notions attached to this
phrase, attempting to trace the expansion of the idea into the
politico-religious institutions of the old world. ^
infernal. Dr. Dillmann shows that such was in fact the case, and that some of
the rabbis identified the infernal paradise with Gehenna itself (Schenkcl's Bibel-
Lexikon, vol. i. pp. 377-379. Cf. vol. ii. pp. 42-50).
^ In the 4th chapter of La Litanie du Soleil, edited and translated by M. Ed.
Naville, there are several direct allusions to the pyramid in stages in connection
with the sun-god, under the form of Osiris, or the nocturnal sun. The region' is
that of the dead, the Ament, astronomically the inferior heavens, which, as we
have shown in a previous chapter, symbolized the earth, that is to say, the par-'
ticular earth known to the first men, or the terrestrial paradise. This " Litany
of the Sun," inscribed upon the walls. of the royal tombs at Thebes, dates from
the period of Seti I., and embodies the cosmical doctrines of the period ; but
many passages contain traditional notices and ideas appertaining to the earliest
times, preserved in <i greater state of purity than even the corresponding passages
in the Book of the Dead. The gods of the pyramid in stages, to which allusijn
is made in the Litany, bear the same name as those mentioned in the 144th and
147th chapters of the Book of the Dead, in connection with the Seven Ari or Aris
(vid. Lepsius, Todtenbuch. Vorwart., p. 16. Cf. De Rouge, Rituel Funeraire, In
troduction, pp. 24, 25). This mention of the pyramid in stages in the Litany is
quite important, and M. Naville offers the following comments upon it : —
" It is impossible not to recognize in this word (Ar) an edifice having the form
of a pyramid in stages, like that of Sakkara. This class of constructions, rare
in Egypt, was common in the country of the Euphrates, where the tower of Bor-
.sippa was the most famous example. This tower was consecrated to the ' seven
lights of the earth,' that is to say, to the seven principal stars. The gods of the
pyramid are those whom we find called the Ari. Thus, the 144th chapter of the
Book of the Dead shows us that there were seven gods having this name ; this is,
then, in accord with the Babylonian cultus, and we are able to recognize in these
seven divinities the sun, moon, and five planets. If at a later period a distinct
sanctuary was assigned to each of these gods, as seen in tlie Book of the Dead,
this is no evidence that they were not originally the gods of the degrees of the
pyramid. Here, at least, the determinatives recall nothing similar to the repre
sentations in the 144th chapter, but rather the ancient tradition analogous to that
of Babylon." (La Litanie, p. 93.)
M. Naville follows M. Lenormant in interpreting the " seven lights of the
earth," associated with the tower of Borsippa, as the " sun, moon, and pl.inets."

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 231
I have shown in the present chapter that, while these seven luminaries were
^doubtless joined in the cultus, the primary reference must have been to the seven
stars of the chariot, traditionally associated with the mount of paradise, of which
the pyramid in stages was an artificial reproduction. One of the proofs to this
effect, and quite conclusive, is that the "earth " illumed by these seven lights is
not the Ki, or " geographical earth," but the An-ki, the " celestial earth," proved
to have been originally one with the sacred mount, and that with which the seven
stars of the chariot were directly connected. But M. Naville is undoubtedly cor
rect in assimilating the seven gods of the Ar to the seven lights of the An-ki.
I have already insisted upon the point in the first chapter (Sec. 10) that the pyr
amids of Borsippa and Babylon, the most ancient in the valley of the Euphrates,
embodied the same traditional ideas, and appertained to the same epoch, as the
brick pyramid at Sakkara, the oldest in Egypt. It will be seen that the facts
developed by M. Naville go far to confirm this position. If, in the Nile valley,
and at an early period, the geometrical pyramid had taken the place of that in
stages, the traditionary conceptions, primitively associated with the latter, had
been preserved in the Book of the Dead, though partially obscured ; but in the
"Litany of the Sun" these conceptions were far better preserved, where we
find them connected with the cosmogony and the mystical doctrines concerning
the future life. In both instances, the scene is laid astronomically in the inferior
heavens, or the Egyptian Ament, answering to the Greek Hades. Here, too, we
find what corresponds perfectly to the " celestial earth ; " that which, in his ver
sion of the Litany, M. Naville calls the Empyrean, analogous to the Elysium of
the Greeks, the paradise of the later Jews. It must be admitted, then, that the
Egyptians had preserved distinct recollections of the sacred mount of the east,
and of the notions which we have shown were primitively connected with it. As
among other peoples, the Egyptians had transferred all to the inferior heavens.
I venture to offer here one or two suggestions of an etymological character,
somewhat hazardous no doubt, but pertaining to the Egyptian Ar, phonetic value
of the hieroglyph of a pyramid in stages. According to M. E. Do Roug^, both
the phonetic value and the meaning of "ladder," a "pyramid in degrees," are
derived from the verb Ar, " to ascend" (Chrest. Egypt, pt. 1, p. 73). Compare
this radical with the same phonetic element in the Semitic Ar-arat, name of a
mountain in Armenia, on which Noah's ark is supposed to have rested. That
the diluvian mount, identified with that of paradise, was conceived as a mountain
of degrees, or stages, is proved by the fact of its being artificially represented by
the pyramid in stages, as heretofore verified. Another proof is, that the Ac
cadian monogram ior Akkad, when applied to the Armenian mountain, has the
reading of Til-la (Lenormant, Rep. 341). The first element Til, or Tul, signifies
"mount, mountain," and La means " ladder, degree ; " hence Til-la denotes a
mountain in stages, or degrees. The Ar-arat in Armenia was traditionally called
the " mount of the descent of Noah," just as the Hindu Meru was termed the
" mount of the descent of Manu ; " and it is obvious that some mystical sense is
involved in these expressions. On the other hand, this descent implies an ascent
also mystical in character. Again, the ordinary Assyrian term applied to the
divisions or stances of the pyramidal temple is Par-su, from the Semitic radical
Par, softened form Bar, signifying the act of " cutting or breaking in, separating,

232 HAR-MOAD.
dividing, as with a sword or plough," etc. ; hence the divisions or stages of the
temple. It will be seen that the element Ar is involved in these two radicals as
P-ar and B-ar. This, however, only by way of suggestion. It is a fact, I be
lieve, that the sacred mountain of degrees was sometimes conceived as a ploughed
mountain, from the idea of a vineyard planted upon the side of a mountain,
which had been cut up into terraces or stages by means of the plough', etc. This
reminds us that Noah planted a vineyard after leaving the ark. We come now
to the element Ar in Ar-ya-rata, "chariot of the Aryas," a name primitively
applied to Mt. Meru, and from which the Semitic Ar-arat was derived according
to MM. Obry and Lenormant. The element Ar-ya, in the foregoing title of
Meru, like Ar-yas, is that from which comes the designation of the Ar-yan races,
etc. I believe that the Hindus sometimes gave the name Ar-yas to the seven
stars of the chariot, traditionally associated with Meru. The root Ar, from which
the various forms Ar-ya, Ar-yas, eic, 3.xe. derived, signifies "to plough." The
English term earth is from the same radical, meaning primitively a, ploughed land,
afterwards earth in general. But the original application of this term was prob
ably to Meru itself, the primitive home of the Aryans : and, if so, to the plougheil
mountain of which the pyramid in stages was an imitation. The mountain masses,
rising one above the other in the distance, could not be better represented than
by a pyramid in stages. Such seems to be the conception involved in the Hebrew
term H-ar, " mountain," in which the element Ar appears again. But to return
now to the Egyptian Ar, denoting a, pyramid in stages, which in Babylon was
regarded as an imitation of the mount of paradise. I cannot but entertain the
suspicion that this old Hamite expression was a technical one, inherited from the
same locality as that designated by the Aryan A r-ya-rata, afterwards corrupted
into the Semitic Ar-arat. If such may be considered as having been the case,
there can be no more question whether the Egyptians had preserved the tradi
tions common to so many nations relative to the sacred mount of paradise. I
make these suggestions, however, only in the hope that some one better qualified
to deal with such matters may decide respecting their value. Aside from the
Semitic radicals, such as H-ar, " mountain," in the phrase Har-Moad, appUed to
the Asiatic Olympus, P-ar a-ni B-ar, "to break through," "to cut in," etc., I
should include the Accadian K-ar, " summit," in the phrases As-kar and Scan
dinavian As-g-ar-d and cuneiform K-ar- Sak- Kurra, all evidently referring to the
same locality

CHAPTER VIIL
THE THEOEY OF THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS.
Sec. 87. In his description of the destruction of Babylon con
tained in the 13th chapter, or the one immediately preceding that,
from which has been cited the passage relating to the fall of the
Babylonian monarch, in connection with the Har-Moad, or " moun
tain of the assembly," the prophet Isaiah employs language of a
most remarkable character, of which the following verses will afford
an example : —
" Behold, the day of the Lord cometh, cruel both with wrath and fierce anger,
to lay the land desolate : and he shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it. For
the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light : the
sun shall be darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to
shine." "Therefore I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall remove out of
her place, in the wrath of the Lord of hosts, and in the day of his fierce anger ' '
(vv. 9, 10, 13).
There is little difference of opinion among all judicious critics
as to the general import of this class of figures so frequently occur
ring in Scripture, and the subjoined notes by Bishop Lowth, ap
pended to the 10th verse, may be taken as representing the views
of the majority of exegetes : —
" The Hebrew poets, to express happiness, prosperity, the instau-
ration and advancement of states, kingdoms, and potentates, make
use of images taken from the most striking parts of nature, — from
the heavenly bodies, from the sun, moon, and stars, which they
describe as shining with increased splendor and never setting ; the
moon becomes like the meridian sun, and the sun's light is aug
mented sevenfold (see I.sa. xxx. 26) ; new heavens and a new earth
are created, and a brighter age commences. On the contrary, the
overthrow and destruction of kingdoms is represented by opposite
images ; the stars are obscured, the moon withdraws her light, and
the sun shines no more ; the earth quakes and the heavens tremble,
and all things seem tending to their original chaos (see Joel ii. 10 ;
iii. 15, 16 ; Amos viii. 9 ; Matt. xxiv. 29)."

234 HAR-MOAD.
Although really and highly poetical, the language to which Dr.
Lowth alludes in the above extract is not wholly the product of
imagination, is not entirely figurative. In one sense it is almost
technical, for it is based upon ideas and customs of a character
quite ordinary. I refer to the fundamental conceptions constitut
ing the theory of the ancient civilizations. For the most part the
kingdoms of antiquity were regarded as astronomical or celestial
earths, and this fact explains the origin and nature of the lan
guage quoted from Isaiah, and the various texts cited by Dr.
Lowth at the close of his note. With the ancients, the state was
an expansion of the idea of the temple, which involved, as we have
seen, the double conception of a celestial space systematically
marked off into divisions, — put in direct relation to a terrestrial
space similarly cut off and divided. Not only this, the state was
in point of fact, though the traditionary origin had been in some
instances lost or forgotten, an expansion of the idea of the partic
ular heaven and earth previously shown to have constituted the
actual cosmos or world as known to primeval humanity. Each
kingdom was thus a world, a heaven and earth, within itself. At
a later period the entire heavens and earth were symbolically
represented in the organization of the kingdom and the territorial
divisions. But in the very earliest epochs I am inclined to think
the practice was more frequent simply to represent the heaven and
earth constituting the traditional paradise, or " mounttiin of the
world," according to Rev. A. H. Sayce's interpretation of the phrase
Kharsak-kurra heretofore cited. The division of the territory,
however, in a manner to represent the twelve signs of the zodiac
was a practice certainly very ancient.
The extensive prevalence in antiquity of the custom of repre
senting the celestial world in the organization of the kingdom or
empire, is a fact which was long since fully established by Dr. Bahr,
in his critical treatise on the Mosaic worship already referred to in
these pages. At the period when he wrote, the facts were not so
well known as at present, but later researches have tended only to
confirm, and to place beyond doubt, the general hypothesis so ably
supported by him. Such being the case, the origin of the Scripture
phraseology to which reference has been made is quite apparent,
together with the rules of exegesis that should apply to it.
The question of the origin of the ancient civilizations is one of

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 235
very great importance, and one upon which quite contradictory
theories have been and are to-day entertained. Perhaps the most
popular hypothesis among writers at the present day is, that the
theory and organization of the states of antiquity were a gradual
growth and improvement from a very crude and even savage con
dition of humanity. I believe myself able to produce an array of
facts in the present chapter, sufficient not only to overthrow com
pletely this hypothesis, but to show that the foundations of the
ancient kingdoms proceeded from grand and noble ideas, whose
actual genesis may be traced back to the first ages of humanity.
Indeed, the data already included in the previous chapters must be
regarded, I think, as affording a very strong presumption in favor
of the view just expressed.
Sec. 88. The first order of facts to which I wish to call the
reader's attention appertains, properly speaking, to the symbolical
geography of the ancients, some notices relative to which have been
heretofore presented. M. Lenormant was cited upon the singular
system of geography as revealed in the great book of astrology, com
piled by the orders of Sargon the ancient, about the year 2000 B. C.
(Sec. 59). He had made allusion previously in the same work to
this subject in nearly the same terms, yet so far different that I
desire to reproduce them here : —
" It would be curious to devote a study to the geographical sys
tem of this book (of astrology), which indicates in itself an epoch
extremely remote, and when the knowledge of the Chaldajans out
side their own country was quite limited. The redacteurs, in effect,
conceive the country of Akkad as situated in a central position be
tween four stranger countries, which correspond to the four cardinal
points, to the ' four regions of heaven,' of which the ancient Chal
dsean monarchs styled themselves kings (sar kibrativ arbaiv), cor
responding to the primitive Cushite tetiarchy (Gen. x. 10)." ^
It is to be noticed, first, that the author attributes this curious
geographical scheme apparently to the ignorance of the Chaldseans.
He corrects himself in his second reference to the same subject as
heretofore quoted, styling it a "symbolical system" and "inspired
by religious conceptions," in connection with which he refers to
similar systems prevailing in other countries, schemes so exactly
similar, in fact, that he finds himself compelled <to refer the origin
1 Frag, de Berose, p. 27.

236 HAR-MOAD.
of all of them to primitive tradition respecting the sacred mount
of paradise, with which a like scheme was associated. The author's
fine archseological tact and immense antiquarian lore rarely^ permit
him to be deceived in the end. He has stated, in fact, in the pas
sages before cited, the real nature and origin of this geographical
system. But in the extract here produced he yields unguardedly
to the spirit, so prevalent among certain writers of our day, which
attributes to the ignorance of the ancients that whose real import
and significance they are unwilling to take the trouble to ascertain.
It was customary with the nations of antiquity to consider their
country as the centre of the world, and especially the national tem
ple as the central point of the universe. Neither vanity nor igno
rance suggested this notion. It appertained to a symbolico-religious
system of geography that had been inherited from the great Olym
pus of all Asia, of which the national temples were designed as
artificial reproductions. The sacred books of the ancients some
times allude to this mountain as the root of all others, and to the
sacred river that watered it as the source of all the rivers of the
world. It was truly the root of all the holy mountains, and the
source of all the sacred rivers, and such in point of fact is the idea
intended. Such notions were by no means the offspring of igno
rance, but of a widespread symbolism, whose origin is to be traced
to the primeval abode of humanity.
M. Lenormant refers to the primitive Cushite tetrarchy, of which
Moses has the following notice, in connection also with that of
Asshur : " Whence it is said. Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter
before the Lord, and the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and
Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that
land went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and the city Reho
both, and Calah, and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah " (Gen.
X. 9-12). It is generally understood, I believe, among Assyrian
scholars that these four cities, forming the basis of Nimrod's king
dom, were conceived as a sort of mystical square, or tetrarchy, the
notion of which had been traditionally inherited, as M. Lenormant
supposes, from the paradisiacal mountain. Four other cities seem
to constitute the foundation of Assyria, or the kingdom of Asshur,
and it is probable that a similar mystical idea attached to them.
The ancient kings of Chaldsea, whose inscriptions have been pre
served to us, appear to have inherited the same conception, this

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 237
being the interpretation attached by M. Lenormant to the fre
quently occurring phrase, sar kibrativ arbaiv, " king of the four
regions." Precisely analogous ideas had been handed down in the
line of Shem, as well as that of Ham, according to the opinions of
Drs. Tuch and Herzog, relative to the import of the genealogy of
Aram. We note the following observations in an article attributed
to Dr. Herzog : —
"Finally, in the catalogue of nations (Gen. x. 22, 24), Aram ap
pears after Elam, Assur, Arphaxad, Lud, as Shem's fifth son, and his
sons are : Uz, Hul, Gether, Mash. Now Dr. Tuch interprets these
four names as the ' termini of the Arameans.' Uz, the southern,
against the Edomites and Arabs ; Hul, the western, against the
Canaanites ; the unknown Gether (probably Gutium of the cunei
form texts), perhaps the eastern, against Elam and Assur; lastly
Mash, undoubtedly the northern, against the Japhetic Armenians." ^
Thus, Aram answers in this scheme to Akkad in the system of
Sargon the ancient. We come now to still other proofs of the
existence of the same arrangement. Rev. George Rawlinson, after
having described the natural division of the country of Chaldsea,
proceeds to remark : —
" We have no evidence that the natural division of Chaldsea here
indicated was ever employed in ancient times for political purposes.
The division which appears to have been so employed was one into
northern and southern Chaldsea, the first extending from Hit to a
little below Babylon, the second from Niffer to the shores of the
Persian Gulf. In each of these districts we have a sort of tetrarchy,
or special preeminence of four 'cities, such as appears to be indicated
by the words: 'The beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and
Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar.' " ^
The division into upper and lower Chaldsea, having no corre
spondence with the natural characteristics of the country, taken espe
cially in connection with a tetrarchy in each district, has every ap
pearance of a symbolical reference to the upper and lower portions
of the sphere, separated by an equatorial line. This will appear
the more probable if we call to mind the fact that the Hamites of
Egypt are known to have symbolized the two worlds, or two chief
divisions of the cosmos, by upper and lower Egypt.
1 Protest. Eccl. Encyc, i. p. 227, art. "Aram." Cf. Tuch, Commentar u. d.
Genesis, p. 204.
2 Five Monarchies, i. p. 15.

238 HARr-MOAD.
Passing now to India, we find a system of political divisions the
same as that pertaining to Akkad and Aram, a notice of which is
thus given by M. Obry : —
"It is necessary to remark that after their installation in Hindu
stan, taken in the widest sense, the Aryans of India divided this
country into four regions, east, soutji, west, and north, . . . and
that they placed between them a middle country ... all in imita
tion of the four Mahordvipas and of the (central) Madhya-dvipa
of the entire earth. I add in proof of this imitation that, after the
dismemberment of Indra-prastha or Delhi, the four chiefs, or Radjas,
who partitioned Hindustan among themselves replaced the great
king who turns the golden wheel, assuming titles similar to those
which a Buddhist tradition (of uncertain date) attributes to the
kings of the four Maha-dvipas, China, India, Persia, and the Chi
nese Turkestan, being an extension of the revolving circle or wheel
of the four regions."^
M. Lenormant cites the foregoing passage, mentions a like politi
cal division of ancient Iran or Persia, comparing all with the primi
tive Cushite tetrarchy, deriving them equally from a primeval tradi
tion centring in Meru of the Hindus, the Albordj of the Persians,
both identical with the Gan-Eden of Genesis.^ The existence, then,
of a symbolical system of geography, inherited from common tradi
tion, inspired by religious conceptions, and prevailing among nations
widely separated in antiquity, must be regarded as an established
fact. The division of the world into nine earths by the Chinese,
and of their own country into nine provinces, evidently in imita
tion of the cosmos, was shown from the statements of Dr. Bahr in
a previous chapter.
Sec. 89. In the examples of political divisions thus far pre
sented, although their symbolico-religious, as well as traditional
character admits of no question, and njotwithstanding a design to
represent the cosmos is quite apparent in many of them, there is no
direct, positive proof inherent that a celestial space was placed in
relation to the terrestrial space thus marked off and divided. Of
this, however, there does not exist much reason for doubt; first,
since the scheme of four countries surrounding a central one, the
latter conceived as centre of the universe, was uniformly arranged
with particular reference to the cardinal points, and was derived
from the Asiatic Olympus, with which a celestial or astronomical
> Du Berceau, etc., p. 47. " Frag, de Birose, pp. 321-323.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 239
element was always associated. Secondly, we know that in the
case of Akkad and the four countries surrounding it twelve stars
were connected with each of the five regions named. In his second
allusion to the geography of Akkad, as cited by us (Sec. 59), M.
Lenormant refers to a well-known cuneiform text where, as he ob
serves, " twelve stars preside over the destinies of each of these
regions, and the influences exerted upon them during each month
are described." ^ The text cited is quite fragmentary, but we have
one list of asterisms styled : 12 mul-nus mat akkad ki, " the twelve
stars of Akkad;" and another entitled: 12 mul-nus mat martu ki,
" the twelve stars of the west or of Phcenicia." In its perfect
state, the tablet appears to have assigned a definite series of twelve
asterisms to each of the five regions, of which Akkad formed the
centre. Thus, we have the best of reasons for the supposition that
it was customary to connect with the geographical scheme of five
terrestrial regions a definite reference to the stellar world placed in
immediate relation to it. These mystical divisions, therefore, were
in the strict sense celestial or heavenly earths, intended to represent
or reproduce the original cosmos to which universal tradition per
tained. Each of these countries was, for itself, a particular heaven
and earth, modeled after the sacred mount, reputed abode of the
first men. The antiquity to which, without any doubt, we must
assign the geographic scheme of the first Sargon, and the primitive
character of that of which Aram formed the central region, as
already noticed, must be regarded as sufficient proof that these sym
bolical ideas were fundamental in the theory of the ancient civiliza
tions. But there are numerous instances in antiquity where the terri
torial divisions had an especial reference to the number twelve ; and
in all such cases we may be quite sure, considering the conformity
of the notion to that involved in Sargon's system, that there was
a direct intended relation to the twelve zodiacal constellations.
Although Dr. Bahr's reference to the four castes in the passage
cited below appears to me doubtful, the numerous instances cited
involving the number twelve must be held to establish the principle,
namely, that it was customary in antiquity to arrange the terrestrial
^ Frag, de Birose, p. 321. The tablet referred to will constitute the subject of
a special study in the sequel of the present treatise. It is published in 2d Rawl.
PI. 49, No. 1, Obs.

240 HAR-MOAD.
kingdom in a manner to represent the celestial world, divided ac
cording to the zodiacal constellations or signs. The author is cor
rect, also, in assuming a close relation between the numbers four
and twelve. The four-sided plot, in the form of a square, was
most frequently chosen to represent the zodiacal divisions, three
signs, like the three gates of the holy city of the Revelator, being
assigned to each side of the square. The passage in which the
writer just alluded to musters so many examples in proof of his
theory is as follows : —
" Since the stars were considered, not only as animated, but ac
tually as divinities, so the starry heaven was conceived as a celestial
city, or as a heavenly kingdom ; and since this kingdom, upon which
all terrestrial life and existence depended, was arranged in twelve
divisions, it constituted really the type for the order and arrange
ment of the cities and kingdoms of the earth, or the lower cosmos.
Hence the division of the people and of the territory according to
the number twelve. The king or chief ruler of the state repre
sented the highest divinity or the sun, and was at the head of the
twelve tribes or races, over each of which a subordinate ruler was
placed, answering to each division of the zodiacal laud. This ar
rangement proceeds on the same principle as that of the division of
the population into four castes, namely, the representation of the
order of the universe, although the partition according to the num
ber twelve appertains rather to the heavens as its type than to the
entire cosmos. Some examples may be cited here, and we begin
with the east. The successors of the Chinese Emperor Yao report
that he installed twelve mandarins as rulers over the empire, after
having divided it into four parts, according to the directions of the
cardinal points. We find from the Mosaic narrative (Gen. xvii. 20 ;
xxv. 16) that the Arabians were divided into twelve tribes proceed
ing from as many ancestral heads ; and in the time of Mahomet,
the Saracens and Nabatasans formed twelve tribes, to each of which
a division of the zodiac was dedicated. A like division existed in
Persia. The imperial palace inclosed a public court divided into
four parts for the young men, the overseers, the men, and the an
cients, over each of which divisions twelve archons ruled. Egypt
also in ancient times was partitioned into twelve chief provinces,
connected with the division of the population into four castes.
Even the division into thirty-six nomes, already mentioned, was
only an expansion of the earlier system, being an imitation of the
thirty-six heavenly decans, three to each of the twelve zodiacal
signs. According to an ancient tradition the populations of interior
Africa, the Ashantees with others, constituted twelve races. With
the Greeks this system was very common. Twelve tribes formed

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 241
the confederation of the original populations of Delphi ; there were
the twelve cities of the lonians of Asia ; twelve cities of the
Achseans of the Peloponnesus ; the twelve communities of Attica,
of the Cecrops ; also the twelve phylarchs or phratries of Athens,
proceeding from the four original races. The highest tribunal, that
of the Areopagus, consisted primitively of twelve members, and
twelve chiefs of cities were originally associated with the king by
the Phaeacians. So, too, among the Etruscans, and their neighbors
the Romans, this arrangement according to twelve prevailed. There
were the twelve Etruscan cities," etc.^
Sec. 90. The author then proceeds to the twelve tribes of Israel,
and to the frequent occurrence of this number in the Mosaic ritual
generally. In the majority of the instances cited in the foregoing
extract, the writer is perfectly correct according to our best infor
mation at the present day ; and the examples, being drawn from
the most widely separated quarters of the old world, render it im
possible to entertain a doubt that the principle involved was fun
damental in the theory of the ancient civilizations. The ancient
kingdoms were regarded generally as celestial or astronomical
earths ; as imitations, in fact, of the order and arrangements of the
heavens. But it is necessary to introduce here another passage, in
order to complete Dr. Bahr's view of the underlying ideas involved
in the politico-religious institutions of antiquity : —
" It is a fact upon which no doubt can be entertained that the
ancient systems of worship did not grow out of the state regula
tions, as if the state and the political ordinances had a prior ex
istence to the religious institutions ; on the contrary, the political
organizations were modeled entirely according to religious ideas.
Nor was it a fact, after a ruler had been established and the civil
policy had been formed, that these notions were transferred to a
divinity^ the conception of an earthly kingdom giving rise to that
of a divine government ; but rather was the notion of a divine ruler
the origin of that of a temporal one. What God is for the entire
world, such was the earthly monarch conceived for his individual
kingdom, namely, a miniature divinity who dwelt and ruled on
earth, just as God dwells and rules in the heavens. Indeed, the
order and arrangement of the heavens, the notion of a heavenly and
divine government, constituted in the minds of the people of the
east the originals of which the institutions of this lower world were
but imitations, and it was for this reason that they were thought to
possess the stamp of divinity and the sanctions of religion. It was
1 Symbolik, i. pp. 203, 204.

242 HAR-MOAD.
for these reasons, likewise, that monarchs were frequently adored
under the same forms as the deity himself ; but the divine worship
was never borrowed from that of kings." ^
The foregoing statements by Dr. Bahr are extremely important,
and if they are to be admitted as correct, go far to establish the
actual theory of the civilizations of tlie old world. The assumed
priority of religious institutions, or those of a politico - religious
nature, to those of a purely civil character, seems to be fully justi
fied by known facts. No class of official characters were more primi
tive than the ancient priest-kings, whose general history and func
tions were traced in our third chapter. The well-known fact that
sacerdotal and civil functions were combined in these personages
implies that religious ideas exercised a potent influence in the estab
lishment of the primitive institutions on earth. But we have a
proof even more conclusive than this, in the fact that the form of
government in Egypt, prior to the most ancient civil dynasties
headed by Menes, was properly speaking a theocracy. In Dr. Henri
Brugsch's " History of Egypt," based upon the results of modern
investigations, he makes the following observations as cited by M.
L^on Carr^ : —
" We have no historical tradition relative to the form of the first
government of the Egyptians, but everything tends to the belief
that it was a theocracy, that is, a form of the state where the priests
govern and administer the laws of the country." ^
That which confirms the opinion here expressed by Dr. Brugsch
is the fact, which is now perfectly verified, that the ancient nomes
or provinces, into which the territory of Egypt was divided under
the monarchy, were primitively of a strictly religious character.
This was affirmed some years since by Dr. Uhlemann, and recently
M. Mariette-Bey has confirmed the statement as follows : —
" The division of Egypt into nomes, or provinces, had for its
basis an anterior division into religious districts." ^
The civilization of Egypt, if we leave aside the question of that
of Babylon, was the most ancient of any at present known. Yet
the beginning of this was a theocracy, and the nomes were a reh-
1 Symbolik, i. p. 11.
^ L'Aneien Orient, etc., t. i. p. 24.
« Muae'e a Boulaq, p. 101. Cf. Uhlemann, Handb. d. JEgyptischen Alterthums-
kunde, b. iii. pp. 66, 67.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 243
gious inheritance from an epoch anterior to the first dynasty. In
the valley of the Euphrates, it is certain that religious ideas exer
cised a powerful influence from the first ages. The pyramidal tem
ples of Babylon and Borsippa, whose construction dated from the
earliest traditionary period, sufficiently evince by their character, as
already partly explained by us, the order of ideas which were cur
rent with the founders. Dr. Bahr's statements, then, in the last
extract cited from him, must be regarded as substantially correct,
and those of the first quotation are mostly so, according to our pre
sent knowledge.
Sec. 91. It was stated in a previous section that upper and lower
Egypt were taken as symbolical representations of the two prin
cipal divisions of the cosmos, or heaven and earth. This seems to
be proved by the subjoined remarks of M. Chabas, relative to the
mystical region called Sutensinen : —
" Sutensinen was otherwise the theatre of the triumph of Osiris
(over his enemy Set or Typhon) ; and this god receives there the
double crown, which symbolizes the royalty of upper and lower
Egypt. He dies there and is raised again under the form of the
beneficent soul. At this moment the organization of the two worlds,
that is to say, the two Egypts, and their union under one sceptre
is definitely accomphshed. This important event appertains thus
to the divine dynasties, or to the heroic times of Egypt ; and Menes,
the first human king whose name has been transmitted to us, re
ceives properly the title of ' king of upper and lower Egypt.' " ^
Osiris is the nocturnal sun, the sun of the primordial night of
chaos, and his renewal in the region of Sutensinen, or the lower
hemisphere, was a type of the organization of the two worlds, hea
ven and earth, to which upper and lower Egypt were assimilated.
The hieroglyphic expression denoting these divisions is Ta-ui,
explained by Dr. Brugsch, " the two worlds, upper and lower
Egypt." ^ These conceptions, as will be seen, do not appertain to
comparatively late epochs ; they were primitive in the Nile val
ley, and belonged to a system absolutely anterior to the first dy
nasty. We see here the notion of a terrestrial kingdom modeled
1 Les Papyrus hieratique de Berlin, p. 19.
^ Grammaire hieroglyphique, p. 5. For additional proof that the double crown
symbolized the sovereignty of the two worlds, understood .cosmically as well as of
the two Egypts, consult M. E. Grdbaut, " Hymne k, Ammon-Ra" (Reeue Arche
ologique, Paris, 1873, p. 386, note 2.

244 HAR-MOAD.
expressly upon the principles of cosmogony, organized in a manner
to represent the sphere. Upper and lower Egypt, according to this
scheme, with the thirty-six nomes corresponding to 'the thirty-six
heavenly decans, was literally "a celestial earth," judged by the
meaning obviously involved in this phrase. The classic authors
repeatedly assert that these nomes were intended to represent the
decans, and the statement has been made to this effect by modern
investigators. I am not aware of any list of the decans recovered
from the monuments which can be assigned to a period much earlier
than the twelfth dynasty. That the Egyptian sphere dates from
an era far more ancient than this admits of no doubt. Its particu
lar division into thirty-six decans, instead of the ordinary twelve
signs, was possibly not primitive. Nevertheless, it is obvious that
the Egyptian empire was modeled after the sphere from the first.
This is proved by the remarks of M. Chabas just cited. Some
authors affirm that this country was at one titne divided into twelve
provinces in imitation of the twelve zodiacal constellations. As
regards the nomes, they^ were doubtless primitive. M. Mariette-
Bey reads the names of six of them in a tomb belonging to the
sixth dynasty, and his theory of their original religious character
tends to the conclusion that they appertained to the period of the
theocracy. Their number varied at 'different times ; it is probable,
however, that the typical number corresponded to the decans, or
perhaps to the forty-eight primitive constellations. In matters
appertaining to such an extreme antiquity it is usually very difficult
to settle beyond question all the details, and such is the case relative
to the matter of the nomes and decans. It is enough if we prove
the existence of the ground conception, the assimilation of the two
Egypts to the upper and lower hemisphere, to have been actually
primitive. It is hardly necessary to offer more evidence in verification of the
fact that the ancient kingdoms were regarded as astronomical or
celestial earths, and that this conception was fundamental in the
theory of the ancient civilizations. We have dwelt longer upon the
archaic ideas prevailing in the Nile valley, since the Egyptian civil
ization, so far as existing monuments afford definite proof, was the
most primitive of any known to us. It cannot be objected, there
fore, that the notion of a celestial earth as a fundamental doctrine
of the old world appertained only to comparatively late epochs. It

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 245
was ancient, and the most ancient of any dogma known pertaining
to the institutions of antiquity. More than this, it had been inher
ited from tradition even by the Egyptians. Similar ideas prevailed
in the valley of the Euphrates at the founding of Babel, as proved
by the mystical titles applied to the pyramidal temples, such as,
"foundation of the celestial earth," and "seven lights of the celes
tial earth." These conceptions, at an epoch so very remote, had
not been imported from Egypt. On the contrary, the proofs are
abundant that they had been brought from the far east ; that for the
Cushites of Babylon and the Hamites of Egypt, in fact, the doctrines
of which there is her,e question were a traditional inheritance from
a civilization which the world has forgotten, that of which the great
Asiatic Olympus formed the original centre. We see now, in the
light of the facts which have been presented, the original import of
those singular locutions employed by those of high antiquity. The
monarch was accustomed to .style himself " son of the sun." The
Chinese regarded their kingdom as the " celesti.d empire." The
Chinese emperor was the " regent of the nine earths," in the same
sense that the Egyptian monarch was " king of the two worlds,"
and the ancient Chaldsean ruler " king of the four regions." It
was not ignorance, nor was it vanity, that prompted these expres
sions at the first ; they had their origin in the profound symbolism
which was inherent in the political and religious institutions of high
antiquity. Every kingdom was a celestial earth, a cosmos, a world
within itself. The process of founding it was assimilated to that of
creating the world, and was thus but the creation of a " new hea
ven and earth," after the model of the "first heaven and earth," to
which all the traditions pertained. The internal organization of
the state and the divisions of the national domain were arranged
with special reference to the same leading idea. Nature, the hea
vens, the universe, — these were the models according to which the
foundations of the ancient empires were laid. Nevertheless, the
original idea was a traditional one, derived from the particular hea
ven and earth known to the first men ; and tihis fact is one which
should never be forgotten. It is the great fact upon which Dr.
Bahr never insisted as he should have done, and probably would
have done, if he had possessed the advantages afforded by more
modern researches. Ifc was impossible in his day to prove that the
civilizations of the old world had a genealogy, and could be traced

246 HAR-MOAD.
to the birthplace of humanity for the origin of their fundamental
ideas. But all the evidences now before us plainly indicate that
such was the case, and there is much more to come having a like
tendency. Sec. 92. According to the Hindu conceptions, the celestial Gan
ges, regarded as original source of the river of paradise, poured its
waters upon the summit of Mount Meru, which descended from
thence through the three woilds, in each of which the waters were
gathered into a single source, from whence they were divided again
into four branches, flowing toward the four cardinal regions ; the
Buddhists, however, as heretofore stated, conceiving them to flow
toward the intermediate points of the compass.^ The Aryans of
Persia had a similar notion connected with their river Avanda,
which must have been conceived as having a celestial source,
according to the following text of the Zend-Avesta: "I invoke, I
celebrate the height, the divine summit, source of waters, and the
water bestowed by Mazda ; " to which M. Carr^ adds the note :
" This source is the Arduissur (or Avanda), at the summit of the
sacred mountain, the Bordj (Albordj), from whence issue all the
waters that flow upon the earth." ^ Among the Chinese, the con
stellation Tsing, " a well," identical with Gemini of our sphere,
was regarded as the source of heavenly waters ; hence the name
often applied to this asterism Tien- Tsing, '^ the celestial wells." ^
¦This constellation was associated with the sacred mountain, as was
previously shown. I proceed to show now the existence of similar
ideas at Babylon.
The inscriptions usually cited by cuneiform scholars, as 1st, 2d,
and 3d Mich., are deeds or grants of land, donated by royal per
sonages to certain distinguished individuals, and are evidently of a
typical character for this class of documents.* They were inscribed
upon conical stones, and these stones served as landmarks or boun
daries. Their real date is ascertained to be about the year 1200
B. C. Around the upper surface of the cones are represented the
symbols of the divinities whose names occur in the inscriptions, and
together with these, various constellations that undoubtedly existed
» Vid. M. Obry, Du Berceau, pp. 19, 20.
^ L'Aneien Orient, t. i. p. 341, text and note.
' Vid. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinois, p. 406.
* Vid. 1st Rawl. PL 70; 3d Rawl. PI. 41-44.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 247
upon the Babylonian sphere, some of them zodiacal, but the major
ity of them extra-zodiacal. 1 For myself, I do not hesitate to say
that the upper surface of these cones was intended as an astrono
mical representation of the sacred mount of paradise, together with
the primary divisions of the sphere having their generative point in
the summit of this mountain. Thus, we have Aries and Scorpio,
the pincers of the latter put for Libra, answering to the equinoctial
signs, while the Eagle and Dog are certainly solstitial signs. Then
we have Draco or the Serpent, the Tortoise, etc., which must apper
tain especially to the northern heavens. But the figures repre
sented around the apex of the cones are to me the most decisive.
There is the crescent and the eight-rayed star, varied to seven rays,
inclosed in a circle ; and what is especially remarkable, a four-rayed
star, answering to the four cardinal regions, while four rivers are
represented issuing from a common source in the centre, taking
their courses toward the four intermediate points. It is impossible
to take these intermediate radiations for anything but veritable
rivers. The plate illustrating a similar document discovered by
Mr. George Smith, accompanying his version of the same (Assyr.
Die. p. 236), where all these symbols are repeated in cruder
form, shows these rivers with unmistakable plainness. Finally, we
must consider that the conical stone itself was a temple, like the
Betylus or Beth-el, was in fact a miniature Mt. Meru conceived as
an immense conical hill.
Considering the facts above set forth, it is difficult to resist the
conclusion that the system of land measuring, and of territorial
divisions generally, both proceeding from the theory of the temple,
was derived traditionally by the Babylonians from the sacred
mount of the east, in which almost all their religious ideas seem
primitively to have centred. The astronomical representation of
the sacred mountain upon a boundary-stone can hardly be explained
upon any other hypothesis. Another and very strong presumptive
evidence of such traditional origin would be afforded if we could
show that this system of measurements and divisions actually pro
ceeded with the Babylonians from the theory of the temple, since
the pyramidal temple was an artificial reproduction of the sacred
mount. It will not be difficult, I think, to establish this point of
1 Vid. 3d Rawl. PI. 45, for cuts representing the upper surface of the cones,
Cf. Rev. G. Rawlinson, Five Monarchies, ii. pp. 573, 574,

248 HAR-MOAD.
connection. In every one of the land grants, of which these con
ical stones were boundaries, there occurs, in the description of the
territory conveyed, the Assyrian expression Bit-as, meaning " mea
sure," thus : " fifty sekul in measures of great cubits." It is diffi
cult to refer this Assyrian reading of Bit-as to any known Semitic
root. The reason is, that it is in fact an Accadian term, so consid
ered by M. Lenormant, to which he gives the reading E-as, these
being the ordinary values of the two signs composing it. The ety
mology of the word is then apparent at a glance, namely, temple-[-
measure, or to measure. This shows that the usage of the expres
sion as denoting "measure" in land divisions was derived origi
nally from the temple. Recall here, for a still further confirmation,
the hieratic form of the character signifying "house, temple," etc.,
as heretofore explained, in which we find the arrangement of nine
identical squares, so resembling a plot of ground cut up into sec
tions. Finally, we know that the augurial temple of the Romans
constituted the theoretical basis of their system of land measuring,
and generally of all territorial divisions, while the origin of it has
been already traced to the valley of the Euphrates, where the two
orders of ideas must have been also associated. The sacred moun
tain of the east, then, was alike the birthplace of these doctrines of
the temple and of territorial divisions. Indeed, the system of nine
squares, corresponding to that of the "planetary seal" symbolizing
the cosmos, was seen to have been definitely connected with the
same traditional locality in a previous chapter.
Sec. 93. In the augurial temple of the Etrusco-Romans, accord
ing to the statement of Dr. Williatn Smith previously cited, there was
involved the notion of a terrestrial space, marked off and divided,
and of a certain limited celestial space, corresponding to and placed
in immediate connection with it ; and all the divisions were located
with special reference to the cardinal regions. Here was, then,
literally a heaven -\- earth, an astronomical or celestial earth. The
same doctrines and methods were applied in the partitions of the
soil, the territorial divisions of the state, and finally in the laying-
out of towns, the inauguration of cities, and probably in the founda
tion of the state itself. Everything was thus a temple, and at the
same time a celestial earth. In each instance, the least unit of
such a divided plot would be a geometrical figure, like that of the
Spartan symbol of the Dioscuri, corresponding to the Chinese char-

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 249
acter Tsing, "a well," put also for the constellation of Gemini, or
of the Dioscuri. It was shown in a previous chapter that this very
symbol was associated also among the Chinese, with the divisions
of the soil and formation of towns, thus : " Nine families constitute
a well, four wells an inclosure, and four inclosures a community."
Not only this, but a passage was cited to the efi'ect that the constel
lation Tsing was taken for the symbol of territorial divisions, for
the rules in laying out and founding a capital, and for the inaugura
tion of the state. To these data should be added the fact hereto
fore insisted upon that the geometrical figure representing the sym
bol in question corresponds perfectly to the geographical scheme of
five regions associated with Akkad, with the Biblical Aram, and
various other countries previously named, and finally with the tradi
tional mount of paradise itself. The Chinese character Tsing was
also, as name of the constellation Gemini, connected with the same
sacred locality, which constituted, in fact, the primitive celestial
earth, the original cosmos, the first abode of humanity.
The statement has been made and repeated that the ancient civil
izations and kingdoms had a genealogy which could be traced to
the paradisiacal mountain ; and I believe the evidences now placed
before the reader will be considered a sufficient verification of the
fact. Savagism never gave birth, either immediately or remotely,
to the religious and political institutions of antiquity. They were
born of a sacred science, that had been transmitted from the earliest
ages, to which the recollections of all the races reverted as the bright
and golden era. We gather from the various peoples the most vridely
separated in antiquity, not merely general indications of such com
mon inheritance, but the most circumstantial evidences tending to
this conclusion. Thus, among the Etrusco-Romans, the temple, being
literally an astronomical earth, and distinctly involving the notion of
the cosmos, constituted obviously the germinal centre from which
the entire state organization proceeded. The traditional inheritance
of these notions, on the part of the Romans, from the Asiatic
Olympus seems at first wholly^ incredible. Nevertheless, the proofs
to this effect are quite conclusive. As stated by Dr. William Smith
in a previous chapter, the gods were supposed to be seated in the
north, which fact was thought to determine the direction of the
main fine in land surveying. This conception respecting the seat
of the divinities finds its only explanation in the primitive tradi-

250 HAR-MOAD.
tions centring in Mt. Meru. Another evidence not less direct is
derived from some striking features of the Roman Pantheon. Herr
Nissen remarks relative to this renowned edifice : —
" The axis of the temple is only five degrees westward from the
pole. The seven gods of the Pantheon are the septem triones, to be
compared to the seven oxen (that is, the seven stars of the chariot)
which never disappear from the circumpolar region." " The posi
tion of the seven stars determined the location of the temple as
primal reason, while the reference to the dwelling-place of Jupiter
in the eighth region formed a second motive." ^
These facts show with what remarkable fidelity the Etrusco-
Romans had preserved the ancient tradition, and clearly demonstrate
the ultimate origin of their sacred science ; though it appears to
have been received intermediately through the Babylonians. Like
evidences of a nature too circumstantial and direct to be explained
upon any principle of accidental causes or of normal development
have been drawn from the valley of the Euphrates, of the Nile,
from the Semitic populations generally of Western Asia, and from
the nationalities of the distant east, the Aryans of India and the
ancient empire of the Chinese. Dr. Schlegel notices a peculiar and
archaic form of the Chinese temple, the upper portion being in the
form of a dome to represent the heavens, the lower portion of a
square form to symbolize the earth ; conceptions whose exact anal
ogy with the doctrines of the temple prevailing in other quarters of
the old world will be at once recognized. The connection of the
Chinese Tsing, also, with the fundamental ideas appertaining to
the state, compared with its obvious relation to the same order of
ideas among other peoples, is very remarkable, and the influences to
be drawn therefrom are quite ob'vious. Everywhere the temple is
conceived as a cosmos, a heaven and earth, an astronomical earth, in
fact ; and the expansion of these ideas forms the basis of the theory
of the state, which is itself a great temple, a terrestrial heaven, an
organized world redeemed from chaos, whose archetypal conception
has been inherited from primeval tradition, centring in that region
from whence the races first departed to people the earth.
Sec. 94. An effort to make a radical distinction between the
Hebrew conception of the tabernacle and temple, on one hand, and
that of the sacred edifices of peoples surrounding the Israelites, on
1 Das Templum, p. 223.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 251
the other, would ever be, in my view, unsuccessful. Originally and
fundamentally they were the same, and had been derived from a
common source. But in this conception the traditional element was
all important, a neglect of which would inevitably conduct to er
roneous ideas. The aim was to represent the cosmos as the dwelling
of God. This, however, was not the cosmos in our modern sense,
except in a wholly subordinate degree. The reference was to the
particular heaven and earth known to the first men, and to which
all the traditions and all the cosmogonies especially related. An
expansion of this original idea to include the entire expanse of
heaven and earth would be natural and even legitimate, so long as
the primary reference to the sacred mount of paradise was held
most prominent and fundamental. To forget this primary refer
ence was henceforth to convert the entire scheme into a philosophic
view of God and the universe, which could result only in panthe
ism. It is quite certain that, during the course of ages, the all-
important traditional element became itself, not merely subordinate,
but wholly mythical. The result was that the entire expanse of
heaven was taken as God's dwelling-place, while the entire earth
was assimilated to the earth goddess ; and this is precisely the inter
pretation which modern investigators attach to-day to the original
doctrines of antiquity relative to these subjects. It appears to me
that the investigations contained in our sixth chapter, together with
various other considerations that might be urged, prove conclusively
that such interpretation is a misconception of the primitive idea.
The original reference was to a certain characteristic geographical
locality, and to a well-defined and limited celestial region placed in
immediate association with it. The traditional element referred to
these, and not to the entire heaven and earth collectively taken.
Professor Max Miiller has shown that the Chinese word Tien,
and the Aryan Dyu, or Dyaus, denoted originally the sky, but that
they were employed likewise, by a natural association of ideas, as
titles of the supreme divinity ; thus, the Greek Zeus and the Latin
Jupiter are names derived from Dyu, or Dyaus.^ Nevertheless, the
divine being, thus conceived and invoked, was regarded as endowed
with strict personality. To these early titles of divinity is now to
be added that of the Accadian An, " elevated, heaven, god." This
term is otherwise employed for the personal pronoun, third person,
1 Lecf. Sci. Language, 2d series, pp. 456, 457, etc.

252 HAR-MOAD.
masculine and singular. Hence, the conception was "heaven-he"
or "god-he," like the Aryan "Dyaus-he," a strictly personal deity.
But was the " heaven " which gave rise to the primitive conception
of a personal and divine being the entire expanse of the sky ?
Professor Muller does not take note of this particular inquiry, but
it is very important for us in the present connection. The simple
fact that, according to the earliest and most universal tradition, the
seat of the divine hierarchy was supposed to be the north, and the
extreme north, that is to say, the circumpolar region, the Su-Meru
of the Hindus, ought to be regarded as conclusive upon the point
before us. There are any number of allusions in the sacred books
of aiitiquity, as well as traditionary notions, perfectly inconsistent
with the idea that the entire expanse of heaven was taken for the
Deity or the abode of the superior powers. The Aryans of India
and Persia definitely located this abode in the particular celestial
region around the summit of Mt. Meru. The same notions pre
vailed at Babylon, as evinced by the various expressions, " heaven
of Anu," " Bit-Kharris of the east," to which for proof of the ordi
nary Semitic conception may be added the prophet's allusion " the
stars of El," and the Haranite name Shemal, the Sumilu of the
cuneiform texts, but especially for the north and the great divinity
of the north. Finally, I recall here the proofs previously intro
duced, that the Accadian An had particular and primary reference
to the same celestial region, and the passage cited from Herr Nissen
in the last section, showing that among the Romans the especial
seat of Jupiter was the " eighth region " in relation to the septem
triones, or seven stars of the great Dipper. Thus, I submit it to
the judgment of the learned reader whether the data now before us
do not necessitate the conclusion that the primitive reference and
application of the notions and divine names referred to was not
limited, and that expressly^ to the particular heaven and earth, con
stituting, as I have shown, the staple element of the traditions of
all Asia respecting the first abode of humanity ; traditions which
had originally an actual historical and geographical basis.^
^ Since th3 completion of the manuscript of the present work, I have more fuUy
realized the important bearing of the fact that primitive sacred tradition regarded
a particular heaven and earth, instead of the heaven and earth in general, upon
the labors ot certain German authors in the field ot comparative, especially Ar
yan mythology. The same fact has a similar bearing upon Professor Midler's

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 253
Sec. 95. We return now to the Hebrew conception of the taber
nacle and temple, as compared with that of surrounding nations,
attached to structures of a like sacred character. I think it is true
as regards the majority at least of these peoples that the original
researches in this department. The German works to which special reference is
had are those of Dr. Julius Grill {Die Erzvdttr der Menschheit, etc. Leipzig,
1875), and Dr. P. Asmus {Die Indog. Religion, etc. Halle, 1876). All proceed
upon the supposition that the original heaven father and earth mother had
reference to the entire heaven and the entire earth, or at least as taken in a
general and indefinite sense ; upon the supposition also that the notions pertain
ing to both had a purely naturalistic development. I believe these are two funda
mental errors, proved such by the present researches, and that they tend greatly
to mislead the comparative mythologists ot the present day. The notions of the
heaven father and earth mother were rather traditional than naturalistic, and
were inherited by widely different peoples. They were far more ancient than the
Aryan development itself, and they obviously centred originally in the great
Olympus of all Asia. The two authors, Drs. Grill and Asnius, represent the
two opposite and extreme tendencies in Oriental research : 1st. That which
would derive the religions ot the Bible from the heathen systems. Dr. Grill
attempts to trace the Mosaic history contained in the first chapters ot Genesis to
the Aryans of India and Persia. He forgets that the notions which he derives
exclusively from these sources were far more ancient than either the Aryans or
Semites, ethnologically speaking. They were common to .all the cultured races
of antiquity, and, as we have shown, derived originally from the primitive home
of mankind. The Aryans on one hand, the Semites on the other, were equally
indebted to ages long prior to them for those traditionary conceptions of which
the author treats. Indeed, it seems to me that Dr. Grill's entire theory is shown
to be erroneous by the fact developed in the present treatise. 2d. Dr. Asnius
represents that tendency which virtually seeks to build up a contrast between the
religions of the Bible as revealed, and the heathen systems as purely naturalis
tic. This standpoint, in my estimation, is just as erroneous as that of Dr. Grill.
The ground ideas of all the ancient religions icere the same, and were a traditional
inheritance from the original centre of humanity. This proposition, so fully demon
strated in these pages, is sufficient to overthrow the two opposite theories of the
authors named. The naturalism with which Dr. Asmus seeks to contrast the
Biblical theism is in fact a decayed symbolism, in which the primeval doctrines
were revealed. I do not propose here to return to the extremes in the use of the
symbolic principle that characterized a former period in Oriental matters. On
the other hand, I cannot adopt the other extreme, now so generally in vogue,
which assumes practically that symbolic art never existed as an element of the
ancient religions. The present volume contains ample evidence that symbolism
was a vital principle in the primitive doctrines. Thus, generally, where Dr.
Asmus sees nothing but pure naturalism, from the standpoint ot the present
researches I distinctly recognize the evidences of symbolic conceptions, whose
original sense had been lost or perverted. Nevertheless, the author is to be
excused, I think, for not being able to find the modern speculative doctrine of the

254 HAR-MOAD.
traditional element relating to "the temple had come to be wholly
subordinate, and even mythical, and that the entire expanse of hea
ven and earth, as symbolized in the arrangement of such structures,
had been assumed as the exclusive standpoint. In such case a pan
theistic view of God and the universe would be almost inevitably
the result. Stripped of its original historical and geographical
element, the conception became exclusively a philosophic dogma.
Heaven in general became assimilated to the male divinity, and the
earth in general to the female divinity. Everything tended towards
a pure abstraction speculatively speaking, while the original con
crete personality became, in the popular conception and in the re
ligious sense, broken up into numberless personified conceptions,
whose primitive identity was wholly forgotten.
The Hebrews preserved, or if not, Moses restored, the primeval
tradition, in its full symbolic import, respecting the artificial struc
ture designed for the abode of divinity. The relation of the Beth-
absolute and unknowable in the ancient systems. For myself, I have not been
able to discover it in the religions of the Bible.
Yet more recent than the two treatises above referred to, and involving, al
though in a different field ot research, the same fundamental error, according to
my judgment, is the work issued by Dr. Ignaz Goldziher', Der Mylhos bei den
Hebraern, etc. Leipzig, 1876. The general tendency ot the author is similar to
that of Dr. Grill's production, except that he does not attempt to derive the He
brew religion from Aryan, but rather from Semitic mythology. Both Dr. Grill and
Dr. Goldziher deal largely in etymologies of personal names, etymologies in which
it is difficult usually to place much confidence. Certainly the two systems cannot
be correct, for substantially they disprove each other. As before intimated, both .
proceeded upon the principle that the heaven father meant heaven in general,
instead ot a particular and traditional heaven, etc. Another grave error in both
authors is the constant assumption that, if a personal name involves a mythologi
cal sense etymologically, then the personage so named must be regarded mythical,
and not historical. But this principle would consign nine tenths of the Assyrian
canon, as every cuneiform scholar knows, to the region ot myth. The same of
the Chaldasan kings. Thus, the name Lik-an-Bagas means " light of the god
Bagas : " but was Lik-Bagas (or Urukh) therefore a myth V Certainly not, for
we have many inscrip'tions bearing his name. Admit, then, with Dr. Goldziher,
that Ab-ram, "high father," really means "heaven father." This is no proof
that Abram, or Abraham, was a mythical personage. But when Dr. Goldziher
derives the name Dan from the Assyrian Du-ni, " to march, to go," we lose all
confidence in his etymologies even, and seek a firmer basis of conclusions (vid. p.
144. Cf. Norris, Assyr. Die. i. 248). The syllable Du is Accadian, meaning "to
go," etc. A reading adopted into the Assyrian with the addition of ni as pho
netic complement. It must be impossible, I think, to form out of such elements a
name Dan, " to go," etc.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 255
Moad to the Har-Hoad was fully recognized. The planetary re
gions and the zodiacal divisions were not excluded, but they were
held subordinate. The planets and zodiacal constellations were
supposed, in fact, to revolve around Mt. Meru as the common centre,
just as we conceive the entire stellar world to turn on its axis, cor
responding to the two poles. The Hebrew tabernacle, then, was
the cosmos, the celestial earth, in its least form ; and the twelve
tribes of Israel, together with the territorial divisions allotted to
them, being assimilated to the zodiacal constellations, completed
the organization of the heavenly kingdom. In the end Mt. Sion
simply replaced the traditional mount of paradise. '
The blessings pronounced by Jacob at the time of his death upon
his twelve sons (Gen. xlix.), together with the corresponding pas
sages, have always appeared to me conclusive, to the effect that the
intention was, in accordance with what appears to have been a pre
valent custom, to assimilate each one to a particular zodiacal sign
or constellation. Many of the older commentators, such as Dr.
Clarke, who seems to have been guided very much by the views of
Dr. Hale, did not hesitate to adopt this hypothesis; and it was cer
tainly countenanced by some of the most respectable among the
ancient authorities. But the construction put upon this theory by
such writers as Dupuis of France, Nork of Germany, and others
that might be named, have tended to make more recent critics a
little cautious. M. Dupuis' statements of facts, so far as regarded
the sources available at that time, appear to have been perfectly
conscientious and usually correct, and he is being more and more
cited by the best writers of the present day. But this, however, in
no sense as adopting the author's constructions of the facts and the
general hypothesis of his voluminous work. I think the author was
justified in saying that the twelve tribes of Israel had for their
ensigns the twelve constellations of the zodiac, but not in the con
clusion that the origin of all religion was astrology. I wish to cite
here the judicious remarks of Professor Bush upon Jacob's lan
guage to the effect : —
" That the peculiar phraseology in which the blessings are couched
has, in most cases, a verbal allusion to the nomes bestowed upon the
twelve phylarchs, or princes of tribes, at their birth — a circum
stance not indeed obvious to the English reader, but palpable to
one who consults the original " (Notes, Gen. xlix.).

256 HAR-MOAD.
It would be difficult to prove beyond doubt that the phylarchs,
or phratries, princes of tribes, were associated in some way with
the twelve zodiacal divisions, yet it seems to me quite probable.
The Arabian tribes were thus associated, and it appears to have
been an ancient Asiatic custom. The cuneiform Dun-pa-uddu is
given as the name of Mercury, corresponding to the sign Aries, in
a text already cited. In another text, the same name is put for the
" prince of the men of Haran," an old city with which the Abra-
hamic race is especially connected in the account of Ge'nesis. This
is not conclusive as to the sims of Jacob, but it has a tendency in
that direction. Really, the most direct evidence, and which seems
to me almost positive, is the very language employed by Jacob,
strikingly appHcable in most instances to the ancient zodiacal con
stellations. Thus, Judah is " a lion's whelp "= Leo ; " Simeon and
Levi are brethren" = Gemini; "Dan shall be a serpent . . . that
biteth the horse heels" = Scorpio, sometimes represented as a serpent
biting the heels of Sagittarius. Such analogies carry with them
the force of demonstration. The Hebrew camp, then, arranged in
the form of a square, the sides facing the cardinal regions, and the
tabernacle in the centre, was in every sense of the word an astro
nomical or a celestial earth ; and the temple on Mt. Sion, central
point of the territory divided according to the number of the tribes,
constituted a heavenly kingdom, whose primitive model was the
traditional mount of paradise. Such was a perfected type of the
politico-religious institutions of the old world.
Sec. 96. Professor Bush's allusion to the phylarchs calls to mind
an investigation by Mr. Grote, quite critical and satisfactory^, upon
the primitive formation of Greek society, especially of Attica, from
which the fraternal and religious character of these first organiza
tions is plainly to be inferred. The phratries were sometimes iden
tified with the tribes, at other times held as subordinate divisions.
In practice the number varied, but theoretically appears to have
been typical, twelve being the most frequent. In Attica we have
four tribes, to each of which appertained three phratries, or phy-
larchies. Theoretically, all the members were regarded as de
scended from a common ancestral head, though in point of fact
such was hardly ever the case. Each phratiy had its " deme " or
division of soil, like the tribes of Israel. The combination of the
numbers four and twelve, like three gates to each side of a temple.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 257
was certainly not accidental, but had an obvious reference to some
scheme founded on the zodiacal divisions. For the rest, I refer to
Mr. Grote's own language as follows : —
" That every phratry contained an equal number of gentes, and
every gens an equal number of families, is a supposition hardly
admissible without better evidence than we possess. But apart
from this questionable precision of numerical scale, the phratries
and gentes themselves were real, ancient, and durable associations
among the Athenian people, highly important to be understood.
The basis of the whole was the house, hearth, or family, — a num
ber of which, greater or less, composed the gens or genos. This
gens was therefore a clan, sept, or enlarged and partly factitious
brotherhood, bound together by common religious ceremonies," etc.
" Each phratry was considered as belonging to one of the four
tribes, and all the phratries of the same tribe enjoyed a certain
periodical communion of sacred rites." " Such was the primitive
religious and social union of the population of Attica in its gradu
ally ascending scale, as distinguished from the political union, prob
ably of later introduction." ^
It is probable that the primitive social and religious organiza
tions in the Nile valley, to which the Egyptian nomes appertained,
were very similar to those of Attica, and it is safe to assume that
all the ancient communities were at first of like character. In
every case religious ideas seem to have exercised a controlling in
fluence. But the two extracts, one from Mr. Grote, the other from
Professor Bush, taken in connection, exhibit at once the vital rela
tionship, the fundamental analogy, in fact, between the state as
the greatest unit and the family as the least unit, in the ancient
civilizations; between the temple as an image of the cosmos and
the house as a human habitation ; between the national divinity
and altar and the divinity of the hearth. The reader will perceive
at once, therefore, the connection of the present chapter with the
second, which treats upon the divinity of th*e hearth. The ground
thought, which unites the three notions of cosmos, temple, and
house, is that of dwelling, to which appertains that of the paternal
and filial relation, from whence the ideas of the " children of Israel,"
" children of the kingdom," the divine paternity, etc. We find
here an explanation of the notion of cutting, of division, appertain
ing to the customs of the altar, of sacrifices, and the ratification of
I History of Greece, iii. pp. 54, 55.

258 HAR-MOAD.
covenants by sacrifices, as being fundamental in the doctrine of
the temple and of the cosmos, illustrated particularly in our fifth
chapter. The expression, " a new heaven and a new earth," is some
times equivalent to " a new covenant " in scriptural usage. The
creation of one and the ratification of the other become strictly cog
nate conceptions ; thus, the cosmos is a dwelling, the temple is a
house, and creation's altar is the hearth, where love first blossomed
and God first entered into covenant with humanity.
Sec. 97. The theory of the ancient civilizations was a divine
idea, and its origin and practical realization in the kingdoms of
antiquity, in the light in which we are now able to view the sub
ject, may well excite our surprise and admiration. The two princi
pal and component elements, as developed in our second chapter
and in the present one, are those actually constituting the primitive
stratum of conceptions upon which the religious, political, and
social institutions of the entire ancient world were founded, so far
at least as concerns all the cultured races. The Christian civiliza
tion, as embodied in the theory of its great Founder, is radically
different, and this difference jiroceeds mainly from the doctrine
that man is the real cosmos, the true temple. Religion, to be uni
versal instead of national, must be released from the bonds of local
worship and the material temple. It cannot be confined to Mt.
Sion, nor to Mt. Gerizim. On the other hand, to lose sight of the
temple, and its prototype the cosmos, is to reject the traditional ele
ment and to convert religion into mere philosophy. The origin of
all religion, its historical phases and development through all ages,
must be preserved. These are the conditions of the problem of a.
religion strictly universal, and of a civilization founded upon it.
The only solution of this problem under the circumstances is that
man, not in the individual sense exclusively, nor in the-generic, but
in both senses, constitutes the cosmos, the temple, the abode of the
Divine Spirit. The church is then the celestial earth, the heavenly
kingdom, the temple, Christ being the corner-stone. This, how
ever, was no after-thought, but had been anticipated from the be
ginning. As heretofore remarked, the Biblical psychology corre
sponds to the ancient cosmogony. Heaven answers to the pneuma,
or " spirit," the intermediate region or atmosphere to the psyche, or
"soul," and earth to the soma, or "organized body;" the sarx,
or "flesh," being nearly synonymous with "sin" in New Testa-

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 259
ment usage. The relation here between the macrocosm and the
microcosm is exact, and the extreme antiquity and almost universal
prevalence of the two co-related ideas are points impossible to be
doubted. Nor was this doctrine at first merely speculative, which
would be the same as to say pantheistic ; it was strictly religious,
for the reason that the fundamental conception was that of a dwell
ing, a habitation of divinity. As the cosmos is a dwelling of God,
as the temple is such, so man as the real cosmos, the true temple,
is ;i house of God, constructed of living stones, of which Christ is
the chief corner-stone.
The world's history affords no example of a greater advance than
that which presents itself here as between the ancient and the
Christian civilizations, as the latter was conceived by its Founder.
From the obstacles presented by the diversities and jealousies of
different nationalities, a national and local religion could never be
come universal, unless the natiomdity itself became such, which
was impossible. Besides this, the worship of the same Deity in
different localities, and under various names, had been one of the
principal causes of the growth of polytheism, from the inability of
the human mind to retain the identity amid so many differences.
It was thus necessary to destroy the ancient temples and to over
throw the civilizations centring in them. The advance, therefore,
which here presents itself to view, was the complete redemption of
religion from the bondage to material temples, to special localities,
yet in a manner not to lose its essential characteristics derived
from the temple. In the New Testament, everything that in the
Old Testament centred in the temple is transferred to man, and
this is the solution of the problem. Henceforth the language is,
" Ye are the temple of God, and the Spirit of God dwelleth in you "
(1 Cor. iii. 9). This is the new creation, the new heaven and
earth, and thus, finally, do the two religions of the Bible flow from
the first chapters of Genesis.
From whence came this sublime science, deeper and broader than
all the philosophies ? and by what extraordinary means had it been
preserved in its integrity and purity, since those hoary ages to
which we have traced its origin ? In the midst of the dark periods
of history, when old empires were being uprooted, and the light of
former civilizations was going out, where did this ancient and sacred
lore find an asylum ? Who preserved the models that had been

260 HAR-MOAD.
brought from the primeval " mountain of the assembly " ? Or who,
when they had been buried beneath the drifting sands of centuries,
recovered the lost treasures, restored them to new sanctuaries, the
centres of new civilizations? I cannot answer these questions, nor
can they be answered, except it be permitted to reply : The priest-
kings of antiquity !

CHAPTER IX.
THE EAKTH GODDESS.
Sec. 98. It was the opinion of many ancient mythologists, and
it has been held by a large number of modern investigators, that
all the gods and goddesses of antiquity ultimately resolve them
selves into one original androgynous divinity ; that is to say, a god
and goddess essentially one, yet sufficiently distinct to be conjugally
related. Another opinion extensively entertained both by ancient
and modern authorities is that the male and female divinities thus
conceived were assimilated to the two chief divisions of the cosmos,
the male principle to heaven and the female to the earth. So far
as my own investigations have tended to a definite conclusion on
these two important points, the result has been decidedly in favor
of the views just stated. The races whose pantheon exhibits the
least appearance of having been derived from one androgynous
personage are those whose antiquity is not nearly so great as that
of others ; while the most ancient nations who have preserved dis
tinct tiaditions relative to their primitive worship furnish us with
the best evidence tending to confirm the opinions to which we refer.
As regards the ancient populations of Western Asia, the facts now
known leave little room for doubt, and the same is to be said of the
ancient Egyptians. Alluding to the Phoenician inscriptions, M.
De Vogiie has the following observations : —
" It is the same with these texts as with the Egyptian inscrip
tions, which under the degenerated symbols of a gross polytheism
have revealed the existence of veritable dogmas. The learned inter
preters of these inscriptions have demonstrated, with the assistance
of the formulas employed and the figured representations, that at
the basis of the Egyptian religion, notwithstanding the contrary
appearances, there existed the belief in one eternal God. Less per
sonal than the divinity of the Bible, and above all less distinct from
the created material, the Egyptian deity is nevertheless incorporeal,

262 HARr-MOAD.
invisible, without beginning or end ; the innumerable divinities of
the Egyptian pantheon are only the personified attributes, the
deified potencies, of the incomprehensible and inaccessible being.
Cause and prototype of the visible world, he has a double essence ;
he possesses and resumes the two principles of all terrestrial gener
ations, the male and female principle ; he is a duality in unity. ; a
conception which, in consequence of the duplication of the symbols,
has given birth to the series of female divinities. Such is the di
vinity revealed to us by Egyptologists. Less fortunate than M. de
Roug^ and M. Mariette, we have at our disposition, in place of num
berless pages covering the walls of the temples and the rolls of the
sacred rituals, only some rare and brief inscriptions ; but these suf
fice to indicate the path to be followed, and to verify the numerous
and profound analogies that exist between Egypt and Phoenicia.
It has been already demonstrated that the worship of the Phoeni
cian Baal implied the primitive belief in one God ; the same also
as regards the worship of the Assyrian Bel, the Syrian Hadad,
the Moloch of the Ammonites, the Mama of the Philistines, etc.,
divinities whose very names involve the notion of unity and supre
macy." ^
Both M. Mariette and M. Maspero cite a passage fi:om lam-
blichus as expressing the actual truth, which reads thus : —
"The God of the Egyptians when he is considered as the hidden
force animating all things with light is called Ammon ; when he is
the intelligent spirit who resumes all other intelligences he is
Emeth ; when he is that which accomplishes all things with skill
and truth he is named Phtah ; and finally, when he is the good
and beneficent being he is- Osiris." ^
On the subject of the Babylonian pantheon Mr. George Smith
remarks : —
" At the head of the Babylonian mythology Stands a deity who
was sometimes identified with the heavens, sometimes considered as
the ruler and god of heaven. This deity is named Anu, his sign is
the simple star (Accad. An), the symbol of divinity, and at other
times the Maltese cross (Susru). Anu represents abstract divinity,
and he appears as an original principle, perhaps the original prin
ciple of nature. He represents the universe as the upper and lower
regions, and when these were divided, the upper region or heaven
was called Anu, while the lower region or earth was called Anatu,
Anatu being the female principle or wife of Anu." ^
1 Melanges d'Archeologie, pp. 50, 51.
2 Mariette, Muse'e a Boulaq, p. 22 ; Maspero, Hisl. Anc, pp. 28, 29.
' Chal. Acct. of Gen., p. 54.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 263
Professor Max Miiller has the following relative to the Chinese :
" In China, where there always has been a strong tendency
towards order and regularity, some kind of system has been super
induced by the recognition of two powers, one active, the other
passive, one male, the other female, which comprehend everything,
and which, in the mind of the more enlightened, tower high above
the great crowd of minor spirits. These two powers are within and
beneath and behind everything that is double in nature, and they
have frequently been identified with heaven and earth. We can
clearly see, however, that the spirit of heaven occupied from the
beginning a much higher position than the spirit of the earth. It
is in the historical books only, in the Shu-king, that we are told
that heaven and earth together are the father and mother of all
things." 1
Sec. 99. Professor Miiller appears to doubt whether the two
principles, male and female, assimilated to heaven and earth, were
really primitive in the Chinese system. But this doctrine apper
tained to the cosmogony ; and the recent investigations of Dr.
Schlegel seem to me perfectly conclusive, that originally the Chi
nese system was strictly analogous to the doctrines held by other an
cient peoples. Yang and Yin, light and darkness, male and female,
assimilated to heaven and earth, both proceeding from a primal an
drogynous principle, constituted the fundamental ideas which were
truly archaic in China. I cite the following -from among number
less testimonies, brought out by Dr. Schlegel's researches : —
" Before the two principles, or laws, were separated, their ether
was a mixture like an egg, says the Yi-king. Thus, as they had
assimilated heaven to the active and generative force of nature, or
to Yang, and the earth to the passive force of nature which re
ceives and produces, or to Yin, they named these two forces heaven
and earth, from whence was derived the supposition that at first
heaven and earth were in a chaotic state." ^
Human nature as the product of the interaction of both was sup
posed to involve completely the attributes of both, and was thus a
microcosm. The original identity of this Chinese system with that
of the Babylonians and Egyptians, and their derivation from some
common source, are matters upon which, in the present state of
knowledge, it is difficult to harbor serious doubts. Among the
» Led. on Sci. of Religion. Vid. Littell's Living Age, Aug. 20, 1870, p. 486.
'^ Uranographie Chinois, p. 254.

264 HAR-MOAD.
more recent labors of M. Lenormant, devoted to the analysis of the
religious ideas prevalent in the valley of the Euphrates, is that re
lating to the primitive Accadian system, as distinguished from the
Chaldiso-Baby Ionian. This study, if my estimate is correct, is the
least satisfactory among the author's usually happy efforts and
admirable expositions of primitive doctrines, and needs a thorough
revision throughout. Among other points in relation to which the
author allows himself, as it appears to me, to be greatly misled, and
to which he attaches constantly an undue importance, is that in
dicated in the subjoined passage : —
" At the summit of the (divine) hierarchy, they (the Accadians)
admit, it is true, a certain number of divinities, as An, Dingir, or
Dimir. But their nature does not differ essentially from that of
the inferior spirits, the name given to these, Zi (' spirit '), being
the same as that applied to the gods. These (divinities) are beings
of the same essence, distinguished solely by a particular qualifica
tion ; their power is supposed to be greater than that of others." ^
Thus, a fact which appears constantly in the books of the Old
and New Testaments, namely, the application of the same terms
(Heb. r-l"!, Gr. Trvivp-a, " spirit ") to the Deity, the Divine Spirit,
and to the created finite spirit, M. Lenormant interprets, in the
foregoing extract, as derogatory to the Accadian conception of the
Divine Being, as evidence of the want of systematic arrangement
and of a marked difference from the Chaldaeo-Babylonian pantheon.
The grave and peculiar importance which he attaches to the simple
circumstance indicated is in my view wholly misleading in tend
ency. That, however, which more especially concerns our topic is
the following extract : —
" Two of the greatest of these gods, those who take rank before
all others, namely, Anna and Hea, have no higher titles than those
of 'spirit of heaven' (Zi-anna), and 'spirit of earth' (Zi-kia).
It is thus that they are addressed in the most solemn invocations,
and this characterizes purely their original and fundamental na
ture." ^
These statements are eminently correct ; but the titles referred
to, which the author seems to interpret as of a low order, are aCr
tually those that tend to identify Anna and Hea, and the notions
thus attached to them, with the highest divinities and the most ele-
» La Magie, p. 139. « Ibid., pp. 139, 140.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 265
vated order of conceptions among those nations the most ancient
and renowned in antiquity. According to these titles, Anna, as
" spirit of heaven," is one with the Babylonian Anu, the Chinese
Tien, the Egyptian Horus, primitively put for heaven in opposition
to Set, the earth. Hea also corresponds, as " spirit of earth," to his
strictly Babylonian character as " lord of the earth " and of " man
kind," and may be assimilated to the Egyptian Tum, who dwells
alone on the "abyss of waters." In point of fact, Anna and Hea,
both male divinities put in opposition, appertain to the second stage
of development from the primal androgynous principle. The first
stage is that in which the one pi'oceeds to duality, male and female,
heaven and earth, like Anu and Anatu. In the second stage the
two principles proceed to duplicate themselves. Heaven as male
takes a celestial goddess, and earth as female takes a male divinity,
becoming the same as the Babylonian Hea and his wife Nin-ki-gal,
who, in the second, replaces Anatu in the first stage. Anna and
Hea, as male deities, assimilated to,heaven and earth, appertain to
the second stage. Their position is thus perfectly normal, and their
qualifications very significant of the higher order of conceptions,
common to the most ancient and elaborate systems.
Sec. 100. The subjoined extracts from M. De Vogiie exhibit in
a very clear light the system, in its full development, whose funda
mental conceptions were doubtless primitive and widely prevalent
in antiquity : — "
" In principle, two causes have presided at the formation of all
things, the father and the mother ; the father is light, the mother is
darkness. The subdivisions of light are heat, dryness, rarity, and
celerity; while the subdivisions of darkness are cold, humidity,
heaviness, and slowness. To the first is assimilated the superior
hemisphere, and to the second the inferior hemisphere. The four
elements are divided according to the same order : fire and air ap
pertain to the male principle, water and earth to the female ; but
these four elements proceed in the formation of things according to
the method of generation ; the two sexes reappear at each stage,
from whence results this confusion (only apparent) that the air,
male in relation to the two inferior elements, is female in relation
to fire ; and that water, female in relation to the superior elements,
is male in respect to the earth."
" In the mathematical order, the first principle is that of the
monad and of odd or fortunate numbers ; while the second is that of
the dyad and of even or unlucky numbers."

266 HARr-MOAD.
" In the moral order, life, justice, good, appertain to the first prin
ciple ; to the second, death, injustice, and evil."
"In the theogony and the astronomical order, the sun appertains
to the first principle, the moon to the second ; the five planets range
under the one or the other ; the seven planets (including the sun
and moon) contain the causes of all things, but these are subor
dinate to the influence of the superior world of fixed stars, or of
the twelve signs of the zodiac. These twelve signs in their turn are
apportioned between the two principles, accordingly as they are
considered male or female ; and the same is true ot the thirty-six
principal constellations, which preside, some over the celestial, and
others over the subterranean world. This entire 'celestial army'
is animated and active ; each of those stars is a god or genius, and
ranks in a divine hierarchy, at the summit of which appears the
indeterminate notion of a supreme providence."
" The reciprocal action of all these things, their c< mbinations
and antagonisms, produce all the phenomena of the sensible world,
since nature is composed of contraries, and 'harmony is born of the
reaction of contraries.' We might almost add, from the identity
of contraries, since this celebrated formula constitutes actually the
basis of the entire system." ^
The remarkable accuracy of the foregoing analysis of ancient
doctrines, based upon a similar statement derived from a work of
Origen, as the author remarks, " happily recovered to science by
M. Miller" (not the author of the present treatise), is not only
attested by the combined results of modern researches, but is ad
mitted by European scholars generally who have devoted special
attention to these subjects. In many of the details as here set
forth, the system had submitted doubtless to additions and modifi
cations ; but the fundamental conceptions were truly archaic, and
appertained to the primitive stratum of ideas constituting the oldest
developed forms of religious belief of which we have any know
ledge. That which here appertains to the superior and inferior
hemispheres, or to the two chief divisions of the sphere, is other
wise predicated of the two principal divisions of the cosmos, heaven
and earth, or the upper and lower regions, according to Mr. Smith,
assimilated to Anu and the female principle Anatu. This equiva
lence of the two halves of the sphere to the two divisions of the
cosmos is that upon which, in the previous chapters, we have so
frequently insisted. In all the ancient systems, tliat which is astro-
1 Milanyes, etc., pp. 57-59.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 267
nomically the superior hemisphere is symbolically the heaven, and
that which is astronomically the lower hemisphere is symbolically
the earth. Consequently the goddess who presides over the inferior
hemisphere is only another form of the earth goddess, and the same
remark applies as well to the m^ile divinity directly associated with
this goddess, when, as in the case of Hea, such male personage is
placed in opposition to another, as Anu, for instance, presiding over
the superior hemisphere. Another principle whose importance is
now well understood, and which is generally recognized among
mythologists, may be thus formulated : the goddess who personifies
the primal chaos in the cosmogony reappears in the theogony as
great mother, and in the planetary system as Venus ; thus, Tiamat
or Omarka is one with Bilat, and the latter is only another form of
Ishtar, the Babylonian Venus. What we term the earth goddess,
therefore, properly represents them all. M'. De Vogiie observes in
reference to the various forms under which this female divinity
appears : —
"We are forced to recognize in these different personages the
successive and local modifications of a single divinity, whose wor
ship had spread through the entire eastern basin of the Mediter
ranean, and had ramifications even into the Indo-Persian -world.
This divinity is no other than the great goddess of nature, the
great mother, designated by the vague title of the Oriental Venus,
of whom Lucien affirms that she partakes alike of the character
of Juno, of Minerva, of Venus, of the Moon, of Cybele, of Diana, of
Nemesis, and of the Furies, thus adding testimony to the unity of
the Original conception." ^
Sec. 101. The foregoing remarks will serve to convey a general
idea as respects the character of the earth goddess, as well as in
regard to the comparative position conceived to be occupied by her,
in relation to the male divinities in the various systems of anti
quity. We are prepared now to enter upon still further investiga
tions, with a view to attain more precise and definite ideas respect
ing the various points already noticed. It is important to gain a
better defined notion, if possible, respecting the relation of the
goddess, so termed, to the male principle, or to the primal divinity.
On this point the completely satisfactory results of M. De Vogiie's
researches, as presented in the extracts cited in our second chapter,
1 Ibid., p. 48.

268 HAR-MOAD.
should be here recalled. The Phoenician expressions, " face of
Baal " and " name of Baal," to which are compared the Biblical
phrases "face of Jehovah" and "name of Jehovah," since in the
.original texts there is a direct analogy between the two series of
expressions, are regarded by M. Dje Vogue as sufficiently determin
ing the primitive conception which gave rise at a subsequent period
to the notion of a distinct goddess. But it is evident that origi
nally the idea was held as in no sense inconsistent with a pure
theism, a proper monotheistic doctrine. There was not here an
absolute unity, nor were there two utterly distinct, separate person
alities. It was rather the notion of an inherent, necessary relation
of two principles, like plus and minus, positive and negative. It
was the primal deity in his external manifestation ; and as the pro
cess of creation according to all the cosmogonies, the Mosaic in
cluded, was regarded a% in some sense a generation, the idea of a
conjugal relation was certainly very natural and almost inevitable.
That the sacred writers in their representation of the Divine Being
in his relation to the world, and especially to redeemed humanity,
ever intended wholly to exclude such a conception is to me more
than doubtful, and indeed I believe the contrary is susceptible of
the plainest demonstration. Both in the Old and New Testament
there are scores of passages distinctly involving this idea, and in
fact, one might almost say that they constitute the favorite mode
of setting forth the relation of divinity to humanity, especially to
the church. It would be, I think, a very singular principle of
exegesis that would construe this mass of scriptural phraseology as
merely a customary figure of speech. It was a form of speech, at
any rate, that gave color to a prevalent doctrine which had been
terribly perverted, and common prudence would dictate the employ
ment of some other form of hyperbole, if this was all that was
intended. There was, however, a great difference between the Bib
lical standpoint and that of surrounding peoples, which will be
brought out in the sequel of these researches.
The goddess of the ancient religions, then, was not wholly an
invention, a simple product of the degeneracy of man. It was a
most lamentable misconception, a perversion of a sacred and ele
vated doctrine, which, owing to the gross passions of mankind, was
sure to be corrupted, at the same time that it was necessary to be
reyealed.. It is probable that the earth goddess was vaguely and

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 269
popularly assimilated to the earth in general, or to the entire earth.
But there is much reason to believe that such a vague association
was not primitive, nor wholly legitimate. The idea was rather, I
think, that of a divided, a cultivated, an inhabited earth. The
wild, uninhabited regions were more regarded as the abode of
demoniacal powers, the imps of darkness, than as the domain of
that goddess whose character better comported with the customs
and conceptions of an industrial, civilized life, than with a state of
savagism. In a political and religious sense, however, the earth in
its uncultivated state, and peopled by uncivilized hordes, was pre
cisely that primal chaos of boiling, surging waters, personified by
the goddess Omarka, whom Bel, the organizer, divided with his
sword when he set the world in order. This was the battle be
tween Bel and the dragon Tiamat, who represented the chaotic
abyss. But as M. Lenormant has correctly observed, that which in
the cosmogony and in the process of creation appears as a battle
reappears in the theogony under the form of the conjugal relation,
and it is this stage to which the earth goddess pertains in the more
complete development. She represents, then, a divided, a cultivated,
an inhabited earth, the " celestial earth," in fact, in the sense which
we have learned to attach to this phrase. The notion thus con
ceived and defined is precisely that involved by the Biblical writers
in the phraseology just referred to, which, among the Phcenicians
and other peoples, had given rise to the conception of a distinct
goddess. The celestial earth, as we have seen, was a politico-reli
gious organization among men, which really constituted the union of
church and state, supposed to be under the divine sanction ; it was,
so to speak, a heavenly kingdom transferred to earth, conceived as
the organization of divinity in humanity. But otherwise conceived
this was the earth goddess^, and the Accadian phrase An-ki, " a
divine, a heavenly earth," in which sense alone it would be often
necessary to interpret it, was otherwise put for the goddess earth,
or the earth goddess. But we saw in the last chapter that a tradi
tional and even geographical element was primitively inherent in
the conception of the celestial earth, and that the subsequent divorce
of the notion from this element resulted in a pantheistic view of
God and the world. Exactly the same thing occurred in relation
to the earth goddess, whose character in later periods was identified
with this pantheistic philosophy. These are points to which our

270 HAR-MOAD.
attention is to be now directed. The aim will be to establish an
original traditional and geographical element in the notion of the
earth goddess.
Sec. 102. The entire evidence heretofore presented, tending to
show that the particular heaven and earth known to the first men
was really the heaven and earth to which all the ancient cosmog
onies primarily related, has a similar bearing also upon the ques
tion now before us. It goes far to establish the conclusion that
the primitive goddess was none other than this primitive earth,
placed in' immediate relation to the celestial space to which the ori
ginal male divinity had been assimilated. The Vedic Ida, origi
nally put for the " earth,'^ was especially associated with the para
disiacal mount in Hindu tradition, from whence it might be infeiTed
that Ida as earth goddess was identified with Mt. Meru, to which
likewise the notion of " celestial earth "was attached. The fact that
the pyramidal structures of Babylon and Borsippa were regarded as
temples of AnJci, and were designed as imitations of the traditional
mount, affords another confirmation of our hypothesis, since the
phrase An-ki is equally understood as the earth goddess.
But M. Lenormant has developed a class of facts pertaining to
Is-tar, the Babylonian Venus, in his critical studies of the Himyaric
inscriptions, that have a direct bearing upon the particular topic in
hand, and which appear to be quite conclusive. The results arrived
at may be thus stated : —
1st. The god Ath-tor, so frequently called in the Himyaric in
scriptions, is a masculine, or more correctly an androgynous form
of the Oriental Venus, like the Venus barbata of Cyprus. The
Canaanites gave a feminine termination to this divine name, from
whence the well-known Ashtoreth, Greek Astarte. But in the As
syrian Ishtar, which is the more ancient form of the name, the fem
inine ending does not appear. In the Himyaric Ath-tar, the s is
changed to t, to which corresponds the cuneiform Atar-samain,
" Atar of the heavens," proving the equivalence of Ath-tar, As-tar,
and Atar, to the Assyrian Ish-tar. The original sense of As-tar is
"the goddess," and it was only at a later period, when polytheism
arose, that the term came to denote one among many goddesses.
2d. Ishtar is proved by the cuneiform texts to be the same as Assat,
" the mistress," and this last is assimilated by M. Lenormant to the
Hebrew Ishah (nt^N), " woman," the feminine form of Ish (tt?"'^),

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 271
" man," the two being generic terms for " man " and " woman."
The form Ishah is the name first bestowed upon Eve by Adam
(Gen. ii. 23).i
The opinion was strenuously maintained by some of the older
mythologists, though not much importance has been attached to it
of late, that really the goddess primitive in the ancient religions
was no other than the Biblical Eve. In the sense that all the
mythologies were founded upon the Mosaic history, this opinion
was very erroneous. The great races diverging from the original
centre of human populations, each independently of the others,
naturally preserved some recollections of the primitive epoch.
Among these races, the Babylonians preserved the most distinct
recollections, perhaps, of any ; though there exists a remarkable
iigreement between all the ancient traditions, even in those partic
ulars and details where we should least expect to find it. But to
return to the name of Ishtar, as equivalent to the Hebrew Ishah, as
generic title of the " woman." Professor Bush has the following
remarks upon this name bestowed upon the Biblical Eve : " The
original word for ' woman ' is Isha, the feminine of Ish, ' man,' and
properly signifies, however uncouth the sound to our ears, man-ness "
(Notes, Gen. ii. 23). Compare with this Rev. Mr. Sayce's render
ing of the cuneiform passage : " Venus is a female at sunset ;
Venus is a male at sunrise," to which the translator adds the note :
"The Assyrian word here is very remarkable, Zi-ca-rat, 2iS \l we
could coin a word like male-ess." ^ The identity in import between
the cuneiform and the Hebrew expressions, being generic titles of
womankind, their application to Ishtar as "the goddess" on one
hand, and to Eve as " the woman " on the other, must be regarded
as quite conclusive' evidence that the really primitive goddess was
strictly a traditional character, and that this tradition was derived
from the mount of paradise, associated especially with the particular
earth known to the first men, and with the female personage styled
the " mother of all living."
Sec. 103. At the time of bestowing upon Eve the name of
Ishah, " woman," Adam addressed to her the following language :
" Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall
1 Vid. Lettres Assyriologique, t. ii. pp. 54-59, for M. Lenormant's investiga^
tions in detail on the points noticed in the text.
2 Jour. Bib. Arch. So., London, iii. pp. 196, 197, and note.

272 HAR-MOAD.
cleave unto his wife ; and they shall be one flesh." As already once
observed, this exact phraseology is interpreted of the church by the
apostle to the Gentiles, thus : " For this cause shall a man leave his
father and mother, and shall be joined unto his wife, and they two
shall be one flesh. This is a great mystery ; but I speak concern
ing Christ and the church " (Eph. v. 31, 32). The context fur
ther develops the same doctrine. We thus connect in the most
direct and reliable manner the celestial earth, the earth goddess,
and the church, tracing them all to the terrestrial paradise for their
origin. We assume, consequently, a traditional and geographical
element as actually the basis of the original conception of both the
celestial earth and the earth goddess. The subsequent divorce of
this element equally from both, as will be now apparent, gave rise
to the pantheistic view of God and nature with which both were
associated. The effect was to convert religious doctrines, sacred
traditions, into mere speculative principles, and to interpret these of
the entire heavens and earth, of the cosmos in the modern sense,
instead of its primitive and traditional sense.
We are prepared now to enter still more into the details of the
conception embodied in the celestial earth assimilated to the earth
goddess. The assimilation of the cosmos to the temple, the funda
mental conception of both proceeding from that of division, was
sufficiently established in the fifth chapter of the present treatise.
Now the two typical instruments of division in antiquity were the
sword and the plough, to both of which, various symbolical ideas
were attached relating to " foundations," whether of the cosmos,
the temple, or the terrestrial kingdom, modeled after the order and
divisions of the sphere. Thus, we have seen in the " Fragments of
Berosus," on one hand, that Belus, when he commenced to set the
world in order, and as the very first act of creation, cut the woman
asunder who personified chaos with his " sword," forming the hea
vens and earth out of the two portions thus divided. Again, the sword
was the symbol of power, of that despotic force, in fact, by which
alone the rude and chaotic elements of human society were brought
into subjection, the principle of order introduced, and the founda
tions of the ancient kingdoms laid. On the other hand, we have
seen the " plough " introduced, to which a bull and heifer had been
yoked in the ceremonies of founding towns and cities, of dividing
off the plot to be occupied as the site ; in the partition of the soil

THE CELESTIAL EARTH.- 273
to be allotted to cultivators, also ; the divisions in all cases being
located according to the method of forming the temple, and with
especial reference to the cardinal regions, or the primary divisions
of the cosmos. " The plough was not less a symbol of a divided
earth in general, a cultivated field, an inhabited district, and of a
peaceful, industrial life. It was by virtue of these divisions, often
marked by great highways leading off from the national temple to
the extreme boundaries of the state, that the entire kingdom was
conceived as a great temple ; and it was by virtue of their location
in the direction of the cardinal regions that the state was deemed
a cosmos, a celestial earth, a heavenly kingdom.
But the primitive and vital connection -of the various conceptions
here referred to will be better understood by a brief analysis of the
sense attached to certain terms in common use among the ancients.
The Hebrew Bara (ma), denoting the first act of creation in the
Mosaic account, employed also in speaking of the creation of a new
heaven and earth, has the primary sense of " to cut, to carve, to
form by cutting and carving;" Dr. Gesenius observes substantially,
in reference to this term, that " the notion of breaking, cutting,
separating, is inherent in the radical syllable par (ie), as well as
in the softened form bar (-13)." From these two forms proceed
various notions and terms, among which I note the following: —
1st. The Hebrew verb Pa-rar (-115), " to cut in, to plough ; " in
one of its modifications, " to split, divide, or plough the sea ; " and
the same verb affords the substantive form Par (nr), "a young
bullock, a heifer," and from this last comes another substantive
Pa-rah (h^d), "a young cow, a cow with calf, or a cow for the
yoke." The Assyrian language has the form Par ov Parr-ri, "bul
locks." We see here that the plowgh constitutes the^ special instru
ment for cutting, dividing, and it is worthy of note- in. this connec
tion that the Hebrew Kha-rash (tt7~in)) " to cut in, engrave, thence
to form, make, create," etc., has likewise the sense of " to plough ; "
showing that the two notions of "fabricating, creating," and of
" ploughing," proceeding from the one idea of cutting or of divi
sion, were habitually associated.
2d. Under the radical syllable Bar we may note the Accadian
Bar, " a sword," otherwise put for " yoke, pair, double, half," etc.
In the Hebrew we have not only Bara, and its cognate terms
Barah, Bereeth, heretofore explained in these pages, but Ba-raq

274 HAR-MOAD.
(p~a)) " lightning, glittering sword." Then we have Bar (-q),' "a
son," from Bara, "to beget," and Bar, "a field, arable land,"
thence " corn, the fruit of the field." Here we have again the
notions involved of plough, plough ox, or of taurus and the heifer^
employed in agricultural labors.
Sec. 104. We come now to illustrate the existence of a similar
class of ideas connected with the heavens. The sun was very fre
quently, as is well known, assimilated to the bull or taurus, and it
is a remarkable fact that this celestial taurus vras conceived to
labor, to plough in the heavenly fields, the same as his earthly rep
resentative in terrestrial fields. The cuneiform texts afford direct
proof of the prevalence of such notions. As shown by M. Lenor
mant, and as well known to Assyriologues, the generic name for the
planets in the inscriptions is the Accadian Lubat, Assyrian Bibbu,
both denoting primarily some animal whose species is not yet
determined, though Dr. Delitzsch conjectures with considerable
probability that the ram or he-goat is in tended. ^ In any event, the
application of these generic terms to designate the planets proves
that at an extremely remote epoch they were likened to animals,
wandering and grazing in the celestial pastures. But the Accadian
name of the planet Jupiter is Lvbat-guttav, where the element gut-
tav, or gut-tam, needs explanation. This term, however, is well un
derstood by its equation in the texts to the Assyrian phrase pitnu
sa same, interpreted by M. Lenormant as " the furrow of heaven,"
that is to say, " the ecliptic." ^ Jupiter is thus the planet whose
orbit agrees nearly with the sun's annual course, or the animal that
follows in the celestial furrow. If, then, the royal planet follows
this furrow, what animal ploughs it ? The analogy of ideas, as well
as the etymology of the Accadian term Gut-tam, will suggest the
answer. The element Gut is the Accadian name of the bull or
taurus (Rep. 246), while Tam, " day," is only another value of the
sign Ud, " the sun " (Rep. 424). The phrase Gut-tam, or Guttav,
then, literally means the solar bull, and the furrow followed by the
planet Lubat-guttav is that ploughed by the celestial taurus. The
existence of a profound symbolism in the astro-mythology of the
ancients can be no longer doubted in view of these most singular
conceptions. 1 Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 371 , note. Delitzsch, Assyr. Studien, pp. 47, 48.
2 Op. cit. p. 373, note. Cf. 2d Rawl. PI. 26, 1. 26.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 275
The sun as being the taurus that ploughs the celestial field was
yoked to the moon as cow or heifer, and we know that the moon
was usually represented by a cow or heifer in the symbolism of the
ancient mythologies. From all antiquity, the sun and moon were
taken as the chief dividers of time into seasons and months. The
solar year and lunar year were equally ancient, perhaps, and both
orbs were naturally taken as dividers of time. But astronomically,
to divide the year into four seasons is to divide the celestial space
into four principal regions, and a partition of the year into twelve
months is to effect a partition of the celestial space into twelve
regions, corresponding to the zodiacal constellations, or the divisions
of the ecliptic. There was thus an inherent, necessary relation
between the divisions of time and those of space. We have direct
proof, derived from the cuneiform texts, that the principle of sex-
ualism was applied even in reference to time and space, length and
breadth. Thus, the Accadian Us, " phallus, male, length, time, a
period of sixty years, or losse" (Rep. 161), constitutes a determi
native for length, while the Accadian Luku, " mother, breadth "
(Rep. 148), constitutes a determinative of breadth, associated neces
sarily with the idea of space.^ There was a perfect consistency in
these notions with fundamental ideas. The heaven was assumed •
as male, the earth as female, the one as father, the other as
mother. The divisions of time depended on the motions of the
heavenly bodies, naturally conducting to the assimilation of time to
the male principle, and by contrast the association of space with
the female principle would be equally natural.
We have seen in the extracts cited from M. De Vogue that the
sun appertained to the principle of light, to the superior hemi
sphere, to heaven ; the moon, on the other hand, was connected with
the principle of darkness, the inferior hemisphere, symbolically
taken for the earth. The taurus, according to this system of ideas,
was symbol of the heavens, especially of the sun, and the heifer or
cow of the earth, particularly the moon as a celestial earth or ter
restrial heaven, offering thus an explanation of the facts to which
* Dr. Faber alludes, cited in a previous chapter, relating to the vision
1 Vid. Norris, i. p. 74. Two sets of terms were employed denoting length and
breadth, bvda and sakki on one hand, and us and luku, " male " and " female," on
the other. Usually the sexual idea was disguised by mixing the terms, as us and
sakki, and buda and luku. But this was not always done.

276 HAR-MOAD.
of Timarchus. Primarily we have here the same circle of ideas
symbolized by Taurus as involved in the conception of the god
Anu among the Babylonians. At first the taurus represents the
upper and lower regions, the same as Anu. Secondly, when these
regions are divided, the taurus is put for the upper regions or hea
ven, the same as Anu, and the heifer or cow for the lower regions
or earth, corresponding to Anatu, wife of Anu. M. L^on Carr^ has
the following relative to the cosmical doctrines of the Persians: —
" The first of all the animals was the Taurus, which, after having
existed for a long time alone, was killed by Ahriman (the principle
of darkness and evil) ; but his soul became the principle of all ani
mated nature, under the name of Goschoroun ; and from his purified
seed were born two Tauri, one male and the other female, which
produced the entire animal species. Finally, the first man was
Kaiomorts, issuing from the sides of the Taurus under the form of
a youth." ^
The next stage of development would be the assumption of a
celestial taurus and cow, the sun and moon, ploughing the celestial
fields on one hand, these being represented by the terrestrial bull
and cow, laboring in terrestrial fields on the other hand. The fur
rows mark the divisions of time and of the celestial space in one
case, and those of terrestrial space, located with special reference
to the former, in the other instance.
Sec. 105. It will not be difficult to apprehend the connection
of these ideas with the general theory of the celestial earth, and
with the character of the earth goddess. The two Accadian char
acters employed phonetically in writing the name Is-tar, Assyrian
Ishtar, appear to have been selected as well in reference to their
ideographic sense ; and as such, they involve the exact fundamental
conception, according to my view, of the earth goddess, considered
as " a divided, a cultivated earth." Thus, the Accadian Is means
"earth" (Rep. 215) ; and Tar has among others the sense of "to
cut, to separate, to divide " (Rep. 5), being similar to that involved
in the Semitic radicals Bar and Par already considered. The lit
eral Accadian meaning of Is-tar, the Babylonian title of Venus,*
would be, therefore, " a divided, a ploughed, a cultivated earth,"
and I believe that such was the absolutely primitive idea involved
in the character of the earth goddess.
^ Ancien Orient, etc., t. ii. p. 388.

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 277
It is necessary to recall here the facts verified in a previous chap
ter (Sees. 55, 66) relative to the augurial temple, the origin of the
system of land measuring derived from it, as well as the singular
custom of yoking a bull with a heifer, attached to a plough, in
marking out the divisions of the sotl and the sites of towns and
cities, all directly associated with the ceremonies of founding cities
and even states. The furrows thus ploughed in the earth were lo
cated with special reference to those ploughed by the celestial taurus
and cow in the heavenly fields. The terrestrial city and kingdom
were thus modeled after the celestial city and kingdom, peopled by
the heavenly hosts, who were frequently compared to the inhabi
tants of the earthly kingdom. To complete the conception of a king
dom of heaven on earth, the king and queen were assimilated as
human rulers to the sun and moon as celestial rulers ; while the
no'bles and principal officers of state were associated with the prin
cipal constellations. In other cases, the zodiacal constellations,
especially, were assimilated to the twelve tribes, to the twelve cities
forming the state, or again to the twelve portions into which the
public domain was partitioned. These notions were all fundamental
in the theory of the ancient civilizations ; and we have shown how
widely prevalent they were in antiquity. Each kingdom, according
to these conceptions, was a cosmos, a temple, a celestial earth, a
goddess, and finally, in other terms, a church. The fundamental
idea was that of division, the sword and the plough constituting
the typical instruments employed. To the male personage, the
organizer, the subduer of the primal chaos, appertained the sword.
To the female personage, the goddess, appertained the plough, the
harvest, the products of agricultural industry. Such especially was
the character of Ceres. We see in the doctrines shown to have
been fundamental in the general idea of a celestial earth, as well as
in the character of the earth goddess, the ground of a multitude of
comparisons employed by the sacred writers. The Saviour, even,
frequently compares the kingdom of heaven to a cultivated field;
and such comparisons were by no means accidental; they proceeded
from fundamental notions, associated as well with the temple, the
world or cosmos, as with a divided, cultivated earth. All such
illustrations are the legitimate expansion of certain grand ideas
whose origin in each instance we have traced to the traditional
abode of primeval humanity. We see here the origin and import.

278 HAR-MOAD.
also, of that class of Biblical .expressions in depicting the rise and
fall of empires, upon which, as previously cited. Bishop Lowth has
expressed some very correct views, yet without fully apprehending
the real significance of such language. The double conception in
volved in the Hebrew Olam-AnA. Greek Aion, finds a proper explana
tion likewise in the facts now before us. The sense of " world "
relating to the cosmos, on one hand, and that of "age, dispensa
tion," relating to the renewal of things, to new creations, new hea
vens and earth, on the other hand, flow naturally from the principles
set forth in these pages relative to the cosmogony, the temple, the
celestial earth, the theory of the ancient civilizations. The founda
tion of the world and the beginning of time were the types of all
other foundations and cyclical periods, and it was according to the
strict analogy of ideas that the custom prevailed of identifying the
commencement of chronological eras with the founding of the state,
or of the temple conceived as the centre of the state.
Sec. 106. With the present chapter closes the first natural
and principal division of this entire treatise. Although the re
searches embodied in the succeeding chapters are strictly related to
those that have gone before, and are necessary to complete the view
of antiquity which it has been our aim to set forth, they appertain
to a class of ideas somewhat different, constituting, in fact, a sep
arate division of our work. It seems proper, therefore, to introduce
here a brief review of our past labors, that we may better realize
and comprehend the standpoint to which these investigations have
conducted. The founders of the Babylonian civilization, when they migrated
from the east to the plains of Shinar, were not the sole inheritors of
a sacred tradition and science which had been derived from that
primitive epoch and civilization of which the world to-day pos
sesses but very little knowledge. They who had traveled east
ward from the original and common centre of populations, settling
in the region now known as China, who had founded in fact the
celestial empire at a period whose chronology is almost unknown,
were not less the inheritors of a tradition and science which formed
the basis of primitive doctrines and of politico-religious institutions
in many respects strikingly similar to those that constituted the ori
ginal stratum of the Hamite formations of Western Asia. The first
Hamite populations located in the valley of the Nile were by no

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 279
means ignorant of the same doctrines, the same theories, pertaining
alike to the cosmos, the temple, the state, to the organization of
terrestrial kingdoms after the model of the celestial. The Aryans
of India and Persia, as well as those of Greece and Rome, who
seem to have departed from the common home of all the races at a
later epoch, who had each for themselves established independent
types of civilization, although much indebted to those races who had
preceded them in the path of human development and progress,
seem to have preserved distinct recollections of the traditional
abode from which all had departed, and of the ideas primitively
associated with it. The same is to be said of the Semitic races.
Thus, from the most widely separated nationalities of the old world
we have gathered the proofs of the existence of primeval doctrines,
theories of a cosmical, religious, political, and even social character,
so similar in detail that the hypothesis of their common origin in
some region that had been historically and geographically the centre
of all these peoples seems to be completely established.
There was nothing crude, nothing that indicates a low order of
development, in those ideas so full of symbolic import, according to
which the primitive foundations were laid. Nothing more elevated
and sublime, nothing more broad and comprehensive, has ever been
put forth by any mind than those doctrines concerning the world
assimilated to the temple, and the temple to man. The expansion
of the idea of the family into that of the nation, of the hearth into
that of the national altar, on one side ; the construction of the
ancient kingdoms after the model of the heavenly, as embodied in
the notion of the celestial earth, on the other side, and the assimila
tion of all equally to the cosmos, to the cultivated field, and to the
simple apartments of the private dwelling, — the one ground thought
being everywhere that of division, — sufficiently evince the profound
insight, the sublimity of genius, that presided over the beginnings
of all human knowledge and development. It might well be said
that all history, all historical progress, was born of the primitive
cosmogony. It was from this as the original germ that everything
in antiquity seemed to have proceeded. It was like the birth of the
world from some mystic cave, and indeed it was such, — that cave
in which the northern bear nestles her young by day, and leads
them forth on the heights of the sacred mount by night.
But it is difficult to account for the origin of those primitive doc*

280 HAR-MOAD.
trines which all the religions, philosophies, and mysteriea even had
taken for their base ; to account also for their propagation in every
quarter of the ancient world, as well as their preservation in such
purity and detail, except on the hypothesis of our third chapter.
They who had constructed the first temples were the founders of
the ancient civilizations. It was they who laid the corner-stones of
the pyramids of Borsippa and of Sakkara ; who divided the sphere,
who invented writing, who wrote the sacred books, who taught
the ancient nations how to live and how to work. It was these
mystic corporations of the early ages to which all antiquity attrib
uted the first revelations of truth, the invention of the arts of civ
ilized life, the foundation of beneficent institutions, the redemption
of humanity from savagism. Everything tends to confirm this sup
position, and I am constrained to believe it, even in spite of myself.
Sec. 107. In discussing the question of the actual geographical
locality of the Gan-Eden of Genesis, in our sixth chapter, much
stress was laid upon the necessity of adhering strictly to the essen
tial conditions of the problem. These conditions are substantially
as already defined : 1st. To discover a region on the earth's surface
whose peculiar geographical features correspond, or nearly so, to
those described in the Mosaic account of the Garden of Eden. 2d.
A region to which the traditions of various peoples point as having
been the first abode of humanity, and as that also from which their
ancestors had departed when they migrated to the countries occu
pied by these peoples in historical times. 3d. A region from which
it was physically and morally possible that the different races had
departed, according to all known facts concerning their origin, and
to which, by the aid of their traditions, sacred books, and the re
sults of linguistic science, it was possible to retrace their steps along
the routes originally taken by them. To these conditions I have
pointed out an additional one : 4th. The existence of a well-defined
stellar region, uniformly associated in tradition with the particular
terrestrial locality, assumed as the first abode of humanity. Now
it may be properly and safely assumed that no two regions on the
earth's surface fulfilling all these requirements could by any reason
able possibility exist. Consequently if one locality can be found
that does fulfill them, such must have been the primitive centre
from which the various races of men departed to people the earth.
As thus presented, the problem assumes a strictly scientific form,

THE CELESTIAL EARTH. 281
and its solution, therefore, if properly worked out, must be regarded
in the same light. The peculiar geographical features of Gan-
Eden are themselves of a character quite extraordinary, and no
other region on the globe known to geography in any way answers
to them except the plateau of Pamir, which has been identified by
scholars, as we have seen, with the Mosaic description of Eden.
This region seems to form the great water-shed of all Asia, from
which four large and navigable rivers take their rise, flowing from
thence toward different quarters of the Asiatic continent. As for
the other conditions named the reader has seen, from the facts
detailed in the sixth chapter, a most remarkable concurrence of all
the circumstances to satisfy them all.
We attain, then, a reliable standpoint historically, or at least tra
ditionally and geographically, at the very dawn of human existence
on earth so far as the earliest traditions known to antiquity afford
any indications. If there actually was a period still earlier, no tra
dition relates to it. The evidences of its reality must be drawn
from other sources. The question of the geological evidences of
the antiquity of man, we are not as yet prepared to discuss, nor do
we intend to do so, exhaustively at any rate, in the present treatise.
We hope in future chapters to prepare the way for it, and to
indicate generally our views. We assume, for the present, that
Gan-Eden was the beginning of history ; the proofs of this, drawn
from ancient and universal tradition, as already before us, are en
titled to great weight, but many additional facts are yet to be pre
sented. But the locality in question was not merely the traditional
and geographical starting-point of humanity. We have shown that
it was the birthplace of the ancient religions, the sacred mysteries,
and that the fundamental ideas forming the basis of the theory of
ancient civilization had been inherited originally from the same
locality. It was there on that mountain plain which overlooks all
Asia that the physical, intellectual, and religious history of our
race had its beginning. The first to rise above the dark waters of
chaos and the deluge, it was there that the first civilization on the
globe was planted. We know that its foundations were laid in
wisdom, since it gave birth to those grand ideas whose influence
extended throughout antiquity to the very latest epochs. How
long it endured it is impossible to decide. It must have preceded
the oldest civilizations known to us, and it is probable that it did

282 HAR-MOAD.
not endure much later than the period of their origin. It was at
all events the great foster-mother of all the brilliant epochs that
succeeded it. It was there that the first foundations were laid, the
first heaven and earth separated ; and it was there that those mod
els were perfected according to which the constructions of subse
quent ages were scrupulously designed.
To be able to assign some definite and completely reliable chro
nology for this most mysterious epoch in human history would be a
result so exceedingly desirable and important as to justify even a
hazardous attempt to do so ; and we confess in advance that such
will be one of the leading aims in the chapters to follow.

BOOK IV.
THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA.

CHAPTER X.
ZODIACAL AEEANGEMENT OE THESE ASTERISMS.
Sec. 108. In the present chapter we enter upon a series of inves
tigations of which a remarkable astronomical tablet constitutes the
chief object of interest. Under the form in which it appears in the
" British Museum Series," so called, this inscription has been for
many years familiar to cuneiform scholars. I am not aware, how
ever, that it has ever been regarded as of particular importance by
Assyriologues, or that any one has devoted to it a special study.
The greatest significance ever attached to it, so far as my informa
tion extends, is that by M. F. Lenormant, who cites it in illustration
of the symbolical system of geography which prevailed in the times
of Sargon the ancient, to which we have alluded in a previous
chapter. In reference to this monarch, and as heretofore quoted,
M. Lenormant observes : —
" He considers the country of Akkad, or Chaldaea, as situated in
the centre of the universe, and as surrounded by four other coun
tries, which correspond exactly to the four cardinal points: llama
is east, Martu is west, Gutium is north, and Subarti is south. See
particularly upon this system the fragment of a tablet, where twelve
stars preside over the destinies of each of these countries, and
where are described the influences exerted upon them during each
month." 1
The tablet here referred to is the one selected by us for special
study. It is, as M. Lenormant intimates, quite fragmentary, cer-
1 Frag, de Berose, p. 321.

284 HAR-MOAD.
tain portions only being entire, particularly the one shown in our
third plate, to which our chief interest attaches, and which we enti
tle " the twelve stars of Phoenicia," following the colophon at the
foot of the list. For convenience I repeg,t the list below according
to the Accadian values of the cuneiform characters interlined in the
plate, adding some translations: —

1. The star As-kar.
2. The star Sir. The Serpent.
3. The star Bar-tabba-galgal.
4. The star Nin-Makh. Great Mistress.
6. The star Nibe-anu. Planet Mars.
6. The star Nam-makh. Great Destiny.

7. The star Su-gi. The Rival.
8. The star Qaq-sidi. Dog-star.
9. The star Bir.
10. The star Ungal. The king. Jupiter.
11. The star Al-lap. The Taurus.
12. The star Lab-a.

The twelve stars of the country of Phoenicia.
The asterisms are numbered according to the order in which I
suppose they were intended to be read, though Nos. 11 and 12 I
conceive to have been purposely inverted, as this is not their proper
zodiacal order. I had formerly regarded the true title of this list
of asterisms to be " the twelve stars of Accad," being misled by
Mr. Norris in his " Assyrian Dictionary." ^ He was doubtless mis
led by the colophon, which appears next above our list in the pub
lished text, and reads, 12 mul-mes mat Akkad-ki, or " the twelve
stars of Accad." He probably inferred likewise that the colophon,
12 mul-mes mat martu-ki, or " the twelve stars of the west," of
" Phoenicia," related to a series of asterisms named immediately be
low it in the text. This is an error, as is evident from Rev. A. H.
Sayce's rendering of the list.^ This author very properly applies
to the series given in our plate the title, " the twelve stars of the
west." 8 But the reference cannot be to the western quarter of the
heavens, as he seems to suppose.* The phrase mat martu-ki, like
mat Akkad-ki, can be interpreted only of a country. It is often put
for the west country indefinitely; sometimes, as Dr. Schrader thinks,
for Canaan.^ Definitely, however, mat martu-ki is equated in the
texts to mat a-har-ri-i, or " Phoenicia," as understood by Dr. De
litzsch and cuneiform scholars generally.^ A very good reason for
the supposition that in this case the phrase mat martu-ki does not
1 Assyr. Die, i. p. 109. 2 yjj. jg^^j.. Bib. Arch. So., London, iii. p. 173.
8 Ibid., p. 176. 4 Ibid., p. 167.
^ Keilinschrift. u. d. Alt. Test., pp. 14, 15.
8 Vid. 2d Rawl. PI. 60, Revs. 1. 57. c. d. Cf. Delitzsch, Assyr. Studien, pp. 38,
139; Norris, Assyr. Die, i. 28.

PLATE III.
THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA.

1
Z
3 4 5 6

p:?— T

>^ff

T

^r?

<JT
- 1 I t>- D- [>—
71
9!
101Hi 12;
[— I ^I «^T^
S=?.^^T ^WM\
-T ^I^
:II^
THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA.

285

apply to the Canaanitish country generally is the fact that these
asterisms have in some sense an adjustment to the zodiac, leading to
the inference that a particular nationality, like the Phoenicians, had
appropriated them specially as such. The selection of twelve stars,
corresponding to the number of the zodiacal divisions, as presiding
over the destinies of the nation, seems to have been a common prac
tice in those ancient titnes, and the various lists of asterisms origi
nally contained in our tablet appear to have served a purpose of this
kind. As the population of Canaan was divided into many nation
alities, some particular one in the present instance -must be intended,
and thus mat martu should be understood here of Phoenicia. The
entire list of the twelve stars of Accad is wanting in this inscrip
tion, except the two names partially defaced in the first line of
the published text, one of which is obviously Ni-bi-ru, the seventh
name of Mercury in the series of twelve names applied to this
planet, answering to the twelve signs of the zodiac.
To facilitate the study of our tablet, I submit a comparative table
relating 'to the zodiac, including the list of twelve stars of Phoenicia,
showing their proposed adjustment to the zodiacal signs: —

Monograms.

Assyr. Names.

Names op Meecurt.

ZOB. SlQHS.

Stars op Phcenicia.

1. Bara.

Ni-sa-nu.

Dun-pa-uddu.

Aries.

(11) Laba.

2. Gut.

Ai-ru.

Ud-al-tar.

Taurus.

(12) Al-lap.

3. Uku.

Si-va-nu.

As-kar, Bab-ilini.

Gemini.

(1) As-kar.

4. Su.

Dur-u-zu.

Da-pi-nu.

Cancer.

(2) Sir.

b.Ne.

A-bu.

Mak-ru-u.

Leo.

(3) Bar-tabba-galgal.

6. Kin.

U-lu-lu.

Sak-ve-sa.

Virgo.

(4) Nin-makh.

7. Tul.

Tas-ri-tu.

Ni-bi-ru.

Libra.

(6) Ni-be-Anu.

8. Apin.

Arakh-Samna.

Rah-bu.

Scorpio.

(6) Nam-makh.

9. Gan.

Ki-si-li-vu.

Rabaz.

Sagittarius.

(7) Su-gi.

10. Ab.

Ta-bi-ta.

Sar.

Capricorn.

(8) Qaq-Sidi.

11. As.

Sa-ba-tu.

Gal.

A quarius.

(9) Bir.

12. Se.

Ad-da-ru.

Kha Hea. ,

Pisces.

(10) Ungal.

Sec. 109. The first column gives the names of the Accadian mon
ograms for the months of the Babylonian year, the month Bara
being the first, corresponding to the zodiacal sign Aries. The
second column contains the Assyrian names of the months in their
regular order answering to the monograms and signs. The Hebrew
names were derived from these. Thus, the Assyrian Ni-sa-nu be-

286 HAR-MOAD.
comes the Hebrew Nisan, etc.^ The third column gives the names
of Mercury corresponding to each month and sign. We have a
tablet showing the adjustment of these names to the zodiac, so that
no doubt exists in relation to this matter.^ In the fourth column
the order of the zodiacal signs and their names are presented.
Finally, in the fifth column I have arranged the names of the stars
of Phcenicia according to my theory of their intended adjustment
to the zodiac. It is to be understood that there is no question here
as to the proper order of any list contained in the foregoing table
except in regard to the last. Our investigation has reference to this
alone, employing the other lists simply as aids in determining the
true arrangements of the Phoenician asterisms. We are prepared
now to enter directly upon this question.
1st. The star As-kar. The characters composing the name of this
asterism are read Dil-gan by Rev. A. H. Sayce, and they often take
these phonetic values. But the reading As-kar is equally legiti
mate, is that adopted by M. Lenormant, and, for reasons that will
appear in full in the next chapter, has been preferred here. It will
be seen that the name As-kar heads the list of Phoenician stars,
which circumstance, if any zodiacal arrangement is to be presumed
here, would lead naturally to the assimilation of As-kar to the
opening month of the Babylonian calendar, that Is to say, to the
month Bara, Assyrian Nisanu, the- sign Aries. Instead of this, as
shown in the table of proposed adjustments, I have assimilated
As-kar to the sign Gemini, Accadian month Uku, or " month of the
brick," the Assyrian Sivanu, being the third instead of the first
month of the Babylonian year. That which first determined me to
this arrangement was a comparison between the name As-kar and
that of Mercury as it attends the sun in the sign Gemini, or during
the third month. The title of Mercury in this zodiacal division is
the Accadian An as-kar kd an-mes, or the Assyrian il as-kar bab-
ilini, the sense being the same in both cases, namely, " the god As-
kar, gate of the gods." Thus, the name As-kar is simply the titje
of Mercury in the sign Gemini, or duiing the third month of the
Babylonian calendar, from which it follows that the zodiacal ar
rangement of the twelve stars of Phoenicia does not correspond to
1 Vid. Norris, Assyr. Die, i. p. 60, for a table of monograms, names of the
months, etc.
2 Vid. 3d Rawl. PI. 53, No. 2, Obs.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 287
the Babylonian year opening with the sign Aries, but that the
whole series is to be moved forward on the zodiac two entire signs,
so that the star As-kar shall fall in the sign Gemini. Accordingly,
it will be seen from the table of adjustments given in the last sec
tion that I have arranged the whole series of Phoenician names
with reference to this one fact.
The phrase bab-ilini, " gate of the gods," is evidently a mere
qualification of As-kar ; and his being considered a god in one case,
and a star or constellation in the other, is in no sense material, as
all the stars were considered divinities. The evidence then ap
pears to be conclusive to the effect that the twelve stars of Phcenicia
present a zodiacal scheme, which opens with the sign Gemini, and
concludes with that of Taurus. Nevertheless, there is an objection
to this hypothesis which it is necessary to set aside before we can
safely rest in the conclusion seemingly so obvious at first view ;
and it arises from the statement of M. Lenormant, in which Jie is
supported by Rev. A. H. Sayce, that the title As-kar is a generic
one, applied equally in the texts to the planets Mars, Jupiter, and
Mercury .1 If such is really the fact, we cannot assume here that
the name in question is necessarily to be assimilated to the title of
Mercury in the sign Gemini. The two texts cited by M. Lenor
mant in proof of his statement are the same as those relied upon
by Rev. Mr. Sayce. The application of the name As-kar to the
planet Mars is predicated upon a bihngual passage, which reads
as follows: . . . As-kar — il Ni-be-anu ; "... As-kar is the god
Nibeanu, or Mars." ^ The character which precedes As-kar in this
phrase is almost wholly defaced ; but enough remains to show that
it terminated with two parallel lines, in which case it was neither
Mul, "star," nor An, "god." It is evident, then, in this instance,
that As-kar is not considered a star nor a divinity ; and the text
affords no proof of M. Lenormant's statement.
The text supposed to demonstrate the assimilation of As-kar to
Jupiter is a list of twelve asterisms, or divinities, six of them
equated in some sense to Jupiter, and six to Saturn, and may be
presented in the following form so far as relates to the point before
us : ^ —
1 Vid. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, ¦p. 375, note ; Sayce, Trans. Bib. Arch. So.,
iii. pp. 167, 176.
2 2d Rawl. PI. 39, No. 6, 1. 64.
» 2d Rawl. PL 57, Revs. Col. 1, II. 44-47.

288 HAR-MOAD.
The star Gan^gusur=^e star Lubat-guttav = 3 n^iter.
The star il!/a?"-c?M^ = tlie star XMSa^^wttaii = Jupiter.
The star As-^ar= the star iy^Ja^^Mito^' = Jupiter.
The star Qaq-sidi = the star Lubat-guttav = J apitev.
M. Lenormant has seen here an ordinary bilingual equation of
certain names to others; in this instance, of Gan-gusur, etc., to
Lubat-guttav, or the planet Jupiter. Such a view was, to say the
least, very natural ; but it has seemed to me erroneous, and 1 find
that Rev. Mr. Sayce perceives here a serious difficulty, and thus he
observes : —
" The scribe, therefore, who wrote the passage in question must
have misunderstood his copy, and have identified with Jupiter a
group of stars which were coupled with it in consequence of their
proximity to the ecliptic." ^
The author shows that this list contains the names of asterisms
that cannot by any possibility be identified with either Jupiter or
Saturn. The same may be said with reference to Qaq-sidi, which
occupies the fourth position in this series. The text, therefore,
affords no evidence of the assimilation of As-kar to Jupiter; and
we return to our original supposition that the name is exclusively a
title of Mercury ; of Mercury, however, only as it attends the sun
in the sign Gemini, or during the third month of the Babylonian
year. The twelve stars of Phcenicia, then, or of the west, present a
zodiacal scheme that opens with this sign.
Sec. 110. But we cannot agree with Rev. Mr. Sayce respecting
the text last cited, that the scribe has " misunderstood his copj'."
Is it not more probable that our author has misinterpreted the
scribe ? The twelve names of Mercury, as we have seen, afford a
regular zodiacal scheme. In a certain sense, as shown by the text,
every one of these names is equated to the " god Marduk." Yet
these are not properly titles of Marduk, as Rev. Mr. Sayce appears
at times to suppose. Dun-pa-uddu, Da-pi-nu, Sak-ve-sa, etc., are
titles of Mercury beyond question, and never of Marduk. What,
then, is the meaning of Marduk's association with all these names ?
It is simply, as Assyriologues have often suggested, that " Marduk
rules the entire year " according to the parlance of astrology. Now
in the series of twelve asterisms before referred to, in which our
English Assyriologue believes the scribe to have made a mistake, is
1 Trans. Bib. Arch. So., iii. pp. 170, 171.

THE TWELVE STARS OF • PHCENICIA. 289
it nut probable that we have another zodiacal arrangement, not in
ordinary practical use, perhaps, but one in which Jupiter is sup
posed to rule the first half of the year, while Saturn rules the last
half ? Such, at any rate, is my view of the import of this text ;
and it offers a satisfactory explanation of the apparently anomalous
facts which had given rise in Rev. Mr. Sayce's mind to the sugges
tion made by him. But there seems to be some positive evidence
that the text in question was intended for a zodiacal arrangement.
The star Qaq-sidi, as will be seen in the extract given, occupies
here the fourth position, which zodiacally answers to the sign Can
cer, where the sun attains its highest exaltation at the summer
solstice, a period universally connected in antiquity with the helia
cal rising of the dog-star. Now Mr. Norris identifies Qaq-sidi with
the dog-star, and cites in proof a cuneiform passage which is thus
rendered by Rev. Mr. Sayce : " In the days of variable storms (and)
heat, in the days of the rising of Qaq-sidi, which (is) like bronze,"
etc.^ This language can have reference only, it would seem, to the
burning season of the summer solstice, when the sky is like bronze ;
thence also to the heliacal rising of Sirius which was supposed to
mark that period. The fact, then, that this star assumes the fourth
position in the list referred to, being thus perfectly normal in any
zodiacal scheme, constructed with reference to its heliacal rising, is
another very significant circumstance tending to the conclusion that
we actually have here a zodiacal arrangement. In addition to this
it is to be noticed that the star As-kar holds the third position, an
swering to the sign Gemini, thus corresponding to the order of the
twelve names of Mercury where As-kar bab-ilini is put for the
third sign. On the other hand, we have here a confirmation of our
theory : 1st. That the " star As-kar " and the " god As-kar, gate of
the gods," refer to one and the same asterism. 2d. That the aster
ism thus denoted is to be assimilated zodiacally to Gemini.
We find ourselves under the necessity of removing another doubt
which arises from the following statement by Rev. Mr. Sayce :
'¦'¦Dil-gan (As-kar) was the patron star of Babylon . . . just as
MarJ}uda was of Nipur, and this fixes its identity with the star of
Merodach." ^ In the two texts cited by the author, I fail to see
any evidence supporting the opinions here expressed. The third
1 Norris, Assyr. Die, i. p. 109; Sayce, Trans., etc., iii. p. 174.
2 Trans., etc., iii. p. 171.

290 HAR-MOAD.
name of Mercury, or As-kar bab-ilini, is taken as one of his proofs ;
but he falls into a double error with regard to it, unless I am myself
very much deceived. In the first place, he interprets this entire
series of names, usually regarded as titles of Mercury, and by him
self so understood in other places, as being really names of Marduk,
or Merodach, the patron divinity of Babylon. But the fact is that
these are not titles of Marduk, who merely rules the year in this
case, as already explained in this chapter. Hence, As-kar or Dil-
gan is not here identified with Marduk. It would be impossible to
show, from any other text in existence, that Dun-pa-uddu, Da^pi-nu,
to which we may add As-kar, were ever applied to Marduk. They
are the most ordinary epithets of Mercury. Again, the author in
terprets the phrase bab-ilini, " gate of the gods," as being identical
with bab-ilu, " gate of Ilu," name of Babylon. It is perfectly cor
rect that Babylon was styled the "gate of Ilu, or El," but this is
quite different from the " gate of the gods " of the entire pantheon,
obviously relating to the traditionary mount of the east, conceived
as the seat of the great divinities, and regarded in all Asia, as M.
Renan has stated, as " the gate of the universe." The other text
cited is equally defective, in my view, as affording any evidence
that As-kar or Dil-gan was the patron divinity of Babylon, and thus
one with the god Marduk. The text is much broken up, but the
following exhibits its main features -.^ —
1. The sta.v Al-lap= Sip-par-ki = c\tj oi Sippara.
2. The star Mar-buda= Bil-kit-ki-Q&\neh, or Nipur.
3  kar = Bab-ilini='^'' gate oi the gods."
4  =As-sar-ki = Asshu\\
5  =Su-si-ki=(?).
Doubtless, the middle or third line of this text had the name As-
kar, bab-ilini, in its perfect state. But there is no proof, so far as I
am able to perceive, that it was assimilated to Marduk, nor that it
represented the city of Babylon. The point which this writer
assumes, as before intimated, is the equivalence of the phrase Bab-
ilini to Bab-il, name of Babylon; but there is no proof of it in the
two texts cited, nor am I aware of any others tending to support
this view. Thus, we return again to our first position, namely, that
the star As-kar is Mercury in the sign Gemini, which accordingly
opens this old Phoenician calendar, if indeed this arrangement of
asterisms was ever employed for such a purpose.
1 Vid. 2d Rawl. PI. 48, Col. 1, 11. 56-5"9.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 291
Sec. 111. 2d. The Star Qaq-sidi. It has been shown that this
name denotes the dog-star, whose heliacal rising with the sun in
Cancer marked the period of the summer solstice. In any zodiacal
scheme constructed wdth reference to its heliacal rising, this star
would hold the fourth position, agreeing with that of Cancer, and
as seen in the text already noticed (Sec. 109). In the series of
twelve stars of the west, or of Phoenicia, Qaq-sidi occurs in the
eighth position. Now the eighth zodiacal sign is Scorpio. It would
be difficult to assign any valid reason, either astronomical or astro-
mythological, for assimilating the dog-star to the sign Scorpio.
The dog-star had always in antiquity a solstitial character, con
nected thus with either the sign Cancer or Capricorn. A word of
explanation here respecting the different risiugs of the stars. A
star is said to effect its cosmical rising when it comes to the eastern
horizon exactly at sunrise; but owing to the superior light of this
luminary, it is not visible to the naked eye. A star is said to rise
heliacally with the sun when it mounts the eastern horizon a little
time before the sun, or so as to render it visible to the unassisted
eye. The sun gains two hours during each month on the risings of
the fixed stars, hence at the end of six months it has gained twelve
hours. If, then, the dog-star rises heliacally with the sup in Cancer
at the summer solstice, six months after with the sun in Capricorn, it
will have gained twelve hours, and will set in the west about the time
the dog-star rises in the east. The acronycal rising of a star is that
when it comes to the eastern horizon a few moments after sunset,
or a sufficient time after to be visible to the eye without the aid of
instruments. The sun attains the winter solstice in Capricorn six
months after the summer solstice, which occurs with the sun in
Cancer. The dog-star, therefore, by its heliacal rising marked the
period of the summer solstice, and by its acronycal rising that of
the winter solstice. Although the two risings might not correspond
exactly to the two solstices, they appear to have been so considered
for a long period in antiquity.
We return now to the consideration of Qaq-sidi, holding the
eighth position in our list of asterisms. With Qaq-sidi, or the dog-
star, in the eighth sign, or Scorpio, we are at once in the midst of
difficulties. It must fall in Cancer, the fourth sign, answering to
its heliacal rising, or in Capricorn, the tenth sign, agreeably to its
acronycal rising, or it is impossible to attribute any really zodiacal

292 HARr-MOAD.
character to its position. According to our theoiy of adjustment
of these twelve stars to the zodiac, it is necessary to move them all
forward two entire signs as compared with the Babylonian system;
in other words, we must move Qaq-sidi from Scorpio, the eighth
sign, into Capricorn, or the tenth sign. By reference to our table
of adjustments (Sec. 108), it will be seen that Qaq-sidi falls in the
sign Capricorn, as if to mark, by its acronycal rising, the period of
the winter solstice. The question arises, then, whether the ancients
ever associated a dog-star with Capricorn and with the solstice
of winter. Professor A. Romieu, in his critical treatise on the
" Egyptian Decans," already referred to in these pages, cites a re
markable statement from Firmicus : " On the right of Sagittarius
rises the ship Argo, and on the left the dog." " We recognize in
divers authors," adds the professor, " the notion of two dogs, guard
ians of the limits of the sun's course ; and in this case, the south
ern dog would be found in the region of Capricorn precisely to the
left of Sagittarius." ^ Now, whether these two dogs were really
separate asterisms, or merely the two phases of the heliacal and
acronycal risings of one and the same star, it is certain that the
Hamites of Egypt primitively located a dog-star exactly in the posi
tion in which, according to our method of adjustment, the table of
the twelve stars of Phoenicia places Qaq-sidi, that is to say, in the
sign Capricorn. A coincidence so remarkable as that here exhib
ited is exceedingly rare in antiquarian researches ; and it is of a
character to add much strength to our hypothesis relative to these
Phoenician asterisms.
Sec. 112. 3d. The star Nin-makh. The meaning of this name
is "great mistress" or " divine lady ; " and the reference is un
doubtedly to the mother goddess, probably to Ishtar, the Babylo
nian Venus. This star is the fourth in the series of Phoenician
asterisms ; but it is plain that it has no connection with the fourth
zodiacal sign, or Cancer. According to our method of adjustment,
it should fall in the sixth sign, and this is Virgo, or the Virgin.
The Accadian name of the corresponding month is interpreted by
M. Lenormant as " month of the message of Ishtar." ^ In the ab
sence of all other proofs tending to the support of our hypothesis,
the evidence afforded by the facts here presented would be regarded
^ Sur un Decan, etc., p. 35.
' Premikres Civilisations, t. ii. p. 71.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 293
justly as very direct, although not absolutely conclusive. It would
still be a question whether the proof was not merely contingent and
accidental. But taken in connection with the data previously intro
duced, it becomes difficult to resist the conviction of the existence
of a veritable law in the method adopted for the adjustment of these
stars. In each case, we have only to move the Phcenician stars
forward two signs on the zodiac, as compared with the Babylonian
system, in order to perceive at once that the asterism has found
its normal position. Thus, Nin-makh, the fourth star, is seen at
a glance to appertain to the sixth sign, or to Virgo.
4th. The star Nam-makh. The Accadian Nam has the sense of
"destiny" (Rep. 82); and Makh signifies "great, very great"
(Rep. 68). The Star Nam-makh, therefore, was supposed to exer
cise a preeminent influence over destinies, according to the notions
of the ancient astrologists. It was the opinion almost universally
held that the sign Scorpio was supreme in this respect. Mr. Burritt
remarks, " Scorpio was considered by the ancient astrologers as a
sign accursed. The Egyptians fixed the entrance of the sun into
Scorpio as the commencement of the reign of Typhon." ^ It was
held also to exercise a great influence in fixing the destinies at
birth. The correspondence, then, between the meaning of Nam-
makh and the traditional character of Scorpio is very exact ; and
the fact that, according to our theory of adjustment, the star Nam-
mahh appertains to this sign constitutes another reason for the sup
position that this theory rests upon a firm basis.
5th. The star Ungal, or the King. We shall find in reference
to this asterism apparently a very marked discrepancy as regards
our hypothesis. An inspection of the table of adjustments, as given
in the 108th section, will show that Ungal, the Assyrian Sar,
"king," is the tenth Phoenician asterism, and the tenth name of
Mercury. This appears to be at first a striking coincidence between
both name and number. But while the tenth name of Mercury
agreeably to the Babylonian system falls in the tenth zodiacal sign,
or Capricorn, the tenth star of Phoenicia having the same name,
according to our method of adjustment, falls in the twelfth zodiacal
division, or in Pisces. Apparently, therefore, it has been carried
forward from its normal position to the extent of two signs into an
abnormal one. If, in moving the Phoenician asterisms forward two
* Geog. Heavens, p. 102.

294 HAR-MOAD.
signs in relation to the Babylonian system, it brought the Phoe
nician star of the King into Capricorn, where we have the same
name as a title of Mercury, it would be an instance like that of
Nim-makh ; the asterism would be brought into position by the
operation. But instead of this, it seems to take the Phoenician
tfngal directly out of position, carrying it forward into the twelfth
sign. This appears to be a serious objection to our theory of ad
justments, although it admits of an explanation in perfect accord
with it.
It is obvious that the King, holding always the tenth position,
must be assimilated to the tenth antediluvian king, the Sisithros or
Xisuthrus, of Berosus, the Babylonian Noah. These ten kings of
the antediluvian period, answering to the ten patriarchs of the
Mosaical record including Noah as the last, had been assimilated
by the Babylonians to the ten zodiacal signs, beginning with Aries
and ending with Capricorn. The fact of such assimilation was
long since established by Dr. Movers, more recently confirmed by
M. Lenormant, and of this the principal proofs will be presented
in the chapter immediately following. The tenth king of Berosus,
being Sisithros, was associated accordingly with the tenth zodiacal
division, with Capricorn, to which the Assyrian title of Mercury,
Sar, " the king," is seen to correspond. This tenth personage of
the antediluvian genealogy appears to have been i-egarded tradi
tionally by the Babylonians as the king par excellence. He was
Sydik, "the just," like Noah, who is styled in Genesis "a just
man," etc. ; and the same title Sydik was very extensively known
as the name of the planet Jupiter, to whom this tenth king appears
to have been assimilated. Thus much for the Babylonian system.
The Phoenician system appears likewise to have been connected
in some way with the antediluvian dynasties, and indeed our next
chapter will contain ample proofs of it. The position of the star
Ungal, therefore, as assimilated to the tenth king, corresponding to
Sisithros and Noah, has to be preserved intact. As this scheme
commences with Gemini, the star Ungal, or " the king," was neces
sarily transferred to the sign Pisces, to which corresponds the sin
gular title of Mercury that reads, Kha an e-a, " Fish ot the god
Hea." Until quite recently M. Lenormant has not hesitated to
identify the name Hea with the Biblical Noah, a fact which, if real,
would be demonstrative of the accuracy of these explanations rela-

THE -TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA.

295

tive to the star Ungal. It would show definitely a design, based
upon traditional ideas, of connecting the star of the King with the
sign Pisces, as assimilated to the Biblical Noah. This whole matter
will receive full attention in the next succeeding chapter, there
being no opportunity to discuss it properly in the present chapter.
We assume, then, provisionally, partly on the basis of M. Lenor
mant's previous views, that Hea is to be considered the same as the
Biblical Noah. Hence, while Sisithros, as the tenth king, should be
associated with Capricorn in the Babylonian system, the star Ungal,
in the Phoenician system, was purposely assigned to Pisces, in order
to connect it with the god Hea identified with Noah of Genesis.
Sec. 113. If there has seemed to be, in view of the evidences
thus far presented, still some shades of obscurity and doubt re
maining as to the actual scientific character of the method of ad
justment proposed for these asterisms, I believe the data to be now
introduced will tend to remove such doubt, and settle the question
of the zodiacal arrangement of the " 12 stars of the west," an ex
pression that in the present instance must relate definitely to
Phoenicia. It will be necessary to place before the reader's eye an
accurate representation, so far as possible, of the published text of
the inscription being studied, at least so far as relates to our twelve
stars. The following table gives the Accadian values of the char
acters composing the text, the dotted lines showing those portions
that are wanting : —

let Col. Months.

2d Col. Months.

Ist Col. Stars.

2d Col. Stars.

1 

 ku.

Mul  Se.

 av-a.

2 . .

12 Mul-mes.

Mat Alclcad-lci

Ab. Gan-ga7i-na.
Ab. Abha-uddu.
Ab. As-a-an.
Ab. Se-kin-tar.
3 
(1) Mul As-kar.
(2) Mul Sir.
(.3) Mul Bar-tabba-galgal.
(4) Mul Nin-makh.
(5) Mul Ni-be-anu.
(6) Mul Num.makh.
(7) Mul Su-gi.
(8) Mul Qaq-sidi.
(9) Mul Bir.
(1(1) Mul Ungal.
(11) Mul 4l-iap.
(12) Mul Lab-a.
4. 
5. Ah. Sl....an-bit-ti.
6. Ab. Khul-eri-ba-a.
7. Ab.Bara. Mat....
8 Ab
Ab. Gut. Mai Ilama-ki.
Ab. Mar-tu-Jci.
 Gv^ti-i.
9 
12 Mul-mes.
Mat Mavtu-ki.
The Accadian Ab signifies " month," and Mul " star." The
inscription as represented shows two columns of months and two of
names of stars; these last constituting the special object of our
study. The first column of months, very defective, seems intended
.296 HAR-MOAD.
to set forth the astrological influences exerted by each, the names
attached not being regular denominations of the months. But the
second column of months, down to the sixth line of the text, con
tained the regular Accadian names in full ; four of which remain
entire, the two upper ones being defective. Above all, the tablet
contained much more, but it is now lost.
It must be apparent, I think, that the two columns of ..months
involved in some sense a regular adjustment to the two columns of
stars. But of the first column of months we can decide little more
than this : it contained names purely mystical, and not in ordinary
use in the calendar. Such is not the case as regards the second
column ; it shows even now several names well known as belonging
to the Accadian calendar. The four names, the months, Gan, or
Gan-gan-na, Ab, or Abba-udda, and so the month As, and Se, are
seen in full, and it is to be especially noted that they close the
Babylonian year. The proposition, then, which I have to submit
is as follows : The second column of months was intended, as showing
the proper adjustment of the second column of asterisms to the Baby
lonian calendar and the zodiacal signs. A completely satisfactory
proof of this is seen in the very first line of the text, although so
defective. The syllable ki in the second column is a part of the
Accadian name of the seventh month, Tul-hu. The corresponding
asterism in the second column of stars is Ni-bi-ru, and this is the
seventh name of Mercury, which answers to the month Tul-ku in
the ordinary lists. In our text, Ni-bi-ru is given as one of the stars
of Accad, the only one in fact whose name remains in a tolerable
state of preservation. It has this great importance to us : it proves
beyond question that the second column of months shows the zodi
acal arrangement of the second column of asterisms. Compare,
then, this table with our table of adjustments (Sec. 108), and it
will be seen that I have equated the month Gan to the star Sugi,
the month Ab to the star Qaq-sidi, the month As to the star Bir,
and the month Se to the 8.tar Ungal. This closes the Babylonian
calendar, as indicated by the heavy line beneath, yet there are two
months remaining to be adjusted, and two asterisms in the second
column that remain unadjusted. We have first the " month Gut,"
which means the Taurus ; and to correspond is the star Al-lab, or
Al-lap, evidently the same as Alap, ordinary Assyrian name for the
Taurus, Then there is the month Martu-ki, " month of the west,"

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 297
of Phoenicia, but without stating what particular month is to be
understood. Probably we should assume the month Bara, the sign
Aries, to which must be adjusted the star Lab-a, since all the other
months and signs have been properly accounted for.
Sec. 114. Nothing more is required, according to my judgment,
to establish the correctness of the theory which has been put forth
relative to the true zodiacal arrangement of these asterisms. My
aim has been to place a matter of such importance, considering the
obscurity still existing relative to Babylonian uranography, upon a
strictly scientific basis, and so far as concerns these asterisms I be
lieve the effort has been quite successful. Before resting fully in
this conclusion, however, it is necessary to notice briefly an astro
nomical tablet recently discovered and partly translated by Mr.
George Smith, as seen in his " Assyrian Discoveries." According
to this tablet, the star Ni-be-anu, or Nibat-anu, is assimilated to the
sign Sagittarius, corresponding to the month Kisi-livu, or Kisler,
instead of to Libra, as in the scheme here proposed.^ But as Nibe
anu is regarded as a planet, and not as a fixed star, nothing results
from a variation of this kind. Yet, owing to a certain erroneous
statement by the author, the circumstance here noted might be
interpreted as a serious objection to my hypothesis. Mr. Smith
remarks: " The star Nibat-anu has hitherto been erroneously sup
posed to be a planet." ^ Naturally, we look for some proof of a
declaration so important, and one that is opposed to the universally
received opinions of Assyriologues for many years past ; but the
author affords us none, except that which seems to have deceived
him, namely, the fact that Nibat-anu is assimilated to a particular
month and sign in the tablet translated by him, the month Kisler
and sign Sagittarius. He has inferred from this, apparently, that
Nibat-anu was the name of a constellation or fixed star, and not of a
planet. But this term denotes a planet beyond question, and in all
probability Mars. Two complete lists of the seven planets are
given in the published texts, and in both Nibat-anu is included
among them.^ These lists as cited below leave no doubt upon the
matter. Hence, we reaffirm our belief that the zodiacal arrangement
of the twelve stars to which we have devoted our attention, and as
determined by us, is scientifically correct.
1 Assyr. Dis., p. 408. ^ Ibid., p. 407.
3 Vid. 2d Rawl. PI. 48, Obs. Col. i. 11. 48-54. Cf. 3d Rawl. PI. 57, No. 6. 11.
65-67.

298 HAR-MOAD.
It is necessary to offer briefly some explanation here relative to
the nionth Gut, equated to the country Mat ilama-ki and to the
star Mul al-lap, also relative to the month Martu-ki, equated to Mul
lab-a, the star Lab-a. The month Se-kin-tar that immediately pre
cedes these closes the Babylonian year, as is well known, and the
heavy line beneath is designed to indicate this fact. Yet two aster
isms remained to be adjusted to their respective zodiacal positions,
and in the two months here alluded to the scribe has undertaken to
do so, but he has introduced a mystical element that needs some
elucidation. I shall endeavor to place this matter in a clear light
in another chapter devoted to the subject of the Cherubim. For
the present it will suffice to say that the asterism Gut, being the
constellation Taurus, is here put for the country of llama, the Bibli
cal Elam, modern Susiana. In the symbolical system of geography,
of which our tablet offers a practical illustration, and in which the
country of Accad holds the central position, llama represents the
east, and Martu, or Phcenicia, the west. The peculiar arrange
ment of the two months in question is due to these considerations.
The month Gut, set to llama, represents the east. In other terms,
the celestial Taurus is transferred to the east quarter of the hea
vens, while Aries retains its normal position in the west quarter,
being put for the west country, that is to say, for Martu, or Phoe
nicia. The month Aries, or Bara, opens the Babylonian year.
This accounts for the fact that the natural order of the two stars
Al-lap and Lab-a is inverted in the text, but I have restored them
to their normal position in the table of adjustments. As the Ph(]e-
nician stars represent a calendar that opens two signs after that of
Babylon, that is, in Gemini, it results that Aries and Taurus, com
mencing the Babylonian year, are made to close the Phoenician
year. These remarks, I think, are entirely sufficient in elucidation,
and as an analysis of the text forming the subject of the present
study. Sec. 115. The question naturally arises here whether this ar
rangement of the " twelve stars of the west " was ever employed
by the Phoenicians, or by any other people, for the practical pur
poses of a calendar ? If we speak of historical times I do not think
any satisfactory evidence could be adduced, showing that such was
the case. In Western Asia, and since a very early epoch, the Baby
lonian calendar seems to have been very generally adopted. In

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 299
some instances two systems were employed, a civil and a sacred or
religious year, which differed from each other as to the period of
commencement. We know, too, that the order of the zodiacal signs,
beginning with Aries and terminating with Pisces had no control
ling influence, outside of the valley of the Euphrates, in determin
ing the commencement of the calendars. They frequently varied
in respect to the particular sign with which they opened. Still, I
am not aware of the existence of any calendar in practical use since
the opening of the historical period that commenced with the sign
Gemini. If this arrangement of twelve stars which we have
studied was ever in use for such purpose, it must have been in an
epoch extremely remote, and it had afterwards been superseded
for practical use by others, being itself exclusively retained subse
quently merely as traditional, and as belonging to the sacred science
inherited from a former age. Nevertheless, it is evident that a
much greater importance was attached, in very early times, to these
twelve stars of Phcsnicia than the remarks just submitted would
lead one to suppose. Ample evidence that such was actually the
case will be produced in the chapters immediately following.
Our tablet establishes one important fact, to which allusion was
made in a previous study, and which our present researches have
tended to impress still more strongly upon the mind. It is that
the habit of associating certain asterisms with such and such peo
ples or countries was quite prevalent in antiquity, and this proves
that, in such case, they were regarded as celestial earths or ter
restrial heavens, conformably to the traditional notions attached to
the primitive abode of mankind. The frequent custom of dividing
the population into twelve tribes, and the national domain into
twelve districts, or cities, evidently arose from the same order of
conceptions. In every instance the notion was a heaven -1- earth ;
the notion on a large scale corresponded to the two divisions of the
temple itself, one representing heaven, the other the earth, and the
original idea had been derived from the particular heaven and earth
constituting the celestial and terrestrial paradise.
In the symbolical geography of Sargon the ancient, there can be
no doubt that the country of Accad replaced the sacred mount of
the East, the Kharsak-kurra, or " mountain of the world," as Rev.
Mr. Sayce rather loosely interprets this phrase. The element Khar
signifies "circle, bracelet" (Rep. 440), and Sak has the sense of

300 HAB-MOAD.
"head, front, summit" (Rep. 136). The syllable Kur is only an
other value of the Accadian Mat, " country," and has the meaning
of "to elevate, mountain, east" (Rep. 419). Finally, Ra signifies,
among other things, "inundation, deluge" (Rep. 303). "The
bracelet or circle of the summit of the diluvian mountain " may
be taken for the traditional conception, which has been crystallized
in this cuneiform expression. Mt. Meru, to which the phrase ob
viously relates, was regarded as the primitive Ararat, and its sum
mit was sometimes known as the " circle or bracelet of Ida," the
mountain goddess, of whom some notices have been heretofore in
troduced. We say that Accad, or Akkad, a name signifying
" mountain or highland," according to M. Lenormant, replaced
the Kharsak-kurra in the symbolical system of the ancient Sargon.
Aram signifies " highland," also, and we have seen that among
the Semites a system precisely like that of which Accad formed
the centre was primitively connected with this country. The Bib
lical Elam, likewise, the llama of our tablet, has been interpreted
as meaning the same thing, that is, " highland." It is quite prob
able that originally certain asterisms were associated with each
one of these " highlands," always in imitation of that divine sum
mit around which rolled the flaming chariot of the seven stars. It
is impossible not to see in these traditional ideas the origin of the
"high places" of worship to which the Hebrew Scriptures make
so many allusions. Indeed, the sacred summits of all antiquity
were but projecting spurs, so to speak, from the mount of paradise.-
The sentiment that embodied itself in these sacred elevations was
perfectly human and natural, for as the immortal Goethe says : —
" On every height there lies repose."

CHAPTER XL
ZODIACAL AEKANGEMENT OE THE ANTEDILUVIAN GENEALOGIES.
Sec, 116. In reporting the Chaldseo-Baby Ionian traditions per
taining to the first ages of the world, Berosus gives a list of ten
kings supposed to have reigned during the antediluvian period. It
was in the days of the last of these kings, named Xisuthrus, Greek
Sisithros, that occurred the deluge. Biblical scholars have very
naturally seen in this Babylonian genealogy a confirmation of that
given by Moses, extending from Adam to Noah. In some sense it
is proper to regard it as such. I think it could be shown that at
Babylon this succession of primitive rulers was considered as real,
and hence as historical. But certain facts have been developed by
modern criticism tending to throw doubt upon the actual historical
reality, at least of a portion of the list handed down bj"- Berosus.
The etymology that has been discovered of some of these names
renders it almost certain that they were simple designations of
zodiacal signs, or constellations, to which unquestionably they had
been assimilated. It would be impossible to prove, at the present
day, that all of them were of this nature ; but those which undoubt
edly were, forcibly give rise to suspicions as respects the histori
cal character of the others. Hence, what was formerly supposed,
and with much reason, to confirm the actual chronological succes
sion of the Mosaical line of patriarchs, extending from Adam to
Noah, appears now in a measure as an obstacle to considering it in
this light ; for one is strongly inclined to infer, if the Babylonian list
was purely zodiacal, that the Mosaic genealogy was of like charac
ter, especially as recent developments in cuneiform science tend
more and more to establish the fact that the Hebrew and Baby
lonian traditions relating to primeval times had a common origin.
Undoubtedly, as we shall be able to show, both these genealogies
were in some sense zodiacal. But the question arises. Were they

302 HAR-MOAD.
merely zodiacal ? It does not appear to me possible, in the present
state of our knowledge, to offer a completely satisfactory reply to
this inquiry. That the two genealogies had been, at an extremely
remote epoch, definitely connected with the zodiac will be readily
conceded, I think, in view of the evidences that are to be presented
in this part of our studies. That they had in addition to this a
genuine historical character, I am not able to prove or disprove,
though I am inclined, from certain considerations that will gradu
ally develop themselves as we proceed, to adopt the traditionary
belief respecting this matter. We give, in the first place, our con
sideration to the Babylonian genealogy, which is reported by Be
rosus as follows : (1) Alorus ; (2) Alaparus ; (3) Al melon ; (4)
Ammenon ; (5) Amegalarus ; (6) Davonus ; (7) Edoranchus ; (8)
Amemphsinus ; (9) Otiartes ; (10) Xisuthrus.
It was stated in a previous chapter that the twelve zodiacal con
stellations had been employed at Babylon for the purpose of mark
ing the divisions of three distinct periods of time. 1st. They
marked the twelve hours of the day, these being double hours and
termed Kas-bu in the inscriptions. 2d. They corresponded to the
twelve months of the year, a fact familiar to every one. 3d. They
were associated to the twelve divisions of the great cosmical year,
which was supposed to have commenced at the dawn of creation. ^
In each case the starting-point appears to have been Aries, or the
Ram. There can be no doubt of this, except as regards the hours,
and since the custom was so widely prevalent of beginning the day
at evening, there is every probability that the hours likewise were
reckoned from Aries. It was with these great cosmical periods that
the reigns of the ten antediluvian kings were habitually identified.
It was in this general sense without doubt, and, so far as I am aware,
in no other, that the ten kings had been associated with the zodi
acal signs, beginning with Aries and terminating with Capricorn.
Alorus, the first ruler, was connected with Aries, Alaparus with
Taurus, and thus on to Capricorn, to which Xisuthrus appertained.
There are indications in this arrangement that these ten kings were
at least believed to be historical, though the basis of such belief, as
we shall see, was not wholly sound. The twelve hours were cer
tainly time periods, and so were the twelve months of the year.
1 Vid. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, pp. 184-240. Cf. Movers, Die Phcenizier,
i. pp. 164-166.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 303
There is no reason to doubt that the cosmical periods were equally
regarded as such. But while the first two a^jpertained to the calen
dar simply, the last was properly speaking chronological. It is
evident that these chronological periods were not correctly histori
cal, yet they appear to have been assumed as such, and this shows
that the ten kings were taken in some sense as historical. Thus, if
we accept the Babylonian belief as a proof, the genealogy transmit
ted by Berosus must be regarded in this light. But the facts to
be now presented tend wholly, or nearly so, in the opposite direc
tion. Sec. 117. The following extract contains Dr. Movers' proposed
etymology of the two names, Alorus and Alaparus, standing at the
head of the Babylonian genealogy : —
" It is without any hesitation, since the year commenced with
Aries and Taurus, that we interpret the name of the king Al-or-us
as aries lucis ("is b"is), and Alap-ar-us as taurus ignis (>'\ii. FI^n)." ^
The term Alap is an ordinary Semitic expression for the Taurus,
and Ail, to which Dr. Movers assimilates Al in the name Al-or-us,
is equally common as a designation for Aries, or the Ram. We
should hesitate in a matter of such great importance to rest wholly
upon the authority of so learned a critic even as the one here cited.
But M. F. Lenormant, whose critical ability is not less marked and
extensively acknowledged, has recently given the same matter a
careful consideration, and thus expresses his views relative to the
names of these kings : —
" The first two are certain, and their forms have submitted to but
little alteration, for we find the same words which in the Assyrian
language denote the first two zodiacal signs, ail, ' the Ram,' alap,
' the Taurus.' As to the final elements, orus and arus, it seems
that we have a right to recognize them in the word Ur, ' light.'
We have, then, Ail-ur, ' Aries of light,' and Alap-ur, ' Taurus of
light,' an(i these two names are, alone considered, decisive for the
character of the list." " Thus, the ten antediluvian kings are per
sonifications of the solar houses (mbtn), which the idolatrous He
brews, during the period of Assyrian influence, adored with the sun,
the moon, and all the celestial hosts." ^
The author interprets the third name with almost equal confi
dence as denoting " the sons," that is, " the twins," answering to
1 Die Phcen., i. p. 165.
2 Frag, de Berose, pp. 235, 236, 238.

304 HAR-MOAD.
Gemini; but here there is,' to say the least, an element of uncer
tainty. So far as concerns the first two names it must be admitted,
if I am able to judge, that they are simple designations of the two
signs which correspond to the commencement of the Babylonian
calendar. I am not prepared to adopt, in its entire consequences,
the inferences drawn by the author that these two names "are
decisive for the character of the whole series." That all the kings
had been assimilated to the zodiacal constellations appears to admit
of no question. But I think that, beginning with Gemini, there are
many indications of a proper historical element as constituting the
basis, and these will appear as we proceed.
We turn our attention now to the Mosaic genealogy of the
patriarchs, beginning with Adam and terminating with Noah. It
will not be difficult to show here at least an indirect relation to the
zodiacal signs. Some of the names very clearly indicate to what
particular signs they are to be assimilated. But as for identity of
names, such as appears in those of Alorus and Alaparus, it will be
difficult to prove it, except in one or two instances at most. The
proofs of an association with the zodiac consist, for the most part,
in the direct analogies of ideas existing, as denoted by the Hebrew
names, and as compared with other titles whose reference to the
zodiacal divisions is not a matter of doubt. But the Mosaic list
presents, in some particulars, a system quite distinct from that of
the Babylonians; and any attempt to connect the Hebrew names
directly with the Babylonian would necessarily prove, as always
heretofore, a complete failure. The real secret of the adjustment
of the Mosaic genealogy to the zodiac is precisely that which has
been demonstrated with respect to the " twelve stars of the west,"
or of Phoenicia : the whole list must be moved forward two entire
signs in relation to the Babylonian system. Adam, the same as the
star As-kar, corresponds to Gemini ; and Noah, the tenth patriarch,
answers to the sign Pisces, the star of the King. The moment we
assume this standpoint of investigation, the analogies between the
ideas involved in the Hebrew names and various others whose zodi
acal character is fixed become very striking and numerous. The
names and positions of the asterisms which occupied our attention
in the last chapter will be found to contribute largely, though not
exclusively, to the elucidation of the zodiacal character of the
Mosaic genealogy. These asterisms will serve frequently as inter-

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 305
preters between the known and unknown. With these preliminary
remarks, we enter directly upon the investigations before us.
Sec. 118. 1st. As-kar and Adam. The Accadian As has the
sense of " happy, propitious " (Rep. 1). The element Kar, as pre
viously explained, means " summit;" but this is only another value
of the sign Gan, " inclosure, garden," identical with the Hebrew
Gan in the phrase Gan-Eden, or " Garden of Eden." Whether
we select the interpretation, then, of "propitious summit," of
" happy garden," or " garden of delights," the reference of the term
As-kar to the mount of paradise, the traditional abode of primeval
humanity, is a point upon which not much doubt can be enter
tained. But it is apparently not less certain that As-kar was a name
of the first man, the same as Adam is supposed to have been ;
for Professor Max Miiller, in some remarks upon the " Northern
Mythology " appertaining to the ancient populations of the north
of Europe, states the following, which evidently justifies our
opinion : —
"The second son of Mannus, Isco, has been identified by Grimm
with Askr, another name of the first-born man. Askr means like
wise ash-tree, and it has been supposed that the name ash thus given
to the first man came from the same conception which led the
Greeks 'to imagine that one of the races of man sprang from ash-
trees (iKijeXiav). Alcuin still uses the expression, son of the ash-
tree, as synonymous with man." ^
As given by Professor Muller, this name of the first-born man is
without a vowel in the last half of the word. It is sometimes writ
ten Askur, of which Askar, phonetically identical with the cunei
form As-kar, would be but a simple variant. The two names may
be taken, therefore, as originally the same. The legends respecting
Askur, as contained in the " Northern Mythology," are thus vari
ously related by different writers : —
" As Bor's sons were once walking on the seashore, they found two
blocks (or trees), of which they created a man called Askur (ash),
and a woman Embla (alder)." " Three gods issuing from Asgarthr
found two trees, the ash and alder, upon the borders of the sea,
which were without force and posterity. The gods had compassion
upon them, and formed of one a man and of the other a woman." ^
1 Led. Sci. Language, 2d series, p. 476.
^ Encyc. Americana, vol. ix., art. " Northern Mythology." Cf. Le Bas, L'Uni-
vers : Suede et Norwege, p. 9.

306 HAR-MOAD.
It is probable that the name Askar gave rise to the term Asgard
or Asgarthr, applied to the residence of the Scandinavian divinities,
or those of the northern mythology, whose chief seems to have
been the god Odin. The writers just cited have respectively the
following notices of this locality : —
"The residence of the gods is Asgard, a fortress of heaven,
whence the bridge Bifrost leads to the earth. Asgard contained
the palaces of the gods. ... In the centre of Asgard, in the valley
of Ida, was the place of meeting, where the gods administered jus
tice." " Odin, Nile, and Ve constructed upon earth an immense
fortress in defense against the giants, and called it Midgard (the
world). At the centre of this fortress is found Asgarthr, the resi
dence of the gods. ... It is there that the twelve great gods are
assembled." ^
The followers of Odin, according to all accounts, came from Asia
from beyond the Caspian Sea ; and everything tends to identify the
ancient Asgard with Meru of the Hindus, Albordj of the Persians,
the Eden of Genesis. Compare the " valley of Ida " with the god
dess Ida, associated with Mt. Meru. Compare, also, the place of
the assembly of the gods in Asgard with the mount of assembly, to
which Isaiah alludes. But recent writers do not hesitate to identify
these two localities ; and this point may be assumed without special
labors to establish it. That to which we wish to call attention is
the relation between Askur, Asgard, and the cuneiform As-kar.
The permutation of the vowels u and a, and the consonants k and g,
is so frequent in nearly all languages that it needs no explanation
in the present case. The Accadian g is often changed to k, and vice
versa. We hold, then that the name Asgard, as locality, is sim
ply As-gar-d, or the name As-kar taking a locative termination, like
Akka-d for Akkad, according to M. Lenormant's etymology. Thus,
Askur, name of the first man, gives rise to Asgard, applied to the
first abode of man, and both are to be assimilated to As-kar, relat
ing to the same abode, being employed also as a name of Mercury.
The classic authors identified Odin with Mercury, and it is remark
able that, like Mercury, Odin had twelve chief names. It is dif
ficult to resist the conclusion in view of these facts : 1st. That the
Accadian As-kar was the name of the first human abode derived
from the title of the first man. 2d. That the Scandinavian Asgard
was the name of the same locality, derived from Askur, also a title
1 Enc. Amer., ix. p. 319 ; Le Bas, L'Univers: Suede et Norwege, p. 9.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHOENICIA. 307
of the first man. 3d. That the two sets of terminologies were
derived from the same source. 4th. That the notions involved in
these terms offer an exact analogy with those connected with the
name Adam, traditionally associated with the term Adama, signify
ing " earth," here the particular earth constituting man's primitive
home. Sec. 119. In the last chapter the star As-kar was identified with
the " god As-kar, gate of the gods," as name of Mercury, both being
assimilated to the zodiacal sign Gemini. It has been stated hereto
fore, and it is a fact well known, that the Oriental zodiacs, espe
cially the Hindu, represent a man and woman in the sign Gemini,
instead of two male figures as in the Greek system. The man and
woman thus represented appear to have been identified with the
Hindu Yama and Yami, reputed first human pair. Professor Whit
ney, a portion of whose language has been previously cited, has the
following upon Yama : —
" His name does not come, according to the usual interpretation,
from the root yam, ' subdue, repress ; ' it is radically akin to the
Latin gem-ini, etc., and means ' twin.' In him and in his sister
Yami are conceived the first human pair, parents of the whole fol
lowing race; he is therefore, as expressly stated in the hymns, the
first who made his way to the skies, pointing out the road thither
to all succeeding generations, and preparing a place for their recep
tion ; by the most natural transition, then, he becomes their king. It
is in entire consistency with this that, in Persian story, where he
appears as Yima (later Jern-shid), he is made ruler of the golden
age and founder of the Paradise." ^
In his interpretation of the character of Yama and Yami, Profes
sor Whitney adopts the views of Professor Roth. Professor Muller
rejects the interpretation entirely, regarding Yama wholly in the
light of a solar deity. After citing various texts from the hymns,
he observes : —
" These indications, though fragmentary, are sufficient to show
that the character of Yama, such as we find it in the last book of
the Rig- Veda, might well have been suggested by the setting sun,
personified as the leader of the human race, as himself a mortal, yet
as a king, as the ruler of the departed, as worshiped with the
fathers, iis the first witness of an immortality to be enjoyed by the
fathers," etc.^ 1 Orient, and Ling. Studie.i, p. 45.
2 Lect. Sci. Language, 2d series, p. 535.

308 HAR-MOAD.
The same writer has the following remarks,- quite important to
our purpose : —
" As the east was to the early thinkers the source of life, the
west was to them Nirriti, the exodus, the land of death. The
sun, conceived as setting or dying every day, was the first who had
trodden the path of life from east to west, — the first mortal, — the
first to show us the way when our course is run, and our sun sets in
the far west. Thither the fathers followed Yama ; there they sit
with him rejoicing, and thither we too shall go when his messen
gers (day and night) have found us out." ^
Finallv, the author concludes : —
" Professor Roth has pointed out some more minute coincidences
in the story of Jem-shid, but his attempt at changing Yama and
Yima into an Indian and Persian Adam was, I believe, a mistake.
Professor Kuhn was right, therefore, in rejecting this portion of
Professor Roth's analysis." ^
I freely acknowledge myself greatly indebted to Professor Miiller
in his researches upon the subject of comparative mythology, in
respect to which he is in some sense the founder of a school. But
it has always seemed to me that two fundamental errors may be
pointed out in his system, tending to vitiate almost all his interpre
tations of the ancient legends. But these are not so much errors as
mistaken points of view. In the first place, he occupies too exclu
sively the standpoint of the Rig-Veda. Secondly, he confines him
self too exclusively to the diurnal aspects of nature. In relation to
the first point indicated, it is to be said that the legends connected
with Osiris by the Egyptians are strictly analogous, in almost all
the features pertaining to his character, to those relating to the
Hindu Yama. Osiris is the sun, yet he formerly reigned on the
earth. He is god of the dead, like Yama, and his descent into the
dark regions of the west has given rise to the same conceptions
that among the Hindus were associated with Yama. The funda
mental idea in both characters has been correctly pointed out by
M. Mariette, as cited in a previous chapter (Sec. 85), although
exclusively interpreted by him of Osiris. The sun's course had
been taken as a symbol of human existence, a fact that appears in
nearW all the ancient religions. Jt will be seen from this ground
principle that the two characters of Yama as sun-god and as the
first man, representative of the whole human race, are perfectly con-
* Led. Sci. Language, 2d series, p. 534. ^ Ibid., p. 542.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 309
sistent with each other, and doubtless did appertain to this Vedic
personage. I think, therefore, that Professor Roth's interpretation
is perfectly correct, and that Professor Whitney was fully justified
in adopting it. At the same time Professor Miiller is fully sup
ported in assimilating Yama to the sun's course.
With regard to the second point alluded to, it may be observed
that in general the same opposition which exists in the diurnal
aspects of nature, as between day and night, morning and evening,
repeats itself as between summer and winter, spring and autumn,
and finally as between the primordial night and the morning of
creation. These three distinct phases apply to the sun, and are
distinctly to be traced in the character of the Egyptian Osiris. He
is the nocturnal sun, the winter's sun, and the sun of the original
night of chaos. His birth into the light under the form of Ra is
the birth of humanity represented in the Adam of Genesis. That
Yama's character included these three phases admits of little doubt.
His mother is SaranyA, the "dark storm cloud which in the begin
ning of all things soared in space." ^ This is Professor Roth's in-
terpretatiim of the myth of SaranyA, which appears to me perfectly
correct, assimilating this " cloud," as he does, to the primeval
chaos. Professor Muller rejects this view also, but I think without
sufficient reason. The relation of SaranyA as mother of Yama is
precisely like that of Osiris to Ra, considered in their cosmical
aspects. Sec. 120. The three phases of character appertaining to the sun-
god, as symbolizing the life of humanity, correspond to the three
periods of time whose divisions were marked by the twelve signs of
the zodiac, namely, the day, the year, and the great cosmical year,
which opened at the dawn of creation. Aries, the Ram, was the
" lamb slain from the foundation of the world." Taurus, who apper
tained always to the watery element, personifies the watery chaos,
the Taurus, in fact, from whose purified seed springs a male and
female taurus, as in Persian legend, or is killed by the lion when
the sun reaches its highest exaltation at the summer solstice. In
all cases the life of humanity, history properly speaking, begins
with Gemini, so that Aries and Taurus, in the Babylonian scheme,
appertained strictly to the creation week of Genesis. Thus,
Gemini as zodiacal constellation, and As-kar as leading star of
1 Vid. Lect. Sci. Language, 2d series,, p. 603.

310 HAR-MOAD.
Phoenicia, whose assimilation to each other was shown in the last
chapter, really represent the paradisiacal man, the progenitor of
the human race.
2d. Ungal and Noah. Having treated upon the first personage
in the antediluvian genealogy, we proceed to consider the last, the
hero of the deluge, the Biblical Noah. It is not intended here to
discuss the subject of the deluge, except in so far as necessary to
establish the zodiacal relation of the hero of it to the sign Pisces.
The Hindu tradition of the deluge, as contained in the " Satapatha
Brahmana," will be of much service to us, and not having the Eng
lish version by Professor Muller, I present a rendering from the
French of M. Lenormant : —
'¦ One morning they carried some water to Manu with which to
bathe himself, and while in the act of doing so he discovered a fish
in his hands. It addressed him in these words: 'Protect me, and
I will save you.' 'From what will you save me?' 'A deluge is
about to destroy all creatures; it is from this that I will save you.'
' How shall I protect you?' The fish replied, ' While we are small
we are in great peril, because the fishes devour each other. Guard
me at first in a vase. When 1 shall become too large for it, con
struct for me a basin. When I am become still larger, carry me to
the ocean. Then I will preserve you from destruction.' Soon he
became a great fish, and he said to Manu, ' In the year in which I
shall attain my full growth the deluge will take place. Construct
then a vessel, and adore me. When the waters begin to overflow,
enter into the vessel, and I will save you.'
" After having thus guarded it, Manu carried the fish to the
ocean. In the year indicated he constructed a vessel, adored the
fish, and when the deluge began, he entered into the vessel. As he
navigated the ship, the fish came to him, and Manu attached the
cable of the vessel to the horn of the fish, and by this means it was
made to pass to the mountain of the north. The fish then said :
' I have saved you ; attach the vessel to a tree, so that the waters
may not carry it away whilst you remain upon the mountain ; and
as fast as the waters retire, descend.' Manu descended with the
waters, whence it is called ^the descent of Manu' of the mountain
of the north. The deluge had destroyed all creatures, Manu alone
being saved." ^
M. Obry states on the authority of M. Neve that the seven Devas,
that is to say, the seven stars of the great Dipper, accompanied
Manu in the vessel : and this would constitute the typical number
1 Premieres Civilisations, ii. pp. 124, 125.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 311
of eight persons saved in the ark.i M. Lenormant sees in these
traditions the origin of the notion of Saviour ; that is, he who pre
serves from the destruction of the deluge. It is remarkable that
the god Hea, who appears as god of the deluge in the " Chaldsean
Account " rendered by Mr. Smith, takes very often in the texts the
title Salmanu, " Saviour," which recalls the expression of the fish
to Manu : " I have saved you." One of the most notable epithets
of Hea in the inscriptions is "sentient, or intelligent fish." But
that to be particularly considered in the present connection is the
title of Mercury in the sign Pisces : ul kha an E-a, " star of the
fish of the gcd Hea." It is to this sign that the star Ungal, Assy
rian Sar, "king," appertains, as shown in the last chapter. If we
compare these facts with the Hindu legend, it will be plain at once
that both the Hindu and Chaldsean traditions of the deluge, asso
ciated with Manu and Hea, appertain zodiacally to the sign Pisces.
The matter is so apparent, in fact, as to exclude ;ill doubt.
Sec. 121. Upon the subject of the identification of the Biblical
name Noah with that of the god Hea, M. Lenormant as late as
1874 published his views as follows : —
" The habitual Assyrian translation of the Accadian E-a in the
bilingual documents is bit, ' house ; ' but it is certainly not thus that
we should read the name of this divinity. I believe it to be ne
cessary to select for this reading a derivative of the root Navah, ' to
reside, to abide ; ' that is to say, the word Nuah, Nua, ' abode, resi
dence,' which in some Assyrian translations corresponds to the Ac
cadian E-a. To the same root appertains likewise the name Ninua
(Nineveh), signifying equally 'abode,' and which is not only the
appellation of the city of Nineveh, but that of a goddess, daughter
of the divinity of which we seek to determine the name. Thus, I
believe that it is necessary to adhere to the reading Nuah, already
proposed by Dr. Hincks, but without being able at the time to ren
der sufficient proof for it. That which fully determines me in
favor of this reading Nuah, which is the exact equivalence in sense
of the Accadian E-a, is the part played by the deity in question in
the (Chaldsean) account of the deluge, and the analogy of Nuah
with the Biblical Noah." ^
As I have already intimated, the author has corrected himself to
some extent in a more recent work. Not having it in possession at
the present writing, I am not able to state precisely the nature and
1 Du Berceau, etc., p. 6.
* Prem. Civilisations, ii. pp. 130, 131.

312 HAR-MOAD.
effect of his correction, but hope to present the matter hereafter
in the form of a note. It is to this extent, at any rate, that the
Accadian reading Hea has been adopted into the Assyrian.^ Mr.
Smith has proceeded on this principle in his rendering of the " Del
uge Tablets," and, as it now appears, was wholly justified in doing
so. But is the reading Nuah to be abandoned as wholly incorrect?
Dr. Hincks read Nuah, Sir Henry Rawlinson Nuha, adopted by Mr.
Norris, long before the discovery of the "Deluge Tablets." It is
hardly possible that they had not some good reason for such readings,
both being similar to the Biblical Noah. The literal sense of E-a
is house -I- water, "abode of the waters," so striking a reference to
the ark that it is difficult not to admit here an express intention.
1 My recollection as expressed in the text was correct. M. Lenormant doubts
the reading Nuah as the Assyrian for Hea, and thinks that Dr. Schrader and the
English Assyriologues have had reason for the supposition that the Assyrian re
tains the Accadian form of the flame {La Divination, Paris, 1875, p. 89, note 3).
But the identity of the two personages, Hea and Noah, is placed beyond doubt by
two important facts to which the author alludes.
1st. The god .ffea. often takes the name of Nisroch in the texts, upon which the
author observes : " This enables us to comprehend how the Jewish tradition has
always associated the name of Noah with that^of the ChaldffiO-Assj-rian deitj'
Nisroch — one of the appellations of "Snah {Hea) — in a manner which was till
now inexplicable. 'Nisroch,' said the celebrated Rabbin Raschi (Is. xxxvii. 38),
' is a plank from the ark of Noah.' " {La Magie, p. 149.)
2d. In reference to the ship of Hea, the author again remarks : " One of the
hymns of the collection upon magic (vid. 4th Rawl. PI. 26), extremely difficult
to comprehend since we have only the Accadian text without an Assyrian ver
sion, and since it is full of technical terms unexplained, turns entirely upon this
ship of Hea, ornamented with ' seven times seven lions of the desert,' and in
which Hea navigates : ' Hea, the master of destinies, with his wife Davkina,
whose vivifying word, Silik-Milu-khi, prophesies the favorable renown of Mun-
abge, he who conducts the lord of the earth, and Nin-gar, the great pilot of hea
ven.' " (Ibid., pp. 149, 150.)
These extracts prove not only that Hea had an ark or vessel in which he navi
gated the waters, but that, under the name of Nisroch, he was identified with
Noah in Jewish tradition. The assimilation of Noah, therefore, to the sign- Pisces,
to which appertains the name, "fish of the god Hea," must be considered as a
settled point. The facts relating to Adam and Gemini on one hand, to Noah
and Pisces on the other, tend to support each other. If Adam be assigned to
Gemini, Noah, as the tenth from Adam, must be associated with Pisces. Or, if we
first determine Noah's position in Pisces, this fixes Adam's in Gemini. The two
series of facts reduplicate their force in'each other. I see that Hea takes espe
cially the title of Nun, "prince," Ungal, "king," in the texts; and this confirms
our remarks respecting the star Ungal, and its connection with Pisces,

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 318
Taken as the name of a personage, it would mean " he who abides
upon the waters," an allusion to Noah so direct as almost to force
us to assume it as such.
For the present, then, I am not able to identify etymologically,
either the name As-kar with Adam, or that of Hea with Noah.
But I strongly suspect such a connection between As and the He
brew Esh ov Ash (ttJs), the old form of Ish (E7''H), "man" defi
nitely applied to Adam; also between Hea, under the form of Nuah,
and the Biblical Noah. If As meant " man," then As-kar denoted
the "man of Eden," or garden of Eden, for the Accadian Kar,
" summit," with the other value Gan, " inclosure, garden," evidently
contains a crystallized tradition of paradise. But aside from these
considerations, it seems to me the demonstration is complete that
zodiacally the antediluvian genealogy of Moses commenced with the
sign or constellation Gemini, and terminated with Pisces ; and it fol
lows that the scheme of Genesis was different in this respect from
that of Berosus. In the hieratic form of the monogram for Nine
veh, having the value Ninua, we have the image of a fish inclosed
in a basin (Rep. 191). Compare with this the fish in the Hindu
legend of the deluge, and the fish of Hea, the god of the deluge,
appertaining to the sign Pisces. Compare, again, the account of
Jonah's mission to Nineveh, his being three days in the belly of the
fish, and finally the Saviour's allusion to this last circumstance, in
view of his descent into Hades, over which, according to the Baby
lonian mythology, the god Hea was ruler. Noah was a type of the
Saviour, the ark of the church, and the terrestrial paradise had been
transferred to Hades, as previously shown.
In relation to the star Ungal, or of the king, it is unnecessary to
add mueh to what was said in the last chapter. I think that the
hero of the deluge was considered the king par excellence. Accord
ing to the Babylonian system, this name is assimilated to Capricorn ;
but upon the hypothesis assumed by us, it should be connected with
Pisces. But having shown that, zodiacally speaking, the antedi
luvian history began with Gemini, and terminated with Pisces, we
proceed to the examination in brief of some of the intermediate
names and periods.
Sec. 122. 3d. Sir and Seth. The Accadian Sir signifies "ser
pent ; " as a star of Phoenicia, and as shown in the last chapter, it
falls in the sign Cancer, which is the next after Gemini. It is per-

314 HAR-MOAD.
fectly obvious, according to my view, that we have here an express
allusion to the serpent of Eden. If Gemini and As-kar represent
the paradisiacal man, then Cancer and Sir denote man after having
fallen under the destructive wiles of the serpent. The Hebrew
term denoting the serpent of Eden is Na-khash (tiJro), and it is
well understood by Hebraists that astronomically it relates to the
constellation Draco, or the Dragon, coiled around the north celestial
pole, the very region, as we have seen, associated in tradition with
the mount of paradise. But this is, so to speak, the cosmical ser
pent, appertaining to the sun's course, as symbol of the life of hu
manity during the great cosmical year, already explained. The
serpent that appertains to the sun's annual course, equally a symbol
of human life, is the constellation Hydra, and this corresponds well
to the sign Cancer. Finally, the sun in its daily course encounters
a like enemy, the constellation Serpens, the Ophiuchus, often sub
stituted for Scorpio, to which Jacob compared Dan: "Dan shall be
a serpent (Heb. Na-khash) by the way" (Gen. xlix. 17). In each
of these three phases of the sun's course, of which, as before ob
served, the twelve signs mark the twelve divisions, this luminary
encounters an enemy in its path, almost at the opening of its career.
Thrice repeated, therefore, is the starry record of those primitive
traditions that relate to the temptation and fall. It is hardly ne
cessary to insist here, in view of the facts previously placed before
the reader, that these traditions are not purely astronomical. The
sun's course was taken as a type of human existence ; the fact is
evinced "by numberless expressions that might be gleaned from the
sacred writings of antiquity; and it is this very fact, all important
to be considered, which affords the true standpoint for the inter
pretation of the ancient legends relating to the death and j-esurrec-
tion of the sun-god.
The Assyrian name of the month answering to Cancer is Du-u-zu,
for which the Hebrew nomenclature substitutes Tammuz, name of
the Syrian Adonis, the sun-god who suffers a violent and untimely
death. All these names refer to one and the same personage, to
which similar ideas were attached in each case. The cuneiform
Tur-zi, " son of life," and apparently Tam-zi, " sun of life," are to
be added to the list of expressions involving the same conceptions.
In Tur-zi, "son of life," it is possible to see an allusion to Abel,
son of Eve, " mother of all living," since the name Eve is derived

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 315
from a word signifying " life," like the Accadian Zi. It is not only
possible, but quite probable, I think, that such a traditional refer
ence was intended. The death of Abel seems to have given to his
name, in all antiquity, the significance of the beloved son, who
meets with a violent and untimely death. It is not without especial
meaning, as it appears to me, that the name of Mercury correspond
ing to the sign Cancer and thus to the star Sir, or of the Serpent,
is Da-pi-nu, a title interpreted by M. Lenormant as signifying " pro
tector, covering," similar thus to the notion of a protection, cover
ing, a hiding-place from sin, the consequences of the fall.^ This
title is frequently applied to other divinities as protectors, but it is
the especial title of Mercury as he attends the sun in the sign
Cancer, corresponding to the month in which the sun-god dies by
violence. In consequence of the substitution of Seth for Cain, in the line of
Adam's posterity, he occupies the second place in the antediluvian
genealogy, and, according to our theory of adjustments, must be
assimilated to the sign Cancer. Considering all the circumstances,
the idea of a substitution here is very remarkable. The serpent,
the temptation and fall, the promised seed that should bruise the
serpent's head, the death of Abel as type of the great sacrifice, em
bodied in the legends of the dying sun-god, the conception of a
covering, a substitution for sin, — all these ideas seem to centre in
this one zodiacal division, receiving double significance from the
coincidences that have developed themselves so unexpectedly under
our hands. It is difficult to admit all these implications, yet the
simple facts appear forcibly to suggest them, and we shall find
hereafter nearly the same circle of ideas grouped around the sign
Scorpio, as well as the extra-zodiacal constellation Draco. In such
case a conscious design in each instance cannot well be denied. If,
then, the star As-har and the sign Gemini marked the period of
the paradisiacal man, the star Sir and the sign Cancer embodied
all those traditions relating to the fall, the promise, and the events
immediately succeeding the expulsion from Eden.
Sec. 123. 4th. Bar-tabba-galgal and Enos. The expression gal-
gal is a simple reduplication of the Accadian Gal, Assyrian Rab,
"great," its repetition having the sense of "very great," or the
superlative " greatest." Respecting the other elements in the name
1 Vid. Frag, de Birose, p. 261, for M. Lenormant's definition of du-pi-nu.

316 HAR-MOAD.
of this asterism, we have a bilingual phrase in which the god Bar
tabba is explained by the Assyrian Ilu Kilalin, the last term being
defined " wholly," or " entire," by Mr. Norris.^ The god Bartabba
is thus the god " wholly divine," and the very great Bartabba is the
" divinity supreme, highly exalted, all-powerful." All this applies
with great force to the sun-god in his supposed extreme exaltation
in the sign Leo, when the power of his rays is greatest. It calls to
mind the expression " Lion of the tribe of Jiida," applied by the
Revelator (Rev. v. 5) to the Hebrew Yahveh, or Jehovah, in his
manifestation in the Saviour. As appears from a remark by Rev.
A. H. Sayce, Dr. Oppert considers the stars Bar-tabba-galgal and
Bar-tabba-dUdu as epithets of the Bun, in the two senses of " doubly
great " and " doubly little," thus referring doubtless to its greatest
power at mid-summer and its least power in mid-winter.^ The sign
of the Lion, then, symbolizes the sun in its supreme energy and
force. If Gemini be put for the solar twins. Cancer represents the
death of the twin sun by fratricidal hands. The Lion, then, typi
fies his resurrection and triumph over his last enemy, and the name
of the fifth Arabian Lunar Mansion designates the power hy which
he was raised. This "Arabic title is Dhira, 'the paw,' that is, of
the Lion, which the Arab astronomers stretch out over a much
larger region of the sky than he occupies with us." ^
The name Enos (Heb. t^i^.^), applied to the son of Seth, is only
another form of Ish, signifying " man," from which is Ishah,
"woman." According to the theory of some exegetes. Eve sup
posed that her first-born, Cain, was the promised one, or he who
should remedy the sad consequences of the fall, bruising the ser
pent's head. Hence, on the birth of Cain she exclaimed, " I have
gotten a man, even Yahveh," this being considered the literal sense
of the phrase, " I have gotten a man from the Lord." Yahveh was
supposed to be the promised one, he who should come, the deliverer.
The second occurrence of the divine name Yahveh in the Scriptures
is in the singular expression connected with the name of Enos :
" Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord" (Gen. iv.
26). The original has Sam-Yahveh. Much uncertainty exists as to
the literal sense to be attached to the language quoted. Under any
1 3d Rawl. PI. 68, No. 2, 1. 68. Cf. Norris, ii. p. 558.
^ Trans. Bib. Arch. So. Land., iii. p. 167.
8 Professor Whitney, Orient, and Ling. Studies, 2d series, p. 352.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 317
circumstances we show a direct association of ideas as connected
with the sign Leo, the star Bar-tabba-galgal, the names Enos and
Yahveh, and the " Lion of the tribe of Juda."
5th. Ninmakh and Cainan. The star Ninmakh is Venus, and
corresponds to the sign Virgo, or the Virgin. The name Cainan
(Heb. 1?''!?.) signifies " a smith," and is equivalent to Cain (Heb. T'),
according to Dr. Fiirst, hence denotes " a lance, spear, originally
that which is pointed." It is the name of a male personage, while
Ninmakh denotes a female character, the goddess Venus. At first
view there appears here an insuperable objection to our general
theory respecting a zodiacal arrangement of the antediluvian gene
alogy. But underlying it there will be found an actual confirma
tion. Cainan, as just observed, is equivalent to Cain, signifying on
one hand a lance, spear, arrow, or anything pointed, as a weapon of
war; on the other hand denoting a possession, he who was gotten,
referring to the expression of Eve, " I have gotten a man," etc., on
the birth of Cain. There is a double reference involved, therefore,
to the great mother and to war, the weapons of war. Now Ishtar
assimilated to Virgo was both the great mother and the war god
dess, represented as an archeress. M. Lenormant observes : —
" The sixth month is called ' the month of the message of Ishtar,'
and a passage of the prism of Assurbanipal formally attests that
the archeress became for us the virgin, who corresponds to this
month in the zodiac, and is no other than Ishtar." ^
The connection of the bow and arrow with the very name Cainan
is very direct. In addition to this we have seen in a previous study
that, under the title of Athtar, Venus was worshiped in Arabia as
a male personage, or at least as an androgynous divinity ; and fur
thermore, as war goddess, Ishtar certainly assumes a male character.
Thus, the analogy of ideas is very striking in this instance, while
the difference in sex offers no serious objection when all the facts
are considered. It amounts, in fact, to no difference.
Sec. 124. 6th. Nibe-anu and Mahalaleel. Libra is here the cor
responding zodiacal division. The star Nibe-anu is supposed to be
the planet Mars, who had his domicile in Aries and Scorpio. But
primitively the pincers or claws of Scorpio covered the entire zodi
acal space now occupied by Libra. It was shown in a former study
that the Egyptians figured a solar mountain in Libra, associated
^ Prem. Civilisations, ii. p. 73.

318 HAR-MOAD.
with the mother goddess and her child on one hand, and on the
other with the god Tum. The personage last indicated, although
conceived as male by the Egyptians, appertained to the lower hem
isphere, and it is only natural, therefore, that the same personage
becomes female in the cuneiform texts. We have previously cited
the phrase in which the sublime mountain of Tum is said to be
Ishtar, calling to mind the Vedic Ida definitely associated with Mt.
Meru. The Accadian name of the month answering to Libra is
Tul-k'A, which I interpret " sublime mountain." Thus, everything
indicates a specific design on the part of both the Egyptians and
Chaldseans to locate zodiacally the traditional mount of paradise in
Libra, considered accordingly as in the east. Of this sacred moun
tain, as we have shown, the temples were conceived as imitations or
artificial reproductions. These remarks now will help to reveal a
definite relation of Mahalaleel to the zodiacal Libra. The meaning
of this patriarchal name is " praise of God." The Assyrian name
of the month corresponding to Libra is Tas-ri-tu, which Rev. A. H.
Sayce explains thus : " Tasritu or Tisri is a tiphel form of Esritu, a
'sanctuary.'" ^ The connection, then, between Mahalaleel and this
zodiacal sign is that between " praise of God " and " sanctuary,"
which is, of course, sufficiently direct and striking.
7th. Nammakh and Jared. We have seen that according to
uniform tradition the diluvian mountain was the same as that of
paradise. It has been seen also that this sacred mount was located
zodiacally in the sign Libra. In Hindu tradition, as shown from
the legend of the deluge already quoted in this chapter, the mount
of the deluge was called the " descent of Manu," and it seems that a
precisely similar notion had been localized in the vicinity of Ararat
in Armenia. The diluvian mount of the east was thus the " mount
of the descent." Zodiacally speaking this idea had been associated
with the sun, which makes its descent from the solar mount located
in Libra as it passes from the superior into the lower hemisphere.
This descent takes place definitely when the sun passes from Libra
into Scorpio. These remarks will suffice to illustrate the connec
tion between Scorpio and the patriarchal ntime Jared, — it signifies
literally " the descent," or " he who descends." Two facts appear
to conflict with the explanation here offered. First, Jared is in no
way associated traditionally with the deluge. Secondly, we have
1 Trans. Bib. Arch. So., iii. p. 163.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 319
seen that really the hero of the deluge was definitely connected
with the sign Pisces. These circumstances admit of an explanation
in harmony with our theory of adjustments, but certain very impor
tant principles are involved in the matter which cannot well be set
forth at present, and we must await further developments in these
researches. It will suffice to say now that everything in this case
is subordinate to the sun's annual course as representative of hu
man life. Annually the sun makes its descent in passing from
Libra into Scorpio, but cosmically it would be different, — a matter
that we are not yet in condition to explain. We shall return to
it, however, in a future chtipter. The connection of the star Nam-
makh, or " great destiny," with Scorpio has been already sufficiently
set forth.
8th. Sugi and Enoch. We labor under the same disability here
as in relation to Jared. Certain principles are yet to be established
before the significance of Enoch's assimilation to the sign Sagitta
rius can be realized. Enoch, as previously shown, is a name that
signifies " the initiated." The name Sugi means " a rival," accord
ing to Dr. Delitzsch.^ The rivalry here is between Gemini and
Sagittarius, placed in opposition on the sphere. It is otherwise a
rivalry between the twins, like that of Jacob and Esau, Cain and
Abel, etc.. This was one of the subjects pertaining to the ancient
mysteries, and hence the connection of Enoch, " the initiated," with
this zodiacal sign. The sun in the upper hemisphere, particularly
in Gemini, was one of the solar twins, and in the lower hemisphere,
in Sagittarius, the other solar twin. They were placed in opposi
tion, in rivalry. Confirmatory facts and additional explanations
relative to these points will be hereafter submitted.
Sec. 125. 9th. Qaqsidi and Methuselah. The proposed assimila
tion of these names is to the sign Capricorn. The star Qaqsidi, as
before shown, is to be identified with the Southern Dog, which
anciently marked the extreme limits of the sun's course in the
lower hemisphere at the period of the winter solstice, when the
solar power becomes almost completely exhausted. This is, in fact,
the old sun conceived by the ancients as a man bowed down with
extreme age, who goes to renew his life in the dark waters of death.^
At other times the sun at this period was likened to a man afflicted
1 Vid. Assyr. Studien, H. i., pp. 120, 121.
2 Vid. Brugsch, Mate'riaux, etc., pp. 44, 45.

320 HAR-MOAD.
with leprosy, who goes to bathe in these waters to renew his health.
The name Methuselah signifies " man of the dart, or sword, a war
rior." This, according to Hebrew lexicography. Professor Bush
remarks oi|i the authority of the marginal reading: "The import of
this name in the original is ' He dietli, and the sending forth,' as if
it were an intimation of the sending forth of the waters of the del
uge " (Notes, Gen. v. 21). According to the well considered opin
ions of M. Lenormant, Rev. A. H. Sayce, and Sir Henry Rawlinson,
the " Izdhubar or Deluge Tablets " discovered and translated by
Mr. George Smith, consisting originally of the number twelve, are
definitely to be connected with the twelve signs of the zodiac. Mr.
Smith himself rejects this view, but it is probable that very few
Assyriologues could be found to agree with him. In the system of
the Izdhubar series, the hero of the deluge appertains to the sign
Aquarius, and his father Ubara-tutu to Capricorn, to which also we
have assigned Methuselah. In M. Lenormant's view, Ubara-tutu
represents the old sun, and I think that Methuselah as the oldest
man is to be regarded in the same light. For the rest, it will be
convenient to introduce M. Lenormant's own language : —
" The moment when the sun commences to renew its force, and
enters upon its ascending path, the moment when it is cured of its
annual malady, and the fear of death, is precisely the eleventh
month (Aquarius) of the Chaldseo-Assyrian year, the month follow
ing that of the solstice of winter (Capricorn). Such being the case,
the culminating epoch of decadence, and of the leprosy of the igne
ous and solar deity, ought to be in the preceding month, or at the
solstice. It thus appears in the poem. The symbolic malady of Iz
dhubar, who undertakes a voyage in search of Sisithros, appertains
to the tenth tablet (and sign). At the same time, in the Accadian
names of the months the tenth is called ' the month of the spot
(leprosy) of the declining sun.' " ^
Rev. A. H. Sayce remarks : " The tenth month is termed abba
uddi, or abba uddu, the meaning of which is difficult to determine.
Abba signifies ' father,' also ' old ' and ' hollow,' and in the latter
sense is joined with a, ' water,' to denote the sea." ^ In relation to
Ubara-tutu, M. Lenormant again remarks : —
" That the name of the father of Sisithros, in the cuneiform docu
ments, Ubara-tutu, a name taken from the Accadian tongue, signi-
1 Prem. Civil, ii. pp. 77, 78.
2 Trans. Bib. Arch. So., iii. p. 164.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 321
fies * the golden splendor of the setting sun,' and that the name of
the father of Enoch, in the Bible, Yirad (Jared in the Vulgate),
signifies ' descent, setting.' The Babylonian tradition unites with
the personage Sisithros the facts which the Bible distributes be
tween Enoch and Noah, and the name of the father of Enoch cor
responds in Hebrew, in its signification (of 'descent'), to that of
the father of Sisithros in Accadian." ^
According to the Babylonian tradition, Sisithros (Noah) is trans
lated. Hence, in accord with the same scheme the father of Sisi
thros has a name signifying " descent," the same as that of Jared,
father of Enoch. There is confusion in the Babylonian scheme ;
the Mosaic is consistent throughout, and our theory of adjustments
will help to bring order out of chaos.
(a) Izdhubar, whose name signifies " mass of fire," is the sun-
god. His resemblance to Nimrod arises from the fact that the latter
was taken for the sun-god, also, both being war-gods likewise, as
were nearly all the solar deities. In the character of warrior both
corresponded exactly to Methuselah, " man of the sword, warrior."
(b) In the tenth sign,- or Capricorn, the sun either contracts a
fatal malady, like that of Izdhubar, and as denoted by the Accadian
name of the corresponding month, or attains an extreme old age,
like Methuselah, and finally dies at the winter solstice, to be re
newed under the form of a little child, as held by the Egyptians.^
It is amid the waters of the deluge, answering to Aquarius, that the
sun renews his health, or attains a renewed life. Methuselah dies
at the going forth of the waters.
(c) The exact analogy exhibited here between the ideas con
nected with Methuselah on one side, and the legendary conceptions
centring in the sign Capricorn on the other, seems to me fully con
clusive as to the soundness of our theory of adjustments for the
Mosaic genealogy.
Sec. 126. 10th. Bir and Lamech. The anonymous author of
" Palmoni," on the authority of Dr. Ewald's researches, has the fol
lowing : " Lamech means ' the destroyer.' The connection of this
name with the introduction of wickedness, and the superinduction
of the condemnation of the world, has been shown " (p. 73). The
Accadian Bir has the sense of " to crumble, to fall in ruins, ruin "
1 Op. cit., pp. 69, 60.
2 Vid, Brugsch, Mate'riaux, ete., p. 9,

322 HAR-MOAD.
(Rep. 441). Both the star Bir and patriarch Lamech appertain to
the sign Aquarius. This zodiacal division properly represents the
destructive period of the deluge, when the old world fell to ruins.
As Noah was saved from this catastrophe, being preserved to renew
the period of human existence, he is naturally assimilated to the
sign following, or Jo Pisces. The correspondence of ideas associated
with the names Lamech and Bir and with the sign Aquarius could
hardly be more direct and perfect, and it adds another powerful
support to the general hypothesis with which we have been occti-
pied in the present chapter.
The evidences tending to connect the beginning and the end of
the Mosaic genealogy of the antediluvian period with the signs
Gemini and Pisces respectively were seen to be of a nature very
difficult to set aside, and almost to force conviction.^ But the ques
tion would naturally arise, notwithstanding, whether an attempt to
associate the other names of the list, according to the same scheme,
with their respective zodiacal divisions, would not be attended with
so many obstacles and develop so many objections as actually to
counterbalance the force of facts previouslj' presented. It seemed
proper, therefore, that we should make such an attempt, and the
reader is now aware of the result. We have encountered no serious
obstacle, and on the other side have discovered much additional
proof. The evidences have not only been cumulative in their
nature, but they have almost constantly multiplied upon our hands.
According to all the principles of induction, it seems to me the
hypothesis assumed ought to be considered as established.
As before observed, it is perfectly plain that the Babylonian ad
justment of the ten antediluvian kings to the signs of the zodiac
was radically different from that of the Mosaic genealogy. The
inference is thus quite natural, that the two schemes appertained
to different, or at least independent, traditions respecting the period
before the deluge. Under any circumstances the fundamental dif
ference here shown to exist is of great importance to the Biblical
critic. It places such critic on an independent footing so far as
concerns the Babylonian traditions, an object very desirable to be
1 In point of fact, although the identity of names still remains in some doubt,
the absolute identity oi personages, that is, of As-kar with Adam, and of Hea with
Noah, and their assimilation to the zodiacal Gemini and Pisces, is a matter placed
beyond all doubt by the data submitted.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 323
attained, I think, in view of the tendency of recent discoveries to
make Babylon the exclusive source of the Mosaic history pertain
ing to the primitive ages. These discoveries, properly interpreted,
afford important confirmations of the Hebrew narrative ; but it is
well to be assured of the fact that the Hebrews were not necessarily
indebted to the Babylonians for the Book of Gei^sis.
The question of the chronological succession of these genealogies,
in view of the facts now before us, still forces itself upon our con-
sidei;ation. Were they not purely zodiacal, having no historical
basis ? That they were supposed to be chronological, that the cos
mical year was regarded as a genuine time period, and thus in some
sense historical, does not, in my mind, admit of serious doubts. It
is not necessary that the cosmical year be scientifically accurate.
It was supposed to be and was practically thus assumed. Did this
cosmical year correspond to the precession, or retrograde movement,
of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic, comprehending about
twenty-five thousand years in each revolution ? Such should have
been the. nature of it in order to give it a scientific character, and
possibly it was so designed. But the reigns of the kings before the
deluge, according to Babylonian estimates, had no correspondence
with the period of precession appropriate to each sign. This would
be about two thousand years to each of the ten kings, or some
twenty thousand in the aggregate. On the one hand, the reigns of
these kings were supposed to be far greater, and on the other it will
not be difficult for us to show that actually the astronomical period
to which the earliest traditions pertained was much less than twenty
thousand years, even reckoning from the present time. There was,
then, so far as we know, nothing of scientific chronology in the
assumed cosmical year, nor in the assimilation of these kings to the
zodiacal signs. But, as before remarked, everything seems to hiive
been assumed as correct. For the rest, it will be necessary for us
to attain some fixed standard date in high antiquity before we can
treat this matter intelligently, and this is the ultimate result to
which these investigations are directed.

CHAPTER XIL
THE CHEEUBLM.
Sec. 127. The reader is requested now to turn to the transcrip
tion of the tablet upon which we have been so long engaged, as
given in the 113th section, and to recall the explanations there
submitted. In the second column of months, the seventh line, we
have the Accadian phrase, Ab Gut Mat Ilama-ki, or " the month
of the Taurus, the country of llama," the Biblical Elam, modern
Susiana. Following this equation of the month of the Taurus to
llama, in the eighth line, is the phrase Ab Martu-ki, " the month
of the west," or Phoenicia ; but what particular month is intended
is not here indicated. Still below these, in the ninth line,
we have the name of the country Gu-ti-i, or Gutium, to which
obviously some month had been assigned by the scribe, but the
name of it is entirely defaced. The reader sees in the extract
from M. Lenormant (Sec. 108), that in the symbolical system of
geography of which Akkad formed the centre, and of which this
tablet constituted an exposition, the country of llama was put for
the east, Martu for the west, Gutium for the north, and Subarti the
south. It is obvious that to each of these four countries a special
month was assigned, or rather a particular zodiacal constellation.
To llama, put for the east, we know from the phrase just cited
that the Taurus was assimilated. Beyond this, we are left almost
wholly to conjecture, owing to the mutilated condition of the pub
lished text. It is true that Rev. A. H. Sayce has undertaken to
complete the scheme, assigning Aries to Akkad, Taurus to Elam,
Cancer to Martu, the west, or Phoenicia, Virgo to Gutium, without
suggesting any equation for Subarti, representing the south.^ So
far as concerns the published text I am unable to find any suffi
cient basis for this scheme, and am persuaded that it is erroneous
1 Trans. Bib. Arch. Society, London, vol. iii. p. 172, and note 2.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 325
in respect to some of its proposed assimilations. The principle
established in the 113th section, namely, that in the published text
the second column of months offers an adjustment of the second
column of stars to the ordinary Babylonian calendar, this principle,
I say, enables us to assume with safety that Mat Ilama-ki has for
its asterism the " star Al-lab," which is thus shown to be one with
Alap, or the Taurus ; and again that Mar-tu-ki is presided over by
the " star Lul-a," or Lab-a, as I prefer to read the name. This
must be Aries, the Ram : 1st. Since some animal is denoted by this
name, as shown by Rev. A. H. Sayce in the place just cited ; 2d.
For the reason that all the other stars have been already adjusted
to the zodiac, leaving only the star Lab-a for the sign Aries. In
such case Aries is put for Mar-tu^ki, the west, just as Taurus is put
for Ilama-ki and the east. The two zodiacal divisions are assigned
to exactly opposite points of the compass, east and west, although
normally they follow each other in the zodiac. This one fact
proves a mystical intent on the part of the scribe, which we have
now to study.
The fact has been heretofore sufficiently verified that the sym
bolical geography of Sargon the ancient, of which scheme the coun
try of Akkad formed the centre, had been a traditional inheritance
from the sacred mount of the northeast, the Gan-Eden of Genesis.
Such being the case, Akkad replaces in this system the sacred mount
itself, with which a like geographical scheme was associated. Now to
the east of Akkad, as especially representing this cardinal region, was
placed the country of llama, and to this region is assigned also the
star Al-lab, evidently the same as the Assyrian Alap, applied to
the Taurus, and a frequent designation of the man-headed bulls,
whose connection with the Biblical Cherubim has been often sue;-
gested by scholars, and which will receive ample proof in the sequel
of the present chapter. Bearing the two facts in mind, then, 1st,
that Akkad here replaces the Gan-Eden of Genesis ; 2d, that the
star Al-lab or Alap is definitely put for the country of the east, com
pare the following statement of the Mosaic text; "So he drove out
the man : and he placed at the east of the garden of Eden cheru
bim, and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the
way of the tree of life " (Gen. iii. 24). In view of these considera
tions it will be difficult to resist the conclusion that the mystical
intent of the scribe was, in this geographical symbolism tradition-

326 HAR-MOAD.
ally inherited from Eden, and in definitely assimilating the Taurus
to the country of the east, to incorporate in this arrangement the
tradition of the cherubim placed to the east of the Garden of Eden.
To this end he has put the two zodiacal constellations, Aries and
Taurus, for the two opposite points of the compass, — Aries for the
west, Taurus for the east, although they directly succeed each
other in the ordinary zodiacal order. Thus, as Aries answers to
the west, we must conceive Taurus in direct connection with the
opposite sign of the zodiac, which is Libra. But of this here
after. Sec. 128. We must study now the actual form of the cherubim.
That the body of these symbolic figures, to which four faces were
attached, according to the Scriptural accounts, was that of an ox or
bull admits of the clearest demonstration. One proof is derived
from the double description of these symbolical animals found in
the prophecy of Ezekiel. This writer proceeds thus : " And every
one had four faces, and every one had four wings. And their feet
were straight feet; and the sole of their feet was like the sole of a
calf's foot." " As for the likeness of their faces, they four had the
face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side : and they
four had the face of an ox on the left side ; they four also had the
face of an eagle" (ch. i. 6, 7, 10). The "face of an ox" and
the " feet of a calf " indicate quite clearly that the body of the
cherubim was modeled after the form of the taurus. This suppo
sition is fully established by the description of the same figures in
the tenth chapter, where instead of the expression, " face of an ox,"
we have substituted " the face of a cherub," this term being the
singular of which the word cheriibim is the plural. " And every
one had four faces : the first face was the face of a cherub, and the
second face was the face of a man, and the third the face of a
lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle" (x. 14). The four
faces of our description are evidently identical with those of the
other; but the term cAerwJY 3^-15) takes in the tenth chapter the
place of the ox (^it2;) in the first description. This proves that the
two terms were considered by the prophet as designations of one
and the same animal, — in other words, that the ox or taurus was re
garded characteristically as the cherub, a term from which the plural
cherubim is formed. Dr. Faber, in the great work already cited in
these pages, regards the data furnished by these two descriptions of

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 327
the symbolic animals as wholly conclusive upon the point before us,
and M. Lenormant adopts the same view.^
Another evidence not less conclusive that the body of the cheru
bim was that of the taurus is derived from the fact, now definitely
settled, of the direct connection of the Scriptural cherubim with the
man-bulls of Assyria. Exegetes had long since conjectured that
there was such a connection, and now M. Lenormant produces the
satisfactory proof of it in the following extract : —
" M. de Saulcy, with the ingenious and fine archseological tact
that distinguishes him, has labored to establish the identity of the
cherubim of the ark of the covenant, in the Holy of Holies of Solo
mon's temple, with the winged bulls placed at the gates of the
Assyrian palaces. ... A comparison of verse 14, 10th chapter of
Ezekiel, with the lOtli verse of the 1st chapter, proves that the
prophet employs the word Kerub (cherub) in the sense of 'taurus.'
The question is to-day decided, conformably to the opinion of the
learned Academician, by the testimony of the Assyrian inscriptions,
where we find the winged bulls with a human face designated alter
nately by the words alapi (bulls) and kirubi (ditto), and where the
expression kirub is extended afterwards by catachresis to the gate
itself flanked by these symbolic animals. Thus we see that we have
not to search, as many scholars have done, such as Tuch, Gesenius,
and Renan, for an Aryan origin of the Biblical name cherubim, com
paring it to the Griffons (Ppu'^es), located in India by the Greek
legends, because kirub is a word perfectly Semitic, and is often ap
plied to the ox as an animal employed in agriculture. The poetic
imagination of the Hebrews represents the cherubim as guarding
1 Faber, Pagan Idolatry, i. p. 421. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, pp. 137,
138. Exegetes have often maintained that the substitution here of Keruh
for Shar is not conclusive as to the form of these figures. Admit that the de
monstration is not mathematical ; yet it is a moral certainty, considering the
facts : 1st. That Kerub is known to have designated an ox, independently of
Ezekiel's language. 2d. That the four faces of one description are the same as
those of the other. 3d. That instead of the "fuce of an ox " in one instance,
we have the substitution of the " face of a cherub " in the other. This proves
that Ezekiel was aware of the application of the very term "cherub " to desig
nate the "ox," and thus that the substitution of one for the other was perfectly
legitimate. Now, if the singular " cherub " means an ox, certainly the funda
mental idea, and thence the ground form, of the "cherubim " must have refer
ence to this animal. However, other evidences not less conclusive follow in the
text. The fact that the cherubim of Eden are placed in direct relation to the
" tree of life," and that the taurus was universally the symbol of nature's gener
ative forces, ought to suggest the leading idea of these symbolic animals.

328 HAR-MOAD.
the gate of the terrestrial paradise, just as their analogues did the
Assyrian palace." ^
The term Alap, or Alapi for the plural, preceded by the deter
minative of divinity, is quite frequent in the cuneiform texts as
designation of the man-headed bulls. I have never noticed an in
stance where the word Kirub was applied to the same symbolical
figures, and was inclined to doubt such usage for this term ; but M.
Lenormant's language, although he cites no inscription, shows that
he is certain of the existence of texts of this character. Thus, the
two species of evidence now before us leave no room for doubt that
the taurus was characteristically the cherubic animal. It is this
animal that the arrangement of the tablet of twelve stars forces us
to locate in the zodiacal sign Libra, as intimated already, in which
sign the Egyptians placed their solar mountain, evidently to be
identified with the mountain to which Ishtar of Babylon, and Ida
in India, had been associated, that is to say, the mount of paradise.
Sec. 129. It is quite evident that there existed on the part of
the scribe, in the peculiar arrangement of our tablet, another design
accessory to the one already pointed out. It is important to note
the fact, in the first place, that the sign of the Balance, or Libra,
was unknown to the Babylonian sphere. It is correctly stated by
M. Lenormant, on the evidences furnished by the inscriptions, that
the Pincers of the Scorpion occupied the zodiacal space, where we
find the Balance in the Greek as well as in our modern zodiacs.^
Another fact equally significant in its bearings, as we shall soon
discover, relates to the symbolical representation of the sun in its
annual course under the form of the taurus. A proof of this was
presented in a previous chapter, as derived from the Accadian term
Gut-tam, or Gut-tav, explained by the Assyrian pitnu sa same, " the
furrow of heaven," that is, the ecliptic. The element Gut denotes
the " taurus," and Tam is one of the values of the Accadian char
acter designating the " sun." Thus, the'sun in his zodiacal journey
was deemed the solar bull, which yoked with the heifer, as per
sonifying the moon, ploughed the celestial furrow. But the taurus
in this case was likewise a representative of the generative force of
nature, a force that was considered as appertaining to the sun, espe
cially in connection with the moon. Bearing these facts in mind,
1 Frag, de Berose, pp. 80, 81.
2 Vid. Prem. Civilisations, ii. pp. 68, 69.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 329
we proceed to still another. Upon the ancient art monuments, de
signed to represent the annual sacrifice of a taurus, we see fre
quently figured a serpent and scorpion attacking the prostrate
victim ; and uniformly the scorpion is seen in the act of " seizing,
holding, griping " with destructive force the generative organs of
the victim. 1 There can be no mistake as to the design of these
artistic representations. The taurus symbolizes the productive
power of the sun in its annual course. The sacrifice of the taurus
is then a type of the decay and gradual destruction of that force, as
the sun passes from the upper into the lower hemisphere ; and it is
precisely in the signs Libra and Scorpio, both spaces formerly
occupied by Scorpio alone, that this "descent" of the sun into the
lower regions takes place. Naturally, owing to the circumstances
here stated, the Taurus had been associated in conception with the
sign of the Pincers, or Libra, denoting that period when the sun's
productive power began to decay, and when this animal symbol of
nature's generative force fell a victim to the power of darkness.
M. Dupuis makes the following correct statement relative to the
sign Scorpio: "The Egyptians placed here the seat of the evil
principle Typhon, who kills Osiris, or the god with the head of an
ox, as Plutarch observes, during the month when the sun passes
thi-ough this sign." 2 The god under the human form, represented
with the head of an ox, is simply another mode of expressing the
notion involved in the man-headed bull, the symbolical animal of
the Assyrians, corresponding in name and character to the Hebrew
cherub or cherubim. The symbolical design of the scribe, then, in
the peculiar arrangement of our tablet of twelve stars is manifestly
that which we have supposed. There is a reference to the sun's
descent into the lower hemisphere, and to the sacrifice of the taurus,
at that period when this luminary passes from the sign of the Pin
cers into Scorpio itself But there is obviously a primary reference
to the tradition of the cherubim of Eden; since the solar mountain
of the Egyptians, and the mountain to which Ishtar was assimilated,
relating doubtless to the mount of paradise, were alike located zo
diacally in Libra.
Sec. 130. We are prepared now to entertain the question upon
1 Vid. Lajard, Culle de Venus, PI. XVI. Cf. De Hammer, Culle de Mithra
PI. XXIIL, etc,
" Origine de tous les Culles, iii. p. 239.

330 HAB^MOAD.
which critics have held so many different and contradictory opin
ions, — the question which regards the etymology of the word che
rubim. Dr. Kurtz, in the article on the " Cherubim " in Herzog's
" Real-Encyclopiidie," as found in the condensed American trans
lation of this work, opposes the opinion of Dr. Delitzsch, as seen in
the subjoined extract : —
" The explanation of Delitzsch is equally unsatisfactory, in which
the word Karab (shd), according to the rule of radically related
verbs, Qa-rab, Tra-rab (aip, "yw), and according to the analogy of
the Sanskrit Gribh, the Persian Giriften, and the Gothic Gripan
(Gr. Tpv4>€%), has as its ground the sense of seizing, taking, holding,
and the cherubim are supposed to be those who hold and sustain
the throne of God." ^
Dr. Kurtz very pertinently objects, I think, that the Biblical
cherubim are never represented as seizing, holding, or sustaining
the throne of God. Nevertheless, the etymology of the Hebrew
Kerub, from which the plural cherubim is formed, as given by Dr.
Delitzsch, is supported by Dr. Fiirst, and is undoubtedly correct.
The writer last named (vid. 213) gives the following derivation :
" Karab ('2~o), not used, equivalent to Qarab (n"^n), in Ak7-ab
(31121?' ' scorpion '), ' to seize, to lay hold of, to grip,' the same as
Garuph (vp'i), 'to hold fast.' From which Kerub (a^ns)." Dr.
Furst (art. i^is) agrees with Dr. Delitzsch in construing the fun
damental notion of seizing and holding, with reference to sustaining
or upholding the chariot or throne of Jehovah. But it appears to
me that Dr. Kurtz's objection to this view, as stated above, holds
perfectly good. One still more serious, I think, is derived from
the ground idea itself, as involved in Karab, equal to Qarab, in
Akrab, " the scorpion." The sense is not " to sustain, to uphold,"
as the throne of God, but "to seize, grip, hold," as the scorpion
with its pincers or claws, or as the bird of prey — the eagle for
instance — with its talons. That the conception last indicated is
really that from which the notion of the cherub has proceeded is
proved by two important facts : —
1st. Precisely the same sense of " to seize, to grip, to hold,"
involved in the Hebrew Qarab and Akrab, attaches to the Aryan
Merops, according to Professor Curtius (Grundz., p. 456), and
Merops was identified with the eagle by the Greeks. The eagle is
' Prot. Theolog. Encyc. i. ; art. " Cherubim."

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 331
sometimes substituted for the serpent in the Biblical descriptions of
the four faces of the cherubim. The Garuda, or eagle, in the
Hindu legends was directly associated with the sacred tree as guar
dian genius, and was otherwise conceived as one of the griffons,
supposed to guard hidden treasures, just as the winged bulls pro
tected the treasures of the Assyrian palaces. The etymology of the
term Kerub proposed by Tuch, Gesenius, Renan, and others, from
the Sanskrit Gribh, Greek Gruphes, was thus so far correct as per
tains to the ground notion involved.
2d. The identical term Ki-rw-bu, assumed by Dr. Fried. Delitzsch
as one with the Hebrew Kerub, thus confirming the views of M.
Lenormant already cited upon this point, is definitely applied- to
designate a bird of prey, thought to be the vulture or hawk by the
German Assyriologue just named. ^ Thus, although the Assyrian
Kirub was otherwise employed with reference to the man-bulls, the
sense involved was not that of " sustaining, upholding," but that of
" to seize, to grip," like the scorpion or a bird of prey, and the evi
dence to this effect is the fact that the term was sometimes employed
to designate the vulture, hawk, or a bird of like ferocious habits.
The data thus presented must be considered as perfectly conclu
sive, in my estimation, that the ground thought involved in the
Hebrew term cherub, from which cherubim is formed, was that of
" to seize, grip, hold," as the scorpion with its pincers or the eagle
with its talons. But in fapt, as already established, the cherubic
animal is the taurus. By what possible association of ideas, then,
could the notion of " seizing, griping, holding," be applied to the
taurus? The peculiar and anomalous arrangement of our tablet,
which has been described, taken in connection with the represen
tations upon the art monuments, already alluded to, pertaining to
the annual sacrifice of a taurus, affords us a most complete explana
tion as regards the rare combination of ideas such as that involved
in these symbolic animals. The taurus to which more immediate
reference is had is the solar bull, which personifies in his sacrifice
the orb of day as it makes its annual "descent" from the sign of
the Pincers, or Libra, into the lower hemisphere, significant type of
1 Assyr. Studien, H. i. pp. 107, 108. Cf. 2d Rawl. PI. 37, No. 1, Revs. 1. 17.
Ku-ru-bu is here taken by the author as radically one with Ki-ru-bu. Dr. Schra
der is cited for the as.simiIation of the term to the Hebew Kerub, and the etymol-
oiry of Dr. Franz Delitzsch already shown is adopted.

332 HARr-MOAD.
the destruction of nature's generative force. But we have seen,
on one hand, that the sacred mount of the east was located zodia
cally in the sign of the Pincers, where the Egyptians were accus
tomed to represent the great mother, who corresponds so exactly
with the "mother of all living," and, on the other hand, it has
been shown that the sun's course was regarded in antiquity as a
symbol of the life of humanity (Sec. 85). This " descent," there
fore, to which the name Jared referled, of which the sun's passage
into the lower regions was a symbol, was the fall of man! The
terrible loss attending that sad event, hereditarily transmitted to
Adam's posterity, was like that of the sun as its celestial fires are
quenched in the dark waters into which it descends at midwinter,
or like that of the celestial taurus, attacked by the serpent and
scorpion, or, finally, like that of the ox which has been houghed !
The inheritance of an incapacity by the sons of Adam, such as is
here so plainly indicated, is simply frightful to contemplate, but it
accords perfectly with the dogmas of the old theology, and gives an
intense significance to many a passage of the sacred text.
Sec. 131. The views set forth in the last section respecting the
symbolical ideas fundamental in the conception of the cherubim
find obviously a direct confirmation in the facts established in the
second chapter (Sec. 21), with reference to the "tree of life," as
well as in the various notions traditionally inherited by different
Asiatic peoples pertaining to the sacred tree. The investigations
referred to sufficed to show : 1st. That the palm had been taken for
the tree of life, or at least as a type of it, even by the inspired
writers ; 2d. That the palm, and thus the tree of life itself, was
directly associated with the calendar, being taken, in fact, as a sym
bol of the year, derived from its twelve fruit-harvests. As stated by
the author of Genesis, the cherubim were placed to the east of the
Garden of Eden, " to keep the way of the tree of life." Thus, if
this tree was itself connected with the calendar, with the sun's
annual course, it is necessary to assume that the cherubim were
likewise thus associated. Such an inference, of course, would tend
to confirm the opinion long since put forth by M. Dupuis that the
cherubic figures, with their four faces, were closely related in origin
to the four zodiacal constellations, or animals having similar faces,
namely, the ox or taurus, the lion, the serpent or eagle, substituted
for the sc6rpion, and finally the water-bearer, having the face of a

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 333
man. In view of all the facts, I feel compelled to adopt substan
tially M. Dupuis' suggestion. But instead of seeing here any proof
of the astrological origin of all religions, as this author does, I recog
nize in these symbolic figures, in connection with the data already
introduced, an astronomical record, so to speak, confirming the
Mosaic account of the fall of man. For the rest, the cuneiform texts
afford the evidence that two distinct classes of Alapi, or Kirubi,
were well known to the Chaldifio- Assyrians ; that is to say, the ce
lestial and the terrestrial. Thus we have the following phrases : ^ —
II Alap anAa, " the god Kirub of heaven."
II Alap ki-ta, " the god Kirub of earth."
In this case, it is quite certain that the celestial Alapi were the
prototypes of the terrestrial ; and as the Biblical cherubim have
been shown to have had a direct connection with one of these
classes, it is necessary to infer a primary reference also to the other.
According to the mystical arrangement of the scribe in our tablet,
we must conceive the celestial Kirubi as located zodiacally in Libra,
or the sign of the Pincers of the Scorpion. In this sign, as we have
seen, the Egyptians placed the solar mountain, together with the
great mother and her child, an obvious reference to the seed of the
woman which should bruise the serpent's head (Gen. iii. 15). Now
Joseph, symbolized by the ox, was evidently a type of Christ, the
veritable seed of the woman. Joseph's descent into Egypt was like
that of Christ into Hades, a region definitely assimilated to the
lower hemisphere, as shown in our seventh chapter. Not only this,
but the terrestrial paradise had been transferred to the same region ;
and to this the Saviour alludes in the language : " This day shalt
thou be with me in paradise." All this was represented in the
annual course of the sun, which, as a symbol of the life of man,
and especially of the God-man, goes to illustrate the significance of
the notion fundamental in the conception of the cherubim, as
already explained in the previous section.
It is necessary to take into consideration here another order of
facts, pertaining to the tree of life as typified by the palm, and as
embodied in nearly all the Asiatic traditions respecting the sacred
tree. There was the male-palm and the female-palm, or date-tree.
It was the practice in Babylonia, as stated by Herodotus, to tie the
branches of the two species together, for the purpose of the produc-
1 3d Rawl. PI. 66, Obs. Col. 3, 11. 26, 27.

334 HARr-MOAD.
tion of fruit. Rev. Mr. Rawlinson adds to this statement the fol
lowing in a note : " All that is required for fructification, they tell
us, is that the pollen from the blossoms of the male-palm should
come into contact with the fruit of the female-palm or date-tree."^
The name of the sacred tree answering to the tree of life, among
the Aryans of India, is explained by M. Lenormant as the " tree of
desires or of periods." ^ According to the same author, the repre
sentations of this tree upon the art monuments from the Euphrates
valley sufficiently indicate the traditionary idea of its sexual char
acter. If we connect these various notions inherited from tradition
by nations widely separated with the data previously presented, espe
cially in the twenty-first section, it will be difficult to avoid the
conclusion that the tree of life had reference, not to any abstract
principle, of which the first men had little conception, but to life in
the concrete, and under its ordinary manifestation as a reproductive
force. Such being the case, the symbolism which we have found
fundamental in the conception of the cherubim, and even in the
origin of the term, can hardly fail to be regarded as embodying a
correct interpretation of the entire subject. The progenitors of
mankind had sustained an irreparable loss, which had been entailed
upon all succeeding generations by the natural laws of hereditary
transmission. From that hour, the human race had ceased to be
able to reproduce the paradisiacal man. The record of this terrible
calamity had been symbolically represented at an unknown period
in the two divisions of the zodiac formerly occupied by the Scorpion
and its Pincers. For myself, I can make nothing else out of the
data which have been submitted to the reader. Two other records,
having the same import, are yet to be traced in the heavens.
Sec. 132. We have not yet exhausted the symbolism inherent
in the cherubim. They have often been interpreted, in fact, as
types of superhuman strength, of divine power; and their direct
connection with the god Hercules in the Asiatic systems can be
readily shown. The Assyrian Hercules takes usually in the cunei
form texts the name which is read Nin, Nin-ib or Nin-ip by the
Messrs. Rawlinson, Adar by M. Lenormant. The simple phonetic
values of the characters employed in writing the name of this di-
' Rawl. Herod., i. p. 259, and note 7. On the sexual character of the palm,
consult also Robinson's Calmet, art. "Palm-tree."
2 Frcuj. de Berose, p. 325.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 335
vinity would be Nin-ib, with the permutation of the last element to
ip, if one chooses. The ideographic value of these two signs would
be lord -\- generation, or " lord of generation." It is well known
that this personage was identified with the planet Saturn at an
epoch quite early, although primitively, as M. Lenormant shows, he
was the sun of the lower hemisphere. It is a fact well established
that Nin, as Hercules-Saturn, had for his symbol the man-bull,
already identified with the Biblical cherubim. One proof of this is
the very name of Saturn, Lubat-sak-us ; thus, lubat, " animal ; "
sak, "head ; " us, " male, man ; " hence, " the animal with the head
of a man." Nin was likewise assimilated to the fish-god, to the
god Hea, in fact, as we shall show. The extracts which we pro
ceed to introduce will sufficiently verify the different statements
just made. Rev. Mr. Rawlinson observes : —
"Many classical traditions, we must remember, identified Her
cules with Saturn ; and it seems certain that in the east at any rate
this identification was common. Nin, in the inscriptions, is the god
of strength and courage," etc. " In many respects he bears a close
resemblance to Nergal or IMars. Like him, he is a god of battle
and of the chase," etc. " He is the true ' fish-god ' of Berosus, and
is figured as such in the sculptures. In this point of view he is
called 'the god of the sea,' ' he who dwells in the deep,' etc. Nin's
emblem in Assyria is the man-bull, the impersonation of strength
and power." ^
That Nin or Adar was the true fish-god, identified with Hea
and associated with the man-bulls, will appear for the rest from the
following: 1st. The name of Mercury answering to the zodiacal
sign Pisces is Ka an e-a, " fish of the god Hea." 2d. The As
syrian name of the month corresponding to Pisces is A-da-ru, or
Adar. 3d. But the god Hea, in the distribution of the divinities
according to the zodiacal signs, is otherwise assimilated to that of
Taurus.2 4th. In his relation to this sign, Hea takes the title of
Alap Shamas, " Taurus of the Sun." ^ But I desire to add here
the important testimony of Sir H. Rawlinson, who has the follow
ing with reference to Nin or Adar : —
" In the stellar tablets it is clearly established that the god in
question must represent the constellation Taurus, in virtue proba-
1 Five Monarchies, etc., i. pp. 182, 138.
2 Vid. Sayce, Trans. Bib. Arch. So., iii. p. 148, note.
8 Vid. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 114.

336 HAR-MOAD.
bly o£ his connection with the man-bull, which, as the impersona
tion of strength and power, was dedicated to him." " M. Raoul
Rochette, in his elaborate memoir on the Assyrian Hercules, . . .
viewing the subject from a classical rather than an oriental point
of view, has accumulated abundant evidence to show that Hercules
was commonly confounded in the east with Saturn. Damascius
thus quotes a tradition on the authority of Hellanicus and Hierony-
mus, the Peripatetic : ' That from the two primitive elements, water
and earth, was born a dragon, who, besides his sei'pent's head, had
two other heads, those of a lion and a bull, between which was
placed the visage of god ' (@wv Trpoa-oinov, 'Qvoaaa-Oai Se Xpovov ayvpuTov
Kai tipaiKA.r]a Tov avrovj.
The Greek term prosopon (Trpoa-unrov), employed above in refer
ence to the " visage " of god, is the ordinary expression denoting
the " human countenance " as distinguished from those of animals.
It was termed in this case " the visage of god " instead of a man,
since the "dragon" alluded to was taken for a divinity. But no
thing is plainer than the fact that this " dragon " is to be identified
with the Biblical cherubim. The proofs are : 1st. That the cheru
bim of Scripture are to be identified with the man-bulls of Babylon
and Nineveh, as already fully shown. 2d. That Nin or Adar, as
Hercules-Saturn, had for his emblem the man -bull, a fact also
abundantly established. 3d. That this "dragon," having the four
faces of a man, a lion, a bull, and a serpent, substituted often for
the eagle, a description identifying this composite animal with the
Biblical cherubim in a manner not to be mistaken, was taken for
the god Hercules, at the same time for Chronos or Saturn, being in
this sense a time god, and thus answering exactly in character to
the Assyrian Hercules-Saturn.
Sec. 133. The data presented in the last section must be re
garded as conclusive, I think, to the effect that the symbolic ani
mals, termed Kirubi in the cuneiform texts. Cherubim, or Kerubim,
by the Biblical writers, were definitely associated with the IJercules,
or Hercules-Saturn of the Asiatic religions. But it remains to show
that this personage was primitively the sun. Alluding to Nin-ip,
whom he calls Adar, M. Lenormant has the following : —
" This entire side of the character of Adar is a remnant of his
ancient nature as solar deity, and it shows that when he possessed
this character he was the personification of the sun of darkness and
1 Vid. Rawl., Herod., i. pp. 504, 505, and note 9.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 337
night, of the sun in the inferior hemisphere. This is indicated also
by his essentially funeral nature, evinced in the ceremonies in honor
of the Assyrian Hercules, most thoroughly studied by M. Rochette,
— ceremonies where he figures as a god who dies, to be afterwards
raised again, who is burned upon the funeral pile, and whose tomb
is also shown." i
Thus, the primitive character of Hercules was that of the sun
of the lower hemisphere, being therefore identical with. Tammuz-
Adonis, Osiris of Egypt, etc., that is to say, with the sun-god who
suffers a violent death, but is afterwards raised to life again. All
this goes to show that the Asiatic Hercules really answers in char
acter to the "seed of the woman which should bruise the serpent's
head," and his definite connection with the symbolic figures, termed
the Kirubi or Cherubim, forces us likewise to identify him with the
Jehovah of the Old Testament as manifested in the Christ of the
New, who also suffers a violent death, descends into Hades, or the
lower hemisphere, but is raised again on the third day. That
which confirms this assimilation to Yahveh, or Jehovah, of the Old
Testament is the fact, on one hand, that Hea is to be identified
with Hercules, as already shown, while, on the other hand, he takes
the' name of Auv Kinuv (s3''3 Sin), the "Existent Being," a title
whose first element is identical with the Semitic term from which
the name Yahveh is formed.^
It is necessary now to connect all these facts with the zodiacal
signs Libra and Scorpio, together with the ideas previously found
centring there. Having done this, it will be impossible not to rec
ognize there at once a combination of conceptions as remarkable in
themselves as they are important in their bearings. If we are not
essentially misled respecting the import of the data that have been
presented, we must admit the existence here of a series of symbol
ical representations, embodying not only the main facts pertaining
1 Frag, de Birose, p. 113.
2 Vid. Lenormant, Frag, de Berose, p. 65, and Lettres Assyriologiques, t. ii.
p. 194. M. Lenormant, in the place last cited, referring to S3^3 Sin as a title
of Hea, observes, " This name signifies the ' Existent Being,' or the ' Absolute
Being ; ' the sense is precisely the same as Svayambhu of the Hindus. One remarks,
likewise, its direct relationship to mn"", since it has almost exactly the same mean
ing and is derived from the same root. It is the 'Am, which at Cyprus was one
of the principal titles of Adonis." This Adonis was a character of Hercules,
especially as the dying sun-god, who is raised to a new life.

338 HAR-MOAD.
to the fall of man, but those also relating to the restoration of hu
manity to the paradisiacal state. The only correct standpoint from
which to interpret these extraordinary and symbolic combinations
is the fact that the sun's course was held to be a type of human
existence, a point which will be sufficiently verified in the course
of the present treatise.^ But the sun was considered uniformly
also as a divinity ; a divinity, however, who shares the lot of man,
and in whom the divine and human characters perfectly interpene
trate. Such was Osiris, unquestionably the sun of the lower hemi
sphere, judge of the dead, yet being supposed to have ruled on
earth as a civilizer of men. Such was Yama of the Hindus, Yima
of the Persians, undoubtedly the sun, yet reputed first man and
founder of paradise. Such was the Syrian Adonis, whose solar char
acter is well known, although in his human character he meets with
an untimely death. Such was Nin or Adar, the Assyrian Hercules,
primitively a solar deity, yet as a man supposed to have suffered
death, and afterwards raised to life. This violent death and subse
quent resurrection is almost always attributed to the sun-gods, par
ticularly those appertaining to the inferior hemisphere. In most
instances, also, they have their sepulchres, or tombs, regarded with
especial sanctity. The ancient pyramidal temple of Babylon was
thought to be the tomb of Bel, or Belus. It was one of the primi
tive structures of the country. There were two principal classes
of pyramidal temples in the valley of the Euphrates, those whose
angles faced the cardinal regions, and those whose sides faced these
cardinal points, and, as M. Lenormant states, the latter were re
garded as divine tombs,^ that is, sepulchres of the dying sun-god,
who thus himself shared the lot of humanity. The extreme anti
quity of these conceptions applied to the sun, extending even into
the night of ages, is a matter susceptible of abundant proof drawn
from modern researches, and this is now generally admitted by
Orientalists. But it is perfectly obvious that the notion of the
death and resurrection of the sun-god was only a symbol of that
1 In addition to the proofs submitted in the 85th section, the reader is requested
to consult those introduced in Section 143. If the sacred books of antiquity were
collated for the purpose, a mass of expressions could be found involvinc the notion
in question ; but an attempt to exhaust this subject would lead us far away from
our present purpose.
2 Frag, de Berose, pp. 357, 365.

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 339
of man, and was founded upon the notion yet more fundamental
which regarded the sun's course as a type of human existence.
Sec. 134. The theory advocated by the school of M. Dupuis can
not be admitted here as a basis of interpretation of the facts which
have been presented in the present chapter. In substance this
theory assumes that all the ancient religions, those of the Bible
among the rest, had their origin in astrology, or in astro-mythology,
being based at first upon purely physical and material ideas. Thus,
in accordance with these views, the account of the death and resur
rection of Christ had no historical basis, but was derived from the
ancient legends relating to the dying sun-god. The long priority of
these legends, if such it is proper to regard them exclusively, to the
opening of the Christian era admits now of "no doubt. Hence, the
question here forced upon the consideration of the Christian apolo
gist is a very serious and important one, and it is one moreover that
cannot well be set aside, if we have regard to the facts now being
brought to light by modern research. It was many years since
that Sir J. G. Wilkinson felt compelled to make the following re
marks : —
" The sufferings and death of Osiris were the great mystery of
the Egyptian religion, and some traces of it are perceptible among
other people of antiquity. His being the divine goodness, and the
abstract idea of ' good,' his manifestation upon earth (like an Indian
god), his death and resurrection, and his office as judge of the dead
in a future state, look like the early revelation of a future manifes
tation of the deity converted into a mythological fable." ^
I believe Sir J. G. Wilkinson has correctly seen here that the ques
tion lies between the theory of M. Dupuis on one hand and a prim
itive revelation on the other. For myself, I adopt the hypothesis
of a primitive revelation and one written in the heavens ! Indeed, I
submit the investigations of the present chapter as affording very
striking and convincing indications of it. The principle of the
gradual and normal development of religious ideas, to which the
comparative mythologists of our day attach so much importance,
does not account for the facts here presented to view. We have
here conscious design and symbolism, and these of a most remark
able character. The notions which we have found centring in
the zodiacal signs Libra and Scorpio had an existence, a conscious
» Vid. Rawl. Herod., vol. ii. p. 219, note 3.

340 HAR-MOAD.
existence, before they were symbolically represented there. The
simple natural phenomena could never suggest these ideas, even
after the zodiac had been formed, for we need the written revela
tion now to enable us to comprehend the symbolism here expressed.
It was only the initiated who could understand its import without
such aid. With respect to the sun-god, especially, it would be
impossible to conceive the sun as dying and as being raised again,
until the sun's course had been taken for a symbol of the life of
humanity. But once conceived as such, it could then, with the
consummate ingenuity and wisdom which we see displayed here, be
made the vehicle of past history, and even of prophecy. I attri
bute the origin of this symbolism to those primitive " corpora
tions," to that ancient order of priest-kings, who formed the subject
of our third chapter, and I believe that this view is yet to be vindi
cated. At the least, a very high order of intelligence has presided
over those rare combinations of ideas, which we have seen centring
in the two zodiacal divisions named. The simple union of the
four principal constellations of the zodiac, forming the composite
figure of the cherubim with four faces, for whatever purpose we
assume it to have been done, implies a state of culture of no incon
siderable advancement. But when we realize the very great impor
tance and extreme veneration attached to them by peoples widely
separated from each other, it is safe to infer that from the first they
embodied conceptions the most elevated in their character. Consid
ering all the facts now before us, I feel justified in the conclusion
that both history and prophecy entered originally into the concep
tion of these symbolic animals, — history of the fall and expulsion
from Eden, prophecy of the final redemption of man and restoration
to his first estate. . In this view I have not hesitated to interpret the
Hercules of the Asiatic systems, of the promised seed of the woman.
These opinions will appear, doubtless, somewhat extravagant to
many of my readers, and devoid of sufficient support. But the
chapters which are to follow will present much additional proof, so
that it will be difficult to resist the combined force of the whole.
Sec. 135. In the tradition reported by Damascius respecting the
" dragon " with four faces, these serving to identify the figure as a
whole with the Biblical cherubim, the god thus symbolized is identi
fied not only with Hercules, but also with the time-god or Chronos.
It is a matter almost of necessity to infer from this fact that the
cherubim were in some way connected with chronology, evidently

THE TWELVE STARS OF PHCENICIA. 341
in this case a zodiacal chronology. This suggestion receives some
confirmation from the fact that the god Hea must be identified with
Chronos as well as Hercules. Thus, as Mr. George Smith has well
observed, it was Chronos who gave warning of the deluge, according
to the tradition preserved by Berosus, while in the " Deluge Tab
lets " it is Hea who foretells this catastrophe, proving that the two
personages must be assimilated to each other. We are not pre
pared at present to explain in what sense, if any, the subject of
chronology is connected with the cherubim, but we hope to throw
some light upon this question in the three chapters following. It
seems obvious, however, if Hercules and Chronos are one, if both are
associated with the cherubim, and finally if these symbolic figures
are to be located zodiacally in Libra, where we find also the sacred
mount of paradise, that it is in this sign we should expect to find
localized some traditionary idea affording us a key to the subject
to which we refer. Nevertheless, it is a matter as yet involved in
obscurity, and we pass it by for the time being.
The present section closes our studies upon the tablet of the
" twelve stars of Phoenicia." We have shown that they had a
definite zodiacal arrangement, although different from the Babylo
nian calendar. We have shown, also, that they exhibit the order
in which the Mosaic antediluvian genealogy was adjusted to the
zodiac. This, too, was different from the method adopted in the
case of the antediluvian kings of Berosus. Finally, we have dis
covered in this tablet a manifest reference to primitive traditions
centring in the Gan-Eden of Genesis, and especially a mystical
allusion to the cherubim, of Eden, that has led the way to the fun
damental notion involved in these symbolic animals. But we have
not discovered any positive proof that this arrangement of twelve
stars had ever been employed for the practical purposes of a calen
dar. Everything indicates, however, that such h;id been the case
at a very early epoch, and that it was the calendar of all others to
which primitively the Book of Genesis was adjusted. In fact, there
is much reason to suppose that this scheme had formed the basis or
centre, perhaps, of an independent line of traditionary inheritances,
differing in some respects from those preserved at Babylon. The
account of Berosus, for instance, respecting the deluge is evidently
Babylonian. The god Ilu, or El, supreme divinity of Babylon,
assimilated to the Greek Chronos, appears in close connection with
it. But the " Deluge Tablets " appear to me to contain an inde-

342 HAR-MOAD.
pendent tradition, in which the god Hea appears as chief personage.
Again, the Babylonian Noah was certainly assimilated to the zodi
acal sign Capricorn, while the Noah of Genesis must be associated
with the sign Pisces. Finally, the Babylonian genealogy evidently
begins with the cosmical year itself, at the dawn of creation ; while
the Mosaic, adjusted to the twelve stars of Phoenicia, properly
begins with history, with the first man. It will be seen from this,
and from the facts heretofore presented, that in the cosmical year
of Babylon Aries and Taurus properly represent the creation week
of Genesis. More than this it is impossible to say, considering the
obscurity in which all these matters are still involved.
We cannot conclude the present series of studies without another
brief allusion to the symbolic element that everywhere appears in
the cuneiform inscription from which our list of twelve stars has
been derived. If the Orientalists of a former period were in error
in making a too exclusive use of the principle of symbolism, the
majority of those of the present day have erred also in rejecting
entirely this principle. The tablet which has been studied, al
though so fragmentary, proves that such a thing as symbolism actu
ally had an existence in high antiquity, and that no greater mistake
can be made than to ignore this fact inr our studies of the ancient
systems. The geographical system of Sargon the ancient, like that
prevailing in nearly all parts of the world at that period, was thor
oughly symbolic, and was inspired by religious conceptions. In
this scheme Akkad, denoting " highland," replaced the traditional
mountain, or '• highland," reputed first abode of man. The four
countries surrounding it, located according to the cardinal regions,
replaced the four great countries situated around man's primeval
home, also facing the four points of the compass. As this primitive
happy abode was the conceived centre of the universe, the divergent
point of all the cosmical divisions, so Akkad was conceived as such
centre, and in the same spirit all civilized countries were regarded.
They were centres of the world ; each system was a cosmos, a new
creation, and the entire theory had been inherited from the mount
of paradise. Tradition, symbolism, cosmical and religious concep
tions, constituted the basis of that system of which our cuneiform
tablet was undoubtedly a very ancient, as, indeed, it is a most re
markable exposition. It might be said almost to embody the entire
theory of the ancient civilizations. But we must now pass on to
other topics.

BOOK V.
ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE PROBLEM STATED AND ITS CHIEF POINTS ELIMINATED.
Sec. 136. I am aware that the attempt which is to be made in
the present chapter, and in those immediately following, is an ex
tremely hazardous one, and that those most familiar with the his
tory of similar efforts heretofore will be likely to entertain the
least confidence in a successful result. The conceived possibility of
establishing a chronological date in high antiquity by means of the
internal arrangements of the zodiacal system, in connection with
the well known law of the precession of the equinoxes, was that
which inspired the labors of M. Dupuis nearly a century ago, in his
celebrated essay upon " The Origin of the Sphere," and a similar
motive appears to have prompted the investigations of Dr. Gustavo
Schlegel upon the antiquity of the Chinese sphere, as given to the
public in his recent and voluminous treatise on " Chinese Urano
graphy." But it is now generally admitted that M. Dupuis' at
tempt was mainly a failure, and it is probable that the majority
of scholars will refuse to place much confidence in Dr. Schlegel's
results. Both these writers appear to be too much under the influ
ence of preconceived opinions, and the fundamental principle in
volved in their method of research has been often called in question.
M. Dupuis assumed that the Egyptians were the inventors of the
zodiac, and thus construed everything with reference to the climate
of Egypt. But Egyptologists have now shown that the zodiac, as
transmitted to us by the Greeks, was not even in use in the Nile
valley until a very late epoch. Dr. Schlegel attempts to show that

344 HARr-MOAD.
the Chinese were the inventors of the zodiacal system, and thus
bases all his calculations upon the latitude and climate of the Celes
tial Empire. But the investigations of Professor Whitney some
years since, not to mention here the labors of other scholars, have
rendered it extremely doubtful whether the Chinese can lay claim
to this invention. For myself, in view of all the facts, I believe it
most probable that the celestial sphere, including the zodiacal ar
rangement, had its beginnings in the period before the separation
of races from their common home on the high table-lands of Cen
tral Asia. Of this, however, in another connection. The method
adopted by M. Dupuis, and followed by Dr. Schlegel, is grounded
principally upon the supposition that the zodiac was the product of
the needs of agriculture, the constellations being designed by their
periodical risings and settings to announce the various seasons of
agricultural labors. Besides this, certain religious, civil, and social
customs and ceremonies were connected with the appearance of
these asterisms. In calculating the antiquity of the zodiac, then,
such positions in the heavens were assumed for these constellations,
that their appearance would correspond with the various labors of
the field, and the difference between such assumed positions and
the present actual positions of these constellations was then con
verted into time by means of the known rate of precession. Fol
lowing this method, and adopting his calculations for the climate
and latitude of Egypt, M. Dupuis arrived at an antiquity of some
15,000 years for the origin of the sphere. Adopting the same
method substantially, and basing his calculations upon the latitude
and climate of China, Dr. Schlegel finds that the Chinese invented
the sphere some 18,500 years ago. But there is no certainty that
the constellations were originally designed to mark by their appear
ance the various seasons of agricultural labors. The ground prin
ciple of this method is a pure assumption, and it is for this reason
principally that scholars have refused to place confidence in these
deductions. But notwithstanding the unsatisfactory nature of the results as
attained by these writers, the great importance of such an under
taking if it could be rendered successful, the immense service to
the learned world which a fixed chronological date in the pre
historic ages would be if once scientifically verified, must be re
garded as a sufficient justification of still other and oft-repeated

ZODLACAL CHRONOLOGY. 345
attempts to this end, however hazardous they may appear to the
generality of critics. For myself, therefore, I am willing to take
the responsibility of another effort in this direction, and to incur
the risk of another failure. But I have considerable confidence in
a successful result, especially as my object is quite different from
that pursued by the two writers referred to, and as my method of
research is also different from theirs.
Primarily we have no desire to fix the date of the origin of the
sphere. That which we seek to accomplish is in general this : by
means of the zodiacal system, in connection with some of the extra-
zodiacal constellations, in connection also with the law of the pre
cession of the equinoctial points, to determine approximately the
epoch to which the primeval traditions of mankind appertained.
With respect to the method of research to be here adopted, it may
be observed in general that we shall not seek to identify the people
who invented the zodiac, nor the country in which this system ori
ginated. We shall have no reference to the agricultural labors, the
customs, the local circumstances' of any nation whatever. Our
method will be, as principal aids, to interrogate the primitive tradi
tions inherited alike by all the cultured nations of antiquity. The
primary object of this interrogation will be to ascertain whether
these traditions, many of them at least, do not INVOLVE AN ASTRO
NOMICAL REFERENCE Sufficiently precise, and so nearly agreeing
one with the others, as actually TO reveal the state of the
HEAVENS at the period to which they all relate, thus supplying the
necessary data to constitute an astronomical problem that admits of
a ready solution according to the ordinary rules. Those who are
familiar with this class of studies will recognize at a glance that the
method of procedure here outlined is essentially different from that
heretofore adopted by any writer, and that it is wholly free from
those objections already pointed out in connection with previous
attempts of this kind. It is a very simple matter to ascertain, in
the first place, whether the primitive traditions actually do involve
an astronomical reference so definite and direct as to reveal the
state of the heavens at the epoch to which they pertain. If we
show that such is really the case, it will be a simple process; also, in
the second place, to calculate the difference in time according to
the known rate of precession between that epoch and the present
era. The underlying principle is perfectly clear, although the crit-

346 HAR-MOAD.
ical analysis and proper arrangement of the mass of materials
appertaining to our general problem will be an arduous labor,
requiring no small degree of patience and perseverance. But the
foregoing will suffice respecting the chief object in view, and the
mode of attaining it. We proceed now to the consideration of
the more specific points involved in our problem.
Sec. 137. To render these investigations more intelligible to
those who have never made astronomy a special study, it is neces
sary to explain here briefiy the internal arrangements of the
zodiacal system. First is the important distinction always to be
kept in mind between the twelve constellations and the twelve signs
of the zodiac. The two series bear the same names ; that is, we
have the constellations Aries, Taurus, Gemini, etc., and the signs
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, etc. ; but the constellations are one thing,
and the signs quite another. The constellations are the groups of
stars arranged in a complete circle round the heavens, which never
change their positions ; and this circle marks the annual course of
the sun. The number of these asterisms is twelve, corresponding
to the twelve' months of the year. The twelve signs of the zodiac
are supposed to mark the same spaces in the heavens as the constel
lations ; but their positions are constantly changing ; they have a
retrograde movement on the zodiac, due to the so-called precession
of the equinoxes. Since one series is fixed, while the other has a
slow retrograde movement, the signs are not always found to occupy
the same positions as do the constellations of the same name. At
the present era, all the signs have fallen back thirty degrees, or the
extent of one sign, from their correspondent constellations. Thus,
the sign Gemini is in the constellation Taurus, and the sign Taurus
is in the constellation Aries, etc. But about twenty-one hundred
years ago all the signs corresponded exactly in position to their re
spective constellations. According to the ascertained rate of pre
cession, or of this retrograde motion of all the signs, it would take
about twenty-five thousand years for them to complete the entire
circle of the zodiac. It may be well to observe here that the vernal
equinox always occurs in the first degree of the sign Aries ; the
autumnal equinox in the first degree of the sign Libra ; the summer
solstice in the first degree of the sign Cancer ; and the winter sol
stice in the first degree of the sign Capricorn. The retrograde move
ment of the signs always follows that of the equinoctial and solsti-

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 347
tial points, and in fact is caused by it. The results would be the
same, if we conceive the signs as fixed and the constellations as
moving forward on the zodiac, as to regard the constellations as
fixed and the signs as moving backward on the zodiac. But the
latter is the usual mode of notation among modern astronomers.
These explanations, however, will be sufficient for the present.
We enter now upon the consideration of a very important ele
ment in our general problem, in relation to the following inquiry:
At the period of the invention of the zodiacal system, did the con
stellations and the signs having the same name correspond to each
other in postion ? That is to say ; was the constellation Aries in the
sign Aries, the constellation Taurus in the sign Taurus, etc. ? It will
be seen that these suppositions are admissible in the absence of any
proof to the contrary : 1st. All the constellations and signs may
have corresponded in position at the date of the origin of the zodiac ;
or 2d. All the signs may have been behind their respective constel
lations, as is the case at the present period ; or 3d. All the signs
may have been ahead of the constellations on the zodiac ; a sup
position which we shall find to be the correct one, although it is
opposed to the usual impression among practical astronomers. We
quote below from a recently published text-book on astronomy : —
" When the first catalogues of the stars were constructed, the
signs doubtless corresponded with their constellations in position ;
and we can therefore calculate the era when the earliest star charts
were made. Thus, the rate of precession for one year (50.24") is
to one year as thirty degrees (108,000") is to 2149.7 years. The
zodiac was therefore constructed about two thousand years ago."^
This is a very easy method of settling the question in regard to
the antiquity of the zodiacal system. But it is wholly chimerical.
The signs of the zodiac are at present about thirty degrees, or one
whole sign, in the rear of their respective constellations. Now
the author quoted above assumes that when the zodiac was invented
all the signs and constellations coincided in position ; and since
they are now separated only thirty degrees distant, the known rate
of precession gives about 2100 years for the date of the ori
gin of the system. The author's calculation would be perfectly
legitimate and correct if his presupposition was correct, to the
effect that this coincidence in position of the signs and their con-
1 Brocklesby, Elements of Astronomy, p. 99.

348 HAR-MOAD.
stellations was really a primitive feature of the zodiac. But this
presupposition is erroneous, as we shall show ; and thus the calcu
lation based upon it falls to the ground. We propose to substanti
ate the fact, independently, of the extreme antiquity of the zodiac,
amounting to many centuries, if not to thousands of years, prior to
the date 2100 years ago, fixed upon by the author just cited.
This being established, the inevitable result will follow that the
signs and constellations did not correspond in position primitively;
that, in fact, the signs were ahead of their respective constellations
on the zodiac, instead of being behind them, as at the present
day. The cuneiform inscriptions will afford us ample data on the
point before us. The following is Mr. George Smith's rendering
of an astronomical tablet discovered by him, with the substitution
of the degree and sign for the day and month, according to his own
suggestion : —
" From the first degree of the sign Pisces to the thirtieth degree
of the sign Taurus, the sun in the division (or season) of the great
goddess is fixed, and the time of showers and warmth. From the
first degree of the sign Gemini to the thirtieth degree of the sign
Leo, the sun in the division (or season) of Bell is fixed, and the
time of the crops and heat. From the first degree of the sign Virgo
to the thirtieth degree of the sign Scorpio, the sun in the division
(or season) of Anu is fixed, and the time of showers and warmth.
From the first degree of the sign Sagittarius to the thirtieth degree
of the sign Aquarius, the sun in the division (or season) of Hea is
fixed, and the time of cold. When on the first day of the month
Nisan, the star of stars and the moon are parallel, that year is right
(normal). When on the third day of the month Nisan, the star
of stars and the moon are parallel, that year is full (has thirteen
months)." ^
The foregoing demonstrates sufficiently that at the date of the
tablet of which it is a translation the zodiac was in common use
among the Babylonians. The precise date of the tablet, however,
is a matter of conjecture. It must have belonged to the great col
lection of Assur-banipal at Nineveh, either as an original, or as an
Assyrian version of a much earlier Accadian tablet. Its date, there
fore, cannot be assigned later than to the seventh or eighth century
B. C. This would be four or five centuries before the conjunction
of all the signs and constellations of the zodiac in the same posi-
• Assyr. Die, pp. 404, 405, American Edition.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 349
tions, about 2100 years ago. But we proceed to earlier dates.
Alluding to the inscribed conical stones to which reference was
made in a previous chapter. Rev. George Rawlinson remarks : —
" The accompanying representation, taken from a conical black
stone in the British Museum, and belonging to the twelfth century
before our era, is not, perhaps, strictly speaking, a zodiac, but it is
almost certainly an arrangement of cunstellations according to the
forms assigned them in Babylonian uranography. The Ram, the
Bull, the Scorpion, the Serpent, the Dog, the Arrow, the Eagle or
Vulture may all be detected on the stone in question, as may simi
lar forms variously arranged on other similar monuments." ^
I have already expressed the opinion that these figures were not
intended for a complete zodiacal arrangement, but they prove the
existence of the zodiac at this period, being over eight hundred
years prior to the conjunction of all the signs and constellations of
the zodiac to which we allude. Another inscription records the
actual occurrence of the vernal equinox on the fifteenth day of the
month Nisan, which would be in the fifteenth degree of the sign
Aries.^ Thus, this inscription goes to substantiate the existence of
the zodiac at Babylon about 1000 years prior to the time when all
the signs and constellations occupied the same positions. But we
are able to demonstrate a still higher antiquity for the zodiac. The
great book of astrology, dating from the times of Sargon the an
cient, contains numerous texts in which the existence of the zodiac
at that period is placed beyond question. M. Lenormant, as here
tofore cited, assigns this monarch to the era between 1900 and 2000
years B. C. Hence, over 1600 years before the conjunction of the
signs and constellations referred to took place, the zodiac was in
ordinary use at Babylon.
Sec 138. Having presented such evidence relative to the an
tiquity of this system as is most readily obtained from the monu
ments affording specific dates, we proceed now to show that the
zodiac really appertained to the period of the earliest traditions of
Babylon. In the eleventh chapter (Sec. 117), M. Lenormant and
Dr. Movers were cited to the effect that the names Alarus and
Alaparus, which head the list of antediluvian kings preserved by
Berosus, are simple designations respectively of the zodiacal divi-
^ Five Monarchies, ii. pp. 574, 576.
2 3d Rawl. PI. 61, note 2.

350 HARr-MOAD.
sions J-nes and Taurus; a fact that in M. Lenormant's opinion
proves the zodiacal character of the entire series of names. Now
the primitive character, traditionally speaking, of this antediluvian
genealogy will be readily admitted ; yet its connection from the
first with the zodiac has been established by the two eminent critics
named above. To the data here presented should be added the fol
lowing extract from the " Creation Tablets," as discovered and
translated by Mr. Smith : —
"Stars, their appearance (in figures) of animals he arranged.
To fix the year through the observation of their constellations,
twelve months (or signs) of stars in three rows he arranged, from
the day when the year commences unto the close." ^
The precise date of the original tablets, of which those discov
ered by Mr. Smith were only Assyrian translations is unknown,
but this writer inclines to refer them to the period nearly 2000
years B. c. But the exact date of the documents is not for us the most
important point. They unquestionably record traditions, which
were absolutely the most primitive among the Cushites of Baby
lon, and they prove beyond doubt that the zodiac was associated
with those traditions. Indeed, I think it most probable, all things
considered, that the Cushites brought the zodiac with them to the
" land of Shinar," when they migrated from the sacred mount of
the east, the reputed father of countries and the first home of man.
We have shown in our first chapter that a Cushite civilization,
probably anterior to that of Babylon, primitively existed around
the headwaters of the Indus and Oxus, and it was proved in a sub
sequent chapter, that Mt. Meru of Hindu tradition was really the
true Ararat, a name corrupted from Arya-rata, originally applied
to Meru. In view of these facts, considerable significance attaches
to the language of Mr. Richard A. Proctor, in an article on " The
Origin of the Constellation-Figures," republished in Appleton's
"Popular Science Monthly" (Supplement) for November, 1877,
language which is as follows : —
" I think from 35° to 39° north (latitude) would be about the
most probable limits, and from 32° to 41° north the certain limits,
of the station of the first founders of solar zodiacal astronomy.
What their actual station may have been is not so easily estab
lished. Some think the region lay between the sources of the
1 Chald. Acct. Genesis, p. 69.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 351
Oxus (Amoor) and Indus ; others think that the station of these
astronomers was not far from Mount Ararat (in Armenia), a view
to which I was led long ago by other considerations, discussed in
the first appendix to my treatise on ' Saturn and its System.' At
the epoch indicated (2170 B. C.) the first constellation of the zodiac
was not, as now, the Fishes, nor, as when a fresh departure was made
by Hipparchus, the Ram, but the Bull, a trace of which is found
in Virgil's words, ' Candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum
Taurus.' " The Bull, then, was the spring sign, the Pleiades and ruddy
Aldebaran joining their rays with the sun's at the time of the ver
nal equinox." ^
Whether the considerations which led Mr. Proctor to associate
the origin of the zodiac with the region of Ararat would apply as
well to Mt. Meru, the primitive Ararat, I am not able to say. But
we shall find much reason, as we proceed, to consider Meru as the
earliest centre of astronomical science, as well as of civilization
generally. In regard to the limits between which this writer would
locate the first astronomical stations, it may be remarked that the
situation of Babylon, although not exactly outside these bounda
ries, was still very near the extreme southern limit assigned. But
the author's statement that Taurus was the first constellation of
the zodiac at the period 2170 B. C, to which he is inclined to
assign the date of the zodiac, has for us the especial value that it
disproves the prevalent hypothesis which assumes the coincidence
of all the signs and constellations in position at the time the zodiac
was formed. For, if Taurus was ever the constellation in which
the vernal equinox fell, then the sign Aries was at that period in
this constellation. But we have one other fact to verify in this
connection, namely, that the Babylonian zodiac was substantially
the same as ours, transmitted to us by the Greeks, and for this pur
pose we quote M. Lenormant, as follows : —
" The nomenclature of the signs as they have been preserved to
our day does not differ essentially from that which had been estab
lished by the astronomical priests of Chaldsea and Babylon. In
fact, according to passages derived from astronomical monuments,
and according to the zodiacal figures which are found upon a great
number of monuments, especially upon the cylinders, we are able
to establish to a great extent the series of signs as employed by
1 Proctor in Scientifc Monthly {Si\ipp\&me,u\) November, 1877. [This chapter
was revised in 1878. S. JL W.]

352 HAR-MOAD.
the Chaldseans: 1st. The Ram, or the Ibex. 2d. The Taurus,
sometimes represented with wings and with the human head. -Sd.
The Twins, expressed by two virile figures superimposed. 4th.
The Crab, or the Lobster. 5th. The Lion, sometimes replaced by
the group of a lion devouring a taurus. 6th. The Archeress (god
dess Ishtar), mentioned by the texts, but of which no figure has as
yet been recognized. 7th. The Pincers of the Scorpion. 8th. The
Scorpion ; it results from a tablet not yet edited, relative to the
movements of the planet Venus, which I have had the occasion of
studying in the British Museum, that they sometimes united this
sign with the preceding, under the common name of the ' Scor
pion,' which was then counted as a sign having double the extent
of the others. 9th. The Arrow, which thus replaces, though
rarely, Sagittarius holding the bow. 10th. The Goat, its body
often terminating in the tail of a fish. 11th. The Water-bearer,
this figure being more habitually reduced to that of a vase from
which water is being poured. 12th. The Fish, or the Fishes. It
was evidently for mythological reasons that these names and figures
were assigned to the constellations of the zodiacal band ; because
we search in vain for any direct relation to the labors of agricul
ture and the phases of the seasons contemplated from this point of
view. We know to what groundless conjectures the school of M.
Dupuis resorted to find a relation of this kind, and how they were
obliged to place the invention of the zodiac in an epoch fabulously
remote, in order to arrive at the time when, thanks to the precession
of the equinoxes, the presence of the sun in Taurus coincided with
the season of the labors of the field," etc.^
Sec. 139. Various conclusions result from the data now before
us. In the first place, there can be no longer question whether
the Greeks were the inventors of the zodiac, as formerly maintained
by M. Letronne, since its use among the Babylonians, at a period
before the dawn even of Greek history, can hardly be doubted in
view of the facts already presented. In the second place, it results
from the statement of M. Lenormant above, which appears to be
fully justified by his own researches, that the principle assumed by
M. Dupuis, and recently by Dr. Schlegel, of a direct relation of the
zodiacal constellations to agricultural operations has really no solid
foundation. Mythological considerations were those, as M. Lenor
mant believes, which determined the names and figures of these
asterisms. It appears to us that this statement is somewhat too
broad and exclusive, for evidently symbolism had much to do in
^ Premieres Civilisations, t. ii. pp. 68, 69.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 353
the formation of this system. But that which is of the greatest
consequence in connection with our general problem is the ex
treme antiquity of the zodiac, substantially in the form in which it
has been handed down to us ; an antiquity which appears to be
most conclusively established by the various considerations already
presented. It was associated with the earliest traditions of the
Babylonians, even with those that related to the antediluvian dy
nasties, and to the creation of the world. In fact, as was pointed
out in our criticism of the " Creation Tablets," the Babylonian
account of the formation of the world, which these documents con
tain, actually includes the arrangement of the zodiac as constituting
a distinct labor in the creative process. It must be regarded, there
fore, as fully substantiated that the zodiac had been in existence
some thousands of years when, about twenty-one centuries ago, it
so happened that all the signs and constellations of the same name
corresponded in position. This correspondence, then, could not
have been an original feature of the system ; and certainly not, if
at one time, as many reasons lead us to conclude, the vernal equi
nox fell in the constellation Taurus ; for in such case the sign
Aries would be in this constellation, — in other words, all the signs
would be thirty degrees, or one whole sign, in advance of their
respective constellations. Thus, the first among the fundamental
conditions or elements of our problem may be formulated as fol
lows : —
At the period when the zodiac was invented, the positions of the
signs and constellations were different, the signs being in advance of
the constellations bearing the same name.
It will be recognized at once that the foregoing proposition, if it
is to be admitted as firmly established, attaches to itself a high
degree of importance. It is contrary to the usual impression among
practical astronomers, and in fact it is contrary to that which we
should naturally suppose to have been the case. Assuming it for
our basis, the following conclusions may be fairly deduced from it :
1st. If the signs and constellations of the zodiac occupied dif
ferent positions originally, then this was not the result of accident,
but of a specific, conscious design on the part of the inventor of the
system. 2d. If this difference in position was a primitive feature of the
system, then the zodiac was strictly speaking an invention ; it was

854 HAR-MOAD.
not the result of a gradual, unconscious development, so to speak,
from crude beginnings.
3d. If this difference in position was a primitive feature of the
zodiac, then that difference must have been greater than one sign
merely, or greater than that when the vernal equinox fell in the
constellation Taurus.
4th. If there was originally a difference in position between the
signs and constellations of the zodiac, then the amount of that dif
ference must have been determined, not by accident, but by some
good and substantial reason.
5th. When the zodiac was constructed, it doubtless represented
the constellations in their actual positions in the heavens, while the
location of the signs was a matter of choice, and was determined by
some other considerations.
Sec. 140. In regard to the first deduction, as stated above, it
would be natural to suppose that originally the signs and constel
lations occupied the same positions, it being due only to the law of
precession that the signs had gradually fallen back into other posi
tions. But we now find that such was not the fact ; the signs were
originally in advance of their constellations, and it is impossible to
account for this circumstance except upon the ground of some
especial design. The second deduction follows partly from the first.
If there was conscious design in the arrangement, then the zodiac
was properly an invention. In fact, if the system had grown up
unconsciously from crude beginnings, it is almost certain that the
signs and constellations would have occupied at first the same posi
tions. With reference to our third deduction, it may be set down
as wholly improbable, if there was a difference in position between
the signs and constellations, that, either by accident or by design,
it should be only one sign, or thirty degrees. Passing to the fourth
deduction above, it is necessary to conclude, whatever difference
was originally assumed between the signs and constellations, that
it was not left to mere accident to determine its extent ; some good
and sufficient consideration in the mind of the inventor influenced
his choice of location for the signs. The last deduction is almost
self-evident. The zodiac must represent the constellations in their
true positions in the heavens, or it would be worthless as the basis
of a Ciilendar. But the location of the signs was in a measure arbi
trary, and might be influenced from various considerations.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 355
It is necessary to introduce here for a brief consideration an
other inquiry. We have had much to say relative to the difference,
both in character and in position, between the signs and the con
stellations ; but is it certain that the signs, as distinguished from
the constellations, have really been in use from the time the zodiac
was invented ? Before the era of Hipparchus, for instance, who is
supposed to have introduced some improvements into the system,
had the signs been distinctly recognized as different from the con
stellations? Do we find among the Babylonians, among whom, as
M. Lenormant holds, the zodiac originated, the distinct recognition
of the signs as different from the constellations ? If such a distinc
tion had not existed from the first, then the great importance of
an original difference between the signs and constellations, and the
various deductions which we have drawn from it, must be regarded
as imaginary. The signs were not in existence from the first ; only
the constellations constituted the zodiac. But the cuneiform texts
afford sufficient proof, as it wotdd seem, that among the Babylonians
a distinction had always been made between the constellations and
the signs. In the first place we have distinct names for the months,
the constellations, and the signs, and these names are never em
ployed interchangeably. The Accadian name for month is Ab,
Assyrian Arakh; the Accadian for star, or constellation, is Mul,
Assyrian Cacab. Finally, the Accadian for zodiacal sign is Zu, the
Assyrian being the same. The moon-god is often termed En-zu,
"lord of the zodiacal sign." At other times the numeral 30 is
employed for writing the name of this divinity, in reference to the
thirty degrees comprised in each sign, corresponding to the thirty
daj's contained in each of the twelve months. The series of months,
beginning with the Accadian Bara, Assyrian Nisan, corresponded
exactly to the series of signs commencing with Aries. This ar
rangement was constant, or intended to be such, the first day of
the month Nisan answering to the first degree of the sign Aries,
and thus on to the end of the calendar.
Now, as the Babylonians had distinct names for the signs and
constellations Zu and Mul, and even separate written characters,
and as these names and characters were never substituted one for
the other, it is safe to conclude that they had always made a dis
tinction between the two series. Various other facts might be pre
sented here tending to the same conclusion, but it is not necessary

356 HARr-MOAD.
to give them in detail. The Babylonian astronomers noted the
changes in the stellar world too constantly and too narrowly, not
to have been aware that the constellations had an apparent advance
movement relative to the signs bearing the same names. But this
apparent advance movement of the constellations we now know to
be due to an actual retrograde movement of the equinoxes, carrying
all the signs with them. It is probable, in fact, that the Babylo
nians regarded the constellations as movable and the signs as fixed,
since this accords better with the notion that the earth is fixed in
the centre of the universe, the heavens revolving around it ; a
notion which seems to have prevailed generally for many ages.
Sec. 141. Returning, then, to our first general proposition, that
the positions of the signs and constellations were different at the
time the zodiac was invented, we seem to be wholly justified in
reaffirming it here, and to proceed from it as an established fact,
which we now do, and also from the various deductions already
made from it, some of them being highly significant and important.
We have shown that there was a specific, conscious design on the
part of those who invented the zodiac in giving to the signs differ
ent positions from those of the constellations, and we are now
brought face to face with the inquiry : What was that design ? My
answer in brief is: A zodiacal chronology! It ought to be a very
satisfactory proof of this, that the Babylonians actually employed
the zodiac for this purpose. We have seen that they employed a
great cosmical year, divided into twelve great cosmical months, cor
responding to the twelve months of the ordinary year. This great
cosmical year was supposed to have opened at the dawn of creation,
and with the sign Aries. The ten antediluvian kings, Alorus,
Alaparus, etc., were definitely associated with the signs ; Alorus
with Aries, Alaparus with Taurus, and thus down to the reign of
the tenth king, Xisuthrus, the Babylonian Noah, who was associ
ated with the tenth sign, or Capricorn. These facts have been
fully substantiated by M. Lenormant and Dr. Movers, as heretofore
cited. That these ten kings were believed to have succeeded each
other chronologically, and that their reigns were associated with the
signs beginning with Aries, does not admit of serious question.
But this our present hypothesis supposes, that the inventors of the
zodiac were aware of the fact which we designate as " the preces
sion of the equinoctial points." It may be thought that this phe-

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 357
nomenon could not have been observed at so early a period. The
inventors of the zodiac, however, have sufficiently proved by the
very nature of their invention that the fact of precession was fami
liar to them. The series of signs, as distinguished from the constel
lations, presupposes the knowledge of precession, because, if it were
not for this retrograde movement of the equinoctial points, there
could be no occasion for employing the signs as something differ
ent from the constellations. The two would always occupy the
same positions and stand for the same thing. Thus, the very na
ture of the invention presupposes precession and the knowledge of
it, as a simple fact, but not a knowledge of the exact rate of preces
sion, which has required the superior advancement and facilities of
the present day to determine.
Conceive, now, two circular, flat rings, each divided into twelve
portions, and each of these into thirty degrees, making three hun
dred and sixty degrees in the aggregate. Let one of these rings re
present the twelve constellations, the other the twelve signs. Con
sider one as fixed, the other as movable at the rate of one degree in
about seventy-one years. Such would be a representation of- the
arrangements of the zodiacal band as it circles the entire heavens
and marks the annual course of the sun. It will be seen that such
an arrangement, in connection with the law of precession, would
constitute a great celestial clock, keeping the time of the world
throughout all ages. We believe this to have been the nature and
design of the zodiac when it was invented, and that it was so con
sciously intended by those who originated the system. But all this
does not conduct us nearer to the central point of our problem, and
it will be better to leave for future developments the question of
the design of the inventor in separating the signs and constellations
in regard to their respective positions.
The great and fundamental inquiry before us now is this : What
was the distance primitively between the signs and constellations ?
The answer to this question is no less than the solution of our
problem. For whatever may have been that original difference in
position, it has since been wholly traversed by the retrograde move
ment of the signs, so that even 2100 years ago the signs and con
stellations came together, and now the signs are one entire zodiacal
division in rear of the constellations. If we knew the original dis
tance between the two series, the rate of precession, which is known.

358 HAR-MOAD.
would give us the date of the origin of the system. Or, if we knew
the state of the heavens at that epoch, this would give us the dis
tance at the time between the signs and constellations, and then
again the rate of precession would enable us to calculate the anti
quity of the zodiac. But these are the very points yet to be deter
mined, and the next inquiry is: By what means can they be deter
mined? If we speak indefinitely, and of probabilities, it may be
said that the distance originally between the signs and constella
tions must have been more than thirty degrees, or the extent of
one sign. This would have been the distance between them when
the vernal equinox fell in the constellation Taurus, as is often held
to have been once the case. The signs were then thirty degrees, or
one whole sign, in advance of their constellations. But no good
and sufficient reason can be given, nor be conceived even, why a
difference of only one sign should have been assumed by the inven
tors of the system. If any difference was to be assumed, all the
probabilities are that it would have been greater than this. But
how much greater is the question, and this is that to which we now
direct attention.
Sec. 142. The means by which we hope to fix the original dis
tance between the signs and constellations have been already briefly
explained. We propose to interrogate the primeval traditions of
mankind, with the view to ascertain whether they do not involve
an astronomical reference so definite as to reveal the state of the
heavens at the period to which they pertain. Our first appeal will
be to some iinportant traditions of the Chinese relating to their
sphere, which have been collected by Dr. Schlegel. This writer
opens his first chapter as follows : —
" The most ancient division of the Chinese celestial sphere, which
was at the same time the most natural, was that into four parts,
corresponding to the four principal epochs of the year, springtime,
summer, autumn, and winter. In these four parts they traced four
great constellations, as the following passage demonstrates : ' At
each of the four cardinal regions are found seven domiciles, or clus
ters of stars, which together form a single figure. Those of the
east form the figure of a Dragon, and those of the west form the
figure of a Tiger; the heads of these figures are to the south, and
their tails to the north. Those of the south form the figure of a
Bi7-d, and those of the north the figure of a Tortoise ; the heads of
these figures are to the west, and their tails to the east.' The east-

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 359
em part of the heavens was named the domicile of the Blue Dragon
(T'sang loung) ; the northern part was named the domicile of the
Black Warrior (Hiouen Won) ; the western part was named the
domicile of the White Tiger (Pe hou) ; and the southern part was
named the domicile of the Red Bird (Tchou naio). The first part
corresponds to springtime, the second to winter, the third to au
tumn, and the fourth to summer, as we learn from the celebrated
TchouAsze, who says : ' The Dragon corresponds to the medium of
heat, the Tiger to the medium of cold, the Bird to the maximum of
heat, and the Tortoise to the maximum of cold.' " ^
That which is very remarkable in the foregoing statements is the
fact that they represent the correspondence of the seasons to the
four cardinal regions, exactly the opposite of their actual corre
spondence at the present era of the world. The Dragon, situated
in the east, and which corresponds nearly to our Virgo, Libra, and
Scorpio, is said to mark the period of springtime. But, in fact, in
our day the east answers to autumn, and at the present epoch the
Chinese Dragon marks the autumnal season. The White Tiger,
situated in the west, answers nearly to our Pisces, Aries, and
Taurus, and to-day it corresponds to springtime. But according to
Chinese tradition, as stated above, it primitively marked the au
tumnal period. The Tortoise, or Black Warrior, is made up in part
of our winter constellations, and actually corresponds to the winter
season ; yet it is located in the north, with which, properly, the
summer should be associated. The Red Bird is composed of our
summer constellations, and really marks the summer season, but it
is situated in the south, with which we associate the winter. In
reference to this marked discrepancy ' between the traditional and
the present actual relation of these four great constellations to the
four seasons, and after enumerating the constellations of our sphere
which answer respectively to the Chinese Dragon, Tiger, etc.. Dr.
Schlegel observes : —
" But this distribution is all, in fact, inapplicable to any known
historical epoch ; for if we trace the constellations of the zodiac in
a circle, we have for the eastern constellations, Pisces, Aries, and
Taurus; for the western, Scorpio, Libra, and Virgo ; for the south
ern, Gemini, Cancer, and Leo ; and for the northern, Sagittarius,
Capricorn, and Aquarius. Thus, the order in which they traced
the ancient division of the Chinese sphere into four parts is wholly
reversed." 2
1 Uranographie Chinois, 1st chapter. * Ibid,, ch. i. p. 3.

360 HAR-MOAD.
Sec. 143. Notwithstanding the apparent progress thus far made,
we are not yet able positively to affirm that those who invented the
great celestial clock set it at any particular hour of the world. If
so, it was necessary to assume two points upon the dial-plate, one
as fixed, a second as movable, and as having departed primitively
from the other. If we consider the zodiacal signs as fixed and the
constellations movable, then the solstitial sign for midwinter, being
that of Capricorn, constitutes our permanent factor, and it was in
this sign that the ancient traditions localized the birth of the world
and of man. This zodiacal division is then the fixed point on the
celestial dial-plate ; and we must seek among the constellations of
the zodiac for the movable ope, which originally departed from
Capricorn. The very direct and seemingly conclusive proofs here
tofore introduced (Sees. 118, 119), tending to connect the zodiacal
" Twins," or Gemini, with the paradisiacal man, the first human
pair in fact, naturally give rise to the suspicion here that this con
stellation realizes for us the required movable factor upon the dial-
plate of the stellar world. It may seem to the reader a very sin
gular circumstance, and for this reason one of doubtful occurtence,
that a zodiacal constellation should be taken as a representative of
the first man, or of the first human pair ; and as this point is one
of such importance to our argument upon zodiacal chronology, it is
necessary to explain the manner in which such a circumstance
would very naturally occur. The facts affording the basis of the
explanation needed here, and which have been already fully verified,
are: 1st. That the sun's course, in its three phases as daily, annual,
and cosmical sun, was taken as a symbol of the life of man, the
course of the cosmical sun answering in this scheme to the history
of our race. 2d. That the antediluvian genealogy had been as
similated to the signs or constellations of the zodiac, beginning
with the first man, and ending with the hero of the deluge. It was
shown in the eleventh chapter that the Mosaic genealogy opened
with the sign Gemini, which represented thus the first man. We
thus understand why the traditionary first man was often identified
with the sun, and especially with the sun in Gemini.
Sec. 144. The evidences connecting the zodiacal Gemini, or
Twins, with the first man and woman, derived from the Hindu
legends relating to Yama and Yami; from the Scandinavian tradi
tions pertaining to Askur and Embla, especially in connection with

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 861
the Accadian As-kar, a name of Mercury signifying "the propitious
summit," or " happy garden," and which answered to Gemini in
the zodiacal arrangement, — these evidences, I say, embodied in the
sections just referred to, ought to be regarded as sufficient, although
other proofs will be developed as we proceed. Hence, we are au
thorized to assume that the constellation Gemini represented in
primeval tradition : 1st. The original progenitors of the human race.
2d. The lower hemisphere and the winter solstice. Geographically
speaking, we know from previous investigations that the birth of
man took place in the upper hemisphere. We know, also, that
nearly all the ancient cosmogonies centred in the sacred mount of
paradise, geographically located in the upper hemisphere. Hence,
the theory which assigned the origin of the world and of man to
the lower hemisphere, and to the period of the winter solstice, must
be taken in a purely astronomical sense. It will be seen, then, that
we have here an important, fundamental condition of our problem ;
and the only possible mode of satisfying it is to assume our present
upper hemisphere, where Gemini is now found, as having been the
lower hemisphere at the period to which these traditions pertained.
In other terms, it is necessary to suppose that the constellation
Gemini, assimilated to the first human pair, was then found in the
sign Capricorn, marking the period of the winter solstice, and sit
uated in the inferior heavens. This done, these traditions are at
once made clear.
While treating upon the condition of our problem as stated in
the last paragraph, I desire to place another one by the side of it,
at the same time presenting incidentally other proofs of the original
assimilation of Gemini to the first human pair. No characters ap
pear more frequently in the hymns of the Rig- Veda than the Asvins,
so termed, or " the horsemen ; " and Sanskrit scholars seem to take
it for granted that they are to be identified with the Dioscuri of
the classic mythology, that is to say, with Castor and Pollux, the
zodiacal Gemini.^ SaranyA, daughter of T/ashtar, " the creator,"
is mother of two pairs of twins, Yama and Yami, as the older, and
the Asvins, " the two horsemen," as the later. Professor Kuhn, as
cited by Professor Miiller, thus explains the legends centring in
these various characters : —
1 Vid. Whitney, Orient, and Ling. Studies, p. 38; Miiller, Chips, ii. p. 91.

362 HAR-MOAD.
" Tjfashtar, the creator, prepares the wedding for his daughter
SaranyA, i. e. the fleet, impetuous, dark storm-cloud, which in the
beginning of all things soared in space. He gives to her as hus
band Vivasvat (probably the sun), the brilliant, the light of the
celestial heights ; according to later views, which for the sake of
other analogies I cannot share, the sun-god himself. Light and
cloudy darkness beget two couples of twins : first, Yama, i. e. the
twin brother, and Yami, the twin-sister ; secondly, the Asvins, the
horsemen." ^
It would be desirable, if possible, to locate these legends astro
nomically and geographically, and the Vishnu Purana helps us to
do so in both senses. The version of these legends, as given in the
Vishnu Purana (p. 266), informs us definitely that the Asvins were
begotten " in the region of Uttara-Kuru." We are able to deter
mine the situation of this region, both geographically and astro
nomically. In the passage cited from M. Renan (Sec. 66), on the
location of the Gan-Eden of Genesis, Meru of the Hindus, etc., this
writer observes : " There is the Uttara-Kuru, ' the country of hap
piness,' of which Megasthenes speaks." M. Lenormant confirms
this view: "Among the Hindus, the men before, as well as those
after the deluge, descended from Mt. Meru. It is there that we
find the Uttara-Kuru, veritable terrestrial paradise, the traditions
relative to which had been collected by Megasthenes." ^ But there
existed an Uttara-Kuru celestial, as well as terrestrial. According
to Persian conception, the sacred river was located on the summit
of Albordj, or Meru, which penetrated the heavens in the region of
the North Star. It was traditionally on the banks of this sacred
river that the beautiful horses were engendered, evidently referring
to the Asvins themselves. M. Lenormant adopts the language of
M. Obry respecting the imperial gardens of Persia, called " para
dises," as follows : " These terrestrial paradises represented, among
the Persians, the celestial paradise of Ormazd, . . . planted upon
Albordj, ... it was on Mt. Meru, confounded with the Uttara-
Kuru of the firmament."^
Sec. 145. Thus, the celestial Uttara-Kuru was in the region of
Su-Meru, or the North Star, the terrestrial Uttara-Kuru being one
with the earthly paradise. We have now another direct proof of
1 Vid. Led. Sci. Language, 2d series, p. 503.
2 Frag, de Birose, p. 304.
» Vid. Ibid., p. 219. Cf. Obry, Du Berceau, etc., p. 116.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 363
the connection of Gemini with the first human pair and with the
terrestrial paradise. The Hindu Yama and Yayni, reputed first
man and woman, being twins, are related to Gem-ini, by the ety
mology of their names, and this zodiacal division is represented by
a man and woman in the Hindu sphere. The Asvins, the twin
horsemen, usually identified with the Dioscuri, assimilated to Gem
ini in classic mythology and upon the Greek sphere, are now seen
to have been begotten in the Uttara-Kuru, directly associated with
the mount of paradise. Besides this, SaranyA, " the cloud," mother
of the two pairs of twins, represents the primal chaos, and her
father Tj^ashtar is creator, and we have shown that all the ancient
cosmogonies centred in the sacred mount, traditional first abode of
man. The direct connection of Gemini, then, with the first human
pair and their happy abode, considering all the facts developed
in these studies, is a point upon vchich no more doubt can be en
tertained. But the " Uttara-Kuru of the firmament," astronomi
cally speaking, is the region of the north celestial pole, the Su-Meru
of the Hindus. Ample proofs will be presented in the next chap
ter that this celestial region is that of the source of the sacred river
of paradise, and that it was upon its banks that the celestial horses
were supposed to be engendered. It will be shown, also, that the
Asvins, properly considered, are the Centauri, especially the zodia
cal Sagittarius, directly opposite Gemini in the zodiacal arrange
ments. Lest this statement shall appear too hazardous in the mind
of the critic, I offer here two considerations tending to substantiate
it, reserving other proofs for another stud}'.
In the old Accadian calendar we have for the name of the month
answering to Sagittarius, Ab Gan-gan-na, " the month of many
clouds." 1 According to classic mythology the Centaur, assimilated
to Sagittarius, was born of Ixion and Nephele, the latter name sig
nifying "a cloud." ^ As previously shown, the Phoenician star
Su-gi appertained to Sagittarius. This word Su-gi signifies : 1st.
The front part of a chariot ; 2d. Rival, or rivalry, especially be
tween horsemen with chariots.^ All this corresponds perfectly with
1 Vid. Norris, Assyr. Dictionary, i. p. 51.
2 Smith, Class. Die, art. "Centaurus." Cf. Bernard, Die Myth., art. " Cen-
taurus." ' Sayce, Trans. Bib. Arch. Society, iii. p. 173, note 2. Cf. Delitzsch, Assyr.
Studien, pp. 120, 121.

364 HAR-MOAD.
the character : (a) Of Centaurus ; (b) . Of the Dioscuri ; (c) Of
the Asvins.^ We are thus justified in assuming, provisionally at
least, the assimilation of the Asvins, whose mother was SaranyA,
" the cloud," to Sagittarius or the Centaur, as one of these twins,
the other being Pegasus, as will appear hereafter. The two pairs
of twins, then, born of the Hindu Vivasvat and SaranyA, " the
cloud," were for Yama and Yami, the zodiacal Gemini, and for the
Asvins, the celestial horses ; these two couples being conceived in
some sense in opposition, just as Sagittarius and Gemini are in the
zodiacal band. To regard the Asvins as horses instead of horse
men is quite natural, as both their father and mother had assumed
the form of horses when they were begotten. Now, Yama and
Yami, as first man and woman, are thoroughly terrestrial charac
ters, and appertain thus to the terrestrial Uttara-Kuru, or paradise ;
thus, also, to the lower hemisphere and winter solstice as the tradi
tionary place and period of the birth of man. But the Asvins, the
celestial horses, are strictly astronomical characters, appertaining
thus to the Uttara-Kuru celestial, that is to say, to the Su-Meru of
the Hindus, the region of the celestial pole. We have here another
essential condition of our problem. It is this, to harmonize astro
nomically these traditional and legendary characters and facts. But
we shall have sufficient space in the present chapter to point out
another condition of the general problem before us.
Sec. 146. M. Dupuis develops some remarkable facts relative to
the natal hour of the world as held by the ancient astronomers,
and as he cites his authorities constantly, they ought to be, simply
as facts, fully relied upon : —
" It does not suffice us to determine the positions of the planets
in the heavens at the moment of the departure of the spheres ; it is
necessary to know the position of the heaven itself relative to the
horizon, and consequently to the day, if we would find exactly the
position of the heavens at the instant when the first ray of light
illuminated the world." " This position is given us by Firmicus
and Macrobius. The last named observes : ' At the moment when
the day commenced which first illuminated the universe, and when
all the elements issuing from chaos arranged themselves under the
brilliant form which we admire in the heavens, — day which we may
with reason term the natal day of the world, — it is said that Aries,
1 Smith and Bernard, art. " Centaurus," also ',' Dioscuri." Cf. Whitney, Orient.
and Ling. Studies, p. 38.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 365
or the Ram, occupied the centre of the heavens.' ' At the horizon
mounted Cancer carrying the crescent of the moon, followed imme
diately by Leo.' Firmicus places equally at the point called the
Horoscope, as to the east, the middle of Cancer, at the moment
when the heavens commenced to revolve. This astrological tradi
tion upon the position of Cancer, at the instant when the march of
Nature began, is confirmed by Eneas of Gaza, who says that the
Hierophants of Egypt, among their opinions upon the origin and
formation of the universe, made Cancer preside at the natal hour
of the world. This accords perfectly with the sentiment of Por
phyry, who assigns the commencement of the Egyptian year at the
new moon of Cancer, at the rising of Sirius (dog-star), which rises
always with this sign, and which presides at the birth of the world,
the same as Regulus, which at Babylon rises with it. This agrees
with the language of Solinus, on the occasion of the rising of Cani-
culus, that the Egyptian priests regard this moment as the natal
hour of the world, that is to say, that they assign the commence
ment of the world and of all the revolutions to the beginning of
their great year, or the Sothic period." Of Sirius the author adds:
" It was a paranatellon of Cancer, says Servius, that is to say, as he
himself explains this mode of expression, the principal star which
always accompanies the rising of Cancer. Thus Cancer mounts the
horizon at the moment of the birth of the world, and at the same
time Sirius rises ; both preside at the birth of all things, the one as
sio'u, the other as paranatellon. Behold, then, the state of the
heavens well determined, fixing in a manner the most precise the
position of the sphere at the moment when the revolutions com
menced." '¦
A striking confirmation of these traditionary notices connecting
the birth of the cosmos definitely with Cancer and the rising of
Sirius, astronomical events associated likewise in Egypt with the
periodical deluge or overflow of the Nile, is to be found in connec
tion with the Aryan Tvashtar, father of Saranyu, " the cloud." He
appears, as we have seen, in the character of " creator," and accord
ing to the Persian legends he causes a deluge for the destruction of
the wicked. At the same time he is identified with Sirius as a star,
and assigned to the fourth month of the calendar, answering to the
sign Cancer.2 Another confirmation of this tradition is to be found
1 Origin, etc., iii. pp. 175, 176.
^ Carre, L'Aneien Orient, ii. p. 342. Cf. Benfey, Monatsnamen, pp. 54-57, 94,
96 ; Lenormant, Frag, de Birose, p. 277. Tjashtar, the creator, is said to give his
daughter in marriage to Vivasvat, the sun. This giving the daughter in mar-
ria^e was an ordinary locution in China for the heliacal rising of a star; thus Dr.

366 HAR-MOAD.
in the facts : 1st. That the Egyptian Thoth, or Mercury, presided
over the commencement of the calendar, which coincided nearly
with Cancer, or the summer solstice. 2d. That the same Thoth,
as infernal Mercury, appears in the character of creator, and as
such is especially associated with the moon, which, according to
Macrobius, " accompanied the rising of Cancer at the natal hour
of the world." i
The fact that the zodiac as known to us was employed in Egypt
only at a late date does not essentially affect the foregoing state
ments, since all appears to have hinged upon the rising of the dog-
star, or Sirius, which in later periods was known to correspond to
Cancer. For the rest, the facts noted concerning T/ashtar as cre
ator and as Sirius ; concerning SaranyA, as daughter of T/ashtar,
as personifying the primal chaos ; finally, concerning Thoth as cre
ator, and as presiding over the opening of the year, all tend to con
firm the astrological tradition stated, as being not merely Egyptian,
but widely known among other peoples, including the Aryans of
Asia. But Cancer, in the minds of the authors cited by M. Dupuis,
was understood for the summer solstice, and the attendant heliacal
rising of Sirius ; this supposition, however, is in direct conflict with
the traditions equally reliable, ancient, and wide-spread, which
asssigned the natal hour of the world and the birth of man, not to
the summer, but definitely to the winter solstice. We know even,
from the data produced in the present chapter, that the Egyptians
themselves, from the remotest period, had associated these events
with the region Sutensinen, and with the period of the winter sol
stice. Thus, we have here another, and quite important, condition
of our general problem. It is, to reconcile these two contradictory
traditions, equally ancient as well as perfectly well authenticated.
M. Dupuis has correctly seen, in my view, that the summer solstice
was not that primitively intended in either tradition.
Schlegel says : " The rising of a star in the morning was termed its expansion,
and the rising in the evening its contraction. The heliacal rising of a star was
equally termed, ' to give his daughter in marriage,' as the sun seemed to conduct
the young star to the nuptials" {Uranographie, p. 21). This obviously offers
some explanation of T/ashtar as creator, on one hand, and as associated with
Sirius on the other, giving his daughter in marriage at the heliacal rising of this
star, the sun being in Cancer, marking the period of the birth of the cosmos.
1 Vid. Rawl. Herod., ii. pp. 237-240. Cf. Brugsch, Noucelles Recherches, pp.
14, 15, 22 ; also, De Rouge, Nomes de I'Egypte, p. 25.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 367
Sec. 147. It is a very significant circumstance that a palpable
contradiction, to be compared with the one just developed, is found
to exist between the Chinese traditions of a primitive character, on
one hand, and the later Chinese uranography, on the other. It has
been shown (Sec. 142) that four great constellations, each comprising
seven lunar mansions, had been originally assumed by the Chinese
as marking the four seasons of the year, and as corresponding to
the four cardinal regions. The constellation of the Blue Dragon
was put for the east ; that of the White Tiger for the west ; the Red
Bird corresponded to the south ; and the Tortoise, or Black Warrior,
to the north. For the east and west, the lunar houses, according to
their modern notation, agree perfectly in position with the ancient
order of the four great constellations above named. But it is a
remarkable fact that the lunar asterisms of the Black Warrior, put
for the north, are now found in those zodiacal divisions appertaining
to the lower hemisphere, as Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, etc. ;
while the lunar mansions composing the Red Bird, primitively put
for the south, are to-day located in those signs appertaining to the
upper hemisphere, as Gemini, Cancer, etc.^ The singular discre
pancy thus presented in the Chinese sphere, which is indeed quite
a mystery, constitutes the chief basis of Dr. Schlegel's calculations
upon the antiquity of the sphere among the Chinese ; an antiquity
which, according to his interpretation, amounts to about 18,500
years from the present time. My opinion is that the author's con
struction of the discrepancy referred to is fundamentally erroneous,
and that his resultant chronology is too great by many thousands
of years, but of this hereafter. We have in the data here produced
an additional element and condition of our general problem, and
our space forbids the development of any others in the present
chapter. We can only recapitulate the various facts now before
us, including those brought out in previous chapters, having a like
reference to our problem, as constituting really essential conditions
of it.
Sec. 148. 1st. In the seventh chapter it was fully established
that the primitive traditions relating to the terrestrial paradise had
been, at an unknown period, localized astronomically in the lower
hemisphere, and connected with the Greek Hades, likewise assigned
astronomically to the same region. But in the fifth chapter it had
1 Schlegel, Uranographie, pp. 1, 2 ; cf. pp. 171, 172, etc.

368 HAR-MOAD.
been shown that the lower hemisphere, astronomically speaking, was
put symbolically for the earth, according to the principles embodied
in the zodiacal temple ; but in the sixth chapter, this earth was
found, to have been really the traditional earth known to the first
men ; that is to say, the terrestrial paradise. All this is perfectly
consistent; but when it is shown, as has been done, that the con
stellation Gemini had been assimilated to the first man and woman,
we encounter a difficulty in the fact that Gemini is now in the
upper hemisphere, and really marks the period of the summer sol
stice. If we assume, however, that owing to the law of precession
the inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic was just the oppo
site of what it is to-day, at the peiiod to which the traditions of
paradise appertained, we should then find the constellation Gemini
in the lower hemisphere zodiacally, and all the discrepancies other
wise appearing would be at once removed.
2d. The fact has been verified that, according to primitive tra
dition inherited by distantly separated races, the creation of the
world and the birth of humanity took place in the lower hemi
sphere, and at the period of the winter solstice. In all the cos
mogonies, the organization of the cosmos and the birth of man are
placed in immediate connection ; and it has been shown heretofore
that the traditions relating to both centred in the paradisiacal moun
tain, the birthplace of man, located geographically in the upper
hemisphere. Assuming the same original inclination of the earth's
axis to the ecliptic as before, we shall find a consistent explanation
of these traditions. 1st. These notions must be interpreted astro
nomically ; since geographically man was created in the ujiper
hemisphere. 2d. The lower hemisphere astronomically was as
similated to the terrestrial paradise, where man was actually cre
ated. 8d. On the present assumption relative to the earth's axis,
the constellation Gemini, which was put for the first human pair,
was actually in the lower hemisphere, and marked the period of
the solstice of winter, instead of that of summer, as is at present
the case.
3d. According to Hindu legends, especially as contained in the
Vishnu Purana, the Asvins, or "horsemen," were begotten in the
Uttara-Kuru, " the country of happiness ; " that is to say, in the
region of the mount of paradise. As the Asvins are purely astro
nomical characters, we must assume here the " Uttara-Kuru of the

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 369
firmament ; " in other terms, the Su-Meru, or the north celestial
pole. But in point of fact, the Asvins must be assimilated to the
Centauri, especially to Sagittarius, which is in the lower hemisphere.
Again, Yama and Yami, having the same parentage as the Asvins,
are traditionally put for the first man and woman ; are thus em
inently terrestrial in character, and to be associated with the ter
restrial Uttara-Kuru, or the terrestrial paradise. At the same time
they are assimilated zodiacally to Gemini, which is now in the upper
hemisphere. It will be seen at once that the essential conditions of
these legends require a complete reversal of the present positions
of the two constellations assimilated to the two pairs of twins.
Gemini should be in the lower hemisphere, symbol of the terrestrial
paradise, and Sagittarius in the upper hemisphere, corresponding to
the celestial Uttara-Kuru. The assumption of the primitive in
clination of the earth's axis, as already proposed, would reconcile
all these discrepancies. Sagittarius would then mark the period
of the summer solstice, while Gemini would mark that of the win
ter solstice.
4th. We have shown that according to an ancient doctrine hel 1
by the Egyptian priests, and apparently prevalent in various quar
ters of the old world, the natal hour of the universe was marked by
the heliacalrising of Sirius, or the dog-star, with the sun in Cancer;
that is to say, at the summer solstice as supposed. Now this astro
nomical theme is not only in direct conflict with other Egyptian
traditions, equally primitive and authentic, but it contradicts the
Chinese doctrines, which in every other particular accord perfectly
with the Egyptian, and which assign the birth of the cosmos from
the conflict of light and darkness to the period of the winter sol
stice, marked by Capricorn. As correctly apprehended by M.
Dupuis, the original doctrine had reference to the winter solstice,
and thence to the period when Cancer (considering the signs mov
able) marked that period ; and thus again our supposition relative
to the inclination of the earth's axis at the epoch referred to con
stitutes the basis of explanation.
5th. ^The simple fact that the great Chinese constellation termed
the Tortoise, or Black Warrior, was put for the north leads us natu
rally to suppose that the lunar asterisms comprising it would be
found in the constellations of the upper hemisphere; but in fact
they are now found in those appertaining to the lower hemisphere.

370 HAR-MOAD.
The same in regard to the great constellation of the Red Bird, primi
tively put for the south ; the lunar houses of which are not found in
the zodiacal divisions of the lower hemisphere, but in those of the
upper. For the great constellations of the east and west no such
anomalous circumstances appear. Dr. Schlegel's proposed method
of explanation of these discrepancies results, as before stated, in a
chronology of 18,500 years for the Chinese sphere. But I think it
is demonstrable that his conclusions, considering the data, are far
from correct. It appears to me that the assumed reversion of the
inclination of the earth's axis, which offers so ready a solution of
all the other contradictions that have been stated, affords the only
true ground of explanation in the present instance.
Sec. 149. Properly, another very essential condition of our
problem, relating to the primitive pole star, might be included with
those already presented. But as I have wished to develop this
entire subject to the reader's mind in the precise order in which it
gradually revealed itself to my own mind, the point referred to will
be taken up in another connection, where the facts relating to it will
take the form of a confirmation of what has gone before. At pre
sent, the constellation Gemini is in the sign Cancer, and both mark
the period of the summer solstice ; while the constellation Sagittarius
is in the sign Capricorn, both marking the period of the winter
solstice. Our assumed primitive inclination of the earth's axis, in
order to fulfill the various conditions of the general problem before
us, supposes that at the period referred to the constellation Gemini
was in the sign Capricorn, answering to the winter solstice, while
the constellation Sagittarius was in the sign Cancer, corresponding
to the summer solstice. In other words, I have assumed that the
solstitial points, and of course the equinoctial, have fallen back just
half the circle, or six entire divisions of the zodiac, since the period
from which the primitive traditions of mankind were first derived;
and it is on this assumption, as a constant principle applicable alike
to each of the conditions of the problem, that I have sought to re
concile the contradictions involved in them. Upon ordinary ques
tions pertaining to high antiquity, the force of evidence derived
from the ready explanations afforded by means of the principle
assumed would be regarded as entirely sufficient in proof of the
correctness of that principle. But in a question so very important
as the one before us, I do not think it is sufficient, and shall not

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 371
ask the reader to receive it as such. We are, however, fully jus
tified in a provisional assumption that our principle is correct. It
has been inductively established thus far, and it remains to test it
.according to the same inductive method.
As the reader is probably aware, all the zodiacal constellations are
to-day one entire division in advance of the signs having the same
name ; otherwise expressed, all the signs are one division of the
zodiac behind their respective constellations. This difference in
volves a period of about 2100 years ago for the time when all the
signs and constellations coincided in position. Since our theory
supposes an advance movement of the constellations, or a retro
grade one of the signs, to the extent of six entire divisions, the
result would be that there was a relative difference of five divisions
of the zodiac between the signs and the constellations at the period
to which the primitive traditions of mankind related. This would
involve an antiquity for that period of about 12,500 years from the
present time. It was at that hour of the world, if my views are
correct, for which the hands on the dial-plate of the heavens were
originally adjusted. So far as concerns the data now before us, my
theory, even if admitted as correct, does not absolutely suppose the
existence of a completed zodiacal arrangement at the epoch in
dicated. It presumes simply the existence of certain constellations,
traditionally associated with certain events and with certain epochs
of the year, especially the solstitial periods. The relative positions
of the same constellations to the same annual phases of nature to
day suffice to determine the length of the period approximatively be
tween the two astronomical eras. But the zodiacal arrangement,
when perfected, bears obvious reference to those very traditions
whose antiquity we seek to determine. For the rest, we must seek
further light.

CHAPTER XIV.
PRIMITIVE ADJUSTMENT OF THE ZODIACAL SYSTEM.
Sec. 150. The astronomical, or properly the astro-chronological
theme which is to constitute the subject of the present study the
reader finds in our fourth plate. It represents the relative positions
of the zodiacal signs and constellations which it is necessary to
assume, in order to satisfy the various conditions of our problem, as
these were brought out in the last chapter. In the theme pre
sented I have preferred to consider the signs as fixed, and the con
stellations as movable, since such appears to have been the custom
at Babylon, according to the recorded observations of the vernal
equinox already noticed, and for the reason that such method
agrees better with the apparent aspects of nature. This, however,
is a matter purely optional, the result being the same in either
method of notation. In the plate, the inner circle is taken to rep
resent the signs, — Aries being in the west, at the vernal equinox,
Libra in the east, to mark the autumnal equinox, the reader being
supposed to face the south in examining the plate. The second
circle is put for the constellations, their relative positions to the
signs being that which, according to my theory, truly represent their
actual positions at the period to which the primitive traditions ap
pertained. The third circle contains the names of the twelve stars
of Phoenicia, which I supposed to have agreed rather with the con
stellations than with the signs. Finally, the antediluvian geneal
ogy is placed in the fourth or outer circle, according to the ad
justment of the same to these Phoenician asterisms. Our main
interest, of course, centres in the two inner circles. As before
intimated, it is assumed that the relative positions of the constella
tions in the second circle truly represent the aspects of the heavens
in relation to the signs and to the earth at the epoch from which
the primeval traditions were derived. The constellation Gemini

PLATE IV.
in:

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 373
was then in the sign Capricorn, marking the period of the winter
solstice. The constellation Virgo was in the sign Aries, answering
to the vernal equinox ; Sagittarius was in the sign Cancer, corre
sponding to the summer solstice ; while Pisces was in Libra, mark
ing the period of the autumnal equinox. Thus, the aspects of the
heavens relative to the earth were precisely the opposite of what
they are at the present day. Such, then, is the astro-chronological
theme which we have provisionally assumed with a view to sub
mit it to the most rigid tests possible.
A few additional remarks are submitted here in explanation of
the ground principle constituting really our method of research.
The various traditions and legends pertaining to the first ages of
humanity are the facts for tvhose existence we have to account. The
two chief elements comprising these facts are certain geographical
and astronomical references, recollections of which had been inher
ited alike by peoples the most widely separated in antiquity. The
aspects of nature on one hand and of the heavens upon the other
which were most familiar to the first men, forming in fact the
world in which their sensuous, intellectual, and moral beings had
their birth and development, constituted the normal and producing
cause giving rise to the conceptions transmitted to their posterity,
these being the traditions and legends to which we refer. We can
not account for their origin and transmission upon any other nat
ural and rational principles than the surroundings of primeval
humanity. Geographically we have determined beyond question
what were the general aspects most familiar to the first men. Such
was the work of the sixth chapter. This element is thus a known
factor in our main problems. That which is unknown is the astro
nomical element. What we have to do is, therefore, to assume
such a phase of the heavens, in relation to the geographical element,
as renders it possible to explain therefrom the origin and transmis
sion of those ideas which have been passed in review, and this
upon natural principle. We very well know that, in the present
relation of the heavens to the earth, it would be impossible to
reconcile the two chief factors, the geographical and astronomical,
forming the basis of primeval tradition ; impossible to account for
the rise, development, and transmission of these conceptions, except
upon arbitrary grounds or mere conjecture. The question for us
now is : Does the theme presented in the fourth plate satisfy all the

374 HAR-MOAD.
conditions of our problem? Does this scheme enable us to say.
Such was the state of the heavens in relation to the earth which
gave rise naturally to the primitive conceptions transmitted to after
ages, as well as to the various doctrines growing out of them? It
will be seen from these remarks that the method proposed is the
only legitimate one in such an investigation as this now pending.
The course also to be pursued in the present chapter will be clearly
apprehended, although our inquiries will not be confined to the
simple conditions of the problem, as these were established in the
last chapter. In fact, it is proposed to include quite a number of
points in the present study beside the conditions named, all having
a direct bearing, however, upon the main question before us.
Sec. 151. Enlarging the sphere of the present inquiries, as just
intimated, we recur here to a matter previously brought out, namely,
the location of the terrestrial paradise astronomically in the in
ferior heavens. The fact of such location was shown in the seventh
chapter, and no doubt of it can be entertained. It agrees perfectly
with that other wide-spread doctrine, established in the last chap
ter, which assigned the birth of man to the lower hemisphere and
to the period of the solstice of winter. We know from previous
investigations that the birth of man was in the upper hemisphere
geographically, and this fact compels us to see in this doctrine a
distinct astronomical reference. It so happens that the very con
stellation to which the first human pair had been assimilated, being
the zodiacal Twins or Gemini, marks to-day the period of the sum
mer solstice. But we take the tradition referred to in earnest, giv
ing it an astronomical interpretation, since it will not in any sense
bear a geographical one. Thus, in our plate, we have so adjusted
all the constellations to the signs that Gemini shall be found in
the lower hemisphere, in the sign Capricorn, in fact, which answers
to the period of the winter solstice. This, then, as we suppose,
was the state of the heavens in relation to the earth which was
one of the chief causes of the transfer of the terrestrial paradise
zodiacally to the lower hemisphere, and which contributed to the
rise of that doctrine, so prevalent in antiquity, that the birth of
man took place in this hemisphere, and precisely at the epoch of the
winter solstice. The birth of man certainly took place in the terres
trial paradise, and as it has been shown that this was located in the
inferior heavens, the two dogmas agree perfectly, confirming each

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 375
other, and our plate exhibits the" necessary astronomical arrange
ment to coincide with them. Assuming this position of the hea
vens at the peiiod referred to, and considering the assimilation of
Gemini to the first human pair, we see at once that these ancient
ideas would naturally take their rise under such a state of circum
stances, or from the outward phenomena then most familiar to the
sensuous nature of man.
But we should bring into our present view another important
fact, which was amply verified in the fifth chapter, namely, that
according to the symbolism embodied in the primitive sphere, es
pecially in the zodiacal temple, representing the cosmos itself, the
lower hemisphere astronomically was put for the earth, particularly
the terrestrial paradise, while the upper hemisphere represented the
heavens, more definitely the celestial paradise. This symbolism
also perfectly agrees with the doctrines just noted as to the loca
tion of paradise in the inferior heavens, and in regard to the birth of
man in the same region, precisely at the period of midwinter. The
symbolic arrangement here described constitutes, in fact, another
condition of our general problem, and the plate exhibits the exact
state of the heavens relative to the earth to coincide with all, and
to account for the rise ot such conceptions. The lower hemisphere
astronomically, to answer all these conditions, has to be taken, 1st.
For the earth ; 2d. For the terrestrial paradise ; 3d. For the place
of the birth of man: while the constellation Gemini must repre
sent, 1st. The original progenitors of mankind ; 2d. The period of
the winter solstice. Our plate fulfills every one of these conditions,
and shows the precise state of the heavens relative to the earth
which would naturally give rise to these notions. It would be utterly
impossible, I think, by any other zodiacal arrangement to explain
these traditionary ideas, except by resort to pure hypothesis and
arbitrary speculation.
The causes, then, which operated in after ages to transfer the
terrestrial paradise to the lower hemisphere astronomically were
for the most part perfectlj' natural, and our zodiacal theme explains
to us precisely their nature. The constellation to which the first
human pair had been assimilated was then found in this region of
the heavens, and it marked the period of the winter solstice. In
process of time, and as due to the phenomenon of precession of the
equinoxes, these aspects of nature wholly changed, the inferior por-

376 HARr-MOAD.
tion of the zodiac became the superior, as we find it in the present
period. But during this change tradition remained constant and
faithful to its origin. It was the traditionary idea which still per
sisted in localizing the terrestrial paradise and all the cosmical
legends in the inferior heavens, and the construction of the sphere
in later epochs was made in many respects to correspond.
Sec. 152. In the ninth chapter (Sec. 100), we have cited M. De
Vogu6 upon the twofold cause of all things, heaven and earth,
father and mother, light and darkness ; these operating uniformly
according to the law of union in opposition. This principle applied
universally, as held by the ancients, and the author just named
thus alludes to its connection with the zodiac : " These twelve signs
in their turn are apportioned between the two principles, accord
ingly as they are considered male or female, and the same is true
of the thirty-six principal constellations which preside, some over
the celestial and others over the subterranean (really the terres
trial) world. This entire celestial army is animated and active. . . .
The reciprocal action of all these things, their combinations and
antagonisms, produce all the phenomena of the sensible world, since
nature is composed of contraries, and harmony is born of the reac
tion of contraries. We might almost add. From the identity of con
traries, since this celebrated formulary constitutes actually the basis
of the entire system." We have seen that, according to the Chi
nese and Egyptian traditions, the birth of the world and of man
took place as the result of a peculiar union in opposition between
heaven and earth, light and darkness, which occurred precisely at
the period of the solstice of winter. The same notions prevailed at
Babylon, as embodied in the cosmical legends relative to the battle
between Bel and Omarka, male and female principles ; a battle
that becomes a conjugal relation in the theogony, as M. Lenor
mant has correctly observed. This principle of union in opposi
tion, then, from which the birth of the cosmos and of man took
place, precisely at the solstice of winter, was an ancient, a widely
prevalent, and a fundamental doctrine. It formed the basis, in fact,
of the religious philosophy of antiquity. Now, in order to realize
this primitive and traditionary dogma assigning all to the inferior
heavens and to the winter solstice, it has been necessary to bring
the constellation Gemini into the sign Capricorn, which marks this
solstitial period, and thus to adjust the entire zodiacal system

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 377
according to this scale. The peculiar combinations which a slight
examination of our fourth plate reveals, as the result of such ad
justment, afford a striking illustration of the principle of union in
opposition, and most fully explain the notion of the birth of the
world and of man from the remarkable concurrence of such cir
cumstances. Confining ourselves to the two inner circles of the plate, the
reader observes in the lower portion the constellatioti Gemini con
nected with the sign Sagittarius, by the line a, b. Gemini,
assimilated to the first human pair, is placed here in the sign
Capricorn, which marks the winter solstice, in order to realize the
traditionary idea of the birth of the world and of man at that
period. Gemini and Sagittarius are directly opposed to each other
in the ordinary zodiacal arrangement, being also in opposite hemi
spheres. Here the opposition is between the constellation Gemini
and sign Sagittarius. But from the line a, b, in the lower portion,
cast the eye to the line c, d, directly above it in the uppermost
part of the circle, where we have now the sign Gemini opposed to
the constellation Sagittarius. By inspection it will be seen that
this law of the combination of opposites prevails throughout the
entire circle of asterisms. We proceed, then, to point out another
one. Note the opposition of the sign Sagittarius, marked a below
to the sign Gemini marked d above. This is a normal feature of
the zodiac. But see the same feature reduplicated between the
constellations Gemini, marked b, and Sagittarius, marked c. This
law also prevails throughout the whole circle. Finally, we have to
note the opposition between the constellation Gemini, b, and the
sign Gemini, d, directly above it ; on the other hand, between the
sign Sagittarius, a, and the constellation Sagittarius, c, also directly
over it. The same law obtains through the entire circle. Here is
a threefold law of the combination of opposites which prevails in
every quarter of the system, as represented in our plate. It is
either an unparalleled accidental circumstance, or a most ingen
iously contrived arrangement. The writer of these pages certainly
never contrived it, for he did not discover it till after the last
chapter had been written, which determined the assumed adjust
ment of the zodiacal system with a view to answer the conditions
of our problem. Compare now the tradition of the birth of the
world and of man from the union in opposition of the two princi-

378 HARr-MOAD.
pies, supposed to take place at the winter solstice, with the three
fold law of opposition which results from the assumed zodiacal
arrangement dictated by the terms of that tradition. The direct
relation between the two is extraordinary ; and it is difficult to
avoid the conclusion that our plate actually represents the state of
circumstances which gave rise to this ancient and traditionary'
dogma which prevailed so widely in antiquity.
1st. We have seen that the sphere, especially the zodiacal temple,
was a symbol of the cosmos. 2d. That the fundamental doctrine of
all the cosmogonies was that of union in opposition, like male and
female, heaven and earth. 3d. The constellations on one hand and
the signs on the other were the most appropriate symbols of the
twofold principle from which all originated. 4th. The threefold law
of opposition between the constellations and signs as shown in the
fourth plate offers, then, the most striking explanation of, and liter
ally the key to, that condition of things in which all these notions
originated. We see what was the precise state of th^ sphere, of
the zodiacal temple, when first taken as the symbol of the cosmos,
and as the basis of the ancient cosmogonies. All considered, it is
impossible to resist the conviction that we are here in the presence
of a great fact, and no fortuitous circumstance. It is easy to per
ceive here why the conditions of the problem, as involved in the
primitive traditions, forced us to assume the present astronomical
theme : it was the identical state of the heavens in relation to the
earth which gave rise to those traditions and the conditions involved
in them.
Sec. 153. I desire to trace briefly here the relation of the zodi
acal scheme before us to the fundamental doctrines of the " celestial
earth," or " terrestrial heaven," as developed in the three chapters
devoted to this subject. The primitive connection of the celestial
earth with the mount of paradise, from whence the ideas involved
in it had been traditionally derived by the nations of antiquity, was
fully established in the studies referred to. At the base the notion
was that of a heaven -f- earth ; or an earth divided off in the manner
ot the heavens, according to the cardinal regions, and placed in
direct relation to a certain celestial space, of which the terrestrial
was esteemed a reproduction, or express imitation. All things on
the earth were held to be copies of things celestial, from which they
were supposed to be derived as their original. As before remarked.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 379
actually the primitive celestial earth was the paradisiacal mountain
itself, the first abode of man. But it was shown in the seventh
chapter that both had been transferred astronomically to the lower
hemisphere in subsequent tradition, an explanation of which fact
was submitted in previous chapters, and particularly in the very
last section. Again, with the first human pair the constellation
Gemini had been identified ; and the birth of this original cosmos
had been assigned to the period of the winter solstice. If, now, we
compare these notions of a "celestial earth," together with the
other data connected with it, with the astronomical theme offered
in our plate, it will be impossible not to recognize at once the vari
ous and striking analogies existing between the two orders of ideas.
Their identity in origin can hardly be doubted. It must have been
this zodiacal scheme, and no other, that gave rise alike to the funda
mental doctrine of union in opposition, and to the notion that all
things on earth were reproductions of heavenly originals. The
" celestial earth," in fact, was only the completed cosmos, both
being produced from the operations of one and the same law;
namely, that so ably exposed to us by M. De Vogii^, and so per
fectly embodied in the zodiacal arrangement before us. The two
principles, male and female, heaven and earth, light and darkness,
the upper and lower hemisphere, — these two principles, I say,
whose inherent and fundamental union in opposition was the ground
thought of all, are perfectly symbolized in the constellations and
signs, under the peculiar method of grouping them exhibited in our
plate. No contrivance could more significantly represent to the
eye those notions which constituted the basis of the cosmical theo
ries of antiquity. But we return now to a consideration of the main
conditions of our problem, some of which have been noticed already
in the present study.
All that has to be done to realize the Egyptian tradition relative
to the natal hour of the world, at the same time to reconcile the
two versions of it as presented in the last chapter, is simply to
change our method of notation, considering the signs as movable,
instead of the constellations; and then to assume the same amount
of precession, as done in the scheme represented in the fourth plate.
In such case, we transfer the sign Cancer to the position of Capri
corn, marking the winter solstice j and the sign Capricorn to the
position of Cancer, marking the period of the summer solstice.

380 HAR-MOAD.
We thus harmonize the traditions derived from the classic authors,
respecting the natal hour of the universe, with those of the monu
ments, which localized the organization of the world in the region
of Sutensinen, when Osiris, symbol of the life of humanity, is
manifested to the light. It was obviously to the period of the win
ter solstice that both traditions referred ; and M. Dupuis was per
fectly correct in adopting this view. Thus understood, the Egyp
tian and Chinese traditions become almost identical. This leads us
to notice briefly the marked discrepancy existing between the tradi
tions of the Chinese and their uranography, to which reference was
made in the last study.
Sec. 154. The four great constellations of the Chinese sphere,
each composed of seven lunar mansions, each put for one of the
four cardinal regions, are very properly regarded by Dr. Schlegel as
primitive ; as appertaining to the earliest epochs. The constella
tion of the Red-Bird, as has been seen, was located traditionally in
the south ; and it is remarkable that it answers to our Gemini, Can
cer, etc., at present in the upper hemisphere. On the other hand,
the Tortoise, otherwise termed the Black- Warrior, was traditionally
assigned to the north ; while it is made up of our Sagittarius, Aqua
rius, etc., which appertain to the lower hemisphere. In accordance
with these facts, it seems that Chinese astronomers associate the
south with summer,- although the sun at this season is in the north ;
and likewise, that they associate the north with winter, notwithstand
ing the sun is then in the south. But there is much reason to be
lieve that this habit of thought was not primitive'; that it originated
rather in the anomalous connection of asterisms appertaining to the
upper hemisphere with the great constellation of the south, or the
Red-Bird ; and so in reference to the Black-Warrior put for the south,
retilly composed of asterisms, many of them belonging to the inferior
heavens. It is worthy of especial note here that the Chinese regard
the Red-Bird put for the south as a Phoenix ; and this circumstance
adds force to the suggestion which would identify the Chinese
Phoenix with the Bennen, or Phoenix, located by the Egyptians in
the mystical region of Sutensinen, in whose great nest the sun was
supposed to renew itself at the period of midwinter. If such iden
tification be admitted, then the Red-Bird located in the south an
swered likewise, primitively, to the sun in the south, or in the lower
hemisphere. The difficulty then would be found in the fact that

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 381
this asterism is made up of our Gemini, Cancer, etc., which at pre
sent are found in the upper hemisphere. On the whole, I believe
the position of the heavens as exhibited in our fourth plate offers
the true explanation of these contradictions. The asterism termed
the Red-Bird had its origin at the period when the constellation
Gemini was found in the sign Capricorn, marking thus the period
of the winter solstice.
We turn attention briefly to the great constellation of the north,
the Tortoise, composed of our Sagittarius, Aquarius, etc. Assigning
this asterism to the same period as before for its origin, we should
find Sagittarius, Aquarius, etc., in the upper hemisphere, as seen in
the plate. I think it more than probable that we should recognize
here some primitive connection of ideas with the cosmical Tortoise,
conceived by the Chinese as having upon its back the image of the
eight celestial regions and of the seven stars of the chariot, the
legend relating to which was produced in a previous chapter. But
more important for us here is the fact, as abundantly established by
Dr. Schlegel, that the constellation of the east, or the Blue-Dragon,
was held traditionally to represent the vernal equinox.^ It will be
readily perceived that this tradition supposes a complete reversion
of all the seasons as compared with the present age of the world ;
and yet our plate exhibits an astronomical theme which implies
just such a state of things. Thus, it must be admitted, I think,
that the hypothesis assumed by us, relative to the primitive position
of the constellations of the zodiac, affords a ready solution of the
difficulties referred to as pertaining to Chinese uranography.
Sec. 155. We proceed now to consider the Hindu legends relat
ing to the two pairs of twins, offspring of Vivasvat and Saranyu.
The fact has been often stated in previous studies that the mount
of paradise was supposed to unite the heavens and earth. Some
times this sacred locality was conceived as an immense conical hill ;
but at others, as a vast column. The summit, in either case, was
held to penetrate the heavens in the region of Su-Meru, the celes
tial pole ; and this region was taken for the celestial paradise, united
thus to that of men by means of the sacred mount. It was fully
shown in the last chapter that both pairs of twins were directly as
sociated with this mountain. Yama and Yami, the first pair, were
the reputed first man and woman ; and their connection with
^ Vid, Uranographie Chinois, pp. 56-58.

382 HAR-MOAD.
Gemini, or the '' Twins," is placed beyond doubt. As for the second
pair, the Asvins, the Vishnu Purana proves that they were begotten
in the region of Uttara-Kuru, evidently the Uttara-Kuru celestial,
since they are purely astronomical characters. This celestial region
was that penetrated by the summit of the sacred mount, the Meru
of the Hindus, Albordj of the Persians. With these facts in mind,
it is important to note this text from the Zend-Avesta: " I invoke,
I celebrate the divine summit, source of waters, and the water given
by Mazda," to which M. Carr^ adds the note : " This source is the
Arduissur (or Avanda) at the summit of Albordj, from whence
issue all the waters that flow upon the earth." ^ To these extracts,
we must add still another, cited by Professor Benfey from an an
cient author as a comment upon the foregoing text from the Avesta :
"The divine Burga (Albordj), Ized of women, whose nature is
water ; it is the source of generations. It is the navel of waters,
because upon it js the source of the river Avanda, from which the
beautiful horses were generated." ^ Thus, the Asvins are begotten
in the celestial Uttara-Kuru, identical with the source of waters,
from which the beautiful horses were generated. Connect with
these data the fact well known that the very name Pegasus, applied
to the celestial mare, has the sense of " source of waters," since she
was supposed to have been born near the source of Oceanus.^
The foregoing statements sufficiently justify us in identifying the
flying horse, Pegasus, as one of the Asvins ; and the proofs intro
duced in the last chapter tend equally to connect Sagittarius, or the
Centaurus, with the other. The objection that these are horses,
and not horsemen, as the term Asvins denotes, can have but little
force ; for the Asvins are begotten by Vivasvat and Saranyu, both
having assumed the form of horses (Vish. Puran., p. 266). If, now,
we examine the astronomical theme exhibited in the fourth plate,
it will not be difficult to recognize its perfect accord with all the
data now established relating to the two pairs of twins. The con
stellation Gemini, assimilated to Yama and Yami as first man and
woman, is found in the lower hemisphere, where we are to locate
the terrestrial paradise, or Uttara-Kuru. Sagittarius is found in
the upper hemisphere in that zodiacal position which best answers
1 L'Aneien Orient, t. ii. p. 341.
2 Monatsnamen, pp. 208, 211.
8 Smith's Class. Die, art. "Pegasus."

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 383
to the Uttara-Kuru celestial. In point of fact, Sagittarius is lo
cated upon the borders of the milky way, which was really the,sacred
river from which the beautiful horses were born ; but this is a point
to be verified in the next chapter. We merely assume it now, in
order to complete our explanation of these legends.
It is proper to remark here that all Sanskrit scholars concede the
difficulties to be encountered in a satisfactory interpretation of the
legends relating to the Asvins. For the most part, their character
has been viewed with reference simply to the diurnal aspects of
nature. They evidently relate to the sun, as evinced by their fre
quent connection with chariots, that is, the chariots of the sun.
Now the sun-god really involves three phases of character, namely,
the daily, annual, and cosmical ; and the notion of opposition, so
fundamental in that of both pairs of twins, actually underlies all
these phases. There is the opposition between day and night, sum
mer and winter, and so of the primordial night from which the first
light is born. In all, also, there is the notion of union ; hence
union in opposition. Finally, as regards the Asvins, their reference
to the diurnal phase of nature is generally admitted; Professor
Kuhn has shown that they have a cosmical import, since their
mother is the dark " storm-cloud " representing chaos ; and for the
annual phase, I believe the facts developed in these researches will
be regarded as conclusive. It seems to me that the fourth plate
accurately represents the state of the heavens when all these
legends had their birth.
Sec. 156. Thus far in the present study we have been mainly oc
cupied with the attempt to show that the astronomical theme before
us actually fulfills in a most satisfactory manner all the conditions of
the chronological problem which were established in the last chap
ter. But in addition to this, we have shown the existence of several
remarkable features, as involved in our assumed zodiacal arrange
ment, that seemed to explain the origin of some of the fundamental
doctrines pertaining to the cosmical and religious philosophy of
antiquity. We now turn attention to matters less general in their
bearing, but which will afford not less striking proofs, tending to
the support of our general hypothesis, all connected with the zodia
cal scheme before us.
In the tablets of the twelve stars of Phoenicia, we found the star
Al-lap, or the Taurus, put for the country of the east, and the star

384 HAR-MOAD.
Lab-a, or Aries, for the country of the west. These points of the
compass being directly opposite, it was necessary, in order to real
ize such an arrangement, to conceive the Taurus as located in Libra,
formerly the Pincers of Scorpio. This called to mind the artistic
representations of the sacrifice of the taurus, in which a scorpion is
uniformly seen attacking the generative organs of the victim. The
first circumstance gave rise to the suspicion that there was a mys
tical allusion, on the part of the scribe, to the cherubim placed at
the east of the Garden of Eden ; especially as the sacred mount was
located zodiacally in Libra. In the chapter devoted to the subject
of these symbolic figures, the arrangement of the scribe and the
representations upon the art monuments contributed essentially to
the discovery of the fundamental notion involved in the cherubim.
But this direct association of the Taurus with Libra seemed quite
arbitrary, and wholly the result of a symbolical conception. There
was not the slightest suspicion at the time that any such relation
had ever actually existed. However, in our attempt to ascertain
the astronomical period to which the primitive traditions of the
world pertained, including those relating to the Garden of Eden,
we have been led to assume the zodiacal scheme now being studied
as accurately representing the state of the heavens at that epoch.
It must be admitted, I think, as somewhat remarkable that we find
here the constellation Libra in the sign Taurus, indicating thus a
direct, primitive association of these two zodiacal divisions. It will
be seen at once that this fact affords a complete explanation, as well
as an important confirmation, of our theory respecting the funda
mental import of the cherubic animals, as developed in Sec. 130.
On the other hand, the data there presented serve powerfully to
support the hypothesis that our fourth plate actually represents the
astronomical condition of things from which the traditions of Eden
must be dated. In a word, the two propositions explain and sup
port each other.
But another coincidence, not less striking than the one just dis
covered, is the fact that, according to our plate, the constellation
Scorpio was found in the sign Gemini at the period to which we sup
pose the primeval traditions of the world pertain. Gemini repre
sents, of course, the first man and woman according to the abundant
proofs heretofore presented. As regards Scorpio, recall here the
ideas found centring in the two signs Libra and Scorpio in the chap-

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 385
ter on the Cherubim. Thus, it is during the sun's passage through
Scorpio, according to Egyptian tradition, that Typhon kills Osiris,
or the god with the head of an ox. To this must be added the
fact, not mentioned in the twelfth chapter, of the definite associa
tion of Dan with the same sign in Jacob's last vision, thus: "Dan
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the
horse's heels" (Gen. xlix. 17). The word for "serpent" here is
the Hebrew Na-khash, the same as applied to the serpent of Eden ;
and it is well known that the serpent was often substituted for the
scorpion in the zodiac. Now, according to our astronomical theme,
the constellation Scorpio, or serpent, was found in the sign Gemini
at the period of the origin of the primitive traditions. Finally, we
note the appearance in the sign Gemini of the name of the patri
arch, Jared, " the descent," which was interpreted in the twelfth
chapter, of the fall of man ; and we have now a very conclusive
proof of the correctness of this view. Thus, the identical concep
tions relative to the fall of man which were seen, in the twelfth
chapter, to centre in the signs Libra and Scorpio are now found
repeated with equal clearness in the signs Taurus and Gemini. It
is obvious that they originated at the astronomical period, when the
constellations Libra and Scorpio were in the signs Taurus and Gem
ini ; and that ages after, when the astronomical period had passed
out of mind, the same ideas continued to be associated with the
signs Libra and Scorpio taken alone ; and to aid in perpetuating
this association of idea'?, the sacred mountain and the cherubim
were mystically represented in Libra, and the name of Dan, as bit
ing serpent, connected with Scorpio. Our fourth plate, then, offers
a complete explanation of all these singular conceptions, both as to
their origin and import ; and its actual scientific value in this re
spect begins now to vindicate itself But we pass to the considera
tion of still another coincidence, equally remarkable in character.
Sec. 157. Immediately following Taurus and Gemini, in the
order of the signs, is that of Cancer. In the Asiatic calendars, the
dying suu-god was associated usually with this zodiacal division.
Thus, the Hebrew name of the month answering to Cancer is
Tammuz, and the Assyrian name is DA-zu, both being well known
titles of the solar deity, who suffers a violent death, and is after
wards raised to life. As previously stated in these researches, in
the Arabic zodiac, the lion's paw stretches out over the space occu-

386 HARr-MOAD.
pied by Cancer, forming thus a distinct lunar mansion called the
"Paw." But the dying sun-god was also Hercules, whose associa
tion with the cherubim, located zodiacally in Libra, and assimilation
to the promised seed of the woman, were points fully established in
the twelfth chapter. We are prepared now to explain the enigmatic
allusions in Jacob's prophecy relative to Dan : " A serpent by the
way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels." Not only
is there an obvious reference here to the serpent of Eden (Na-
khash), but to the expression, " Thou shalt bruise his heel," refer
ring to the promised seed. The same word for " heel " occurs in
both texts. In one case, the direct allusion is to Hercules, assimi
lated to the seed of the woman ; and in the other, to Sagittarius, the
celestial horse, proved by the representation in some zodiacs of a
serpent biting the heels of Sagittarius. It is evident that in both
instances the reference is to the same primitive conceptions. 1st.
Our zodiacal scheme shows the constellation Sagittarius in the sign
Cancer, this last being uniformly connected with the dying sun-
god, and thence with Hercules. 2d. That which confirms all is the
Assyrian name of the month Kisi-livu, corresponding to Sagittarius,
a name in which Rev. A. H. Sayce recognizes the term Kisil,
" giant," that is, Hercules. Add to these data the ancient legend
according to which the giant receives a sting in the heel from the
scorpion, from the effects of which he dies. Thus we reproduce the
entire circle of ideas relative to the fall and redemption of man
which were previously found centring in the signs Libra and
Scorpio, as having been primitively connected with the three zodi
acal divisions, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer. The astronomical
period when these ideas were first given a zodiacal expression
could have been no other than that exhibited in our fourth plate.
But long after this epoch had been forgotten, the same notions
were perpetuated in the signs Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius. In
this case, however, it was necessary, in order to complete the repre
sentation, to locate the sacred mountain in Libra ; to picture there
the great mother and her child, etc., all which demonstrates the
existence of conscious design and scrupulous care in preserving the
astronomical record of traditions dating from the beginning of
human history.
It will be remembered that in the twelfth chapter the god Hea
was identified with Hercules as true fish-god on one hand, and with

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 387
the man-bulls or Kirubi, really one with the Biblical cherubim, on
the other hand ; these symbolic animals being located zodiacally in
Libra, or the sign of the Pincers. It was quite unaccountable to find
Hercules closely connected at different times with three distinct
zodiacal divisions: 1st. With Pisces as the true fish-god; 2d. With
Taurus as Alap Shamas, " taurus of the sun ; " 3d. With Libra as
localization of the sacred mount and of the cherubim. Our fourth
plate affords a satisfactory explanation of these apparent anomalies.
We see that primitively the constellation Pisces occupied the sign
Libra, and that then, also, the constellation Libra was found in the
sign Taurus. Thus we readily account for the intimate association
of Hercules with the three asterisms named. It must be, I think,
that a zodiacal scheme which offers so many valuable explanations,
pointing so significantly to the origin of so many traditionary ideas,
attaches to itself some scientific character. But to give here an
additional illustration, we recur to the name Centaur, applied to
Sagittarius. It is derived from two Greek words : Kenteo, " to
prick, stab, goad, sting;" and Taurus, "the Taurus or Bull;"
hence the name Ken-taurus or Centaur. For the first element,
then, we have the fact that Sagittarius was often represented on
the Babylonian sphere by an arrow simply, the instrument for
pricking, stabbing, and killing. For the second element, compare
the fourth plate, where we find the constellation Taurus in the sign
Sagittarius, frequently marked by the "arrow" alone. Nothing
can be plainer than the fact that our zodiacal iheme represents the
state of the heavens, which gave rise to the name Kent-taurus.
But it is evident that the first element Kent is much older than the
Greek verb Kenteo.
Sec. 158. In the chapter showing the adjustment of the antedi
luvian genealogies to the zodiac, the assimilation of Jared to Scorpio,
and of Enoch to Sagittarius, owing to the want of sufficient data at
the time, was left only partially explained. In the present study,
we have developed already an additional significance in the connec
tion of Jared with Scorpio. Whether as associated with the sign
Scorpio following Libra, or with the constellation Scorpio found in
the sign Gemini, we see now that the meaning of Jared, " the
descent," or " he who descends," is very significant. In both in
stances, as already explained, it involves very plainly the notion of
the fall, of the descent or expulsion from the paradisiacal mount

388 HAR-MOAD.
into the region of darkness and death. In relation to the name
Enoch, connected with Sagittarius, it has the sense of " the initiated,"
from a verb meaning " to choke, to straiten, to make narrow," etc.
Our plate shows this name accompanying the constellation Sagit
tarius, in the sign Cancer. We are here evidently in close contact
with the mysteries appertaining to the dying sun-god. Here is the
"lion's paw," calling to mind the Biblical expression applied io
Christ : " The Lion of the tribe of Juda," who alone could open the
book of seven seals (Rev. v. 1-5). It was in the sign Cancer that
the Egyptians added the five intercalary days, and it was during
these five days that the Osirian divinities were born. The mysteries
of Osiris, as Sir G. Wilkinson has informed us, formed the central
point in the .Egyptian religion. Osiris' death and resurrection
constituted the subject of those mysteries. Finally, the years of
Enoch's earth life, 365, are interpreted by many writers of the 365
days- of the year, including the five intercalary days. The theory
is, that at first the year contained only 860 days, equal to tlie
number of degrees of the zodiac, or 30 for each sign ; that after
wards it was found necessary to add five more, in order to com
plete the year. These were the five days in which the Osirian
deities had their birth. As before said, they were added in the
sign Cancer; and the 360 -1- 5 years of Enoch's life may refer to
this fact. Another circle of ideas centres here. Sagittarius was
one of the Asvins, whose connection with the chariot of the sun
has been pointed out. The Roman chariot races were, as M.
Dupuis states, in imitation of the sun's annual course. The name
of the Phoenician star Sugi, also found in the sign Cancer, signifies
"front part of a chariot," and "rivalry," especially of chariots.
Now in the solar race the termination was in Cancer. But it was
found that the chariots did not arrive " on time," that they were
falling back at the rate of five days in each year. This accounts
for the legends respecting the Centaur, one with Sagittarius, as
being an instructor in the chase. He taught medicine also, and
this agrees with Enoch's character, as identified with Thoth or
Hermes. But it is unnecessary to enlarge upon these matters.
It will be urged that these data, in addition to those heretofore
introduced, render it difficult to attach any historical character to
the Mosaic genealogy before the flood. This may be so ; but it does
not alter the nature of the data themselves, nor modify their force

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 389
as grounds of scientific conclusions. For myself I still believe that
this genealogy was in some sense historical, but as for positive
proofs to this effect I have not as yet discovered them. Indeed, the
evidences thus far go to justify a different conclusion. However,
the zodiacal scheme exhibited in our plate has not yet been ex
hausted of its meaning, and I am confident that a long time will
elapse before it has yielded up its full import. Thus, while stating
the facts as they have appeared to my mind, I do not consider it
safe to affirm as yet that no historical value can be attached to the
genealogy in question.
Sec. 159. I have long suspected that the Chinese dragon, put for
the east, was primitively identical with the dragon to which Dama
scius alludes, having the four faces of a man, a bull, a lion, and a
serpent. According to Chinese tradition this symbolic animal had
the head of a camel, the eyes of a serpent, the belly of a frog, the
scales of a fish, the claws of an eagle, the feet of a tiger, and the
ears of a taurus.^ In this description the mention of the serpent
and eagle, substituted for each other in the cherubim, of the tiger,
which well answers to the lion of the cherubic animals, and of the
taurus, although these forms are associated with various others, ac
cording to mythological fancy, seems to justify the supposition of
an original connection with the dragon of Damascius, which personi
fied the Hercules and Chronos of Western Asia. In both instances
the symbolic figure relates to the sun in its annual course, so fre
quently taken, as we have seen, as a symbol of the life of man.
But that which must be regarded as conclusive here is the conceived
death and resurrection of the dragon of the Chinese, according to
Dr. Schlegel, as follows : " But the death and resurrection of the
dragon took place at the same epochs as of the sun, namely, at the
two equinoxes. Thus, we must regard the dragon as a symbol of
the sun." 2 The sun, however, in this case, and as is now apparent,
represented in its course the life of man, especially the promised
seed of the woman. Evidently the dragon, both of China and of
Western Asia, was identical with that chosen for their emblem by
those primitive " corporations," that ancient order of priest-kings,
constituting the subject of the third chapter, and we are now able
fully to comprehend the traditionary significance of this emblem.
^ Schlegel, Uranographie Chinois, pp. 49, 50.
« Ibid., p. 53.

890 HAR-MOAD.
In all cases the reference was to the cherubim placed at the east of
the Garden of Eden. Recollections of these symbolic figures, and
even of their import, had been carried into every quarter of the
Asiatic world by the peoples primitively diverging from the sacred
mount of paradise, that "mount of the assembly" around whose
summit turned the chariot of the seven stars, associated with the
earliest traditions of all the ancient nations.
But if the dragon of China must be identified with that of West
ern Asia, and if both are to be taken as symbols of the sun-god,
especially under the form of Hercules, this last must be assimilated
likewise to Saturn, the time-god, the Chronos of the Greeks. As
shown in our study upon the cherubim, noted especially in the last
section of it (135), Hercules is intimately associated with three dif
ferent zodiacal signs, with Pisces as fish-god, under the name of
Hea, with Taurus as Alap Shamas, " taurus of the sun," and finally
with Libra, where we find located the cherubim, symbol of Her
cules. Our assumed zodiacal scheme explains all this, for, as be
fore stated, we find the constellation Pisces in the sign Libra, and
the constellation Libra in the sign Taurus. On one hand, the primi
tive situation of the constellation Libra, formerly the Pincers of
the Scorpion, in the sign Taurus, perfectly illustrates the origin of
the fundamental notion involved in the cherubim, as heretofore
explained. On the other hand, we see how Hea, as fish-god, as
taurus of the sun, and also as Hercules, could be so closely con
nected with Libra, for the constellation Pisces was primitively in
this sign. But Hercules is time-god, and this suggests the notion
of chronology, in this case a zodiacal chronology. Hea unites in
himself two remarkable characters : 1st. As Auv-Kinuv, Existent
Being, who impregnates the primeval waters of chaos. In this
character he answers well to that of Adar, or Nin-ib, " lord of gen
eration." 2d. Hea is god of the deluge, as seen in the "Deluge
Tablets." Add to this the fact that the diluvian mountain was
uniformly identified with the mount of paradise in ancient tradi
tion. This very mountain, as we have shown, was located zodi
acally in Libra. Hea's connection with the sacred mount thus situ
ated calls to mind the Egyptian god Tum associated with the solar
mountain placed in the same zodiacal division. " Thou enterest
into thy palace," says a scribe in praise of an Egyptian king, and
as previously cited by us, " as Tum into the solar mountain." The

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 391
Egyptian Tum was the sun of the lower hemisphere, the same as
Hea, identified with Nin or Adar. Compare again with the great
mother, represented in the Egyptian solar mountain, the cuneiform
text heretofore rendered by us, " The sublime mountain of Tum =
the goddess Ishtar." Thus do the earliest religious conceptions of
different peoples of antiquity perfectly accord, and thus does our
zodiacal scheme furnish the key to their origin and import.
With respect now to a zodiacal chronology : the sacred mount
located in the sign Libra with which Hea, in his double character
as Auv-Kinuv and as God of the deluge, is connected, — this sacred
mountain, I say, must represent two distinct epochs, that of crea
tion and of the deluge. If it was the epoch of creation alone, the
location of the solar mount should be in the sign Capricorn, put for
the winter solstice, at which period the birth of the world and of
man was supposed to occur. But the attempt has been made, in
the arrangement before us, to represent the two eras of creation
and of the deluge. Hea is connected with both, hence the constel
lation Pisces, the fish of Hea, is found in the sign Libra. The in
dications are that, while the creation epoch is assigned to the winter
solstice, that of the deluge answers to the spring season, and this
accords with the tablet translated by Mr. Smith (Sec. 137), which
assigns the commencement of spring to the first degree of Pisces.
The chronological difference, then, between the two eras is that
represented by the sun's aunual course from the period of the win
ter solstice into the first degree of Pisces. All this, however, only
by way of suggestion to future investigators. To me, at present,
the matter of the deluge epoch is very doubtful. The era of crea
tion alone, of the birth of man, is that positively indicated by our
zodiacal arrangement.
The investigations of the present chapter have served to demon
strate, it seems to me, that the astronomical theme presented in the
fourth plate has nothing fanciful for its basis ; but that it must be
regarded as possessing an actual scientific value. We proceed, then,
to the final confirmation of our chronological hypothesis in the chap
ter following.!
^ A passage in the Litany of the Sun, as translated by M. Naville, appears
to me to afford a direct proof, and this of an entirely independent character, that
Gemini, or the Twins, as a constellation, was originally found in the sign Capri
corn. As was shown in the thirteenth chapter, and also in previous studies, the

392 HAR-MOAD.
sun-god was supposed to die of old age, and to renew itself under the form of a
child, precisely at the winter solstice, being then in Capricorn. The Egyptians
represented this aged sun by the figure of a man bent down with years, support
ing himself with a. staff. Now the Litany oj the Sun hinges to a great extent
upon the annual course ot the solar orb, setting forth the various forms which the
sun-god assumes during its journey. The passage to which I allude is as follows
{Litany, p. 64) : —
"The great Senior (eldest, first-born, or aged) who resides in the Empyrean,
Chepri who becomes the two infants, the image of the bodies of the two infants."
The determinative of the word which M. Naville renders by the French Aine,
"elder, first-born," etc., is an aged man supported by a staff as before described;
and the passage regards the sun-god as having assumed this form, which refers,
of course, to the winter solstice. The translator offers the following by way of
comment : —
" This is evidently the Aged One, the great Senior, he who has achieved his
existence ; this is one whose life approaches the end ; for he has also the name of
Chepri, which, as we have seen in Nikennu 2, is the Scarabfeus who folds its
wings, who reposes in the Empyrean, and who is re-born as his own son. It is the
same idea expressed here under a little different form ; the great Senior, the Aged
One reappears, is re-born under the form of two infants." " The re-birth is, for
the rest, the cause of the duality ; we have the proof in a passage of the Book
of the Dead, relative to the re-birth of Osiris : ' Osiris arrives at Mendes, where he
finds Ra, and, behold, they embrace each other ; and he becomes a spirit under
the foijm of two twins. ' These two twins, according to the Book of the Dead,
are the two different forms of Horus, or Osiris and Ra, or yet Shu and Tetnut ;
these two last divinities represent the male and female principles. This duality,
these two principles, are, then, not the result of the primordial creation, but rather
of a re-birth, a second creative act." (Id.)
I must differ from M. Naville respecting the opinion expressed in the last sen
tence. The daily and annual courses ot the sun were taken as types of the
primordial sun; and Osiris involved in his character these three phases. Hence,
as the Litany itself is a cosmogony, the primordial creation must be that here
intended. Although familiar with the fact that the sun, conceived as an aged
man, was supposed to die at the winter solstice, and to be re-born under the form
of a child, I was not aware that the sun was ever conceived as renewing itself at
this period under the form of two twins, till made acquainted with this important
truth through the researches of M. Naville. The bearing of this fact upon our
theory of the original adjustment of the zodiac will be readily perceived : —
1st. This zodiacal scheme is supposed to exhibit the actual state of the hea
vens at the period to which the ancient cosmogonies pertained ; and the Litany
of the Sun is itself preeminently 9, cosmogony.
2d. According to the ancient cosmical traditions, the creation of the world and
the birth of man took place in the lower hemisphere, and precisely at the winter
solstice, when the old sun dies and renews itself in infancy.
3d. Having seen that the constellation Gemini, or the Twins, represented tradi
tionally the first human pair, and thus, according to the cosmogonies, the winter
solstice also, we have placed this constellation in the sign Capricorn, and adjusted
our zodiacal scheme upon this basis.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 393
4th. We find now that, in the Egyptian cosmogony embraced in the Litany,
inscribed upon the walls of the royal tombs at Thebes, the old sun, when it died
at the winter solstice, was supposed to renew itself under the form of two twins;
sometimes represented as two males, like Castor and Pollux of the Greeks, at
others as a male and female, like Yama and Yami of the Hindus.
Call to mind that the sun in its course was taken as a symbol of the life of hu
manity, and that the birth of the primordial sun to the light was a type of the
birth of humanity itself, and we have a complete conception of the force and
bearings of the data which M. Naville has made available to our purpose. It is
obvious, I think, that the passage of the Litany here produced appertains to the
epoch when the zodiacal twins represented the period of the winter solstice.

CHAPTER XV.
THE PBIMITIVE CELESTIAL POLE.
Sec. 160. By the primitive pole of the heavens we mean that
answering to the period from whence the primeval traditions of
mankind were derived, especially those with which we have been
principally occupied in the present treatise. But before entering
directly upon the subject here proposed, it is necessary to offer some
explanations with the view to a clear apprehension of it.
If the reader notices the wabbling motion of a top as its rotating
force diminishes and it begins to fall over, a perfectly clear idea
will be gained of that movement of the earth in the plane of the
ecliptic, which causes the phenomenon termed the " precession of
the equinoxes." It is not the annual motion around the sun, nor
the daily revolution on its axis, both of which are geographically
speaking from west to east, but a very slow movement of the
earth's axis itself from east to west, describing circles in the celes
tial spaces opposite the terrestrial poles, about 47° in diameter, or
equal to the northern and southern declination of the sun during its
annual course. For the two poles of the earth, here supposed to be
projected into the heavens, to describe the circles alluded to requires
an immense period of time, equal to about twenty-five thousand
years. Confining ourselves to the northern circle, since little was
known of the south pole in high antiquity, it results from the move
ment just described that the polar star is not always the same.
This depends wholly upon the point in the circle referred to, toward
which the earth's axis for the time being is directed. If we were
to suppose a point opposite to that of the present direction, the
celestial pole would be about 47° distant from its position to-day,
and the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic
would be the opposite to its present inclination. The position of
the earth in its orbit, that now results in summer north of the

h
<

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 395
equator, would then produce winter in the same terrestrial region,
and a similar reversion of the equinoxes would likewise take place.
The summer solstice would fall in Capricorn and the winter solstice
in Cancer, the vernal equinox in Libra and the autumnal in Aries.
The reader finds all these matters illustrated in the fifth plate, to
which we now refer.
The line A, B represents the plane of the ecliptic in which is S,
the sun, and E, E', the earth, exhibiting the supposed primitive
and the present actual inclination of its axis. We will take No. 1
for the former. No. 2 for the latter, with the sun in Cancer. Then
c, d shows the inclination of the axis in its primitive state, and
c', d' its opposite obliquity at the present day. The lines h, i,
and h', i', represent the two opposed inclinations of the earth's
equator to the ecHptic. Properly there should be but one figure of
the earth shown here, in which case the dotted line m, n would
take the place of c, d, and m, c' would then truly represent the
diameter of the polar circle. But the two figures enable us to pre
sent the subject more palpably to the eye, if the fact is distinctly
understood that E, E' are put for one and the same position of the
earth in its orbit, but showing its two opposed conditions at the
different epochs. Examine now position No. 2, representing the
present period : the sun is in the sign Cancer, the time of year is
the summer solstice. As the line h', i' represents the earth's equa
tor, it will be seen that the sun appears geographically in the north
where it is mid-summer. The constellation Gemini is now in the
sign Cancer, and thus marks the period of the summer solstice as
it occurs in our times. Observe, then, the condition of things as
represented by position No. 1. The earth is in exactly the same
point of its orbit as before, the sun is in Cancer, the constellation
Gemini ; but the time of the year as regards the seasons is wholly
reversed. The sun appears geographically in the extreme south,
and it is winter, the exact period of the winter solstice, the place
and time to which all the primeval traditions assigned the birth of
the world and of man. It is necessary only to add here that the
point d represents the position of the present pole star, while o,
more correctly m, indicates the relative position of the primitive
celestial pole about 47° distant.
Sec. 161. The conditions of our problem as developed in Chap
ter XIII. presuppose precisely that opposite inclination of the earth's

396 HAR-MOAD.
axis, and the reversion of all the seasons, compared with the pre
sent era of the world, which is illustrated in position No. 1 of the
plate. In the fourth plate, forming the subject of our last study,
1 have preferred for several reasons to consider the signs as fixed
and the constellations as movable. The constellation Gemini, as
similated to the first human pair, marks to-day the summer solstice,
exactly the opposite period of the year to which the birth of man
and the world were assigned in tradition. The sun, also, whose
course symbolizes the life of humanity, is at its highest exaltation
in Gemini to-day, whereas to conform to tradition it ought to be
in the period of infancy at mid-winter. The sign Capricorn repre
sents this period, and hence I have adjusted the constellations in
such manner in the fourth plate that Gemini, traditionally asso
ciated with the first human pair, should fall in the sign Capricorn.
This operation supposes that the constellations have moved forward
on the zodiac (or the signs fallen back) just half a circle since the
period of the birth of man, according to the earliest and most au
thentic traditions. Now half the circle zodiacally presupposes a
like amount in that described in the northern heavens by the slow
movement of the earth's axis already described. The primitive
pole star, therefore, was in the point of this circle exactly opposite
to the present pole star, or about 47° distant if we regard the
diameter, 180° if we have respect to the circumference, which would
represent the so-called " right ascension " of all the fixed stars since
the period whose chronology we seek to determine.
If the primitive celestial pole was at a point directly opposite the
present pole star in the circle referred to, or 47° distant, it is very
easy to determine its position on the globe as well as in the heavens.
It was in the constellation Lyra, near the star Vega, sometimes
called Lyra also, and this I believe to have been the actual pole
star at the period to which the primeval traditions of mankind per
tained. It was the original Su-Meru of the Hindus, Shemal of the
Haranite Sabians, the Su-mi-lu of the cuneiform texts. It was pre
cisely this central region which was then penetrated by the summit
of the traditional mount of paradise, and it was thus the supposed
celestial paradise united to the terrestrial by the sacred mount.
The terrestrial paradise was taken for the centre of the earth, while
the celestial was regarded as the centre of the heavens, the one
being conceived as directly over the other, and these two points

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 397
constituted the supposed axis of rotation of the entire universe.
What we now seek is the original centre of the heavens, since, as
due to the earth's wabble in the plane of the ecliptic, this centime is
constantly changing; in other terms the pole star is not always the
same. We have assumed the star Vega in the constellation Lyra
as that original centre, and as the primitive Su-Meru. Hence it
was there that the summit of Meru penetrated the sky, giving rise
to the Sanskrit phrase Svarga-bhoumi, " the celestial earth," as al
ready stated to us by M. Obry. It is a remarkable fact, as affirmed
by this writer in a passage soon to be produced, that the terrestrial
paradise corresponded, as supp.ised, to the celestial paradise in al
most every particular. One was the image of the other, and the
resemblance extended even to the details. It is this traditional
correspondence between the two that will constitute the underlying
principle of nearly all the facts to be presented in the present
chapter. In this identical region of celestial space, now assumed
by us as having been the primitive pole of the heavens, we are to
find, as it were written in the sky, another version of the Mosaic
account of Eden, both geographically and historically considered.
This will constitute the severe additional test to which we desire to
submit the zodiacal theme studied in the last chapter, and which
was dictated by the conditions of our problem upon zodiacal chro
nology as developed in Chapter XIII. The reader is thus advised
of the course to be pursued in the present study.
Sec 162. As a general introduction to the facts upon the con
sideration of which we are now to enter, I produce the extracts
from M. Obry that follow : —
" It is certain that the Persians and Hindus often confounded
their terrestrial paradise with the celestial paradise of the great
divinities ; the same as Ezekiel and St. John after him confound the
renewed Jerusalem with the celestial Jerusalem, constructed in the
form of a square, and situated upon a high mountain." " But in
going back to the Mosaic account of Eden, we readily see that the
analogies traced by the doctors of mythology repose often upon
posterior fictions. The truth is, so far as concerns the topography,
that the ancients have generally made the heaven in imitation of
the earth, and the infernal region in imitation of heaven. Thus,
the celestial Eden and after this the infernal Eden were formed
successively upon the model of the terrestrial Eden, with all its
principal accessories. The one was placed in the superior hemi-

398 HAR-MOAD.
sphere, either at the north pole, sojourn of the gods and of the just,
or in the eastern quarter of the sphere, where the sun, at its rising,
renews the light, heat, and life. The other, in its turn, was rele
gated at first, and for some ages, to the bowels of the earth ; after
wards, when the spherical form of the heavens was known, either
at the south pole, abode of dfemons and reprobates, or in the west,
where the great star sets in darkness, cold, and death." " We con
ceive, then, that the four rivers and animals of paradise had been
assigned successively to the superior and inferior hemispheres.
This was all the more natural to the Aryans of India and Persia,
since their sacred mount was thought to embrace and to unite the
three worlds in such manner that the divine source of waters that
supplied them (Ganges or Arduissur) was conceived to divide itself
into four rivers in heaven and in the infernal region, as well as upon
the earth. In all cases, it is evident that the people who have lo
cated these four rivers, either in heaven or in the infernal region, or
in both, have given them names derived from those of the terres
trial paradise." " If at a later period, the priests have made these
four favorite rivers descend from the milky way, from the north
pole, or from the zodiacal band, at the four points of the intersec
tions of the colures, this has been only to render them more sacred
in the eyes of believers." ^
M. Obry has called attention in the foregoing passages to many
important facts, some of them confirming positions taken by us in
other parts of our work, and others affording evidence applicable to
the subject of the present chapter. But the author has not in all
cases been able to view these facts, as I am persuaded., in their true
light. As respects the three Edens, the terrestrial, and then the
celestial and infernal, successively copied from it, the principles
established in the seventh chapter, relative to the transfer of the
terrestrial paradise into the Greek Hades, offer a better point of view
for the facts noticed by our author. As to the topography of the
celestial Eden, placed either at the north pole or in the east, and
of the infernal Eden, located at the south pole or in the west, it all
depended upon the particular phase of the sun's course assumed for
basis. The north and south related to the annual course, and the
east and west to the daily revolution. The spherical form of the
heavens was a fact primitively known, doubtless, since they take no
other form to the eye, and the revolution of the seven stars of the
chariot around the pole star must have taught the first men the
1 Du Berceau, etc., pp. 183-186.

ZODLACAL CHRONOLOGY. 399
notion of the rotation of the sphere on its axis. As for the cardinal
points, they were necessarily first determined from the movements
of the heavenly bodies, and the terrestrial paradise was uniformly,
in tradition, conceived with special reference to them. That the
celestial Eden was only an imaginary reproduction of the terres
trial, at a later epoch, is a point very doubtful. The earliest tradi
tions seem to recognize the existence of both ; and they appear to
be equally primitive. M. Obry was not aware, at the time he
wrote, of the remarkable coincidences in a geographical sense be
tween the celestial and terrestrial Edens, which are to be developed
in the present study ; and m.uch less, if we speak in the historical
sense. He alludes to the celestial source of the four rivers as being
sometimes conceived as the north pole, at others, the milky way,
and still again, as the four points of the zodiac cut by the colures.
The fact is that all these sources coincided almost perfectly, or at
least harmonized with each other, when the celestial pole was in
Lyra, near the star Vega ; for the pole then bordered directly upon
the milky way, and the latter was cut directly by the colures.
Sec 163. In the same region with the Lyre, we find the con
stellation of the Eagle, or Aquila. The two are situated nearly on
opposite sides of the milky way, the Eagle being a little more to
the south and east. Between these, and floating on the celestial
river, identified with the milky way, is the constellation Sagittarius,
or the Arrow. I mention these facts, in view of certain state
ments by Dr. Schlegel relative to the Chinese sphere, which are to
follow. Upon the asterism called Tsien-Tai, "the terrace of filtra-
tions," corresponding to j8, 8, y, i, of the constellation Lyra, this au
thor remarks : —
" They excavate two or more reservoirs, one above the other, in
the form of terraces, or of stages, which can communicate together
only when one reservoir has filled and overfiows into the one below.
They conduct into the upper basin a natural ' current of water. In
the lowermost reservoir is an arrow that rises with the water, so
adjusted and marked that it notes the periods of time. They
obtain thus a measure of time quite regular and sure, because the
period consumed by filling one reservoir, its overflow into another,
and that consumed by the arrow in marking the successive divi
sions, being compared with the movement of the sun or of the
stars, suffices for all purposes of marking the periods of time
among a primitive people." " Thus the astrologues inform us that

400 HAR-MOAD.
the asterism Tsien-Tai is a terrace from which the waters flow, and
that it presides over the horologes of water on earth. The 'Ex
egesis of the Celestial Sovereigns ' says that this asterism presides
over both the sun-dials and the horologes of water ; and it adds that
they verify the epochs of the seasons, their precession or retrograde,
by observations of the celestial bodies, in order to determine the
changes and movements of the signs. The harmonious sound made
by the falling water, and the noisy cadence accompanying it, as it
descends slowly from one reservoir into another, gives the idea of
nature's music, and it is for this reason that the astrologues make
the asterism itself preside over music. " ^
The author then describes the Lien-Tao, "the route of the char
iots," corresponding to -q, 0, and three other stars of Lyra : —
" The characters composing Lien are those representing two men
and a chariot; thus a chariot drawn by two men." " This chariot
served not only for the imperial promenades, but also for the pur
pose of war, when horses were attached to it. As such, the
'Route of the chariots' represents the path of the galloping horses
of the emperor; and when it was invisible they presaged that the
imperial routes were to be occupied by warriors." ^
The same writer refers to another asterism situated in Lyra,
called Tchi-Nin, "the female weaver;" also to one in the lower
hemisphere, Nin-Sin, " domicile of the virgin," marking the period
of the winter solstice. Still another group, called Kien-Nin, "con
ductor of the Taurus," being i*, /8, y of the Eagle, formerly asso
ciated with the solstice of winter, is described. This last asterism
was otherwise named Ho-Ku, " drum of the river ; " the allusion
to the " river " having reference to the milky way, regarded as the
celestial river by the Chinese.^ Returning now to the " domicile of
the virgin," Dr. Schlegel observes : —
" This virgin was placed there to recall the epoch of marriages,
which took place near the time of the winter solstice, for the
reason that the mysterious marriage of nature was assigned to the
same season. At the solstice of winter, say the ancient Chinese,
the two principles, male and female, Yin and Yang, are united
amorously, heaven and earth have commerce together, and abandon
themselves to each other. Of this marriage is born the new light
(also man), that is to say, at the solstice of winter the principles of
heat and light are revealed. The displacement caused by the pie-
1 Uranographie Chinois, pp. 188, 189. 2 Ibid., p. 192.
s Vid. ibid., pp. 184, 196, 197, etc.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 401
cession of the equinoxes having brought the asterism of the Female
Weaver to the position formerly occupied by the Virgin, it was the
former that became the emblem of the marriage of Nature at the
winter solstice ; and as it culminated at the same time as the Con-
duotor of the Taurus, the two asterisms were considered as symbols
of the male and female principles of nature." " These two aster
isms are separated by the milky way, which rolls a double stream
between them. That the Conductor of the Taurus might join the
Female Weaver, it was necessary to cross this river. Thus, they
imagined that at one time during the year, or at the instant of the
winter solstice, a bridge was thrown over the milky way, which
enabled the Female Weaver to join the Conductor of the Taurus,
for the purpose of consummating their marriage." " There are no
constellations upon which the Chinese have founded so many fables
and legends as upon those of the Conductor of the Taurus and the
Female Weaver." ^
Sec 164. It is necessary now to study the different bearings- of
the facts relating to the Chinese asterisms, and the various notions
associated with them, for the knowledge of which we have been
indebted to Dr. Schlegel.
1st. Are the two personified asterisms located respectively in the
constellations Lyra and Aquila, taken as symbols of the two prin
ciples, male awA. female, light and darkness, heaven and earth, whose
annual marriage, precisely at the period of the winter solstice,
represents that of nature, giving birth to the cosmos and to man ?
It is quite obvious that these ideas were definitely connected with
the Chinese cosmogony, and especially with the tradition heretofore
alluded to, which placed the beginning of the revolutions, of the
world, and the birth of man, at the instant of the winter solstice.
This tradition, as will be recollected, constituted one of the condi
tions of our problems, as developed in the thirteenth chapter, which
dictated the zodiacal scheme presented in the last chapter, and ac
cording to which we have been obliged to assume Lyra as the
primitive celestial pole. It is very remarkable that we should find
localized in this identical region those very traditionary ideas con
stituting the conditions of the problem to which we refer. No evi
dence more direct and forcible conld well be conceived, to the effect
that Lyra was actually the polar region at the period from which
those ideas had been inherited. But it is quite certain also that
^ Uranographie Chinois, pp. 494, 495.

402 HARr-MOAD.
these personified asterisms represented the first man and woman
created at this period. Of this, however, hereafter.
2d. In what more significant region was it possible to locate the
celestial horologe of water, supplied from the celestial river, to
mark the very beginning of time, when the revolutions of the
spheres first commenced? Dr. Schlegel thinks that the Chinese
were the first to conceive the idea of marking the periods of time,
by means of an arrow floated on the surface of a stream, or in the
method of horologes. Probably the notion had its birth before
the Chinese were a distinct nation. Be this as it may, we find the
Arrow, Sagitta, floating upon the river of the celestial paradise,
exactly between Aquila and Lyra. But the terraced hill or moun
tain, serving the purpose of the horologe of water, recalls the fact
that the pyramidal temples, constructed in stages, were artificial •
reproductions of the mount of paradise, thus conceived as a moun
tain of degrees. It was upon its summit penetrating the heavens
that the Persians located the celestial river, the waters given by
Mazdla, and it was upon the same summit that the Hindus con
ceived the divine Ganges to pour its waters, which flowed down
from thence through the three woilds, being gathered into a single
reservoir in each region. Are not all these traditionary ideas con
nected with the celestial horologe supplied from the heavenly
river that rolls its silvery tide between the constellations Aquila
and Lyra ? If so, such was the location of the primitive Su-Meru.
3d. Here we find the route of the chariots. This recalls the
legend of the Asvins, the Vedic "horsemen," who were born in
the '¦'¦Uttara-Kuru of the firmament." They ride together "in
chariots, all the parts of which are in threes." The celestial
horses were born on the banks of the sacred river, and this river,
identified with the milky way, actually cuts the zodiacal band in
one instance at Sagittarius, in the other at Gemini, two asterisms
which I have assimilated to the two pairs of twins born of SaranyA,
the " cosmical storm-cloud," daughter of Trashtar, " the creator."
Pegasus was born near the source of waters, likewise, and the head
of the winged horse lies less than 30° from the milky way in the
vicinity of Sagitta.
Sec. 165. It is well known that the constellation Lyra was rep
resented anciently under three different forms, namely, that of a
Tortoise, of a Vulture, and finally of a Lyre. To each of these

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 403
forms certain important ideas were attached, which t wish to pre
sent ; and first of the cosmical Tortoise, according to Chinese tradi
tion. Dr. Schlegel, to whom again we appeal for information,
relates the facts as follows : —
" In all the cosmogonies, the solstice of winter was considered as
the epoch of the creation, the various peoples believing that the
world had been created at that instant. From this notion is derived
the Chinese fiction, that in the times of Thao-tang, that is, Yao,
there was in the state of Laos a divine Tortoise a thousand years
old, and more than three feet square. Upon its back there were
characters in the form of tetrads, which recounted all the events
that had occurred since the separation of chaos; for this reason it
was termed by the emperor the ' chronology of the Tortoise.' " ^
Although the subjoined passage has been in part presented before,
it ought to appear here entire in connection with the foregoing : —
" ' To the west of the mountain Yuen Kiao is the lake of the
stars, which is a thousand Chinese Li in length. In this lake is a
divine Tortoise, having eight feet and six eyes. Upon its back it
carries the images of the seven stars of the chariot, of the sun, of
the moon, and of the eight celestial regions. Upon the lower side
of its shell is the image of the five summits and of the four canals.'
That is to say, upon the back of this animal is traced the celestial
map, and upon its lower side the terrestrial, as said in the Book of
Rites: ' Above, it is round, imitating the heavens ; below, it is square,
imitating the earth.' " ^
The reference of this legend to the mount of paradise, and thus
the definite association with this mountain of the Chinese cosmo
gony, were points fully established in the fifth chapter (Sec. 61).
Nor can there be any less doubt that the other legend, relating to
the " chronology of the Tortoise," had primitive reference to the
same locality. In such case it is necessary to identify the constel
lation Lyra, otherwise termed the Tortoise, with that upon whose
back the chronology of the world, since the separation of chaos and
the birth of man, was supposed to be recorded. Admit that this
asterism constituted the celestial pole at the period to which these
legendary conceptions pertain, and we have a complete explanation
of their origin, and it would be almost impossible to account for
their origin upon any other hypothesis. In fact we have very clear
and direct proof of this hypothesis, if we compare these two legends
^ Uranographie Chinois, pp. 64, 65. 2 ibid., p. 61.

404 HAR-MOAD.
of the Tortoise with the two personages also assimilated to Lyra
and Aquila, as symbols of the two principles, male and female,
heaven and earth, whose marriage at the period of the winter sol
stice results in the birth of creation and of man. To my mind,
then, it is very difficult to avoid the conclusion derived from these
facts that Lyra was actually the celestial pole at the epoch of the
origin of these primeval and traditionary notions, pertaining alike
to the cosmogony and the first abode of humanity.
The origin and name of the L} re, as connected with this constel
lation, is thus related by M. Dupuis : —
" This constellation passed for being the Lyre which Mercury
made from the back of a Tortoise, and which he gave to Orpheus."
" They say that the Nile, after its overfiow, having retired to its
bed, left upon the sand a Tortoise, which had fallen to putrefaction
except its nerves (and shell), which being touched by Mercury put
forth sounds. Mercury, in imitation of what he had done with this
shell, constructed a musical instrument in this form." " They say
that at the first the number of the strings was seven, equal to that
of the Pleiades, of which Mai'a, his mother, was one." ^
Note in the above account that the Lyre is made from the shell
of the Tortoise, evidently one with the cosmical and chronological
Tortoise of the Chinese traditions. As for the form and name of
the Vulture, it is too well known to need authentication. Our
celestial globes frequently represent the Lyre as being held in the
talons of the Vulture. The two names respectively, Vultur cadens
and Vultur volans, were often given to the Lyre and Eagle by the
Latins. The celestial Lyre was supposed to symbolize the harmony
of the sphere, and the same idea seems implied in the fact that the
Chinese asterism of the "Horologe of water" presided over music.
The connection of the Tortoise with the cosmos, and with chrono
logy, of Mercury, as cosmical deity, with the Lyre made from the
shell of the same Tortoise, symbolizing the harmony of creation,
seems strongly to favor the supposition that, quite extensively in
antiquity, this very constellation was definitely associated with the
period when creation's harmonies first pealed forth.
Sec. 166. We come now to the identification of the constellations
Aquila and Lyra as the first man and woman. In reference to the
Eagle we have the following legendary history as related by Dr.
William Smith : — 1 Origin, etc., iii. pt. 2d, p. 132.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 405
'¦'¦Merops (Mipoxp). 1. King of the Island of Cos, husband of the
nymph Ethemea, and father of Eumelus. His wife was killed by
Diana bt cause she had neglected to worship that goddess. Merops,
in order to rejoin his wife, wished to make away with himself, but
Juno changed him into an Eagle, whom she placed among the stars.
2. King of the Ethiopians, by whose wife, Clymene, Helios be
came the father of Phaethon." ^
Thus, Merops is to be identified with the constellation of the
Eagle, or Aquila. But to the above extract should be added the
following : " Meropes (Me'poires), an ancient name of the inhabitants
of the Island of Cos, from an early king, Merops " (Lidd. and Scott,
Gr. Lex., sub MepoTrcs). It remains now to show that the name
Merops is only another form of the word Meru, applied to the first
men issuing from the sacred mount, that is to say, the Meropes.
In reference to the locality of this original human abode, M. Lenor
mant observes : —
" The culminating points are the Belurtag and the vast plateau
of Pamir, so well calculated to sustain a primitive population yet
in a pastoral state, and of which the name under its first form was
Upa-Meru, 'the country under the Meru,' or, perhaps, Upa-Mira,
* the country near the lake,' which itself had been the motive of the
appellation Meru. There are again certain traditions of the Greeks
that force themselves upon our notice, particularly that involved in
the sacred phraseology Meropes anthropoi (MepoTrcs avOpm-n-oi), which
can mean only '¦the men issued from Meru.' " "Among the Hindus
the men before the deluge, as well as those after the deluge, descend
from Meru. It is there that we find the Uttara-Kuru, veritable
terrestrial paradise, the traditions relative to which were collected
by Megasthenes. It is there, also, that we are conducted by the
paradisiacal myth of the Meropes among the Greeks, that is, the
' men of Meru,' a myth which had been transported to Greece and
localized in the island of Cos." ^
As the interpretation here given to the Greek phrase Meropes
anthropoi may seem to many classical students unauthorized, it is
well to note the fact that it had been suggested long before by no
less a critic than M. Renan, thus : " Compare the paradisiacal myth
of the Meropes among the Greeks, and the expression Meropes
anthropoi, 'the men issued from Meru.' " ^ It is certainly a strik-
1 Class. Die, art. " Meropst"
2 Frag, de Birose, pp. 303, 304. Cf. Homer, Iliad, A. v, 260, B. v. 286, G. v. 402.
' De I'Orig. du Langage, p. 228, note 2.

406 HARr-MOAD.
ing confirmation of the interpretation thus supported, that the same
name Merops is connected with that of -Si^thiopia, a country particu
larly mentioned by Moses in his geographical description of Eden,
this being of course the Asiatic and not the African Ethiopia.
Finally, the name Cos given to the island ruled by Merops can be
no other than Cush, by which the Cushite race was so generally
known. Merops is, then, only another name of the first man, ap
plied to the primeval abode of humanity under the form Meru, like
Asgard from Askur, among the Scandinavians, and As-kar, " pro
pitious summit," among the inhabitants of the Euphrates valley.
It is very significant for us here that the great cosmical or world-
tree of the Scandinavian traditions had its roots in the earth, its
branches reaching the heavens, while on its top was perched an
eagle surveying all things below. The Garuda, or Eagle, of Aryan
mythology, also is assigned to the highest summit in Gorotman,
" paradise," where he wages war upon the serpents. Thus, it is im
possible to avoid the conclusion from these data that the constella
tion of Aquila was definitely associated with Meru and with the
first man. It was the original Su-Meru, or closely connected with
that region.
The literal sense of the Greek phrase meropes anthropoi is " ar
ticulately speaking men," and Mr. Buckley so renders it uniformly
in his version of the Iliad. Thus merops (jiepoxf/) signifies literally
"dividing the voice;" that is, speaking, endowed with speech, this
being the characteristic of man, as distinguished from animals.
On the other hand. Professor Curtius agrees with Professor Fick,
in deriving merops from marp, "to seize, to gripe," thence, "he who
seizes, holds, gripes," from which the notion of griffon, funda
mental idea of cherub in "cherubim." Thence comes again the
notion of touching, " he who touches, feels, understands," ^ etc.
The Garuda, or Eagle of the Hindus, was one of the griffons, and
thus all goes to show that Doctors Gesenius, Delitzsch, M. Renan,
and others were correct in assimilating the idea of the " cherubim "
to the Aryan Gruphes, etc., although the etymology oi the term is
purely Semitic, as proved in our twelfth chapter (Sec. 130). Thus,
Merops must be assimilated variou.sly ; 1st. To the constellation
Aquila; 2d. To the paradisiacal man issued from Mt. Meru; 3d.
Especially to the man of Meru as endowed with speech and under-
1 Grundziige, p. 456.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 407
standing. Being so directly associated with the traditions centring
in the sacred mount, this asterism must be taken for that region
very nearly answering to the primitive Su-Meru, or celestial pole,
supposed to be penetrated by the summit of that mountain.
Sec. 167. We turn attention now briefly to the constellation
Lyra, under the form of the Vulture, assimilated to the great
mother, evidently in this case the first woman placed at the side of
the first man. M. De Rogii^ has the following upon the Egyptian
hieroglyph of the Vulture : " The Vulture was the symbol of the
mother. The (phonetic) value Ma comes from the word Ma-t,
' mother.' "1 Sir G. Wilkinson observes that "iHfawf, the 'mother'
of all, or the maternal principle, probably the Mot (Mud) of Sancho-
niathon, appears to be sometimes a character of Buto, primeval
darkness, from which sprang light." ^ Professor Romieu furnishes
the proof that in the Egyptian system of Decans, the hieroglyph
of the Vulture actually designated the constellation Lyra, other
wise represented as a Vulture, thus : "I believe myself ... to be
in the truth in identifying the asterism Ma-t with the Greek con
stellation of the Lyre." 2 It is probable that some connection exists
between Mdia, name of the mother of Mercury, associated with
the Lyre, constructed of the back of a Tortoise, and the Egyptian
Ma, from Ma-t, " mother." The direct analogy of conception also
between Mot, " Mud," as mother of all, and the habits of the tor
toise, living in muddy places, is worthy of note here. Finally, to
these evidences are to be added the Chinese legends respecting the
"Conductor of the Taurus" and the " Female weaver."
The primitive reference, then, of the two asterisms Aquila and
Lyra to the first human pair is a matter too plain to admit of serious
question, in view of the facts now before us. If the primeval tradi
tions respecting paradise centred geographically in Mt. Meru, then
the same traditions centred astronomically in these two constella
tions ; and since the summit of this mountain was supposed* to pen
etrate the heavens precisely at the celestial pole, these asterisms
constituted the Su-Meru of the period, to which the traditions
themselves pertained. But Lyra, or the Tortoise, was rather the
true pole, and this explains the ancient idea, represented even upon
the art monuments, that the heavens rested upon the back of a
1 Chrest. Egyptienne, 1st pt., p. 61, m. 7. 2 Rawl., Herod., ii. p. 241,
3 Sur un Dican, etc., p. 39,

408 HAR-MOAD.
tortoise. M. Lajard produces the figure of an Etruscan candelabra,
represented as being held in the hands of a female, clothed in a
garment of the constellated heavens, and standing upon the back of
a tortoise.^ M. Dupuis very properly insisted, I think, that the
obvious meaning of this legend was, that the axis of the heavens
rested on the back of the Tortoise, or, in other terms, that this
constellation was actually the celestial pole, where the legend took
its rise. It is utterly impossible, in fact, to give any other meaning
to it, except the most puerile, and at the same time the most im
probable, namely, that the ancients really supposed the heavens to
rest on the back of.a huge, living tortoise.
We direct attention now to certain constellations, located in the
immediate vicinity of Lyra and Aquila, obviously involving some
distinct references, astronomically speaking, to the history of the
first human pair as detailed in the Mosaic record. No point
seems better established in Hebrew lexicography than the fact
that the word Na-khash (trna), designating the serpent of Eden,
denotes astronomically the constellation Draco, or the " Great
Serpent," coiled around the present celestial pole. As represented
upon my globe, the head of Draco is not over 6° from that of
the Vulture, identical with Lyra; the Vulture, as we have seen,
being put for the great mother, evidently the mother of Eden.
The nearer proximity of Draco to the asterism put for the great
mother than to that assimilated to the great father accords
perfectly with the Mosaic history of the fall, which represents the
woman as being first deceived. To proceed, however, it is said in
relation to the serpent : " I will put enmity between, thee and the
woman, and between thy seed and her seed ; it shall bruise thy head,
and thou shalt bruise his heel " (Gen. iii. 15). That the Asiatic
Hercules represents the seed of the woman has been already well
established. Turning then to the constellation Hercules, we find
his heel\ess than 2° from the head of Draco, in the act of stamping
upon it! The combinations here established are certainly very
remarkable ; and it would be difficult to conceive of anything more
striking, more direct and conclusive. The Mosaic record itself is
hardly more intelligible, as pertaining to these matters, than the
symbolical representations here presented to view. That which
makes everything plain and palpable is the fact, now placed be-
1 Culte de Venus, PI. HI. A.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 409
yond question, that Aquila and Lyra really represent the paradisi
acal man and woman, or the great father and mother. Such being
the case, the close proximity of the head of Draco and of the heel
of Hercules, in the very act of bruising it, shows for itself a direct
relation to the Biblical account of the fall and of the promise.
This, then, is the third time that we have found these events
recorded in the heavens. The vital relation of these three discov
eries to each other is quite important to be considered. The first
representation is connected with the signs Libra and Scorpio. To
all appearance, it has no relation to any other. But the zodiacal
theme assumed in the fourth plate reveals the existence of a second
one, which more fully explains the origin and import of the first.
Finally, on assuming a celestial pole answering to the theme of the
fourth plate, we make the discovery of the third record connected with
it. Thus each one in some sense conditions the others, and the
three combined prove the existence of an express arrangement, of
a scientific principle underlying them all. In other terms, they
demonstrate the truth of our chronological hypothesis, and that
the star Vega in Lyra was the pole star at the period to which the
primitive traditions of the world pertained.
Sec. 168. I desire to recall here certain facts previously verified,
and to present some new data, the united force of which will be
found to be very conclusive. We have seen that the cuneiform Ak,
"to make, to build, to create," was a symbolic designation of the
Babylonian Mercury, who had his sanctuary in the chapel of a
cubical form, constituting the eighth stage of the tower of Borsippa,
which represented consequently the eighth celestial region, answer
ing to Su-Meru or the pole star. The connection of Mercury with
the heavenly Lyre, constructed with seven cords in honor of his
mother Maia, has been also established. It has been shown, more
over, that Mercury was a Cabirus ; and the term Ak, by which he
was denoted, was identified with the Aryan radical Ak, " to pen
etrate, to pierce," as the rocky summit pierces the sky; from the
same radical were derived the various forms Akman, " a stone,"
also " heaven ; " Aktan, " eight," and the Greek Akman, " heaven,"
likewise "anvil," the same term being the name of a Cabirus.
Again, the reader is familiar with the fact that the Phoenician
Eshmun, whose name signifies " the eighth," was considered the
eighth Cabirus, and expressly associated with the eighth celestial

410 HARr-MOAD.
region, answering thus to that of the pole star ; and from all the
facts it is evident that Mercury should be connected with the same
region. Now the mother of Eshmun, as shown by Dr. Movers, was
traditionally the pole star ; and according to the same author Esh
mun was identical with the Egyptian Thoth, which is only another
name for Mercury.^ Hence, as the two personages are one, Eshmun
and Mercury must have the same mother, who is also to be identified
with the celestial pole. This cannot be the present pole star, as
Dr. Movers seems to think, for these two Cabiriac personages were
cosmical divinities ; a fact that enforces us to assume the primitive
pole star as their mother. Now Ma'ia, the mother of Mercury,
although regarded as one of the Pleiades, must be in some way con
nected with the celestial pole ; for her father was Atlas, and the
axis of the heavens was thought to rest between his shoulders ; at
other times, however. Atlas was conceived as a mountain, on whose
summit the heavens and all the stars were supported. This re
minds us of the Tortoise, on whose back the axis of the heavens
rested. It is obvious that all these data should lead us to assume
the Lyre as being the pole star, which was the mother of Eshmun
as well as of Mercury. This is confirmed by the fact that Lyra was
otherwise represented as a vulture, symbol- of the great mother.
Finally, the character of Atlas, father of Mai'a, when he takes the
form of mountain god, answers only to that of Meru, on whose
summit the heavens rest, and especially the axis of the heavens.
Thus, when it is said that the mother of Eshmun was the pole
star, it must be admitted that no other asterism fulfills the condi
tions of this statement so well as Lyra ; and when it is said that
the mother of Mercury was Mai'a, her father being Atlas, a moun
tain god, it is difficult to understand any other mountain than Meru,
or any asterism but the constellation of the Lyre, constructed by
Mercury in her honor. Our object, however, in the present section
has not been merely to confirm the hypothesis, already so well sup
ported, respecting the primitive celestial pole. We have aimed to
show, also, that the eighth Cabirus was directly associated with this
polar region, and consequently with this constellation. It was pre
cisely here, as the key-stone of the celestial vault, the heavenly tem
ple, that was placed the dressed stone Akman, symbol of heaven, as
well as of the Cabirus bearing this name.
1 Die Phcenizier, i. pp. 527, 530.

ZODIACAL CHRONOLOGY. 411
Sec. 169. But it is time to bring the investigations of the pre
sent chapter to a close. The characteristic features, geographically
and historically, of the Gan-Eden of Genesis we have found in
scribed in that particular celestial region around and centring in
the constellation Lyra ; and it is impossible to doubt, in view of the
facts before us, that this region constituted the original celestial
paradise, abode of the divine hierarchy, corresponding to the terres
trial paradise, the home of primeval humanity. Just as all the
traditions and legends centre geographically and historically in the
one, so the same traditions and legends centre astronomically in
the other. The analogy, or better, the identity, between the two
orders of conceptions is everywhere complete ; and the coincidence
thus presented to the mind has no parallel in the history of an
tiquarian researches. We establish, then, beyond question, the pre
cise era astronomically, and thence historically, of the paradisiacal
man, that era from which the most primitive traditions of the world
were ultimately derived. Lyra was the original Su-Meru of the
Hindus, Shemal of the Haranites, Su-mi-lu of the cuneiform texts.
It was in the particular region of Su.-Meru that the summit of the
sacred mount penetrated the heavens ; and since, according to all
the traditions, the region thus penetrated was exactly the celestial
pole, such was the constellation just named. The chronology which
results from this, as the practical astronomer vpill perceive at once,
is, in round numbers, 12,500 years from the present time. Each of
the three chapters devoted to this subject results independently in
this date ; they supplement and confirm each other, therefore, afford
ing a threefold basis for our hypothesis, which, in my estimation,
entitles it to be considered a scientific fact.
It will be now apparent to the mind of every reader, not only
that the zodiacal system and the entire sphere, as primitively con
structed, were a most ingeniously devised scheme, but that they
were a practical embodiment of the sacred tradition and science
which formed really the basis of the ancient religions and the civil
izations growing out of them. The date of the origin of those
ideas constituting this sacred lore, as will be readily perceived, is
itself definitely fixed by the very zodiacal arrangement which is
seen to have been designed to incorporate them. Nor is there any
thing factitious or merely mythical in the results that have been
attained. The geographical locality of the Har-Moad, the " monn-

412 HAR-MOAD.
tain of the assembly," has been definitely ascertained ; the primi
tive traditions centring in it from almost every quarter of the old
world have been successively authenticated ; and in these traditions
have been detected certain uniform astronomical references that
furnish the key to the original condition of the heavens in relation
to the earth, from which our chronology has been deduced. But
this is not all ; we know now by whom that marvelous system em
bodied in the primitive sphere was wrought out; by whom the
sacred science, originating at a period forgotten by the world, had
been transmitted to after ages, and incorporated in the religious and
civil institutions of antiquity ; by whom those grand ideas pertain
ing to the cosmos, the temple, and to man had been taught to man
kind ; by whom that primeval revelation, more enduring than parch
ments, than columns of brick or of stone, or even the massive
pyramids themselves, — we know, I say, by whom this revelation
had been embodied in those celestial hieroglyphs, more ancient than
the paleographical systems of Egypt, of China, or of Chaldsea.
The dressed stone that had been raised to the centre of the hea
venly vault, symbol of the completion of the great world temple,
when the " morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God
shouted for joy," — this stone, I say, had a mark upon.it; and it is
impossible to mistake its import, or the hand that placed it there.
We distinctly recognize, in fact, in these wonderful achievements
now present to our minds the v?ork of the Cabiri, of the temple-
craft. These were the brothers par excellence, and they hail us to
day from the heights of the Har-Moad, and from across the vista of
twelve thousand years! Theirs was the noble civilization of the
far distant era, which had been planted, not around the pyramids
of Sakkara nor of Borsippa, but upon the shining slopes of that
propitious mountain of which these were but artificial reproduc
tions. Beautiful as the heavens, where rolled the chariot of the
Aryas, or issued the celestial river from beneath the throne of
God, was this golden age of humanity. But a frightful calamity
had befallen the human family, and the light of that happy civilizar
tion had gone out in darkness. If it had been forgotten by the
world ; if its glory had faded out from the recollections of even the
oldest races known to history, like Merops, its representative, it had
been translated and placed among the stars. There we have read
the record of its loss and its ruin ; there, too, of its last hope — in
the promised seed of the woman !

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

CHAPTER XVI.
A SUMMABY OF EESTJLTS.
Sec. 170. The point oi view from which we are now able to
contemplate the ancient world affords advantages such as have been
rarely accorded to modern investigators. It is not from the sum
mits of the pyramids of the Nile valley, nor from those of the
mounds scattered upon the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, that
we look down to-day upon those scenes where the thrilling events
of so many epochs have transpired ; but it is intellectually from the
heights of that sacred mountain which overlooks all Asia, of which
the pyramids themselves were but artificial reproductions, and in
which the earliest recollections of all the races centred, that we are
now able to trace out their divergent paths, strewed with the relics
of more than a hundred centuries. Nor is it, again, the desolate
waste of the overflowing Nile that stretches out before us, nor yet
the annual floods burying beneath their surface the fertile plains of
Babylon and of Chaldsea, whose noisy tumult strikes the ear. On
that vast mountain pile, the great watershed of the Asiatic world,
where the cosmogonies were first revealed and the diluvian annals
first recorded, we seem to listen to the surging billows of the del
uge itself ; of that watery chaos, in fact, from whose thick dark
ness the Voice went forth : " Let there be light! and there was
light." So far as the sacred books of antiquity afford any indica
tions, so far as the earliest known traditions offer any reliable
hints, we are here at the beginning of history, and the ground be
neath us is that first trod by the foot of man. If other historical
epochs anterior to this are to be supposed, or if other portions of
the earth's surface had been previously inhabited by men, the evi-

414 HAR-MOAD.
dences to this effect must be drawn from sources entirely different
from those to which we have referred. The proofs have been de
rived from every quarter of the old world, pointing unmistakably to
the high table-lands of Central Asia as the original centre of the
populations of our globe.
Such, then, is the standpoint from which we now contemplate
the historic development of mankind. That which adds immea
surably to its advantage is our ability to attach to it a definite
chronological value, an antiquity of 12,500 years. The so-called
geological evidences of the antiquity of man, believed by many
writers to prove his existence on the earth at an epoch tenfold more
ancient than that here indicated, give rise to a problem purposely
avoided by us heretofore, for the reason that we were in no sense
prepared to discuss it. From the position which we now occupy
the case is quite different. Can it be affirmed that these geological
data enable us to go back of Mount Meru, and to prove the exist
ence of man at a period prior to the date which the primeval tradi
tions centring in this very locality have been made so clearly to
establish ? So far as concerns the cultured races of the old world
we have proved their common origin from the great Asiatic
Olympus, and this by means of their own traditions. Do these
geological data show the existence of barbarous races still more
ancient than the Meropes anthropoi, " the men issued from Meru" ?
For myself, I should hesitate to affirm it. In the first place, it
must be considered that at the epoch verified by us the obliquity
of the earth's axis was exactly the opposite to its present inclina
tion. The order of the seasons was then completely reversed.
The winter season in the northern hemisphere, where, as all goes
to show, man first appeared, occurred when the earth was at its
maximum distance from the sun, while during the summer it was
at its least distance. The effect of such conditions must have been
to create drift deposits north of the equator at a rate far more
rapid than has occurred during the last six thousand years. It is
the estimated rate of these deposits which constitutes the chief
element of calculation for man's an liquify, based upon geological
evidences. It is obvious, therefore, from the foregoing considera
tions, that the standard heretofore adopted is in no sense reliable.
For several thousand years after the birth of man, according to our
data, the changes upon the earth's surface, especially in high lati-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 415
tudes, took place with a rapidity to which nothing can be compared
in more recent periods. But even at the present rate of deposits,
some of the best authorities undertake to account for all known
facts upon the basis of comparatively short periods of time. M. F.
Chabas, in a recent and thoroughly critical work, dealing with these
geological evidences in a manner such as but few writers are able
to do, believes himself able to account for all the facts within a
period of ten thousand years, admitting the necessity, however, of
a moderate extension of it under certain conditions.^ Finally, it
should be observed, so far as concerns geology, that the evidences
are not all in, that too many elements of uncertainty exist, not to
render it premature to assume fixed conclusions. Future discov
eries may change wholly the conditions of the problem.
Such, then, are the reasons chiefly why we hesitate to go back
of Mount Meru, and to assume on the strength of geological data
a period of human existence anterior to the paradisiacal man. If
such an epoch can be fairly proved, we shall feel free to accept it,
but it will be obvious that the facts, as developed in our present
researches, have very materially changed the complexion of this
entire problem. Thus, in the light of the present we reaffirm our
standpoint, chronologically and geographically, at the beginning of
human history.
Sec 171. The question which regards the primitive condition
of man has assumed an importance in our day fully equal to that
respecting his antiquity. The evidences having a direct bearing
upon this subject, accumulated in different parts of our treatise,
will be readily recalled by the reader. It is not too much to say
that they demonstrate the existence of a noble civilization, cen
tring in the sacred mount of the northeast, the prevalence of an
exceedingly high order of conceptions at the period to which the
earliest recollections of the old world appertained. It is evident
that the fundamental ideas constituting the theoretical basis of
this civilization were identical with those of the cosmos itself.
1 Etudes sur VAntiquite historique, pp. 9, 10. M. Chabas studied these geolo
gical indications of man's antiquity, so far as the more important localities in
France are concerned, on the very ground where the relics of antiquity were
originally discovered. He gives it as his opinion that the distribution of these
relics was such that no successive chronological eras could be fairly deduced
from them.

416 HAR-MOAD.
This was, so to speak, the first heaven and earth, whose model was
the particular, material heaven and earth in which humanity had
its birth. All the institutions of society, in fact, were constructed
after the same model, and a profound symbolism presided over the
whole. Whether as a cosmogony, a religious, political, or social
theory, it is obvious that the sexual principle was regarded as the
most sacred, the most important of all great truths. The world
and man, the very constitution of things, depended upon it.
The proofs of the existence of a high civilization centring in the
traditional mount of paradise, and at the immensely remote epoch
heretofore established, arrange themselves, for the most part, under
the follo\^ing general heads : —
1st. All the great civilizations known to ancient history have
been traced genealogically to one common centre, namely, Mt.
Meru of the Hindus, Albordj of the Persians, Gan-Eden of the
Hebrews, Kharsak-Kurra of the cuneiform texts, to which we might
add the Asgard of the Scandinavians, the Olympus of the classic
nations, and even the solar mountain of the Egyptians and the five
summits of the Chinese. Call to mind here the fact of the common
inheritance of the doctrines embodied in the " celestial earth " or
" terrestrial heaven," of the symbolical system of geography ; the
theory of territorial divisions, of land surveying, of the orienta
tion of sacred edifices, and the rules for founding towns, cities, and
states. 2d. All the ancient cosmogonies had a common origin, and they
have been traced in the main to the same central region inhabited
by the first men. Not only do they involve uniformly the same
fundamental ideas, but the most striking resemblances often occur
in the details. That which is the most remarkable of all is the fact,
developed in the thirteenth chapter, of a common astronomical re
ference so precise and definite as to enable us actually to determine
the period to which they pertained ; and this has been done in the
three chapters on zodiacal chronology. Nor is it alone the date of
the origin of these systems which is by this means ascertained, but
the locality from which they were primitively derived is made
equally certain by the same process. The discovery of the celes
tial pole at the epoch referred to proved beyond question that it
was the original celestial paradise, traditionally united by means of
the sacred mount to the terrestrial. The particular allusions in the

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 417
Chinese legend of the Tortoise, as well as the Greek myth relating
to Merops, a term evidently connected with Meropes and Meru in
origin, have each a like tendency to fix the locality where the cos
mogonies had their birth.
3d. Perhaps the most conclusive proofs of the existence of a high
civilization, of the prevalence of an elevated order of conceptions,
at the period and in the geographical region here assumed, are to
be found in connection with the ancient sphere. The important
fact must be admitted that a well-defined and ingeniotisly contrived
relation existed between the internal arrangements of the sphere
and the primeval traditions of mankind, fundamentally, with re
spect to the cosmogony and the history of the paradisiacal man.
In fact, the evidences have constantly accumulated during these re
searches, that the sacred science and tradition of the old world,
inherited alike by all the cultured nations, had been symbolically
embodied in the primitive sphere. It is necessary to go farther
even, and to admit that the first prophecy ever uttered to man was
recorded in the heavens ; for the promise relative to the seed of the
woman may be read to-day, as plainly inscribed on the celestial
sphere as in the third chapter of Genesis.
The tradition of the "golden age," then, was not a myth. The
old doctrine of a subsequent decadence, of a sad degeneracy of the
human race, from an original state of happiness and purity, un
doubtedly embodied a great, but lamentable truth. Our modern
philosophies of history, which begin with the primeval man as a
savage, evidently need a new introduction. Those writers who
would derive the origin of religion and civilization from a condition
of savagism should go back of Mt. Meru to do it, and not content
themselves with citing the customs of existing barbarous tribes.
No ; the primeval man was not a savage. He was born of the Hea
ven-Father and the Earth-Mother. He was the beautiful, pure
image of both. Sweet Nature caressed him on her generous lap;
she told him her secrets without asking, for she fondly trusted that
he would not betray her. Heaven itself conversed with, him ; and
the constellations taught him the music of the spheres. There was
nothing that he did not love, and there was nothing that did not
love him. All things whispered to him what they were and why
they were. The sun and moon were his companion.?, — almost a
brother and sister. To the primeval man. Nature was conscious;

418 HAR-MOAD.
and her consciousness was a part of his own. Eternal Mind was
present to him, in all that he beheld, in all that he felt. The
golden gates of the senses were continually thronged with tender
sympathies, with loving messages, from the great world about him.
Such was creation's first-born child, with whom the Holy One him
self came down to dwell.
But there came that cruel hour when man fell! Nature was
ashamed ! and drew the veil over her face. IMan, too, was ashamed,
and sewed fig-leaves together to hide his nakedness. But God was
angry ; and He cursed the ground that had witnessed an act, a
calamity, so terrible. The betrayer also met his doom; and his
everlasting sentence was written in the sky. Thus, the light of
that beautiful civilization flickered for a while, like a candle in its
socket, and then went out.
Sec. 172. But before the flames had died down on the primitive
altars, a faithful band had kindled their torches, that they might
conduct the race through the long night, and finally renew the fires
in other times and in other climes. If the evidences adduced in
the third chapter did not fully establish the fact, then I think the
frequent additions of proof in later studies have served to demon
strate that there existed an ancient order of priest-kings, having its
origin in the very dawn of history, through whom the sacred tradi
tion and science had been transmitted to subsequent ages. The
striking uniformity in the several versions of the primitive doc
trines as inherited by different nations so widely separated, and at
a period so early as to preclude the idea of their being derived by
one from the other — a uniformity so great that we have been able
to detect a precise astronomical feature common to all — this sur
prising analogy, I say, cannot be accounted for on the principle of
ordinary transmission of ideas from age to age, especially in the
absence of written documents scrupulously preserved. Nor are
these exact resemblances discoverable only in the cosmogonies;
they crop out in many a legend or custom where we are least pre
pared to find them. To illustrate, recall the Chinese legend of the
Tortoise, having the images of the seven stars of the chariot, of the
eight celestial regions, and of the five summits on its shell ; a triple
reference to the sacred mount of paradise, which admits of no other
interpretation. But from China we go now to Rome, where we
find in the location of the axis of the Pantheon another reference

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 419
to the seven stars, and to the eighth celestial region, considered as
the seat of the gods, especially of Jupiter ; a singular proof of the
exactness with which the primeval traditions had been preserved
by these two nationalities so distantly removed from each other.
It seems to me impossible that such accuracy should be maintained
through ages even, and by different races, except by the vigilant
care of a class of personages, regularly organized, and specially
charged to preserve the ancient doctrines in their purity. Eneas,
whose Cabiriac character is quite well established, is supposed to
have brought the sacred science from Troy to Rome. The seats of
the Cabiriac worship were the most primitive of any, both in Egypt
and Babylonia. It is hardly to be doubted, I think, that members
of the same mystic order laid the foundations of the Chinese em
pire. When the old civilization centring in Mt. Meru was broken
down, it is evident that those ancient priest-kings, whose symbol
was the Dragon, one with the Biblical cherubim, conducted the
great migrations diverging from the original focus of populations
into the different quarters of the world ; into China, Egypt, Baby
lonia, etc. ; carrying with them the primeval doctrines which
served the theoretical basis of subsequent foundations in these
various countries. The fact tends powerfully to support this
hypothesis that, uniformly in antiquity, the Cabiri were the reputed
founders of the ancient civilizations and kingdoms. That even the
Chinese empire should be included in this category is quite clearly
proved from the employment of the written character Tsing, denot
ing the constellation of the Dioscuri, who were certainly Cabiriac
deities, as otherwise the symbol of territorial divisions, and of the
rules for founding the state.^
* M. G. Maspero has translated an Egyptian text, quite difficult in many por
tions, which seems to me to indicate the prevalence in the Nile valley of those
peculiar ideas and customs which we have associated with the Cabiri, or temple-
craft, and at a period prior to the exodus of the Israelites, according to Dr. Birch
and others ; that is to say, in the reign of Seti I , of the nineteenth dynasty.
The text contains a panegyric upon this monarch on the occasion of the building
of a certain temple ; and the language of the address, in agreement with prevail
ing practice, is put by the scribe into the mouths of the gods themselves. The
following extract is taken from the introductory part, and relates to the founding
and consecration of the edifice : —
" It is I who have founded it with Sokar, says Ptah. I have determined with a
line the circumference of its walls ; while my mouth pronounced the great for
mulas, Thotih assisted at the ceremonies with his sacred books; — has consolidated

420 HAR-MOAD.
It is, then, quite apparent to whom we are indebted for the trans
mission of those grand ideas which had constituted the theory of a
brilliant civilization, whose antiquity was so great that its memory
the walls of the temple ; Ptah To tunen has measured the ground, Tum was also
present (a). The stake which I had in hand was of gold ; I struck upon it with
the hammer (6). As for thee (Seti), thou wast with me as geometrician ; thy
two hands held the spade, to the end of establishing the angles'of the edifice, ac
cording to the cardinal regions of heaven (c). The formulas of the conservators
were pronounced, the ceremonies of the protectors were performed by Neith and
Selk. Completed with labors, that ought to ensure them to eternity, the walls of
the temple come to be nine," etc. (d). (Bibliotheque de I'ecole des hautes etudes.
Genre epistolaire, etc., pp. 91, 92.)
(a) The function of the god Tum, sun of the lower hemisphere, in these cere
monies is difficult to determine, the text being quite obscure in this place.
(6) For this sentence, M. Maspero refers otherwise to Dr. Brugsch's rendering,
which is to be preferred, probably : " The hammer in my hand was of gold ; I
struck with it upon the mallet." Even this version makes but poor sense ; and
for " mallet " it is obvious we are to understand a block of stone, like the corner
stone, which, in the ceremonies, is adjusted by blows from the golden hammer, or
gavel. (c) Here, again, Dr. Brugsch's rendering conveys a better idea, if it is not
more exact also : " Thou wast with me in thy function of geometrician ; thy
hands carried the measuring-instrument, to establish in an exact manner the
angles (of the temple), according to the cardinal regions."
((f) Finally, the concluding sentence of the extract is very obscure, and M.
Maspero offers another, which is, however, hardly more intelligible. The number
"nine" is in some way associated with the walls of the structure. For myself,
I conjecture a reference here to the ninth Cabirus, as the father of the eight
Cabiri is sometimes included with them ; or possibly we should understand the
plot of nine squares, as exhibited upon the cosmical seal, heretofore explained,
this again referring to the nine earths, or principal divisions, in the symbolic sys
tem of geography.
What, then, are the indications that the foregoing extract contains direct allu
sions to the Cabiri, or ancient temple-craft ? 1st. Ptah was himself the chief of
the Cabiriac divinities ; and his worship was primitive in the valley of the Nile.
2d. Thoth, likewise, the Egyptian Mercury, and reputed author of the sacred
books, was a Cabiriac deity ; and the city of Sesun, "eight," was the principal
seat of his worship. The numeral " eight " applied to Thoth, and it connects him
with Eshmun of the Phoenicians. 3d. The "golden hammer," in the hand of
Ptah, chief Cabiriac personage, was evidently the insignia of authority, like the
gavel, and its use in these ceremonies reminds us of the custom of officially ad
justing the corner-stones of temples. The instrument for establishing the angles
of the edifice, according to the cardinal points, was obviously another implement
appertaining to the craft. 4th. Some mystical sense appears to have centred in
the number " nine ; " and this, too, could relate only to the Cabiriac mysteries.
Thus, I am strongly of the opinion that we have here a reference, dating from the
period as early as the time of Moses, to the ideas and customs of the ancient

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 421
even had been but faintly preserved at what is usually termed the
opening of the historical period. We are fully justified in attribut
ing the invention of letters and the authorship at least of many of
the sacred books of antiquity to the same class of personages. All
this goes to show that the existence of authentic records appertain
ing to the very first periods of history, which had been preserved
with scrupulous care from age to age, is a matter upon which no
serious doubts need be entertained, considering all the facts now
before us. That the same doctrines and the same events which
had been symbolically represented upon the sphere should be em
bodied also in written documents is naturally to be supposed. In
many instances, without doubt, both records must be attributed to
the same authorship. In such cases the analogies existing between
the two, when properly understood, would be very striking, of
which some remarkable instances have been developed as regards
the Mosaic records. The great antiquity and perfect reliability of
these records, therefore, has been thus most satisfactorily demon
strated. Like everything human, it is doubtless true that the ancient order
of priest-kings, otherwise termed the Cabiri, suffered a gradual de
generacy and corruption, although it is probable there were some
rare and noble exceptions to the general rule. It was through the
fidelity and devotion of these few, under the guidance of a Divine
Providence, that the wisdom of the past was still preserved, serving
the basis of new epochs and new dispensations. Thus, the sacred
fires, first kindled on the heights of the Har-Moad, were never
temple-craft. But the facts here developed call to mind a remark of M. Ma
riette-Bey : —
"Ptah is thus the Demiurgus, the creator; he is the Egyptian Vulcan, the first
of the Cabiri ; the Demiurge armed, as M. Guigniaut has remarked, with the
CREATIVE HAMMER.'! La Mere D'Apis, pp. 39, 40.
Thus, the mystical hammer in the hands of Ptah, which appears in the cere
monies of founding the temples as symbol of authority, reappears as symbol of
the creator ; and it appertains to Ptah in both instances. We show here, 1st.
That the Hammer, Hebrew Pattisch, like the cuneiform Pa-te-shi which gave the
name to one of the Cabiri, appertained especially to this Egyptian divinity,
reputed father of the Cabiri ; 2d. That there was a definite connection between
the temple-craft, the founders of sacred edifices, and the cosmical deities ; and thus
between the temple itself and the cosmos. For the rest, it is quite probable that
Thor, the Scandinavian god whose symbol was the hammer, ought to be classed
among the Cabiriac divinities.

422 HAR-MOAD.
wholly extinguished on the earth. They were successively renewed
on the holy " highlands " of the past, and their light has been re
flected through all the ages. We see, therefore, that history has
not been wholly a blind struggle of human forces, with no God to
shape their ends. A divine priesthood, charged with the preserva
tion of the truth and to effect the final redemption of the world,
has been contemporaneous with the entire life of humanity. God
has organized himself in humanity from the beginning, and it is
through this organization that He has presided at the opening of
all the glorious epochs of the world.
Sec 173. No question has given birth in modern times to a more
extensive literature, to a great extent controversial, than that which
legards the problem of "Genesis and geology." Since my first
tolerable acquaintance with the doctrines of the ancient cosmo
gonies, it has seemed to me that the standpoints respectively of
Genesis and geology from which to view the creation of the world
and of man involved actually but very little common to both, and
thus that the necessary elements did not exist for a satisfactory
solution of this problem. Any attempt to construe the first and
second chapters of Genesis — for the Garden of Eden is but the com
pleted cosmos — upon the principles of modern geology, especially
in connection with the " nebular hypothesis," must necessarily re
sult, in my view, in really forced if not fanciful constructions of
both theories, and absolutely in a downright injustice to the Mosaic
system. To illustrate the hopeless disparity of views between the
two schemes, it is well known that all the ancient cosmogonies
assume for the "beginning" of things a primordial watery chaos.
But modern science demonstrates the original condition of all mat
ter to have been that of a luminous ether or gas. Now we know,
on one hand, that a watery chaos never preceded, in the order of
creation, this luminous, gaseous state of all material substances, and
we know, therefore, on the other hand, that the ocean of waters,
which after the lapse of immense periods actually did envelop the
earth, was not in any sense the true " beginning," according to
scientific apprehension. To assume, in agreement with the theolo
gical interpretation, that the watery chaos of Genesis was created
ex nihilo at the " beginning " only shuts the door more effectually
against a reconciliation with the modern theory, for this theory can
never admit for a moment that, since the earth was covered with

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 423
an ocean of waters, all matter has at any time assumed the gaseous
state. It knows that this condition of the earth was not the "be
ginning." Hence, what is affirmed as the primordial state in all
the cosmogonies can never be admitted as such by science.
That the ancient cosmogonies involved the notion of a creation
in the modern sense is probably true ; but I think it was more a
philosophy than a history of the creative process, this process being
conceived fundamentally as one of division. I am confident, more
over, that the entire scheme in its higher and more habitual inter
pretation had a religious, or better, a politico-religious import. It
constituted, in fact, the theoretical basis of the ancient civilizations,
each of which was a new heaven and earth, modeled after the primi
tive heaven and earth. Creation was conceived as a temple, and
the temple as an image of creation ; but the state was only an
expansion of the idea of the temple, and thus preeminently a world
or cosmos. The foundation of the world was a type of all other
foundations, and all other beginnings had for their type the begin
ning of time. As before observed, paradise itself was the completed
cosmos, and this was the primitive " celestial earth." Accordingly,
all the ancient kingdoms were celestial earths, from which comes
the fundamental notion of " the kingdom of heaven." In this sense
chaos may be interpreted' of human society, before the introduction
of the principle of order denoted by the term cosmos.
But I think the highest interpretation given to the cosmogony
by the sacred writers themselves was that of a divine dispensation,
of the establishment of an open communication between heaven
and earth, the divine and human, a notion involved in the expres
sion Har-Moad, " mountain of the assembly," or " mount of the
divine presence," of which the Beth-Moad, or Hebrew tabernacle,
was in every sense a reproduction. The sacred mount of the north
east was supposed to unite the heavens and earth, and the blending
of its summit with the sky itself gave rise to the phrase Svarga-
bhoumi, " celestial earth." The pyramid in stages, like the tower of
Borsippa, was an express imitation of the traditional mount, which
was thus regarded as a mountain of degrees or stages. The Egyp
tian hieroglyph of such a pyramid signifies "a ladder," and M.
Lenormant has shown us that "Jacob's ladder" was only another
mode of reference to the paradisiacal mountain. According to Scan
dinavian mythology, the bridge of Bifrost unites the heaven and

424 HAR-MOAD.
earth. At the destruction of the world the final ruin of everything
is when the giants jump upon the bridge of Bifrost, breaking it
down. But afterwards, a new heaven and earth appear. The idea
of a new heaven and earth, then, is very explicit, and not at all
poetical ; it relates to the reopening of communication between God
and humanity after it has been broken down by the increasing vio
lence of wickedness among men, in other words, when the giants
have jumped upon the bridge Bifrost, and all has gone to ruin. The
Scandinavian mythology, derived from the ancient Asgard, has pre
served perfectly the notion attached to the primitive Har-Moad.
As long since shown by Dr. Faber, the doctrine of " a succession of
similar worlds " extensively prevailed in antiquity, and it obviously
arose from the idea of successive reconstructions or reorganizations
of the heaven and earth on the principles of the primitive cosmos,
thus replacing the ladder of communication between God and man.
There was many a time in antiquity that a grand civilization
crumbled into ruins, overpowered by the incursions of barbarian
hordes, or dragged down by popular violence, when passion ruled
the hour and all virtue had decayed. It was only when modern
civilization had been firmly established, intrenched behind so many
frowning fortresses girding the earth, and maintained by the noble
philanthropy of so many nations, that the ultimate redemption of
humanity from savagism was perfectly assured. It was in such
dark periods of history, when all was lost, when every holy interest
of man had been betrayed, that another ladder was let down from
the sky, on which the angels descended to inaugurate a new era
upon the earth ; that another bridge was thrown across the deep
chasm gullied out by the angry waters, or that an ark was built,
and the helmsman bidden " to steer to the gods." ^
Sec 174. No more important truth has been developed by these
investigations than the fact of the assimilation of the terrestrial
paradise to the lower hemisphere of heaven, and subsequently to
the Greek Hades, or region of the dead. The proofs embodied in
1 It is stated by Berosus that Xisuthrus, when warned of the deluge and com
manded to save himself in a ship, inquired : " Whither he should sail?" and
was told, "To the gods, with a, prayer that it might fare well with mankind."
The seat of the gods was the summit of the paradisiacal mount, identified also
with that of the deluge. Ancient mariners were wont to steer their vessels by
the group of seven stars that, like the rudder of the great world ship, swings
around the pole.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 425
the seventh chapter render it impossible, as it seems to me, to avoid
the conclusions here stated. In the legend of "Ishtar's descent into
Hades," one of the designations of the infernal abode is the Semitic
phrase Beth-Hedi, which is ordinarily employed in the Hebrew
Scriptures to denote the tabernacle, or place of assembly of the
Israelitish congregation ; while in the Syriac version of the New
Testament, the last element of this phrase is put for the church, or
Christian congregation. Mr. Talbot supposes that Hedi and Hades
were originally the same word. Now it has been shown that, in
the books of Moses, a direct relation was conceived to exist between
the Beth-Hedi, otherwise termed the Beth-Moad and the Har-
Moad, or mount of paradise. One was the " house of the assem
bly," the other the " mount of the assembly," the latter being the
primitive type of the former. Mt. Sion, on which the temple was
erected, onlj;^ replaced the Har-Moad of primeval tradition. Thus,
that which replaced the Har-Moad among the Hebrews was identi
fied with Hades, in the legend of Ishtar and among the Babylonians.
Again, the "celestial earth," under the form of a floating island,
is seen in the vision of Timarchus borne on the bosom of the Stygian
abyss, or river of Hades. The " celestial earth," however, was
originally one with the terrestrial paradise. Finally, the Stygian
river itself is situated astronomically in the lower hemisphere, tak
ing its rise in the constellation Libra, directing its course from
thence towards the south pole. This fact proves that both Para
dise and Hades were located in the inferior' heavens. It is into
this region of darkness that the sun, chosen representative of hu
manity, makes its descent at night or at the period of midwinter.
We have the most palpable proof, in this symbolism connected
with the orb of day, of the definite location of Hades, like the
Egyptian Ament, in the inferior hemisphere.^ There exists, then,
1 Besides the term Ament, denoting the abode of the setting sun, the region of
the dead, the Egyptians employed another expression whose reading is unsettled,
although that of Tuaut has been often adopted. It corresponded to the abode of
the blessed, like the Greek Elysium, or Paradise of the later Jews. Egyptolo
gists are in considerable doubt as regards its particular location. Thus, M. E.
Naville remarks : "M. Pierret . . . names this region the 'region of the gates,
the inferior hemisphere ; ' MM. Lauth and Brugsch translate it by ' deep ; the
subteiTanean world ; ' MM. Chabas and Lefebure by ' the inferior heaven ; '
M. Reinisch ... by ' splendor, abode of glory.' By comparing the various ex
amples of its use in these texts, Tuaut appears clearly indicated as being placed

426 HAR-MOAD.
the conclusive evidence: 1st. That the sacred mount of paradise
was an actual geographical and historical fact, being located on the
earth's surface; 2d. That it was associated at a subsequent period
with the Greek Hades, or the infernal abodes ; bd. That both
these were located astronomically in the lower hemisphere. It is
for us to seek some explanation of these strange and contradictory
notions. From the point of view afforded by modern science, we know
that the inferior heavens have really nothing to do with the abode
of man after death. If the Greek Hades was located in this celes
tial space, it had just as little to do with the actual sojourn of the
in opposition to \h& superior heaven'' (Litanie du Soleil, etc.," p. 21). Quite in
consistently, as it seems to me, M. Naville finally elects to render Tuaut by the
term Empyrean, that is, "the highest heaven." He observes again, "I have
called Empyrean the region designated by a word which is as difficult to translate
as the Greek Hades ("AjSj7s) or the Hebrew Sheol (bisti?) • *^^^^ ^^ ^^^ sojourn
of the dead, the place where the defunct ardently desire to arrive, and which is
opposed to heaven ; from whence it has been most frequently called the inferior
heaven. This region ... is probably situated at the centre of the earth ; al
though this is not positively affirmed " (ibid., p. 126). The region in question
appertains definitely to the nocturnal sun, to Osiris, and it is placed in opposition
to the superior heaven, and is evidently located in the Ament, just as Elysium
and Paradise were situated in Hades. All goes to show that the usual view,
which locates Tuaut astronomically in the inferior heaven, is perfectly correct,
and lhe« texts translated by M. Naville, dating from the period of Seti I.,
afford another conclusive proof of our views, as set forth in the seventh chapter.
That the Egyptian Amenr, or region of the dead, was located astronomically in
the lower hemisphere, abode of the nocturnal sun, admits of no doubt; in fact,
M. Naville identifies expressly the two regions, as in this phrase, " At the same
time he {Ra) illumes the Ament, the interior heaven" (p. 80). Again, the
eleventh and twelfth hikennus of the Litanie itself confirm this point : —
" He who descends into the spheres of Ament, his figure is that of Tum.
" He who descends into the mysteries of Anubis, his figure is that of Chepra
{Atmu)." The god Tum is notably the sun of the lower hemisphere, and M. Naville
shows that Chepra is identical with him. Of Anubis, the author remarks :
" Anubis, the dark jackal, the guardian of the. coffins, is the emblem of the (western)
horizon and of the inferior hemisphere. Jablonski has demonstrated this by
numerous examples derived from Greek and Latin authors " (vid. pp. 31, 32).
Thus the location ot the Egyptian Ament in the lower hemisphere, where Ra, the
sun, under the form of Tum or Chepra, descends at night, is a fully demonstrated
fact; nor is it less certain that the Greeks derived their notions concerning
Hades principally from those of the Egyptians respecting Ament, so that the same
astronomical locality for both must be admitted as perfectly substantiated.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 427
dead. Nevertheless, it is necessary to admit the reality of a future
life, and thus of the abode of those inheriting it. There can be but
little dpubt that the mount of paradise itself was considered as
such abode during the first ages of the world, although its actual
location on earth has been so fully verified. In early Aryan tradi
tion, as is well known, the mansions of the blessed were thought to
be situated on the slopes of Meru or Albordj. The Har-Moad of
Isaiah appears to have been regarded in a similar light. Hence,
the sacred mount of paradise was definitely associated, in some
sense, with the life of man after death. This fact is of capital im
portance, as it offers an explanation of the connection of Paradise
with Hades. Both were regarded as the sojourn of the dead.
There was, however, this difference between them: with the first
men, the dear .departed were believed to have gone up the sacred
mountain, and to dwell on its shining slopes. In later conception,
centring in Hades, all was transferred to the under world, the
inferior heavens, the region of darkness. From whence arose these
differences in conceiving the locality of the abodes of men after
death ? We must remember that, according to the symbolic mode
of representing the cosmos by the two halves of the sphere, the
inferior heavens were put for the earth, and especially the partic
ular earth identified with the terrestrial paradise. Hence, the
sacred mount, as well as Hades, conceived as equally the abode of
the departed, was located astronomically in the lower hemisphere.
But this celestial region was only a symbol put for the earth, on
which the sacred mount had its literal location. The symbolic
principle had been neglected and finally forgotten ; and as a conse
quence the lower heavens assumed the character of a separate re
gion, a world of darkness. Paradise and Hades, which had been
assimilated to this region symbolically, were now conceived, by an
entire misapprehension, to be literally situated there.
In primeval tradition, as we are now prepared to affirm, the
actual dwelling-place of the departed was on the Har-Moad, " the
mountain of the assembly." In this sense Hades, the Semitic
Beth-Hedi, one with the Beth-Moad, was originally connected with
it, and both were symbolically referred to the inferior heavens. It
was only when the real motive of this last assimilation had been
forgotten that all was transferred literally to the under world, the
region of darkness, — a sad perversion of primitive doctrines, that

428 HAR-MOAD.
has resulted in clothing the future life of man in impenetrable
gloom. We are now able to comprehend how the sacred writers
were equally correct in assimilating the terrestrial paradise- to the
state of the dead, to Hades, and at the same time to the Beth-Hedi,
considered as a reproduction of the sacred mount of tradition. It
was on the holy mountain of degrees, which, like Jacob's ladder,
united the heavens to the earth, that primeval tradition had located
the beautiful mansions of the just made perfect.
Sec. 175. Another very important fact contemplated from the
point of view which we now occupy relates to the uniform concep
tion in high antiquity that the divine powers had their seat in the
extreme northern heavens, or precisely in the celestial region pene
trated by the summit of the paradisiacal mountain. Among the
Romans, according to Dr. William Smith, the gods were supposed
to be seated in the north ; and this is confirmed by the location of
the axis of the Pantheon only five degrees from the pole star ; the
reference being to the seven stars of the chariot ; but especially to
the eighth region in relation to them, regarded as the throne of
Jupiter. The Phoenician Eshmun, the eighth Cabirus, as shown
by Dr. Movers, must be associated likewise with this highest, cen
tral point of the heavens. The god Shemal of the Haranite mys
teries, a divine name equal to the Hebrew Semal, which appears
originally to have been common to the Semitic races, was con
nected directly with the north celestial pole. The Persian Ormazd
had his abode on the divine summit, the Albordj, source of the
sacred river Avanda. The Aryans of India located the paradise of
the gods on the heights of Meru, or in the region termed by them
the Su-Meru. The Kharsak-Kurra of the cuneiform texts, or the
"Bit-Kharris of the east," where, according to the passage hereto
fore cited, the great divinities and their spouses reign forever,
is identified by M. Lenormant with the rotating centre of the
superior heavens. As the same writer has observed, the last term
of hope of the Babylonian and Assyrian, kings was to be conducted
at death to this mystical region of the skies, there to dwell with
the immortal gods. The prophet Isaiah makes use of this very
fact, in his bitter sarcasm upon the fall of the Babylonian mon
arch : " For thou hast said in thine heart, I will ascend into heaven,
I will exalt my throne above the stars of God (Bl) ; I will sit also
upon the mount of the congregation (Har-Moad), in the sides of

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 429
the north ; I will ascend above the heights of the clouds ; I will be
like the Most High (Elyon). Yet thou shalt be brought down to
hell (Sheol), to the sides of the pit" (xiv. 13-15). The "stars of
El " were pVeviously identified with the seven stars of the chariot,
whose rolling motion around the pole gave rise to the notion of
strength, as involved in the term El, " the Strong One." The
celestial space above this group of stars was that appropriated to
Elyon, " the Most High," and it answered to the eighth region, to
which also the PhoBnician Eshmun was assimilated. Thus, the
blasphemous king of Babylon had said in his heart that he would
exalt his throne above the seven stars of El; that he would sit
upon the very summit of the Har-Moad ; that he would ascend
even into the eighth celestial region, and be like Elyon, "the
Highest." It is perfectly clear from the prophet's language that he in
tends to associate the two divine names. El and Elyon, not only
with the Har-Moad situated geographically in the north, but with
the particular and central region of the northern heavens, supposed
to be penetrated hy the summit of this sacred mountain ; that is to
sajs with the same region precisely which all the Asiatic nations
regarded as the seat of the divine powers. Such being the case,
it is necessary to admit also that this inspired writer intends to in
dorse, and does so expressly, the primitive doctrine which located
the divine abode in this quarter of the heavens. I think, more
over, that the sacred writers generally countenance this idea.
Heaven is often put for the Deity, and especially for the dwelling
of God, to which corresponded the Holy of Holies of the taber
nacle, as shown by Dr. Bahr. But it is quite certain, from the
facts developed in these researches, that this is not the heaven in
general, but the particular and traditional heaven, specially con
nected with the Har-Moad, identified with the mount of paradise,
and of which the Beth-Moad was an image. The cubical space
constituting the Holy of Holies, like that forming the eighth stage
of the pj'ramidal temples, and which was in an especial sense the
divine abode, obviously represented that particular heaven, and no
other, which was united to the terrestrial paradise by means of the
sacred mount. Thus, the two divine names. El and Elyon, were
expressly connected with this celestial region, and the Holy of
Holies represented it. Besides this, we have the " gate of heaven,"

430 HAR-MOAD.
the " door of heaven," the " gate of El," and the " house of El,"
— expressions whose primary reference to the central region of
heaven, connected with the Har-Moad, admits of but little doubt.
If we speak, therefore, of the heavenly dwelling, of the divine
abode par excellence, it can be no other than that to which
uniform tradition pointed, the definite reference to which was em
bodied in the most ancient temple structures, the notion of which
was fundamental in all the Asiatic religions. It was on the slopes
of the sacred mountain that the mansions of the blessed were
situated. It was its summit on which the divine powers were con
ceived to dwell, and they dwell there to-day. Theirs are the hands
that firmly grasp the celestial rudder steering the ship of the
world. Sec 176. The two divine names. El and Elyon, so frequently
occurring in the Hebrew Scriptures, are well known to have apper
tained to the earliest periods of Semitic development. As in the
texts cited from Isaiah, they are often employed separately, — the
first signifying " the Strong One," importing a character similar
to that of a Hercules ; the second having the sense of " the High
est," or " the Most High." But in the majority of instances, per
haps, Elyon is employed as a qualifying word to El, in the phrase
El-elyon. " El the highest," usually rendered " the Most High
God." The proofs were presented in a previous chapter to the
effect that the term Elyon involves the notion of " an ascent," as
of a series of stages, a staircase, or ladder, hence also a chamber,
the chamber of heaven, etc. In all cases, this word imports " the
highest," from whence its peculiar significance in relation to the
seven stars of El, referring to the eighth celestial region,^ to which
the Phoenician Eshmun corresponded as the eighth Cabirus. The
Phoenician and Hebrew languages are substantially the same, but
as a distinct nationality the Phoenicians were far more ancient.
In the remains of Phoenician literature. El and Elyon both occur
as divine names, particularly in the cosmogony, which is doubtless
equal in antiquity to the Mosaic and Babylonian systems. Ac
cording to the "Fragments of Sanchoniatho," Elyon, called Elioun,
the Hypsistus of the Greeks, plays a very important part in the
Phoenician cosmogony ; and by a comparison of the facts as stated
by this author with those already before us, it will be seen that
they reflect much light upon each other. The language of San-
choniatho is as follows : —

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 431
" But from Sydyc (the just) descended the Dioscuri, or Cabiri,
or Corybaiftes, or Samothraces ; these first built a ship." " Con
temporary with these was one Elioun (Elyon), called Hypsistus
(the most high); and a female named Beruth." "By these was
begotten Epigeus or Autochthon, whom they afterwards called
Ouranus (heaven)." "He had a sister of the same parents, who
was called Ge (earth)." " Hypsistus, the father of these, having
been killed in a conflict with wild beasts, was consecrated, and his
children offered libations and sacrifices unto him.''^
All these personages are treated by the author as purely hu
man characters ; but it is well understood by critics that they
are properly cosmical potencies. The seven sons of Sydyc, "the
just," including the Dioscuri, or Twins, zodiacal Gemini, are
Cab'iri, to which another son, born subsequently, Eshmun, or "the
eighth," is to be added. As for -Elyon, called Hypsistus, he is the
father of heaven and earth, or of Ouranus and Ge. It is important
to compare with these data the facts stated by Professor Fick, for
merly cited, namely, that the Aryan Akman, Greek Akmon, signi
fies a "stone," then "heaven," also "anvil," being finally the
title of one of the Cabiri, and a pergonal name of the father of
Ouranus, or Heaven. Thus Elyon and Akmon are both put for
the father of heaven, to which might probably be added Ge, the
earth. As cosmical powers, therefore, the two personages are to
be identified, and from the language of Isaiah, assigning Elyon to
the eighth celestial region, it is obvious that Akmon should be
assimilated to the same region, in company with the Phoenician
Eshmun. As two of these names were titles of a Cabirus, it is
quite certain that such was originally the case with Elyon, as al
ready suggested.
The reader has been made acquainted with the character of the
Assyrian Hercules, at one time assimilated to the sun of the lower
hemisphere, at another time to the planet Saturn, etc., but whose
supposed voluntary death and resurrection to a new life constitute
the chief matters of interest in his history. Dr. Movers proves
that the name Akmon, denoting a Cabirus, was otherwise a title of
Hercules. The evidence has been already introduced to the effect
that a Cabirus was supposed to have suffered a violent death at
the hands of his brother or brothers ; and in order to complete the
analogies in all such traditions, it is necessary to suppose that he
1 Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 333.

432 HAR-MOAD.
was afterwards raised from the dead. Finally, the reader has no
ticed that the Phoenician Elyon, or Elioun, was thought to have been
killed in conflict with wild beasts ; that from this circumstance he
was consecrated, and worshiped by libations and sacrifices. The
Orientalist detects at once the import of such language. The
Tammuz-Adonis was killed by a wild boar while hunting on the
mountains, but was brought to life again. M. Lenormant, in a
critical and very satisfactory investigation, has shown that the
Phoenician Elyon, or Elioun, presents the more ancient and pure
version of the character of Adonis, corresponding better with the
Assyrian Hercules, who suffers a violent but voluntary death, is
burned upon the funeral pile, but finally raised again to a new and
glorious existence.! It will be seen that the various facts grouped
into one view in the present section go to establish some very im
portant conclusions, which we now proceed to formulate.
Sec 177. The inferences to be drawn from the data, most of
which are already familiar to us, are chiefly the following: —
1st. The Hebrew and Phoenician Elyon must be regarded as one
and the sarne personage, whose primitive conception had been in
herited alike by the two peoples speaking the same language. The
two different phases of character thus transmitted, which appear
to be equally ancient, afford material aid in interpreting each
other. 2d. The thoroughly mystical character of Elyon is abundantly
proved by the two orders of conceptions found centring in him.
The notion of ascending stages, like the ladder of Jacob's vision,
coupled with the idea of the chambers of heaven, is plainly in
volved in the Hebrew etymology of this name and the terms radi
cally connected with it. To this is to be added the direct assimila
tion of Elyon, by Isaiah, to the eighth celestial region, to which the
Phoenician Eshmun and the Shemal of the Haranite mysteries ap
pertained, affording thus the plainest indications of an original
connection with the Cabiriac worship. On the Phoenician side of
his character, Elyon appears as the highest cosmical potency, from
whom the genesis of the heaven and earth proceeds ; at the same
time he represents the primitive idea of a divinity who suffers
voluntarily a violent death, but is raised to life again.
3d. But Akmon is the father of Ouranus or Heaven, the same as
I Lettres Assyriologiques, t. ii. pp. 291-301.

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 433
Elyon ; is the name even of a Cabirus, is a title of Hercules ; and
this term etymologically involves the notion of "heaven," "a
stone," evidently a dressed stone, and is cognate with Aktan,
" eight," and Aktama, " the eighth," like the Semitic Eshmun. It
is obviously this very Cabirus, whose symbol was a dressed stone,
subsequently replaced by a meteoric stone, used as an anvil, who
was reputed to have been slain by his brethren.
4th. Melchizedek was a priest of Elyon, identified with El, the
" Strong One," as seen in the following : " And Melchizedek king
of Salem brought forth bread and wine : and he was the priest of
the most high God. And he blessed him, and said. Blessed be
Abram of the most high God, possessor of heaven and earth" (Gen.
xiv. 18, 19). In this passage El and Elyon are identified as
the same personage, in opposition to any polytheistic conception ;
hence, the original has El-elyon. The phrase, ^'•possessor of heaven
and earth," in the nineteenth and twenty-second verses, is unusual
and somewhat peculiar. The idea of possession here is not that
acquired by purchase, by gift, nor by creation even, except in the
sense of a generation, as in the language attributed to Eve: "I
have gotten a man from the Lord " (Gen. iv. 1), where the same
Hebrew radical appears in the original. This term, Qa-nah, " to
get, to obtain," never means " to create," and can be compared
with the Hebrew Bara, only as the latter means " to beget." The
notion of possession, then, here proceeds from that of generation.
Thus, we show a direct relation of the Hebrew Elyon, as '¦'¦possessor
of heaven and earth," to the Phoenician Elyon, as '¦^father of heaven
and earth."
5th. The assimilation of Elyon to the eighth celestial region, like
Eshmun, his character as father of Ouranus, or Heaven, like that
of Akmon, his reputed death by violence and subsequent resurrec
tion, like the Cabirus murdered by his brethren, all go to establish
beyond doubt his Cabiriac character. But Melchizedek was a
priest of Elyon, identified with El, the Strong One, and was at the
same time king of Salem, being thus a priest-king. The conclusion
cannot be avoided, — Melchizedek belonged to the Cabiriac priest
hood. The name Melchi-zedek signifies "king of justice," the last
element, zedek, is radically the same as the Phoenician Sydyc, "the
just," title of the father of the Cabiri. The ancient order of
priest-kings was founded upon the notion of justice, that is to say,

434 HAR-MOAD.
righteousnesi, and it was obviously this fact that constituted the
motive for selecting the term zedek in composition with the name
of Melchizedek. Sargon the ancient assumed the Assyrian title
of Sar-Kitti, " king of justice," and everything indicates that he
belonged to the Cabiriac fraternity. Thus, it is evident that this
notion of " the just " or " justice," coupled with certain distin
guished personages, founders of new epochs, had a technical re
ference to the Cabiri.
6th. If we would realize now the culminating point of the fore
going inferences, it is necessary to recall the facts connected with
the celestial pole marking the very period to which all these tradi-
tionarv conceptions appertained ; facts that were fully verified in
the fifteenth chapter. This was, at the period referred to, the ro
tating centre of the heavens, around which the stars of .S^ revolved ;
it was the eighth celestial region to which Elyon, equally with
Eshmun and Akmon, pertained ; it was in fact the originally con
ceived abode of the divine powers, the celestial paradise united to
the terrestrial by the Har-Moad. It was, finally, the point from
which the heavens and earth, and all their principal divisions, were
generated, giving rise to the notion of the "father of heaven,"
associated alike with Elyon, God of Melchizedek, and Akmon, the
Cabirus, whose symbol was the dressed stone. But that which is
most important to observe as connected with this celestial region,
and in close proximity to the asterism representing the great
mother, is the figure of Hercules, clad in the lion's skin, and in the
very act of bruising the serpent's head with his heel ; a reference
to the promised seed of the woman so plain as not to be doubted.
If, now, we would find a character that most completely and
perfectly realizes this entire circle of traditionary ideas, it is neces
sary to go to the Christian Scriptures. (1) Christ is represented
as a cosmical agent. All things are made by him, and he is the
especial centre of a new creation, a new heaven and earth. (2)
He is both king and priest, thus definitely related to Melchizedek,
and to the ancient order generally of the priest-kings. (3) He is
the " Strong One," the " Lord mighty in battle," the " Lion of
the tribe of Juda," the true Hercules. (4) He suffers volunta
rily a violent death, and is raised again on the third day. (5)
He is the " chief corner-stone," the " stone which the builders
rejected." (6) His ascent into heaven was like the high-priest's

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 435
entrance into the Holy of Holies, which represented the eighth
celestial region, assimilated to Elyon, and usually to the eighth
Cabirus. (7) The fundamental idea of his character and mission
was that of justice or righteousness, on which also the Cabiriac
priesthood was founded. Thus, all is fulfilled and realized in this
one character. The personage to whom this remarkable character
appertains is not an ideal one, but strictly historical, as admitted
by the best modern critics of the rationalistic school. Such being
the case, it must be admitted, I think, that no such extraordinary
coincidences as here established could possibly occur, except by the
special intervention of a Divine Providence. There is many an
expression attributed to the Saviour in the gospel narrative that
proves him to have been perfectly conscious of his relation to the
traditions of all past ages, and that it was his mission to realize and
fulfill all. But we have not the space here to treat these matters
in a manner such as their importance deserves. We have desired
merely to indicate to whom these ancient foregleams of prophecy
appertained. Sec. 178. The aim of all true religion is to establish an intelli
gent relationship between God and man, a conscious union between
the infinite and finite mind. But no such intelligent union can
subsist between things merely general ; no more between the finite
mind and something purely universal, as a certain recondite essence
filling all space. If the Divine Mind be not apprehended as a con
crete, personal existence, and this under the limitations of time and
space, it is impossible to conceive of an intelligent communication
between God and man, of a conscious relation subsisting between
them, of anything, in fact, but vague impressions and emotions
arising from religious or sesthetical contemplations. Neither science
nor philosophy allows of aught beyond this, but religion aspires to
an actual and personal relation with the Deity. If the Divine
Mind exists, yet never communicates with his rational creatures,
his must be the loneliest and saddest heart in the wide universe. In
such case infinite space itself must be to the Deity but a solitary
confinement, worse than the convict's cell. The sweetest, highest
happiness is to love and be loved ; yea, and to tell of it. If God
cannot love and reveal it, his must be a hard lot. Thus, while
science and philosophy, with their heartless generalizations and
merciless logic, continually break down the ladder of communica-

436 HAR-MOAD.
tion between heaven and earth, religion, with its infinite h ngings,
ever strives to replace it.
In the primeval doctrines, the effort was to build down from
God, as the universal and infinite, to man as the individual and
finite. To this end, the first principle laid down was .that God
dwells, inhabits, the same as man. As well attempt to communi
cate with empty space as with a Deity who merely dwells everywhere,
since for all such purposes this would be the same as nowhere.
Conceived in its broadest .sense, the dwelling of God was the cos
mos, more especially that chief division of the cosmos, — the starry
heaven. These points were long since established by Dr. Bahr, as
heretofore cited. But to understand here the world in general, or
the heavens in general, is to give to these doctrines a pantheistic
interpretation. The allusion is definitely to the traditional heaven
and earth as known to the first meil, to that particular celestial
region penetrated by the summit of the Har-Moad, which the
Beth-Moad was designed to reproduce ; in other terms, to that iden
tical region assumed by all the Asiatic nations as the seat of the
divine hierarchy.
The next stage in building down from heaven to earth, or from
God to man, was the temple, conceived as an image of the cosmos,
at the same time as a dwelling of the Deity. But the temple, in
order to become such abode, must truly represent the cosmos, and
be constructed upon the same principles. Hence, the theory of
both was the same. Here, again, it is necessary to avoid the pan
theistic interpretation of the world in general, and to assume a
direct reference to the traditional heaven and earth, identified with
the celestial and terrestrial paradise. The " house of the assembly "
must replace the " mount of the assembly," or, as Dr. Lowth would
have it, the " mount of the divine presence."
The final stage in this process was to assume man as the true
temple, as the real cosmos, as, in fact, the most befitting habitation
of the Divine Mind. This stage is peculiar and fundamental to the
Christian system, as appears from numerous passages like the
following : " In whom ye also are builded together for a habitation
of God through the Spirit" (Eph. ii. 22). But man is likewise
the real cosmos ; the threefold division of the human powers, so
uniformly adopted by the sacred writers, into spirit, soul, and
body, obviously proceeded originally from the three chief divisions

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 437
of the cosmos, — the heaven, the atmosphere, and the earth.^ It
was on the same principle that the regenerated man was deemed
the new creation, or the new heaven and earth.
Such, then, in general terms, was the theory according to which
it was attempted to bridge over the chasm between the infinite and
finite, the divine and human, and to establish an intimate, per
sonal relation between them. Such were the principles upon the
basis of which, at the opening of new epochs, when the old order of
things had gone to ruins, it was attempted to replace the ladder of
communication" between heaven and earth ; between the ancient
seat of the divine powers on the summit of the Har-Moad and the
heavenly kingdom which was to be reinaugurated among men. It
is a fact very remarkable, and not less important, that among so
many widely separated nations in antiquity, and through so many
different epochs, the same celestial region was uniformly regarded
as the particular abode of the divine hierarchy, from whence the
government of the world proceeded, and the heavenly influences
descended upon the earth. It is sufficient to recall here the data
summarized in the 174th section. That the Hebrew Scriptures
indorse generally the same traditional doctrine is already quite
apparent, and admits of being even more clearly demonstrated.
The allusions to this region by the prophet Isaiah, the candle
stick with seven branches in the Hebrew tabernacle, obviously
representing the seven stars of El, the definite relation of the
Beth-Moad to the Har-Moad, — all tend to support the doctrine
common to the entire Asiatic world. The Christian Scriptures
also contain many allusions pointing in the same direction. As,
however, the celestial pole was constantly changing its position, the
more usual reference to this region wils by means of the seven
stars of the chariot, which never leave the visible heavens, but roll
1 I find that the Jewish rabbis have some notion of the relation of the micro
cosm to the macrocosm. Dr. Cox observes : " Another authority declares that
' God created three worlds, — the upper world, the middle world, and the lower
world.' Farther, it is said in Zohar that God created three souls, answering to
the three worlds, namely, the Nephesh, that is, the soul ; and the Ruach, that is, the
spirit; and the Neshama, that is, the precious soul." (Bib. Antiquities, p. 423.)
It is obvious that the primitive iloctrine is hero somewhat obscured, that the
"lower world " should be consid red the earth, to which corresponds the Bara'',
or body; while the Neshama should be excluded from the category, as a later
arrangement.

438 HAR-MOAD.
forever around that divine summit from whence the holy moun
tains of all ages have been derived.
Sec. 179. If any doctrine was more fundamental than another
in nearly all the systems of antiquity, it was that relating to the
active and passive powers of the universe, or the male and female,
appearing primarily in the cosmogony as mind and matter, whose
union in one androgynous divinity constituted the absolute first
principle. The conception of a pure spirituality, prior to and
independent of all matter, does not appear to have been primitive,
but rather the product of later philosophical abstraction. The
cosmogonies, so far as I am able to perceive, do not teach any such
doctrine. The most primitive titles of divinity prevailing among
men do not involve etymologically the notion of a pure spiritual
existence, but quite the contrary. The Chinese Tien, the Sanskrit
Dyu or Dyaus, and the Accadian An,BXl denoted the "heaven"
or the " sky," conceived as the Deity. Even the substantive verb
to be, which has given birth to so many divine names in various
languages, relates rather to that which really is than to the ab
stract pure being of the philosophers. Matter really is the same
as mind, and this verb involves equally the notion of both. The
idea of the poverty of language does not apply here ; for the truth
is, that the first men had no difficulty in finding words to express
exactly their real notion of the Deity, and among these were those
just noticed. They signified " heaven," and heaven was taken for
the Deity. The ancients, however, did not divorce mind from
matter, as is done in modern thought. They were conceived in
eternal marriage. Thus, the primitive man had no difficulty in
associating mind, and even personality, with the material heaven,
considered as the Divinity. The notion of heaven-he, or of
heaven regarded as a personal deity, was perfectly consistent with
the prevailing habit of thought. Again, the conception of a deity
having his abode beyond the material heaven, and outside the
material creation, was obviously the result of later philosophical
speculations, and wholly foreign to the primitive doctrines. It is
a sufficient proof of this that, when the original androgynous prin
ciple separated into the two chief divisions of the cosmos, or heaven
and earth, these were universally conceived as the heaven father
and the earth mother, from whose commerce all things had their
birth. This separation was, in all the cosmogonies, the first act of

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 439
creation. Now it is evident in this case that the heaven father
was assimilated to the material heaven, and the earth mother to
the material earth; and that nothing was imagined as beyond or
outside until metaphysical abstraction began to subvert the ancient
doctrines. The notions of the heaven father and of the earth
mother naturally proceeded from the doctrine, common to all the
cosmogonies, that creation was in some sense a generation ; a doc
trine distinctly recognized in the Mosaic system, as in the phrase,
"The generations (Toledoth, from Yalad, "to beget") of the
heavens and of the earth" (Gen. ii. 4). The same fundamental
ideas as those here set forth were absolutely primitive in China,
in Egypt, in the Euphrates valley, among the Aryans of India
and Persia, among the Phoenicians, and probably all the Semitic
races. It is hardly necessary to insist upon the point, in view of the
facts familiar to us, that the heauen father and earth mother, as
conceptions appertaining to the ancient cosmogonies, are not to be
interpreted of the heaven and earth in general, and thus in the
purely philosophical and pantheistical sense, but of that particular
and traditional heaven and earth known to the first men, and sup
posed to be united by the paradisiacal mountain. It was here,
indeed, as heretofore shown, that all the cosmogonies centred. It
was here, too, that the birth of man, usually conceived as the result
of the commerce of Heaven and Earth, actually did take place.
The heaven father, then, is to be associated with that celestial
region which, in the traditions of all Asia, was regarded as the
especial abode of the divine powers, and of which the Holj'^ of
Holies in the Hebrew tabernacle was a symbolical representation.
The earth mother, on the other hand, must be assimilated to the
terrestrial paradise ; and of this the outer court of the tabernacle
was an image, as previously established. The primitive relation of
the earth-goddess to the " celestial earth," and even to the church
itself, is sufficiently established in the ninth chapter; and we may
interpret the man born of the heaven father and earth mother in
a special sense of the regenerated man. Thus, we see how very
important it is to a proper understanding of the.se primitive con
ceptions that we restore to them their traditional elements. We
perceive, then, at once their thoroughly religious import ; while
otherwise they appear as purely philosophical dogmas, whose pan-

440 HAR-MOAD.
theistical character is very apparent. It is the same of the temple,
regarded as an image of the cosmos. The origin of the temple in
the primitive Har-Moad is all important to be considered, a point
upon vs^hich we have heretofore insisted. In general, it is necessary
to supply to the systems of antiquity their traditional element, if
we would correctly interpret them. It is a striking characteristic
of the two religions of the Bible that they preserve intact the tradi
tional science inherited from the very beginning, and that this
constitutes the solid foundation of -their respective epochs, the inde
structible basis upon which the communication between heaven
and earth is to be maintained. It is uniformly from the same
celestial region that the holy influences descend, and to which
everything is adjusted. The assumption of the entire expanse of
the sky as the abode of the Heavenly Father was just that pan
theistical conception expressly discountenanced by the sacred
writers, and the assumption of a purely ideal region beyond the
material heavens as such abode found no justification in the sacred
tradition ; but this was rather an additional world, superinduced
upon the real cosmos, when philosophy and science had consummated
the divorce between mind and matter, and it is just this divorce
which is to-day undermining the faith of mankind. It has substi
tuted for the heaven father the speculative doctrine of the absolute.
It has substituted for the earth mother a dead matter governed by
a blind law. It has given us a Divinity who dwells everywhere,
and this is as much as to say nowhere. But faith cannot subsist in
such a vacuity as this. It is on the Har-Moad that the Father
dwells, and it is there that our beloved have gone up.

LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS.

Asmus (P.). Die indogermanische Religion in den Hauptpunkten ihrer Entwicke-
lung. Halle, 1875. 8vo.
Bahk (K. C). Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus. Heidelberg, 1837. 2 vols.
8vo.
Benfey (Theo.) and Stfrn (M. A.). Ueber die Monatsnamen einiger alter
"Volker. Berlin, 1836. 8vo.
Bernard (Th.). Dictionnaire Mythologique Universel. On the basis of Jacobi.
Paris, 1846. 7mo.
Birch (S.). Ancient History from the Monuments : Egypt. New York, 1875.
12mo.
Bresslau (M. H.) Hebrew and English Dictionary. On the basis of Fiirst.
London, 1855. 12mo.
Beooa (Paul dk). In Smithsonian Reports.
Brocklksby (J.). Elements of Astronomy. New York, 1874. 7mo.
Buuosoh (H.). Materiaux pour servir a la Reconstruction du Calendrier des
Anciens Egyptiens. Leipzig, 1864. 4to.
 Grammaire Hidroglyphiqne. Leipzig. 1872. 4to.
Bunsen (Ernst v.). Biblische Gleichzeitigkeiten, oder Uebereinstimmende
Zeitrechnung bei Babyloniern, Assyrern, Aegyptern, und Hebraern. Berlin,
1875. 8vo!
BuinuTT (E. H.). The Geography of the Heavens. Mattison's edition. New
York, 1856. 7mo.
Bush (George). Notes Critical and Practical on the Book of Genesis. New
York, 1888. 2 vols. 7mo.
Calmp;t (Aug.). Dictionary of the Holy Bible. Robinson's edition. Boston,
1832. Large 8vo.
CXmpbell (G.). The Four Gospels ; translated from the Greek, with Prelimi
nary Dissertations. Boston, 1824. 4 vols. 8vo.
Carr^ (L.). L'Aneien Orient; Etudes Historiques, Rehgieuses, et Philoso-
phiques. Paris, 1875. 4 vols. 8vo.
Chabas (F.). Etudes sur I'Antiquit^ Historique d'aprfes les Sources Egyptiennes
et les Monuments Prehistoriques. Paris, 1873. Large 8vo.
 Les Papyrus Hi^raliques de Berlin. Paris, 1863. 8vo.
 Observations sur le chapitre vi. du Rituel Funeraire Egyptien, etc. Paris,
1863. 4to.

442 LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS.
Chwolsohn (D.). Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus. St. Petersburg, 1856. 2 vols.
8vo.
 Ueber die Ueberreste der Altbabylonischen Literatur. St. Petersburg,
1859. 4to.
Cox (F. A.). Biblical Antiquities, with some collateral subjects, etc. London,
1832. 7mo.
Cudworth (R.). The True Intellectual System of the Universe. Andover,
1837. 2 vols. 8vo.
Curtius (G). Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologic. 4' Aufl. Leipzig,
1873. Large 8vo.
Delitzsch (Fried.). Assyrische Studien. H. I. Leipzig, 1874. 8vo.
 Assyrische Lesestucke. Leipzig, 1876. 4to.
Dillmann (Dr.). In Schenkcl's Bibel-Lexikon.
Dupuis (Ch. F.). L'Origine de tous les Cultes, ou Religion Universelle. Paris,
1795. 3 vols. 4to.
Faber (G. S.). The Origin of Pagan Idolatry. London, 1816. 3 vols. 4to.
Fick (A.). Vergleichendes Worterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen.
3= Aufl. Gottingen, 1874-1876. 4 vols. 8vo.
Furst (J.). Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Schulworterbuch, iiber das Alte
Testament. Leipzig, 1872. 16mo.
Gesenius (William). Hebrew and English Lexicon. Translated by Robin
son. Boston, 1850. 8vo.
 Der Prophet Jesaia. Neu iibersetzt. Leipzig, 1820. 2 vols. 7mo.
 Scripturae Linguaeque Phoeniciae, Monumenta quotquot supersunt. Leip-
sia3, 1837. 4to.
Goldziher (I.). Der Mythos bei den Hebraern, und seine geschichtliche Ent-
wickelung, etc. Leipzig, 1876. 8vo.
Gr^baut (E.). In Revue Archeologique, Paris.
Grill (J.). Die Erzvater der Menschheit ; ein Beitrag zur Grundlegung einer
hebraischen Alterthumswissenschaft. Leipzig, 1875. 8vo.
Grivel (Jos.). In Trans. Bib. Arch. Society, London.
Grote (George). The History of Greece. New York, 1856. 12 vols. 7mo.
Hal:^vy (.Ios.). In Journal Asiatique, Paris.
Hammer (J. db). Memoire sur le Culte de Mithra. Paris, 1833. 8vo. Plates,
4to.
Herzog (Dr.). In Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia, Phi
ladelphia.
Hopkins (S.). In Bibliotheca Sacra, Andover.
Josephus (Flavius). The Works ot Josephus. Translated by Whiston. Cin
cinnati, 1837. 8vo.
Kenrick M.). Phoenicia. London, 1855. 8vo.
Kurtz (Dr.). In Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia, Phi
ladelphia.
LA.jAiiD (M. F.). Recherches sur le Culte, les Symboles, les Attributs, et les
Monuments figures de Venus. P.aris, 1848. 4to. Plates, folio.
Le Bas (Ph.). L'Univers: Suede et Norwfege. Paris, 1£41. 8vo.

LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS. 443
Lenormant (Francois). Essai de Commentaire des Fragments Cosmogoniques
de Berose. Paris, 1872. 8vo.
 Les Premieres Civilisations ; Etudes d'Histoire et d'Archeologie. Paris,
1874. 2 vols. 8vo.
 Lettres Assyriologiques et Epigraphiques, sur 1' Histoire et les Antiquites
de I'Asie anterieure. Paris, 1872. 2 vols. 4to, autographic.
 Lettres Assyriologiques. Seconde Serie. Etudes Accadiennes. Paris,
1873. Vol. I. 4to, autographie.
Essai sur un Document Mathematique Chaldeen. Paris, 1868. 8vo,

autographie.
 La Magie chez les Chaldeens et les Origines Accadiennes. Paris, 1874.
8vo.
 La Divination el la Science des Presages, chez les Chaldeens. Paris,
1875. 8vo.
 Manuel d'Histoire Ancienne de I'Orient. Paris, 1869. 6°" edition. 3 vols.

12mo. Atlas.
Lubbock (J.). The Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man.
New York, 1870. 7mo.
Maine (H. S.). Ancient Law : Its Connection with the Early History of Society,
and its Relation to Modern Ideas. New Y'ork, 1864. 8vo.
Mariette-Bey (Aug.). Museed'Antiquites Egyptiennes ^ Boulaq. Paris, 1869.
8vo.
 AperQU de 1' Histoire Ancienne d'Egypte.. Paris, 1867. 8vo.
 Memoire sur Mere d' Apis. Paris, 1856. 4to.
Maspero (G.). Histoire Ancienne des Peuplcs de I'Orient. Paris, 1875. 7mo.
 In Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes.
M:^.VANT (J.). Babylone et la Chaldee. Paris, 1875. Large 8vo.
Meier (E.). Hebraisches Wurzelwdrterbuch, nebst drei Anbangen. Mannheim.
1845. 8vo.
Movers (F. C). Untersuchungen ueber die Religion und die Gottheiten der
Phbnizier. Bonn, 1841. 8vo.
MiJLLER (M.). Lectures on the Science of Languages. 1st and 2d Series. New
York, 1865. 2 vols. 7mo.
 Chips from a Gei-man Workshop. New York, 1869. 2 vols. 7mo. Other
volumes since issued.
 Lectures on the Science of Religion. In Littell's Living Age. Aug. 20,

1870.
Naville (E.). La Litanie du Soleil. Inscriptions recueillies dans les Tom-
beaux des Rois k Thebes. Leipzig, 1875. 4to. Plates, 4to.
Nissen (H.). Das Templum. Antiquarische Untersuchungen. Berlin, 1869.
8vo.
Norris (E.) Assyrian Dictionary. London, 1868-1872. 3 vols. 4to.
Obry (J. B. F.). Du Berceau de l'E,«pece Humaine, selon les Indiens, les Per-
ses, et Ios Hdbreux. Paris, 18.58. 8vo.
Oppert (J.). L'lmmortalite ,de I'Ame chez les Chaldeens. Paris, 1875.
8vo.

444 LIST OF AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS.
Oppert (J.). Etudes Assyriennes. Textes de Babylone et de Ninive, dechiffres
et interpretes. Inscrijjtion de Borsippa. Paris, 1857. 8vo.
 Histoire des Empires de Chaldee et d'Ass/rie d'aprfes les Monuments.
Versailles, 1865. 8vo.
In Journal Asiatique, Paris.

Rawlinson (Geo.). The History of Herodotus. A new English version. New
York, 1861-1866. 4 vols. 8vo.
 ¦ The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. London, 1871.
3 vols. 8vo. 2d edition.
Rawlinson (H. (;.). The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun. London,
1846. 8vo. [Extract from Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, London.]
 A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria.
London, 1850. 8vo. [Extract Jour. Roy. As. Society, London.]
 In Rawlinson's Herodotus.

Kenan (Ernest). Histoire Generale et Systeme Compare des Langues Semi
tiques. Paris, 1863. 8vo. 4th edition.
 De r Origine du Langage. Paris, 1864. 8vo. 4th edition.
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Reinisch (L.). Der Einheitliche Ursprung der Sprachen der Alten Welt. Wien,
1873. Vol. I. Large 8vo.
Rich (E.). In Occult Sciences. London, 1855. 8vo.
Roediger (E.) and Pott (A. F.). In Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgen
landes. Bonn, 1846.
Romieu (A.). Lettres a Monsieur Lepsius, sur un Decan du Ciel Egyptien. Leip
zig, 1870. 4to.
RouGlfi (E. de). Chrestomathie Egyptienne. Paris, 1867. 4to.
 • Same. 1868. 1st part, autographie. 2d part, 8vo.
RouGlS (J. db). Monnaies des Nomes de I'Egypte. Paris, 1873. 8vo.
Sayce (A. H.). In Trans. Bib. Arch. Society, London.
Schlegel (G.). Uranographie Chinoise. Ouvrage accompagne d'un Atlas
Celeste Chinois et Grec. La Have, 1875. Large 8vo. Atlas, folio.
Schlottmann (K.). Die Inschrift Eschmunazars, Kbnigs der Sidonier, etc.
Halle, 1868. 8vo.
Schrader (E.). Die Ki'ilinschriften und das Alte Testament. Giessen, 1872.
8vo.
 Die Assyrij-che- Babylonischen Keilinschriften. Leipzig, 1872. 8vo.
Smith (George). Assyrian Discoveries. New York, 1875. 8vo.
 The Chaldean Account of Genesis. New York, 1876. 8vo.
 Same. Revised Edition. 1880. 8vo.
Smith (William). Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, My
thology, and Geography. Author's edition. New York, 1859. 8vo.
Stallo (J. B.). General Principles of the Philosophy of Nature. Boston, 1848.
7 mo.
Stewart (M.). A Commentary on the Apocalypse. Andover, 1845. 2 vols.
8vo.
Talbot (F.). In Trans. Bib. Arch. Society, London.

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Taylor (B.). Central Africa. New York, 1859. 7mo.
Tuch (F.). Commentar iiber die Genesis. Halle, 1871. 8vo. 2d edition.
Uhlemann (M.). Handbuch der gesammten iigyptischen Alterthumskunde.
Leipzig, 1857, 1858. 4 vols. 8vo.
VoGuri (C" de). Melanges d'Arclidologio Orientate. Paris, 1868. 8vo.
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Warburton (Wm.). The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated. London,
1846. 3 vols. 8vo.
Whitney (W. D.). Oriental and Linguistic Studies. New York, 1873. 7mo.
 The Same. 2d Series. New York, 1874. 7mo.
Wilford (F.). In Asiatic Reseanhe?.
Wilkinson (G.). In Rawlinson's Herodotus.

OTHER PUBLICATIONS.
Asiatic Researches. London. Vols, ii., vi. 4to. 7 vols. 1799-1803.
Bibliotheque de I'Ecolc des Hautes Etudes. 12* Fascicule. Du Genre Epistolaire
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Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia. Edit, by Bomberger.
Vol. I. Philadelphia, 1858. 8vo.
Records of the Past ; being English translations of the Assyrian and Egyptian
Monuments. Vol. I. London, 1873. 16mo.
Revue Archeologique. Paris, 1873, 1874. 8vo.
Rituel Funeraire des Anciens Egyptiens. Texte complet, etc. Par M. E. de
Rouge. Paris, 1864, etc. Folio.
Schenkcl's Bibel-Lexikon. Leipzig, 1869-1875. 5 vols. 8vo.
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Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. Leipzig, 1873. 8vo.

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