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DEPOSITED BY THE
LINONIAN AND BROTHERS LIBRARY

THE

HALF CE]SrTtr;feTT

A HISTORY OF CHANGES THAT HAVE TAKEN PLACE, AND
EVENTS THAT HAVE TRANSPIRED, CHIEFLY IN THE
UNITED STATES, BETWEEN 1800 AND 1850.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION
BY MARK HOPKINS, D. D.

EMERSON DAVIS, D.D.

BOSTON:
TAPPAN AND WHITTEMORE,
114 Washinoton Street.
1851.

Entered jiccording to act of ConRrc^s, in the yonr 1850, by
TaPPAN AND "WHITTEMORE,
In the Clerk's Office of thp District Court for tlip District of MnasachUBettfl.

CONTENTS.

INTRODTTCTION..

CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL CHANGES AND EVENTS.
GECT. 1. In the United States  1
2. Indians ; Particulars of the Georgia Controversy  31
3. Political Changes in South America  41
CHAPTER II.
EDUCATIONAL CHANGES.
1. Common Schools  50
2. Infant Schools  68
3. Lancasterian, Pestalozzian, and FeUenberg Schools  71
4. Colleges  75
5. Professional Schools  79
6. Parochial Schools  83
7. Military Academy at West Point  86
8. School Books  87
9. Newspapers  92
10. Periodical Journal^  98

IV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
CHAHITABLE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
1. Sabbath Schools  102
2. Institutions for Deaf Mutes  107
3. Instruction of the Blind  Ill
4. Lunatic Asylums and Hospitals for the Insane  114
6. Instruction of Idiots  118
6. American Education Society  121
7. Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Ed
ucation at the West  126
8. Societies for furnishing the West with accomplished and
well-qualified Common School Teachers  128
CHAPTER IV.
MORAL BEFOEMATION.
1. The Temperance Reformation  130
2. Anti-Slavery  I44.
3. Anti-Masonry  163
4. Prison Discipline, Imprisonment for Debt, and Houses of
Reformation  169
5. Peace Societies  178
6. The Sabbath, and the Means used to promote its Obser
vance  183
7. Moral Reform  188
CHAPTER V.
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MEANS OF INTERCOMMUNI
CATION.
1. Canals  _  jg2
2. Steamboats and Steamships  194

CONTENTS. V
3. Railroads  204
4. Electro-Magnetic Telegraph  208
5. Post-Offices  213
CHAPTER VI.
PROGRESS OF SCIENCE.
1. Science the Handmaid of Religion  216
2. Astronomy  221
3. Chemistry  228
4. Mineralogy and Geology  236
5. Botany  246
6. Zoology  r  250
7. Meteorological Observations  252
8. Phrenology  261
9. The Smithsonian Institute  266
CHAPTER VII.
INVENTIONS, ARTS, AND MANUFACTURES.
1. Inventions  270
2. Daguerreotype  274
3. Manufactures, Cotton, Woollen, SUk, and India-Rubber... 277
4. Miscellaneous Mamifactures  285
5. American Art-Union  290
6. Letheon, or Sulphuric Ether, Chloroform, Gun-Cotton, &o. 293
CHAPTER VIII.
CHRISTIAN BENEVOLENCE.
1. The Monthly Concert of Prayer  299
2. Foreign Missions  301

a

#

VI CONTENTS.
3. Home Missions  316
4. American Bible Society  321
5. Tract Societies  329
6. Societies for the Moral and Religious Benefit of Seamen. . . 335
7. Jewish and Protestant Societies  337
8. Benevolence of the Age  339
CHAPTER IX.
RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES.
1. Unitarianism  345
2. New Measures  335
3. The Connecticut Controversy  364
4. The Presbyterian Church  371
5. The latest Controversy  386
6. Subjects of Controversy in the Protestant Episcppal Church 390
CHAPTER X.
NEW RELIGIOUS SECTS.
1. Mormons, or Jjatter-Day Saints  394
2. MiUerism, or Second Adventism  401
3. New Sects, mostly evangelical  406
CHAPTER XI.
MISCELLANIES.
1. Exploring Expeditions  418
2. Diseases  ^i o
3. New Systems of Medicine  424
4. Rural Cemeteries  ^28

CONTENTS. Vli
S. Supplying Cities with Water.  431
6. Ice Trade  433
7. Famines at the Cape Verd Islands and in Ireland  436
8. Literary and Scientific Associations  438
APPENDIX.
Fugitive Slave Law  443
Eleventh Asteroid.'  443
Deaths of European Sovereigns  444

AUTHOR'S PEEFACE.

The question was gravely discussed at the
commencement of the present year, (I860,)
whether this is the last of the first half, or the
first of the last half, of the nineteenth century.
Many maintained that the half century was
complete at the end of 1849, and a few semi
centennial sermons were then preached. For a
time, there was reason to fear that all the enthu
siasm which the completion of a half century
excites would be used up before tlJe set time for
the appearance of this volume had arrived.
There was a similar discussion at the close of
1799; many supposed the eighteenth century
was then complete, and that the year 1800 was
the beginning of a new century. On the 1 st of
January, 1801, an editor of a newspaper said, —
" Precisely twelve o'clock last night
The eighteenth century took its flight.
FuU many a calculating head
Has racked its brains, its ink has shed.

X AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
To prove, by metaphysics fine,
A hundred means but ninety-nine ;
While at their wisdom others wondered,
But took one more to make a hundred."
The hglf century that is now so nearly com
pleted has been, on manj^ accounts, the most
remarkable the world has ever known. The
progress of liberty, education, and religion has
been very great. Intellectual and moral culture
and the arts of civilized life have received a new
impulse. It seemed to me that I should perform a good
service to my countrymen if I should post up the
books and present a condensed view of those
events which, at the time, excited the most gen
eral interest, and of those changes which have
taken place in our social condition. It has re
quired much patient toil to collect so many facts
and dates as' the reader will find in the following
pages, and to put each in its appropriate place.
I have sometimes found it difficult to know what
to omit and what to insert. Many, probably,
will think that undue prominence has been given
to some things, and too little to others. In reply
to those whose complaints respecting omissions
and 'deficiencies I anticipate, I would say that
few men have time enough to spare from their
daily occupation to keep themselves fully informed

AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xi
of all that is doing in all the departments of lit
erature and science, of arts and manufactures,
and of politics and religion, so as to write a per
fect history of them all. I have done what I
could, and will ask the reader to consider how
much of the ground has been surveyed, before
he censures me for not having Surveyed the
whole. I fully intended, in the plan I at first marked
out, to have given some prominence to natural,
intellectual, and moral philosophy, and also to
agriculture ; but the time has passed, and I find
myself obliged to omit these topics entirely. I
leave them for the benefit of those who may be
gleaners in the field.
Some may wonder why a subject so marvellous
as animal magnetism should not have received
even a passing notice. If they will begin with
the lectures of Charles Poyen, in 1834, and at
tempt to trace its metamorphoses through pathe-
tism, clairvoyance, and spiritual knockings, and
fix the date of each new development, and its
connection with the first principle from which it
started, they will guess the reason why it has
been passed in silence.
The author flatters himself that there is enough
in this volume to render it highly acceptable and

Xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
useful to every scholar, to every professional man,
to every business man, and to every family, in
the length and breadth of the land.
I have endeavored to treat every man and
every class of men and their sentiments fairly and
kindly. It is a very delicate task to write a his
tory of controverted subjects, and present the
facts in such a manner that all concerned will
feel that justice has been done them. Perhaps
those who may charge me with giving a wrong
view of their opinions, or of those of their
friends, would themselves have erred in the oppo
site direction if they had written on the same
subject. " To err is human ; " but I am con
soled with the thought, that I have not know
ingly misrepresented any one, nor "set down
aught in malice." E. DAVIS.
Westfield, Octoier 28, 1850.

INTRODUCTION, BY MARK HOPKINS, D. D.

CENTtiRiEs and half centuries ar^ periods of time
neither indicated by any movement in the heavens,
nor coinciding with any distinct eras in the political
or religious history of the world. They are arbi
trary divisions of the one continuous movement of
nature and of time, by which we are enabled the
better to group and study successive events.
But these divisions, though arbitrary, have the
same effect upon the mind as if they were natural.
They enter into all our conceptions of past ages;
they are made the landmarks of history ; and they
have so far affected the imagination, that those have
not been wanting who have assigned to each century
its o\\Ti particular "mission." This is doubtless fan
ciful ; still coincidences, m.ore or less striking, do
occur, and among these may be reckoned that be-
twe^ the opening and progress of the present
b

XIV INTRODUCTION.
century, and a distinct era in the history of human
affairs. Making every allowance for our proximity
in time, and for our tendency to magnify what has
relation to ourselves, we yet cannot be mistaken in
supposing the past half century to be among the
most remarkable in all time. Should any one be
inclined to doubt this, we will only commend to
him the perusal of the following work.
The movements which have rendered the past
half century remarkable, have apparently arisen from
the struggling up into the distinct consciousness of
the community of three ideas, and from attempts,
more or less definite, to realize those ideas.
Society, in its growth and progress, was compared
by Lord Bacon to a child, whose experience and
wisdom accumulate as his years increase. The same
comparison will hold in another respect. There is a
period when the energies and tendencies of the child
are mere blind forces, put forth instinctively ; and it
is an era in the history of every individual when he
takes conscious possession of his powers, and begins
to direct them intelligently to the accomplishment
of a chosen end. In the same way, there are often
great ideas and strong tendencies at work in society,
like leaven, long before they come into the distinct
consciousness of the masses, and before the age fully

INTRODUCTION. XV
understands the objects it would realize. At times,
such ideas and tendencies find free scope, but more
frequently they are overlaid by old forms, or degrad
ing superstitions, or oppressive exactions. They then
show themselves only by indefinite yearnings, by
sighings, as under a hard bondage, till they gather
strength ; and at length some Moses gives them utter
ance and guidance, and society passes on, through
seas of difficulty, to its desired Exodus.
In such cases, if the tendency is towards a moral
object, and the highest which man can pursue, then
it will embrace within its sweep all subordinate ob
jects, and lead on to a true and an indefinite progress.
It will originate a movement that will never cease.
But if the tendency is towards any thing selfish or
partial, or inadequate to meet the full wants of our
nature, then", however high the movement may rise,
however broadly it may extend, whatever elements
and forms of civilization it may imbosom within
itself, it must yet find its limit and subside ; the
forms through which its life has circulated must be
broken up, the incrustations of the old lava must be
disintegrated, and go to form the soil for a new and
permanent growth.
Hitherto the history of the world has been but the
history of such isolated and partial movements, the

XVI INTRODUCTION.
most of which have not tended at all towards the
true end of the race, and in all of which the limits
and conditions of the globe, and the relations of its
different races, have been but very imperfectly
known. But when America had been discovered,
when the globe had been circumnavigated, when
emotions of curiosity and wonder, and dreams of
El Dorados, and mad schemes of conquest had given
place to a sober survey of the earth as it is, then
there began to be felt the inspiration of a higher
idea, the possibility of a nobler end, than had before
been conceived. Christianity has, indeed, always
proposed to herself the subjugation of the world ; but
she had practically fallen back from her undertaking,
not knowing the extent or character of her field.
Gradually these were opening upon her, until about
the commencement of the present century, when the
command of Christ, interpreted by modern discov
eries, began to work in the heart of the church. This,
though as yet far from assuming the place and creat
ing the movement it ought, is still to be regarded as
the central idea. Every thing tends to show that
this is to be the ultimate result of God's plan ; but
there are other ideas, which began about the begin
ning of the present century to come into the distinct
comprehension of the masses, which, though subor-

INTRODUCTION. XVll
dinate to this, may just now seem to be playing a
more conspicuous part in human affairs.
The first of these is the idea of the subjugation
of the powers of nature to the use of man. In the
earlier ages, the powers of nature were regarded with
dread, and the occasional manifestation of those ter
rific energies by which alone they are capable of
such effective service, was the source of superstitious
terror. Within the present century, scientific pur
suits were generally regarded as merely theoretical.
But now men view with wild delight and unlimited
expectations this new inheritance of the race. Hith
erto, this has been as effectually concealed as was
formerly this continent ; but now it opens upon us
with mines of wealth and power, with means of
enjoyment and progress, far surpassing any thing
that could be furnished by the gold and silver of the
new world.
As this application of science to the arts has gone
on, it has effected a silent and gradual, but a mighty,
revolution. The world of to-day is not that of fifty
or twenty-five years ago. Enterprise has found new
fields, and capital new channels. Old implements,
and machinery, and forms of industry are super
seded ; the habits of social and domestic life are
changed ; the power to effect exchanges, whether of
b*

XVUl INTRODUCTION.
merchandise or thought, is vastly augmented; and
so intimate is the connection becoming between dif
ferent parts of the country, that we can almost fancy
these vast states to be but a single body, pervaded by
one sympathetic nerve, and capable of being simul
taneously moved by the same electric flash of
thought. Already have the dreams of imagination
been transcended, and yet the impression and belief
is, that we have but just commenced this grand
career. A second idea, the attempt to realize which has
caused extensive movement within the last half cen
tury, is that of the liberty and rights of the individ
ual man. In the ancient republics, and generally in
monarchies, the individual has been regarded as com
paratively nothing. He was for the state. Now,
the idea is finding its way that the state is for the
individual. As man himself is the highest product
of this lower world, those institutions would seem to
be the best which show, not the most imposing re
sults of aggregated labor, but humanity itself, in its
most general cultivation and highest forms.
This idea finds its origin and support in the value
which Christianity puts upon the individual, and, fully
carried out, must overturn all systems of darkness and
mere authority. Individual liberty and responsibility

INTRODUCTION. xix
involve the right of private judgment ; this involves
the right to all the light necessary to form a correct
judgment ; and this again must involve the education
of tbe people, and the overthrow of every thing,
civil and religious, which will not stand the ordeal
of the most scrutinizing examination and of the
freest discussion.
This idea "might doubtless be realized in a good
degree under a monarchy; but with the purposes,
usages, and modes of administration commonly con
nected with that form of government, it could not.
Hence the necessity of a struggle, and of those civil
revolutions which have been so conspicuous during
a portion of the past half century. Old forms of
government, els they existed and were administered,
were to the progress of this movement what old im
plements, and machinery, and forms of industry were
to the progress of that already noticed.
A third class of movements, which have been con
spicuous during the last half century, have been the
benevolent and reformatory. These, so far as they
are legitimate, spring from the conscience, and their
object is to bring human conduct and institutions
into conformity with the idea of right. This, natu
ral conscience.would tend to do ; but it is only as it
is quickened by Christianity that it can aggregate

XX INTRODUCTION,
individuals into organizations, and lead to systematic,
protracted, and self-denying effort. This has been
done, and a distinctive feature of the past half cen
tury has been the existence of those voluntary asso
ciations, apart from the church, which have it for
their object to remedy particular evils, or to accom
plish particular good ends, aside from that general
and radical reformation of men which" Christianity
contemplates. In some cases, as in missionary
boards, where the object is the same with that of
the church, these organizations have been adopted
for the greater convenience of transacting busi
ness, and to unite different denominations of
Christians in one common effort, but generally a
specific and less comprehensive effort has been pro^
posed. That this form of effort should give rise to men
of one idea, to something of enthusiasm and fanati
cism, of display and self-seeking, under the pretence
of religion, was, perhaps, to be expected ; but it has.
also given a powerful impulse to thought, has called
out the affections and energies of multitudes of the
wisest and best men in Christendom, and has, thus
far, we doubt not, resulted in a vast preponderance:
of good. These movements are still going on, and,
if continued with a wise subordination to the great

INTRODUCTION. XXI
end of Christianity, we see no reason why they may
not go on till that end is realized.
In each of these movements, as the new has strug
gled with the old, there has been great diversity of
views respecting the immediate ends to be pursued,
and the best means of pursuing them. Some have
clung to old forms and organizations with a stupid
conservatism ; others, from an exaggerated view of
the importance of reform, have attacked old organi
zations with a mad and reckless spirit ; while the
lovers of real progress, of true liberty, and of a pure
and spiritual worship, have sought to reform existing
evils through a reformation of individual character,
and have borne onward the banner of a rational and
feasible progress.
The first and second of these general movements
might be consummated, and tbe third also in any
one of its forms, and yet not insure that triumph of
Christianity in which alone the perfection of society
is involved. Still, these movements are a natural,
and almost necessary, preparation for such a triumph.
Just in proportion as steamships, steam presses, rail
roads, and telegraphs can be made instruments of
evil, they can also be made efficient for the removal
of ignorance, and the speedy destruction of old sys
tems of superstition, and of every form of civil and

XXli INTRODUCTION.
ecclesiastical tyranny. Just in proportion as the indi
vidual man throws off particular vices and evils, and
becomes enlightened and free, does he become the
better fitted to receive those influences of Christian
ity through which alone our perfect manhood can
now find its consummation. Thus, while Christian
ity, as we believe, so underlies each of these move
ments that without it they could not have reached
their present power, they, in their ti,irn, contribute to
its advancement. It is as the ocean to these rivers
of reform. They come originally from it, and "unto
the place from whence the rivers come thither they
return again."
As has been said, the force of these movements is
not yet spent. On the contrary, there is every reason
to suppose that they must go on with increasing
power, and that the future history of the world will
very much depend on the purity, wisdom, and skill
of those by whom they shall be guided. But to
such wisdom and skill, purity of purpose being sup
posed, nothing can contribute so much as a full his
tory of past mistakes, of what has been attempted,
and what has been done.
Hence, it was a happy idea to give the statistics,
and, so far as may be, the principles and spirit, of
these great movements during the past half century,

INTRODUCTION. Xxiii
in which they have all either originated, or received
so much of impulse and augmentation. If the time
had come when, in one of these departments a year
book of facts was called for, it was surely time to
gather tbe scattered fragments of their early history,
¦ and to give the facts respecting each ; thus giving
guidance to tbe practical man, and enabling the-
future historian and philosopher to place them in
their mutual relations.
Such is the object of the following work, and, if
properly executed, there is no class of persons by
whom it may not be read with great interest and
profit. That the work has been properly executed
I believe, both from an examination of portions of
it, and from my acquaintance with the author. It
will, I am confident, be found to be so characterized
by the richness of material, the accuracy, the candor,
and the sound judgment which are appropriate to
such a work, as to make it highly valuable, both
now and in coming time.
Williams ¦ College, Odoher 1, 1850.

THE HALF CENTURY.

CHAPTER I.
POLITICAL CHANGES AND EVENTS.

Section 1. In the United States.
Most of those who, fifty years ago, were the lead
ing men in public affairs, and filled places of respon
sibility and influence in this nation, have been laid
in their graves, or are sinking down under a weight
of years. Those who now stand at the helm, both
of our national and state governments, at the com
mencement of this century were in their boyhood, or
in early manhood ; while many, who are acting
important parts on the stage of life, are less than half
a century old.
I propose, in this section, to present a brief outline
of the changes that have been made in our geo
graphical boundaries, and in the number of states,
during the period under review, together with a brief
notice of those events, which, at the time, excited
the deepest and most general interest.
1

2 THE HALF CENTURY.
My object is not to enter into the minute details of
these events, nor to discuss particularly the policy of
different political measures, but simply to narrate, as a
chronicler of the past, the leading facts, with the
dates and the names of the principal actors.
I will ask the reader to compare what is with what
was, and judge for himself whether any progress
has been made in civilization and social reform.
Some events, which the reader may expect to
find in this section, will be introduced into subse
quent chapters ; and some, no doubt, which ought to
have a place, will be omitted.
At the commencement of the present century, the
middle of the Mississippi River was the western boun
dary of the Union — but now the Pacific Ocean. Our
southern boundary was the northern limit of the 31°
of north latitude and St. Mary's River — but now the
Gulf of Mexico.
The superficial area of the United States was
then 1,000,000 square miles — it is now 3,250,000.
The following additions have been made to our
territory, in the manner and at the times specified :
In 1803, the United States bought of France all
that portion of our country that is bounded north by
the British possessions, east by the Mississippi River,
south by the Gulf of Mexico, Texas, New Mexico,
and Upper California, and west by the Pacific Ocean.
The price paid for it was $15,000,000; it was called
the Louisiana Territory, and contained 1,540,000
square miles.

THE HALF CENTURY. 3
The tract of country situated between the Iberville
and Perdido Rivers, extending from the Gulf of Mex
ico to the northern limit of the 31° north latitude,
having an area of 30,000 square miles, was claimed by
our government as a part of the Louisiana purchase.
It was undoubtedly the property of Spain ; and though
it was very desirable we should have it, we had, I
suppose, no legal claim to it. Many American fami
lies had settled upon it, and, in the summer of 1810,
they declared themselves an independent state ; and,
in October, the president issued a proclamation, de
claring it to be a part of the United States.
In 1819, a treaty was concluded between the
Spanish and American commissioners, by which it
was stipulated that Spain should cede to the States
the whole of Florida, as an indemnity for spoliations
upon our commerce. The king of Spain refused
at first to ratify tbe treaty. He finally did ratify it,
and our government took formal possession of it July
10, 1821.
In 1845, Texas, "having become independent, ap
plied to be admitted as one of the United States.
She was accordingly received, much against the will
of a large portion of the people. The details of the
history of the annexation of this territory may be
found in Jay's and Livermore's Histories of the Mex
ican War. If Texas is understood to be bounded
west by the Rio Grande, it contains 325,520 square
miles. At the. conclusion of the Mexican war, Mexico

4

THE HALF CENTURY.

ceded to the United States New Mexico and Upper
California, which contains 526,078 square miles.
In January, 1801, there were in the Union sixteen
States, since which fifteen have been added : —

Ohio,

Nov.

29, 1802.

Arkansas,

June

15,

1836.

Louisiana,

April

30, 1811.

Michigan,

u

u

(C

Indiana,

Dec.

11, 1816.

Florida,

May

3,

1845.

Mississippi,

Dec.

10, 1817.

Iowa,

**

it

it

Illinois,

Dec.

3, 1818.

Texas,

Dec.

29,

il

Alabama,

Dec.

14, 1819.

Wisconsin,

May

29,

1848.

Maine,

March 16, 1820.

California,

Sept

7,

1850.

Missouri,

Aug.

10, 1820.

It will be observed that the states that have been
admitted have been alternately free and slave states.
An act establishing the territorial government of
Oregon was approved by Congress, August 14, 1848,
and another establishing the territorial government
of Minesota was approved March 3, 1849. The
territorial government of New Mexico and Utah was
established September 7, 1850.
In the year 1800, the seat of government was re
moved from Philadelphia to the city of Washington,
where the last session of the last Congress of John
Adams's administration was bolden. In his opening
address, the president said, " It would be unbecoming
the representatives of this nation to assemble for the
first time in this solemn temple, without looking up
to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, and imploring
his blessing. May this territory be the residence of
virtue and happiness. In this city, may that piety
and virtue, that wisdom and magnanimity, that con-
THE HALF CENTURY. 6
stancy and self-government, which adorned the great
character whose name it bears, be forever held in
veneration." The political excitement growing out of the election
of president, in the year 1800, was very great. John
Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the candidates.
The friends of the former were denounced by those
of the latter, as tbe allies of England, and as paying
homage to British power ; while those of the latter
were called the allies of France, and were accused. of
preparing the way to corrupt the morals of the nation,
and to destroy its liberties. They were known by
the distinctive names of Federalists and Democrats.
The French had aided us in the war of the revolu
tion, and were themselves then in the midst of a
revolutionary struggle. They had just adopted a
constitution with a consular government, at the head
of which was Napoleon Bonaparte. England had
declared war against France, and the latter wished us
to pay the debt of our gratitude by aiding her in her
conflict. A strong sympathy was felt in this country
for the French people ; they were looked upon as
engaged in a struggle for liberty, and the Americans
very naturally wished them success. The national
vanity of not a few was flattered by the persuasion
that the spark which lighted the flame of liberty there
was taken from our altar ; or, as Franklin said, " the
French, having served an apprenticeship in America,
had set up for themselves." On the other hand,
there were many who feared the influence of French
1*

6 THE HALF CENTURY.
infidelity, the seeds of which had already been wide
ly disseminated in this country. The electioneering
articles of that year, on both sides, were exceedingly
severe, and abounded in extravagant expressions.
Jefferson was elected by a majority of eight votes,
and entered upon the duties of his ofiice March 4,
1801, and was reelected in 1805, by a majority of
one hundred and forty-eight electoral votes.
June 10, 1801, Congress declared war against
Tripoli for piratical depredations upon our commerce.
Other nations had been accustomed to pay the Barbary
powers an annual tribute to keep them quiet. Our
nation was the first that set the example of refusing
tribute, and obliging them to respect its flag. A fleet
was sent to cruise off the coast. General William
Eaton, of Brimfield, Mass., then consul at Tunis, led
a company of Egyptian troops, furnished by a brother
of the reigning pacha, over the desert, in a long and
wearisome march, and took the city of Derne. He
repulsed the pacha of Tripoli, and concluded with
him a treaty of peace in 1805.
July 11, 1804, Alexander Hamilton was killed in
a duel, at Hoboken, near New York, by Aaron Burr,
vice-president of the United States. Hamilton bad
said he regarded Burr as "a dangerous man, and one
who ought not to be trusted with the affairs of the
government." The truth of the remark was made
manifest by Burr's subsequent conduct. On retiring
from office, in March, 1805, he became a wanderer in
the Western States, and seemed evidently to be

THE HALF CENTURY. 7
endeavoring to carry into effect some great design,
the character of which was not certainly known.
He made Blenerhasset's Island, in the Ohio River,
the place of rendezvous, and by his intrigues blasted
the hopes of Blenerhasset's family. He there fitted
out boats furnished with armed men, and sent them
down the river. It was supposed that he had con
ceived the design of uniting Florida and the regions
west of the Alleghanies into a separate government,
and placing himself at the head of it. He was arrested
in Mississippi, February 19, 1807, and tried before
the Circuit Court at Richmond, Virginia, on the
charge of high treason. The trial was continued by
adjournment until August, when the jury rendered a
verdict " not guilty." William Wirt, of Virginia, ad
dressed the jury in support of the charge, and made
one of the most eloquent speeches ever delivered in
a court-room. The conclusion to which an unprejudiced commu
nity have come in relation to that matter is, that
Burr had no treasonable designs ; that he owned
lands on the Washita River, which were forfeited
unless they should be settled before a given time ;
that he was about to commence a settlement upon
them, and the armed force was fitted out for its pro
tection. After this. Burr sunk into comparative ob
scurity, and so spent the remainder of his life.
Another event of this period was the " Miranda
expedition." Miranda, a Spaniard, and grandson of
the governor of Caraccas, South America, planned an

8 THE HALF CENTURY.
expedition against Caraccas for the conquest of the
country and the establishment of a republican gov
ernment. He went to Washington in December,
1805, where he had an interview with the president
and secretary of state. Though they did not assist
him, it was believed that they favored his design ;
for he returned to New York, and publicly fitted out
an expedition. He purchased a ship, the Leander,
and, being joined by one hundred and eighty Ameri
cans, sailed for South America in the early part of
1806. At St. Domingo, he chartered two schooners,
which were captured off the coast of South America.
In August he landed in Venezuela, but did not suc
ceed in rousing the inhabitants, and was compelled
to reembark. Most of the Americans who enlisted
in this enterprise were finally lodged in Spanish
dungeons, where many of them died.
About this time, a storm was seen to be gathering
in the political heavens, which threatened to involve
this country in a war with England. In May, 1806,
Great Britain declared the continent of Europe, from
the Elbe to Brest, to be in a state of blockade. No
vember 21, Napoleon, seated in the palace of the
vanquished king of Prussia, at Berlin, issued his
famous Berlin decree, declaring the British Isles in a
state of blockade ; by which the vessels of neutral
nations, going to or from England, were liable to be
captured. January 7, 1807, the British government,
by way of retaliation, issued an order of council,
which prohibited neutral powers from trading from

THE HALF CENTURY. 9
one port to another of France, or her allies, or with
any country with which England might not trade.
November 11, 1807, another order of council was
issued, which prohibited all neutral nations from
trading with France or her allies, unless they would
pay tribute to England.
Previous to this last restriction upon commerce, an
event occurred which produced a great excitement.
June 22, 1807, the United States' frigate Chesapeake,
having just left the shores of the United States for
the Mediterranean, was hailed by a British ship of
war, the commanding officer of which was directed
to search it for British deserters. English seamen
could obtain higher wages abroad than at home, and
England, being at war with France, needed more
sailors, and claimed the right of taking them where
she could find them, and obliging them to serve in her
navy. The commander of the Chesapeake refused
to submit to be searched ; whereupon the British ship
commenced a cannonade, forced submission, and took
from the American ship four seamen. This outrage
produced a great excitement ; and, on July 2, the
president issued a proclamation, shutting the harbors
and waters of the United States against all British
ships of war.
December, 17, 1807, Napoleon, then at Milan,
issued a decree, declaring that every vessel that should
submit to be searched, or to pay tribute to England,
should be seized, if found in any of the waters or
harbors of France.

10 THE HALF CENTURY.
December 22, Congress laid an embargo, prohibit
ing any American vessel from sailing to any foreign
port. The democratic party approved of the embar
go, and looked upon this affair of the Chesapeake,
taken in connection with some other invasions of
our rights by England, as almost sufficient to justify
the declaration of war. The correspondence between
James Monroe and George Canning, published in the
papers in 1808, will give the views entertained re
specting it by the rulers of each nation. The Fed
eralists were warmly opposed to the embargo, and
saw no necessity for a war with England on account
of the affair of the Chesapeake, or the right claimed
by England to search for deserted seamen.
The Federalists believed that Jefferson wished to
destroy the American navy and commerce, and that
he was hostile to merchants, as a class. They were
willing to believe, that he laid the embargo upon
American vessels as much for the purpose of crippling
our commerce, as for shielding it from the disasters that
might befall it from the execution of European orders
and decrees. The principal topics of conversation in
those days were, the British orders in council, the
Berlin and Milan decrees, embargoes, and the assault
upon the Chesapeake. They were, of course, a death
blow to American commerce for the time being, and
greatly injured the business of the country. The
exports which, in 1807, were $108,343,150, in 1808
fell down to $22,439,960, and the imports fell from
$138,000,000 to $57,000,000. Political parties were
greatly excited, and there were rumors of wars.

THE HALF CENTURY. 11
At the commencement of Jefferson's administration,
our navy consisted of fifteen frigates and twelve
smaller vessels, which were, in a very few years,
reduced to nine frigates and two smaller vessels.
The commercial states were the strongest opposers
of Jefferson ; and it was natural for them to infer that
the party in power were willing to cripple their in
terests, as a punishment for their opposition.
It must be said, however, in vindication of Jeffer
son for suffering the navy to decline, that, instead of
the ordinary vessels of war, he substituted a number
of gun-boats — a small water craft, that carried a single
gun each. They were found to be unmanageable in
a heavy sea, and were soon abandoned. Mr. Jeffer
son himself admitted that " this species of naval
armament could be of little use in protecting our
commerce upon the open sea, or near the coast."
They were more expensive than ships. Each gun
in a large frigate costs annually about $2,200, while
each gun in one of those boats cost annually $11,500.
The gun-boat system became, at length, a standing
subject of ridicule among the anti-administration party.
During those embargo times, the people were forced
to manufacture for themselves articles for which they
had depended on foreign countries. It was at that
time, and from necessity, — which is the mother of
invention, — that the ingenuity of the people was
developed more fully than it would have been if
commerce had not been checked. The democratic
or republican party- was forced, by the relation in

12 THE HALF CENTURY.
which they stood to the causes of this commercial
embarrassment, to advocate and warmly encourage
American manufactures ; while the Federalists were
forced, by the position they had taken in reference to
those causes, to oppose manufactures. They were,
however, obliged to engage in them; and, finding
the business lucrative, became the advocates of home
productions, and of a protective system. It is a curi
ous fact, that both political parties, without any
change of political principles, have changed sides in
regard to encouraging American manufactures.
March 4, 1809, James Madison took the presiden
tial chair, having received one hundred and twenty-
two out of one hundred and sixty-nine electoral
votes. Soon after he came into power, the embargo
was repealed. But, in May, 1810, a non-intercourse
act was passed by Congress, prohibiting all commer
cial intercourse with France or Great Britain for one
year. It was at the same time promised, that if
either should repeal its obnoxious decrees before the
year should expire, the non-intercourse act in regard
to that nation should then cease.
June 18, 1812, war was declared by Congress
against Great Britain. The reasons assigned for it
were, the impressment of seamen, blockades, and
orders in council, all of them matters that affected
the commerce of the country. It would naturally
be expected that the commercial states would have
been most in favor of the Avar. Three fourths of
the commerce of the nation was north of the Del-

THE HALF CENTURY. 13
aware, but only twenty-two-votes out of sixty-eight
in the commercial states were cast in favor of war.
The vote in Congress stood as follows : —
Yeas, House of Representatives, 79 ; Senate, 19 ; total, 98.
Nays, " « 49; " 13; " 62.
Of the seventy-nine representatives who were for
war, seventeen only were north of the Delaware ;
and of the nineteen senators, only five. " The war,
therefore," it was said, " may have been called a
measure of the south and west to take care of the
interests of the north, much against its will."
The war commenced by an attack on Fort Macki
naw, on the island of that name, which was taken
by tbe British, July 17. It is a fact to be remem
bered, that the first intelligence the commander of
the fort had that war was declared, was communi
cated to him by the besieging army. The mail
from Washington had not, in thirty days, reached
the fort.
The next attack was made upon Detroit, August
16, which had been intrusted to General Hull, who
surrendered, and the whole of Michigan fell into the
hands of the British. Hull was tried' by a court
martial for cowardice, and sentenced to be shot, but
pardoned on account of his great age and former
services to his country. The seat of the war was
along the Canada line. The Americans were victo
rious on the lakes, and captured or destroyed all the
British vessels. 2

14 THE HALF CENTURY.
September 10, 1813, Commodore Perry captured
the British squadron in Lake Erie. The battle was
fought towards the western extremity of the lake,
not far from the pathway of steamers passing from
Cleaveland to Detroit. Buffalo was burned by the
British, December 30 of the same year. Only two
houses were left standing. The bloodiest battles
on land were fought, in July and August, in the
neighborhood of Niagara Falls. The British de
stroyed twenty-five vessels at Pettipaug, near the
mouth of Connecticut River, on the 25th of April
of that year ; and, on the 24th of August, the city of
Washington was burned. The table was set for
dinner at the president's house, when the enemy
entered and .set it on fire.
The Americans were superior to the British in sea
fights, but on land they were inferior. The last
battle was fought at New Orleans, January 8, 1815,
in which the Americans were victorious. ¦ The treaty
of peace was concluded by the commissioners at
Ghent, December 24, 1814. If the means of com
munication had been as rapid "then as now, it is pos
sible that that battle would never have been fought.
The opposition to the war in New England was
very great, particularly on account of its disastrous
effects upon the commerce of the country. Con
ventions assembled and passed stringent resolutions,
but the war went on. Those whose memory does
not reach back to those times can have no just
idea of the feelings of the people ; though they will

THE HALF CENTURY. 16
approximate to it, if they will consult files of news
papers that were published during those years.
In the summer of 1814, many towns in Maine
were in the possession of the British, who had a fleet
off the coast, committing depredations here and there,
as an opportunity presented itself. The government
did not provide well for the protection of the coast of
New England, and these states thought the time had
come when they must defend themselves, or be over
run by a foreign foe. Caleb Strong, then governor
of Massachusetts, called out the militia. For the
expense of that defence the state has a claim upon
the national government. The justice of the claim
has been acknowledged, but only a small part of it
has yet been paid.
The legislatures of the New England States ap
pointed delegates to meet in convention to take into
consideration the .state of the country. The con
vention assembled at Hartford, Connecticut, Decem
ber 15, 1814, and continued in session till January 5.
This was the famous Hartford Convention. It was
composed of twenty-six members. A history and
vindication of it have been given to the public by
Theodore Dwight, of New York. The news of peace
rendered it unnecessary for the people to take any
action upon the deliberations of that body.
Societies were formed during the war, composed
of those who opposed it, and called Washington Be
nevolent Societies. Their badge was a miniature of
Washington, and their doings were secret, though

16 THE HALF CENTURY.
they had, in connection with their meetings, a public
address. These societies and conventions were regarded by
the friends of the administration as anti-union and
disorganizing in their tendency. At the close of the
war, all those political associations were disbanded,
and party feeling very rapidly declined.
March 4, 1817, James Monroe became president
of the United States. He was of the Jeffersonian
school of politics, and received one hundred and
eighty-three out of two hundred and seventeen
electoral votes. He was elected for a second term
without opposition. No other candidate was nomi
nated. Party feeling had ceased to exist.
In 1818, the Seminole Indians of Florida, which
then belonged to Spain, made incursions into the
states bordering upon that province. General Jackson
was sent with an armed force to protect the frontier
settlements; and judging the Spanish government to
be neglectful of their duty, in not restraining this
turbulent tribe, he carried the war into Florida,
seized two Englishmen he found there, Arbuthnot
and Ambrister, brought them before a court martial,
and proved them guilty of exciting the Indians to
insurrection. One of them was sentenced to be shot,
and the other to be hung. This affair produced
considerable excitement for a time. Jackson's pro
ceedings were condemned by many on the ground
that he transcended his power in leading his troops
into Florida. Congress finally sanctioned his pro
ceedings, and the excitement died away.

THE HALF CENTURY. 17
In 1824, party spirit began again to appear. Four
candidates were put in nomination for the presidency
— J. d. Adams, Andrew Jackson, William H. Craw
ford, and Henry Clay. Political parties were at this
time in a sort of transition state. This presidential
campaign was spirited and earnest. " The various
candidates subscribed substantially to the same polit
ical creed, and entertained similar views as to the
principles on which the general government should
be administered. The struggle was for the most part
personal and sectional." There was no election by
the people. The votes were ninety-nine for Jackson,
eighty-four for Adams, forty-one for Crawford, and
thirty-seven for Clay. John C. Calhoun was elected
vice-president. He received one hundred and eighty-
two of the two hundred and twelve electoral votes.
In February, J. Q,. Adams was elected president, by
the House of Representatives, for the ensuing four
years, and was inaugurated March 4, 1825.
•• In August, 1824, La Fayette, by invitation, visited
this country. He was received with great enthusi
asm by all classes. He was " the nation's guest,"
and honored by the people for the important services
be rendered during our revolutionary struggle. He
visited every section of the Union, and was every
where greeted with great applause. Congress made
him a present of $200,000, and a township of land
in Florida. He spent a year in this country, and
returned to France in 1825. He died in Paris, May
20, 1834, aged seventy-six.

18 THE HALF CENTURY.
June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of tbe bat
tle of Bunker Hill was commemorated by a public
and impressive celebration. The corner stone of
Bunker Hill monument was laid on that day, and an
address was delivered by Hon. Daniel Webster, which
will convey to other generations a correct impression
of the spirit that animated the citizens of the Bay
State at that time.
In August, 1825, died Charles C. Pinckney, of
South Carolina, who, when minister to France, being
reminded, by some of the agents of that government,
that something would be expected from the United
States in the shape of a loan, made the celebrated
reply, " Millions for defence, not a cent for tribute."
He was in his seventy-third year.
In 1828, J. d. Adams and Andrew Jackson were
candidates for the presidency. The electioneering
campaign was warm and earnest. Jackson was
elected, having received one hundred and seventy-
eight of the two hundred and sixty-one electoral
votes, and entered upon the duties of his office
March 4, 1829.
The people of the Southern States were generally
opposed to the tariff of 1828. Their hostility was
manifested in an expressed determination not to pay
the duties required. South Carolina was foremost
in this movement. Her leading politicians main
tained that the federal government was a compact
between sovereign states for their mutual benefit,
and not a compact among the people. They main-

THE HALF CENTURY. 19
tained, that if Congress enacted a law that pressed
heavily upon one state, and was beneficial to another,
the injured state was not bound to obey the law ;
she could nullify the offensive law, and withdraw
from the Union.
In November, 1832, a convention of delegates
assembled at Columbia, S. C, and passed an ordi
nance, declaring that the law of the United States,
passed in July of that year, imposing duties on im
ports, was unconstitutional, and therefore null and
void. President Jackson issued a proclamation,
giving his views of the constitutionality of the law,
of his duty in relation to it, and warning the people
of that state of the consequences that would follow,
if they acted in accordance with the views of the
convention. The decision and firmness of the presi
dent had a favorable effect. It led to calm and sober
reflection. North Carolina signified her purpose to
adhere to the Union, even if some of the laws
enacted by Congress should for a time press heavily
upon her interests. Finally, one state after another
that had embraced the nullification doctrine yielded
the point, and submitted to the will of the majority
in Congress.
The entrance of General Jackson upon the duties
of his office was characterized by the removal of all
persons from office who differed from him in their
political opinions. By his order, the deposits were
removed from the United States Bank, and placed in
state banks, which, by the opposers of the measure.

20 THE HALF CENTURY.
were called " pet banks." He was opposed to banks,
and in favor of a specie currency, and recommended
the sub-treasury system.
March 4, 1837, Martin Van Buren became presi
dent of the United States ; he received one hundred
and sixty-seven of the two hundred and ninety-one
electoral votes. The others were cast for Webster,
Harrison, and White. The general policy of Presi
dent Van Buren was like that of his predecessor.
During his presidency, the country experienced a
greater degree of pecuniary embarrassment than it
had ever known. The charter of the United States
Bank had already expired, and its operations had
ceased; the number of state banks was considerably
increased. The national debt had been paid, or
reduced to a few thousands ; and the surplus revenue,
amounting to $46,000,000, had been distributed
among the states. There were over-trading and
much ruinous speculation, which prepared the way
for a sad reverse. In 1837, the banks ceased, for a
time, to pay specie, and discounted very few notes.
Failures were numerous, and the business interests
of the country were in a sad condition. Many who,
at the commencement of this year, were considered
rich, at the close of it were poor ; those who had
opened the hand of charity to the distressed were in
some cases obliged to ask charity of others. It fur
nished an occasion for the pulpit to call the attention
of men to the vanity and folly of seeking to lay up
treasures on earth. In the introduction to a sermon

THE HALF CENTURY. 21
preached in one of our commercial cities in 1837,
the speaker said, " The hum of business is dying
away in the great marts of trade. The sails of
commerce are hanging down in a dead calm, or flap
ping in a well nigh useless breeze. The wheels of
the arts move sluggishly. The sinews of enterprise
are cut. Honorable men are unexpectedly thrust
down from the summits of commercial prosperity and
opulence, having their sensibilities rudely torn by
their being compelled to violate engagements that
were made in good faith, and by seeing their best
friends dragged down with them into a state of in
solvency." About this time we had the Florida, or another
Seminole war. In 1834, a treaty had been concluded
with that tribe of Indians, in which they agreed to re
move west of the Mississippi. In 1836, four hundred
emigrated, and in 1837 and 1838, fifteen hundred
more. The remainder, about three thousand in num
ber, refused to go. They wandered about the country,
committing depredations, and biding themselves in
swamps and thickets, from which they would sally
forth and commit new acts of violence, murdering
families and burning houses. They withstood, by
their peculiar mode of warfare, the power and skill
of an army led on by accomplished generals, for some
years. The leading spirit among them was Osceola,
who was captured in the latter part of 1837, and died
at Fort Moultrie, of a disease of the throat, January
31, 1838.

22 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1829, a third political party — the Antimasonic
— was organized. Its history will be found in a
subsequent chapter. In 1840, the Whigs and Anti-
masons nominated the same man — William H. Har
rison — for the presidency. The electioneering cam
paign of that year was distinguished for its mass
meetings, long processions, and song-singing. Harri
son was elected by a large majority over Van Buren,
the opposing candidate, and entered upon the duties
of his office March 4, 1841, and died one month after.
He was the first president of the United States that
died while in office. He was succeeded by John
Tyler, the vice-president, whose administration was
opposed by both political parties.
In 1837 and 1838, there was an insurrection in
Canada. The insurgents were in favor of reform or
independence. The people in the bordering states
sympathized with them ; and many, it is believed,
joined their army, or secretly assisted them. In the
latter part of 1837, General Van Renssalaer, of Alba
ny, was at the head of one thousand troops, on Navy
Island, in the Niagara River. The leader in this
movement was William M'Kenzie. They held com
munication with the American shore by steamboats.
The steamer Caroline, which lay at Schlosser, on the
American side, was seized by the royalists at one
o'clock, A. M., December 30 ; twenty-two men were
killed, and the boat was taken out into the channel
of the river, set on fire, and sent on her way over the
falls.

THE HALF CENTURY. 23
• The president of the United States and the gov
ernor of New York interposed, and obliged the
Americans to leave Navy Island and return home.
This affair came very near involving our country in
a serious difficulty with England.
In 1841, a portion of the people of Rhode Island,
being dissatisfied with the constittUion of that state,
particularly in regard to the restriction it imposed on
the right of suffrage, and the inequality of representa
tion, called, on their own responsibility, a convention
of delegates from the several towns to frame a new
constitution. The legal and proper course would
have been for the legislature to have passed an act
authorizing the governor to call for the appointment
of delegates. This party were in favor of universal
suffrage, and were called the " suffrage " party ; while
those who adhered to the old constitution, and were
opposed to any emendation except in the way pre
scribed by the constitution, were called " the law and
order " party. The " suffrage " convention assem
bled in the autumn of 1841, drafted a constitution,
and sent it to the people for adoption. The leader
of this party was Thomas W. Dorr, of Providence.
The votes from the towns were returned and counted
in January, 1842, when it appeared that it had been
adopted by fourteen thousand voters. The law and
order party did not vote at all. A proclamation was
issued declaring this instrument to be the constitution
of the state, and April 18 appointed for the election
of state officers, and of a legislature to meet in May.

24 THE HALF CENTURY.
The governor also issued a proclamation, declaring
the whole proceeding to be unconstitutional and
treasonable, and warning the people of the conse
quences that must ensue in any attempt to sustain
those proceedings.
Thomas W. Dorr was elected governor, the legis
lature assembled, and the new government was or
ganized in due form. June 17, the suffrage party
sent a body of men to the arsenal, and demanded the
possession of it. Meeting with opposition, they pro
cured two field pieces, and threatened to fire upon
-the militia and others assembled to protect the arsenal.
No gun was fired. In the morning, it appeared that
Dorr had fled, when eleven officers of the new gov
ernment resigned. Dorr, however, collected all the
force he could muster at Chepachet, with a determi
nation to sustain the new government. He gathered
to his standard about one thousand men. The old
governor called out seven thousand militia, three
thousand of whom marched to Chepachet, June 26.
Dorr again fled, when he found that resistance would
be in vain ; and so the war ended. One thousand
dollars were offered for his apprehension. In 1843,
weary of leading a fugitive life, he surrendered him
self to the government ; and, after a long imprison
ment, he was tried, found guilty, and sentenced to
the state's prison. He was committed in July, 1844,
and released, on taking the oath of allegiance, in
June, 1845.
In 1844, James K. Polk and Henry Clay were

THE HALF CENTURY.* 25
candidates for the presidency : the former received
one hundred and seventy electoral votes, and the
latter one hundred and five. During his administra
tion, the boundary line between Oregon and the
British possessions was settled, Texas admitted to
the Union, and a war of two years' continuance car
ried on with Mexico, resulting, as has already been
intimated, in the acquisition of a large addition to
our territory.
April 25, 1846, there was a skirmish between the
American troops and the Mexicans, on the shore of
the Rio Grande, in which seventeen Americans were
killed ; a fourth, May 9, in which one hundred and
twenty-two were killed. In June, Congress voted
that weir did already exist ; it was not formally pro
claimed. The treaty of peace was signed at Guada-
loupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, but the treaty was
not accepted by the two nations, and the proclamation
of it made, till July 4.
The principal battles were those of Monterey,
September 12 — 14, 1846 ; Buena Vista, February
22 and 23, 1847; Vera Cruz, March 9—28, 1847;
Cerro Gordo, April 18 and 19 ; Churubusco, August
19 and 20; Chupul tepee and Mexico, Sept. 12 — 14,
1847. In the summer of 1848, a new political party was
organized ; the nucleus of it was found in the state
of New York, among those opposed to paying annual
rents to the proprietors of large landed estates. They
claimed that land could not be entailed to a family
3

26 THE HALF CENTURY.
and their descendants forever; that it ought to be
sold to the occupants, and thus, in a sense, be free.
They were called, by way of reproach, " the barn
burners," and began to exert some influence in the
legislature. The new party gathered around this
nucleus, and were opposed to the extension of slaver'y
to the new states and territories, and assumed the
name of the Free Soil party. Consequently, there
were three candidates for the presidency in 1848 —
Z. Taylor, L. Cass, and M. Van Buren.
General Taylor was elected, having received one
hundred and sixty-three of the two hundred and
ninety electoral votes,, and was inaugurated March 5,
1849. The Free Soil party held the balance of power in
the House of Representatives in 1849 — 1850, and
for two weeks prevented the election of a speaker
and the organization of the House.
At the close of the half century, we have fallen
into one of those straits through which it is difficult
to navigate the ship of state. The question is. Shall
the area of freedom or of slavery be extended ? The
slaveholding states held on to California with a death
like grasp, preferring she should not come into the
Union, unless she should come in the promoter and
defender of the peculiar institutions of the south.
The following presidents and vice-presidents of
the United States have died during the last half cen
tury : —

THE HALF CENTURY. 27
PRESIDENTS.
John Adams, of Massachusetts, July 4, 1826, aged 91.
Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, " ' " « 83.
James Madison, " " June 28, 1836, « 79.
James Monroe, « " July 4, 1831, " 73.
William H. Harrison, of Ohio, April 4, 1841, " 68.
Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, June 8, 1845, " 78.
John Q,. Adams, of jfeassachusetts, Feb. 23, 1848, " 81.
James K. Polk, of Tennessee, June 17, 1849, " 54.
Zachary Taylor, of Mississippi, July 9, 1850, " 66.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
George Clinton, of New York,' April 20, 1812, aged 73.
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, Nov. 23, 1814, " 70.
Daniel D.Tompkins, of New York, June 11, 1825, " 50.
Aaron Burr, " " Sept. 14, 1836, « 81.
John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Mar. 31, 1850, " 68.
Of the fifty-six signers of the Declaration of
American Independence, thirty-nine died before the
close of the last century. The deaths of the re
mainder have occurred in the following order : —
Matt Thornton, of New Hampshire,
Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts,
Francis Lewis, of New York,
George Walton, of Georgia,
Robert Morris, of Pennsylvania,
James Smith, « "
Thos. Haywood, of South Carolina,
Samuel Chase, of Maryland,
William Williams, of Connecticut
George Clymer, of Pennsylvania,
Benjamin Rush, " "

June 24,

1803,

aged 88.

Oct 2,

il

t(

82.

Dec. 30,

((

a

89.

Feb. 2,

1804,

it

64.

May 8,

1806,

ti

72.

t(

a

90. 51.

March,

1809,

u

June 19,

1811,

a

70.

Aug. 2,

C(

it

80.

Jan. 23,

1813,

it

73.

April 19,

"

it

68.

Nov. 23,

((

" 70.

June 24,

1817,

" 83.

Feb.l5,

1820,

" 92.

Aug. 4,

J 821,

« 87.

Sept 14,

1832,

« 96.

28 THE HALF CENTURY.
RobertT. Paine, of Massachusetts, May 11, 1814, « 8a
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts,
Thomas M'Kean, of Delaware,
William EUery, of Rhode Island,
William Floyd, of New York,
Charles Carroll, of CarroUton,
The Congress of the United States, fifty years ago,
consisted of twenty-eight senators and one hundred
and seven representatives ; now of sixty senators and
two hundred and thirty representatives.
There have been, during the last fifty years, twelve
extra sessions of Congress; three during the admin
istration of Jefferson, five during that of Madison,
two during that of Monroe, one during that of Jack
son, and one during that of Tyler.
Eighteen bills that passed both houses of Congress
have been vetoed by the president. Five were
vetoed by Madison — tbe last, January 30, 1813, a
United States Bank ; one by Monroe in 1822, the
Cumberland Road bill ; ten by Jackson, the Mays-
ville Road bill, the Washington Turnpike, the Louis
ville and Portland Canal, the Road from Detroit to
Chicago, and the Lighthouse bill, all in 1830. In
1832 he vetoed the United States Bank, the Harbor
bill, and one other ; in 1833, the Land bill ; in 1836,
the bill changing the day of the meeting of Congress.
Tyler vetoed two in 1841, the Fiscal Bank bill,
and a substitute for it.
The population of the United States, in 1800, was

THE HALF CENTURY. 29
6,305,925 ; in 1840 it was 17,063,353. It is esti
mated that in 1850 it is 23,500,000, or more than
quadruple what it was in 1800.
The immigration to this country has been very
great, especially since 1830. The number of emi
grants entered at the various custom-houses, between
1800 and 1830, was nearly 400,000 ; from 1830 to
1850, the number entered at the custom-houses, and
that have come in through the British provinces, will
exceed 1,500,000.
The exports of the United States were least of all
in 1814, the last year of the war with England,
being only $6,927,441, and greatest in 1839, being
$162,092,132. The imports were least, also, in
1814, being only $12,965,000. They were greatest
in 1836, the year preceding the great pecuniary em
barrassment, being $190,000,000, and exceeding the
exports $62,000,000.
The national debt in 1801 was $83,000,000 ; in
1816, at the close of the war, it was $127,334,000 ;
in 1836, nothing, and a surplus of $46,000,000 left
for distribution among the states. In 1848, it was
$46,000,000. The growth of cities has been very rapid. In
1800, Cincinnati had only seven hundred and fifty
inhabitants; it has now 82,000. In 1820, St.
Louis had a population of 4,598 ; now it has 70,000.
In 1840, Chicago had 4,853 inhabitants, and in 1848,
it had 19,725. Milwaukie was laid out in 1835, and
3*

30 THE HALF CENTURY.
the first house was built that year ; in 1849, it had a
population of 16,000.
The old cities on the Atlantic shore have increased
rapidly. New York had in 1800 a population of
60,489, bnt in 1845 it had 371,102. Philadelphia
had in 1800 a population of 70,287, and in 1840 it
had 258,000. Boston in 1800 had 24,927, and in
1845 it had 114,366.
" In Boston, in 1803, there was not a brick house
in the whole of Tremont Street. In Beacon Street,
Mr. Joy's handsome house, (which, when it was
building, was thought to be out of town,) the Han
cock house, and two old wooden houses, belonging
one to Mr. Cushing, and one to Judge Vinal, con\,-
prised all the dwellings in that now splendid street.
In Chestnut Street there were but five houses, and in
Mt. Vernon Street none below Willow. There were
but fourteen places of public worship. The dry
goods wholesale business was in the hands of Messrs.
Salisbury, Parker, Boott, and Pratt. The retail
traders were nearly as few. Thej-e are only two or
three survivors of those last named. Mr. Magner,
who owned the most of Lindall Street, was the black
smith ; Mr. Elliot, the apothecary; Mr. Andrews
and Mr. West, the booksellers; the Messrs. Brad-
lees and Ticknor, the grocers ; Mr. Hunnewell, the
mason and architect ; Messrs. Russell and Young,
the printers of newspapers; Mr. Revere, the cop
persmith. The large shipping merchants were Cod-

THE HALF CENTURY. 31
man, "Elliot, Coolidge, Russell, &c. A single pasture
in Pearl Street, where one cow grazed, sold a few
years ago for $75,000. What is quite remarkable,
the rent of houses in 1803 was as high for the same
description of houses as it is now."

Section 2. Indians. Particulars of the Georgia
'Controversy.
In 1820, Rev. J. Morse, D. D., was commissioned
by the secretary of war to visit the various tribes of
Indians in the United States, to inquire into their
rfjondition and circumstances, and to make a report of
all such matters as might be useful to those who had
the management of Indian affairs. His report and
the appendix made a volume of four hundred pages.
There were then in New England 2,247 Indians ; in
New York, 5,184 ; north of the Ohio and east of the
Mississippi, there were 47,783 ; and in the Southern
States, east of the Mississippi, there were 65,122.
The greater part of those on the north and south of
the Ohio have since removed to the west of the
Mississippi. The practice of the United States has
ever been to buy their lands, and pay them for their
improvements, whenever they have been inclined to
sell. It has in some instances happened, that their
land has been wanted when they did not wish to sell.
Serious difficulties grew out of an attempt, on the
part of Georgia, about thirty years ago, to oblige the

32 THE HALF CENTURY.
Indians to sell their lands, and remove farther west.
The report of a congressional committee, in reference
to this matter, was drawn up by Hon. E. Everett, of
Massachusetts, and was published in 1827, which,
with the accompanying documents, formed a volume
of eight hundred and fifty pages.
The narrative of the facts of this case, and of the
principles on which action was based, will give a clew
to the reasons why our governnjent have conducted
as they have in other cases.
The people of Georgia have been severely censured
for their course in regard to the Indian tribes in that
state. They were deserving of censure, and yet, if
other states had been in their place, there is no reasoi^
to suppose they would have been perfectly quiet.
When on the side of the oppressor there is power, he
is very likely to use it for the accomplishment of his
wishes. If the best land in any of our states was
occupied by a large tribe of Indians, it would be very
natural for the people to desire their removal, and the
occupancy of their lands. Though the Georgians
are not to be justified in doing as they did, yet they
are not sirtners above all men because they did those
things. England, by the right of discovery, claimed a pre
emptive right to the lands of the Indians — the exclu
sive right of purchasing them. No individual or
company could, by purchasing of the Indians, obtain
a bona fide title, without the consent of the English
government.

THE HALF CENTURY. 33
At the close of the revolution, England ceded to
the United States her claim to the whole country,
so that the federal government had the same pre
emptive right to the Indian lands that England had.
At the time of the adoption of the American consti
tution, the question arose, whether this preemptive
right belonged to the federal government or to the
states in which the Indians resided. The controver
sies growing out of this difierence of opinion were
of a most serious character, and retarded the adoption
©f the constitution in some of. the states. It also
formed the subject of some of the most embarrassing
questions that ceune before the Continental Congress.
These difficulties were of such a magnitude that they
could not be settled by any positive decision in favor
of either party. They were left to be settled as best
they could be, when a case occurred requiring action.
Congress, however, has always acted on the principle
that to her belongs this preemptive right. To her it
ought to belong ; she can most easily extinguish
Indian titles.
Articles of cession were concluded between the
United States and Georgia, April 24, 1802. Georgia
ceded to the United States all her lands west of a
certain line, and they assumed the obligation to ex
tinguish the Indian titles to all lands east of said line,
as soon as it could be done peaceably and on reason
able terms. In nineteen years, they bought of the
Indians within the bounds of Georgia more than

34 THE HALF CENTURY.
14,000,000 of acres, which thus became the property
of the state, and the Indians removed.
In 1817, the A. B. Commissioners established a
mission among the Indians in Georgia; for the sup
port of schools, and to enable them to introduce the
arts of civilized life, they received from the United
States treasury, annually, a specific sum of money.
These operations were very successful. Civilization
advanced rapidly. In 1825, there were among the
Cherokees 79,842 domestic animals, 762 looms,
2,486 spinning-wheels, 172 wagons, 2,942 ploughs,
10 saw-mills, 31 grist-mills, 62 blacksmiths' shops, a
printing press, and a newspaper.
The Indians had made such progress in civiliza
tion that they began to appreciate the value of their
lands and their homes, and refused to sell at a price
which the United States were willing to pay. Geor
gia, in the mean time, was urging the government to
extinguish the Indian title, and give her the pos
session of the country ; she complained that the
United States had so added to the comforts of the
Cherokees, had so instructed them in the business of
husbandry, and had attached them so firmly to their
homes, as to destroy almost the last ray of hope that
they would ever consent to part with their lands on
any reasonable terms.
In this state of things, what could be done ? Con
gress, in a treaty with the Indians, in 1791, had said;
" The United States solemnly guarantee to the Chero
kee nation all their lands not yet ceded." Treaties

THE HALF CENTURY. 35
with them had always been regarded as sacred as
with other races of men, and ought always to be
as sacredly observed. The United States were not
bound, by their treaty with Georgia, to procure the
Indian lands unless they could purchase them on rea
sonable terms, and were bound to protect them from
those who would drive them off by violence.
In 1827, the legislature of Georgia took the ground
that England, by the right of discovery, had more
than she ever claimed — a complete sovereignty over
all the Indian territories, and that the Indians were
tenants at will. They also maintained that England
ceded not her rights to the nation, but to the indi
vidual states, and that the Indians in each state were
tenants at the will of the inhabitants of each state.
All this being assumed to be true, it followed, that
tbe Georgians owned tbe Cherokee lands, and the
Cherokees must leave at their bidding. They also
discovered that the treaty made with the United
States in 1802 was null and void, for in that treaty
Congress had transcended its power, and had promised
to give them what was already their own. It also
followed that all treaties made with the Indians were
null and void, for they were based on the belief that
England had only a preemptive right to the soil, and
had ceded to this nation no other. By a very short
process of reasoning, they swept away all treaties
with the United States, and those made by them with
the Indians, and came to the conclusion that they
were the rightful lords and owners of the whole ter-

36 THE HALF CENTURY.
ritory occupied by the aborigines within the bounds
of Georgia^
The announcement of these doctrines produced a
thrill of horror in every unprejudiced and high-minded
man in the nation. It was discussed in the newspa
pers, and reprobated from the pulpit. In 1829, a se
ries of letters were published in the National Intelli
gencer, signed " William Penn," which were under
stood to have been written by Jeremiah Evarts, Esq.,
secretary of the American Board, in which he showed
the injustice and immorality of the course pursued
by the Georgians.
At the meeting of the Georgia legislature, 1828-9,
it was resolved to settle the boundary between the
country of the Creeks, which had come into the pos
session of the state, and the Cherokees. The line
was run, and cut off from tbe territory of the Chero
kees 1, 167,360 acres, or about one quarter of it. Of
this they took possession. It was the opinion of
many, who understood the matter, that " might con
stituted their only right."
At the session of the legislature in 1830-1, the
laws of Georgia were extended over the whole Cher
okee country, and all white persons among them were
rejjuired to leave the country within a specified time,
or be treated as criminals, unless they should take the
oath of allegiance. Several missionaries were ar
rested ; some of them took the oath, and were set at
liberty. Rev. Samuel A. Worcester and Elizur But
ler, M. D., regarding those laws unrighteous and in-

THE HALF CENTURY. 37
human, refused to take the oaths, and suffered them
selves to be arrested for the purpose of carrying the
question before the Supreme Court of the United
States. They were tried before Judge Clayton, of Georgia,
and acquitted on the ground that they were agents in
the employ of the United States, and not subject to
the laws of that state. The judge was evidently in
clined to be more merciful to the missionaries than
tbe law was. The governor v/rote to the president
of the United States, and to the secretary of war, to
know whether these men were regarded by them as
men in their employ. The answer was, of course,
that they were not so regarded. Consequently they
were again arrested, and finally sentenced to four
years' imprisonment in the Georgia Penitentiary.
They were committed to prison in September, 1831.
Tbe governor evidently had some misgivings ; he
must sustain the law, but he was sorry it bore thus
heavily upon men who had the confidence and sym
pathy of all good men. He offered to pardon them
if they would only take the oath of allegiance ; he
seemed anxious to have them do so. He dreaded
to meet the reproach that would fall upon the state if
they shut up with felons men of unimpeached and
unimpeachable moral and religious character. .
In February, 1832, the case came before the Su
preme Court of the United States by a writ of error,
and was argued by Sargeant and Wirt. The decision
of the court was given March 3d, by Chief Justice
4

38 THE HALF CENTURY.
Marshall. The court stated at length tbe nature and
extent of the right of discovery, the original ground
on which the different European powers laid claim
to portions of the American continent, the manner in
which lands had been obtained of the Indians, and the
manner in which the constitution of the United States
and the acts of Congress in relation to Indian affairs
had been understood, and declared the act of Georgia,
in extending her laws over the country of the Cher
okees, unconstitutional. The court issued an order
for the release of the missionaries.
This decision and the order were laid before the
Supreme Court of Georgia, and a motion made that
the court should reverse its decision. It refused to do
so, and the missionaries continued in prison till 1833,
when it was understood that the governor would par
don them if they would make application to him to
do so. They made application, and were set at lib
erty January 14th.
It will be asked. What Avas the government of the
United States doing in the mean time ? Without en
tering into particulars, I will only say, in the language
of another, " The national government seem to say,
by the manner in which they treat the subject. We
cannot extinguish the title on any reasonable terms,
because the Indians have become too much attached
to their country to abandon it. But to the Georgians
they seem to say, If you will extend your laws over
their country, which recognize no Indian title, nor
any personal rights, we will stand still, and neglect to

THE HALF CENTURY. 39
extend the protection we have promised. In this way
they may become so worried and dispirited that they
will be willing to accede to terms which we regard
as reasonable."
And so it was. In May, 1835, they were ready to
accede to the terms that had been proposed. The
United States gave them a large tract of land west
of the Mississippi, and $500,000 in money, besides
another considerable sum for damages. They agreed
to leave Georgia within two years. At the expiration
of that time, between 3,000 and 4,000 Choctaws still
lingered, whereupon General Scott was sent to Geor
gia with an armed force, to compel them to remove.
They finally removed to the western part of Arkan
sas, where they still reside. No other violence was
offered by the army than to seize families and retain
them as prisoners. No Indian ever complained of any
abuse from that source. Less injury was done by
mistakes and accidents than might have been ex
pected. They removed in the summer of 1838 ; they went
not only from Georgia, but from the neighboring
states. In all there were *16, 000, of which number
4,000 died in ten months, in consequence of the ex
posure and fatigues of the journey.
The prospects of the Indian tribes in this country
are exceedingly dark. If the states in which they re
side wish to get rid of them, there is reason to expect
that the government, instead of defending the Indians
against usurpation, will connive at such measures as

40 THE HALF CENTURY.
the States in which they are may adopt, and thus
compel them to sell their lands on " reasonable terms."
Hon. H. Clay, in a speech before the senate of the
United States, February 4, 1835, speaks of the pro
ceedings of the people of Georgia in the following
manner : " The senate will perceive that the whole
power of the state of Georgia, military as well as
civil, has been made to bear upon these Indians, with
out their having any voice in forming, judging upon,
or executing the laws under which they are placed,
and without even the poor privilege of establishing
the injury they may have suffered by the presentation
of any evidence. There then the Indian lies, with
his property, his rights, and every privilege which
makes human existence desirable, at the mere mercy
of the state of Georgia j a state in whose government
or laws he has no voice. Sir, it is impossible for the
most active imagination to conceive of a condition of
human society more perfectly wretched."
Such were the views of a great multitude in this
nation ; and had it not been for the indomitable pur
pose of Georgia to get possession of the Indian lands,
the government would have adhered to their solemn
treaties with those tribes, and the nation would have
had less reason to fear the wrath of an offended
God.

THE HALF CENTURY. 41

Section 3. Political Changes in South America.
This portion of the western continent has been in
an unsettled and insurrectionary state during most of
the last half century. I propose to give only a brief
outline of the events that have there taken place.
The spirit of liberty seems first to have manifested
itself in the northern provinces, probably from their
proximity to the United States, and in a few years to
have pervaded the whole country.
New Grenada. — In 1800, it was a vice-royalty of
Spain, but in 1811 declared itself independent. In
1819, it united with Venezuela and the presidency of
Gluito, and was called the Republic of Colombia, of
which Simon Bolivar, who was regarded by his friends
as the Washington of South America, was the first
president. In 1828, be assumed supreme power, and
Venezuela withdrew from the Union. In 1831, the
Republic of Colombia was resolved into its original
elements. General Santander was chosen president :
it still retains its republican form of government,
though its affairs are in an unsettled state. It covers
an area of 380,000 square miles, and is supposed to
have a population of 1,680,000. Joaquin Mosquaru
was inaugurated president in 1844.
Bolivar's fame and labors were not confined to New
Grenada. We shall see that he aided Peru in her
revolutionary struggle, and was called the Liberator.
" He was a man," says one, " of much hard fighting,
4*

42 THE HALF CENTURY.
hard riding, of manifold achievements, distresses, and
heroisms ; a many-counselled and much-enduring
man." He died December 17, 1830, aged 47.
Venezuela. -— This includes the old Spanish royalty
of Caraccas and Spanish Guiana. It withdrew from
the republic of Colombia when Bolivar assumed su
preme power, and united with it again for a short time
after his decease. In 1831, it declared itself an inde
pendent republic, of which General Paez was president.
In 1847, J. T. Monagas became president, and soon
after a civil war commenced ; the parties were headed
by the president and ex-president. The latter was
defeated in a decisive battle, fought August 15, 1849.
The affairs of the country were in a sad condition,
and the best citizens were seeking a residence else
where. Paez is the most distinguished man in the
country, and has a strong hold upon the affections of
the people. Venezuela has an area of 450,000 square
miles, and one million of inhabitants.
Ecuador, or Equador, is the old Spanish presidency
of Quito, and lies on both sides of the equator ; hence
its name. "It became an independent republic in 1831 ;
it has an area of 325,000 square miles, and a popula
tion of 600,000.
Peru. — This province declared itself independent
of Spain July 15, 1821. General San Martin was de
clared its protector in August. The Spanish or roy
alist party was still powerful. In 1823, Lamar was
placed at the head of the government, and La Serna,
the Spanish general, collected his forces in Upper

THE HALF CENTURY. 43
Peru, now called Bolivia. The republicans applied
to Colombia for aid, and Generals Sucre and Bolivar
were sent to fight the battles of freedom in that coun
try. The decisive battle between the royalists and re
publicans was fought at Ayacucho, December 9, 1824,
in which the latter were victorious. The royalists
maintained themselves for a time in Upper Peru, but
were totally routed in 1825. Bolivar, in the- early
part of 1824, was invested with supreme power in
Peru, with the title of Liberator. But the Peruvians,
becoming suspicious of his designs, removed him from
office and restored Lamar, who was succeeded by Ga-
marra in 1829. He was succeeded, December 20,
1833, by Obregoso. In 1837, the country was placed
tmder the protection of Santa Cruz, president of Bo
livia. In 1839, Peru was again independent, and Ga-
marra president. Raman Castilia was president in 1849.
It has an area of 524,000 square miles, and a popula
tion of 1,373,000.
Bolivia. — This was formerly Upper Peru. Soon
after the battle of Ayacucho, this country declared itself
independent, and General Sucre was vested with the
government, until a constitution could be framed and
adopted. The country was called Bolivia, in honor
of Bolivar, who drew up the constitution in 1826.
Sucre was chosen president for life. He resigned in
1828, and returned to Colombia, where he was assassi
nated in 1830. General Blanco was elected president
in 1828, and deposed January 1, 1829, and was suc
ceeded by General Santa Cruz. In 1849 General Belxu

44 THE HALF CENTURY.
was chosen president. This country has an area of
318,000 square miles, and a population of 1,700,000.
Chili. — The revolutionary spirit began to manifest
itself in this province as early as 1809, while Spain
was harassed and torn by the invasion of Napoleon
Bonaparte. It did not, however, throw off the Span
ish yoke till 1818. By the intrigues of San Martin,
the three Carreras, and Rodriguez, the best men in
the country were murdered, and O'Higgins was
elected chief magistrate, with the title of Supreme
Director. San Martin is famous for having led an army over
the Andes, from Mendoza into Chili, in 1817. He is
the Hannibal of the southern hemisphere. O'Higgins
was San Martin's favorite, but the people of Chili
could not long endure his directorship: in 1823, he
was compelled to resign, and was succeeded by Ra
mon Freire ; in 1826, he was succeeded by Manuel
Blanco. In 1827, the form of the government was
changed ; and the chief ruler has since been called
President. The people have been divided on the
question, whether they should establish one central
government for the whole, or whether, like the United
States, they should have a federal government. Man
uel Bulnes was appointed president in 1841. It is
one of the smallest of the South American states,
having an area of only 144,000 square miles, with a
population of 1,200,000.
Argentine Republic, or Buenos Ayres. — This
province threw off the Spanish yoke, and set up for

THE HALF CENTURY. 45
independence, in 1816. It assumed the name of the
United Provinces of South America, and in 1819
adopted a constitution, taking that of the United
States for its model. In 1826, it tooTi the name of
the Argentine Republic. In 1828, the president Ri-
vadavia resigned, the congress was dissolved, and the
confederation came to an end. In 1830, Rosas
became president of the republic, and has held
that office ever since, ruling the country with little
less than absolute power. He began to play the ty
rant about 1834. " Literary, scientific, and humane
institutions, which had been established and liberally
maintained previous to the administration of Rosas,
have long since ceased to receive any support from
government." There were many frightful massacres
in October, 1840, and in April, 1842 ; the heads of
well-known citizens were carried through the streets
of the capital in carts, followed by those who cried,
" Who will buy peaches ? " " Who will buy oranges ? "
A traveller saw among the curiosities, in the house of
Rosas, the salted ears of Colonel Borda, preserved in a
glass case. Between 1834 and 1843, no less than
3765 citizens had their throats cut, and 1393 were
shot. This IS only a specimen of the enormities
of which Rosas has made Buenos Ayres the blood
stained theatre. Many have been banished, and a
greater number have fled to other provinces. As evi
dence of the diminution of the wealth of the coun
try, it is said that the importation of silks and woollen
goods has diminished very much, and that of coarse

46 THE HALF CENTURY.
cottons has increased. This country has an area of
726,000 square miles, and a population of only 675,000;
Uruguay is called also the Oriental Republic, and
often Montevideo, from its capital. This was at first
a province of the Argentine Republic. In 1826, there
was an obstinate war between the republic and Brazil
for the possession of Uruguay. The contest was
ended in 1828, by the mediation of England and
France, and a treaty of peace was signed acknowl
edging this province to be an independent govern
ment. Although the Argentine Republic formally
acknowledged the independence of Uruguay, she has
always determined that it shall form a part of that
republic. The aim of Rosas is to obtain possession
of the country, and subject it to his own government.
The signification of his acts is, long life to those who
are in favor of uniting in one government the prov
inces that formerly composed the republic, and death
to those who are in favor of the independence of
Uruguay. The president of this republic is Joaquin
Suarez, who was elected in 1843. Its area is 120,000
square miles, and its population 140,000.
Paraguay. — This became a republic in 1813,
though no formal declaration was made of it. The
great man of that country was Dr. Francia. He was
secretary in 1813, and a consul in 1814. In tbe lat
ter part of that year, he called a congress of 1000
persons, who were appointed by himself — ignorant
men, whom he could control. By that congress he
was appointed dictator for three years, and from that

THE HALF CENTURY. 47
time did not deem a reelection necessary. He en
couraged the lower classes to look to him for fa
vor, and by every means in his power sowed discord
and jealousies among the better portion of the people.
He was, if possible, more cruel and tyrannical than
Nero or Dionysius. In 1830, it was said, " The prisons
are groaning with their inmates ; commerce is par
alyzed ; vessels are rotting on the banks of the rivers ;
distrust and fear pervade every habitation ; the near
est relations and dearest friends are afraid of each
other ; despondency and despair are written on every
countenance." Dr. Francia lived, through fear of
assassination, secluded from all society except that of
an old negro woman ; he examined carefully his sim
ple food to see if it had not been poisoned, and for
the same reason made his own cigars. He died Sep
tember, 1840, being more than fourscore years old.
His death-scene is thus described : " Attended during
his last sickness by an old woman and a native doc
tor, he was at length told he could not recover, and
that he had better call some one to administer to the
wants of his soul. At the mention of a priest, whom
he hated above all things, he leaped from his bed in
a paroxysm of rage, and seizing a sabre, pursued the
panic-stricken doctor to the door, where he fell down
and expired."
Such, however, is said to be the mildness of the
people, that in no state paper or public document can
a word be found reflecting with harshness upon his
awful administration.

48

THE HALF CENTURY.

In 1841, a consular government was established,
and Senores Lopez and Alonzo were made consuls.
Lopez now administers the government alone, and
has the title of President.
General Rosas is desirous of annexing Paraguay to
the Argentine Republic, while the English and French
favor its independence for the sake of free trade with
that fertile country. Its area is 74,000 square miles,
and its population 250,000.
Brazil. — This country was a part of the kingdom
of Portugal till 1822. John VI., king of Portugal,
resided at Rio Janeiro from 1808 to 1821. During all
this period there was growing up a republican party,
composed mostly of foreigners. When John returned
to Portugal, he made his son, Don Pedro, prince regent.
In October, 1822, Brazil declared herself independent
of Portugal, and Don Pedro was crowned emperor.
In 1831, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son,
Don Pedro II., who is still emperor of Brazil. There
is in parts of Brazil a strong republican feeling, which
keeps the country restless and unsettled. This is the
largest of the South American provinces, extending
over 2,300,000 square miles, having a population,
however, of only 5,200,000.
Republicanism has not been very prosperous in
South America, owing chiefly, no doubt, to the prev
alence of the Romish religion, and the domineering
influence of a Jesuitical priesthood. So long as their
religious teachers remain the same, the masses of the
people will remain uneducated ; and though they

THE HALF CENTURY. 49
may declare themselves a free and independent peo
ple, they will not enjoy the blessings of true liberty.
When the South American states shall have free
schools and a free Bible, the tree of liberty will strike
its roots deeper, spread its branches over the whole
land, and bear an abundance of good fruit.
6

60 THE HALF CENTURY.
CHAPTER II.
EDUCATIONAL CHANGES.

Section 1. Common Schools.
At the formation of the federal compact, the senti
ment was all-pervading, that the perpetuity of a free
government must depend upon the virtue and intelli
gence of the people. It was admitted by all that the
success of our young republic would not answer the
expectations of its friends, unless the children and
youth should all be instructed in the rudiments of
learning, and be taught the fear of the Lord.
As Massachusetts earliest embarked in the cause
of education, and as her movements have had an
influence upon other states, it will be in order to
give a sketch of what she has done to promote this
cause. At the commencement of the present century, her
school system was substantially what it had been
from the beginning. The towns were empowered
and required to raise money, by a tax on all the prop
erty, for the support of schools, which were open
and as free to the children of the poor as of the rich.
They were divided into districts, and committees
were annually chosen to examine teachers, and
visit the schools. The great defect in the system

THE HALF CENTURY. 61
then was, that the state required no returns to be
made to any state officers respecting the condition of
the schools. If the perpetuity of the government
depended on the education of the youth, it ought to
have been known by the legislature whether the
towns were taking care that no one should grow up
unable to read the laws of the commonwealth and
tbe sacred Scriptures. The temptation, in every
town, was strong to raise as little money as possible,
so that their taxes might be light. Districts were
tempted to employ cheap teachers, so that their
schools might be long ; and teachers were tempted
to offer their services, without any special qualifica
tion for their work, because their wages did not
warrant any outlay of money for an outfit. The
consequence was, that schools languished ; there was
no healthful stimulus that urged the schools forward
in the march of improvement. Some children grew
up without acquiring sufficient education to transact
the business of life.
Between 1820 and 1825, considerable interest be
gan to be manifested on this subject. In 1824,
James G. Carter, Esq. published a series of Letters,
addressed to the Hon. Mr. Prescott, on the Free
Schools of New England. In 1826, Governor Lin
coln, in his annual message to the legislature, recom
mended the establishment of Teachers' Seminaries.
During that year, the school laws were revised, and a
law enacted requiring the school committees of every
town to make a return to the secretary of state, an-

52 THE HALF CENTURY.
nually, of the number of districts in each town, of the
number of scholars, of the sum of money raised by
the town, and of the wages of the teachers. Re
turns were received, at the close of that year, from
two hundred and fourteen towns.
As early as 1812, President D wight remarked, that
the only thing wanting to make the school system
of New England perfect, was a provision for collect
ing statistical information respecting the schools, and
for presenting the facts in a report to the legislature.
Such a report, he said, would enable the legislature
to see what defects needed to be remedied, and to
provide more efficiently for their welfare.
In 1826, a monthly Journal was commenced in
Boston, exclusively devoted to the subject of educa
tion. It was the first of the kind that was published
in the country, and was called the Journal of Edu
cation, afterwards the Annals, and, after 1828, was
edited by William C. Woodbridge, the geographer.
It was continued till 1838, when it was succeeded
by the Common School Journal. In 1830, a news
paper was commenced in Boston, called the Edu
cation Reporter ; it continued but a year.' About
this time, Mr. Josiah Holbrook prepared some arti
cles of apparatus for common schools, lectured in
different parts of the state, and held the first edu
cational convention that ever assembled in this coun
try. It was manifest that a new era was about to
commence. In August, 1829, the American Institute of In-

THE HALF CENTURY. 63
struction held its first annual meeting ; it continued
its sessions four days, which were occupied with
lectures and discussions upon educational topics.
The Institute has continued to hold its meetings
every year to the present time, and has published
several volumes of Lectures. It has done good ser
vice by calling the attention of the public to the
subject of popular education, and has greatly bene
fited teachers by giving them lessons of wisdom and
experience. _
In 1835, a foundation was laid for a school fund
in this state from unappropriated moneys received
for state lands in Maine, and from money due
from the United States for military service rendered
during the war of 1812. It was to be increased
from year to year, till it should amount to a million
of dollars. In 1840, it was $437,592, and is now
$876,082. It increases annually about $30,000.
In 1837, the legislature constituted a Board of
Education, consisting, besides the governor and lieu
tenant-governor, who were members ex officio, of eight
persons, one of whom retires each year, and another
is appointed in his place by the governor and council.
The Board was organized in May of that year, with
power to appoint a secretary, who devotes his whole
time to collecting and diffusing information, to visit
ing schools, and to doing whatever is needful to
promote the common school interest.
Hon. Horace Mann was elected secretary in May,
1837, and was continued in that office by appointment
5*

64 THE HALF CENTURY.
from year to year, till Nov. 1848, when he resigned,
and was succeeded by Rev. Barnas Sears, D. D.
By this arrangement, a new impulse was given to
the cause. The state was soon explored, the con
dition of the schools better known, and means used
for the removal of existing evils ; one of which was
the want of well-qualified teachers.
At the beginning of 1838, the Hon. Edmund
Dwight, of Boston, who died in 1849, offered, through
the secretary, $10,000 for establishing one or more
normal schools, or teachers' seminaries, on condition
that the state would give $10,000 more for the same
purpose, to be expended under the direction of the
Board of Education, by way of experiment. The
offer was accepted, and the board proceeded to make
arrangements for opening three schools.
In July, 1839, the first normal school ever estab
lished in the United States went into operation at
Lexington, where the first blood was shed in the
American revolution. Its teacher was Mr. Cyrus
Pierce ; afterwards it was under the charge of Rev.
Mr. May. In 1844, it was removed to West Newton,
and Mr. Pierce became again its teacher. In 1849,
his health failed, and he was succeeded by Mr. E. S.
Stearns. The second normal school was opened in
Barre, in September, 1839, under the instruction of
Professor Samuel P. Newman, who died in 1842.
In 1844, this school was removed to Westfield, and
was under the care of Rev. E. Davis two years,
when Mr. D. S. Rowe was appointed principal. The

THE HALF CENTURY. 55
third was opened at Bridg'ewater, in 1840, under the
care of N. Tillinghast, Esq.
When the $20,000 were expended, the legislature
were so well satisfied with the experiment, that an
appropriation was made of $6,000 a year for three
years. At the same time, the sum of $5,000 was
granted, to be added to $5,000 raised by subscription,
to be expended in building suitable houses at West-
field and Bridgewater. The West Newton school
had previously been furnished with a suitable build
ing. From that time, the normal schools began to
be regarded as a part of the settled policy of the
state. This point of success was not reached without a
hard struggle. There were fears entertained by
many, that some great evil would grow out of these
movements. The secretary was called to defend
the cause against the attacks of the Boston schoolmas
ters, a clergyman, and a few politicians.
In 1837, previous to the organization of the Board
of Education, a law was passed, authorizing the dis
tricts to raise a limited sum of money for the purchase
of a district school library. Subsequently a law was
passed^ allowing any district that would raise fifteen
dollars to draw an equal sum from the state treasury,
to be expended in the purchase of books for a library.
In consequence of these laws, the board felt them
selves called upon to cause a series of books to be
published for that purpose. Experience has shown
that it would have been as well to have allowed the

56 THE HALF CENTURY.
districts to have made their own selection. It cer
tainly would have been much more agreeable to
booksellers, and saved some controversy, and a large
expenditure of bitter feeling.
Teachers' Institutes began to be holden in Massa
chusetts, in 1846, under the direction of the secre
tary of the board. The expense of each Institute
is about two hundred and fifty dollars, which is paid
by tbe state.
The penalty to towns for not making their returns
according to law, and for not raising an amount for
schools equal to one dollar and fifty cents for each
child between five and fifteen years old, is a loss of
their portion of the fund for that year.
In 1850, the state appropriated $2,000 to employ
two or more assistants to aid the secretary in visiting
the schools of the commonwealth. They also passed
a law, authorizing each school district to procure
either Webster's or Worcester's large Dictionary for
the use of the schools, at the expense of the state.
Connecticut has the most ample school fund of
any state in the Union, according to the number of
children. It was created in 1795, by setting apart
for that purpose the income of the sale of lands in
Ohio which were the property of the state. The
fund has been increasing from year to year, and is
now $2,075,000. Half of the state's portion of the
surplus revenue was appropriated to schools. The
people are not obliged to raise any specific sum for
schools by tax, and in very many towns no more is

THE HALF CENTURY. 57
expended than is obtained from the public fund.
The old adage, that "what costs nothing is worth
nothing," is proved to be true by the lack of interest
among the people of that state in the success of their
schools. With the ability to have the best schools
of any state in the Union, it is acknowledged that
they are surpeissed by many others.
Connecticut, however, has caught the spirit of
improvement, and during the last ten years has made
considerable progress. In 1838, a Board of Education
was instituted like that of Massachusetts, and Henry
Barnard, Esq. was appointed secretary. In 1842, the
board was abolished, and the state relapsed into its
former condition. During the short period of the
existence of the board, its indefatigable secretary had
explored the state pretty thoroughly, and awakened
a new interest in the cause of education. An im
pulse was given which did not cease, though the
board was abolished. County conventions were
holden, and an agent kept in the field at the expense
of individuals, and " the subject was kept before the
people." In 1845, the commissioner of the school
fund was made superintendent of common schools.
It is his duty to receive returns from the district, and
to report annually to the legislature. These reports
are published and scattered through the state. In
1849, another Board of Education was instituted,
with authority to establish a normal school. The
board determined to locate it somewhere near the
centre of the state ; and, other things being equal, at

58 THE HALF CENTURY.
the place that would raise the largest sum of money.
Berlin raised $16,000 for buildings and apparatus,
and the school went into operation in May, 1850.
Henry Barnard, Esq. has the general supervision of
the school, and, at the same time, performs the duties
of secretary of the board. He is not expected to
teach. Rev. T. D. P. Stone is the principal teacher.
In 1849, the income of the school fund was sufficient
to give to each child in the state, between four and
sixteen, one dollar and fifty cents.
Rhode Island. In the original polity of this state,
there was no provision for education. It was con
sidered a matter for individual conscience and paren
tal duty. In 1800, a system of free schools was
established by law ; but it met with an opposition
which resulted in its repeal in 1803. The city of
Providence, however, continued to act according to
the provisions of the law, and was greatly benefited.
Things remained in this situation until 1828, when
the legislature established a system of free schools
which has remained to this time, and may be con
sidered as a part of the settled policy of the state.
They made 'provision that a sum not exceeding ten
thousand dollars should be distributed among the
schools established in all those towns that should
comply with the requirements of the law. In 1839,
the sum to be distributed annually was increased to
$25,000. In 1843, it was said there were 1,600 adults in the
state who could not read, while in Connecticut, with

THE HALF CENTURY. 59
a population three times greater, there were only five
hundred and twenty-six, and that they were depend
ent on other states for clergymen, lawyers, physi
cians, and school teachers. The legislature, appalled
by the view they had of the low state of the schools,
authorized the governor to appoint a superintendent,
who should perform the same service in Rhode Isl
and that the secretary of the Board of Education was
performing in Massachusetts. Henry Barnard was
appointed to that office, and continued his labors till
1848. The state, being small, was soon thoroughly
explored, and a new impulse was given to primary
education. The interest in common schools in that
state is now fully equal to that felt in those where'
improvements began to be made much earlier.
Maine, being a part of Massachusetts until 1820,
had the same common school system-, and retains it
still. A permanent school fund was commenced in
1833. The money was to be derived from the sale
of twenty townships of land in the northern part of
the state. In 1845, the fund amounted to $57,629.
The interest of this and the bank tax, which is about
$25,000, is distributed annually among the schools
of the state. The towns are required to raise by
tax a sum not less than forty cents to each inhab
itant. The schools are free to all the children of a
specified age.
In 1844, the American Institute of Instruction
held its annual meeting at Portland. It was attended
by a great number of the teachers of Maine, and a

60 THE HALF CENTURY.
new interest was awakened in the cause of common
schools, which resulted in the holding of a state
educational convention at Augusta, in 1846. This
body appointed a committee to petition the legisla
ture to afford some aid in improving their schools.
Their request was granted. A Board of Education
was established, consisting of fourteen members,
one from each county, with power to appoint a
secretary, whose business it is " to make poor schools
good, and good schools better."
New Hampshire has many enlightened and patri
otic men ; but the progress of the school reform has
been slow. Its system of free schools is similar to
¦that of the other New England States. It has no
school fund, but the tax on banks, amounting to
about $12,000 annually, is appropriated to the schools.
In 1846, some changes were made in the school laws,
the most important of which was one authorizing the
legislature to appoint annually a commissioner of
common schools, who sends blank forms to all the
town committees to be filled and returned. He is
to spend twenty weeks each year in travelling
through different counties, delivering addresses, and
laboring in every practicable way he can to promote
the welfare of common schools. Provision was also
made for holding Teachers' Institutes. Professor R.
S. Rust has held the office of commissioner to the
present time. A new interest has been awakened ;
teachers are improving, and the amount of money
raised has been increasing for several years, and in
no year has been as great as in 1849,

THE HALF CENTURY. 61
Vermont has a system of free schools, and once
began to establish a school fund ; but in 1845 it was
applied to the payment of state debts. A law was
enacted the same year, providing for the appointment
of state, county, and town superintendents, through
whom the statistics of the schools are collected, and
much valuable information respecting the condition
and wants of the schools is disseminated among the
people. New York. In April, 1805, the legislature of this
state appropriated the money arising from the sale of
500,000 acres of land, for a school fund. The inter
est was to be added to the principal until the annual
income should exceed $50,000, when it was to be
distributed among the schools. From 1810 to 1821,
the fees received by clerks of the Supreme Courts,
over and above their salaries and expenses, were
added to the same fund. The common school sys
tem of New York was established in 1812, and the
first distribution of the income of the fund was made
in 1816. The school fund proper, in 1849, was
$2,170,514. The state has also a literary fund
amounting to $265,306, the income of which is dis
tributed annually among the colleges and academies.
The state's portion of the surplus revenue was also
funded, and a part of it is appropriated to the benefit
of common schools, and a part to higher seminaries.
All the funds of the state devoted to educational
purposes amount to six and a half millions of dol
lars, 6

62 THE HALF CENTURY.
There is a corporation consisting of twenty-one
members, eighteen of whom are appointed by the
legislature during life or good behavior ; the other
three are the governor, lieutenant-governor, and sec
retary of state, who is also superintendent of common
schools. They are called " regents of the university,"
because they were the trustees of a state university
chartered about thirty-five years ago, which never
went into operation. The regents have power to in
corporate academies, to confer medical and honorary
degrees, and to distribute the school fund. They
are, in fact, a board of education.
The secretary receives the reports from the schools,
and reports the same to the legislature. New York
began to require returns when they commenced the
distribution of public money, in 1816.
Teachers' Institutes originated in this state in
1843. A normal school was established at Albany in
1844. The act of the legislature creating it was
passed May 7 of that year ; it was opened in Defeem-
ber following, under the care of David P. Page, who
died January 1, 1848, aged 38. A new building, for
the accommodation of the school, was erected in
1849 ; it cost $28,500, and is the most spacious and
best arranged building for the purpose there is in the
United States. Prior to January, 1850, 1130 young
men and women had enjoyed the advantages of the
school. In New York, the schools are free only while the

THE HALF CENTURY. 63
school is supported by public money. The schools
are lengthened by the payment of a certain sum by
the parents or guardians. There is no tax laid upon
property for the benefit of all the children. In 1849,
a free school law was passed by the legislature, and
submitted to the people for adoption or rejection. It
was adopted by a majority of 150,000 votes ; where
upon the opposers of the law declared that the people
did not understand the question, and that thousands
voted for it, who, if they had been fully informed,
would have voted against it. The legislature, there
fore, ordered that the bill be sent back to the people ;
and on the first Tuesday in November, 1850, they
are to say distinctly whether the Empire State shall
have a system of free schools or not.
New Jersey has a school fund, amounting to a
little more than $370,000. The income of the fund
is expended for the benefit of all the children in the
state. This, however, is sufficient to sustain the
schools only a short time ; they are lengthened by a
tax on the scholars, payable by the parent, as in New
York. The practical operation of this system is,
that many poor people send their children to school
only while the public money lasts, and some not
even during that time, because they are ashamed to
send them while the public money lasts, and then
take them out.
A new impulse has of late been given to the
schools in this state. There are twelve teachers'
associations. They meet quarterly to hear lectures,

64 THE HALF CENTURY.
and to discuss questions pertaining to this great inter
est. In some of the counties, Institutes have been
holden. Pennsylvania. The constitution of this state, in
1790, provided that " the legislature, as soon as may
be, shall provide by law for the establishment of
schools throughout the state, in such manner that
the poor shall be taught gratis." The legislature
neglected, for a long time, to establish schools ; but
whenever a college or an academy was incorporated,
it was on the condition that tuition should be free to
a certain number of the poor. The consequence
was, that public schools came to be regarded as
schools for the poor. A prejudice was created against
them. The poor were too proud to have their names
enrolled in the county and state records as unable to
educate their children. In 1833, the state awoke
from its lethargy, and in 1834, the legislature estab
lished a common school system. It was amended,
and made more practical, in 1836 ; since which the
cause of education has been highly prosperous. The
towns are divided into districts, and $190,000 from
state funds are annually distributed among the dis
tricts that comply with the requirements of the
school law, which obliges them to raise a certain
amount by tax. The amount raised by tax, in 1849,
was $392,442. If any district does not comply with
the law, they do without schools, or support them by
voluntary contribution. There is one peculiarity in
the school laws of this state. It obliges every dis-

THE HALF CENTURY. 65
trict to raise money enough by tax to provide a school
for the poor gratis. It would be better to oblige
them to raise money for the support of schools open
to all, both rich and poor. In 1836, the law was
accepted by 536 districts; in 1847, by 1,054; and
in 1849, by 1,306. The secretary of state is, ex
officio, superintendent of common schools.
Ohio has a school fund amounting to $1,. 520,000,
and distributes among the districts, annually, $290,000.
The present school system had its origin in an act of
the legislature passed in March, 1838, which went
into operation in April of that year. The secretary
of state is, ex officio, superintendent of the schools,
and the state auditor has the general supervision of
the school fund. The county auditors are county
superintendents, and each county has a board of three
examiners, who, with the auditors, constitute the
county Board of Education. The town clerk is the
town superintendent, and each district chooses annu
ally three directors. Each town is required to assess
a tax on all the property for the support of schools,
which are open and free to all the children. County
conventions are holden, and Teachers' Institutes.
Michigan has a school fund derived from the sale
of lands given by the United States for that purpose.
It yields already a little more than $30,000 annually.
A tax of half a mill on each dollar of the property in
every town is required to be raised, and permission
given to increase it as much as they choose. Each
town is required to maintain a school library, and the
6*

66 THE HALF CENTURY.
books are to be distributed once in three months
among tbe districts, in proportion to the number of
scholars in each. In 1849, there were 349 township
libraries, containing 38,303 volumes. The legisla
ture have established a Board of Education, and
authorized the establishment of a normal school.
Wisconsin. " This state has the basis of a most
magnificent school fund. It consists of a domain
equal to 2,281 J square miles, there being 1500 towns,
one mile square on each of which is devoted to this
object ; and besides this, 78 1;^ sections were given
by Congress, at the admission of the state into the
Union, making in all 1,460,000 acres, which are valued
at $1,70 per acre, giving a fund of $278,912. In
addition to this, all property that may accrue to the
state by escheat or forfeiture, and the money received
for fines, are to be added to the fund. The consti
tution requires that each town shall raise annually,
by tax, for the support of common schools, a sum- not
less than half the amount received from the fund. It
is thought the amount fordistribution in 1851 will be
about $106,878, and that the number of children
will be this year about 100,000, which will make an
average of $1,00 a scholar. This is a very good
beginning for a new state, which a few years ago
was a wilderness ; and it augurs well for the future
prospects of the state."
The other free states have not yet adopted any
system of common school instruction. The pro
visions made by Congress, appropriating the sixteenth ,

THE HALF CENTURY. 67
section in every township as a fund for the support
of schools, will constitute a large fund. Great in
terest is felt in the subject by many leading and
influential men, and there is no doubt they will soon
be blessed with an efficient system of free schools.
Owing to the sparseness of population in the slave
states, it is manifestly quite impossible to establish
an efficient system of free schools.
Kentucky is awake to tbe subject, and is doing
well. Rev. Dr. R. Breckenridge has been appointed
superintendent of public instruction, and is devoting
himself earnestly to the cause. The state has a
school fund amounting to $1,299,268. The number
of white children in the state in 1849, between five
and sixteen years of age, was 192,990, of whom
87,496 were in the public schools.
In 1849, the legislature of Virginia passed a law
authorizing any county that chose to do so, to estab
lish Within its bounds a system of free schools. The
law, however, had more particular reference to those
counties in which there are but few slaves; it is
rather intended for the benefit of the poor. The
state has, in years past, made some appropriation for
educating the children of the poor. I rejoice, how
ever, in the evidence there is of progress in this old
commonwealth. In 1683, the governor of Virginia
" thanked God that the state had no free schools."
The state of Mississippi, in 1850, appropriated
$200,000 for the support of schools.
It will be seen from this review of the school sys-

68 THE HALF CENTURY.
tems of the several states, that New England and
some of the free states of the west go for educating all
the children at the public expense. It is not so in
the Middle States, but it is hoped it will be.
It will be seen, also, that nearly all the public
funds for common schools have been gathered during
the last fifty years.

Section 2. — Infant Schools.
Infant schools were introduced into the United
States from Europe in 1827. Much was said in their
praise, in England, during that and the preceding
year. They were recommended by such men as
'Lord Brougham, Wilberforce, and Macaulay. Ameri
cans, who were in England during those years, visit
ed the infant schools, which were among the lions
of the day. Early in 1827, there was a meeting of
a few friends of education in Hartford, at which Pro
fessor Goodrich of Yale College, and H. L. Ellsworth,
Esq., who had just returned from England, made
some statements respecting the merits of these schools :
not one had then been organized in the United States.
The American Journal of Education published a
notice of this meeting, and highly commended this
class of schools.
In May, 1827, an Infant School Society was or
ganized in New York, and a school was commenced.
In May, 1828, similar societies were formed in Bos-

THE HALF CENTURY. 69
ton and Philadelphia, and veiy soon in many cities
and large towns, so that as early as 1829, there was
scarcely a considerable town in the Northern States
that was not blessed with an infant school. Tbe
Boston society received such liberal donations of
money, that at the close of the first year, after paying
its expenses, it had enough to sustain its schools
another year.
They were called infant schools because they
were designed more particularly for very young chil
dren. The exercises consisted in committing simple
truths and facts to memory, which were repeated in
concert, and accompanied by some appropriate gesture
or movement of the body. The object seemed to be
to occupy the children all the time with some pleas
ing exercise. The children would stand in a straight
line, hold their arms stiff' by their side, and, imitating
the teacher, swing them backward and forward, say
ing at the same time, " shoulder joint, shoulder joint,"
repeating it several times in succession, and keeping
exact time ; then they would raise and depress the
forearm, repeating the name of the joint used, and
then the wrist joint was exercised and named. They
would march in single file around the room, and,
as the foot struck the floor, would say, " right foot,
left foot, right foot, left foot," (fcc. They were
taught to count, and to sing simple rhymes, convey
ing scientific or moral truths. It was interesting to
see fifty or one hundred little children go through
with these exercises, keeping exact time, and it is

70 THE HALF CENTURY.
not Strange that their value was overrated. In 1829,
the infant schools of Boston were exhibited in one of
the churches, and the members of the legislature
were invited to be present. The papers of the day
spoke of it as an exhibition that would do great
good, for the law-makers would, very likely, on their
return home, take measures for establishing tbem in
the towns they represented.
When the novelty of these schools ceased to attract
attention, they began to decline. It was discovered
that the children learned very little that they would
not have learned very soon if they never had attend
ed such a school. Parents became unwilling to hire
teachers to tell their children which was the right
foot and which the left, which was the elbow joint
and which the wrist.
In 1833, a writer in the Annals of Education in
quired why there was so little said respecting them.
He thought they had been abused ; that more had
been expected from them than could be realized,
though, under skilful management, they might be
highly useful.
All there was in this class of schools that was of
any value, was introduced into district schools, and
they soon ceased to exist. They were the means of
some good ; parents and teachers learned that it was
not best to confine little children six hours in a day
to a school-room, without exercise and without much
instruction. They accomplished their mission.

THE HALF CENTURY. 71
N,
Section 3. Lancasterian, Pestalozzian, and Fel-
lenberg Schools.
These three systems of teaching originated in
Europe at the close of the last, and beginning of the
present, century, and have since been introduced into
the United States. Each has its peculiarity.
The Lancasterian is the monitorial system, the
object of which is to teach the greatest number at
the least possible expense.
The Pestalozzian aims to give distinct ideas, by
presenting a subject, as far as it can be done, to the
senses, and by an examination of the thing itself,
rather than from a description of it.
The Fellenberg system includes physical as well
as intellectual and moral training, and requires pupils
to devote a part of the time to manual labor. They
have been called, in this country, manual labor
schools. There were two men, Rev. Andrew Bell, D. D.,
and Joseph Lancaster, a Q,uaker, who claimed the
honor of having invented, and put in successful
operation, the monitorial system. Dr. Bell, it would
seem, established a school at Madras on this plan,
about the year 1800, but borrowed the idea from
the native schools of Hindostan. Lancaster estab
lished a school on this system in England, in 1803,
and did not borrow the idea from any one. It seems,
therefore, that so far as the genius of the invention
is concerned, Lancaster was entitled to the highest

72 THE HALF CENTURY.
honor. Such has been the award of public opinion.
The schools have been called Lancasterian, or moni
torial. Dr. Bell died in England, in 1832, aged eighty.
Mr. Lancaster, in consequence of opposition to him
by Dr. Bell's friends, and with the hope of finding a
larger field of usefulness, emigrated to the United
States, and settled in Baltimore, in 1820. In his
schools, one teacher may instruct four hundred pupils,
by instructing the monitors, who immediately teach
the lesson they have recited to a class of children.
He hears the monitors read or spell, and they hear
their respective classes in the same way. Of course,
the instruction imparted to the children by the mon
itors cannot be of a very high order, and there is no
reason for introducing this system, except where the
learners are numerous and poverty-stricken, and
teachers very scarce. It is better than nothing. Hon.
H. Mann says there is no reason for calling those he
saw in England "monitorial," unless it be to admon
ish the public to guard against being duped by them.
A gentleman from the city of New York was in
England soon after Mr. Lancaster commenced his
school in that country, and having made himself
acquainted with the system, on his return, opened a
school in New York. All the public schools of that
city, for a number of years, were instructed by this
method. During the last fifteen or twenty years, their pop
ularity has greatly diminished, and very feAV such

THE HALF CENTURY. 73
schools now exist. Mr. Lancaster had better views
of the structure of a school-room, of the importance
of order, and of the necessity of keeping children
occupied and interested, than any teacher of his age.
In these respects, he made some valuable improve
ments, which have been separated from what was
faulty, and have been introduced into other schools.
John Henry Pestalozzi was a native of Switzer
land, born in 1746. He studied theology and law.
Afterwards he became a farmer, and then a calico
manufacturer ; but not succeeding in any business,
he turned his attention to the instruction of children,
and particularly the children of the poor in the cities
and villages of Switzlerland. He was a man of
great genius and benevolence. He aimed to com
municate all instruction by an immediate address to
the senses, and to call all the powers of the child's
mind into active exercise, and not permit him to be
a mere passive recipient of what was said. Instead
of requiring a child to commit to memory a descrip
tion of a mountain or river, he would take him to
the base of the one, or the bank of the other, and
require him to describe it himself. A Pestalozzian
school-room must be well furnished with specimens
of natural history, maps, pictures, models, and appa
ratus. For tbe introduction of these things into
schools in modern times, we are indebted more, prob
ably, to the suggestions and labors of Pestalozzi,
than to any other man. He died at Brugg, in 1827,
aged eighty-one. 7

74 THE HALF CENTURY.
Emmanuel von Fellenberg was a native of Swit
zerland, and was born the same year that Joseph Lan
caster was, in 1771. He was a man of patrician
rank, and an heir to a. large fortune. He was edu
cated for political life, travelled over all Switzerland
twice, and made himself well acquainted with the
condition of the people. In the revolutionary days
of Napoleon Bonaparte, a price was offered for his
head ; and once he was on the point of embarking for
America, but finally concluded to relinquish political
life, and settle down quietly among his native moun
tains, and devote himself to the improvement of the
people. He was convinced that, in order to improve
the condition of society, we must begin with the
young, and educate them right, and that attention
must be given to the extremes of society, to the
children of the rich and poor, to those who are to be
ruled as well as to those who will be their rulers. He
thought that children of all classes ought to be edu
cated together, so that when they shall come to act
their part on the stage of life they may feel a sympa
thy for each other. He was in favor of connecting
with schools tbe various kinds of business in which
most of tbe laboring classes will engage, for the sake
of exercise, and to obtain a more perfect knowledge
of some art or trade than they otherwise would. He
established a school at Hofwyl, six miles from Berne.
There were connected with it a farm and mechanic
shops. It was the first manual labor school ever es
tablished.

THE HALF CENTURY. 76
Between 1825 and 1835, a considerable number of
manual labor schools were established in the United
States. They have not been very prosperous ; most
of them have been abandoned. The Mission Insti
tute, at Cluincy, Illinois, is a manual labor school ;
and the Mount Holyoke Seminary at South Hadley,
Mass., educates young ladies at a moderate expense,
by requiring the pupils to perform the labor in the
boarding establishment.
Many valuable hints have been derived from each
of these three systems, and many of their principles
have been introduced into most of the schools in the
United States. Though we have no schools that are
purely Lancasterian, Pestalozzian, or Fellenberg, yet
we have derived much benefit from them all.

Section 4. Colleges.
Fiety years ago, there were twenty-five colleges in
the United States ; now there are one hundred and
twenty. In 1801, there was 1 Baptist college; now, 13.
" " there were 2 Episcopal " " 10.
" " there was 1 Methodist " " 13.
" '' there were 2 Roman Catholic « " 13.
« " " " 19 Cong'l and Presb. « « 71.
There were, in 1801,
In New England, 7 colleges ; now 14.
In the Middle States, 6 " « 22.
In the Southern " 9 " " 37.
In the Western " 3 " " 47.

76 THE HALF CENTURY.
Many of these colleges have been recently char
tered, and are very poorly endowed ; while many of
the older ones are noble institutions, and are estab
lished on a permanent basis.
During the last fifty years, there have been great
changes in the course of study in these institutions.
Nearly as much Latin and Greek are now required for
admission as was then required for graduation. Eng
lish grammar, arithmetic, and geography, at the
beginning of the century, formed a part of the col
lege course.
There have been added to the list of college
studies chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botanyj po
litical economy, and the modern languages ; while
the departments of mathematics, intellectual and
natural philosophy, have been greatly enlarged. The
improvement in text-books has been very great. In
1801, the quantity of apparatus was very small, and
the experimental lectures of the professors very
meagre ; now, almost every college is able to illus
trate all the principles of the sciences very fully, and
to show their practical applications. Many of our
academies have the means of illustrating the sciences
more fully than our best colleges could do it at the
commencement of the period under review.
There was no very decided or marked improve
ment in colleges until the public attention began to
be turned to the improvement of the common schools,
about 1825. Then it was said, by many. The course
of study in colleges is too limited. One said, Too

THE HALF CENTURY. 77
much attention is given to the dead languages ; the
modern ought to be introduced ; another said. Let us
have less pure mathematics, and more mixed ; let the
college course have a more direct reference to the
profession which each young man has in prospect.
In 1827, the faculty of Yale College appointed a
committee to report on tbe subject. They did so,
and brought forth their strong reasons for pursuing
the same general course that had'been pursued. They
recommended more languages and mathematics, rath
er than less. That report may be found in volume
15 of Silliman's Journal. It is an able document,
and shows that a college education should aim at
thorough mental discipline, which is equally useful
to men of every profession. Many valuable articles,
during that and subsequent years, appeared in the
Quarterly Register, and, indeed, in nearly all the
periodicals of the day.
Tbe faculty of the Vermont University took up
the subject, and published their views, which coin
cided in the main with those of the faculty of Yale
College. They judged it expedient, however, to
admit students to a partial course, to study with the
college classes mathematics, or chemistry, or any
other science they chose. Those who pursued a
partial course were not examined for admission, nor
did they receive a diploma. Dartmouth College
made greater innovations than did the University of
Vermont. The general result of this agitation was favorable.
7 *

78 THE HALF CENTURY.
There is now a fuller conviction, than existed before,
that the general course of college study is wise and
judicious ; that it ought to be extended ; and that, in
order to do it, the terms of admission should be
elevated. This has been done.
There have been considerable changes in the
mode of government in these institutions. It is now
more paternal and less monarchical. There is less
attempt to overawe students by adhering to customs
that had been handed down from the dark ages.
There is not that wide separation between the classes
that once existed. There has been, also, a great
improvement in the moral and religious character of
the young men that are collected in these sem
inaries. Fifty years ago, infidelity was exceed
ingly prevalent. A pious young man was often
the butt of ridicule. Sometimes not a tenth of
the students were pious ; and if those that were met
for prayer, it was, often, at a private house in the
town, to prevent being annoyed by their fellow-
students. The change in this respect has been so
great, that some will be slow to believe the state
ments I have made.
Tbe corporation of Brown University are now
making some important changes in that institution.
To enable them to carry out their plan, $125,000
have been raised, and some new professors have been
appointed. They propose to abandon the system of
adjusting the studies to the term of four years, and
arrange the studies so that each may study what he

THE HALF CENTURY. 79
chooses, and only what he chooses. Students may
remain a single term, a year or more, as they choose.
They will confer degrees, however, upon none but
those who sustain themselves in an examination in
such studies as may be ordained by the corporation.
Omnes res tempus probat.

Section 5. Professional Schools.
It was formerly customary for young men, qualify
ing themselves for either of the learned professions,
to spend one or more years with some individual
distinguished for his professional knowledge, who
directed his reading, and, by conversations, furnished
him with such information as his time and circum
stances would permit. The libraries of these private
teachers were limited, and they were unable to fur
nish their pupils with a full emd systematic view of
all the topics on which it is desirable that students
should have extended and thorough information. It
was found to be necessary to establish professional
schools, having learned professors and large fibraries,
where young men might acquire a more thorough
knowledge of their profession than they could with
private teachers.
Theological Seminaries. — It is said that a semi
nary of this kind was established at New Brunswick,
by the Dutch Reformed church, in 1784. This is
not exactly true. In 1773, it was proposed to estab-

80 THE HALF CENTURY.
lish a professorship in theology in connection with
the college at that place, and Dr. Livingston was ap
pointed professor by tbe classis of Amsterdam. The
revolutionary war commenced, and nothing more was
done. In 1784, the appointment of Dr. Livingston
was confirmed by the convention of the Dutch church,
and he began a course of lectures in the city of New
York, to young men preparing for the ministry. He
lectured five days in a week, and continued this
course till 1797. This could hardly be called a
theological seminary, and certainly it was not at
New Brunswick.
In 1807, the college at New Brunswick being in a
languishing condition, an attempt Avas made to revive
it, which was successful, and a professorship in the
ology was established. Dr. Livingston was appoint
ed professor, and at the same time president of the
college. He entered upon his duties in October,
1810. It cannot, therefore, be said that" a theological
seminary was established at New Brunswick earlier
than 1810.
It is also said that a theological seminary was
established at Cannonsburg, Pa., in 1792, by the
associate Presbyterian church. This is not exactly
true. In 1793, Rev. John Anderson, D. D., of Beaver
county. Pa., began to instruct students in theology.
He was called a professor, but had no assistants. It
was a private affair, and on a small scale. In eight
years, or previous to 1801, he introduced six young
men into the ministry. He continued to teach in

THE HALF CENTURY. 81
this way till 1818, when the theological seminary at
Cannonsburg was opened.
It is claimed, by the Associate Reformed Presbyte
rian church, that the institution at New York, at the
head of which was John Mason, D. D., was the first
theological seminary in the United States. That
institution was established in 1804, and became ex
tinct in 1821. In 1822, its library was transferred to
Princeton. In 1829, the synod awoke from its slum
ber, and began again to think of establishing a theo
logical seminary ; it applied to Princeton for the
library, and obtained it after a protracted lawsuit. In
1836, they opened an institution at Newburg, N. Y.
The Institution at Andover, which Avas established
in 1808, may therefore be regarded as the oldest
seminary of the kind in the United States.
There are now forty-two theological institutions
in this country. Some of them are very small, and
their resources very limited. They are divided
among the various religious denominations as fol
lows : —

Unitarian,
Baptist,
Protestant Episcopal,

Congregational (Orthodox,) 6.
Presbyterian, 15.
Lutheran and Dutch Ref., 5.
Methodists, 1.
Of these, nine are in the New England States, fif
teen in the Middle, eight in the Southern, and ten in
the Western States.
The founding of these institutions has had a ten
dency to increase the number of learned theologians.

82 THE HALF CENTURY.
Medical Schools. — Three such schools were estab
lished during the latter part of the last century ;
the first at Philadelphia, the second at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, and the third at Hanover, New Hamp
shire. There are now thirty-seven, of which seven
are in the New England States, eight in the Middle,
nine in the Southern,. and eleven in the Western.
In these institutions there are 224 professors, and the
number of students who attend the courses of lectures
annually is about 4,500. Some of them have not
more than twenty-five students; and some, especially
the old medical college at Philadelphia, have more
than 500. These schools have had a beneficial effect
upon the science of medicine. It has obliged those
who offer themselves as practitioners in the healing
art to qualify themselves more thoroughly for their
profession. The interest that has been awakened in
the study of medicine has led, in several states, to
the enactment of laws which make it necessary for
young men to be regularly licensed in order to collect
their fees. Some remarks respecting systems of
medicine and diseases will be found in another
chapter. Law Schools. — There are twelve law schools in
the United States, two of which are in the New Eng
land States, two in the Middle, four in the Southern,
and four in the Western. Of this number, six have
only one professor each, and no one more than
four. They all have about 400 students ; nearly one
fourth of them are in the law school at Cambridge.

THE HALF CENTURY. 83
It is manifest that but a small pai-t of those who
study law deem it necessary to avail themselves of
the advantages of these schools. It is said there are
now 19,000 lawyers in the United States, or 1 to
every 1200 of the entire population.
It is now common for la\vyers in cities to devote
themselves exclusively to a particular class of cases,
as maritime or commercial law, or to conveyancing,
or to trials before juries. This, probably, is one of
the results of law schools.
Learned professors awaken an interest in a particu
lar department, and teach young men that the surest
road to eminence in the profession is by devoting
themselves chiefly to one class of cases.
The changes that have been made in the organiza
tion of courts have been very great, but would not be
particularly interesting to the general reader, even if
I were able to give a minute history of them.

Section 6. Parochial Schools.
The Presbyterian churches in Scotland very early
adopted the practice, not only of supporting a minis
ter, but a schoolmaster, to instruct their children in
the elements of useful knowledge, and in the Bible
and Catechism. These were called parochial schools.
All that attended them were instructed in the doc
trines taught in the Presbyterian church.

84 THE HALF CENTURY.
The old school Presbyterian Assembly in the United
States have undertaken to do something of the same
kind. They recommend to every church session to
sustain a parochial school, and to the large and wealthy
churches to take collections to assist the poorer ones
in sustaining such schools. The schools are to be
under the care of the session, and to be composed of
children between the ages of five and twelve years.
The assembly has a board of education and a corre
sponding secretary, to whom the reports of these
schools are to be annually transmitted. The appro
priation made by the board to a school that needs as
sistance must not ordinarily exceed seventy-five dol
lars. The arrangements for the organization of such
schools were completed at the meeting of the assem
bly, in 1847. In 1844, a committee was appointed to
consider the expediency of establishing such schools.
No report of their doings was made till 1846, when
Dr. J. W. Alexander presented one strongly recom
mending them. In 1847, a plan was reported for im
mediate action by the board of education. It appears
that five parochial schools were established in New
York in 1846. In 1848, it appeared that thirty-six
parochial schools had been established in thirteen dif
ferent states.
The chief reason for this movement was, that, in
schools organized under the auspices of the state, and
receiving state patronage, open as they must be to
children of different denominations, none can be in
structed fully in that system of doctrine received by

THE HALF CENTURY. 85
the Presbyterian church. The great objection to the
parochial system is, that it fosters among children a
sectarian spirit, encourages, and rather obliges, other
sects to establish similar schools. This is certainly
the most effectual method that can be taken to per
petuate error, and to strengthen the prejudices of
children against those of other denominations. It is
maintained by the friends of state schools that it is
better that, inasmuch as all the children ^re to live to
gether under the same government, they should be
educated together, and learn to feel an interest in
each other's welfare. The Bible is read daily in state
schools, and acknowledged to be the authentic source
of rebgious instruction. All the truths that need to
be inculcated into the minds of children can be freely
taught ; the doctrines peculiar to each sect can be
taught by the parents at home, or by the teachers of
the Sabbath school.
The arguments for and against parochial schools
may be found by examining the Reports of the As
sembly's Board of Education, an article in the New
Englander of 1848, page 230, and the 12th Report
of the Massachusetts Board of Education.
It is not likely that these schools will ever become
very numerous in the United States. Men will not
relinquish their right to the benefits of public funds,
and support schools of this description for the sake of
the doubtful advantages of the system.
8

86 THE HALF CENTURY.
Section 7. Military Academy at West Point.
The establishment of a military academy in our
country was proposed, in 1790, by General Knox,
then secretary of war. It was recommended by Gen
eral Washington, in his message, in 1793. In 1794,
a corps of artillerists and engineers was established,
having eight pupil soldiers attached to it. In 1798,
the number of these pupils, or cadets, was increased
to fifty, having four teachers.
In 1802, these young men were collected into an
academy at West Point, under the direction of General
Jonathan Williams. The whole number that graduated
previous to 1812 was seventy-one. In consequence of
tbe want of a knowledge of military tactics exhibited by
our officers in the war of 1812, Congress increased the
number of cadets, so that one might be nominated by
each representative in Congress from his district, and
ten by the president of the United States. The whole
number of students, however, seldom exceeds one
hundred and fifty, for the examinations are so rigid that
great numbers are sent away every year, not being
able to sustain the required rank in respect to scholar
ship. The institution has thirty-two professors and
assistants. The cadets are regarded as a part of the army, hold
a rank between the subaltern and commissioned offi
cers, and receive pay and rations which amount to
twenty-eight dollars per month, with which they pay
their expenses. During the months of July and Au^

THE HALF CENTURY. 87
gust, they leave the barracks, and encamp in the open
field, during which time they are subject to the dis
cipline of an army in time of war.
The institution costs the United States from
$12.5,000 to $150,000 a year.
The institution is furnished with the most perfect
apparatus that can be obtained, and no means that are
needful to explain the science of war are wanting.
The money expended there, annually, would sus
tain six hundred normal schools, which would fur
nish annually 30,000 accomplished school teachers.
Which will benefit our country most, to furnish it
annually with- 30,000 good school teachers, or sixty
men well skilled in the art of war ?

Section 8. School Books.
Not much attention was given to the preparation
of school books in this country till after the revolu
tionary war. We were previously supplied by English
authors. The feeling soon became prevalent that, as
our institutions were different from those of England,
we needed American books for tbe use of our schools.
Dilworth's Spelling Book was extensively used till
after the revolution.
In 1783, Noah Webster published a Spelling Book,
Institutes of English Grammar, and a reading book
called Webster's Third Part. The Spelling Book
has had a wide circulation, and " has held the empire

88 THE HALF CENTURY.
long." Previous to 1847, 24,000,000 copies had
been published. About 1825, other spelling books
began to be published, since which they have become
too numerous to be registered in this brief sketch.
In 1804, there were thirteen spelling books and prim
ers ; in 1832, there were forty-five in the United
States. Geography was not studied in common schools
very generally till about 1815. Rev. Jedediah Morse,
D. D., may be regarded as the father of American
geographers, a small treatise on which he published
in 1784. Afterwards he published a larger work, an
octavo volume, which, in the early part of this cen
tury, swelled to two large octavos.
The small geography, previous to 1820, went
through twenty-one editions. It contained four or
five small maps. In 1820, it was re-written by his
son, and adapted to the wants of common schools,
and was accompanied by an atlas. Since 1840, it
has been published in a quarto form, having the map
of each country on the page describing it.
The first improvement made in geographies was
the publication of Cummings's School Geography, in
1808. It was accompanied by an atlas, on the plan
of Guy and Goldsmith, whose books were used in
England. After 1820, school geographies accompa
nied by atlases multiplied fast, and the cry is, " Still
they come," with improvements in modes of teach
ing, and in the arrangement of the wOrk. This im
portant branch of study, I have said, was not generally

THE HALF CENTURY. 89
introduced into common schools till about 1815.
The rolmdaries of the states, with the population
and capitals, were the maximum of geographical
knowledge imparted in tbe common schools to those
who are now fifty years of age.
Near the close of the last century, Nathaniel Dwight
published a Geography in the form of a catechism,
which had a limited circulation, but was better
adapted to the wants of children than Morse's. In
1832, there were in tbe schools thirty-nine different
geographies. Webster, I have said, published a Grammar, which
I believe was the first by an American. English
grammar was very little studied during the last cen
tury, when we depended on England to supply the
limited demand for such books. Webster's Grammar
did not have a rapid sale. In 1807, he published his
Philosophical Grammar, which was far in advance of
tbe age, and was not appreciated. In 1795, Rev.
Caleb Alexander, of Mendon, Mass., who died in
1828„ published a small Grammar, which was in great
demand until it was supplanted by Murray, before
1815. I am inclined to think it did much to awaken
an interest in tjje study of the English language.
English grammars, previous to this, and especially
those imported from England, were without rules of
syntax. Parsing was not attended to. Alexander's
Grammar had twenty-two rules, besides five in a sep
arate section for' participles. The practical exercise
of parsing added greatly to the interest of the study,
8*

90 THE HALF CENTURY.
Lindley Murray was a native of Philadelphia ; but
finding that the climate of England was rfflf^favor-
able to his feeble health, he took up his residence
near York, and supported himself till his death, in
1826, by compiling school books. His Grammars had
a great sale in this country previous to 1830. They
were supplanted very extensively in New England
by Smith's ; not on account of its great superiority,
but through the indefatigable zeal and perseverance
of publishers' agents, who, with an assortment of
school books, would often enter a school-house, and
exchange with the classes, giving them a new book
for an old one, and leave a supply at the stores to
meet the demand which was in this way created.
Since then the number of English grammars has
so multiplied, that I have not room to enroll the names
of all their authors.
During the last fifteen years, the analysis of sen
tences has become more and more prominent, until it
is beginning to throw the parsing exercises into the
shade. This ought to be done; but the other *ught
not to be left undone.
From a catalogue of all the grammars in use in
the United States, in 1804, it appearg that there were
sixteen. Some of these, ¦ however, were mere apolo
gies for a treatise on that subject. In 1832, there
were forty-eight, which number has since very much
increased. In 1804, there were fourteen arithmetics in use in
the United States, the greatest and best of which

THE HALF CENTURY. 91
was Pike's. In 1832, there were fifty-three, and the
one which has bad the greatest and best influence
upon the young mind, is Colburn's First Lessons,
published in 1826. The mental discipline, and the
knowledge of numbers which a child gets from the
study of Colburn, are very great.
In an edition of Adams's Arithmetic, published in
1816, appeared for the first time a demonstration of
the rule for extracting the square and cube roots.
Great improvements have been made in arithmetics
within a few years. The number now in use is
about fifty; though a list of seventy-five or eighty
may easily be made out. As new ones have come
into use, old ones, whose authors are dead, having no
one to look after them, have been thrown aside. It
may be said of the authors of school books, very
generally, that their works die with them.
Of reading books of all sorts and sizes, there were,
in 1804, twenty-eight ; in 1832, there were one
hundred and two, since which the number has been
very much increased. Probably, Porter's Rhetorical
Reader has had as much influence as any one in form
ing a taste for good reading, and in improving the
style of it.
At the commencement of the century there Avere
no books on natural history, for schools, no astrono
mies, and no algebras. There is no lack of books on
these subjects now. We have five or six diffisrent
works on physiology, for schools, which is becoming
a useful and popular study.

92 THE HALF CENTURY.

Section 9. Newspapers.
Dr. Franklin, proposing to start a newspaper, was
urged by his friends to desist from his purpose, be
cause there were already two or three papers in the
country. In reply, Franklin said that more papers
would make more readers. He was right, and his
friends wrong. If they had lived in these days, they
would, no doubt, Avonder how so many newspapers
can be supported.
The mass of the people, a century ago, had very
little idea of the power of the press, and therefore
made comparatively little use of it to promote their
own great interests. Kings and princes had an in
stinctive dread of it. They regarded it as an animal
that would do great mischief if it should have its
liberty. They determined it should be kept in a
cage, or Avear a chain upon its neck.
The press, in most countries in Europe, has been
under censorship, or had its liberty restricted by
severe laws, until the revolutions of 1848. Very few
papers have been published in Italy, the country in
Avhich they had their birth, and those very small, and
filled with harmless and unimportant matter.
During the reign of Louis Philippe, no less than
1 129 'prosecutions were issued against as many pub
lishers and jvriters for the public press. The aggre
gate of their punishment was 3,141 years' imprison
ment, and fines amounting to $1,333,000,

THE HALF CENTURY. 93
Many of the colonial governors of the United States
had the views of their masters, the kings and princes
of Europe, respecting the danger of multiplying
Aveekly gazettes. William Berkeley, the colonial
governor of Virginia, in 1675, said, " I thank God that
we have no free schools nor printing presses, and I
hope we shall not have any for a hundred years, for
learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and
sects into the world ; and printing has divulged them,
and libelled governments. God keep us from both."
Lord Effingham, Avho Avas governor in 1683, was
ordered expressly " to allow no person to use a print
ing press on any occasion whatever." No paper was
printed in Virginia till 1736, and free schools have
not yet been introduced, except for the poor.
Those days, wheii printing presses were a terror
to men in office, and to their personal friends, have
gone by, and noAV they scatter their leaves as plenti
fully as the trees do in autumn.
In 1800, as near as can be ascertained, there Avere
in the United States 200 newspapers ; 17 dailies, 7
tri-weeklies, 30 bi-weeklies, and 146 weeklies.
In 1810, there Avere 359 ; in 1830, there were 1,000 ;
in 1840, there were 1,400 ; and, in 1850, about 1,600.
In 1800, there Avere 5 newspapers in Boston ; in
1833, there were 43. In 1800, there were 13 ncAvs-
papers published in the city of Ncav York ; and in
1833, there were 65.
In 1800, the number of newspapers in tbe Ncav
England States was 65; in 1842, there were 223.

94 THE HALF CENTURY.
The number in the Middle States, in 1800, was 74;
in 1842, it was 513.
The states which, in 1842, had over 100 neAvspa-
pers, were the folloAving : New York, 245 ; Pennsyl
vania, 187 ; Ohio, 123.
The states which had, at the above date, over 50
papers, were, Massachusetts, 91; Indiana, 73; and
Virginia, 51. The old and chivalrous state of South
Carolina had but 17.
In 1850, there were in the New England States
371 newspapers : in Maine, 53 ; in New Hampshire,
85; in Vermont, 39 ; in Massachusetts, 177; in Rhode
Island, 21 ; in Connecticut, 46. In the state of New
York, in 1850, there were 460 newspapers.
At the commencement of the present- century, the
editor, proprietor, and printer of a paper were usually
the same person. The matter for the paper was most
ly selected, and there Avas no expectation of or call for
labored editorials. Many of the papers have ever been
the property of practical printers, whose literary educa
tion has often been limited, and Avho had no talent to
interest the public by the profound and stirring pro
ductions of their own pens. But there is an increased
demand for such articles, and consequently many of
our newspapers have had a brief existence. Very
few have lived through the whole of the last half
century. Within twenty-five years, many of our newspapers
have employed one, and sometimes two, well-educated
men, who are able to discuss important questions,

THE HALF CENTURY. 95
and to lead their readers to form sounder views than
they otherwise Avould. This class of papers has a
large circulation, and controls very much the senti
ments promulgated in village papers, whose circula
tion is too small to pay an editor for his services.
Religious Newspapers. .^ By a religious newspaper,
I mean one that has the form of ordinary newspa
pers containing secular news, marriages, deaths, and
advertisements ; but the greater part of Avhich is filled
Avith original or selected articles on various religious
subjects. The first of the kind ever published Avas
projected in Boston in 1815 ; it was called the Boston
Recorder : the first number of it appeared in January,
1816, superintended and published by Nathaniel Wil
lis. Mr. Sidney E. Morse edited the paper for a year
or two, and in 1849, claimed to be the originator of
this class of papers. In June, 1849, the Boston Re
corder was united Avith the New England Puritan,
a paper commenced by Rev. Parsons Cook, D. D.,
of Lynn, in 1840, and called the Puritan Recorder.
There were three or four weekly periodicals in an
octavo or quarto form, that Avere published somewhat
earlier than the Boston Recorder, They Avere more
like the monthly periodicals of the present day, and
had not the essential characteristics of a weekly news
paper. Of this kind was the Religious Remem
brancer, Avhich was commenced in Philadelphia, in
1813, and was continued through ten years.
The second religious newspaper Avas the Religious
Intelligencer, published at New Haven. It was com-

96

THE HALF CENTURY.

menced in June, 1816, and was merged in another
paper about 1832.
The New York Observer was commenced in Janu
ary, 1823, by Sidney E. Morse. It was designed to
be someAvhat neutral in regard to sects, and conserva
tive in its influence.
The New York Evangelist was commenced in
1830, and was the advocate of new measures and
new divinity. It entered warmly into all the ex
citing subjects of moral reformation. It has changed
editors several times, and has become at length much
more conservative than it was at first, and is now the
organ of the new school Presbyterians, This class
of papers became very popular, and, as early as 1825,
almost every religious sect had one or more papers
devoted to its own interests. In 1832, there were 18
religious papers west of the Alleghanies. It is be
lieved there is now more than 125 such papers in the
United States. They have exerted a good influence
over secular papers, the publishers of which find it for
their interest to insert items of religious intelligence,
and to publish occasionally original articles on moral
and religious subjects.
The success of religious newspapers suggested tbe
idea of publishing other papers devoted to the advo
cacy of one important topic ; hence there have sprung
up, Avithin the last twenty-five years, a countless
number of temperance, anti-slavery, agricultural, anti-
masonic, educational, and scientific papers. Every

THE HALF CENTURY. 97
great interest has its paper, through which it throws
out its influence upon public sentiment.
A new mode of conducting religious papers has
been recently adopted. A company furnish the capi
tal, and print and publish such matter as the editors
furnish. It is too often the case that when the editor
is the OAvner of the paper, he is strongly tempted to
withhold some truths, lest he should offend some of
his subscribers, and to publish some things that ought
not to be published, with tbe hope of increasing his
list of subscribers. If the editors are placed , beyond
the reach of this temptation, and the publishers are
bound to insert such articles as, in the judgment of
the editors, ought to be published, it makes the press
more free and independent.
The Independent, a Congregational paper, com
menced in New York the latter part of 1848, is con
ducted in this manner. The Inquirer, a Unitarian
paper in New York, Avas placed on a similar founda
tion in 1849, and tbe'Congregationalist was started in
Boston, in May, 1 849, on the same plan. Time will
determine Avhether a paper can be sustained unless
the editors have an interest in the subscription list.
Steam power was first applied to printing by Mr.
Walter, principal owner of the London Times, in 1814.
He made his first experiment November 29, to which
the pressmen in the office were violently opposed.
They threatened destruction to any one whose inven
tions should interfere with their employment. He
9

98 THE HALF CENTURY.
directed his men to Avait that morning until six o'clock
for news from the continent, and in the mean time he
put his steam press in motion, and at six, called tbe
pressmen, and told them the paper was printed; that
if they attempted any violence, he had a force ready
to suppress it ; but if they were peaceable, their
wages should be continued to each of them till they
could find employment elsewhere.
The printing of papers and books in the large
cities in Europe and this country is done by steam
presses. The same press often prints several papers,
thus rendering it unnecessary that every publisher of
a paper should have a press of his own.

Section 10. Periodical Journals.
Very few monthly journals were published in this
country before the commencement of the present
century. They had few subscribers, and seldom
lived to be more than two years old, Boston, which
claims to be the Athens of America, Avas unable to
sustain an able monthly. In 1800, a Philadelphia
editor said, " Literary projects have almost proved
abortive in Boston. Many attempts have been made
to establish periodicals in that small town ; but mis
cellaneous readers ask in vain for a magazine, or
review, or literary journal, in the capital of New
England." In 1810, according to Isaiah Thomas,
Avho is good authority on this subject, there were

THE HALF CENTURY. 99
only tAventy-six of this class of journals published
in the United States. In 1835, there were one bun-
hundred and forty, and now about one hundred and
seventy-five. Some of them are very substantial,
and worth preserving, Avhile many of them are light
and trashy, intended merely to amuse the volatile
and gay.
The Connecticut Evangelical Magazine, a valuable
religious periodical, was commenced in 1800, at Hart
ford, and continued about ten years. The Panoplist,
another able religious periodical, was commenced in
Boston, in 1805, which, in 1820, became the Mis
sionary Herald, and is continued at the present time.
The Christian Disciple, a Unitarian monthly, was
commenced in 1813. It is now called the Christian
Examiner, and is a Avell-conducted journal. The
North American Review was commenced at Cam
bridge, in 1815, and is an honor to the country.
The same may be said of Silliman's Journal, a
learned, scientific quarterly, commenced at New
Haven, in 1817. The Christian Spectator Avas first
published in 1819, and continued twenty years, when
it Avas merged in the American Biblical Repository,
published at New York, which Avas the union of the
Biblical Repository, commenced at Andover, in 1831,
and the (Quarterly Observer, commenced at Boston, in
1833. The American Biblical Repository still exists.
The New Englander was commenced at New Haven,
in 1843, and the Bibliotheca Sacra at Andover, in
1844. The Biblical Repertory, an able and learned

100 THE HALF CENTURY.
quarterly, has been published at Princeton, New
Jersey, for several years, the Methodist Quarterly
RevicAv at New York, and the Baptist Review at
Boston. I do not propose to give the names, history, and
character of all the periodicals published in our
country. Besides those I have mentioned, there are
several law and medical journals, and some devoted
to natural history. The best European journals are
republished in this country, and several eclectics,
which are filled Avith selections from those published
in Europe.
The above succinct statement is sufficient to show
that there has been, during the last fifty years, a
remarkable increase in the demand for learned and
able periodicals and revicAvs. It shows that there
has been great intellectual progress ; that the number
of able Avriters and men of fine literary and scientific
attainments has greatly increased.
The people of the United States are emphatically
a reading people ; and there being no censorship of
the press, its issues are suited to the taste of the
people. One may judge, therefore, of the taste of
the people, by looking at the character of the books
and periodicals that are published from month to
month, to meet the popular demand. While Ave are
gratified to find so many that are solid and substan
tial, it is painful to knoAV that periodicals, filled Avith
useless matter and tales of fiction, have the largest
subscription lists. Great is the number of those that

THE HALF CENTURY. IQl
contain no useful information, and have no good
moral tendency, but, on the contrary, cultivate a
taste for momentary gratification, and often convey
the seductive poison of error and voluptuousness.
Within a few years, there have been many presses
constantly employed in publishing tales and novels,
in the form of pamphlets, in the cheapest style possi
ble, and scattering them abroad as profusely as the
leaves of autumn. They have been styled " the
yellow-covered literature." Every boy and girl that
can buy an orange, can supply themselves with the
last novel, at about the same price.
9*

103 THE TTAT.F CENTURY.
CHAPTER III.
CHARITABLE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.

Section 1. Sabbath Schools.
Robert Raikes, of Gloucester, England, has the
honor of being denominated the founder of Sabbath
schools. He commenced one in his native toAvn, in
1781. His first and chief object was to collect poor
children, and teach them to read and Avrite, connect
ing therewith moral and religious instruction. Raikes
died in 1811, aged seventy-six.
A similar school Avas gathered in Philadelphia, in
1791, by Bishop White, Doctors Rush and Say, and
Matthew Carey. In the early part of this century, Sab
bath schools began to be organized in many cities and
towns in the United States. It is impossible to tell
Avhich Avas first, though I have seen no well-authenti
cated account of any earlier than the" one in Beverly,
Mass., in 1810. Tavo young ladies gathered a school,
mostly of poor children, whom they clothed, instructed
on the Sabbath, and took with them to church. In
1812, the General Association of Massachusetts, in their
narrative of the state of religion, noticed with appro
bation the establishment of a " Sabbath school in
Beverly, in which poor, neglected children were taught
to fear the name of the Lord and to sanctify his day."

THE HALF CENTURY. 103
The inference is, that it was the only one in the state
knoAvn to that body. Soon after this, it is known
there was one atNewburyport, and another at Charles-
town. At first they were imitations of the schools
established by Raikes, and Avere composed of the
children of the poor. It was soon found that the
children of the rich would be benefited by them,
and they Avere opened for children and youth gen
erally. The schools being scattered, it was found difficult
to obtain suitable books fir the children. The exer
cises consisted in repeating verses of Scripture and
hymns previously committed. Books were given as
rewards about once a quarter.
The New York Sabbath School Union Avas formed
in 1817 : during the same year, Sabbath school unions
were formed in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, and
Albany. An influence went forth from these cities into
the country, and, previous to 1820, Sabbath schools
existed in very many towns. They Avere continued,
at first, in country towns especially, only through the
warm season of the year.
In 1824, the Philadejphia Union, which had pub
lished some books for its own use, enlarged itself into
the American Sunday School Union, and began
to publish question books, and those suitable for libra
ries. This Union, from the beginning, was composed
of those who belonged to the several evangelical de
nominations, and by their constitution are obliged to
expunge from the books they publish all doctrinal

104 THE H.ALF CENTURY.
subjects, except those which they hold in common ;
hence the name Union. The American Union com
menced, in 1824, a monthly periodical, called the Sun
day School Magazine ; in 1831, the Magazine became
a quarterly, and a weekly paper was issued, called the
Sunday School Journal. The paper is still pub
lished, though reduced in size. This society has,
from the beginning, employed agents to visit churches
and congregations, to collect funds to enable them
to publish books, and establish schools in destitute
portions of the country. About 1828, the society
began its labors in the valley of the Mississippi, and
has done much to awaken an interest in new settle
ments in the religious education of the young. Its
annual receipts, in contributions, are between $30,000
and $40,000. It has four depositories — in Phila
delphia, New York, Boston, and Louisville. F. W.
Porter is corresponding secretary, and F. A. Packard,
Esq., editor of its publications.
The total receipts of the year ending May, 1850,
from all sources, were $167,652; the indebtedness of
the society is $65,012. It employed last year one
hundred and three colporteurs and agents, in tAventy-
five states and territories. In 1826, the Union had
published tAventy-one books suitable for Sabbath
school libraries ; since then, seven hundred.
The Massachusetts Sabbath School Union was or
ganized in 1825. It embraced all the evangelical de
nominations in the state, but the Congregational and
Baptist churches were most efficient. It was auxil-

THE HALF CENTURY. 105
iary to the American Union. In 1828, it employed a
secretary and general agent, and became a publishing
society. It issued a monthly periodical, called the
Sabbath School Treasury. Rev. Artemas Bullard,
noAv Dr. Bullard, of St. Louis, was secretary till
1832, Avhen he resigned, and the union Avas dissolved.
Tavo denominational societies Avere immediately or
ganized, — the Massachusetts and the New England
Sabbath school societies, — the first a Congregational,
tbe second a Baptist society. It was thought the
interests of the cause Avould be promoted by a divis
ion of labor. The separation was entirely harmo
nious, though the Baptists were suspicious that their
presence was no longer desired.
Rev, Christopher Marsh Avas secretary and general
agent of the Massachusetts society the first year,
and was succeeded in April, 1832, by Rev. Asa Bul
lard, who has filled the place from that time to the
present. In May, 1839, the Massachusetts society ceased to
be auxiliary to the American Union. It has ever
since acted as an independent society. It of course
interferes Avith the American Union. It prevents it
from collecting as much money in the New England
states as it otherwise Avould, and diminishes its sales
of books. The Massachusetts society sustains itself by
charging a small profit on the books it publishes.
The American Union sells its books at what it costs
to manufacture them, and its officers and agents are
supported by contributions froni churches.

106 THE HALF CENTURY.
Mr. C. C. Dean took the charge of the depository
of the Massachusetts society in 1828, and has con
tinued there to the present time. This society
receives money that is sent to it by churches. Sab
bath schools, or individuals, and transmits the full
amount thereof in books for the use of Sabbath
schools in the Valley of the Mississippi. Its sales
amount to about $20,000 annually, and its receipts,
to be expended in libraries for the west, are betAveen
three and four thousand dollars. The whole num
ber of the society's publications in May, 1850, were
nine hundred and eighty-six, of which five hundred
and seventy-two are bound volumes.
The Ncav England society publishes books for the
Sabbath schools of the Baptist denomination.
The Methodist Episcopal church has a thoroughly
organized system of Sabbath schools. The Meth
odist Book Concern at New York provides books for
libraries, and the churches contribute between three
and four thousand dollars annually for supplying
schools Avith libraries that are unable to purchase for
themselves. Sabbath schools are sustained by the enterprise,
sacrifice, and charities of men high in rank. Chief
Justice Marshall and Judge Washington were both
of them the friends and patrons of Sabbath schools.
Tbe late President Harrison, for several years, taught
a class in a Sabbath school, on the banks of the
Ohio, and continued to do so until the Sabbath pre
vious to his leaving home to assume the responsi-

THE HALF CENTURY. 107
bilities of the high office to Avhich he AVas called by
the voice of the people. Hon. Samuel Hubbard, of
Boston, one of the judges of the Supreme Court, Avas
a Sabbath school teacher. Governors of states and
their wives, members of Congress, and professors in
colleges, have not deemed it beneath them to teach
children lessons of piety.
The instruction that has been communicated in
this Avay, during the last half century, has already
produced much good fruit. When many are run
ning to and fro, knowledge is increased.

Section 2. Institutions for Deaf Mutes.
The late Mason Cogswell, M. D., a pious physician,
of Hartford, Connecticut, bad a daughter who Avas
deaf and dumb. It awakened in him an interest in
this unfortunate class of persons. In 1814, he em
ployed the Rev. Thomas Gallaudet, a young clergy
man, who had just left the Andover Theological
Seminary, to instruct his daughter. The success of
the experiment Avas such that Dr, C. and some other
gentlemen in that city Avere led to undertake the
establishment of an institution for the benefit of deaf
mutes. In the spring of 1815, they sent Mr. Gallaudet to
Europe, to visit the institutions there established, and
to qualify himself for the superintendence of the one
they had in contemplation. He visited several, but

108 THE HALF CENTURY
spent more time in Paris than any where else, at the
royal institution under tbe care of the Abbe Sicard.
He returned in 1816, bringing with him Mr. Lau
rence Le Clerc, from Paris, to be his assistant. An
act of incorporation was obtained from the legislature,
a liberal sum was contributed in Hartford for the
erection of suitable buildings, and a township of land
in Alabama Avas given by Congress towards endow
ing the institution.
It was opened April 15, 1817, and was called the
American Asylum. It was the first of the kind in
America, The system of instruction introduced by Mr, Gal
laudet differed somcAvbat from the European systems,
and has been called, by Avay of distinction, the
American system, the peculiar excellences of which
have been since adopted in Europe. He introduced
the fundamental principle of Heiniche, " first ideas,
then Avords," and that " the natural language of signs
must be elevated to as high a degree of excellence as
possible, in order to serve as a medium, through
which to impart clear ideas." He introduced another
principle, Avhich was original with himself, that the
pupil must be led to reflect on what is passing in his
OAvn mind, in order to acquire mental and spiritual
ideas, preparatory to understanding written language
and religious truths. He also introduced the practice
of praying with his pupils, and of conducting this
devotional exercise by natural signs.
At the end of the first year, there were thirty

THE HALF CENTURY. 109
pupils. It soon became the asylum for all the New
England States ; the legislatures of all, except Rhode
Island, make appropriations annually for educating
their deaf mutes at Hartford. In May, 1829, there
Avere 143 pupils in the asylum. Massachusetts ap
propriated for its pupils $6,500. In 1834, there
were 50 pupils from Massachusetts, 25 from Con
necticut, 25 from Vermont, 15 from Ncav Hampshire,
and as many from Maine. In 1842, there Avere 134
from 12 different states; and, in 1850, there were
210 from 8 different states.
Mr. Gallaudet resigned his place as principal in
1831, and Avas succeeded by Mr. LoAvis Weld, who
is still at the head of the institution. The board of
directors, on accepting the resignation of Mr. G., said,
" The cause of humanity is primarily indebted to
him for the introduction of deaf mute instruction into
the United States, and for the spread of the infor
mation necessary for prosecuting it successfully in
public institutions, of which all in the country are
experiencing the benefits."
The second institution of the kind was established
in the city of New York. It was incorporated in
April, 1818, and went into operation in May of
that year, under the superintendence of Rev. A. C.
Stansbury. At the end of the first term, it had
18 pupils. It did not at first adopt the American
system of instruction, probably for tbe want of an ex
perienced teacher. Mr. Harvey Peet, who has been
at the head of it for many years, was for some time a
10

110 THE HALF CENTURY.
teacher in the asylum at Hartford, and has introduced
the system he learned there. In 1834, there were
124 pupils, 90 of whom were supported by the state
of New York. In 1850, there Avere 222, of whom
127 were males and 95 females ; 160 were supported
by the state. In 1848, the state paid for this object
$21,000. There is a similar institution at Canajoharie, New
York, which Avent into operation prior to 1830, and
had, in 1834, only 34 pupils.
The Pennsylvania institution, at Philadelphia, was
the third in point of time; it was commenced in
1820. In 1834, it had 80 pupils, 50 of whom were
supported by that state, 20 by Maryland, and 10 by
New Jersey.
Asylums for deaf mutes were established at Colum
bus, Ohio, and at Danville, Kentucky, previous to
1830. There are now eleven institutions for the instruc
tion of this unfortunate class of people in the United
States, Avhich contain 1,000 pupils. They remain,
if the support is adequate, five years, and acquire, in
that time, a good business education, besides learning
some art or trade, by which they may be able to
support themselves. Nearly all the older states make
provision for the education of their deaf mutes.
There were, in 1840, in the United States, 7,900
deaf and dumb ; there may now be 10,000.
The most remarkable pupil in any of these asylums
is Julia Brace, born in Hartford, Connecticut, June

THE HALF CENTURY. Ill
13, 1807. When four years old, she had the typhus
fever, and on the sixth day lost her sight and hearing,
which she has never recovered. She continued to
talk for a while, and did not lose her speech entirely
for a year. The word she continued to articulate
longer than any other was that of mother. She is
still a resident at the asylum, where she has been
ever since 1821. When nine years old, she learned
to sew, and soon after to knit. She is supported, in
part, by the contributions of visitors, to whom she
is ever an object of interest, and in part by the avails
of her own labor.
There is published, at Hartford, the American
Annals of the Deaf and Dumb. It is issued in quar
terly numbers of sixty-four pages each, and was
commenced in October, 1847.
In German institutions, the deaf mutes are taught
to articulate sounds. It is not much attended to in
this country. Their speaking is harsh, unnatural,
and monotonous. " Destitute of modulation and
accent, it more nearly resembles Avhat we should
conceive a speaking machine might utter, than the
usual speech of mankind."

Section 3. Instruction of the Blind.
The New England Institution for the Blind was
incorporated by the Massachusetts legislature in 1829.
Its location was Boston, and Dr. S. G. Howe was

113 THE HALF CENTURY.
selected as teacher and superintendent. He was sent
to Europe to visit the institutions for the blind in
that country, and to qualify himself for the work in
which be was to engage. A course of instruction
was commenced in 1832. At the beginning of
1833, the patrons of this enterprise had expended
several hundred dollars more than they had received
in preparing their teachers, and making a beginning
on a small scale. In February of that year, Thomas
H. Perkins, Esq., a wealthy citizen of Boston, pre
sented to the Board of Directors his family mansion,
and the ample ground about it, valued at $58,000, on
condition that $50,000 more should be raised before
the expiration of May. The sum was raised, and
the institution was at once placed on a permanent
basis. This is the first institution that was estab
lished in America for the benefit of the blind. It
was after this called the "Perkins Institution," In
1839, the house and lands were advantageously
exchanged for the Mount Washington House, at
South Boston, which is a much better location, and
there it is now permanently fixed. According to the
census of 1830, there were then 5,444 blind persons
in the United States, 111 of whom were in New
England. In 1834, there were in this asylum 24 pupils ; and
in 1835, there were 42, of whom 33 were supported
by public funds, 19 by the state of Massachusetts, 6
by Maine, 5 by New Hampshire, and 1 by Vermont.
In 1839, there were 60 pupils.

THE HALF CENTURY. 113
In 1834, the Institution was presented with a font
of types, adapted to printing, with raised characters.
They were given by citizens of New Bedford and
Nantucket. A strong press was manufactured to do
the printing of the Institution. Previous to 1839,
they had printed, in raised letters, the Acts of the
Apostles, the Psalms, a Reading Book, Murray's
Grammar, and Baxter's Call. The latter was done
at the expense of the Tract Society.
In 1841, the American Bible Society, having re
ceived some generous contributions for that object,
stereotyped the New Testament and Psalms in raised
letters, and in 1842, the whole Bible, at an expense
of $10,000. The society now prints the whole
Bible for the blind, in eight large volumes, at twenty
dollars a set.
Hon. Horace Mann says, '.' I have seen no institu
tion for the blind, in Europe, equal to that under the
care of Dr. Howe, at South Boston, nor but one, in
deed, (at Amsterdam,) Avorthy to be compared Avith
it. In many of them, pupils are never taught to
read, and in others they learn only some mechanical
employment." A similar institution was organized in tbe city of
New York, in 1833. Permanent and suitable build
ings were completed in 1843. In 1842, this institu
tion had 64 pupils, 60 of whom were supported by
the state. In January, 1850, there were 135 pupils,
95 of whom were supported by the state, at an
expense of $28,000. 10*

114 THE HALF CENTURY.
The third institution for the blind was established
in Philadelphia. The whole number in the United
States is not known.
The most remarkable pupil in any of the asylums
of the blind is Laura Bridgman, who, like Julia
Brace, is deaf, dumb, and blind ; and, indeed, no
sense is perfect, except that of touch ; and yet she is
made the recipient of knowledge.
Laura was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, De
cember 21, 1829. She was so puny and feeble until
she was a year and a half old, that her parents hardly
expected to raise her. When two years old, she had
a fit of sickness, in Avhich she lost both her sight and
hearing, and by which the senses of taste and smell
were much impaired. It was not till she was four
years old, that she was able to enter upon the appren
ticeship of life and the world. Her propensity to
imitate was very strong, and she learned much of
things about her. October 4, 1837, she Avas placed
under the instruction of Dr. Howe, in the Perkins
asylum, Avhere she has continued ever since. See
Reports of the Institution, and vols. iii. and iv. of the
Common School Journal.

Section 4 Lunatic Asylums, or Hospitals for the
Insane.
The provision that has been made within a few
years, and which is increasing from year to year, for

THE HALF CENTURY. 115
the cure or comfort of the insane, is one of the dis
tinguished features of the age. What can be more
cheering to a lover of his race than to behold states
vying, as it were, with each other, to see which Avill
do most for tbe benefit of this unfortunate class of
persons, and to see them offering these advantages to
the insane poor, Avithout money and without price ?
How striking tbe contrast between these monuments
of modern, and those of ancient times ! The idea
of a hospital for the insane Avas too vast a conception
for the wise men of Greece or Rome. Nothing like
it ever existed in pagan lands, nor in 'countries
where a corrupt Christianity prevails, or the religion
of the false prophet is predominant; nor, indeed, has
any thing like it been seen in this country till within
the last thirty years. Formerly, tbe insane were per
mitted to ramble about, the sport and jest of the rude
and unfeeling, and sometimes a terror to women and
children. The more violent were chained in a back
room without furniture, without comforts, and some
times without a fire even in the midst of winter ;
some of them were confined in jails surrounded with
great Avretchedness. The sufferings inflicted upon
them were as great as those inflicted upon persons
guilty of crimes against the state.
How changed the scene ! Now they are provided
with neat rooms in large and elegant mansions, with
all the comforts that can be desired. The members
of legislatures have done to the poor lunatic as they-
woufd that others should do for them under similar
circumstances.

116 THE HALF CENTURY,
A single fact will shoAV how the insane were
treated before the establishment of asylums. In 89
towns in Massachusetts, in 1829, there Avere 289 in
sane persons, 161 of whom Avere confined, either in
private houses, poorhouses, or jails. Of those in
jails, 4 had been confined 20 years, 3 had been con
fined 25 years, one 35, two 40, and one 45.
The first asylums for the insane in this country
were either private establishments, or appendages to
some hospital. The Pennsylvania Hospital, in the
latter part of the last century, received some patients
who were insane. The oldest institution exclusive
ly for the insane, of which the writer has any knowl
edge, is the Maryland Asylum, founded in 1816, and
the Friends' Asylum at Frankford, seven miles from
Philadelphia, established in 1817, In 1818, the
M'Lean Asylum was opened at Charlestown, Massa
chusetts, which is a branch of the Massachusetts
General Hospital, located at Boston,
The folloAving is a list of the principal asylums
for the insane in the United States : —
Maryland Asylum, at Baltimore,
The Friends' Asylum, at Frankford, Pa,,
M'Lean Asylum, at Charlestown,
New York Asylum, at Bloomingdale,
Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, Conn.
Kentucky Asylum, at Lexington,
South Carolina Asylum, at Columbia,
Western Asylum, at Staunton, Va.,
Dr. White's Asylum, at Hudson, N. Y,,
State Lunatic Hospital, at Worcester, Mass,, " 1833,

commenced 1816.

a

1817,

it

1818.

ti

1821.

a

1824.

it

1824.

<(

1827.

it

1828.

it

1830,

THE HALF CENTURY. 117

commenced 1837,

((

1838.

a

1838.

il

1838.

u

1839.

il

1840.

a

1840.

it

1840.

a

1841.

it

1842.

It

1843.

ti

1843.

Vermont Asylum, at Brattleborough,
New York Asylum, on Blackwell's Island,
Ohio Asylum, at Columbus,
Tennessee Asylum, at Nashville,
Boston Lunatic Hospital,
Georgia Asylum at MilledgevUIe,
Tennessee Asylum,
Maine Asylum, at Augusta,
Pennsylvania Asylum, at Philadelphia,
New Hampshire Asylum, at Concord,
New York Asylum, at Utica,
Mount Hope Asylum, at Baltimore,

Besides these, there is one at Williamsburg, Virginia,
arid one at Frankfort, Kentucky. New Jersey makes
provision for its insane at Ncav York and Philadel
phia. Rhode Island has received a legacy of $30,000
from the estate of Mr. Butler, of Providence, towards
tbe erection of a Lunatic Asylum, which is noAv in
progress. The number received at 14 asylums, in 1842, was
1,271.; the number received at 15 asylums, in 1843,
was 1,508.
Much- has been done for the insane, within a few
years, by Miss D, L, Dix, a native of Boston, who
spends her time in collecting facts respecting the
condition of the insane and prisoners, and presenting
them to the legislatures, with a plea to send relief.
She commenced her labors in Massachusetts, in
1842, and proceeded to New York in 1843 ; to New
Jersey in 1844 ; to Kentucky in 1845 ; to Tennessee
in 1846 ; to Illinois and North Carolina in 1847 and

118 THE HALF CENTURY.
1848. After spending most of a year in a state in
visiting jails, prisons, almshouses, and other places
where the poor and suffering may be found, she em
bodies her investigations in a report, and presents it
Avith a memorial to the legislature for some specific
aid. Her reports have been faithful, and have been
spoken of with commendation in many parts of our
land. Note. — Since the above was written, I have seen
it stated in a Medical Journal, that the Asylum for
the Insane at Williamsburg, Virginia, was estab
lished in 1773. I suppose, however, it was not like
the asylums of modern times, but more properly a
part of the prison devoted to that class of convicts.
I have recently seen a prospectus for a private
insane hospital, that Avas issued in 1814, by Dr.
George Parkman, of Boston, who was murdered in
November, 1849. The probability is, that attention
was directed to this class of persons in several states
about the same time.

Section 5. — Instruction of Idiots.
In the winter of 1845-6, several gentlemen in
Boston and vicinity became interested 'in the con
dition of idiots, and determined that something should
be attempted for their improvement. At their solici
tation, the legislature of Massachusetts passed a

THE HALF CENTURY. 119
resolve authorizing the governor to appoint commis
sioners to inquire into the condition, and ascertain
the number, of idiots in the commonwealth, and
whether any thing can be done in their behalf.
Dr. S. G. Howe, Horatio Byington, and Oilman
Kimball, Avere appointed commissioners. They made
a meagre report in 1847, and were directed to con
tinue their labors ; they visited 77 towns, in which
they found 574 idiots, and estimated the number in
the state to exceed 1200. In 1848, they made a
report with a supplement, which is a valuable docu
ment of 150 pages. It gives a learned answer to the
question. Who are idiots ? The following is the
definition adopted : —
" Idiocy may be defined to be that condition of a
human being in which, from some morbid cause in
the bodily organization, the faculties and sentiments
remain dormant and undeveloped, so that the person
is incapable of self-guidance, and of approaching that
degree of knowledge usual with others of his age."
There are various degrees of idiocy.
The commissioners say that successful attempts
were made in France, as early as 1825, to improve
this class of persons. Schools have been established
for their benefit in Prussia and England. Some
experiments were made by Dr. Howe, sufficient to
convince himself that idiots were susceptible of im
provement. The legislature appropriated $2,500 for the purpose
of teaching and training ten idiotic children, to be

120 THE HALF CENTURY.
selected by the governor and council from the poor,
provided an arrangement could be made with some
charitable institution, patronized by the common-
Avealth, to undertajie it.
They were put under the care of Dr. Howe, in the
Perkins Institution for the Blind, and Mr. James B.
Richards, a teacher in Boston, was employed to in
struct them.
Dr. Howe made a report to the legislature in 1850,
an interesting document of 72 pages.
The pupils selected were between five and twelve
years of age. The report, in conclusion, says, " The
result, thus far, seems to be most gratifying and en
couraging. Of the Avhole number received, there
was not one Avho Avas in a situation Avhere any great
improvement in his condition Avas probable, or hardly
possible. They were groAving worse in their habits,
and more confirmed in their idiocy. The process of
deterioration has been checked entirely, and that of
improvement has commenced ; and though a year is
a very short time in the instruction of such persons,
yet its effects are manifest in all of them. They
have all improved in personal appearance and habits,
in general health and vigor, and in activity of body.
Some of them can control their OAAm appetites in a
considerable degree ; they sit at the table with the
teachers, and feed themselves decently. Almost all
of them have improved in the understanding and use
of speech." " They have made a start forward."
" It has been demonstrated that idiots are capable of

THE HALF CENTURY. 121
improvement, and that they can be raised from a
state of low degradation to a higher condition."
Several of the causes of idiocy are set forth in the
report, the most prominent of Avhich is the low con
dition of the physical organization of one or both of
the parents, often induced by intemperance. Another
cause is the intermarriage of relatives. It states
that one twentieth of the cases examined were of
this class. It is a sufficient reason Avhy such mar
riages should be prohibited, as they are in the sacred
Scriptures. The first thing aimed at is to train the bodily func
tions and the muscular motions, and to establish
habits of attention. It requires great labor and pa
tience. Mr. Richards was obliged to make a boy
thirteen years old repeat three consecutive words 640
times before he could be sure he would do it cor
rectly. In January, 1850, the governor of New York
recommended that provision should be made in that
state for the improvement of idiots.
A private institution has been opened in Barre,
Massachusetts, for the improvement of idiots.

Section 6. American Education Society.
As early as 1808, an Education Society was or
ganized in Plymouth county, Massachusetts, the
object of which was to assist indigent young men in
11

122 THE HALF CENTURY.
their preparation for the Christian ministry. It con
tinued ten years, and aided a considerable number.
In June, 1814, Eleazar Lord, who was then a
student in the Theological Seminary at Andover,
published a dissertation on the education of pious
young men for the ministry, in which he marked out
and recommended a course very similar to that which
has been pursued by the American Education So
ciety. In March, 1815, an association of ladies Avas formed
in Boston, called the Education Society of Boston
and Vicinity, to aid young men of talents and piety,
who Avere in indigent circumstances, to prepare for
the ministry. In the summer of that year, eight
young men, Avho met together weekly for prayer,
had their attention directed to the same subject.
While praying for a world lying in wickedness, they
asked. Where shall men be found to preach the gos
pel in heathen lands ? One of them said, " Who
knows but a society can be formed to aid tbe indi
gent to prepare for this Avork ? " In July, they had
a meeting to consider the expediency of forming such
a society. A meeting Avas holden at the vestry of
Park Street church, to which clergymen and laymen
were invited, to advise and aqt in reference to it. A
constitution was drafted, and August 15, 1815, the
American Education Society was organized.
The society was incorporated December, 1816,
and the first legal meeting was holden October 15,
1817.

THE HALF CENTURY. 123
Secretaries. Resigned. Died.
Rev. Asa Eaton, D. D. Oct. 1825.
" Joseph Harvey, D. D. July, 1826.
" Elias Cornelius, D. D. Jan. 1832. 1832, aged 38.
" William Cogswell, D. D. " 1841. 1850, " 62.
" Samuel H. Riddel, May, 1850.
During the first year, it aided 7 young men, and
during the second, 138. In 1835 and 1836, it aided
1,040 each year, which was the greatest number of
beneficiaries it ever had. In 1850, it aided 436. The
whole number that has been assisted by the society,
since its organization, is not far from 4,200.
The receipts of the society for the year ending
October, 1816, were $5,714; for the year ending at
the annual meeting in 1819, they were $19,330 ; for
1835, $83,062, which was the greatest sum ever
received in a single year. For 1850, the receipts
were $28,428, The whole amount that has been
received by this society since its organization, is
$916,08L At first, tbe annual meetings were holden in
October, on which occasion a sermon was preached.
In 1826, the time of the annual meeting was changed
to May, so as to conform to the time of the meetings
of other benevolent societies, and addresses took the
place of the sermon.
At first, the society afforded as much aid as its
beneficiaries needed. In 1817, it began to pay to
each the same sum annually ; and in 1820, it adopted
the plan of loaning the money, and taking the

134 THE HALF CENTURY.
Student's note. In 1826, it required its beneficiaries
to refund the Avhole, with interest, after they had
completed their education.
For several years the society sent its agents to
collect funds in any part of the Union Avhere there
Avas a prospect of obtaining them. In 1826, branch
societies Avere formed in the Northern and Middle
States, which were auxiliary to the parent society.
These branch societies performed the labor of col
lecting and disbursing funds in their respective dis
tricts, under the general guidance of the parent
society. In 1831, a Presbyterian branch was organized,
which conducted the affairs of the Society for that
denomination. About 1820, the society undertook to establish
scholarships of $1,000 each, the interest of which
was to be paid for the support of one beneficiary.
More than sixty such scholarships were established,
and in this way the society came in possession of a
permanent fund, which amounts to more than
$60,000. At the commencement of 1842, it Avas obvious the
cause had been struggling for some time against ob
stacles arising in part from some of the practical
arrangements of the society, and in part from the
altered circumstances of students, and the sentiments
of many on Avhom the society depended for funds.
It was proposed to call a special meeting of the cor
porate and honorary members, to examine the whole

THE HALF CENTURY. 125
ground, and to make such changes as might be
deemed expedient. Such a meeting Avas holden in
BostoUj October 19, 1842, and continued in session
three days. It was well attended, and the whole
subject was discussed under three general heads.
1. Is the fundamental principle of the society, the
furnishing of indigent young men with assistance in
preparing for tbe ministry, a correct one ?
2. Is it expedient to maintain an organization for
the promotion of the cause ?
3. Is the present organization, in all its practical
details, the best that can be devised ?
The first two questions were readily decided in
the affirmative. The third, after a full discussion,
was referred to a large committee, to embody the
sentiments expressed, and to report at the next annual
meeting. In May, 1843, the report Avas presented
and adopted. — See Twenty-seventh Annual Report.
Since then, the society has not assisted young
men preparing for college. In consequence of this,
the number of beneficiaries is considerably diminished.
Another reason for the diminution of the number of
beneficiaries since 1836 may be found in the fact,
that the number of young men preparing for the
ministry has, since about that time, been constantly
diminishing. In 1827, the directors of the society commenced
the publication of a Quarterly Register, which was
continued fifteen years. It was edited by the secre
tary, assisted for several years by Professor B, B,
11*

126 THE HALF CENTURY.
Edwards, of Andover. It is a very valuable statisti
cal work, and will be valuable in all future time.

Section 7. Society for the Promotion of Collegiate
and Theological Education at the West.
In consequence of the pecuniary embarrassments
of the country in 1837, several colleges at the west
failed to receive money that had been subscribed for
their endowment and support. They struggled along
for a time, and found themselves so deeply in debt,
that they must sell their property to pay their debts,
or appeal to the liberal in the Eastern States for
help. They preferred to do the latter. Accordingly,
there Avere agents at the east presenting the claims
of five or six colleges, and soliciting aid. It produced
confusion, and was annoying to pastors and churches,
to be called upon for a contribution to some Avestern
institution five or six times in a year. It was found
that something must be done. It Avas proposed to
form a society, to which all applications should
be made for aid, and the society should collect
money for the whole, and divide it among the
needy and Avorthy institutions in proportion to their
wants. Such a society was organized in the city of New
York, in June, 1843.
The folloAving table contains the statistics of the
society : —

Preachers and Texts.

Receipts.

«17,011.

Rev. A. Barnes, Prov. xlx. 2.

10,967.

Dr. Beman, Gen. iv. 9.

15,686.

Dr. Bacon, Acts xix. 9, 10.

14,113.

Dr. Condit, 1 Chron. xii. 32.

12,339.

THE HALF CENTURY. 127
Places of Meeting.
New York, Sept. 1844.
Newark, Oct. 1845.
Springfield, " 1846.
Troy, " 1847.
New Haven, " 1848.
Brooklyn, " 1849. Dr. E. Beecher, Isa. lix. 21, and Ix, 19. 11,001.
The colleges aided were Western Reserve, with its
theological department, Marietta, Wabash, Illinois,
Knox, Wittenberg, and Beloit Colleges, and Lane
Theological Seminary, The friends of these institu
tions at the west have been stimulated to increased
exertions in consequence of the aid received, and tAvo
of them, Illinois and Western Reserve, have extin
guished their debts, and will be able in future to
sustain themselves. Rev, Theron Baldwin is the
secretary of the society.
In 1847, the society published a series of letters by
John Todd, D, D., addressed to a parishioner, shoAV-
ing that colleges are essential to the church of God ;
and a Plea for College Libraries, by Professor N,
Porter, of Yale College, In 1848, an Address by
Professor Haddock, of Dartmouth College, on Colle
giate Education, Avas published. The society pub
lishes an annual report and the annual sermon.

128 THE HALF CENTURY.
Section 8. Societies for fwnishing the West with
accomplished and well-qualified Common School
Teachers.
About 1836, Miss Catharine Beecher established a
Female Seminary in Cincinnati, the chief object of
Avhich Avas to educate teachers for the west. She
entertained the idea that much good might be done
by locating in western toAvns and cities well-educated
teachers. She hoped the object she had in view
would so commend itself to the liberal and enlight
ened, that they Avould come forward, and furnish the
funds necessary to enable her to carry out her benev
olent designs. A pecuniary pressure came on, and
her health failing, she was obliged to abandon her
project. In the mean time, she employed herself in collect
ing facts and making inquiries respecting what could
be done, and, in 1845, published a small volume,
entitled the Duty of American Women to their
Country, which was distributed gratuitously. This
volume contained a graphic description of the low
state of education at the west, and in it she expressed
her belief that there were at the east a thousand
females qualified and willing to go west and teach,
provided their travelling expenses could be borne,
and a school gathered ready for them on their arrival.
This volume announced that a committee was
selected, to whom application might be made by per
sons at the Avest in want of good teachers, and called

THE HALF CENTURY. 129
upon ladies in eastern cities to appoint committees to
select and send out teachers to supply the Avants of
those who should make application. At the same
time, she offered the profits arising from the sale of
two volumes she had published towards defraying
the travelling expenses of teachers, and called upon
females to purchase the volumes, and to extend the
sale of them.
In the beginning of 1846, the ladies in Boston
organized a society for promoting education at the
Avest. This society is independent of Miss Beecher,
though it was called into existence in consequence
of her appeal. It receives applications from western
towns, selects teachers, and bears their expenses to
their fields of labor. It has already sent out a con
siderable number.
The Board of National Popular Education Avas
organized at Cleaveland, Ohio, in April, 1847, which
was an enlargement of the committee announced by
Miss Beecher, at Cincinnati, in 1845. The first an
nual meeting Avas holden January, 1848. Ex-Gov
ernor Slade is the general agent of the society. He
was appointed by the committee- at Cincinnati, and
has been engaged in this Avork since October, 1846.
This society collects a class at Hartford, Connecti
cut, in the spring, and another in the autumn, and
sends out about fifty annually.

130

THE HALF CENTURY.
CHAPTER IV.
MORAL REFORMATION.

Section 1. The Temperance Reformation.
The habit of daily drinking increased very much
during the war of the revolution, and continued to
increase rapidly after the restoration of peace. It
was accompanied by all its kindred vices. Very little
Avas done, for many years, to arrest its progress, or to
promote a reformation, A sermon Avas occasionally
preached, but the preacher was often regarded as
turning aside from his appropriate work to meddle
with that which did not concern him.
The first thing that was done, that produced any
marked effect, was the publication of a tract, in 1804,
by Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia, entitled
An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon
the Human Body and Mind. One or two sermons
were published soon after. In 1808, a temperance
society was formed at Saratoga, New York, It was
a local association, limited in its influence, and seems
not to have groAvn out of any special interest that
preceded, nor to have produced any great effect.
In May, 1811, Dr. Rush presented to the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, then in session
in Philadelphia, 1,000 copies of his Inquiry. The
assembly appointed a committee of ten, to devise

THE HALF CENTURY. 131
some measures to diminish this groAving evil, and to
report to the assembly. Delegates from some of the
New England States were present, Avho participated
in the interest Avhich was awakened by the tract.
The subject Avas taken up and discussed in most of
the ecclesiastical bodies that met during that summer
in the New England States.
The incipient movements of all these bodies of
clergymen were tame and cautious. They seemed
to feel that they were grappling with a monster of
unknown power. The mere passing of resolutions,
expressive of their disapprobation of the custom of
drinking, Avas considered a wonderful triumph of
principle. It probably required as much moral cour
age to do that, as it did at a later day to sign a pledge
of total abstinence from every thing that can intoxi
cate. Some, it is said, were then prepared to abstain
from the use of alcoholic drinks ; but many ven
erable men were opposed to any decisive action. A
single fact will illustrate the state of feeling Avhich
then existed. One clergyman, who banished intox
icating liquors from his house, said his feelings were
exceedingly tried by having one of his brethren, a
man of high respectability, refuse to dine Avith him,
on the ground that he had no brandy upon his table.
In November, 1811, at a meeting of the New
York Synod, a sermon was preached, proposing total
abstinence as the remedy for intemperance. A letter
was received by that body from Rev. Lyman Beecher,
D. D., of Litchfield, exhorting tbem to attack the

132 THE HALF CENTURY.
monster boldly. The following resolution was finally
adopted : —
Resolved, " That hereafter, ardent spirits and wine
shall constitute no part of our entertainment at any
of our public meetings, and that it be recommended
to churches not to treat Christian brethren or others
Avith alcoholic drinks, as a part of hospitality in
friendly visits."
A letter was sent to the churches under the care
of the synod, calling their attention to this resolution.
The individual who was appointed to prepare the
letter, remarked, that after all, he had very little faith
in total abstinence. He did not believe there Avas
any great harm in taking a little, when he was ex
hausted by the labors of the Sabbath, nor did he
think it improper to invite a parishioner, who called
with some token of his regard, to take some refresh
ment. He changed his mind, however, a fcAV weeks
after. One of his parishioners brought him a piece
of meat, and took so much refreshment, that he be
came intoxicated. The thought, that he had put the
bottle to his neighbor's mouth, and made him drunk
en, so affected his mind, that he resolved never to
offer alcoholic drinks again to any one.
In October, 1812, the clergymen in Fairfield
county, Connecticut, resolved not to use strong drinks,
as a beverage, at their future meetings. A committee
was appointed to prepare an address to their people,
on the subject. Rev. Heman Humphrey, D, D,, was
on that committee.

THE HALF CENTURY. 133
The committee appointed by the General Assem
bly, in May, 1811, reported in May, 1812. So much
of the report as recommended the collecting and dif
fusing of information, Avas accepted ; but the part
which recommended abstinence, and the forming of
associations, was rejected. In June, 1812, the Gen
eral Association of Connecticut recommended the
disuse of spirits in families, moderation in the use of
it to farmers and mechanics, and that associations
should be formed to aid the civil magistrate in ex
ecuting the laAvs against drunkenness. During the
same month, an elaborate report of a committee,
appointed tbe year previous, was presented to tbe
General Association of Massachusetts. It was ascer
tained that 2,851,210 gallons of spirits were distilled
in that state in one year, and that tbe cost of spirits
annually consumed in the United States was from
twenty-three to twenty-five millions of dollars. The
association recommended the diffusion of infor
mation among the people respecting the evils of
intemperance, declared their belief that ministers
and Christians ought to abstain from this appearance
of evil, and that it was questionable whether it Avas
right for them to use strong drink on any occasion,
except for medicine. They also recommended that
the laws against drunkenness should be enforced, and
that associations should be formed to collect and dif
fuse information, and to excite a proper zeal among
the people on the subject.
In February, 1813, the Massachusetts Society for
13

134 THE HALF CENTURY.
the Suppression of Intemperance was formed, " The
object of the society was to discountenance and sup
press the too free use of ardent spirits, and its kindred
vices, profaneness and gaming, and to encourage tem
perance and general morality." Many societies of
this kind were formed in New England. They were
called by many "moral societies." No one could
become a member unless he sustained a good moral
character, was nominated in an open meeting, and
approved by two thirds of the members present, and
should pay two dollars. These societies labored to
suppress intemperance, not by setting an example of
total abstinence themselves, but by aiding the civil
magistrate in the enforcement of the laAvs, in dif
fusing information, and in efforts to induce those who
drank to drink less.
In 1813, the General Association of Connecticut
recommended to the trustees of Yale College not to
furnish spirits at the public dinner on commencement
day, and to the state authorities not to furnish them
for the public dinner given to the clergy on election
day. During this year, two sermons, preached by
Dr. Beecher at the anniversary of a moral society,
were published, and Dr. Humphrey published a series
of Essays in the Panoplist, recommending total absti
nence. In those Essays, he said, " My observation
authorizes me to believe that those who are addicted
to the use of spirits should abstain from it suddenly
and entirely. ' Taste not, touch not, handle not,'
should be inscribed on every vessel that contains

THE HALF CENTURY. 135
spirits, ill the house of the man who wishes to be
cured of intemperance."
Moral societies were formed, not only in New
England, but in other states. Tbe amount of good
accomplished by these associations was comparatively
small. The intemperate were enraged, but not re
formed. The evil, hoAvever, was better understood
than it otherwise would have been, and the people
learned the practicability and importance of combined
effort to resist the progress of prevailing vices. They
discovered, also, that those Avho enforce the laws
against the vicious ought themselves to have clean
bands. It Avas difficult for those who called them
selves moderate drinkers to answer those they called
drunkards, when they asked, "In what respect do
you differ from us?" All these societies, except the
Massachusetts, became extinct after a few years.
Some of the temperance addresses delivered at these
meetings were as thrilling and soul-stirring as any
that have since been listened to by deeply-affected
auditories. At a meeting of one of these societies, July 4,
1817, forty farmers pledged themselves to get their
hay that summer without intoxicating drinks, and
that they would pay additional wages to those Avho
would work for them without using distilled liquors.
Things continued thus for ten or tAvelve years. Here
and there an individual abandoned the use of alco
holic drinks ; some ceased to traffic in the article, and
some refused to furnish it as a beverage to those in
their employ.

136 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1824, a congregation in New England dug a
cellar, drew sixty loads of- stone several miles, built
a parsonage, moved a house and fixed it upon a new
foundation, in which eighty men were employed, and
some of tbem for several Aveeks, and no spirituous
liquors were used.
January 10, 1826, the first temperance society
was formed in Boston, the members of which pledged
themselves to abstain entirely from the use of dis-^
tilled liquors, except when prescribed by a physician.
' It was called the American Temperance Society.
The Massachusetts Society adopted a similar pledge
soon after. The cause of temperance then assumed
a ncAv aspect. The object aimed at by this society
Avas to suppress intemperance, not so much by the
strong arm of law, as by argument enforced by
example. There was a great number, who shoAved
by their own practice that they could perform any
kind of labor, and could better endure fatigue and
exposure to cold and heat, without strong drink, than
with it. During that year, a long series of articles
was published in a religious newspaper, entitled
the Infallible Antidote; or, Entire Abstinence from
Ardent Spirits the only Certain Prevention of Intem
perance. During the same year, a weekly paper,
called the National Philanthropist, was commenced
in Boston; it was the first paper ever published
devoted exclusively to the cause of temperance ;
its motto was, "Temperate drinking the downhill
road to intemperance."

THE HALF CENTURY. 137
In 1827, the society employed Rev. N. Hewit,
D. D., who was called " the Apostle of Temperance,"
to traverse the country and expose the evils of the
custom of drinking. Rev. J. Edwards, D. D., spent
some months in a similar agency. The prospect
began to brighten ; temperance associations were
multiplied. In almost every place visited by the
agents, some individuals were found, Avho had been
practising total abstinence, and were satisfied not
only that it was safe, but highly beneficial to health,
and a promoter of prosperity. It was not uncommon,
when the first temperance meeting was holden in a
place, for one or more persons, at the close of an
address, to rise and say, " All Ave have heard in favor
of abstinence is true, for Ave have tried the experi
ment, and are satisfied that alcoholic drinks are not
only unnecessary, but hurtful." The movement
seemed to be simultaneous through the country.
Persons in states remote from each other, and with
out any consultation, came out and took a public
stand in favor of total abstinence. This appeared so
wonderful, that many regarded it as proof that the
Divine Spirit moved upon the minds of men through
the length and breadth of the land. During this
year, a small volume of sermons by Dr. Beecher was
published, and very widely disseminated through the
country ; also a volume of sermons by Rev. J. G.
Palfrey, since a member of Congress from Massachu
setts, and Kittredge's Address, were published.
At the beginning of 1828, the custom of treating
12*

138 THE HALF CENTURY.
visitors Avith Avine, cordials, and brandy began to
disappear. Tbe sideboards of the rich and influen
tial, which hitherto had groaned under a load of
decanters, were relieved of their burden ; and a very
great change in the customs of society began to be
apparent. . In 1828, Dr, Hewit was appointed to an
agency for three years. At the close of this year,
there were reported in temperance journals 225 tem
perance societies. At the close of 1829, there were
more than 1,000, embracing more than 100,000
members, pledged to total abstinence ; 50 distilleries
had stopped, 400 merchants had abandoned the traffic,
and 1,200 drunkards had been reclaimed. The re
form had commenced in good earnest, and those Avho
were zealous in the cause were sanguine in the belief
that, in a very few years, distilled liquors Avould be
banished from the country, and a drunkard would
be rara avis, — a great curiosity.
On the 1st of May, 1831, it appeared that more
than 300,000 persons had signed the pledge, and not
less than 50,000 were supposed to have been saved
from a drunkard's grave.
There was, however, much opposition from those
Avhose love of intoxicating drink had become strong,
and from those, also, Avho loved the profits of the
traffic. They said their liberties were in danger;
their fathers had fought for liberty; and they would-
shoulder their muskets, and fight over the battles
of freedom, before they would relinquish their right
to drink Avhen they pleased. A very common objec-

THE HALF CENTURY. 139
tion, made by many of tbe poor, Avas, that they could
not afford to drink Avine, that signing the pledge
operated unequally ; it took from them the use of all
stimulants but cider and beer, but it left to the rich
the use of wine, which was often about as strong as
Cogniac brandy. In order to obviate this objection,
it was found necessary to introduce a new pledge,
prohibiting the use, not only of distilled, but of
fermented, liquors. The first society that adopted
this pledge was the Eighth Ward Branch of the
New York City Temperance Society. This was
called the tee-total pledge, — a name first given to it
in Preston, England, — and Avas adopted in that
country in 1833. The subject was discussed in this
country in 1834, and some societies formed. In
May, 1835, the American Society, the centre of
whose operations was at Boston, recommended the
tee-total pledge ; in July of the same year, it was
recommended by the New York City Temperance
Society, and in February, 1836, by the New York
State Temperance Society. , During this year, socie
ties that were formed on the old pledge were dis
banded, and new ones formed. Many who signed
the old pledge refused to sign the new; of course
there was an apparent falling off in the number of
the members of temperance societies. Some who
had delivered public addresses, and stood foremost
in the rank of reformers, Avere thrown into the back
ground, and were silent spectators of passing events.
The New York State Temperance Society did

140 THE HALF CENTURY.
more, perhaps, than any other, for tbe promotion of
the cause. Edward C. Delavan, the chairman of its
executive committee, a wealthy citizen of Albany,
together with John T. Norton and several others,
contributed freely for the support of the "Temper
ance Recorder," which was commenced in Albany
about 1831. The issues of that paper monthly were
sometimes more than 50,000, It was continued
about ten years, and rendered essential service to the
cause. Mr. Delavan has probably expended more
money in this cause than any other man in the
United States, for which he has the thanks of a
grateful community, and his name is enrolled among
the benefactors of his race. This is the man who
exposed the character, or rather the contents, of
Albany ale, and was prosecuted by John Taylor, a
brewer of Albany, for a libel. The case Avas tried
in 1840, the report of which is before the public ;
the verdict of the jury was in favor of the defendant,
with costs.
In this connection, it should be recorded that
L. M, Sargent, Esq., of Massachusetts, rendered an
essential service to the temperance reformation by
his Temperance Tales, published before and after
1836, forming eight or ten neat 18mo. volumes.
They are written in an elegant style, and were read
with intense interest.
From 1836 to 1840, the cause advanced sloAvly.
The subject of license laws Avas discussed largely in
legislatures, and some unwise laws were enacted,

THE HALF CENTURY. 141
which diverted the public mind from the great work
in which they had been successfully engaged.
Among the things to be remembered is the assault,
prosecution, and imprisonment of tbe Rev. George B.
Cheever, of Salem, Mass., now Dr. Cheever, of
New York. About the beginning of 1835, he pub
lished, in the " Landmark," a description of Deacon
Giles's Distillery. It was awful, horrid, shocking to
the sensibilities of drunkards themselves ; and yet it
seems to have been so true, that every body in Salem
and vicinity knew who sat -for the picture. Soon
after, Mr. Cheever was assaulted in the night by the
foreman of the distillery, who inflicted upon him a
severe flagellation with a raAV hide, to which Mr. C.
made ho resistance. He was prosecuted for a libel
by Deacon John Stone, of Salem, and the jury re-
'turned a verdict against the defendant. He was
sentenced to thirty days' imprisonment, which sen
tence Avas executed in January, 1836. Though the
law was against him, the sympathies of the com
munity were with him. He was regarded as a
martyr to the cause of temperance, rather than as a
felon. In 1840, a few drunkards in Baltimore formed
themselves into a temperance society, adopting the
tee-total pledge. None were admitted but reformed
drunkards ; they had public meetings, at which they
related their own experience. They excited great
interest ; the community learned that the half of the
evils of the use of alcohol as a beverage had not

143 THE HALF CENTURY.
been told. John Hawkins was a prominent member
of this society. Some of them were invited to visit
Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, to narrate their
experience, and lecture, so far as they were able.
Hawkins was a man of considerable native eloquence,
and has devoted most of his time, since his reforma
tion, to the advancement of the cause of temperance.
Societies composed of reformed drunkards, and
others associated with them for their aid and encour
agement, were called Washingtonian societies. They
carefully watched over those who signed the pledge,
furnished them with food and clothing, for a time,
if necessary, procured employment for those who
needed it, and if any one violated his pledge, they
gathered around him, and encouraged him to renew
it. They were sent abroad to lecture, and paid for
their services. The attention they received inspired
many a drunkard with the hope of redeeming his
character, and rising again to respectability and influ
ence. Too much importance was given to these labors.
Tbe former advocates of temperance sat down and
listened to the Washingtonians, Avho began to feel
that nothing had been accomplished by the old and
early advocates of the cause. They ran Avell for a
time ; but many of them, becoming proud of their
sudden elevation from the gutter to the rostrum,
Avhere they were listened to by admiring crowds,
said and did things disgusting to a considerable por
tion of the community, and soon lost their influence.

THE HALF CENTURY. 143
Moses Grant, of Boston, a gentleman of wealth
and character, has done much to promote the cause
of temperance in Boston and through the state. He
was the counseller and friend of the Washingtonians,
and has done much to sustain and encourage John
B. Gough,* the most fascinating and popular lecturer
that has ever addressed a public assembly on that
subject. Tbe American Temperance Union was organized
in 1837. Rev. John Marsh is its secretary, and has
devoted himself, from its organization to the present
time, to the diffusion of information, and to endeavors
to induce all to abandon forever the use of all intox
icating drinks as a beverage.
During a few years past, the cause has languished,
owing chiefly, I think, to tbe division of public
opinion respecting the best means of advancing the
cause. Some have been in favor of moral suasion,
and some of legal suasion. Some have been in favor
of giving every man liberty to sell who pleased, with
the hope that it would cease to be profitable. Some
have asked for new and severe laws against the traffic.
Some have been in favor of treating the subject
seriously, and connecting it more closely Avith reli
gion, and others for separating it from religion, as
widely as a moral question can be. In consequence
of these divisions of opinion in regard to men and
measures, the temperance cause has been shorn of
much of its strength. We cannot expect to see it
advance with rapid strides till the friends of the

144

THE HALF CENTURY.

reformation are united in their opinions in regard to
what they ought to do.
In closing this sketch, I should do injustice, if I
should omit to mention the name of Dr. Charles
Jewett, Avho was employed by the Massachusetts so
ciety for several years previous to 1848,«and Avho,
take him all in all, is one of the most able lecturers
that has ever been employed to advance this noble
cause. It is impossible, in so brief a sketch, to mention all
that has been done for the promotion of temperance
during the last tAventy-three years, or to mention a
tithe of the names of those to whom the public are
indebted for what has been accomplished.

Section 2. Anti-Slavery.
The discussions on tbe subject of slavery during
the last fifty years have been so numerous, the modes
of action so various, and the published documents so
v<^minous, that it is difficult to give a brief outline
of the whole matter. I shall aim only to narrate the
most important facts and events in the order in which
they occurred.
When the constitution of the United States was
formed, the subject of slavery was fully discussed.
Some Avere for abolishing it entirely. They said it
was a shame for those who had appealed to the Su
preme Being as the God of freedom, and had

THE HALF CENTURY. 145
obtained that for Avhich they asked, to encourage the
slave traffic, or to hold their fellow-men in bondage.
The most they could accomplish, however, Avas to
allow the insertion of an article in the constitution
deferring the abolition of the slave trade till 1808.
In 1807, it was enacted by Congress, that after the
1st of January, 1808, it should not be laAvful to
import into the United States persons of color, to be
held or sold as slaves.
In 1820, it Avas further enacted, that if any citizen
of the United States, or any person whatever, be
longing to a vessel oAvned wholly or in part by citi
zens of the United States, should land on any foreign
shore for the purpose of seizing colored persons, or
should receive them on board a ship for the purpose
of enslaving tbem, he should be adjudged a pirate,
and should suffer the punishment of piracy.
During the present century, slavery has been abol
ished in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and
New Jersey. The abolition was gradual, giving
freedom to children when they should attain to a
certain age, and to all after a certain date. If ^ be
said that slavery was abolished when the law for
gradual emancipation was enacted, then it was abol
ished in three of the above-named states during the
last century, and in the fourth, NeAv Jersey, in 1804.
But slavery did not entirely cease in Ncav York till
July 4, .1827, nor in Connecticut was it abolished by
law till 1848, though emancipation laws began to
take effect in 1809. There may still be some in
13

146 THE HALS' CENTURY.
New Jersey Avho are, in laAV, slaves, though not
treated as such. In 1840, there were 674.
At the beginning of this century, abolition or
manumission societies existed in some of the slave
states, by which public attention was called to the
slave system, though little was done directly for the
removal of the evil. During the administration of
Jefferson, before and after the purchase of Louisiana,
the state of Virginia sought, through the agency of
the general government, to obtain an asylum for free
people of color. This, however, Avas no indication
of any anti-slavery tendencies ; for in the slave states,
free negroes have always been considered a nuisance.
Their presence has a tendency to make slaves dis
contented and uneasy. There has always been in
those states a small minority in favor of emancipa
tion ; but few, probably, have been willing to eman
cipate without remuneration.
For some years previous to 1816, there was a sort
of national manumission society, that held a public
meeting, biennially, at Washington, These aboli
tion and manumission societies may be regarded as
the first stage in the development of anti- slavery feel
ing, and the formation of the Colonization Society
as the second. The subject of slavery was agitated
by a few here and there, during the first sixteen years
of this century, both in the free and slave states,
though their sentiments did not commend themselves
to the sympathy nor consideration of the mass of the
people.

THE HALF CENTURY. 147
The following extract from a letter, written by a
gentleman in Baltimore to his friend in England, in
1816, presents a view of public sentiment in that
quarter at that time : —
" Forty years ago, when my father gave liberty to
those in his possession, it excited the greatest alarm
throughout the state, and every effort Avhich sophis
try could suggest was made to induce him to retract.
Now emancipation seems to engage the attention of
all ranks. Societies are forming in the midst of the
slave states ; in some instances, almost exclusively by
slaveholders, for the express purpose of promoting
that interesting measure. Formerly, the right to
hold slaves Avas scarcely ever questioned ; now it is
admitted, on all sides, that they cu:e justly entitled to
their liberty. Under this impression, many are dis
posed to emancipate them, but are not willing to turn
them loose upon the community without education.
The societies to which I have alluded seem to be at
present in favor of colonization."
" Many families, of the first rank, have manumitted
their slaves, and few die without making provision
for their enlargement,"
A iew in the Southern States began thus early
to regard slavery as a great moral and social evil.
There were, and has continued to be occasional
insurrections among the slaves, and combinations
against their masters, so that, in cities and large towns,
it has been necessary to keep a vigilant watch, lest
they should rise and assassinate the white people.

148 THE HALF CENTURY.
It Was supposed that this desire for liberty was
excited by intercourse with free negroes. Hence
Virginia, in 1805, prohibited any master from eman-
cipathig his slaves, Avithout removing them from the
state. Since then, similar laws have been passed in
all the slave states, and also laws requiring free ne
groes to leave the state, or they were liable to be sold
into perpetual bondage.
In December, 1816, meetings Avere holden in
Washington, composed of members of Congress and
others, embodying the sentiments . of those who
AVished to do something for the removal of free ne
groes, and of those who Avished to encourage and
promote emancipation. Out of these deliberations
grew the American Colonization Society. It was
organized January 1, 1817. Bushrod Washington
was chosen president. The following articles of
the constitution show the aim and object of the
society : —
Article 1. " This society shall be called the Ameri
can Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color
in the United States.
Article 2. " The object to Avhich its attention is
to be exclusively directed, is to promote and execute
a plan for colonizing, with their consent, the free
people of color residing in our country, in Africa, or
such other place as Congress shall deem most expe
dient ; and the society shall act, to effect this object,
in cooperation with the general government, and such
of the states as may adopt regulations on the subject."

THE HALF CENTURY. 149
February 11, 1817, Congress passed a resolve au
thorizing the president of the United States to make
arrangements Avith other governments for the entire
suppression of the slave trade, and with Great Britain
for the introduction of colonists into their colony at
Sierra Leone.
The Rev. Samuel J. Mills and Rev. E. Burgess
Avere apix)inted, by the society, as agents to England,
and to the west coast of Africa, to see what could be
done for the advancement of the cause. They sailed
for England in November, 1817. In February, 1818,
they sailed from England for Africa. Mr. Mills died
at sea, on his return, June 16, 1818, aged 35.
A tract of land Avas purchased of the natives at
Cape Mesurado, and called Liberia, or the land of the
free. The first colonists arrived there in June, 1822.
In 1847, that colony declared itself a free and inde
pendent republic, and unfurled its flag to the breeze
on the 24th of August of that year.
For more than ten years, this society embraced
most of the active and efficient anti-slavery influence
in all the states of the Union. It was favored even by
those who regarded slavery as a patriarchal institution,
because it provided an asylum for free negroes, and
furnished the means of ridding the slave states of
what was there regarded as an intolerable nuisance.
It Avas favored by those who looked upon slavery as
a great evil, because it held out an inducement to
those whose consciences were troubled, to manumit
their slaves, and send them back to the land of their
13*

150 THE HALF CENTURY.
fathers. It was hoped that the existence of the
society Avould influence many to liberate their slaves
in order to be transported, and would hasten the time
of the emancipation of the whole.
, In 1818, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
church adopted and published a memorial on ^he
subject of slavery, which, Avhen Ave consider that the
body was composed of southern as well as northern
men, is a remarkable document. It shows that some
good men at the south took high ground. They
said, —
" We consider tbe voluntary enslaving of one part
of the human race by another as a gross violation of
the most precious sacred rights of human nature ; as
utterly inconsistent with the law of God, which
requires us to love our neighbor as ourselves ; and as
totally irreconcilable with the spirit and principles of
the gospel of Christ, which enjoins that ' all things
Avhatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do
ye even so to them.' Slavery creates a paradox in
the moral system ; it exhibits rational, immortal, and
accountable beings in such circumstances as scarcely
to leave them the power of moral action.
" It is manifestly the duty of all Christians, Avho
enjoy the light of the present day, Avhen the incon
sistency of slavery, both Avith the dictates of humanity
and religion, has been demonstrated, and is generally
seen and acknowledged, to use their honest, earnest,
and unwearied endeavors to correct the errors of for
mer times, and as speedily as possible to efface this

THE HALF CENTURY. 161
blot on our holy religion, and to obtain the complete
abolition of slavery throughout Christendom, and, if
possible, throughout the world." The Avhole docu
ment, from Avhich this is a brief extract, breathes the
same spirit.
In 1820, Missouri applied for admission to the
Union. The members of Congress from the free
states were most of them opposed to its admission as
a slave state, Avhile southern members claimed that
it should be a slave state. An application was made
to the same Congress for the admission of Maine, and
southern men said. If you will not admit Missouri,
as we wish, Ave Avill not vote for the admission of
Maine as you wish. By this threat, the representa
tives from some of the free states were induced, to
vote for the admission of Missouri with slavery ; with
an understanding, however, that the Southern States
would never ask for the admission of another north
of 36° north latitude. The debate Avas long and
earnest; there was more excitement than had ever
been manifested before on this great subject.
This debate led many slaveholders, Avho had con
tributed to tbe funds of the Colonization Society, to
feel that northern men, Avho contributed to the same
object, Avere more anxious to make the negroes free
than they were to send away those that Avere already
free. From this time the citizens of South Carolina
and Georgia manifested a marked coldness, and even
a deadly hostility to the society. They seem, about
that time, to have caught the idea that the sole object

152 THE HALF CENTURY.
of the society was not to remove free negroes from
the south, and, by so doing, to strengthen the* system
of slavery, but that there was a decided effort to in
duce masters to emancipate their slaves for the purpose
of sending them to Africa.
There were many at tbe north who had no faith
in colonization as an emancipation scheme, and yet
they, sustained it as the best thing they could do
under existing circumstances, and as affording an op
portunity to discuss the matter in the hearing of
southern people.
In 1827, a pamphlet was published in South Caro
lina, by a slaveholder, in which the Colonization So
ciety was denounced as making " an insidious attack
on the domestic tranquillity of the south," and as the
" nest-egg placed in Congress by northern abolition
ists, that therefrom might be hatched and raised, for
the south, anxiety, inquietude, and troubles to Avhich
there could be no end." In 1829, a South Carolina
paper asked, " Will Congress aid a society reprobated
at the south, and justly regarded as murderous in its
principles, and as tending inevitably to the destruc
tion of the public peace ? "
A writer in the Christian Spectator, in 1830, said,
" The agitation of the memorable Missouri question
seriously and for a long time retarded the progress of
the Colonization Society." The abolition element in
its composition was feared at the south, long before
any discovery was made at the north that it also con
tained a pro-slavery element. In September, 1830,

THE HALF CENTURY. 153
the conductors of the society felt themselves called
upon to publish a labored defence against the attacks
of southern men. It may be found in the African
Repository of that date.
The next important movement, in relation to slav
ery, was the publication of a Aveekly paper in Balti
more, called the Genius of Universal Emancipation.
The paper Avas not important in itself ; it was com
menced in 1827, and Avas discontinued in 1830. It
lived long enough to accomplish its mission ; it was
the first link in a chain of causes which has led to
important results. It was the instrumental means of
bringing William L. Garrison into notice, and fixing
him in the course he has been pursuing for the last
twenty years. During the latter part of the time.
Garrison was tbe assistant editor of that paper. For
writing an offensive article, be Avas prosecuted and
fined $50 and costs, which were $100. Being un
able to pay, he was cast into prison in Baltimore,
in April, 1830, and lay there 49 days, Avhen he Avas
liberated by Arthur Tappan, of Ncav York. Garrison
came from prison a martyr for the freedom of the
press and for liberty of speech, and was inspired Avith
new zeal in the cause of emancipation. "He was
told, and probably thought, the Colonization Society
ought to have come to his relief. The fact that
they did not had, undoubtedly, some influence in
arousing bis hostility against the society. While
the people at the south complained that the society
was aiming to promote abolition, Garrison and some

154 THE HALF CENTURY.
others at the north declared it to be a measure for
rivetting the chains of the slave, and for rendering his
freedom hopeless. They said the society sought
only to remove free negroes, that the system itself
might have more ample scope to grow undisturbed.
On the 1st of January, 1831, Garrison issued the
first number of the Liberator, a Aveekly paper, de
voted chiefly to the abolition of slavery, in which he
wrote in his OAvn peculiar style, boldly and rashly.
During the first year, he began to promulgate the
doctrine, that slaveholding, under all circumstances,
is sin, and that immediate emancipation is the solemn
duty of every slaveholder.
The promulgation of these doctrines, and the de
nunciatory spirit of the paper, maddened the people
at the south, and created divisions and discord at the
north. Some, especially the excitable, sympathized
with the editor of the Liberator, and, admiring his
boldness, became at once equally bold and denuncia
tory ; while others, who, for aught that appears, were
as much opposed to slavery in principle, could not
believe that such a mode of treating tbe subject was
best, nor that the doctrines of Mr. Garrison were all
sound. The differences of opinion, on this great subject,
existing among northern men, seemed to grow out
of a difference in temperament. Some men are
naturally more conservative ,than others, and are slow
to fall" in with new measures ; while others are quick
to speak and act. There have been these two classes

THE HALF CENTURY. 155
of men in every community, in all ages ; and when
any subject has greatly excited the public mind,
these have arrayed themselves against each other.
When one is for war, the other is for peace.
In January, 1832, the New England Anti-slavery
Society was formed. Up to that time, the mass of
tbe people at tbe north had taken very little interest
in tbe subject of slavery, and probably Avere not very
well informed in relation to it. In the first report
of the society it Avas said, " Many persons, of good
information on other subjects, could not even guess
the number of the slave population ; others Avere
hardly able to designate between the slave and free
states ; " others seemed not aware of the fact, that
slavery was in any sense maintained bjr the govern
ment of the United States; and "others possessed
^erely a general statistical knowledge, but had never
traced the pernicious effects of slavery upon tbe
prosperity or happiness of the slave states."
It was near two years before the agitation of the
subject at tbe north produced much excitement at
the south. In 1832, the legislature of Virginia was
called to consider the expediency of passing a law
for the gradual abolition of slavery ; and though no
law Avas passed, it appeared from the discussion and
vote, that the state Avas nearly ready for it, — much
nearer, to all human appearance, than they have been
since. In 1831, the subject of calling a convention to
alter the constitution, by inserting a clause providing

156

THE HALF CENTURY.

for the gradual abolition of slavery, was agitated by
the legislature of Kentucky. The bill was finally lost
in the Senate by a tied vote. In 1833, the synod of
Kentucky discussed, but did not adopt, the resolution,
"that slavery, as it exists in our bounds, is a great
moral evil, and inconsistent Avith the Avord of God
and that ministers who hold slaves shoiild instruct
tbem in the knowledge of the gospel." In 1835,
the synod published, in a pamphlet of sixty-four
pages, a plan for gradual emancipation; but the
abolition excitement reached the state about that
time, and nothing was done. In 1848, a proposal
was made to call a convention to amend the consti
tution. The friends of emancipation hoped to obtain
the insertion of an article in the constitution in favor
of the abolition of slavery. The number of eman
cipationists in the convention was too small to effect
their object. They held the balance of power be
tween the two political parties, and if they could not
do the good they Avould, they could prevent some
evil, •
In 1833, the resistance of the slave power at the
south began to manifest itself against the movements
of abolitionists. Many men at the south regretted
this ruffling of the Avaters, through an apprehension
that it would remove far from them the day of their
deliverance from Avhat was regarded by them as a
great moral and political evil. In May of this year,
a gentleman in North Carolina wrote to the editor
of the Boston Courier, to know how extensively the

THE HALF CENTURY. 157
sentiments of the Liberator were adopted at the
north, Avhat Avas the character of the men embracing
those vieAvs, and Avhat were their designs. The fol
lowing extract from that letter Avill show the state
of feeling Avhich then existed: —
" The moment that interference Avith the condition
of our slaves is seriously. attempted by any consider
able party in the non-slaveholding states, that mo
ment our Union is at an end. Sooner than suffer the
abolitionists to carry into execution their plans, I
Avould go for a dissolution of the Union, much as I
love it, I pledge myself for the accuracy of the
opinion, that not even an attempt to settle a question
groAving out of slavery would be made on the floor
of Congress."
In January, 1833, tbe first report of the Ncav Eng
land Anti-slavery Society was presented, a considerable
part of which Avas taken up in severely castigating and
denouncing the Colonization Society. It endeavored
to show that its chief object was to remove the free
negroes 'from the south, so as to make slavery more
permanent ; and that if the removal of slaves was its
honest intention, it could never be done. They
never could be all colonized in Africa. While the
abolitionists at the north condemned the society for
seeking to remove only free negroes, the friends of
slavery at the south condemned it for seeking to
niduce men to emancipate their slaves, that they
might be sent to Liberia,
The developments of feeling on the subject of
14

158 THE HALF CENTURY,
slavery, since then, have been so numerous and
rapid, that I can only glance at a few of them,
October 2, 1833, a meeting was called at Clinton
Hall, city of New York, to form an anti-slavery
society. Long before the hour arrived, a vast assem
blage of people collected in the streets about tbe
building, for the purpose of preventing the formation
of a society. The trustees closed the hall, and re
fused to open it. In the crowd Avere seen many dis
tinguished persons and men of influence. The mob
organized in the street, and passed sundry pro-slavery
resolutions. In the mean time, the friends of abolition
convened at another place, and organized a society.
In December of the same year, an anti-slavery soci
ety was organized in Philadelphia.
In 1834, George Thompson, of England, a gifted
speaker, and an earnest abolitionist, visited this coun
try, which helped to increase the excitement. In the
early part of this year, the students of Lane Theo
logical Seminary discussed the question of immedi
ate emancipation, and the insufficiency of the Col
onization Society to free the country from the curse
of slavery. They also began to act on the principle
that " all men are equal," The young gentlemen
rode and walked Avith colored ladies, and received
and returned calls from colored gentlemen and ladies.
The faculty of the institution adopted a code of by
laws, prohibiting them from devoting time to the dis
cussion of subjects and to a course of action that
drew them away from their studies. It produced a

THE HALF CENTURY. 159
great excitement, and most of the students left the
institution. During this year, Miss Prudence Crandall, of Can
terbury, Connecticut, opened a boarding-school in
that village for colored misses. She had a perfect
right to do so ; but tire people of Canterbury were
greatly enraged ; a town meeting was called, and the
result was, that tbe selectmen commenced a prose
cution, and Miss Crandall Avas found guilty of having
violated the laAvs of the state, which unrighteous
decision drew doAvn upon all concerned in the matter
the merited rebuke of good people.
In July of this year, James G. Birney, of Alabama,
then an agent of the Colonization Society, became a
convert to anti-slavery principles, and published an
able and candid letter on the subject. In October,
there was a riot in Philadelphia, Avhich continued
three successive nights. About forty houses were
destroyed Avhich were occupied by colored people.
The doctrine of the amalgamation of the white
and black races was talked about. Dinner parties
and tea parties Avere made, to Avbich Avhites and
blacks were invited. In some churches, negroes
Avere seated in the same slips with whites, and an
attempt AA'^as made to break down caste, and to elevate
the colored people, by introducing them into circles
of white people of the same degree of refinement
and intelligence.
In 1835, there was a riot in Ncav York, occasioned
by reports that certain individuals of wealth and

160

THE HALF CENTURY.

respectability associated with colored people on terms
of equality. It commenced at an anti-slavery meet
ing in Chatham Street chapel, which was broken up,
and many persons injured. The house of a dis
tinguished citizen Avas assailed, broken into in the
absence of the family, and the furniture very much
damaged. In July, Amos Dresser, one of the students Avho
left Lane Seminary, Avent to Kentucky to obtain sub
scribers for the Cottage Bible. The committee of
vigilance, having discovered in his box of books
some anti-slavery papers, used for packing, arrested
him, and condemned him to be whipped, twenty-five
lashes on the naked back. The order Avas executed.
In 1836, Birney's printing press was destroyed by
a mob in Cincinnati ; and in 1837, Lovejoy's press
was destroyed at Alton, Illinois, and he himself shot
down by the mob,
Tbe abolition society, up to this time, embraced
many of the best and strongest men in New Eng
land ; but many were driven by the excitement to
the use of such denunciatory language, to the con
demnation of ministers and churches, and to such
errors of doctrine, that th^ considerate and rational
anti-slavery men could no longer fellowship them,
A separation took place in 1840, and .since then there
have been two anti-slavery societies. At the head
of one are such men as Garrison, Wendell Phillips,
Stephen Foster, &c., and such women as Abby Kel
ley and Lucy Stone ; at the head of the other are

THE HALF CENTURY. 161
Lewis Tappan and Joshua Leavitt, and, I may add,
most of the people in the free states are with them
in sentiment, if not in action.
In June, 1839, the Amistad, a Spanish vessel,
sailed from Havana for the city of Principe, having
on board fifty-three slaves, who rose in the night,
and murdered the captain and a part of the crew,
preserving two Spaniards, their OAvners, whom
they compelled to turn the ship towards Africa.
Under the pretence of going to Africa, they sailed
for North America, and landed at New London. The
management of this affair, the trial of the slaves,
their instruction, and final transportation to Africa,
accompanied by two missionaries, engrossed the
attention of the leading abolitionists for a long time.
In 1834, numerous petitions were presented to
Congress on the subject of abolition. Southern
members were determined to prevent the discussion
of the subject on the floor of Congress. The peti
tions were laid upon the table by a major vote, with
out being read. The more Congress opposed the
receiving of such petitions, the more numerous they
became. In 1835, a rule was adopted prohibiting
any one from saying any thing on this subject. This
aroused the fears of many northern members, who
said the right of petition Avas in danger. John Q,.
Adams opposed the rule, and manfully defended the
right of petition. He Avas always furnished Avith a
sufficient number to be able to present quite a pack
age every week. There was often some peculiarity
14*

162 THE HALF CENTURY.
in some of the petitions, that required a few words
of explanation, Avhich was often a stirring anti-slavery
speech. In 1840, the rule was made still more strin
gent. It prohibited the receiving of such petitions.
This aroused the anti-slavery feeling still more. Pe
titions poured in from all parts of the free states,
and Mr. Adams found occasion for saying something
which was offensive to southern ears. He Avas finally
censured by the House, but it availed nothing. He
pursued the tenor of his Avay. Mr. Giddings, of
Ohio, Avas expelled ; but his constituents sent him
back. In 1844, the opposition was forced to yield so
far as to receive petitions and hear discussions.
The subject of slavery has become at length the
all-absorbing topic, California, in 1849, adopted a
State constitution, and applied for admission as a free
state. T'he opposition Avas strong, and the leading
men, north and south, have spoken for and against
slavery. I have passed over many facts and events Avbich to
many may seem entitled to a place in this narrative,
because it would extdind this section beyond the limits
I had prescribed.
I might speak of the action of churches and eccle
siastical bodies, of the agitation of this subject in
the meetings of the American Board of Commission
ers for Foreign Missions, of the AvithdraAval of some,
and the formation of a new missionary society in
1841, called the Union Missionary Society. I might
also speak of the rise and progress of the Free Soil

THE HALF CENTURY. 163
party, in 1848, of the Wilmot Proviso, which opposes
the organization of any ncAV state or territory that
does not exclude slavery, and of the excitement in
Congress in 1850. Most of these topics are too
recent to be chronicled as matters of history.

Section 3. Anti-Masonry.
I SHALL preface the history of this reform by one
or two extracts from the writings of freemasons
themselves, exhibiting their views of the character
and poAver of the institution.
In the introduction to a volume on masonry, pub
lished in New York, in 1827, and written by a mas
ter mason, it is said there Avere then 60,000 masons
in the United States. 'iLet freemasonry," says
the author, " be Avbat it may, it evidently has exten
sive influence — a powerful sway in this republic,
strictly combining a great body of active members
of the community in one secret fraternity, teaching
them its own highly-valued lessons, and enabling
them to act Avithont the responibilities attached to
the independent yeomanry of our country,"
In June, 1825, an address was delivered before a
lodge in New London, Connecticut, by W. F,
Brainerd, in which he says, " What is masonry
now ? It is poAverful. It comprises men of rank,
Avealth, office, and talent, in power and out of poAver^
and that in almost every place Avhere power is impor-

164 THE HALF CENTURY.
tant. It comprises, in large numbers from all classes,
active men, united together, and capable of being
directed by the efforts of others, so as to have the
force of concert throughout the civilized Avorld.
They are distributed, too, with the means of knowing
each other, of keeping secret, and of cooperating in
the pulpit, in tbe legislative hall, on the bench, in
every gathering of business, in every enterprise of
government, in every domestic circle, in peace and in
war, among enemies and friends, and in one place as
Avell as in another. So powerful is it at this time,
that it fears nothing from violence, either public or
pjivate, for it has every means to learn it in season
to counteract, defeat, and punish it,"
This is a remarkable announcement, and it is not
strange that republicans Avere alarmed, when told of
the existence of this secret power.
In August, 1826, it Avas known in the neighbor
hood of Batavia, New York, that William Morgan,
an inhabitant of that place, and a freemason, was
preparing for publication a book, in which the obli
gations and secret proceedings of masonic lodges
Avere to be divulged. Some members of the frater
nity became excited and alarmed, and endeavored to
dissuade him from his purpose. Their efforts being
vain, a conspiracy Avas formed for the purpose of
arresting the work. September 10, Morgan was
seized and carried to Canandaigua, -en the pretence
that he had committed theft. He was committed to
jail, and on the evening of the 12th Avas discharged

THE HALF CENTURY, 165
by the interposition of some of the conspirators, but
Avas immediately retaken and conveyed to Fort Ni
agara, at the mouth of Niagara River. From all the
evidence that has been collected respecting the dispo
sition that was finally made of him, there is no
doubt that, during the night of September 19, or 20,
1826, he Avas taken from the fort by masons, and
murdered, and his body sunk in Lake Ontario or
Niagara River.
This outrage upon the liberty of a felloAV-citizen,
and contempt of the laws of the land, from the pro
tection of Avhich he had been torn away, roused the
indignation of the community in the midst of Avhich
the offence had been committed. Information Avas
demanded of those who were supposed to know, but
not obtained. Search Avas made for the body, but it
could not be found. The excitement became in
tense, and spread over all that region. The book, in
the mean time, Avas published, and tended to increase
the excitement. The Avhole masonic fraternity were
regarded as in some sense implicated in the transac
tion. The murder of Morgan Avas considered the
natural consequence of the discipline of the masonic
institution. Men looked with alarm upon the influ
ence of a secret society that could violate the laws
of the land, and screen themselves from punishment.
Investigations were made. Some Avere accused
and brought before tribunals of justice, and acquitted
for want of evidence. The measures of those who
sought to discover the perpetrators of the foul deed

166 THE HALF CENTURY.
were embarassed, it was thought, by the influence of
tbe fraternity. The laAvs were relaxed, and the min
isters of justice lingered in their course, and the pub
lic press was awed into silence. A committee,
appointed by citizens in Western Nevv York, spent
six months in endeavors to ferret out the murderers
of Morgan, and published all they could learn in refer
ence to the whole matter, in a pamphlet that was
scattered broadcast over the whole land.
So deep and strong Avas the current of feeling
Avhich these disclosures produced against masonry,
that the people in that region resolved to seek redress
through the ballot-box, and that they would give
their votes for no mason to any office. Conventions
Avere called, and ncAvspapers established for the advo
cacy of the cause.
As early as 1828, the anti-masonic feeling had
become strong in all the Eastern and Middle States.
In February of that year, a lodge at Le Roy, New
York, influenced by public sentiment, renounced all
connection with the fraternity, and publishea the
secrets of the institution. Soon after this, an act
Avas passed by the New York legislature, authorizing
the appointment of a special counsel to investigate
the whole matter, and Daniel Mosely, Esq. received
the appointment. He devoted his Avhole time to it for
a year. One man, Avho Avas supposed to be impli
cated in the abduction of Morgan, fled to Europt,
and another to Arkansas. More than twenty persons
were indicted ; but the prosecutor could obtain no

THE HALF CENTURY. 167
conviction. Previous to 1829, more than 400 masons
in the state of New York renounced all connection
Avith masonry, and by their testimony the truthful
ness of Morgan's disclosures Avas confirmed.
At the commencement of 1827, there Avere only
two ncAvspapers in the land that had the moral cour
age to speak boldly against the masonic institution ;
but Avithin tAA^o years from that time, there were
thirty anti-masonic papers in the state of New York.
Anti-masonic sermons Avere preached from many pul
pits. Lecturers traversed the country. County and
state conventions were holden, and county and state
officers nominated. In 1830, a national convention
was holden at Philadelphia, and in 1831, another,
which nominated the Hon, William Wirt as the anti-
masonic candidate for president of the United States.
He received the electoral vote of Vermont, and one
seventh of the voters in Connecticut cast their votes
for that ticket. He received a very respectable
minority vote in several other states. Many toAvns
elected anti-masonic toAvn officers, and sent to the
legislature anti-masonic representatives.
In Massachusetts, in 1832, John Q,, Adams was
the anti-masonic candidate for governor. Petitions
were presented to legislatures, praying that the
charters might be taken from the lodges. The
committee to which these petitions were referred,
in Massachusetts, reported a bill requiring all lodges
to make an annual report of the number of members,
their funds, and all their proceedings. The bill was

168 THE HALF CENTURY.
lost. Such a bill passed the legislature of Rhode
Island, and the Grand Lodge of that state surrendered
its charter, rather than comply with the requisition.
The excitement Avas at its height about 1834.
The number of seceding masons had then become so
numerous, and so many lodges had disbanded, and so
few ventured to hold meetings, on account of the
odium attached to the institution, that the object of
the anti-masonic party seemed to be gained. The
party continued its organization till 1839. They
then nominated General W. H. Harrison as their
candidate for the presidency, who was also nominated
to the same office by the Whigs, and elected. The
election turned on other points, and so anti-masonry
was lost sight of, and the party became extinct.
This excitement and its results shoAved the poAver
of public opinion in a government like ours. Read
again Avhat Mr. Brainerd said at New London, in
1825, about the power of masonry, and consider how
soon it melted away before the scorching heat of
public sentiment. Lodges, in some places, continue
to meet ; but there is so much odium against the
institution that it cannot soon, if ever, regain its
popularity and influence.
Other secret societies have groAvn up in its stead,
one of Avhich, the Independent Order of Odd Fellows,
has many thousand members ; but if it ventures to
infringe upon the rights of man, or uses its power for
wicked purposes, its days will soon be numbered.

THE HALF CENTURY. 169
Section 4. Prison Discipline, Imprisonment for
Debt, and Houses of Reformation.
If no new principles have been discovered in regard
to tbe punishment of criminals during the period
under review, it is nevertheless true, that old ones
have been reduced to practice, and the knowledge
of tbem more Avidely disseminated. During the last
thirty years, the attention of the civilized wotld has
been called to the subject of prison discipline as it
has not been at any previous time.
There are two extreme or ultra vieAvs that have
been taken of this subject by some. The first is,
that the only end to be ansAvered by punishing the
guilty is to deter the innocent from the commission
of crime, and to induce those who have their liberty
to submit cheerfully to the laws of the land, lest they
suffer the pains of imprisonment. Those who favor
this view of the subject are for making the prisoner
as uncomfortable and wretched as he can be, without
greatly impairing his health, in order to deter others
from a manner of life that Avill result in bringing
them to the same place of torment. This theory is
more prevalent in Europe than in America. The
other extreme is, that the sole object of punishment
is to reform the prisoner, and make him a quiet and
peaceable citizen. According to this view, no more
pain should be inflicted than is necessary to effect
a moral cure. This class of reformers Avould have
the prison regarded as a moral hospital, the prisoner
15

170 THE HALF CENTURY.
the patient, and the turnkey the good Samaritan,
They are, of course, opposed to capital punishment.
Extreme opinions on any subject are usually false
and dangerous. There is reason to fear that the
deterrent principle will be abused, and prisons, in the
hands of those who would terrify the innocent, will
become a sort of inquisition. On the other hand,
there is reason to fear that those who regard a prison
as a hospital, by denuding punishment of its severity,
Avill render the prison a desirable place for those who
are Avithout homes and lead uncomfortable lives.
They will commit crimes for the purpose of gaining
admission to a pleasant and quiet home.
The more prevalent opinion in this country is the
mean between these wide extremes. It makes the
object of imprisonment twofold : to deter those
without the prison Avails from committing crimes,
and to reform, if possible, the incarcerated. The
prison must not seem to be a desirable place to any
one ; the prisoner's condition must be such, that he
will greatly prefer liberty ; and the influences brought
to bear upon him must be such, that he shall, if
possible, be induced to act on the principle that
" honesty is the best policy."
The great question that has been agitated among
prison reformers, for thirty years past, is, How shall
these two ends of imprisonment — the deterring of
the innocent from the commission of crime, and the
reformation of the guilty — be most effectually se
cured? It has been found a somewhat difficult
problem to solve.

THE HALF CENTURY. 171
Previous to 1820, prisoners bad so much freedom
of intercourse with each other, especially in croAvded
night-rooms, that our prisons were really schools of
vice. Those Avho came out of them, after finishing
their term of service, were better instructed in all the
mysteries of iniquity than when they entered.
In the early part of this century, a classification
was made of prisoners in some of our prisons, par
ticularly in Philadelphia. Those who were commit
ted for minor offences were sepeurated from those
imprisoned for more flagrant crimes ; the young Avere
not permitted to associate Avith old and experienced
transgressors. This was an improvement in the right
direction, but not all that Avas needed.
In 1821, the solitary system was tried in New
York ; eighty criminals were confined in separate
cells, in absolute solitude, having no intercourse with
their fellow-prisoners by night or day, having no em
ployment, and but a scanty supply of air, light, or
food. The consequence was, that mind and body
were crushed ; some died, while others became in
sane. In 1823-4, the Eastern Penitentiary of Pennsyl
vania was erected. It was intended that the convicts
should be confined in perfect solitude, without occu
pation of any sort. It was considered by many such
an outrage upon humanity, that it must not be tol
erated. In 1829, it was so modified as to consist of
solitary confinement day and night, with labor, and
instruction in morals and religion. The prisoners

173 THE HALF CENTURY.
never see each other, and seldom any human being
except an overseer or a teacher. This is called the
Pennsylvania, or solitary, system.
Another system, which is the prevalent one in the
United States, is Avhat is called the Auburn, or silent,
system. Criminals employed in the same art or
trade Avork together in the same room during the
day, and meet in the chapel for religious worship,
but are not allowed to speak to each other. This
system was adopted at Auburn, New York, in 1824,
and in Charlestown and Wethersfield in 1828. It is
decidedly the most popular system of discipline in
the United States.
It is believed by the defenders of the solitary
system, that their plan most effectually deters from
crime, and does not injure the prisoner's body or
mind ; but there is no doubt, that, so far as health,
economy, and reformatory effect are concerned, the
Auburn system is to be preferred.
A Prison Discipline Society was organized in Bos
ton June 30, 1825, It held its first annual meeting
June 2, 1826, and published a report. It has con
tinued to hold public meetings and publish annual
reports to the present time. The object of the
society is to diffuse information on the subject of
prison discipline, and to advocate the best mode of
treating prisoners. The reports of the society em
body a vast amount of information respecting the
causes and progress of crime, the condition of prisons,
and the^ success of various kinds of treatment upon

THE HALF CENTURY. 173
health and morals. Rev. Louis Dwight Avas appoint
ed secretary of the society at its formation, and has
continued in that office ever since. In the discharge
of his official duties, he has visited most of the
prisons in this country, and in 1846 spent a few
months in Europe in visiting prisons, and in making
inquiries into the success of their modes of discipline.
By the agency of this society, the attention of the
people of the United States has been aroused to the
subject, and the information that Avas very much
needed has been collected and diffused.
At the public meetings in 1846 and 1847, there
were some exciting discussions respecting the man
agement of the society's affairs ; but order and har
mony have been restored.
Tbe original work of tbe society, the introduction
of a better mode of prison discipline, has been ac
complished ; but the society still find much work to
perform. The secretary is now very much occupied
in efforts to improve the structure of prisons and
almshouses. The buildings are arranged in the form
of a cross, so that a single individual in the centre
room can oversee all the rooms on that floor.
The following statement shows the average num
ber of prisoners annually received to several prisons,
for a series of years in the early part of this century.
To the state prison in Vt., from 1805 to 1820, 32 were annually received.
" " N. H., " 1812 •• 1822, 20 " "
" " Mass.," 1805 " 1820, 93 " "
" " N. Y., " 1801 " 1816, 206 " "
" " N. J., " 1800 " 1819, 38 " "
" Va., " 1800 " 1820, 47 '• "
15*

174 THE HALF CENTURY.
The following statement shows the average num
ber of prisoners annually received to some of tbe
same prisons for a series of years at a later date. '
To the state prison in N. H., from 1837 to 1847, 21 were annually received.
" " " " Mass., " " " 101 " " "
" " ¦' in Sing Sing, N.Y., '34 to '44, 263 " " "
" in N. J., from 1834 to 1844, 65 " "
" " " " Va., " " " " 58 " " "
It will be seen, by comparing these statements,
that the increase of criminals is much less than the
increase of population in all these states except New
Jersey, which, on account of its proximity to Ncav
York and Philadelphia, is probably more infested
with criminals than it otherwise would be.
The state prison at Charlestown, Mass., Avas built
in 1805, and furnished Avith separate cells in 1828.
Previous to 1805, prisoners were confined on Castle
Island, in Boston harbor.
The prison at Wethersfield, Connecticut, was ready
for the reception of prisoners in 1828, at Avhich time
the old Newgate prison at Simsbury Avas abandoned.
The state prison of Maine is at Thomaston, and
was erected in 1823. The prison of Vermont was
located at Windsor, in 1808, and that of Ncav Hamp
shire at Concord, in 1812,
The prison at Auburn was erected in 1817, and
that at Sing. Sing about 1830.
The Eastern Penitentiary, at Philadelphia, was
erected in 1823, and the one at Alleghany city in
1827,
Impriso?iment for Debt. — BetAveen 1820 and.

THE HALF CENTURY. 175
1830, much was said and written upon tbe injustice
of imprisoning an honest debtor. It was maintained
that it was wrong to punish a man who, by an un
foreseen and unavoidable calamity, should be reduced
to poverty. The question Avas, Should one who in
tended no injury be treated as a criminal? Cases
often occurred in Massachusetts, in the early part of
this century, of persons being imprisoned months for
a debt less than five dollars. The laAvs of Ncav
Hampshire never gave a creditor power to imprison
one unless he owed him more than $13,33. About
1830, the legislatures of several states, moved by the
demand of the people, that imprisonment for debt
should be abolished, modified considerably their laws
relative to poor debtors. Maine enacted a law abol
ishing tbe imprisonment of honest debtors, and another
for punishing fraudulent ones. If the debtor had no
property except what Avas exempt by law, he was al
lowed to go before a magistrate and take his oath,
which secured him from arrest, unless some one could
prove that his testimony Avas false. It was said at
the time, that this law would annually save one thou
sand persons from imprisonment. The laws of most
and perhaps all the states exempt honest debtors from
y punishment. Houses of Reformation for Juvenile Delinquents.
— This class of institutions is for the moral benefit
of those who are guilty of petty offences Avhile under
fifteen or sixteen years of age. In cities and large
towns, there is always a considerable riumber of

176 THE HALF CENTURY.
young persons, Avho are not properly cared for by
their parents, and groAv up in ignorance and crime.
It does not seem proper to commit them to jails, nor
to treat them like old offenders. If they are impris
oned, their place of confinement should be a sort of
moral hospital, and the end aimed at reformation,
more than punishment. It is more humane to edu
cate tbem, and qualify them to earn their living by
some honest occupation.
The House of Refuge in New York city is of this
description ; it Avas established in 1825, and receives
none but the juvenile delinquents of that city. It
has usually from 200 to 300, who are trained to hab
its of industry, and finally bound out as apprentices.
Thousands have thus been rescued from a life of
infamy, and assisted in their progress to virtue and
usefulness. A similar institution was opened in Philadelphia, in
1828, and another at Boston, a few years later. How
many cities have institutions of the kind, I do not
know. There is only one state institution of the kind in
the Union ; that is at Westborough, Massachusetts.
It was opened for the reception of juvenile delin
quents November 1, 1848. It Avas built at the sug
gestion of an individual then unknown, Avho gave
the state ,$22,500, on condition that they Avould
establish and carry forward such an institution. The
benevolent donor died in 1849, and his acts of benefi
cence Avere then made public. It was Hon. Then--

THE HALF CENTURY. 177
dore Lyman, of Boston. He left for the benefit of
the institution,, in addition to what he had previously
given, a legacy of $50,000. Governor Briggs, in his
annual message to the legislature, in 1850, says,
"Noble benefactor! Friend of the young, of the
wayAvard, and the poor ! When the bloody laurels
of the Avarrior and destroyer of his race shall be
despised and trampled in the dust by an enlightened
and Christianized humanity, the names of such bene
factors as Theodore Lyman will be remembered and
revered, and -the generation of .the poor Avill rise up
and bless them."
None are received into this institution except those
sentenced by some legal tribunal for some misde
meanor. At the end of the first six months, it had
150 ; and in January, 1850, there were 310 juvenile
delinquents. Each one is sentenced for a series of
years. The boys being, for the most part, children
of parents who fail to govern and train them properly,
they are taken away and committed to the care of
such teachers as the state may direct, Avho will en
deavor to train them up in the way in Avhich they
should go.
Iti view of the facts presented in this section, it is
evident there have been great improvements in the
classification and in the physical and moral treatment
of prisoners. It is thought by some that crime has
increased, and by others that it has not. The ques
tion is one of difficult solution ; but it is my belief
that crime is diminishing. The arguments by which

178 THE HALF CENTURY.
I come to this conclusion take into consideration the
increase of population, and, above all, the enlightened
state of the public mind, Avbich sees things to be
heinous offences Avhich were formerly regarded as
trivial.

Section 5. Peace Societies.
The first effective movement in favor of peace in
this country, or any other, Avas made by Rev. Noah
Worcester, D. D., of Brighton, Massachusetts, in 1814,
On Christmas day of that year, he published an
anonymous pamphlet, entitled, A Solemn RevicAv of
the Custom of War. It Avas just at the close of the
war between the United States and Great Britain,
and just before the great battle of Waterloo, which
closed a thirty years' war in Europe. The whole
civilized world Avere sighing for peace ; they were
deploring the desolating influence of the Avar spirit,
and Avere praying that the gates of the temple of Ja
nus might be closed. Essays had been published
and sermons preached on the evils of war, and the
necessity of pursuing the things that make for peace,
before Dr, Worcester published his tract; but they
produced very little effect. The Solemn RevieAV
appeared at the right time ; the world was Availing
for a message from the Prince of Peace, In six
montbs it passed through five editions in this coun
try ; in 1815, it Avas republished in England, and
translated and published on the continent of Europe,

THE HALF CENTURY. 179
During the year 1815, four numbers of the Friend
of Peace, by Philo Pacificiis, Avere published, en
forcing and defending the principles inculcated in the
Solemn RevioAV, In January, 1816, the Massachusetts
Peace Society was formed in Boston, Dr, Worces
ter was its corresponding secretary, and the Friend
of Peace, of Avhich he Avas the author, became the
organ of the society. Dr. Worcester continued the
secretary of this society and the editor of its quar
terly magazine till 1828, when, by reason of his feeble
health, he Avas obliged to resign his office, and retire
from his onerous labors. He died at Brighton, Octo
ber 31, 1837, aged 79. In 1817 and 1818, peace
societies were organized in Maine, Rhode Island,
New York, Ohio, and in London. In 1818, the Lon
don society commenced a monthly journal of 32
pages, called the Herald of Peace.
The Solemn Review recommended the formation
of such societies, as the best means of embodying
public sentiment in favor of peace, and as an organi
zation for the diffusion of information on the subject.
The Massachusetts Peace Society, in two years,
printed about 6,000 different publications, and scat
tered them throughout the United States, Canada,
Nova Scotia, and Ncav Brunswick : they sent them
to the reigning sovereigns and influential men in
Europe, and received from some of them highly
encouraging replies.
There was opposition from some sources in this
country and in Europe. The London Christian Ob-

180 THE HALF CENTURY.
server published a severe criticism of the Solemn
Review, denying its main positions. Some clergy
men in this country felt themselves injured by the
insinuation that they had overlooked the fact that the
Bible inculcates peace on earth and good will among
men. In May, 1828, a national Peace ^Society was organ
ized at New York, of which William Ladd, Esq., of
Minot, Maine, was the corresponding secretary. The
society Avas called the American Peace Society ; it
commenced a periodical of 24 pages, 12mo., the Har
binger of Peace, which was edited by the secretary,
and published monthly. In 1831, it was enlarged,
and published once in two months, and called the
Calumet, of which Loring D. Dewey, the recording
secretary, was the editor.
In 1834, the Connecticut Peace Society commenced
the publication of a periodical, called the Advocate of
Peace. Mr, William Watson was the publisher, who
kept at Hartford a depository of books and tracts on
that subject.
In 1839, Boston became the centre of the opera
tions of the American Peace Society, at Avhich place
was commenced the publication of the Advocate of
Peace, which is still continued, I suppose the Calu
met and Hartford Advocate Avere merged in this,
Mr. Ladd Avas chosen president of the society, and
Avas its general agent to the time of his death, Avhich
occurred April 9, 1841, His age was 63, He was
deeply interested in the cause of peace, and devoted

THE HALF CENTURY. 181
to its interests much of his time. Tbe American
Peace Society have erected a monument to his
memory in the graveyard at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, where his remains were interred.
Rev, George C. Beckwith became the correspond
ing secretary of the society about 1839, and is so
still. Among the means used by the American Peace
Society to promote its philanthropic purpose may be
mentioned the obtaining of pledges from clergymen
to preach on tbe subject of peace at least once in
a year. It adopted this plan about 1833, and in
three years secured pledges from more than 400
ministers of different denominations.
About 1832, a premium of $500 was offered for
the best essay on a congress of nations, or the settle
ment of difficulties between nations by arbitration.
The essays were to be from 60 to 150 pages in
length. In 1833, seven were received; the report
of the committee was, that they Avere so nearly
equal in merit that it was difficult to decide between
them. They recommended that five of them be
accepted, and the premium be divided among their
authors. This the society refused to do. The prob
ability is, that the committee did not, and could not,
give the manuscripts so thorough an examination as
would warrant them in awarding the premium to any
one of the number. It required more time to read
a thousand pages of manuscript than men of business
can afford. The society, hoAvever, afterwards offered
16

182 THE HALF CENTURY.
a premium of $1,000; but in consequence of the
difficulty of finding men competent to decide, and
willing to read such a pile of manuscript, no premium
was ever aAvarded, though a large octavo Avas pub
lished. Mr. Ladd paid $12 a year to several colleges for
the best essay on peace, that should be furnished by
a student of the college. Some other friends of
peace did the same.
In June, 1843, a World's Peace Convention was
holden in London. Fifteen individuals from the
United States attended that convention.
The peace societies of this country and of England
have done very much to counteract the war spirit,
and to teach the civilized world that " wisdom is
better than weapons of war." It is believed that, in
consequence of the information that has been diffused
by these societies, a Avar between this country and
England was prevented when there was so much
excitement in regard to the north-eastern boundary,
the McLeod case, and the Oregon question.
These societies, however, did not prevent the
Mexican war, which has furnished a multitude of
facts, which the friends of peace are converting into
strong arguments in favor of peace. The society, in
1847, offered a premium for the best history of that
war that should be furnished in four months after
peace should be declared. In the winter of 1849,
the premium of $500 was awarded to Rev. A. A.
Liyermore, of Keene, N. H. His review formed

THE HALF CENTURY. 183
a volume of 300 pages, 12mo,, but was not published
for several months afterAvards, in consequence of tbe
author's absence from tbe country. The review of
Judge Jay, who was one of the competitors, was
published immediately. Though it did not take the
premium, it was deemed too valuable to be throAvn
aside ; it has bad an extensive sale.
In August, 1849, another peace convention was
holden at Paris. Ten delegates from this country
were present. The meeting is represented as one of
thrilling interest. A third convention Avas holden in
Germany in 1850.
It is hoped the day is daAvning when wars shall
cease from under the whole heaven.

Section 6. The Sabbath, and the Means used to
promote its Observance.
Says Blackstone, " A corruption of morals usually
folloAvs a profanation of the Sabbath," The early
settlers of New England were strict in their obser
vance of the Lord's day ; their descendants have de
parted from the old paths. Not only Christians, but
many not connected with churches, became long
since alarmed in view of the degeneracy of the age ;
and, during the last thirty years, much has been done
to promote the sanctity of the Sabbath.
A sketch of the action of Congress on this subject
stemds intimately connected with all other movements

184 THE HALF CENTURY.
in reference to this matter. By a law passed in 1810,
the postmaster-general considered himself bound to
compel the deputy postmasters, at offices Avhere a
mail arrived on the Sabbath, to keep open on that day,
for the delivery of letters. It seems, however, that
he had some scruples of conscience on tbe subject,
for he directed tbe carriers of tbe mail to pass as
quietly as possible through the country, "without
announcing their arrival or departure by the sounding
of horns or trumpets, or in any other Avay calculated
to draw off the attentfon of the people from their de
votions." Postmasters Avere required to keep their
offices open only one hour after the arrival of the
mail on the Sabbath ; but if it arrived during public
worship, that hour should be immediately after.
At the next session of Congress, the people from
different parts of the country sent up remonstrances,
first, against the carrying the mail on the Sabbath,
and, secondly, against requiring postmasters to open
their offices for the delivery of letters on that day.
These remonstrances Avere referred to the proper com
mittee, Avho reported in favor of carrying tbe mail
and opening offices. In 1812, 1815, and 1817, similar
remonstrances called forth similar reports. In 1812
and 1815, the reason assigned for not repealing the
law AA'as, the peculiar state of the country, it being
engaged in Avar ; and it Avas deemed a Avork of neces
sity. The report of 1815 Avas presented before the
news of peace arrived, Mr, Meigs, the postmaster-
general, assigned as a reason for carrying the mails

THE HALF CENTURY. 186
on the Sabbath the astounding argument", that, if they
were not, " they Avould be delayed one seventh of the
time;" a member of Congress said "public conve
nience required it." In 1817, the postmaster-general
assigned the following remarkable reason for carrying
mails on the Sabbath : " The contents of tbe mail,"
he said, "are not confined to public despatches, nor
to subjects of private business or pleasure. Tbe same
mail which transports such matters, conveys supplies
to those in want, consolation to the afflicted, and, to
the pious, evangelical correspondence ; and thus, per
forming works of charity, it may be regarded as doing
good on the Sabbath day." During this year, the
committee reported, that whfle it was necessary to
transport mails on the Sabbath, it was not needful
that offices should be kept open for the delivery of
letters. Here the matter rested until 1825, when a
law was passed more rigid than any that had previ
ously been enacted. It required that all post-offices
at Avhich mails arrived on the Sabbath should be
kept open during the whole of that day. In 1829,
petitions were presented from all parts of the Union,
praying for the repeal of that law. In March, 1830,
Richard M. Johnson presented bis famous report,
drawn forth by the petitions of 1829, respecting which
it has been said, " Satan never accomplished a greater
temporary victory over the Sabbath, through any
agency, in any country, than Avas accomplished by
this report, if Ave except the abolition of the Sabbath
in France, during the reign of infidelity." A minority
16*

186 THE HALF CENTURY.
of the committee presented, at the same time, an able
report, advocating better views ; but Johnson's sent a
thrill of horror through the land. It called forth a
fuller expression of public opinion than we ever had
before on this subject, from tbe press, and pulpit, and
legislative halls. LaAVS requiring the transportation
of the mail on the Sabbath were regarded by many
as unconstitutional. Almost every state in tbe Union
prohibits its citizens from keeping their shops open,
and from engaging in secular labors on the Sabbath.
The laws of Congress, it was said, conflicted with the
rights of the states.
Since then the number of Sabbath mails has been
gradually diminishing. The construction of railroads
has had, and is having, a salutary influence. They
carry the mails ; and, as the number of passengers on
that day, over many of the roads, is very small, they
cannot carry the mail on the Sabbath without extra
pay. Economy, therefore, has forced tbe government
to discontinue ver.y extensively tbe Sabbath mail ;
and in 1848, the postmaster-general signified his
readiness to discontinue it, whenever and wherever it
Avas the wish of the people along the route that it
should be done. Since 1830, the friends of the Sab
bath have been gaining ground. Richard M, John
son's report, over which infidelity rejoiced, defeated
its own object. It awakened a deeper interest in tbe
subject than Avas ever felt before. Associations were
formed, and conventions held, and means used to
promote a better observance of the Lord's day.

THE HALF CENTURY. 187
About 1825, the question began to be discussed,
whether ministers, in going to another parish to ex
change on Sabbath morning, did not violate the law
of the Sabbath. Some spoke of it as a crying sin,
and said it was wrong for clergymen in cities to walk
to any other church than their own on that day.
The erratic aboUtionists of New England, about
1840, began to bold Anti-Sabbath conventions.
They have bolden several, at which many things
shocking to the moral sense of all respectable men
have been uttered. Some of them ended in a row ;
they were not able to adopt any resolutions which
they were willing to publish to the Avorld and defend.
In 1842, 1843, and 1844, fifteen general Sabbath
conventions were holden in the United States ; seven
of them were state conventions, and attended by from
100 to 500 delegates. One of them was a national
convention, holden at Baltimore, November 27 and
28, 1844, at which 1700 delegates were present from
11 different states. John duincy Adams presided,
and, in allusion to the remark of a foreigner, that
"our observance of the Sabbath is truly national and
American," said that " we will gladly accept it as our
distinction, and wear it as tbe fairest of all that grace
our escutcheon, that we preeminently honor the Sab
bath and the Sabbath's Lord."
In 1844, the American and Foreign Sabbath
Union held its first annual meeting, of which Rev.
Justin EdAvards, D. D., was, and still is, secretary.
By the munificence of individuals, he has been sus-

188 THE HALF CENTURY.
tained, and has travelled through all the states, ad
dressed legislatures, ecclesiaistical bodies, and large
assemblies, in most of the cities, on the importance of
the Sabbath. He has also collected a vast treasury
of facts, and has published at the end of each year a
permanent Document for general circulation. They
have been republished by the American Tract Socie
ty, and by them scattered through the length and
breadth of the land.
In 1800, good men slumbered over the desecration
of the Sabbath. They have since awoke, and axe
now doing much to promote its sanctity.

Section 7. Moral Reform.
This phrase has, within a few years, acquired a sort
of technical meaning. It is used to denote the ref
ormation of those who violate the seventh com
mandment, and also to designate the means used to
prevent its violation, or to promote chastity.
The first movement of the kind Avas made in the
city of New York, in the autumn of 1830, by John
McDoAvall, who left the theological seminary at
Princeton at that time. A society vS^as organized
for the moral and religious improvement of the Five
Points. He visited the Avretched families in that
neighborhood, and preached from house to house,
against the abominations that existed in that vicinity.
An asylum was provided, called the Magdalen Asylum,

THE HALF CENTURY. 189
to be a place of refuge for females who desired to
reform and return to virtuous life.
About the commencement of 1832, he published
his Magdalen Report, in Avhich he gave somewhat in
detail his discoveries respecting the prevalence of
this sin, and signified that he kncAV the names of
many persons in the higher walks of life who Avere
in the habit of visiting these dens of iniquity. The
fears of, this class of persons were awakened, lest
McDowall, in his zeal, should speak their names in
the public,ear, and their fair fame should be sullied.
The report produced a great excitement, and even
good men and clergymen thought him impudent.
It was said that his report communicated infor
mation to tbe vicious, and was a kind of directory to
houses of ill fame.
In January, 1833, he commenced the publication
of a journal, called McDowall's Journal, in which he
minutely detailed the enormities of this vice. It
was presented by the Grand Jury of New York as a
nuisance, and a great excitement was produced.
Some condemned his course, and others approved.
He was licensed to preach in 1832, and was un
tiring in his efforts to do good. He was opposed and
persecuted by some of the friends of virtue, Avho,
listening to the reports that were circulated, no doubt
believed that he Avas less benevolent than he professed
to be, and that he applied to bis own use money
that Avas designed for the use of the society. These
suspicions were, undoubtedly, without foundation.

190 THE HALF CENTURY.
It appears that he lived in extreme poverty, expend
ing all he received to promote the cause to Avhich he
had devoted himself.
In May, 1834, the American Female Moral Reform
Society Avas organized, which commenced the publi
cation of the Advocate of Moral Reform, at which
time McDowall relinquished his Journal.
In the early part of 1836, he Avas summoned to
appear before the third presbytery of Ncav York, to
ansAver to charges preferred against him ; and in April,
he was suspended from the exercise of all the func
tions of the gospel ministry. The presbytery con
sisted of forty members, but his suspension Avas
decided by ni}ie votes. He appealed to the synod,
who reversed the decision. Shortly after, near the
close of 1836, he sickened and died in consequence
of his excessive labors and sufferings. In 1838, a
memoir of 400 pages was published, in which he is
styled a martyr to the cause of virtue.
He seems to have been the man raised up, in the
providence of God, to direct public attention to this
vice. He accomplished the object, though he fell a
sacrifice to the cause. He Avas a good man, though
earnest, ardent, and often imprudent.
The American Female Moral Reform Society
learned Avisdom from his labors, and have pursued
a course that has met the approval of all Avho have
become acquainted Avith their operations. Their
paper is ably conducted, and has a very extensive
circulation. They are doing a good work, in which
Ave bid them "God speed."

THE HALF CENTURY. 191

CHAPTER V.
IMPROTEMENTS EST THE MEANS OF INTERCOMMUNI
CATION.
No improvements, in a pecuniary point of view,
are more valuable to a civilized people than those
which facilitate intercourse between places remote
from each other. Nor is there any thing that more
certainly indicates the progress of a people in the
arts and sciences, and the prosperity of a nation,
than su*ch improvements. Until there is a cheap and
easy mode of transporting the produce of the coun
try to a good market, the lands in the interior will
be of little value, the settlers on them few, and those
not the most enterprising.
I may safely say, that the improvements made in
the means of intercourse between large cities and
places far distant from them, during the last fifty
years, are far more valuable than any made during
1,800 years previous. They consist chiefly in the
opening of canals, in the application of steam to the
propulsion of boats and ships, and in the construction
of railroads. Toavus that were so remote from
market, that the cost of transporting the produce
exceeded the price for Avhich it could be sold, have,
in effect, been brought so much nearer, that the mar
ket price exceeds the cost of tilling the land and
conveying its produce to market. Lands that were

192 THE HALF CENTURY.
once worthless have become valuable. Towns and
cities that were separated by an almost impassable
gulf, have been brought into proximity to each other,
and people that Avere strangers have become neigh
bors, and are bound together by many endearing ties.
The civilization and intelligence that were formerly
concentrated in cities and large towns, are noAv more
equally diffused over the country. Those who live
one, and even two hundred miles from the city, may
obtain the daily papers on the day of their publica
tion ; and the merchant thus far from the market, if
he find himself destitute, of any article, can have it
ready for his customers in forty-eight hours. ^ If the
facilities for intercourse between distant places, that
now exist, had been predicted at the beginning of
the present century, the foreteller would have been
regarded as a wild enthusiast, having more imagina
tion than common sense.
I propose, in this chapter, to give a brief outline
of the improvements in the modes of travelling, of
conveying goods to and from the markets, and of
communicating intelligence, that have been made
during the last half century.

Section 1. Canals.
Canals are artificial channels for water, cut for the
purpose of inland navigation. They are not a mod
ern invention. But very few Avere opened in this

THE HALF CENTURY. 193
country prior to 1800. The probability is, that the
number of them Avill not in future be very much
increased ; so that the last fifty years may be re
garded as the era of canals in this country. They
Avill be superseded by railroads, Avhich can be used
all tbe year, the first cost of Avhich is not very
much greater, and they can more easily be kept in
repair. The following table comprises a list of some of
the longest canals that have been completed in the
United States since 1801 :
Names. What they connect.
Santee, S. C. Santee River and Charleston.
Middlesex, Mass. Merrimac River and Boston.
Champlain, N. T. Hud.son River and Lake Champlain.
Hudson and Erie, N. T. Hudson River and Lake Erie.
Union, Pa. Schuylkill and Susquehanna.
Syracuse and Oawego. Erie Canal and Lake Ontario.
Geneva and Montezuma. Erie Canal and Lake Seneca.
Delaware and Hudson. Rivers of those names.
Delaware Division of Penn
sylvania Canal. Bristol and Easton.
Central Division. Columbia and Holly day sburg.
Western Division. Johnstown and Pittsburg.
Susquehanna. Duncan's Island and Northumberland.
Northern Branch. Northumberland and Lackawanna.
Western Branch. Northumberland and Dunnstown.
Ohio Canal. Lake Erie and Ohio.
Miami Canal. Cincinnati and Wabash.
Wabash and Erie. Lake Erie and Wabash.
Illinois Canal. Lake Michigan and Illinois. 1847. 100.
The Erie Canal is the longest in the United States
and in the world, except one in China. The state
of New York has more miles of canals than any-
other state in the Union, and they produce a largei
income than any others. Dewitt Clinton, though
17

opened.

Mites
in length.

1802.

22

1808.

27.

1824.

63.

1825.

363.

1827.

80.

1828.

38.

"

21.

"

109,

1830,

101,

«

172,

"

105.

1831,

39.

1830,

73,

1830,

72,

1832.

309,

178.

194 THE HALF CENTURY.
not their projector, was their firm advocate, and
probably did more to induce tbe state to undertake
and complete these great works than any other
man. The stupendous canals that have been opened,
chiefly during the last 35 years, enable vessels adapted
to inland navigation to pass from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Gulf of St, Lawrence, without encountering
the dangers of the Atlantic Ocean, Goods may be
sent by Avater up the Hudson, through the Champlain
Canal and Lake, to Montreal ; or through the Erie
Canal and Lake, and Ohio Canal and River, to New
Orleans, or to St, Anthony's Falls.
The disadvantages of canals are, that in the North
ern and Middle States they cannot be used more than
half the year; the motion is slow, not exceeding
three miles an hour. But there is no Avay in which
heavy goods can be transported to tbe interior of a
country at so cheap a rate, or by which the produce
of a country can, with so little expense, be sent to
market.

Section 2, Steamboats and Steamships.
A VERY great change has taken place in the navi
gation of rivers, lakes, and of the ocean even, since
the invention of boats propelled by steam. Formerly,
the Connecticut, from Hartford to the Sound, and the
Hudson, from Ncav York to Albany, were navigated

THE HALF CENTURY, 195
only by sloops, which were often a week in ascend
ing the former, and two weeks in ascending the
latter. Some experiments Avere made in Europe during
the latter part of the last century, to see if a vessel
could be moved by steam ; but none of them Avere
successful. Our countryman, Robert Fulton, was
then in Europe, and assisted in these experiments.
He returned to America in 1805, and by the aid and
patronage he received from Chancellor Livingston,
who had faith in the success of the undertaking, he
began to build a boat to run upon the Hudson River.
Livingston applied to the legislature of Ncav York,
and obtained for Fulton the exclusive right of navi
gating that river by steam, provided that in one year
from that time he should put upon the river a boat
that should move at not less than four miles an hour.
It was regarded by the legislature, however, as a visr
ionary scheme, and the right Avas granted without
any debate. This right, hoAvever, proved of little
use to him, for his exclusive privilege Avas limited to
that river, and even that was infringed upon so exten
sively, that he never realized enough for his discov
ery to pay him for the expense of carrying it into
operation. He made his first trip to Albany, 150
miles, in August, 1807, in 32 hours, and returned in
30. The success of the experiment Avas so satis
factory, that he Avas urged to make regular trips
during the remainder of the season, and did so.
The following interesting letter was published in

196 THE HALF CENTURY.
Hunt's Magazine, in 1846, describing the first trip to
Albany : —
" Judge Wilson resided in the city of New York
when Fulton Avas building the boat, and frequently
saw her on the stocks. She was a queer-looking
craft, and excited much attention, and not a little
ridicule. When she Avas launched, and the steam
engine placed in ber, that also was looked upon of a
piece with the boat built to float it. A few had seen
one at work raising the Manhattan water into the
reservoir back of the almshouse ; but to the people
at large the whole thing Avas a hidden mystery.
Curiosity was greatly excited. When it Avas an
nounced in the Ncav York papers that the boat Avould
start from the foot of Cortland Street at six and a
half o'clock on Friday morning, the 4th of August,
and take passengers to Albany, there was a broad
smile on every face, as the inquiry was made, if any
one would be fool enough to go ? A friend of the
writer, hearing that he intended to venture, accosted
him in the street: 'John, will thee risk thy life in
such a concern ? I tell thee she is the most fearful
wild fowl living, and thy father ought to restrain
thee.' When Friday morning came, the wharves,
piers, housetops, and every ' coigne de vantage ' from
Avhich a sight could be obtained, were filled with
spectators, " There were twelve berths, and every one was
taken through to Albany, The fare Avas seven dol
lars. All the machinery was uncovered and exposed

THE HALF CENTURY. 197
to view. The periphery of the balance-wheels, of
cast iron, some four or more inches square, ran just
clear of the water. There were no outside guards,
the balance-wheels being supported by their respec
tive shafts, Avhich projected over the side of the boat.
The forward part was covered by a deck, which
afforded shelter to the hands. The after part was
fitted up, in a rough manner, for passengers. The
entrance into tbe cabin was from the stern, in front
of the steersman, Avho worked a tiller, as in an ordi
nary sloop. Black smoke issued from tbe chimney;
steam issued from every ill-fitted valve and crev
ice of the engine. Fulton himself was there. His
remarkably clear and sharp voice was heard above the
hum of the multitude and the noise of the engine ;
his step was confident and decided ; he heeded not
the fearfulness, doubts, or sarcasm of those by whom
he was surrounded. The whole scene combined had
in it an individuality and an interest Avhich comes
but once, and is remembered forever.
" When every thing was ready, the engine was set
in motion, and the boat moved steadily but slowly
from the wharf: as she turned up the river, and was
fairly under weigh, there arose such a huzza as ten
thousand throats never gave before. The passengers
returned the cheer, but Fulton stood upon the deck,
his eyes flashing with an unusual brilliancy, as he
surveyed the crowd. He felt that the magic wand
of success was waving over him, and he was silent.
" When coming up Haverstraw Bay, a man in a
17*

198 THE HALF CENTURY.
skiff lay waiting for us. His appearance indicated a
miller ; the paddle-wheels had very naturally attracted
his attention ; he asked permission to come on board.
Fulton ordered a line to be throAvn to him, and he
was draAvn alongside ; he said he ' did not know
about a mill going up stream, and came to inquire
about it,' One of the passengers, an Irishman, seeing
through the simple-minded miller at a glance, became
his cicerone; showed him all the machinery, and con
trivances by Avhich one wheel could be thrown out
of gear, when the mill was required to come about.
After finishing the examination, said he, ' That will
do ; now show me the mill-stones.' ' O,' said the
other, ' that is a secret Avhich the master,^ pointing to
Fulton, 'has not told us yet; but when we come
back from Albany Avith a load of corn, then, if you
come on board, you'll see the meal fly.' Dennis kept
his countenance, and the miller left.
" As Ave passed West Point, the whole garrison was
out, and cheered us as we passed. At Newburg, it
seemed as if all Orange county was collected there ;
the Avhole side-hill city seemed animated with life.
Every sail-boat and Avater-craft was out ; the ferry
boat from Fishkill was filled Avith ladies. Fulton
was engaged in seeing a passenger landed, and did
not observe the boat until she bore up nearly along
side. The flapping of a sail arrested his attention,
and, as he turned, tbe waving of so many handker
chiefs, and the smiles of bright and happy faces.
struck him with surprise ; he raised his hat, and

THE HALF CENTURY. 199
exclaimed, ' That is the finest sight we have seen
yet.' " Fulton, in his letter to Barlow, (on the 22d of
August, 1807,) adds to these reminiscences — 'My
steamboat voyage to Albany and back has turned out
rather more favorable than I had calculated. The
distance to Albany is one hundred and fifty miles. I
ran up in thirty-two hours, and down in thirty. The
latter is just five miles an hour. I had a light
breeze against me the whole Avay, going and coming,
so that no use was made of my sails, and this voyage
has been performed wholly by the power of the
steam engine. I overtook many sloops and schooners
beating to the windward, and passed them as if they
had been at anchor.' "
During tbe following winter, he built a new boat,
finished with much elegance, and commenced regular
trips again in June, 1808, since which time steam
boats have been constantly plying between New
York and Albany. Fulton established the custom
of starring at the very minute he had said the boat
would leave the wharf, whether all those who had
engaged a passage Avere on board- or not. It produced
some excitement for a time. He was accused of
being unaccommodating ; he persevered, however, and
was able to teach the travelling community a valua
ble lesson on the importance of punctuality. The
custom is still continued in the Eastern and Middle
States. If a boat any where on the Atlantic coast is
advertised to sail at seven, a man is sure of losing his

200 THE HALF CENTURY.
passage if he arrives at the wharf five minutes past
seven. It Avould be a great favor to travellers on the
western rivers, if the same punctuality was observed
by the commanders of those boats.
The people of Albany, the merchants along the
river, and the OAvners of sloops Avere exceedingly
hostile for a time to this new mode of travelling.
Merchants feared their best customers would leave
them, and do their trading in New York, The
owners of sloops foresaw that their business would
be greatly diminished, and that their prices Avould be
reduced. Their days Avere numbered, their golden
harvest had been gathered, and in future they could
be only gleaners in the field of enterprise,
A man by the name of Stevens built a boat, and
launched it upon the Hudson, soon after Fulton had
taken possession of the waters. Finding himself
excluded, he proceeded Avitb it by sea to the Dela
ware Bay, and with it navigated the Delaware River.
Fulton died in 1815, aged fifty. At that time, the
machinery Avas so much improved that boats ran
nine miles an hour. Soon after his death, one of his
boats commenced running between New York and
Providence, and in 1818, a steamship ran between
New York and New Orleans. The number of boats
on the Hudson increased rapidly. Before 1830, there
Avere twenty, some of Avhich were properly called
"floating palaces," and performed the trip in thirteen
hours. The first steamboat that ran upon the western

THE HALF CENTURY. ,201
waters was built at Pittsburg, in 1811. It Avas de
signed for the Mississippi. Four more Avere launched
in 1814, and three in 1815, As late as 1816, it was
supposed the Ohio River could not be navigated by
steamboats, on account of the falls at Louisville,
and bars and shoals elsewhere. It was said the difli-
culties of the LoAver Mississippi might be conquered;-
but the people residing on the banks of the Ohio
must wait for some more happy " century of inven
tions." In 1817, the enterprising Captain Shreve made a
trip from Ncav Orleans to Louisville, 1,275 miles, in
twenty-five days. The event was celebrated by a
public dinner to the daring individual who had
achieved so great an exploit. Previous to that, an
ordinary passage by barges and sail-boats occupied
three months. A revolution in western commerce
was at once effected, and now packages of goods
are shipped from New York, via New Orleans, to St.
Louis or Cincinnati, for one cent per pound. In 1827,
the improvements in western boats were such, that
the Tecumseh performed a trip from Ncav Orleans to
Louisville in eight days and two bours:
In 1820, the first steamer ascended the Arkansas
River; and in 1831, six boats ran constantly between
St. Louis and New Orleans, six from the latter city
to Louisville, one to Cincinnati, and tAvo up the Mis
souri, four hundred miles, to Fort Leavenworth.
The whole number of boats on the Mississippi and
its tributaries, in 1818, was 23.

202 THE HALF CENTURY.

In 1819, it was 27.
1823, " 89.
1831, " 198.
1834, " 230.

In 1840, it was 286.
1842, " 450.
1843, " 642.
1848, " 1,300.

The tonnage of all these boats is estimated at
260,000 tons, and their net value $18,000,000,
No one, until he has seen for himself, can have any
definite idea of the number and extent of the navi
gable rivers in the Valley of the Mississippi, nor of
the amount of business and travel on these waters.
A steamer may leave Brownsville, on the Monon-
gahela, in Western Pennsylvania, and pursue a long
and weary way of 2,000 miles to New Orleans, and
ascend from thence the same distance to the Falls of
St, Anthony, Journeys from Pittsburg to New Or
leans, on horseback, used to be performed in about
three months ; now, by steamers, in two weeks.
When boats first commenced running from New Or
leans to Louisville, the fare was from $125 to $150,
and cheerfully paid. When the fare was so reduced
that a man could go from Pittsburg to the Crescent
City for $100, it Avas thought to be very Avonderful,
Now the fare, including board, is, I think, not more
than $25.
Lake Erie Avas first navigated by steam in 1818,
by a boat built at Black ,Rock, Avhich had the sig
nificant name of Walk-in-the-water. When she made
her first trip, the novelty of the sight excited great
curiosity. She Avas lost in 1822, but was immedi
ately succeeded by the Superior. In 1829, there

THE HALF CENTURY. 203
were seven steamboats on Lake Erie, and sixteen in
1833. In Avbat year the first boat passed through the
upper lakes, I am not informed ; though it appears
that 2 steamers arrived at Mihvaukie in 1835,
19 in 1836, and 182 in 1839. They must have
commenced running between Buffalo and Chicago
somewhat earlier. The navigation of the great lakes
by steamboats has proved a great blessing to the
North-western States. Their market Avas New Or
leans, now NeAV York and Boston. The flour and
w^heat dealers in Chicago can choose between the
great commercial cities, and send to Avhich they
please, or to all.
Steam navigation has made the Western States ac
cessible to eastern people, and has been the means of
increasing the population of those states rapidly.
Ocean Steamers. — The beneficial results of steam
navigation on inland waters, and along the coast, led
to the inquiry, whether the ocean might not be navi
gated Vi^ith steamships. The opinion, for- a long
time, prevailed, that the size of the boat, the weight
of its machinery, and the great quantity of fuel that
would be needed during the voyage, would render the
attempt hazardous ; or, if successful, it must be very
unprofitable. At length a company in England pro
posed to try the experiment! The first steampacket,
Sirius, left Cork, April 4, 1838, and the Great West
ern left Bristol on the 8th of the same month, and
both arrived safely in New York, April 23, " This

204 THE HALF CENTURY.
event formed a new era in navigation, and was the
commencement of a new and expeditious mode of
intercourse between England and the United States."
Since then steampackets have continued to run be
tween Liverpool and New York, leaving each place
on the beginning and middle of each month. The
passage from Liverpool to New York occupies usually
about seventeen days, and from New York to Liver
pool, about fifteen.
In 1840, the Cunard line of steamers commenced
running between Liverpool and Boston, touching at
Halifax, The first steamer of this line, the Unicorn,
left Liverpool May 16, and arrived in Boston June 13.
The packets of this line leave Liverpool and Bos
ton on the "same days, twice each month. The May-
Flower, in 1620, was sixty-five days in its passage
from Portsmouth to Cape Cod, The same voyage is
now made in about ten days. The United States
is in effect brought nearer to Europe than it fornierly
was, and commerce and friendship between us and
other nations is thereby promoted.

Section 3. Railroads.
Railroads were first constructed in the neigh
borhood of some of the collieries in England, in
the sixteenth century. They were composed en
tirely of wood, as were the Avheels of the cars, and
were drawn by horses. ^ Cast iron rails were first
used in 1767, and th^se of malleable iron in 1811.

THE HALF CENTURY, 205
The first railroad in the United States was con
structed at Q,uincy, Massachusetts, to convey stone
from the granite quarries to a shipping port on Ne-
ponset River, a distance of about four miles. It was
finished in 1827.
The following table contains a list of the earliest
railroads in this country, and some of the more im
portant ones : —

When

Name.

Location.

Length.

Jinuhtd.

Quincy.

To Neponset River.

4.

1827.

Mauch Chunk.

To the Coal Mines.

5.

1828.

Mount Carbon.

(C (( 11

7^.

1830.

Little Schuylkill.

CC It It

23.

1831.

Ponchartrain.

To New Orleans.

5.

1831.

Alohawk and Hudson.

Albany and Schenectady.

16.

1832.

Columbia.

To Philadelphia.

82.

(C

Westchester.

. To Columbia.

9.

CC

Newcastle. *

To Frenchtown, Del.

16.

t(

South Carolina.

Charleston to Harrisburg.

136.

1833.

Camden.

Amboy, N. J., to Delaware River.

61.

1839.

Boston and Providence.

To Providence.

41.

1835.

iSoston and Worcester.

To Worcester.

45.

1835.

Western,

Worcester to Springfield.

54.

1839.

u

Springfield to Albany.

102.

1842.

Baltimore and Ohio,

To Harper's Ferry.

86.

1835.

Between the years 1830 and the beginning of
1848, more than 5,000 miles of railroad were con
structed in the United States, at an expense of
$120,000,000. " This is unprecedented in the his
tory of civil constructions. It demonstrates, better
than any other fact, the gigantic growth, the un
ceasing industry, and cumulative poAver of capital
in this new and vigorous nation."
There is' a continuous line of railroad from Port
land, Maine, via Boston and Albany, to Buffalo, or
18

206 THE HALF CENTURY.
from Portland, via Boston, Springfield, New Haven,
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, to Washing
ton, D. C, or to the foot of the Alleghanies, west of
Cumberland. These changes in the means of locomotion give a
noAv impulse to the human mind, and have opened
to poets and orators a new field from which to derive
figures for adorning our literature. We find often
expressions of this sort : " The iron horse, whose
sinews are steel, and whose provender is fire, is off
for Washington or Buffalo. His unceasing clatter
echoes among our hills all day, and his fiery train
illumines our valleys at night."
Railroads to the Pacific. — Mr. Whitney, a wealthy
and enterprising gentleman of New Yorlg, a few
years since, conceived the plan of constructing a
railroad from Lake Michigan to the mouth of the
Columbia River. He surveyed and examined the
route, or so much of it, at his own expense, that he
Avas convinced it was feasible, and that, if Congress
would give him a strip of land ten miles wide, ou
each side of the contemplated road, he would carry
it through. A committee of Congress, in 1847, re
ported in favor of the project ; but the bill was finally
lost, more, it was thought, through the want of a
sufficient degree of interest in the subject, than from
any real objection to the plan. He presented his
plan to the legislatures of several states, and thirteen
of them, in 1848, passed resolves in favor of the
enterprise

THE HALF CENTURY. 207
In 1849, Mr, P. P, F. Degrand came before the
people of the United States with a plan of a railroad
from St. Louis to San Francisco, California. He
proposes that " a company be chartered by Congress,
with a capital of $100,000,000, and that this com
pany, after having paid in $2,000,000, have the right
to borrow United States six per cent, stock, to such
an amount, not exceeding $98,000,000, as may be
necessary to finish the road and carry it into full
operation, with a double track." He proposes, also,
that Congress give this company a strip of public
lands, ten miles wide, on the north side of the road,
the land for the bed of tbe road, and the right to take
from the public lands such -materials as may be neces
sary to construct said road. An application was
made to Congress, in 1850, in .favor of this enter
prise. One of the roads will undoubtedly be con
structed before many years shall elapse. If such a
road were in operation, all tbe goods carried from
Europe to Eastern Asia, and from Eastern Asia to
Europe, would pass through the United States,
making us the carriers for all nations.
While these great projects are maturing, another
railroad is in the actual process of construction across
the isthmus from Chagres to the Pacific. The esti
mated expense of this road is $1,000,000. The
books were opened in New York, in June, 1849, and
the whole stock taken up in one week. It is to be
completed in 1851.
The Liverpool Chronicle, in January, 1850, in ref-

208 THE HALF CENTURY.
erence to these stupendous works, says, " The usual
channels of trade are about being abandoned. Com
merce always seeks the shortest route, and thfe
shortest, by-and-by, will certainly be through North
America, from the east to the west. The states,
aware of this, are obtaining possession, directly and
indirectly, of the land on either side of the proposed
railways and canals, and we are just awakening to a
knowledge of their intention. It is not our business
or our interest to offer any interruption to the enter
prise of American citizens, or to oppose in any way
the progress of the republic ; such attempts would
be futile and disastrous. We have a deep interest in
her welfare ; she is our best customer ; but our own
security demands that we keep ahead of her in gen
erous rivalry ; and while she acquires greatness, we
must continue to become more great,"

Section 4. Electro-Magnetic Telegraph.
" Telegraph " is the name given to a system of
mechanism used for conveying intelligence rapidly
by means of signals. The best in use, prior to the
invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph, Avas one
invented by Colonel Paisley, of France, in 1822. It
consisted of upright posts of moderate height, having
tAvo arms moving upon a common pivot, each of
which could be put in seven positions, and each posi
tion indicated a Avord, or sentence. The posts were

THE HALF CENTURY. 209
placed from three to five miles apart ; but each Avas vis
ible to the nearest on either side. When the arm of the
first was put in a given position, the man at the second
put his in the same position, and the third, fourth,
&c,, did the same, and a word was thus run through
tbe line at tbe rate of about a mile in a second ; then
another word was conveyed in the same way, and
then another, and so on, till the whole inessage Avas
communicated. It could be used, of course, only
by daylight. There were 27 of these signal-
posts between Calais and Paris, 152 miles ; a word
was conveyed through the line in three minutes, and
a sentence of ten words in half an hour. There
were 80 signal-posts between Paris and .Brest, 325
miles, through which distance a Avord Avas conveyed
in ten minutes, and a sentence of ten words in one
hour and forty minutes. It Avill be seen at once that
this mode of conveying intelligence was very expen
sive ; it required more than 80 men to convey ten
words 325 miles, and. kept them occupied one hour
and two thirds. And yet it Avas deemed so important
to be able to convey it in this speedy manner, that
the government of France supported them at the
cost of $210,000 annually. England paid $15,000
a year to sustain 72 miles of telegraph, betAveen
Portsmouth and London,
It has therefore, for a long time, been a desidera
tum to discover some method of conveying informa
tion accurately, rapidly, and at a cheap rate. Franklin,
the distinguished electrician, suggested the idea that,
18*

210 THE HALF CENTURY.
inasmuch as the electric fluid passes along wires of
any length whatever instantaneously, it might possi
bly be made the means of conveying information.
In 1832, Professor Samuel F, B, Morse, while on
his way from Europe to the United States, had his
attention directed to this remark of Franklin, in con
versation with some scientific gentlemen, who were
his fellow-passengers. He determined to investigate
the matter thoroughly, and, before he reached home,
had fixed upon the leading principles of the discov
ery. It was based on the two following facts : —
1. " That a current of electricity will pass to any
distance along a conductor connecting the two poles
of a voltaic battery, and produce visible effects at
any desired points on that conductor,
2. " That magnetism is produced in a piece of
soft iron, around which the conductor, in its progress,
is made to pass, when the electric current is permitted
to flow, and that the magnetism ceases Avhen the cur
rent of electricity is prevented from flowing."
Hence, if the end of a soft iron lever be placed
beneath the iron to be magnetized, it can be made. to
rise and fall as the electricity flows, or is interrupted.
The other end of the lever, having a point in if, may
be made to press on a strip of paper or not, at the
will of the operator. This point may be made to
impress a dot or a line, at pleasure, A dot and a line
may represent letters, and by different combinations
of dots and lines any letter of the alphabet may be -
represented. The operator in one city can make the

THE HALF CENTURY. 211
appai-atus in another city, at any distance, write what
he pleases, by breaking and closing the circuit at
longer or shorter intervals.
In 1838, Professor Morse presented the considera
tion of his discovery to Congress, and asked for aid
to enable him to test the practicability of his discov
ery. He secured a patent for his invention. The
committee of Congress reported a bill making an
appropriation of $30,000 for the purpose for which it
was asked. It being near the close of the session,
and Professor Morse having sailed for Europe, to
secure patents there, the report of the committee was
not acted upon. It was brought before Congress
again in 1842, and the appropriation voted.
In the spring of 1844, the posts were set, and the
wires extended from Washington to Baltimore, forty
miles, and the magnetic telegraph put in successful
operation between those cities. In 1845 and 1846,
Professor Morse sold to private companies the right
to use the telegraph on specified routes ; and, before
the close of 1848, there Avere 7000 miles of tele
graphic wires in the United States, connecting the
principal cities in the Union. The merchant in Bos
ton or New York can, in this Avay, send a message or
propose a question to a merchant in Cincinnati, St.
Louis, or New Orleans, and in tAvo or three hours
receive an answer. The morning papers at Boston
and New York contain a record of what took place
at Buffalo, or Baltimore, or Pittsburg, at eight o'clock
the evening previous. An event that occurs in New

212 THE HALF CENTURY.
York at two o'clock, P. M., may be published in the
streets of St, Louis before two ; the conveyance of
the intelligence does not use up all the difference in
time between the two cities. The whole of Presi
dent Polk's last message, in December, 1848, was
'telegraphed to St. Louis and other western cities ; the
paper on which the telegraphic signs were written Avas
7200 feet in length. The newspapers that were pub
lished the day succeeding the presidential election in
November, 1848, had returns of the votes of a por
tion of more than half the states in the Union. It
was a most wonderful display of what can be accom
plished by human skill, under the guidance of science.
There are now 11,600 miles qf telegraph in the
United States, Avorked under Professor Morse's patent.
Electric telegraphs Avere invented by Wheatstone
of London, Steinhill of Munich, and Masson of Caen.
The principle of their telegraphs was different from
Morse's. The celebrated Ampere, soon after Oersted,
having discovered that a magnetic needle was deflected
by electricity, suggested that a telegraph might be
constructed by running as many Avires as there were
letters in the alphabet, and placing a magnetic needle
near the extremity of each. The movement of a
given needle would signify Avhat letter was to be
written. All the European electric telegraphs since
1825 grew out of this suggestion of Ampere, Wheat-
stone's, which Avas used for a time in England, em
ployed six wires and five needles, by the movements
of which he indicated all the letters of the alphabet.

THE HALF CENTURY. 213
Professor Morse's has been examined by scientific
men in Europe, and is acknowledged to be simpler,
cheaper, and far more valuable.
There are now in this country three rival tele
graphs. The authors of each have secured patent
rights. Morse sued one of them for an infringement
of the patent, and gained his cause before the courts
in Kentucky ; but the Supreme Court of the United
States has decided that a principle cannot be patented ;
that Morse's great discovery that messages can be
communicated by electricity can no more be patented
than the law of gravitation, discovered by Newton.
Morse's patent, therefore, secures to him only a mo
nopoly of his mode of writing. If any one else can
invent a different mechanism for doing the same
thing, the patent laAvs give him the right to do so.

Section 5. Post-Offices.
The post-office system, during the last fifty years,
has been greatly extended. The number of post-
offices has increased very rapidly, and the mail is
employed for conveying letters of friendship, as well
as of business, more than it was. There were many
towns in New England that contained, in 1800, more
than one thousand inhabitants, that had no post-office
within ten miles. In the three counties in Massa
chusetts crossed by the Connecticut River, there
were then, I think, only three offices. Of course, the

214 THE HALF CENTURY.
people wrote in those days no more letters than it
was necessary they should. It was not then, as it is
now, so important a means of civilization, and did
comparatively little to bind together families sepa
rated by distance, and to keep them reminded of each
other's welfare. Now, every village of three or four
hundred people deem it necessary to their happiness
and comfort, as well as interest, to have a post-office,
and a mail at least once a week.

Posl-Qliees.

Milfs of
Post Routes

Income.

1800

903

20,817

$280,804

1805

1,558

31,076

421,373

1810

2,300

36,406

551,684

1820

4,500

72,492

1,111,927

1830

8,450

115,176

1,850,583

1840 13,468 155,739 4,539,265
1848 16,159 163,208 4,371,077
In 1800, tbe rates of letter-postage were as follows :
Under 40 miles, 8 cents ; over 40 and under 90
miles, 10 cents ; over 90 and under 150 miles, 12^
cents ; over 150 and under 300 miles, 17 cents ; over
300 and under 500 miles, 20 cents; and over 500
miles, 25 cents.
About 1815, the rate of letter-postage Avas altered:
Under 30 miles, 6 cents ; over 30 and under 80
miles, 10 cents; over 80 and under 150 miles, 12^-
cents ; over 150 and under 400 miles, 18f cents; and
over 400 miles, 25 cents.
In 1845, a system of cheap postage was intro
duced. All letters not exceeding half an ounce in

THE HALF CENTURY. 216
weight, for any distance not exceeding 300 miles, 6
cents ; for any distance greater, 10 cents.
If the franking privilege was abolished, the postage
on letters might be reduced still loAver. Special
efforts m-e making to induce Congress to establish a
system of penny postage, or at least to have all letters
carried to any place within the boundaries of the
United States for tAvo or three cents. It is thought
the post-office department could afford to do it, if the
franking privilege was abolished. There certainly is
no good reason why members of Congress, who are
fully paid for their services, should have the privilege
of using the mail without charge, and every other
individual in the country pay one or two cents more
for every letter they receive, to enable them to receive
their letters gratis.
Rowland Hill's system of penny postage was intro
duced into England in 1840. The number of letters
mailed in Great Britain in 1839, under tbe old system,
was 76,000,000; in 1848, under the new, it was
346,000,000.

216 THE HALF CENTURY.
CHAPTER VI.
PROGRESS OF SCIENCE,

Section 1. Science the Handmaid of Religion.
During the last century, infidel philosophers were
diligent in their efforts to find some fact in science
that would prove some part of tbe Bible false, and thus
invalidate the authenticity of the Avhole. As early as
1806, the French Institute had formed more than
eighty theories in regard to the age of the world, all
of which were hostile to the Bible. If they could
show by facts that the earth bad existed more than
4000 years at the birth of Christ, then it would fol
low that the chronology of the Bible was wrong, and
would afford a reasonable ground for concluding that
many of its narratives may also be wrong. By some
it was confidently asserted, that the earth had existed
as many as 15,000 years previous to the Christian
era. These attempts to array the deductions of sci
ence against the sacred Scriptures aroused the friends
of the Bible, and led to a more careful examination
of the relations of science to religion. This subject
has attracted more attention during the last 50 years
than ever before.
In 1809, Avhile the French army Avas in Egypt,
several learned men attached to it, having leisure.

THE HALF CENTURY. 217
spent considerable time in attempts to ascertain the
depth of the diluvium deposited by the annual over
flowings of tbe Nile. They entered upon this exam
ination, it is said, for their OAvn gratification, without
any reference to Scripture chronology. They select
ed the most favorable place for an examination, and
dug more than 200 pits at different distances from the
river, and came to the conclusion that the depth of
tbe diluvium was a little more than 20 feet. They
furthermore ascertained that the stratum deposited in
a century was a little more than 4^ inches. Now, if
20 feet be divided by 4^ inches, it gives a quotient of
56J-, showing that the Nile had been overflowing its
banks 5,650 years, which is so near the age of the
Avorld, according to the chronology of the Bible, that
it Avent to confirm the friends of the sacred volume in
the belief that they had nothing to fear from the in
vestigations of science.
An argument has been derived by infidels against
the truth of the Mosaic record, from the zodiac of
Denderah, found near Thebes, in Upper Egypt. On
removing the rubbish from that ancient temple, it
Avas found to be adorned Avith astronomical figures
and hieroglyphical characters. They found there a
circle, representing the ecliptic, or zodiac. This was
separated from the temple and removed to France
in 1821. -The French astronomers noticed that
the sign Leo Avas there represented, as they inferred
from its position, as the first sign of the ecliptic;
Avhereas, in modern astronomies, Aries is the first. It
19

218 THE HALF CENTURY.
is well known that there is an annual precession of
the equinoxes, which amounts to one degree in 71|
years. The French astronomers reasoned in this
Avay ; they said, when that temple was constructed,
tbe sun must have crossed the Equator in Leo, but
since then the precession of the equinoxes has carried
it forward 210°, to the sign Pisces, The temple, they
said, must have been built 210 times 7 If years ago,
or 14,967, This result Avas published and repub
lished throughout Europe, as a triumphant refutation
of the truth of the Mosaic chronology.
There was at that time in France a distinguished
man, John Francis Champollion, Avho had devoted
much time to the study of Egyptian antiquities, and
had succeeded in deciphering their hieroglyphics.
He found, in the temple of Denderah, a Greek inscrip
tion, from which he learned that the temple Avas
erected while the Romans were possessors of Egypt,
and that it was dedicated to Tiberius. It must,
therefore, have been built only 50 years before the
Christian era. In a letter written by the minister of
the interior to the king of France, dated May 15,
1826, it is said, " Your majesty has not forgotten that
the discoveries of Champollion have demonstrated
beyond contradiction, that the zodiac of Denderah,
which appeared to alarm public belief, is only a work
of the Roman epoch in Egypt."
Infidelity, unwilling to relinquish so good an argu
ment, admitted that the temple itself might be mod
ern, but the zodiac must have been copied from one

THE HALF CENTURY. 219
that was constructed Avhen the sun crossed the equa
tor in Leo,
It so happened that, just at this point of time, an
enterprising traveller returned from Egypt, bringing
with him a mumm^^, which he obtained near the
temple from which the zodiac had been taken. On
opening it, there Avas found a Greek inscription, from
which it was known to be tbe body of Pentemenon,
the son of Soter and Cleopatra, who died at the age
of 21 years, 4 months, and 22 days, in the 19th year
of the reign of Trajan, or June 2, A. D, 116, In the
case, and encircling the head of the mummy, there
was a zodiac resembling the one found in the temple,
but so placed that the sign Capricorn was directly
over its head. This suggested the idea that the
zodiac was used for astrological and not for astronom
ical purposes. Having the precise age of Penteme
non, it was easy to determine that he was born under
the sign Capricorn, Avhich was placed over his head.
By the same process of reasoning, it was made evi
dent that the position of the zodiac of Denderah de
termined the sign under which the temple was built.
Infidelity Avas forced to retreat, while Science showed
herself to be the handmaid of Religion.
The science of geology, under the tutelage of
sceptical men, has been made to testify that the earth
was created and full of vegetable and animal life
many thousand years anterior to the time specified in
the book of Genesis. I shall speak of this more fully
in the section on geology.

220 THE HALF CENTURY.
Infidelity has denied tbe resurrection of Christ
from the dead on the assumption that he was not
dead Avhen laid in the sepulchre. She declares that
he could not have died in so short a time by the ordi
nary pains of crucifixion. A late Avriter, eminent in
the medical profession, has shown, by reasoning from
the facts we have on this subject, that Avhen " on him
Avas laid the iniquity of us all," such was the pressure
of sorroAv, that it produced a rupture of the heart,
and hence the reason Avhy life Avas so soon extinct.
Within two or three years, the theory has been
revived, that the different races of men are not, as the
Scriptures teach, the descendants of one original pair.
The advocates of this theory do not profess to deny
the teachings of the Bible. They claim that the
Scriptures, properly interpreted, do not teach that all
men descended from Adam. Already two volumes
have been published in opposition to this opinion, one
by Dr. Bachman and the other by Dr. Smythe.
They are learned and able treatises on the subject, to
Avhich no reply has been made. We have no fears
for the result ; we believe that Science, as heretofore,
will prove herself to be the handmaid of Religion,
Science affords numerous and striking illustrations
of religious truth; and the more carefully its princi
ples are investigated, the more distinctly will it be
seen that the principles of science are not at war
with the principles or facts recorded in the sacred
Scriptures, During the last twenty-five years, much has been

THE HALF CENTURY. 221
written shoAving the connection betAveen science and
religion. The works of Drs. Dick and Duncan, of
Scotland, contain much that is valuable on this
subject.

Section 2. Astronomy.
The progress of astronomical science, during the
last fifty years, is seen in tbe discoveries that have
been made, in the greater perfection of astronomical
instruments, in the accuracy of calculations and ob
servations, and in the wider diffusion of a knowledge
of its principles.
January 1, 1801, at the very beginning of the
present century, M. Piazzi, of Palermo, discovered
the small planet Ceres. March 21, 1802, Dr. Olbers,
of Germany, discovered Pallas, and March 29, 1807,
Testa, September 2, 1804, M, Harding, of Lielien-
thal, discovered Juno. December 8, 1845, M, Hencke
discovered Astrsea, and July 1, 1847, Hebe, In
August, that year, Mr, J. R. Hind discovered Iris,
and in October, Flora. April 25, 1848, Mr. Graham,
of Ireland, discovered Metis ; and April 12, 1847, Mr.
Gasparis, of Naples, discovered Hygeia, These small
planets, or asteroids, are supposed to be the fragments
of an exploded or broken planet that once revolved
between Mars and Jupiter.
The most magnificent discovery of the last half
century, in this science, is that of the planet Nep
tune, the most distant planet. Le Verrier, a French
19*

222 THE HALF CENTURY.
mathematician and astronomer, in order to account
for the perturbations of Uranus, the most remote
planet then known, adopted the hypothesis that they
were occasioned by the attraction of another planet
exterior to itself. This was not with him an original
hypothesis. It had often been suggested by others.
He undertook to ascertain, by calculation, the dis
tance, size, and periodical revolutions of the supposed
planet, that would produce the perturbations of Ura
nus. He completed his calculation in August, 1846,
and came to the conclusion that it must be thirty-
three times as far from the sun as the earth is, must
revolve in 217^ years, and be thirty-eight times
larger than the earth. Having come to these results,
he proceeded to shoAV in Avhat part of the heavens it
then Avas, if such a planet really existed. He com
municated these results to the French Academy, who
made tbem public in the latter part of August. On
the 23d of September, 1846, M. Galle, of Berlin, dis
covered a planet which corresponded to the one
calculated by Le Verrier. Mr. Lassels, of Liverpool,
discovered it October 3.
Generally, observations and discoveries are made
first, and the calculations are made afterwards ; but
in this case, the calculations preceded the discovery,
and were a clew to it. On this account, it is
regarded as one of the most wonderful achievements
of intellect, and the most remarkable proof of the
accuracy of astronomical calculations that the world
has ever witnessed.

THE HALF CENTURY. 223
Tery few men are allowed to enjoy the honor of
brilliant discoveries unmolested. The English claim
that the same result Avas obtained by a young astron
omer of England. Mr, Adams, Avhile yet a member
of the university, in 1843, commenced a calculation
like that of Le Terrier, and communicated the result
to Mr. Challis, tbe professor of astronomy, in Sep
tember, 1845. Professor Challis commenced a sys
tematic search for it several weeks before Le Terrier
made his announcement to the French Academy, and
claims to have seen the planet twice in August, 1846,
but failed to recognize it as the one for which he weis
making diligent search.
If we admit these claims of tbe English to be true,
it does not detract at all from the brilliancy of Le
Terrier's discoveries ; it only shows that he is not so
far superior to others as he Avould otherAvise seem to
be. That the thing was thought of by others, and
regarded as a problem that could be solved, is proved
by the following extract from an address by Sir John
Herschel before the British Association, in the sum
mer of 1846. After saying that the previous year
had made us acquainted with a fifth asteroid, he said,
" It has done more ; it has given us the probable
prospect of the discovery of another planet. We see
it as Columbus saw America from the shores of
Spain. Its movements have been felt trembling
along the far-reaching line of our analysis, with a
certainty hardly inferior to that of ocular demon
stration." As early as 1834, it was said the irregu-

224 THE HALF CENTURY.
larities of Uranus must be occasioned by an exterior
planet. Several new comets have been discovered during
the period under revicAV, and their elements com
puted. A splendid comet appeared in 1811. It was visible
in England ten months. The time of its revolution
was computed to be 2,888 years. In 1819, Professor
Encke discovered a comet Avhich revolves in three
years and a half. In 1826, Captain Biela discovered
another which revolves in six and three fourths years.
In 1832, it Avas announced that Biela's comet Avould
cross the earth's orbit at the distance of 1,800 miles
only from the earth. This announcement excited
great alarm among the common people in France ;
so much, that M, Arago found it necessary to give
the people a sort of assurance that no injury would
be done to the earth by tbe approach of the comet.
In 1843, another comet Avas discovered by M, du
Faye, of Paris, which revolves in seven and three
tenths years, October 1, 1847, a telescopic comet
Avas discovered by Miss Maria Mitchell, of Nantucket,
and its elements were computed. The king of Den
mark awarded her a gold medal, which she received
in 1848.
The morning of November 13, 1833, Avas rendered
memora'ble by an extensive and magnificent shower
of shooting stars. No celestial phenomenon has ever
occurred in this country, since its first settlement,
which has been viewed with so much admiration by

THE HALF CENTURY. 225
one class in the community, or with so much terror
and alarm by another. It was the topic of conver
sation for many weeks. It occurred about daybreak,
and continued till near sunrise. A full account of
this phenomenon may be found in vol. xxv. of
Silliman's Journal, with additional remarks and rea
sonings in several subsequent volumes, by Professor
Olmsted, of Yale College, who examined the subject
very thoroughly. It Avas his opinion that they pro
ceeded from some point beyond the atmosphere of
the earth, and that they might be annual. A similar
phenomenon has been Avitnessed in several succeeding
years, but on a much smaller scale.
A similar exhibition of shooting stars was seen in
England, in November, 1832. Probably that in 1833,
seen in almost every part of North America, was the
most wonderful that has ever been recorded. They
flamed " lawless through the sky ; " and the poet
might say, — " the sanguine flood
Rolled a broad slaughter o'er the plains of heaven^
And nature's self did seem to totter on the brink of time."
Great improvements have been made Avithin fifty
years in astronomical instruments. Those used at
the present day surpass those of former times, not
only in elegance, but in accuracy. Lord Rosse's mon
ster telescope bids fair to extend our astronomical
knowledge, in the nineteenth century, as much as
Herschel's did in the eighteenth. It was used first
in 1844, though not finished till 1845. Its reflector

226 THE HALF CENTURY.
is six feet in diameter, and its focal distance fifty-
four feet. It resolves many of the nebulas into
clusters of stars.
Fifty years ago, there Avas not an astronomical
observatory in the United States, erected solely and
exclusively for that purpose. The first was built at
Williams College, by the zeal, and chiefly at the
expense, of Professor A, Hopkins, It was completed
in 1838, Another was erected at Hudson, Ohio, in
1839. In 1840, an observatory was added to Girard
College, and in the same year, the city council of
Philadelphia passed an ordinance authorizing the
erection of one in Rittenhouse Square, In 1843, an
observatory was commenced in Cincinnati by the
enterprise of Professor Mitchell, The corner stone
was laid in November, 1843, on which occasion an
address Avas delivered by John Q,uincy Adams, It
was completed in 1845, and is furnished with a tele
scope which cost, in Germany, $7,000. In 1844, an
observatory Avas erected at Cambridge, called " Sears's
ToAver," for the erection of which David Sears, Esq.,
of Boston, gave $5,000. It stands on Summer Hill.
Since then, one has been built at Amherst, by the aid
of benevolent individuals.
John Q,uincy Adams, in his first message to Con
gress, recommended the erection of a national obser
vatory at Washington.
In consequence of the improvements in astronomi
cal instruments, and the increased zeal for making
observations, the boundaries of this science have been

THE HALF CENTURY. 227
extended. It is noAv understood that comets are
exceedingly light bodies, the veriest film, mere mist ;
so thin that stars of the sixteenth magnitude may be
seen through the nucleus. They are so light and
evanescent that one Avhich passed among the satellites
of Jupiter did not disturb their motions. It is now
believed that they are self-luminous, and not depend
ent on the sun for light.
It is supposed that the whole solar system, and per
haps infinite space, is filled with an exceedingly subtile
fluid, or ether, Avhich resists the motion of comets on
account of their exceeding lightness, but affords no
appreciable resistance to the motion of planets. This
accounts for a fact discovered by Encke, that comets
make each succeeding revolution in a shorter time.
Sir John Herschel has continued his labors with
great zeal for many years, perfecting his calculations,
and enlarging his catalogue of fixed stars, particularly
in the southern hemisphere. He has spent about four
years in South Africa, to which place he transported
his astronomical instruments, and at his own expense,
and has contributed much that is valuable to astro
nomical science.
The knoAvledge of astronomy is much more Avidely
diffused than it Avas at the beginning of this century.
It is studied in all schools where any of the sciences
are taught, as well as in colleges.
The following are some of the persons that have
contributed to the progress of this science, who have
died within tbe period under consideration : —

22S THE HALF CENTURY.
Sir William Herschel died at Slough, England,
August, 1S22, aged 83. His sister Caroline Lucretia
died at Hanover, January 9, 1848, aged 98.
Dr. H. W. M. Olbers died at Bremen, March 2,
1840, aged 81.

Section 3. Chemistry.
It Avas said, not long ago, that " chemical science
has become far too vast and complex a subject to be
dealt Avith by any summary in the pages of a review."
I may say, Avith equal truth, that the discoveries in
this science, during the last fifty years, have been too
numerous to be noticed in the brief space I have
allotted to this subject. I shall attempt nothing more
than an outline of the progress that has been made.
It Avill be easy to show that great progress has been
made, Avithout mentioning each particular step of
advancement. If a distinguished chemist had fallen asleep in
1800, and had awaked in 1850, and had been intro
duced into a chemist's labaratory, furnished Avith
all the apparatus that has been discovered during
his repose, he Avould find it difficult to determine for
Avhat the room is used ; or, if the last treatise on this
science should be put into his hand, he Avould find
very little that would be familiar.
In 1801, Wollaston, Chaptal, Tolta, Henry, and
Thompson, Avere among the leading experimenters

THE HALF CENTURY. 229
in Europe, and Professor Woodhouse, and Drs.
Mitchell and McLean, in this country. Davy, Ber-
zelius, Dumas, Faraday, and Berthollet, together
Avith many others, Avere beginning to attract atten
tion in Europe, Avhile Professors Hare and Silliman
Avere commencing their brilliant career in this country.
The following are a fcAV of the distinguished
chemists that have died Avithin fifty years : — Dr, Wol
laston, December 22, 1828, aged 62, J, A. Chaptal, >
July 30, 1832, at Paris, aged 76. Sir H. Davy, May
28, 1S29, Avhile on a journey on the continent, aged
60. A, Tolta, in Italy, March 5, 1827, aged 82. Dr,
E. Turner, at London, September 7, 1831, aged 40,
The elder Berzehus, of Sweden, August 7, 1847,
aged 69.
In 1806, Dr, EavcU, of Tirginia, published a vol
ume of Lectures on Chemistry, in Avhich he seems to
have caught a glimpse of the importance of this
science, Avhich Ave of this age have never had,
" Yo free agents," he says, " ye guardians of the
young, can you allow those under your care to
neglect learning the principles of this all-important
science ? What Avill you say, Avhen arraigned at the
bar of justice, before an assembled universe, for your
neglect of this duty ? "
In comparing Avhat chemistry was fifty years ago
Avith what it is noAv, Ave cannot fail to notice the
Avonderful inci'case of exactness in every part of
chemical analysis and inquiry. The age of crude
hypotheses and vague results has passed by. In the
20

230 THE HALF CENTURY.
analysis of substances there is a perfection and an
accuracy that is very remarkable. What was formerly
recorded as loss in the operation, or as residual dross,
is now found to contain divers substances, as essen
tial, no doubt, to constitute the thing Avhat it is, as
the heavier ingredients. Tests so delicate have been
discovered, that a substance, constituting no more
than a millionth part of the compound to be analyzed,
can be detected. The refinements of analysis are
now carried so far, that not only the existence of an
ingredient, when the quantity is exceedingly small,
is detected, but its exact quantity determined.
Chemists have been aided very much in the accu
racy of analysis by the discovery of the laws by
which chemical compounds are regulated. It was
known in the latter part of the last century that
bodies combined with each other in definite propor
tions ; but the fact was not so explained as to attract
much attention, or to give much idea of its impor
tance. It was Dalton, an English chemist, who
explained the principle and showed its practical
value so clearly, that he is regarded by many as the
discoverer. He proved by experiment, that when a
given base, as nitrogen, combines Avith different
quantities of oxygen, the second, third, and fourth
Avill be an exact multiple of the first. The excep
tions to this law are very few.
The relative Aveight of the least quantity of any
substance that will combine with any other has also
been ascertained, and renders analysis more perfect.

THE HALF CENTURY. 231
If hydrogen gas be taken as the standard, and its
least combining weight be called 1, that of oxygen
is 8, of nitrogen 14, sulphur 16, carbon 6, &c. ;
and hence the combination may be represented by a
number, thus : 9 is the chemical number for water,
which is 1 of hydrogen and 8. of oxygen ; 22 repre
sents nitrous oxide, Avhich is 8 of oxygen and 14
of nitrogen.
Berzelius, of Stockholm, discovered another law —
that two compounds which contain the same electro
negative body always combine in such a manner that
the electro-negative element of one is a multiple by a
whole muuber of the same element in the other ;
thus carbonic acid is carbon 6 and oxygen 16 ; potash
is potassa 40 and oxygen 8 ; and, since the oxygen
of the former (16) is a multiple of the latter, (8,) the
tAvo Avill unite and form carbonate of potash.
Sir Humphry Davy, having found that a greater
heat could be produced by the galvanic battery than
by any other means, undertook, in 1806 and 1807, to
decompose substances which had been considered
simple bodies. He succeeded in reducing common
potash to oxygen and a metallic base, which he called
potassa. During those years he discovered five new
metals. In 1810, he proved that what had been called oxy-
muriatic acid, instead of being an unknown base
combined with two portions of oxygen, was in fact a
simple substance, which he called chlorine, and that
muriatic acid is a compound of chlorine and hydro-

232 THE HALF CENTURY.
gen. This was a grand discovery, and overthrew the
universally received doctrine that oxygen is the only
acidifying principle. Chlorine is furthermore a sup
porter of combustion, and therefore the definition of
combustion Avas changed. In 181.5, Davy discovered
the safety-lamp, by Avhich the fire-damp, or carburet-
ted hydrogen, is burned without any explosion.
In 1801, Professor Hare, of Philadelphia, invented
the compound blowpipe, by Avhich oxygen and hydro
gen are burned without explosion. In 1821, he
invented the galvanic deflagrator, a piece of apparatus
by which the maximum power of the galvanic battery
is obtained instantaneously, and made to cease at
pleasure. In 1819, Professor Oersted, of Copenhagen, discov
ered electro-magnetism, or that magnetism might be
developed by electricity. This discovery Avas fol
lowed out *by Ampere and Faraday, Avho succeeded
in producing circular motion by electro-magnetism.
It has of late been ascertained that the poAver pro
ducing this motion is very great, and it is believed
that it may be used to propel machinery, and even to
move a boat through the Avater. Experiments are
being made, but no permanently practical results have
yet been reached,*
* August 15, 1850. "Mr. J. H. Tartrim, -who has been engaged
for several months, in Baltimore, constructing an engine to be pro
pelled by eleotro-magnetiam, has triumphantly succeeded, and will
soon exhibit his machinery, when he expects to demonstrate its
power to be from 8 to 12 horse capacity," [October 16. It has been
done,]

THE HALF CENTURY. 233
It has also been discovered that soft iron may be
rendered magnetic by galvanism ; but the moment the
current is interrupted, the magnetism ceases. It is by
virtue of this principle, that the dots and lines are
made upon paper in Professor Morse's electro-magnetic
telegraph. The discoveries that have been made in galvanism,
within the last 30 years, have led to the conjecture
that the magnetism of the earth may be the result of
galvanic action. The question has been asked,
whether the motion of the earth on its axis may
not be the rotatory motion produced by galvanic
fluids. Electro-magnets are distinguished for their great
power. Professor Henry, now secretary of the Smith
sonian Institution, and Dr, Ten Eyck, performed a
series of experiments in 1829 and 1830, which show
under Avhat circumstances the power of such magnets
is greatest. They succeeded in causing a small mag
net to raise 420 times its own Aveight, Avhile the
strongest ordinary magnet has not been known to
raise more than 250 times its Aveight.
In 1801, there Avere supposed to be about 40 sim
ple elementary substances, of which all other bodies
are composed. Since then, several of those supposed
simples have been decomposed, and about 30 new
elementary substances have been discovered. The
whole number of simple substances now known
is 58,During the last half century, the creative part of
20*

234 THE HALF CENTURY.
chemistry has been greatly extended. The refine
ments of analysis, and the discovery of laAVS of
combination, have put it into the power of the chem
ist to form many substances that have no existence
in nature. The Almighty has placed us in the midst
of matter of different forms, and has given, to those
Avho seek for it in the appropriate way, the power of
making new compounds, both useful and curious.
When a new elementary substance is discovered, it is
readily ascertained with Avhat other elementary or
compound substances it will form chemical combina
tions, and thus Ave are furnished with a long list of
new substances.
Organic chemistry, which treats of vegetable and
animal substances, has been greatly extended during
the last half century. In this department. Professor
Liebig has labored Avith great success, Dumas and
Prout have also made many valuable discoveries. It
is impossible to present, in this place, any just view
of the vast labors, and no less vast results, which
have been arrived at in this department of chemical
science, " There is scarcely a principle or product
of organized existence which has not been submitted
to rigid examination, and tried in all its relations of
affinity with other bodies. Nomenclature has been
taxed severely to record and classify the results de
rived from this great scheme of systematic inquiry."
These bodies consist, for the most part, of the same
elementary principles. Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and nitrogen greatly predominate, though they are

THE HALF CENTURY. 235
variously combined with small quantities of other
ingredients. It has been proved that the elements of
organic bodies unite Avith each other in definite pro
portions, like the elements of inorganic bodies. The
researches in this department of chemistry have done
much to improve agricultural chemistry, which is,
comparatively, a new subject in this country. The
chemist, having analyzed the soil and the different
kinds of vegetables, can tell at once whether a given
soil will produce a given vegetable, and if not, Avhat
must be added. One field will bear wheat, but not
peas; and another will bear turnips, but not clover;
or a field Avill bear wheat for a few years, and then
lose its fertility for that particular plant. The agri
cultural chemist has interrogated nature on these
subjects, and has ascertained the reason why the
same field Avill not produce all kinds of vegetables in
equal luxuriance, and Avhat must be done to make a
given spot of earth produce any vegetable he may
plant upon it,
Tbe gentlemen who have been employed to make
geological surveys of states during the last twenty
years, have also given much attention to the analysis
of soils, and, by so doing, have done much for the
promotion of agriculture.
Fifty years ago, there were comparatively feAV that
had any knowledge of this science ; now, compara
tively few of our youth grow up without a knowl
edge of the principles of chemistry. Most of our
chemists are teachers of the science, or employed in

236 THE HALF CENTURY.
applying it to the arts, and have not, therefore, de
voted so much time to making discoveries as chemists
in Europe.

Section 4, Mineralogy and Geology.
Tery little attention was given to either of these
departments of natural science prior to the commence
ment of the present century, Dr, Adam Seybert, of
Philadelphia, Dr. Mitchell, of New York, and Profes-
. sor Waterhouse. of Cambridge, made collections of
minerals, and called the attention of learned men to
these and other branches of natural history.
In 1802 and 1803, B. D. Perkins and Dr. A. Bruce
returned from Europe Avith the largest and most beau
tiful collections of minerals that had been seen in
America. In 1805, Colonel George Gibbs, of New
York, returned from a European tour, with a still
more beautiful collection. He placed them in rooms
fitted to receive them, at Yale College. In 1825, the
collection Avas purchased by the friends of the col
lege for $20,000, and given to the institution.
Colonel Gibbs died at Newton, neai* New York,
August 5, 1833, aged 57,
In 1807, William M'Clure, Esq., of Philadelphia,
returned from a European tour with another valuable
collection of minerals, and commenced the Herculean
task of making a geological survey of the United
States. He may be regarded as the pioneer in this

THE HALF CENTURY,. 237
science. In 1816, he published the result of his in
vestigations in a volume entitled American Geology.
In 1810, Dr. Bruce commenced the publication of
a Mineralogical Journal, the first of the kind ever
issued from an American press. It Avas favorably
received ; but, owing to extraneous circumstances, it
Avas discontinued at the close of the first volume.
Dr. Bruce died in New York, of apoplexy, February
22, 1818, aged 41.
Geology began now to receive considerable atten
tion. In 1816, Professor P. Cleaveland, of Bowdoin
College, published the first edition of his treatise on
Mineralogy and Geology. In 1817, Professor Amos
Eaton published an outline of the Geology of the
Northern States; in collecting the facts for Avhich he
travelled on foot more than 1,000 miles. Rev. Ed-
Avard Hitchcock, noAv president of Amherst College,
commenced his geological investigations about this
time ; and, in 1818, Henry Schoolcraft, the indefati
gable western traveller, published his Tiews of the
Mines and Minerals of the Western States.
In 1818 was commenced the publication of Silli
man's Journal of Science, Avhich, under the superin
tendence of its learned editor, has done very much to
promote the advancement, not only of geological sci
ence, but of all the sciences. It has made its readers
acquainted Avith the progress of discovery, and has
been the only medium through which men of science
could freely communicate with each other.
In 1819, the American Geological Society was in-

238 THE HALF CENTURY.
corporated by the Connecticut legislature, and or
ganized soon after, (September 6,) at New Haven,
William M'Clure Avas chosen president, and con
tinued to hold that office many years : he died near
the city of Mexico, in 1840.
These are some of the men and means by Avhich
these sciences have been promoted in this country.
Since 1820, the number of persons that have done
much to increase our stores of information on this
subject has been so great, that I shall not attempt
to notice the additions made by each individual, but
shall call the attention of the reader to a few leading
facts. The publication of Buckland's Reliquias Diluviana3,
in 1823, gave a new impulse to geological investiga
tions, and seemed to clothe the whole subject with a
new interest. His discovery of the bones and teeth
of various animals in caverns, under circumstances
which rendered it quite certain that they must have
been deposited there before the Noachian deluge, fur
nished new evidence of the fact of the deluge, and
of its extent, and proved that in that catastrophe the
sea and land did not change places, as many had
previously supposed. It deepened the conviction in
the minds of many, that there are no facts in nature
which contradict the statements found in the sacred'
Scriptures, and led to the conclusion, that if, in any
case, the theories of men conflict Avith the Bible, it
affords presumptive proof of their falsity.
In this connection, I would observe, that consider-

THE HALF CENTURY. 239
able prejudice has been excited in the minds of many
clergymen, and of other religious men, against geolo
gy, because some of its teachers have been disposed to
set aside the more obvious meaning of some passages
of Scripture, and interpret them so as to accord Avith
geological theories. They have said that the days
of creation must have been longer than a natural day.
Much has been said on this subject, and something
has been Avritten, The feeling that has existed on
this subject has been quieted by the construction that
has been put upon Gen. i, 1, by some theologians.
They suggested that " in the beginning God created
the heavens and the earth," and that an indefinitely
long period may have intervened between this crea
tion of matter and the work of the six days. Geolo
gists, I believe, have concluded to accept of this in
terpretation, and so a controversy has been ended.
The reader is referred for further information on
this subject to a learned article in the Repository and
Observer, vol, vi. p, 261, by President Hitchcock.
Another fact worthy of notice in the progress of
geological science in this country is, the geological
surveys of states at the expense of the states, and of
territories at the expense of the United States. In
this way the mineral wealth of the country, and the
character of the soil, have been better known.
North Carolina took the lead in these surveys.
The survey of that state was made in 1824 and 1825,
under the direction of Professor D, Olmsted, then of
Chapel Hill, now of Yale College, The survey of

240 THE HALF CENTURY.
South Carolina was made about the same time, by
Professor Tanuxem.
In June, 1830, the legislature of Massachusetts
authorized the governor, Avith the advice and consent
of the council, to appoint some suitable person to
make a geological examination of the commonwealth.
President Hitchcock, then professor in Amherst Col
lege, was appointed to make the survey, the final
report of which Avas presented to tbe legislature in
1839, and the whole published in two quarto vol
umes of 830 pages.
The survey of Maine was commenced in 1836,
under the direction of Charles T, Jackson, of Boston,
and completed in 1839. The survey of New York
was commenced in the same year by Lieutenant W.
W. Mather, T, A. Conrad, Professor Emmons, of
Williams College, and Professor Tanuxem, in Avhich
they were engaged about ten years. Professor Ta
nuxem died January 25, 1848. The reports of the
New York survey, including all departments of natu
ral history, have been published in 18 vols. 8vo., a
work of great value.
The survey of Ohio was also commenced in 1836,
by Dr. S. P. Hildreth, and of Pennsylvania, by Pro
fessor H, D. Rogers, Most of the states have since
been minutely surveyed, and a valuable fund of in
formation treasured up.
Our colleges and academies are now furnished Avith
valuable collections of mineralogical and geological
specimens, of which there Avere none fifty years ago ;

THE HALF CENTURY. 241
and in all of them more or less instruction in these
branches is now given.
The following sketch of some useful minerals and
valuable metals that have been found within a few
years in the United States, is deemed AVorthy of a
place in this volume : —
Coal. — This article, now so extensively used for
fuel, attracted very little attention until 1820. It
was known to exist in Pennsylvania a century ago,
and some individuals succeeded in burning it. About
the year 1800, William Morris, the owner of a large
tract of land near Port Carbon, carried a quantity of
anthracite coal, taken from his land, to Philadelphia,
but was unable to bring it into notice. In 1812,
Colonel G. Shoemaker carried nine Avagon loads to
Philadelphia, and spent much time in endeavoring to
persuade the people to buy it for fuel. Som'e at
tempted to use it, but, not being successful, denounced
the colonel as an impostor, Avho sold stones for coal.
It was first successfully and profitably used in a
rolling-mill, in Delaware county, Pennsylvania.
The coal trade did not commence until 1820 : in
that year, 365 tons were sold.
In 1821, 1,073 were sold ; in 1825, the sales were
34,523 tons ; in 1835, they Avere 560,758 ; in 1840,
they were 865,460 tons. The quantity consumed
has gradually increased from year to year. It is
found, in great abundance, on the banks of the Ohio
River, and in the states of Illinois and Missouri, It
is so abundant that it is used more or less in all the
21

242 THE HALF CENTURY.
States in the Union. It has been recently said that
the amount of coal annually mined on the banks of
the Ohio and its tributaries is 30,000,000 bushels,
worth two and a half million dollars at the mines.
Three million bushels are now annually consumed
in New Orleans. The coal area of the United States
is estimated at 133,132 square miles.
In the Avinter of 1838-9, a coal mine near Miners-
ville, Pennsylvania, was ignited by the carelessness
of one of the miners, and continued to burn for three
or four years, defying all attempts to extinguish it.
Along the line of its course, the earth fell in, and
from the yawning chasms there issued hot and sul
phurous fumes, as from a volcano.
Gold. — The first notice of gold from North Caro
lina on the records of the United States mint is dated
1814, During that year, $11,000 were received.
The quantity received from that time to 1824 did
not exceed $2,500 annually, though as much more
may have been sent to Europe. In 1825, the North
Carolina gold fever began to rage, and between that
time and 1830, there were sometimes 20,000 men
employed in that and the adjacent states, digging for
the precious metal. As the land was all owned by
individuals, those Avho dug were obliged to obtain
the lease of a tract of land. The gold was first found
in Cabarras county, but subsequently in several adja
cent counties. It extends from Tirginia across North
"Darolina, into Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama, In
1-829, the amount coined was $128,000, and about

THE HALF CENTURY. 243
the same quantity was sent to Paris. At some times,
the weekly product of these mines was $100,000, and
yet tbe average amount collected by an individual did
not exceed 60 cents per day. Some masses of pure
gold were found weighing four, five, or six hundred
pennyweights. One mass, in its crude state, weighed
28 lbs, A poor man, in Montgomery county, found
a mine on his own land, which yielded him $20,000
in a few Aveeks, In consequence of the sudden ele
vation from poverty to independence, he became
partially deranged.
The greatest gold excitement ever knoAvn followed
the discovery of gold in California in the spring of
1848, on lands that were about that time ceded by
Mexico to the United States. The land being the
property of the United States, and not of individuals,
every one felt himself at liberty to go and dig where
he pleased, and as much as he could find. More than
$3,000,000 worth of gold was dug during that year.
The news reached here in November, and was the
chief topic of conversation, especially among certain
portions of every community. In three months, more
than 8,000 persons were on the way to California.
Some went by the way of Cape Horn, some by Chagres
and Panama, some from the Rio Grande, through the
interior of Mexico, and others from St. Louis, across
the country, by the way of the Salt Lake. In 1850,
there is supposed to be 125,000 people in California ;
many of whom are from Europe, South America,
China, and the islands of the Pacific. - In proportion

244 THE HALF CENTURY.
to the abundance of the gold is the price of all articles
needed by the inhabitants. The gold is abundant,
diffused through a region of country several hundred
miles in extent. Those who went from the states
have sent home already about $20,000,000. Before
this account of the matter shall find its way to the
public, the progress of events in that region may have
been such that what I have Avritten will be regarded
as the day of small things, and worthy of little
notice. The amount of California gold received at the mint
in Philadelphia, from December, 1848, to July 1, 1850,
was $15,750,000, and the amount received at the
mint in New Orleans, $5,184,310.
Copper. — Native copper has been found in trap
rockg in New Jersey and Connecticut. A copper
mine Avas opened, a fcAV years since, at Bristol, Con
necticut ; it is worked by 300 men, and the net
profits, in 1847, were estimated at $120,000. The
richest copper mines known to exist in the United
States are in Michigan, on the south shore of Lake
Superior, especially in the Keweenaw peninsula. It
was known to the French in Canada as early as 1640.
They opened some mines then, or at a subsequent
period. Tery little Avas known about them to the
Americans generally till 1844. Mr. Charles T, Jack
son, United States geologist, with several assistants,
commenced the exploration of the region that year,
and continued it till the close of 1849. A volumi
nous report has been published by Congress, In 1845,

THE HALF CENTURY. 245
mining operations were begun on a small scale ; they
were increased in 1846 and 1847. There are many
companies digging copper on the peninsula and .Isle
Royale. The Cliff mine, Avorked by the Boston and
Pittsburg Company, is said to be the richest. The
size of some of the masses of native copper almost
exceeds belief. Some of them weigh 50 tons. The
total product of this mine, in 1848, Avas 830 tons,
averaging 60 per cent, pure copper. It is supposed
that it will now yield about 1,000 tons. A mass has
been found in the Minesota mine, which is supposed
to weigh 250 tons. The whole amount of copper
imported into the states annually is about 5,400 tons.
Six such miues as the Cliff will supply our market,
and render us independent of other nations, so far as a
supply of this metal is concerned.
There are rich iron mines in the seune regions, and,
in connection with the copper, considerable silver has
been found.
It has been said, that considering the facilities for
getting the silver, copper, and iron, at Lake Superior,
those mines will be a greater source of wealth to the
United States than the gold of California.
Lead. — Great quantities of lead are found in Mis
souri, Iowa, Wisconsin^ and Northern Illinois, The
great depots of this metal are Herculaneum and St.
Genevieve, in Missouri, and Galena and Dubuque.
The lead mines of Missouri were explored by School
craft, in 1818 and 1819. He estimated the annual
yield of the Missouri mines,,at that time, at 4,791,334
21*

246 THE HALF CENTURY.
lbs. In 1829, the mines about Galena yielded
12,000,000 pounds.
These lead mines yield enough to supply the mar
kets of the United States with this article.

Section 5, Botany.
More attention was given to this branch of natural
history during the last century than to any other.
In the latter part of it, AndrcAv Michaux and son
Avere sent to this country by the owner of a large
botanical garden in the neighborhood of Paris, to
procure specimens of forest trees, shrubs, and also the
seeds of plants not found in Europe. They travelled
over most of the territory that then belonged to the
United States, examining and taking notes of all the
plants they found. In 1802, the elder Michaux pub
lished a volume on the oaks of America, and prepared
two volumes, in which he described 1700 plants col
lected by himself. He died in 1803, and the volumes
were not published till after his decease. His son,
F. A, Michaux, published five volumes, which were
republished in Philadelphia in 1817.
Perhaps the progress of botanical studies may be
inferred from a compendious list of botanical Avorks
published by American authors.
In 1814, a volume was published in Paris by Fred
eric Pursh, who had travelled in Canada and the
> Northern States, The plants were arranged accord-

THE HALF CENTURY. 247
ing to the system of Linnaeus ; the descriptions were
brief, and have often been quoted entire by American
authors. In 1817, a volume was published in Philadelphia,
describing American grasses. Its author was Rev. H.
Muhlenberg, a Lutheran clergyman of Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, who died before the book was pub
lished. It was written in Latin, and had then a!
limited sale. Several years after, when botahi-
cal knowledge had increased, it became deservedly
popular. In 1817, Professor Amos Eaton began to lecture
about the country upon botany, and published a man
ual for the use of those who attended his lectures.
It has been enlarged, from time to time, and for ten
or fifteen years Avas the vade mecum of every prac
tical botanist in the Northern States. The fifth edi
tion, published in 1833, described 5267 species of
North American plants.
About the same time, or not far froth 1820, Profes
sor Nuttall's Genera of American Plants was given to '
the public. It is an accurate and thorough work, and
did much to increase the zeal Tor this department of
natural science.
In 1818 was published Barton's Flora, describing'
the plants in the vicinity of Philadelphia.
In 1821, Elliot's Botany of the Southern States
began to be published in numbers. When completed,
it formed two octavo volumes. It was an elaborate
and learned work.

248 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1824, Torrey's Flora of the Northern States
began to be published in numbers, and was designed,
with Elliot's, to furnish a complete description of all
the plants then known in the United States, It is the
most thorough work that has ever been published.
The study of botany, about this time, began to be
introduced pretty generally into colleges and acade
mies, and was considered an important part of a good
education. In 1824, Dr. Bigelow's Florula Bostoniensis was
published. The next important era in this branch of natural
science was the republication of Dr. Lindley's Natu
ral System of Classification, and a catalogue of
American plants by Dr. J. Torrey. This book, at
that time, was the only introduction to that system
in the English language. Since then, this system
of classification among scientific botanists has been
most popular.
In 1833 was published a manual of botany of the
plants of the Northern and Middle States, arranged
according to the natural system, written by Professor
L. C. Beck, of Albany. In 1841, a similar botany
of the plants of the Southern States was published
by Professor J. Darby, of Georgia.
In 1836 was commenced, in Philadelphia, the pub
lication of two large Avorks in numbers, by Professor
Rafinesque, The first was called Flora Telluriana,
being a general botany of both hemispheres. The
other was the New Flora of North American Plants,

THE HALF CENTURY. 249'
describing those which had been omitted, or were
unknoAvn to preceding authors. In 1848 was pub
lished Tolume I, of Gray's Genera.
Some botanists have devoted much time to the
examination of particular orders, or genera. On the
genus carex we have had monographs by three em
inent botanists. One by Professor C, Dewey Avas
published in Silliman's Journal, with plates, from
1824 down to the present time. One by Dr. Torrey,
and another by Schweinitz, were published in the
New York Lyceum of Natural History.
In connection with the geological surveys of the
states there have been botanical surveys. In the
, reports of the New York survey, some two or three
large volumes are devoted to descriptive botany.
Among the reports of tbe Massachusetts survey
we have an elaborate catalogue of the herbaceous
plants, by Professor Dewey, with brief descriptions,
making a volume of 268 octavo pages, and also a
volume on trees and shrubs, of 550 pages, prepared
by G. B. Emerson, of Boston. In 1846 was pub
lished Brown's work on the trees of America.
I may add, in conclusion, that a manual of botany
by Mr. Wood has been published within a few years,
and is taking the place of many of its predecessors.
It will be inferred, from the number of books pub
lished, that much attention has been given to this
subject by the present generation.

260 THE HALF CENTURY.

Section 6. Zoology.
This science treats of animals, and, in common
with other departments, has received no small degree
of attention in this country. It is divided into sev
eral departments, as, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles,
insects, &c.
The persons who have given most attention to
birds in this country are Wilson, Bonaparte, and Au
dubon. Alexander Wilson Avas a native of Scotland, and
by trade a weaver. He came to this country in
1794, being then twenty-eight years old. He learned
the art of drawing, and conceived the design of
painting and describing all the birds of America.
During seven years, he travelled more than ten thou
sand miles, " a solitary, exploring pilgrim," His
labors were roAvarded with no worldly riches or hon
ors ; the only remuneration he received for his splen
did work was the pay for coloring the pictures. In
1808, he published the first volume at Philadelphia.
Before his death, in 1813, he published seven vol
umes. In 1814, Mr. Ord published two more vol
umes, containing the remainder of those birds Wilson
had found, and a sketch of his life,
BetAveen 1825 and 1828, Charles Lucien Bonaparte
published three volumes of birds not described by
Wilson. These Avere thin folio volumes ; the pic
tures of the birds were less than in real life.

THE HALF CENTURY. 251
John J. Audubon is a native of this country, though
of French descent. He Avas sent to Paris for his
education, which he completed, and returned to
America, when he Avas seventeen years old, near the
close of the last century. He had early acquired a
fondness for ornithology, and devoted much of his
time to draAving birds and learning their habits. In
1810, he was at Louisville, Kentucky, and there met
Wilson, to Avhom he showed his portfolio of draw
ings. Wilson Avas getting subscribers to his work.
Audubon did not subscribe ; he was told by a friend
that his own drawings were better than Wilson's.
Audubon did not form the intention of publishing
his work till 1824. He could find no one in this
country who would undertake the publication of it,
and went to Europe and made a contract Avith a pub
lishing house in Edinburgh. His drawings are as
large as life, and represent almost five hundred birds ;
and, to fill up the sheet, he has inserted in each beau
tiful pictures of the plants on which the bird feeds,
or which abound where it is found. The plates are
almost as valuable for the pictures of plants as of
birds. These plates were accompanied by a volume
describing the habits of the birds, and many facts,
both amusing and useful. The copper plates from
which these birds Avere printed Avere destroyed by the
great fire in New York in 1835.
In 1840, he commenced the publication of his
Ornithology in numbers, each containing the descrip
tion of five birds, and a miniature picture of each,

252

THE HALF CENTURY-

beautifully colored. This was completed in about
four years, and forms seven large volumes, which
seU at one hundred dollars.
Mr. Audubon is still living, supposed to be about
seventy years of age, but infirm and worn down by
the severity of his labors.
There are many individuals, in different parts of
our country, who collect and preserve birds, and
carry on exchanges with ornithologists in other
countries. Considerable attention has been given to other
departments of zoology by the lyceums of natural
history and by individuals. W. T. Harris has given
much attention to insects, has made a large collection,
and published a report of 450 pages octavo., on the
insects of Massachusetts that are injurious to vege
tation. The number of animals known and described are
as follows : —

Mammals,Birds,Reptiles,Fishes,

1,500
6,000 1,500
6,000

Mollusks, (sheU fish,) 9,000
Insects, 70,000
Radiata, 10,000
Total, 103,000

Section 7. Meteorological Observations.
The American people are remarkably weatherwise.
There is no subject about which they oftener speak,
nor any about which they seem to have a more

THE HALF CESTUIIY. 263
perfect knowledge ; and yet that knowledge is often
superficial. There have been some accurate and
careful observers ; a few have taken notes and kept
records of the temperature, storms, and prevailing
Avinds.
. These records, however, have seldom been printed ,
until within about thirty years. It is now difficult
to gather up any satisfactory account of this matter
during the first twenty years of the last half century.
Within twenty-five years, there has been a great in
crease of attention to this subject. Scientific men
have kept meteorological journals, which bave been
published fi:om year to year in Silliman's Journak
The American Almanac has of late years contained
a valuable fund of information on this subject. The
state of New York has, for a few years, required all
the colleges and academies in the state to keep me
teorological registers, which are returned annually to
the superintendent of schools, and published with the
school statistics. Public attention has been so thor
oughly called to the importance of this subject and
men of science are now recording so many facts that
in future there will be an abundance of material to
satisfy the wishes of those who may propose to write
a history of meteorological phenomena.
Lhave gathered from various sources a few items
which may be of some interest to the general reader
and are deemed worthy of being preserved.
The following table gives the warmest and coldest
day in the first ten years of the century, at New
22

254

THE HALF CENTURY.

Haven, Connecticut, and also the time of the flower
ing of peach-trees and apple-trees : —

rear.

JViiriiiest.

Coldest.

Peach.
April 26

Apple.

ISOl

June 23

100°

Jan. 29

0°

May 6

1802

July 23

94

Feb, 23

0

" 30

" 5

1803

" 25

96

Jan. 29

4

" 22

" 5

1804

" 10

94

" 22

2

May 3

" 9

1805

June 20

100

" 4

-4

April 23

" 2

1806

" 24

90

" 18

0

May 6

" 14

1807

" 9

92

" 14

3

" U

" 19

1808

July 1

96

" 16

0

April 23

" 1

1809

June 28

95

Feb. 9

-5

May 6

" 16

1810

" 20

93

Jan. 20

0

April 26

« 4

February 21, 1802, the snow began to fall, and
continued without much cessation for a week. In
the southern part of Connecticut, it was a mixture of
sleet and snoAV, and was four feet deep. In New
Hampshire and Maine it was about eight feet in
depth. The mail stage was four days going from
New York to New Haven, 76 miles.
Tbe summer of 1804 was unusually cold ; in many
places in Massachusetts, there was frost in July, On
the 19th of August, and again on the 9th and 10th
of October, the wind blew with great violence
in New England, uprooting trees and unroofing
buildings.. The summers of 1805 and 1806 AA^ere unusually
dry ; and, of 1807, 1808, and 1809, exceedingly wet,
and the latter very cold.
January 18, 1810, there was a severe snow storm ;
the Avind blew like a hurricane : the next day it was
clear, and the cold intense : it was, for many years,
called the cold Friday.

THE HALF CENTURY- 256
September 22 and 23, 1815, there was a memor
able storm of wind and rain throughout the Atlantic
states ; the salt water of the ocean was converted into
spray, and blown into the country 30, and in some
places, 50 miles, in quantities sufficient to destroy the
foliage of the trees. The loss of property on the
coast of New England was estimated at one and a
half millions of dollars.
During the first half of January, 1816, the weather
was extremely cold. At Springfield, Massachusetts,
on the morning of the 11th, the mercury fell 11 de
grees below 0. The summer of that year is still
remembered as the cold summer. There Avere frosts
in Massachusetts during each of the summer months,
and, in low grounds, pretty severe. On the moun
tains of Berkshire, on the 6th of June, the snoAV fell
several inches in depth, and travellers suffered much
from the severity of the storm. The snow Avas ten
inches deep in the central part of Termont and New
Hampshire. On the morning of July 4, ice was
formed of the thickness of common Avindow glass in
the Northern and Middle States, and much of the
corn was killed, August was a most cheerless month ;
ice was formed half an inch in thickness. The cold
extended to Europe. Some of the English papers
said, " 1816 Avill be remembered as the year in which
there was no summer." The coldest days in August
were the 13th, 14th, and 29th, Tery little corn
ripened that year. Farmers paid five dollars a bushel-
for seed corn the next spring.

266 THE HALF CENTURY.
January 17, 1817, there was a remarkable thunder
shower, which extended from Q,uebec to Georgia,
and Avas accompanied in some places with snoAV.
The lightning was very vivid, and almost incessant ;
luminous matter collected on the tops of posts, on the
ears of animals, and on all prominent pointed objects.
The month of February, in both 1817 and 1818,
was very cold. On the morning of the 11th of the
latter year, the mercury at Williamstown, Massachu
setts, was 22° below 0, and at Deerfield, 25° beloAV 0.
The winter of 1819 was unusually warm in New
England ; many farmers in the valley of the Con
necticut ploughed their fields in January ; flies were
abroad. May 11, 1820, it began to rain, and continued to
rain, with the exception of scarcely a day, till June
1. There was very little rain, after that, till the last
of August. The drought Avas severe through the
country ; the grasshopper was a burden ; in many
places it became necessary to feed cattle with hay
to keep them alive.
January 25, 1821, the mercury sunk 14° below 0
at New Haven ; at Norwich, Connecticut, 26° below
0 ; and in Maine, 35° beloAV 0. Professor Silliman
said, in his Journal of Science, that it was the coldest
Avinter in that city of which they had any record.
July, 1825, was exceedingly hot. At Williams-
town, Massachusetts, the mercury was above 90°
every day from the 10th to the 23d, on Avhich day
it was 98°. The 13th was the hottest day of the

THE HALF CENTURY.

267*

year. At Hartford, the mercury rose to" 102° in the
shade ; in Boston, to 100° ; in Albany, to 98° ; and in
Montreal, to 91°.
The morning of February 1, 1826, was tbe coldest
that winter. It is not known that the mercury, over
so large an extent of country, has sunk so low as it
did that morning. At Montreal, it Avas 38° beloAV 0 ;
at HalloAvell, Maine, 30° ; at Amherst, Massachusetts,
24° ; at Springfield, 18° ; at Westfield, 17° ; at New
Bedford, 35° ; at Keene, New Hampshire, 28° ; and at
Wilmington, Delaware, 26° below 0.
The following table gives the Avarmest and coldest
day, at different places, for a series of years, from
1827 to 1850. I have given, for most of the years,
tbe warmest and coldest days at two or more places,
at a greater or less distance from each other, for the
purpose of shoAving comparative temperatures.

Place.

Year.
1827

Coldest.

Warmest.

New Haven, Conn.,

January 21, -7

August 6,

93

Marietta, Ohio,

"

February 12, -6

July],

96

New Hayen,

1828

January 12, 6

July 2,

90

Marietta,

"

January 10, 10

June 26,

94

"

1829

February 23, 2

May 29,

94

New Fane, Vermont,

u

January 11, -22

July 21,

88

tt It

1830

December 22,-12

July 21,

94

Marietta,

"

February 3, -4

{ July 19.
\ Aug. 19,

94

New Fane,

1831

February 14, -10

August 15,

94

Rochester, New York,

it

February 7, -4

June 3,

95

<i tt

1832

January 27, -6

June 25,

88

New Fane,

((

January 19, -20

July 6,

93

Rochester, New York,

1833

January 17, . -4

July 21,

91

tt It

1834

January 4, -10

July 9,

95

(1 ((

1835

February 3, -3

June 11,

90

(( (1

1836

February 2, -5

July 19,

87

t( ((

1837

February 13, 2

July 13,

88

Dover, N. Hampshire,

tt

January 4, -18

Julyl,

95

22*

258

THE HALF CENTURY.

Place.

Year.

Key West,

1837

Natchez, Miss.,

1838

Hudson, Ohio,

((

tt tt

1839

Albany,

ti

Newburg,

tt

1840

Albany,

«

Mendon, Mass.,

«(

tt tt

1841

Utica,

"

"

1842

Mendon,

((

.(

1843

Utica,

"

Lambertsville, N. J.,

1844

Mendon,

H

"

1845

Albany,

t(

Lambertsville,

1846

Mendon,

((

tt

1847

Natchez, Miss,,

tt

New York,

H

"

1848

Mendon,

il

Lambertsville,

1849

Savannah, Georgia,

l(

Coldest.

January 4, 60
February 3, 37
February 25, -8

6
-12 -6-6
-23-10

March 4,
January 24,
February 2,
January 1,
January 17,
January 17,
January 5,
January 4,
December 22;
January 6,
February 10,
February 18,
January 28,
January 26,
February 2,
December i2,-ll
February 27, -1
February 27,
February 24,
January 7,
January 13,
January 10,
January 11,
January 11,
February 19,

Warmest.

July 30,
June 25,
July 27,
July 30,
June 19,
July 14,
July 21,
July 6,
July 16,
June 30,
July 24,
July 13,
July 30,
Julyl, June 23,
July 14,
June 27,
July 15,
July 13,
July 11,
July 11,
July 20,
August 5,
July 18,
June 16,
June 17,
June 22,

888592
8892
88899696
9396939091
90 94
90 9297
96 93928693 89 9297

The following table gives the times of the flower
ing of the peach and apple for twenty successive
years, at Roxbury, Massachusetts : —

Year.

Peach.

Apple.

Year.

Peach.

Apple.

1813

May 12

May 23

1824

May 4

May 11

1815

" 11

' 27

1825

Ap. 28

" 8

1816

" 5

' 18

1826

" 16

" 12

1817

" 6

' 12
1827
" 30
" 7
1818
" 11
' 26
1828
1819
' 27
1829
" 16
1820
' 11
1830
" 26
1821
" 9
' 17
1831.
" 18
" 6
1822
" 4
' 9
1832
" 16
1823
" 12
' 19
1833
" 29
THE HALF CENTURY.

2S9

The following table shows the time in which the
peach and apple floAvered in different parts of the
United States, in 1834 : —

Peach.

Eatonton, Georgia,
Charleston, South Carolina,
KnoxviUe Tennessee,
Baltimore, Perryville, Mo,,
Detroit, Michigan,
Cambridge, Massachusetts,
Concord, New Hampshire,
The difference in temperature in the valleys of the
Hudson and Connecticut Rivers may be learned from
the times when the rivers freeze over and break up.

February 12
" 18
March 8
April 1
March 30
April 15
April 25 12

Apple.

March

10

April
March

1
28

May AprilMay

10 10 17

tt

23

Year.

Conn, closed.

Hudson closed.

Conn. open.

Hudson open.

1817

December 23

December 7

March 25

1818

12

14

March 3

AprU 3

1819

" 11

" 13

19

March 25

1821

15

" 13

" 4

15

1823

" 9

16

« 12

3

1825

13

13

January 1

February 26

1828'

31

" 23

February 7

April 1

1830

" 22

23

March 9

March 15

1832

** 22

21

10

" 21

1835

November 29

November 30

16

AprU i

In 1806, the Hudson River froze over January 9,
and was open February 20. The navigation was
obstructed only 42 days, which is the shortest time
it was ever known to be closed by ice.
In 1836, it opened April 4, having been frozen 125
days, which is the longest time its navigation is
known to have been obstructed by ice.
In 1806, the Connecticut River was frozen over 46
days ; and, in 1836, it was open April 2, having been
closed 125 days.

260

THE HALF CENTURY.

The following table Avill show the different quan
tities of rain at different places, in inches, for several
successive years : —

1831.

1832.

1833.

1834.

1835.

1836.

Philadelphia,

44

40

48

34

39

42

HuntsvUle, Alabama,

43

46

67

63

60

54

Albany, New York,

39

44

41

32

40

44

Providence, R. I.,

39

34

42

30

38

Often, the difference in the quantity of rain is very
great, and quite unaccountable ; thus, in 1847, the
quantity reported to have fallen at Natchez was 15
inches, and at Muscatine, loAva, on the same river,
though far north, only 26 inches. In 1827, there
fell, in New Haven, 51 inches; in Philadelphia, the
same year, only 38 inches.
In some years, there is a remarkable uniformity in
the quantity of rain ; thus, from July 1, 1847, to
July 1, 1848, the quantity that fell in Saco, Maine,
was 44 inches ; in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 43
inches ; and in Lambertsville, N, J. 46 inches.
The year 1845 was distinguished by a drought,
that prevailed in most of the states east of the Missis
sippi River.
January and February of 1849 Avere distinguished
for being uniformly, though not intensely, cold.
May 12, 1849, there Avas a crevasse, or break, in
the levee of the Mississippi River, at Sauve's planta
tion, 14 miles above NeAV Orleans, which Avas not
stopped until June 12. It overflowed a large tract
of country, deluged 160 squares in the eastern part
of New Orleans, on Avhich there Avere 1,600 houses,
occupied by 8,000 persons.

THE HALF CENTURY. 261
The plan of extended observations proposed and
already commenced by tbe Smithsonian Institute, it
is believed may result in the discovery of some laws
and principles in mpteorology, that will be of great
service. The magnetic telegraph is likely to afford
important aid in this matter. If a storm commences
in one part of the United States, the fact may be
communicated to all the cities along the coast, prior
to tbe coming of the storm, and vessels, and other
property that is exposed to its ravages, put in a state
of greater security.

Section 8. Phrenology.
In the Christian Spectator, (quarterly series,) vol
ume vi., page 498, may be found the following para
graph : " Phrenology is a child of recent birth, the
offspring of the present inquiring and revolutionary
age. It began its existence, as an infant, in the lat
ter part of the last century, in Germany, During its
early childhood, it was under the fostering care of
Dr. Gall, a physician of Tienna ; but in 1804, while
yet a mere stripling, unfriended and unknown, it fell
under the joint charge of Dr. Gall and a felloAV-Ger-
man. Dr. Spurzheim. Under the protection, and by
the extraordinary efforts of these two toilsome and
indefatigable men, it has grown to something like the
stature, if not the strength, of manhood. It can
now, after parental care has been withdraAvn, when the

262 THE HALF CENTURY.
guardians of its minority have been removed by
death, not only stand alone, as its friends declare, but
can Avalk, and defend itself, and even beat its ene
mies." This new science, ever since the promulgation of
it, has had to encounter much opposition. It has
been assailed by argument and ridicule, but has been
defended by its friends with great zeal and enthusi
asm. John J, Gall was born in the kingdom of Wurtem-
berg, in 1758, and died at Tienna, in 1828. He
observed that boys in school, who had large eyes,
excelled in memory, Avhich suggested the idea, that
the strength of different faculties depended on the
formation of certain parts of the head. He collected
skulls, and compared the prominences common to all,
and those by which one was distinguished from
another. By long attention to this subject, he located
about twenty organs, which he regarded as the seat
of so many different mental faculties.
Gaspard Spurzheim was born in Germany, in 1776,
and studied medicine at Tienna, where he became
acquainted with Dr. Gall. They studied together the
anatomy of the brain. In 1807, they went to Paris,
and lectured on their favorite science, and pursued
their investigations still further. In 1810, they pub
lished An Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous
System in general, and of the Brain in particular.
In 1814, Spurzheim lectured in England, Scotland,
and Ireland. Their theory Avas, that the brain con-

THE HALF CENTURY. 263
sists of a congeries of organs, in the shape of cones,
the bases of which press upon the skull ; that, by the
exercise of a given faculty, the cone, which is the
seat of it, becomes enlarged, and produces an eleva
tion of the skull ; and that, by an examination of tbe
exterior surface of the skull, the most vigorous or
most highly cultivated faculties of the mind may be
ascertained. Spurzheim came to America in September, 1832,
and commenced a course of lectures at Boston, and
another at Cambridge ; but before he had completed
his course, he was taken sick, and died November
10, 1832. He Avas buried at Mount Auburn. His
works were published in Boston the same year, and
also a system of phrenology by George Combe, of
Scotland, another professor of this science, who vis
ited America in 1839 and 1840, and lectured with
great applause in many cities. The labors and writ
ings of these men gave tbe subject-considerable pop
ularity ; though men of science have; for the most
part, expressed themselves with great caution respect
ing it.
Between 1830 and 1840, the country was traversed
by a host of lecturers, Avho labored to instruct the
people in the mysteries of this new science, and
who examined the heads of all Avho desired to know
their contents, or their peculiar gifts.
Whatever of truth there may be in this science, it
is manifest that a prejudice would be created against
it, by the fact that a majority of these lecturers were

264 THE HALF CENTURY.
young men, often students, Avho had very little, if
any, knowledge of intellectual science, or of any
other. They engaged in the business for the purpose
of defraying their travelling expenses, and to add a
httle to their funds for future use. It was not to be
expected that men of science and ripe scholars would
sit at the feet of these tyros, and receive their
instruction. I do not assert that all the advocates of phrenology
are, or have been, men of little erudition ; but it is
true that so many of those who have been going up
and down in the earth, expounding its principles,
have been so deficient in their knowledge of intel
lectual science, that it has led scientific men to look
upon the whole matter with distrust.
Many of the lecturers have so spoken upon the
subject, as to convey the idea that the mind was a
kind of material organism; which has led many reli
gious men to regard it as a germ of infidelity, and
that the less they had to do with it tbe better.
Its friends have injured it by claiming too much
for it. It has been represented as a science all-im
portant to the teacher and parent, and not entirely
useless to the judge on the bench, in ascertaining the
bias of the criminal's mind who is placed before
him to be tried.
There are some eminent men who have faith in
its teachings, and many Avho have not. There are
many who think its teachings uncertain, and unwor
thy of being dignified Avith the name of science.

THE HALF CENTURY. 265
There are a few, a very few, Avho pursue it still, and
advocate its doctrines ; but tbe number of itinerant
lecturers has greatly diminished for a few years
past. If we take away from this science all that properly
belongs to anatomy and physiology, and all that has
been borrowed from treatises on education or intel
lectual philosophy, hoAV much Avill be left ? What
practical principle has it discovered ? It has been in
vestigated and examined for fifty years, and what
important change has it wrought ? What good has
it done? In what walk of usefulness can its foot
steps be traced ? It is passing strange that a science,
worthy of the name, has not in fifty years showed
itself to be in some way highly beneficial. See what
electro-magnetism, which is not half as old, has done.
She has taught men to converse with each other,
when a thousand miles apart, almost as if they were
in the same room. She sends us every morning a
notice of any important event that has occurred be
tween Halifax and New Orleans the day previous.
That phrenologists are able to form some opinion
about a man's intellect by examining the surface' of
his head, I do not deny ; but how much better all
this can be ascertained by a feAv mintttes spent in
free conversation. I suppose that a man who shall
devote himself for years to the examination of hands
or noses, would discover many signs by Avhich he
could form a pretty accurate opinion of character.
23

266 THE HALF CENTURY.

Section 9. The Smithsonian Institute.
December 17, 1835, the president of the United
States communicated to Congress the fact that James
Smithson, of London, who died about 1827, at
Genoa, had bequeathed the reversion of his whole
estate to the United States of America, to " found at
Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian
Institute, an establishment for the increase and dif
fusion of knowledge among men." By an act of
Congress, July 1, 1836, the bequest was acc'epted,
and the faith of the United States pledged to a due
application of the fund to the purposes of the be
quest. Mr. Richard Rush was sent to England to
collect and receive the money, and, on his return, he
deposited in the mint at Philadelphia $508,318,46,
which, by the authority of Congress, was vested in
state stocks.
Mr. Smithson is said to have been the natural son
of the Duke of Northumberland, and his mother a
Mrs. Macie, of Wiltshire, of the family of Hunger
ford. He was educated at Oxford, Avhere he took an
honorary degree in 1786. He went under the name
of James Lewis Macie ; but after leaving the universi
ty, he took the name of Smithson, and ever after
signed his name James Smithson. He does not
appear to have had any fixed place of abode, but took
lodgings for a year or two at a time in London, Paris,
Berlin, Florence, or Genoa, as inclination prompted.

THE HALF CENTURY. 267
He led a retired life, Avas simple in his habits, cour
teous and reserved in his manners and conversation.
His health was feeble ; he devoted himself to the
study of science, and particularly to chemistry. He
was an acquaintance of Cavendish and Wollaston,
and a member of the Royal Society, to the archives
of which he made contributions. His property was
given him by his reputed father, which accumulated
in his hands, inasmuch as he never expended the
interest. He was supposed to be in favor of a monarchical
form of government ; and why he should have made
the United States a trustee of his property is not
knoAvn. His name will be cherished by posterity as
one of the greatest benefactors of his race. It is
worthy of. notice that he did not give his money for
the difl'usion of knowledge among Americans, but
" among men ; " the institution is founded for the
benefit of the world.
It Avas not till August 10, 1846, that Congress
made provision for carrying into execution the will
of the donor. The fund, however, was on interest
for ten years at five per cent,, which was $250,000.
The corporation consists of the president and vice-
president, the secretaries, the chief justice, and mayor
of Washington, together with such other persons as
they may elect honorary members. The financial
and other affairs are intrusted to a board of regents,
which consists of the vice-president, chief justice,
and mayor of Washington, three senators appointed

268 THE HALF CENTURY.
by the senate, three members of the house appoint
ed by that body, and six citizens at large, appointed
by a joint resolution of both houses of Congress.
This board elect a secretary, who is, in fact, the pri-
murn mobile of the institution.
Professor Henry, LL, D., of Nassau Hall, holds
that ofiice, and Professor C. C, Jevvet, of Brown Uni
versity, is his assistant.
In February, 1847, proposals were received for the
erection of the buildings for the use of the institu
tion, to consist of a central building 204 feet long,
66 feet Avide, and 57 feet high ; two connecting
ranges, each 60 feet long, 49 feet Avide, and 28 feet
high ; and tAvo wings, the east one 80 feet long, 50
feet wide, and 43 feet high, the west one 76 feet
long, 36 feet wide, and 42 feet high, with several
toAvers, the highest of Avhich is 140 feet.
The estimated cost is $250,000 ; but it was pro
posed to finish one of the Avings, and not complete
the whole structure until 1852, By that time the
interest will have paid for the building, and the per
manent fund will then be $650,000. One half of
the income of the fund the regents have determined
to expend in increasing and diffusing knoAvlege, and
the other half in the gradual formation of a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art. It is their purpose
to increase knowledge by encouraging original dis-.
coveries, and by offering premiums, from time to
time, for original papers. containing positive additions
to human knoAvledge, These, together with other

THE HALF CENTURY. 269
suitable papers, are to be published periodically, or
occasionally, in quarto volumes or numbers, to be
entitled Smithsonian Contributions to KnoAvledge,
There are also to be free lectures, by the secretary
and others, at stated periods, giving an account of
new discoveries. The first volume of Contributions
to KnoAvledge Avas published in the autumn of
1848. It consists of a single Memoir on the Antiqui
ties of the Mississippi Talley, by Messrs, Squier and
Davis, Mr. Henry Stevens is employed in preparing
a catalogue of all books relating to America, pub
lished prior to 1700, together with the name of the
libraries in which they may be found, whether in
this country or Europe.
Measures will be taken to obtain meteorological
observations from every part of the American conti
nent, and for explorations in regard to terrestrial mag
netism. Other topics connected Avith physical geog
raphy will receive attention.
This institution has the ability to do much to pro
mote the progress of knoAvledge among men. It
will be a stimulus to scientific men to push forward
their inquiries in the various departments of knowl
edge. The founder of it has certainly shown him
self to be a man of large views, and has done much
to advance the cause of science in this country and
through the world. 23*

270 THE HALF CENTURY.
CHAPTER VII.
INVENTIONS, ARTS, AND MANUFACTURES.

Section 1. Inventions.
The number of patents issued from the patent
office at Washington Avill give some idea of the in
ventive genius of the people of the United States,
and will afford reasonable ground to conclude that
great progress has been made in arts and manufac
tures. The number of patents issued from the office at
Washington from 1801 to 1814, inclusive, Avas 1,934,
The number issued during the next fourteen years,
or from 1815 to 1828, inclusive, was 3,289. The
number issued in eight years, from 1841 to 1848, in
clusive, was 4,435. The whole number of patents
issued from 1801 to 1848, inclusive, Avas 15,844,
It is an interesting fact that the greatest number of
patents issued from the office, of any particular class,
is those relating to agriculture, and the smallest num
ber is those that relate to Avar, The proportion of
the former to the latter is nine to one. Nearly one
half of all the patents in this country belong to the
five following departments : agriculture, metallur
gy, manufactures of fibrous substances, chemical
processes, and calorific apparatus.

THE HALF CENTURY. 271
The inventions in the United States, since the
patent office was opened, in 1789, have been 1 to
1,360 of the population as it was in 1840. The
patents of Massachusetts have been 1 to 394 inhab
itants ; in Connecticut, 1 to 285 ; in Georgia, 1 to
10,706 ; in South Carolina, 1 to 4,733.
" Within a few years," says the commissioner of
patents, " the inventive genius of the country, under
some stimulant or other, not readily perceived, has
been more than usually active, and has produced cor
responding results. Formerly, invention Avas pur
sued mainly Avith a desire to develop the laAvs of
nature, and to adapt them, by mechanism and pro
cesses of art, to the use of man. Now, it is not only
pursued from a love of science, and from motives of
a noble ambition, but by some as a profession." "It
aims to improve what already exists in a form more
or less imperfect, and to adapt it to the practical
wants of society."
The finish of articles that come from the shops of
our mechanics, and their neat and elegant appearance,
show that great advances have been made in practical
skill. Annual fairs of counties and states, industrial exhi
bitions, and the aAvarding of premiums for mechan
ical skill and useful and ingenious inventions, have
no doubt given an impulse to genius, and have has
tened the march of improvement.
In order to compete with foreign manufacturers,
who pay a very small price for labor, Americans have

272 THE HALF CENTURY.
been driven by necessity, which is the " mother of
invention," to contrive and perfect all kinds of labor-
saving machinery.
Since the commencement of the present century,
and Avithin the recollections of many now upon the
stage, some of the most important revolutions in so
ciety have been occasioned by the introduction of
labor-saving machinery. The spinning-Avheel and
the hand-loom, once found in almost every family
in New England, have been driven out by the spin
ning-jenny and power-loom. Cotton and Avoollen
factories have Avrought great changes in the occupa
tion of families.
The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney,
who died at New Haven, January 8, 1825, aged
fifty-nine, has Avrought as great changes in the cus
toms of society, and has promoted the general wel
fare of the country as much, perhaps, as the -inven
tions of Fulton or of Morse. The cotton-gin Avas
patented in 1793, but the benefits of it were not
then known ; they have been accumulating during
the last fifty years. Cotton was not one of the great
staples of America till Whitney taught the cotton-
growers how to clean their cotton, and prepare it
for market. Before Whitney's invention came into
use, not more than one thousand bags of cotton Avere
annually shipped to England, Now, this article con
stitutes half the value of our exports.
" The causes of the vast and increasing strides in
the improvement and physical condition of society

THE HALF CENTURY. 273
are to be sought for in tbe advanced state of the nat
ural sciences, and in the increased diffusion of knowl
edge, order, and morality, among the people."
I have said that a large proportion of the patents
belong to the calorific class, such as stoves, grates,
furnaces, &c. A little more than thirty years ago,
churches had no stoves, and no means by which they
could be warmed. The people who attended meet
ing in cold weather had their thoughts more engrossed
with the inquiry. What must I do to keep warm ?
than with the question. What must I do to be
saved ?
When it was proposed to set up a stove in a
church, it seemed to some a very wicked thing ; it
showed that people were becoming effeminate, and
thought more of their comfort than of their duty.
Some declared that stoves in churches would injure
the health of the people, and must not be introduced.
One good lady said she could not endm-e it. A stove
was set up in the church on Saturday. She remained
a while, but was so much oppressed, that she felt it
necessary to leave the house. She recovered, how
ever, as soon as she learned there was not, and had
not been, a spark of fire in the stove during the day.
The innovation having been made, the people
now think it wicked to erect churches or other pub
lic buildings without providing means of warming
them.

274 THE HALF CENTURY.

Section 2. Daguerreotype.
The most beautiful discovery made in the arts,
during the last half century, is that of fixing perma
nently on a metallic plate the image formed in the
focus of the camera obscura. This instrument Avas
discovered more than two centuries ago by Porta, a
Neapolitan philosopher. The idea existed in his
mind of the desirableness of being able to give per
manence to the beautiful and truthful jjictures formed
by that instrument.
The alchemists made another discovery connected
with the photographic art. They found that paper
moistened with a colorless solution of cbloTide of
silver, or lunar caustic, became black Avhen exposed
to the light, and that, if the image formed by a lens
Avas throAvn upon such paper, it left an outline of the
image ; but, by exposure to the light, the Avhole soon
became dark. They also discovered that, by placing
an engraving or picture on paper thus prepared, and
exposing it to the bright light of the sun, the paper
became darkest beneath that part of the picture that
was most transparent, and unchanged beneath the
parts that Avere opaque. A picture was thus formed
upon the paper, but the light and shade Avere re
versed. Here the subject rested until 1802, Avhen Wedg
wood, the discoverer of the pyrometer for measuring
high temperatures, presented to the Royal Society

THE HALF CENTURY. 275
of England a paper upon a method of copying paint
ings upon glass, for church windows, by the aid of
the camera obscura and chloride of silver. But he
did not succeed in making the pictures sufliciently
distinct nor permanent.
Sir Humphry Davy made some experiments on
tbe same subject Avith the solar microscope, and suc
ceeded when the object to be represented was very
small, and the focal distance of the lens very short.
The next experimenter on this subject, of whom
I have any information, was M, Niepce, a country
gentleman, who resided near Chalons, on the Saone,
and who devoted the leisure of a retired life to the
pursuits of science. He began his photographic re
searches in the year 1816, and in 1827 he acciden
tally learned, through an optician in Paris, that M.
Daguerre had been experimenting on the same sub
ject for more than a year. At the close of 1827, M.
Niepce, being in England, presented to the Royal
Society an account of his experiments, and several
sketches on metallic plates. It appears that he had
then succeeded in making the shade correspond to
shade, and light to light, and had rendered his copies
impervious to erasure, and to the blackening effect
of the solar rays.
In December, 1829, Niepce and Daguerre bound
themselves by a deed of copartnership for mutually
experimenting on the subject of photography. As
improvements were made, and difficulties surmount
ed, a new deed was drawn up, specifying the im-

276 THE HALF CENTURY.
provement, and the name of the individual who
made it. Niepce died before the discovery was ma
tured, and bequeathed his right to his son, between
whom and Daguerre the copartnership was continued.
One of the difficulties they had to meet Avas the
long time required to render the image distinct. It
was necessary to keep the focal image upon the metal
from sunrise to sunset ; but, as the shadows of ob
jects in that time pass through a semicircle, the
shadoAvs moved over the whole surface of the picture,
and made the Avliole equally dark. It was necessary
to overcome this difficulty, before this method of ob
taining the picture of any object could be of any
practical utility.
M. Daguerre, by a great number of minute, diffi
cult, and expensive experiments, succeeded in obtain
ing a distinct impression in a very short time, and
also in making it permanent.
This is called the photographic art, because the
picture of the object is painted by the agency of
light ; but in honor of the gentleman who perfected
the art, it is called Daguerreotype, and the pictures so
obtained Daguerreotypes. In 1838, or in the begin
ning of 1839, M. Daguerre communicated the subject
to the National Assembly, offering to sell the inven
tion to the government, and make a full disclosure
of the process for the contmon benefit of all.
In 1839, the committee to Avhom the subject was
referred, recommended the payment of a pension of
8,000 francs, to be divided equally between Daguerre

THE HALF CENTURY. 277
and Niepce. The Assembly made it 10,000, giving
6,000 to the former and 4,000 to the latter. The dis
covery is one of great value, and enables any one to
obtain very accurate miniatures of his friends at a
very small expense.
Blackwood's Magazine, in its announcement of this
newly-discovered art, in 1839, broke out in the fol-
loAving strain : —
" Where are Ave going ? Who can tell ? The
phantasmagoria of inventions passes rapidly before
us ; — are Ave to see them no more ? Are they to be
obliterated? Is the hand of man to be altogether
stayed in bis work ? — the wit active, the fingers
idle ? Wonderful wonder of wonders ! ! Tanish
aquatints and mezzotints ; as chimneys that consume
their OAvn smoke, devour yourselves. Steel engrav
ers, copper engravers, and etchers, drink up your
aquafortis and die. There is an end of your black
art."

Section 3. Manufactures, Cotton, Woollen, Silk,
India Rubber.
While the United States were subject to Great
Britain, she did what she could to prevent the manu
facture of any thing here that she made to sell. The
House of Commons seemed to act on the principle
"that the erecting of manufactories in the colonies
tended to lessen their dependence upon the mother
country." Even Lord Chatham, Avho advocated our
24

278 THE HALF CENTURY.
cause during the revolutionary struggle, said the
Americans should not be allowed to manufacture so
much as a hobnail. Englishmen could very easily
persuade themselves that Americans should confine
their attention to those pursuits that did not interfere
with any branch of business already established in
England, The Board of Trade complained to Par
liament, from time to time, that certain trades were
carried on, and certain manufactures set up in the
American colonies, that were detrimental to the trade,
navigation, and manufactures of Great Britain, They
permitted pigs and bars of iron to be imported to
Great Britain free of duty, and prohibited the erection
in this country of any mill or engine for slitting or
rolling iron, or any forge to AVork with a tilt-hammer,
or any furnace for making steel. They would not
allow the importation of hats into England from this
country, and, if they could, would have prevented
the use of spinning-Avheels and hand-looms for the
manufacture of cloth for domestic use. They thought
it would be better for the Americans to purchase of
them all the cloth they needed.
One thing which the Americans aimed to secure
by the revolution was the privilege of making what
they pleased for themselves. In the treaties of com
merce made betAveeu this country and Great Britain,
she has aimed to cripple our manufactures, and oblige
us to buy of her at extravagant prices.
I offer these remarks introductory to a sketch of
some of the leading manufactures of the United
States,

THE HALF CENTURY. 279
Cotton Cloths. — In 1790, Samuel Slater, an Eng
lishman, came to Rhode Island. He Avas acquainted
Avith Arkwright's improvements for spinning cotton,
and able to superintend the erection of machinery
for that purpose. Under the patronage of Messrs,
Almy & BroAvn, of Providence, he put in operation
the first cotton manufactory in this country. The
attempt was regarded as hazardous. The owners kept
their success secret. But it was soon inferred, from
the fact that they enlarged their establishment, that
the business Avas profitable. Others engaged in it,
and at the commencement of the present century it
is believed that about two millions of capital Avere
vested in cotton mills.
Master mechanics, for building machinery, at first
all came from England. Americans were employed
in the shops, Avho soon became masters of the busi
ness themselves.
From 1807 to 1815, the embargoes, non-intercourse
acts, and Avar, preventing the importation of British
cottons into this country, gave a spur to our manufac
tures, and the business during that period Avas very
profitable. In 1810, there were in Rhode Island and the adja
cent parts of Massachusetts and Connecticut 120,000
spindles in motion, which made annually five and a
half million pounds of yarn. It Avas woven in hand-
looms by females in the surrounding country. Mer
chants in the country towns of New England, very
generally, took yarn from the factories, and had it
wove, paying in goods.

280 THE HALF CENTURY.
The scarcity of skilful weavers, and the high price
paid for weaving, Avas a serious obstacle to the exten
sion of the business. At the close of the war, this
branch of American industry must have been very
much crippled, had it not been for the introduction
of the power-loom, Avhich Avas first used at Waltham,
Massachusetts, in 1815. Since then, the cotton man
ufactures have increased rapidly. They supply a
sufficient quantity of all the coarser goods for home
consumption, and export large quantities.
The amount of capital vested in this business in
the United States, in 1830, was twentj''-five millions
of dollars. There were then 795 mills, running
1,246,500 spindles, employing 33,506 looms, and
making 230,461,990 yards of cloth annually. In
1850, the number of yards is estimated at 720,000,000,
of which 80,000,000 are exported. In 1845, there
Avere in Massachusetts alone 302 cotton mills, having
a capital of eighteen millions of dollars, consuming
sixty million pounds of cotton, and making annually
tAvo hundred million yards of cloth. The number
of cotton mills increases every year.
The folloAving statement respecting the number
of cotton factories in the Southern States Avas pub
lished in the Mobile Advertiser, in May, 1850 : —
" It is estimated that Georgia has in operation 40
cotton mills, using 80,000 spindles, and consuming
45,000 bales of cotton annually ; in Tennessee, 30
factories and 36,000 spindles ; South Carolina, 16
factories, 36,500 spindles, and 700 looms, consum-

THE HALF CENTURY. 281
ing 15,000 bales of cotton ; Alabama, 12 factories,
12,580 spindles, and 300 looms, consuming 5.500
bales of cotton. Thus, in four states we have 98
factories, besides those in process of building, work
ing 140,000 spindles, consuming probably 75,000
bales of cotton ; and, if they go on increasing for the
next five years as they have for the past five, we cal
culate on some 200 cotton mills in operation in the
Southern States, consuming annually over 200,000
bales of cotton, and giving employment to some
thirty or forty thousand operatives."
In connection Avith many of the cotton mills are
calico manufactories. In 1845, there Avere in Massa
chusetts fourteen, employing a capital of one and a
half millions, and printing annually forty million
yards. Woollen Goods. — The first manufactory of wool
len cloths, by means of the jenny and broad loom,
that Avas established in the United States, Avent into
operation in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1807. In
1809, there was one established at Northampton, by
the Messrs. Shepherd, exclusively for the manufac
ture of superfine broadcloths. Their mills and ma
chinery cost $40,000 ; the price of the finest wool
was then $1.50 per pound, and their cloths sold by
the bale, in Ncav York, at $10 per yard. As early as
1810, there Avas a Avoollen mill in Bristol county, and
another in Essex,
In 1815, vast quantities of woollen goods were
sent into this country from Europe, and sold exceed-
24*

282 THE HALF CENTURY.
ingly low, for the purpose of breaking up the Amer
ican manufactories. The manoeuvre was partially
successful. Soon, however, the price of foreign
cloths advanced, and the manufacturers were able to
resume their business. Merino sheep were imported
into this country, and the price of avooI considerably
diminished. This kind of business, however, did
not become profitable till after the passage of the
tariff law of 1824, by Avhich the duty was raised
from fifteen to thirty per cent.
In 1827, a convention of those interested in wool
len manufactures Avas holden at Harrisburg, Pennsyl
vania. They petitioned Congress to raise the duty
on woollens imported into this country to forty per
cent,, with an annual increase of five per cent, till it
should be fifty per cent.
In 1831, it was estimated that the gross annual
product of all the woollen mills in the United States
was $40,000,000,
In 1845, there were in Massachusetts alone 178
mills for the manufacture of broadcloths, satinets, flan
nels, (fcc, and 17 for the manufacture of carpeting.
The number of woollen mills in the United ^States
at the present time is unknown, but it is not probable
that half of them are found in Massachusetts,
Silk. — The culture of silk was commenced in
Tirginia as early as 1625; in Georgia, about 1732;
in Pennsylvania, in 1771 ; and in Connecticut, in
1760. A society in London for the promotion of the
arts offered premiums to those Avho would plant a

THE HALF CENTURY. 283
given number of trees, or produce a certain number
of cocoons. Several thousand dollars were thus
obtained by individuals in this country from that
society. More attention is now given to the silk manufac
ture in Connecticut, probably, than in any other
state. In 1810, the value of sewing silk and raw
silk made in the counties of New London, Windham,
and Tolland, was estimated at $28,000. There is
more silk made in Mansfield, Connecticut, than in
any other town in the United States ; three fourths
of the families are engaged in it, more or less. Some
make five, others ten, twenty, thirty, or fifty pounds
in a year. It was said, in 1828, that from three to four
tons were made in that and the neighboring towns.
More or less attention has been given to it in all the
states except Maine.
From time to time, efforts have been made to exir
courage the making of silk, but with little success.
In 1825, the subject was brought before Congress,
and the committee on agriculture Avere requested to
prepare a manual upon the culture of silk. It was
said that the value of silks imported into the country
that year was $10,000,000, and the value of bread
stuffs exported was only $5,000,000. In 1828, Con
gress ordered the voluminous report of that committee
to be published. An increased attention was given
to the subject, and in 1833 and 1834 the price of
mulberry-trees was enormous. Cuttings were sold
at the rate of five cents a bud. Many became sud?

284 THE HALF CENTURY.
denly rich by cutting up and selling their mulberry
trees, and as many became suddenly poor in conse
quence of purchasing them. Since then, no increased
attention has been given to the subject.
In 1845, 22,000 pounds of sewing silk were made in
Massachusetts, but most of it from imported cocoons.
India Rubber Manufactures. — In 1828, it was
announced in Silliman's Journal that Dr. Comstock,
of Hartford, had found a composition, the chief in
gredient of which Avas caoutchouc, or India rubber,
which renders cloth and other substances impervious
to water. Shoes, boots, and other articles, it was
said, had then been in use more than a year, and still
retained their imperviousness. Of this cloth, thus
prepared, he had made life-preservers, consisting of
a bag, which, when fastened round the body, under
the arms, may be filled with air in a minute, and re
tained by a stop-cock. Its buoyancy is sufficient to
keep the head and shoulders above water for any
length of time. They have been in use from that
day to this.
In 1848, a ncAv life-preserver was invented. It
consists of an India rubber dress, which covers the
entire person except the face ; parts of it being in
flated, the wearer is able to float in an erect or recum
bent posture. It has paddles attached to it, with
which the wearer may propel himself at the rate of
three miles an hour. It keeps the body entirely dry
and comfortably warm in cold weather. A man put
on one in the spring of 1849, and Avent from New

THE HALF CENTURY. 285
York to Governor's Island, and from thence to Staten
Island, and returned, having spent most of tbe day
in the water ; not even the starch in his linen Avas
affected by dampness.
Since this discovery, India rubber cloth has been
extensively manufactured for the covering of car
riages, for overcoats, to be worn in the rain, for pan
taloons, Avith feet to them, to be worn by those Avho
are obliged to stand in the Avater, and for a great
variety of uses.
Recently, a ncAV gum (gutta percha) has been in
troduced to public notice, which resembles caout
chouc in many respects, and is used for similar
purposes. It is found in the Malay Islands, and its
peculiar characteristics were first made known by Dr.
Montgomerie, of England, in 1845. Several hun
dred tons have been annually exported from Singapore
for a few years, which shows that it is extensively
used for various purposes.
Liiien. — There is a manufactory of linen thread
in Lansingburg, New York, that produces 100,000
pounds annually. It is the first and only establish
ment of the kind in the country.

Section 4. Miscellaneous Manufactures.
Almost all articles used in the United States are
manufactured here in greater or less quantities. Of
many kinds of goods our home manufactures are

286 THE HALF CENTURY.
sufficient to supply the. wants of the people ; yet this
does not entirely exclude English articles of the same
kind from our market. There are always some Avho
prefer the European manufactures, even if they cost
a little more. The distance from Avhich they come
lends some enchantment.
In the state of Massachusetts, 46,000 persons are
engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes, of
Avhich they make annually 22,000,000 pairs, or enough
to furnish each inhabitant of the Union with one
pair. They are sent from this to most of the other
states. This business has groAvn up within 25 years.
In 1810, the number of pairs manufactured in Mas
sachusetts Avas 2,000,000, and more than half of
those were made in one toAvn, Lynn.
In 1810, the value of whips manufactured in Mas
sachusetts was $8,000 ; in 1845, the value of this
manufacture was $112,000; the increase has been
almost entirely in one toAvn, Westfield.
The value of carriages manufactured in this state,
in 1810, Avas $43,000 ; in 1845, it was $1,343,000.
Fifty years ago, journeys were performed on horse
back. Females often rode in this Avay 50 or 100
miles to visit their friends. It is very seldom that
an individual now rides any great distance on horse
back, unless it be recommended by a physician, for
the benefit of health, Connecticut and New Jersey
manufacture more carriages than Massachusetts.
The manufacture of paper in Massachusetts has
increased, in 40 years, from $260,000 to $1,750,000;

THE HALF CENTURY. 287
glass, from $36,000 to $760,000 ; clocks, watches,
and gold and silver ware, from $180,000 to $450,000;
combs, from $80,000 to $200,000 ; chairs and cabi
net Avork, from $410,000 to $1,476,000. Other
manufactmes have increased in about the same pro
portion. Steel and gold pens have come into use within 25
years. They were uitroduced from England, but are
now manufactured in this country in sufficient quan
tities to supply the wants of all the inhabitants, and
at a very moderate price.
At the beginning of the century, we were depend
ent on England for pins ; now the quantity manufac
tured in Connecticut is sufficient to supply the market
of the United States, and at a less price than they
can be purchased in England.
Philosophical, astronomical, and chemical appara
tus is manufactured very extensively in the United
States at the present time. An academy or a college
may be supplied with almost every article that is
needed to illustrate any of the principles of science,
without sending to Europe, Thirty years ago, very
few articles of this kind were made in this country.
If an air pump or an electrical machine Avas needed,
we were obliged to wait until it could be imported.
There has been, within a few years, a very great
improvement in the finish and beauty of American
apparatus. The value of apparatus manufactured an
nually in Massachusetts alone is estimated at $54,000.
It is manufactured in some of the other states.

288 THE HALF CENTURY.
There is no state in the Union, probably, Avhere
the amount and variety of manufactured articles are
so great as in Connecticut. In New -London, Wind
ham, and Tolland counties, with a population of
about 90,000, are 99 cotton mills, 28 iron forges, 13
paper factories. 111 sets woollen machinery, 20 tin
factories. S comb factories. 43 saddle, trunk, and har
ness makers ; S brass founderies, and S2 coach and
wagon factories, and many other branches of mechan
ical labor, too numerous to mention in detail. I find
the following list of manufactured articles, viz. :
$100,000 AA^orth of cordage; §132,000 worth of
leather ; 52,400 pairs of boots ; 5,565,000 pairs of
shoes; 34,700 pairs of hosiery; 123 tons of iron
chain ; 600 scythes ; 6,500 axes ; 1,300 tons of hol
low ware ; 81,700 hats; 496,000 gallons of linseed
oil ; $10,800 worth of glass ; $10,000 worth of lun>
ber, prepared for the market; 1,500,000 shingles;
and .$27,750 worth of snuff and cigars; — all this in
a population less than that of tbe city of Boston.
In Derby are two or three villages built up and
sustained by Various manufactures, consisting of
shirtings, broadcloths, satinets, India rubber gloves
and mittens, metallic and rubber shoes, and pins.
In Waterbury, an adjoining town, are iron and brass
founderies, and rolling mills, cotton, wool, and paper
mills, cloth and metallic button factories, and manu
factures of pocket cutlery, hooks and eyes, pins, Ger
man silver, copper, brass, and silver ware, and clock
and umbrella furniture.

THE HALF C1:NTI RY. 289
In Meriden, the folloAving articles are manufactured
in great quantities : coilee-mills ; latches ; vises ;
Britannia tablespoons and teaspoons; German silver
ditto, ditto ; butter knives ; table forks and dessert
forks ; Avhitened spoons ; Britannia tea-pots and coffee
pots, and faucets ; gimlets ; iron candlesticks ; copy
ing presses ; saAV stretchers ; iron bench screws ; steel
yards ; spring balances ; cast-iron pumps ; Avaffle irons ;
hat pins ; Avardrobe hooks ; brace, hat, and coat hooks ;
friction rollers, for grindstones; and AvindoAV springs.
In sight of this are an extensive ivory comb factory,
an iron comb factory, and furnaces, &c.
The number of clocks manufactured in Connecti
cut is A'ery great. In IS 12, it Avas said to exceed
600,000 annually ; they are made both of Avood
and brass, A single establishment in New Haven
employs 75 men, and turns out daily 200 brass
clocks. Much of the Avork is done by machinery :
the Avheels are cut into shape by machinery ; the
clock frames are planed out by cutting irons, Avork-
ing on the principle of the circular saAV, and Avhich
are fitted to the ogee or any other shape desired,
and the pieces are left in such a state that two
men, Avorking together, by another ingenious con
trivance, will glue and nail together about 200 frames
per hour. This state more than supplies the United
States Avitli timepieces. lu 1S41, a few Avere ex
ported to England by Avay of experiment. They
Avere invoiced at one dollar and fifty cents each,
the manufacturer's prices. They AA^ere seized at the

290 THE HALF CENTURY.
custom-house in Liverpool, on the ground that they
were undervalued. The owner, however, succeeded
in satisfying the officers that they could be made at a
profit even at that Ioav price, and they were released.
They were sold at auction at an average of $20 each.
Since then, the importation of clocks into England
has been very great ; in 1842, it was 40,000. They
are sent to Northern Europe and to China.
Pennsylvania is distinguished for the manufacture
of iron. There are in the state 57 anthracite blast
furnaces. They produced, in 1849, 109,168 tons of
iron, and employ 4,228 men.

Section 6. American Art Union.
The object of this association is to cultivate among
the people of this country a taste for the productions
of the pencil and chisel, and to encourage young
artists to persevere in their endeavors to perfect their
skill by bringing them into notice, and opening a
market for their works.
The Art Union was formed in 1838. Any one
may become a member by paying five dollars annu
ally. Every member receives annually a beautiful
picture engraved by an American artist. The sur
plus money is expended in the purchase of pictures
of American painters, which are exhibited for a year
in the picture gallery at New York, and then they
are drawn for by the subscribers somewhat in the

THE HALF CENTURY. 291
manner of a lottery. In 1847, 272 pictures were
distributed by lot among the members. Some of
them were worth $100 or more, and some, probably,
not worth five. The association, by purchasing so
many works of American painters every year, offers
an inducement to those who have a taste and skill for
painting to proceed in the career of improvement.
The number of subscribers to the Art Union in
1847 was 9,666, and the amount of money received
from them was $48,733, It will probably go on in
creasing from year to year.
The design of the Union is to encourage the arts
of sculpture and engraving, as well as painting. It
has already " exercised a large influence in advancing
the condition .of art, in raising the standard of public
opinion, and its appropriate criticism, and in holding
out to American artists the certainty of reward for
their toil, their study, and their care. It distributes
among them annually many thousands of dollars, and
by it they are stimulated to exertion, and reap their
share of fortune and fame."
The moral effect of good pictures thus diffused
through the country is not small.
Our engravers have, during the last fifty years,
made rapid advances towards perfection. Of this
any one may be satisfied who compares the engrav
ings of tbe present day Avith those of former times.
The names of Greenough, Powers, Brown, and
Crawford, as sculptors, are the "foremost men of all
their time,"

292 THE HALF CENTURY.
Several distinguished American painters have died
during tbe last fifty years, Benjamin West, a native
of Philadelphia, spent most of his professional life in
England, because there he could obtain a more ample
reward for his labor than in this country. He died
in 1820, aged 81. More is known of him by the com
munity at large than of any other painter this coun
try has produced ; and yet, among those of his own
profession, it is thought he owed his greatness very
much to the circumstance that he had so few com
petitors ; his eminence "Avas forced upon him."
Washington Allston, who died at Cambridge, Mas
sachusetts, in 1842, aged 63, attained a very enviable
rank as a painter. He Avas a native of South Caro
lina, and was a most estimable man. His pictures
were for the most part drawn from events recorded in
the Scriptures. Trumbull, Iiiman, and Stewart, who
have already ceased from their labors, were distin
guished artists.
" Of our painters we may well be proud, as to their
present attainment in art, and still more as to their
promise of future achievement." Our countrymen
have hitherto been so much occupied in the useful
and necessary arts, that they could not be expected
to make great proficiency in the fine arts. Many
moral and physical causes combine to render it prob
able that Ave shall, at some future day, produce as
eminent painters as any other nation under heaven.

THE HALF CENTURY. 293
Section 6. Letheon, or Sulphuric Ether, Chlo
roform, Gun-Cotton, Sfc.
In the autumn of 1846, it Avas announced in the
public journals that a dentist in Boston, W. T. G.
Morton, had discovered a method of extracting teeth
Avithout pain. Dr. Morton, it seems, was satisfied
that he could increase his business to any extent be
pleased, if he could only discover a method by which
he could extract and insert teeth without any pain to
the patient. Having some knowledge of the fact
that, by inhaling the vapor of ether, a state of insen
sibility could be produced, he applied to Dr. Charles
T. Jackson toknoAv if it could be done Avith safety.
It occurred to him that it might produce such a de
gree of stupor that a tooth might be extracted with
out a consciousness of Avhat was doing. On the 30th
of September, 1846, he inhaled tbe vapor himself,
and found that he remained in an unconscious state
eight minutes. On the same day, he administered it
Avith success to a man who called to have a tooth
extracted. The man, on recovering his conscious
ness, did not know that any instrument had been
applied to his tooth. On the 16th and 17th of Octo
ber, at the suggestion of Dr. Morton, ether was
administered to two patients at the hospital, who
were to have surgical operations performed. The
experiment was successful.
As soon as the fact was known, it was generally
25*

294 THE HALF CENTURY.
applauded by the newspapers as a Avonderful discov
ery, and the question came up. To Avhom belon|s the
honor, and who shall reap the reward ?
Dr, Jackson, in a letter to M, Beaumont, published
in Galignani's Messenger, in Paris, January, 1S47,
says, " I request permission to communicate to the
Academy, through you, a discovery Avhich I have
made, and Avhich I regard as important to suflering
humanity." It appears that the idea of using ether
to render a person insensible to pain, Avas original
with Dr. Morton, and that Dr. Jackson did no more
than give Dr. Morton some information respecting
the nature of ether, and the best mode of inhaling
it. But as Dr. Jackson was better known as a man
of science. Dr. Morton consented to take the patent
in the name of both, and Dr. Jackson sold out his
share to Dr. Morton for ten per cent, of the income
that might be derived from the sale of rights to use
the discovery.
In February, 1S47, another letter appeared in Ga
lignani's Messenger, from Dr. H. Wells, of Hartford,
Connecticut, in Avhich he claimed to be the discoA--
erer of the fact that the respiring of gas Avould pro
duce insensibility to pain, Dr, Wells had been about
tbe country for a few years previous, lecturing upon
gases, and had often administered the exhilarating, or
nitrous oxide, gas. There is no evidence that he
ever administered ether. He might, in his experi
ments, have found that persons under the influence
of the nitrous gas Avere insensible to pain, but he had

THE HALF CENTURY. 295
no right to claim that he discovered that the vapor
of ether would produce that effect. The French
Academy, however, conferred rcAvards of merit upon
both Jackson and Wells, and, in 1848, the American
Congress awarded to Morton the honor of the dis
covery. In 1847, several sharp articles appeared in the Bos
ton papers, some favorable to Morton, and others to
Jackson. Wells committed suicide that year, and
nothing more was said respecting his claims. Some
spicy pamphlets were written. The result has been
that, under the shelter of the smoke of controversy,
every one that chose has made use of the discovery
without paying Morton for the right, and that he has
been actually impoverished by tbe attention he gave
to tbe subject.
Soon after this, it was ascertained that chloroform,
a substance previously knoAvn, which is as volatile as
ether, Avould produce similar effects. The use of this
was strongly urged, and a controversy arose, in 1848j
on the question which of these vapors may be inhaled
with most safety. There are two facts in regard to
chloroform, and its effects, Avhich show that ether is
the safest gas. In the first place, ether contains a
greater proportion of oxygen, so much as not essen
tially to prevent the arterialization of blood, while
the patient is under the influence of it ; but chloro
form is composed of gases that prevent arterializa
tion. Hence persons having weak or diseased lungs
may be greatly injured by it ; many have died under

296 THE HALF CENTURY,
its influence. The other fact is, that chloroform, as
I am told by those Avho have inhaled it, destroys
volition for the time being, while the vapor of ether
does not. Chloroform puts the one Avho inhales it
into the power of those about him, Avhile ether leaves
him a free agent, having the poAver of choice.
Gun-Cotton. — During the winter of 1845-6, M.
Schonbein, professor of chemistry in Berlin, made a
series of experiments to determine the nature of
ozone. His conclusion was, that it is a distinct
peroxide of hydrogen, that forms Avith defiant gas a
peculiar compound, Avithout oxidizing the hydrogen,
or the carbon of the last-named gas. This suggested
the idea that, if he should let ozone, or that mixture
of nitric and sulphuric acids which, according to his
theory, would produce it, act upon any organic mat
ter, the result would be the same as AA^hen it acts
upon defiant gas. Among other things, he tried
cotton, and found that it Avould explode like powder.
In April, 1846, he went to Wurtemburg, and per
formed experiments at the arsenal. He loaded pis
tols, cannons, and mortars with it, instead of powder.
In the summer of that year, he used it in blasting
rocks, and in bloAving up some old walls at Basle,
and became satisfied that it is superior to gunpowder.
The French chemists produced a similar compound
in the autumn of the same year, and have claimed
for their country the honor of the discovery of gun-
cotton. Schonbein is said to have sold his patent right in

THE HALF CENTURY. 297
England for 40,000 pounds sterling. It is manufac
tured on a large scale in that country. No govern
ment 'has yet supplied its army and navy with it,
instead of powder. It Avas thought, at first, that it
would be used in preference to gunpoAvder, on
account of the safety of making it ; but one of the
shops in England, devoted to this business, was
blown up in 1848.
It is said to be better for blasting than gunpowder,
but none of the gun-cotton used in musketry has
proved equal to that made by Schonbein. This cir
cumstance has led some to suppose that he has not
revealed to the public the whole of the secret.
Adhesive Plaster, made by dissolving gun-cotton
in sulphuric ether. — In 1847, Dr. C. T. Jackson, of
Boston, ascertained that gun-cotton was soluble in
sulphuric ether. I believe he manufactured and sold
it for varnish of a superior quality. Mr, J, P. May-
nard, of Dedham, a medical student, Avishing for a
better varnish than he could find, was recommended
to use this of Dr. Jackson's. In using it, his fingers
were Avet with it, and he soon found they stuck to
gether so closely, that it Avas with great difficulty he
could separate them. This suggested the idea that
it might be used for an adhesive plaster. He distrib
uted a quantity of it among surgeonSj to be used by
them when occasion required. It Avas found to be
far superior to any thing of the kind ever used. In
case of cuts, that gape so as to require to be drawn
together with a needle, take two pieces of strong

298 THE HALF CENTURY.
tape, or strips of linen, and dip one edge of each in
the solution, and apply one to each lip of the Avound.
The ether immediately evaporates, and the tape ad
heres so firmly that, Avith a needle and thread, the
dry edges may be seAved, and the lips of the Avound
drawn together. It is a good substitute for court-
plaster ; if a small cut, scratch, or burn, be brushed
over Avith it, it forms a thin, transparent, and color
less coating, impervious to air, and will usually remain
till the sore is healed.

THE HALF CENTURY, 299
CHAPTER VIII.
PROGRESS OF CHRISTLA.N BENEVOLENCE.

Section 1. The Monthly Concert of Prayer.
As early as 1712, a concert of prayer was proposed
in Great Britain, on account of the dangers which
threatened the Protestants ; it Avas commenced and
continued about one year. In 1732 and 1735, simi
lar concerts were proposed in Scotland, but sustained
only for a brief period. In 1744, a few clergymen
in Scotland commenced a concert of prayer "for the
effusion of the Holy Spirit on all the churches, and
on the Avhole habitable globe," It Avas observed
every Saturday evening, and in a more special and
general manner on the first Tuesday evening of every
third month. In 1716, a memorial Avas published,
stating Avhat had been done, and recommending the
observance of it for seven years, "to all Avho had at
heart the interests of vital Christianity and the poAver
of godliness," That memorial Avas extensively cir
culated. President Edwards, then at Northampton,
received one, and Avas moved by it to write a tract,
entitled An humble Attempt to promote explicit
Agreement, and a visible Union of God's People in
extraordinary Prayer. This tract found its Avay to
England, and the reading of it, more than thirty

300 THE HALF CENTURY.
years after its publication in this country, by some
members of the Baptist Missionary Society, led them
to recommend the observance of the second Tuesday
of every other month as a day on which special
prayer should be offered for the spread of the gospel.
In 1784, Rev. Andrew Fuller proposed to the asso
ciation to which he belonged to observe the first
Monday evening of every month as a season of
united prayer to God for his blessing upon the mis
sionary enterprise. This Avas the beginning of the
monthly concert of prayer. It was observed also by
the friends of the London Missionary Society.
The manner of its introduction into the churches
in America was briefly thus : During the darkest
period of the war Avith England, that commenced in
1812, a clergyman in Connecticut proposed to a
friend in Massachusetts that Christians should spread
the condition of our common country before God in
prayer. This suggestion resulted in a weekly concert,
Avhich was extensively observed in NeAV England
during that season of calamity. At the termination
of the Avar, those who had enjoyed these seasons of
united prayer, being unwilling to relinquish it entire
ly, after a fcAv months agreed to meet on the first
Monday of every month, in concert with their breth
ren in England, to pray especially for the success of
the gospel in heathen lands. It was thought best to
begin in a small Avay, and extend it gradually. The
first meeting Avas holden at Litchfield, Connecticut,
in 1816, at Avhich the Rev. Mr. Mills, father of S, .1.

THE HALF CENTURY. 301
Mills, presided. He opened the meeting by saying,
" There is not a tongue in heaven or on earth that
can move against the object of this meeting," Soon
after, it began to be observed in many churches in
diflerent parts of the United States ; and now Avherever
there are Christians Avhose benevolence is expansive,
and who are Availing for the consolation of Israel
and the ingathering of the Gentiles, this concert is
observed. It Avas for a long time observed by the churches on
Monday evening, but is now more generally observed
on the Sabbath evening preceding the first Monday
of each month, because on that evening a greater
number of persons will attend.
Before 1820, the churches introduced the custom
of taking a collection for missionary purposes at the
monthly concert. They felt that while they prayed
" thy kingdom come," it was necessary to use the
appointed means.

Section 2. Foreign Missions.
Near the close of the last century. Christians in
England began the great work of missions to the
heathen. The first missionary societies that were formed in
this country contemplated the sending of the gospel,
not only to the new settlements, but to " the
heathen ; " and many have supposed they had the
26

302 THE HALF CENTURY.
foreign missionary enterprise distinctly in view. I
suppose not : by the " heathen," they meant the
Indians within our own borders. In 1803, the gen
eral assembly of the Presbyterian church made an
appropriation for a mission among the heathen, and
sent Rev. Gideon Blackburn to teach and preach to
the Cherokee Indians. Other societies, whose con
stitution contemplated the sending of the gospel to
"the heathen," sent it only to the Indians, I sup
pose, therefore, that they had not conceived the idea
of sending men into foreign lands.
Those Avho were the agents in that movement
which resulted in the formation of the American
Board, were undoubtedly the first movers in the
foreign missionary enterprise in this country.
The American Board. — In 1807, three students
in Williams College conversed together on the sub
ject of foreign missions, and, in the latter part of the
summer of that year, spent a day in fasting and
prayer to God for direction. Their names were Sam
uel J. Mills, of Torringford, Connecticut, Gordon
Hall, of Tolland, Massachusetts, and James Rich
ards, of Plainfield, Massachusetts.
In the spring of 1808, they, with some others,
formed themselves into a society of inquiry on the
subject of missions. That society still continues,
and similar societies have since been formed in other
colleges. The first measure they adopted was, to
republish and put in circulation two missionary ser
mons, one by Dr. Livingston, and the other by Dr.

THE HALF CENTURY. 303
Griffin. They visited clergymen, and spread before
them their Avishes, and asked what they should do.
They Avent to other colleges, especially to Yale and
Middlebury, and infused into them the leaven of a
missionary spirit.
In 1809, Hall and Mills were at Andover, where
they found three other kindred spirits, Judson, Ncav-
ell, and Nott. They agreed to unite their efforts, and
effect, if possible, the establishment of a mission in
foreign lands.
June 25, 1810, a meeting was bolden at Andover,
at which many clergymen were present, for prayer
and consultation. On the 27th, the General Associa
tion of Massachusetts met at Bradford, which these
young men attended. They made known to that
body their feelings and purposes, and asked what
they should do.
The association referred the subject to a committee,
who reported, on the 29th, the following : —
" That there be instituted by this association a
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, for the
purpose of devising Avays and means, and of adopting
and prosecuting measures for promoting the spread
of the gospel in heathen lands."
It was voted, " that the board consist of nine mem
bers, to be chosen, in the first instance, by this body,
and afterAvards five by the Massachusetts and four by
the Connecticut Association."
The members chosen Avere Rev. Joseph Lyman,
D. D. ; Rev. Samuel Spring, D. D. ; Rev. Samuel

304 THE HALF CENTURY.
Worcester ; William Bartlett, Esq. ; and Deacon S. H.
Walley, of Massachusetts; — Governor John Tread-
well ; Rev. Timothy Dwight, D. D. ; Rev. Calvin
Chapin, D. D. ; and General Jedediah Huntington,
of Connecticut.
They held their first meeting at Farmington, Con
necticut, September 5, 1810, adopted a constitution,
and appointed Rev. Samuel Worcester secretary.
Mr. Judson was sent to England to confer with the
London Missionary Society, and to see if the young
men Avho were Availing to be Sent abroad could be
supported by that society for a time, wholly or in
part. The society declined doing it, and expressed a
hope that the American churches, when appealed to,
would send out, not only four, but forty,
September 18, 1811, the Board met at Worcester,
and decided to send their first mission to India, to
the Burman empire. At the beginning of 1812, there
was an opportunity to send them out ; the Board had
only $1,200 at its disposal, and needed $5,000. At
first, only one of the prudential committee Avas in
favor of incurring so great a risk, and of running in
debt $4,000, On mature deliberation, they concluded
to send them, Judson and NeAvell, Avith their wives,
sailed from Salem February 19, 1812 ; and Hall, Nott,
and Rice, from Philadelphia, on the 20th, Before
they sailed, the treasurer of the Board had received
$6,000, In the summer of 1812, the Board was incorporated
by the Massachusetts legislature, with power to elect

THE HALF CENTURY.

305

its OAvn members, to fill vacancies, and to add to its
numbers. The following table embodies much information
respecting the meetings of the Board and the progress
of the work : —

JfeetiMr.

Pliiie ^.Vcdwf.

PrtMckersand Tats.

Atutuai laccmu.

Sept 1510

PirmiQston.

<• ISll

Worcester.

$999

" 1513

Hlttfoid.

13,611
" 1513
Boston.
Prei Dwiehu John i. 16.
11,361
" 1814
Xew Haven.
Dr. J. Rictaitls. Bph. iii. 8.
12,265
" 1515
Salem.
Dr. C. Chapio. Ps. scvL 10.
9,993
'¦ 1516
Harttord.
Pres. Dans. Ps. r.iii. 95.
13,501
" ISIT
N. Hampton.
PresL Appleton. 1 Cor. i. 21.
29>!S
" 1515
New HaTen.
3i,T3t
' 15Ii>
BtKton.
Dr. J. Lyman. Isa. Iviii. 12.
37,530
'• IS-M
Hutftird.
Pres. Nott. Mark xvi. 15.
39,9«
" 1521
Sprinsfield.
Dr. J. Morse. Ps. ii. S.
46,K*
« 1522
^~ew HaTen.
Dr. Miller.
60,087
" 1523
Boston.
Pres. Dav. Neh. vi. 3.
oS,73S
" 1534
HanfiHd.
Dr. S. Austin. Gal. i. 15, 16.
47,483
" 1525
Xortbampton.
Pres. Bates. John viii. Si.
55,716
" las
Aliddletown.
Pres. GriiBn. Matt, nviii. 18-90.
61,616
Oct. 1S>7
New Tork.
Pres. BatesL Eph. i. 3.
88,341
•¦ 1525
FhUadelpbia.
Dr. J. Rice. 2 Cor. I. 4.
103,009
" 1829
Albany.
Prof. Alexander. Acts ii. 15.
106,^
'• 1S30
Boston.
Dr. De Witt. Matt. il. 37, 38.
83,019
" 1S31
New Haven.
Dr. L. AVoods. Isa. Irii. 1, 2.
100,334
" 1533
New Toit
Dts. Mc.Aulev. Skinner, and Beman.
130,574
Sspt 1S33
Philadelphia.
Dr. W. Mc Murray. 2 Cor. I. 4.
145,544
Oct 1534
Uiica.
Dr. G. SpriuE. Matt. i. 6.
1S,33S
" 1535
Ballimoie.
Dr. MUler. Aomh. liv. 21.
163,340
Sept. 1535
Hartford. '
Dr. 3. Codman. Matt. s. 8.
210,407
-1537
j^ewufc.
Dr. J. McDowalL Acts iv. 12.
254,589
'• 1535
Portland.
Dr. Hnmphrev.
230,643
'- 153y
Tmy.
Dr. Mc.\nley. Isa. li. 9.
a7,491
" 1540
Providence.
Dr. Beman. Ps. Ixiii. 17.
241,691
" 1541
Philadelphia.
Dr. J. Edwards. Zech. iv. 6.
Dr. AV. K. De Witt. 2 Cor. v. 15.
23.5,189
" 15*3
Norwich.
3I8.,396
" 154)
Kocbester.
Dr. Skinner. PhiL iii. 13.
244 234
'• ld44
Worcester.
Rev. A.BaniK.
236,394
•• 1S45
Brooklyn, N. T.
Pres. Hopkins. Ps. Iv. a
255,113
" l&W
New Ifaven.
Dr. Hawes.
263,073
" 1547
BufialoL
Dr. Migie.
309,365
•• 1545
Boston.
Dr. J. Ferris. Man. vi. ID.
251,056
" 1549
Piltsneld.
S. H. Coi, D. D. Dan. vii. 37.
291,705
" ISoO
Oswefo.
B. S. Storrs, D. D. 1 Cor. sv. 58.
251,883
The foUowing are some of the more important
events that have transpired. For a history of the mis
sions of the American Board, the reader is referred to
26*
306 THE HALF CENTURY.
one prepared by Rev. J. Tracy, and to the Missionary
Herald. About 1816, Rev. Edwin Dwight found a Sand-
Avich Island boy in New Haven, sitting alone upon
the steps, and crying. His name was Henry Oboo-
kiah. Much sympathy was manifested for him, and
there being some other foreign youths in the country,
it Avas thought advisable to establish a school, in
Avhich they and others might be educated, and, if
suitable persons, sent back to their native land as
missionaries. The General Association of Connecti
cut moved in the matter, and appointed a board of
agency, and at the same time it was under the con
trol of the American Board.
The school was located at Cornwall, Connecticut,
and went into operation in May, 1817, under the
care, temporarily, of Mr, Dwight, until the principal.
Rev. Heman Dagget, was able to begin bis labors.
It Avas called the Foreign Mission School, opened
Avith twelve scholars, and sometimes had more than
thirty. It Avas discontinued in November, 1825, part
ly on account of the friction occasioned by its being
controlled someAvhat by two bodies, and partly be
cause the same end could be reached in other Avays
at less expense.
In 1825, the United Foreign Missionary Society,
under the control of the General Assembly, and hav
ing its centre of operations at New York, became a
constituent part of the American Board, During this
year, an Indian of the Cherokee tribe, named George

THE HALF CENTURY. 307
Guess, invented an alphabet of eighty -five characters,
Avhich represent all the sounds in that language. As
soon as an Indian has learned these eighfy-five sounds,
and their characters, he is able to read. The dis
covery was, and is still, regarded as wonderful, from
the fact that Guess, when he made the discovery,
was only partially educated.
In 1826, the U. S. armed schooner Dolphin,
commanded by Lieutenant Percival, arrived at Hon
olulu, SandAvich Islands ; and finding that the king
and his council had enacted a laAv prohibiting females
from going on board ships, the commander and crew
were enraged, and made a riotous assault upon some
of the kmg's buildings, and upon some of the mis
sionaries.. Similar scenes were Avitnessed at Lahaina.
In 1827, the same law called forth the rage of the
ofiicers and crcAv of an English Avhale ship. They
fired upon the mission at Lahaina ; the excitement
was tremendous. As soon, however, as the intelli
gence of these things reached America and England,
their conduct was condemned, and public sentiment
sustained the islanders.
During this year, two Catholic priests and six sec
ulars, from France, took up their residence at the
islands. In 1831, the priests and seculars were sent from the
islands, by the order of the government, to California.
In 1832, the missionary operations of the Reformed
Dutch Church were blended Avith those of the Amer
ican Board.

308 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1836, those who were most earnest in their op
position to slavery began to complain that the Board
Avas pro-slavery, that it had purchased slaves, and
held them in bondage.
In 1839, the French frigate L'Artemise arrived at
the Sandwich Islands to avenge the insult upon
France for sending aAvay the Catholic priests. The
commander, Captain Laplace, demanded the admission
of Catholic priests, the toleration of the Catholic reli
gion, a site for a church, that brandy and wine should
be admitted, and that the duty on them should not
exceed five per cent., and a deposit of $20,000 as a
pledge that these demands should be fully granted.
He declared it to be his purpose to commence a war
upon the islands in twenty-four hours, if they refused
to comply with his requisition. ^ The islanders were
forced to submit, and so Catholic priests and brandy
were admitted. France, by this tyrannical act, got
herself a bad name, but the Catholic religion has
made very little progress in the Islands.
In 1840, several remonstrances Avere sent to the
Board, calling upon them not to send agents to col
lect money of slaveholders. The Board was charged
with sending out missionaries Avho were slavehold
ers, and subsequently Avere called upon to prohib
it the admission of slaveholders to the mission
churches. The meetings of the Board every year since, till
1849, have been perplexed Avith the slavery question
in some form. The subject has been referred to a

THE HALF CENTURY.

309

committee at each anniversary, the reports of which
may be found in the annual reports of the Board.
In 1849, no memorials on this subject were presented,
and no discussion had ; it is believed the ferment
Avhich the leaven of slavery has produced has now
ceased, and its meetings in future Avill be character
ized, it is hoped, by an all-pervading sense of the
divine presence.
The fdloAving table will show the progress of the
work by comparing its strength at difl'erent periods : —

1

,2

1819

7

7

1829

13

46

1839

26

77

1849

25

103

sa

"H"!
1^-
"1
^1
23
81
44
225
136
375
159
407
ho .
-s s
s'
1^
1
81
266
7
481
24
637
11*
I
o 770
7,311
25,372
Printing in 9 lang.
Printing in 3D lang.
The following is a list of the secretaries of the
Board : —
Rev. Samuel "Worcester, D, D., appointed 1810, died 1821.
Jeremiah Evarts, Esq.,
"
1821, " 1831.
Rev. Elias Cornelius, D. D,,
tt
1831, « 1832.
" B, B, Wisner, D, D,,
t<
1832, « 1835.
" R. Anderson, D. D.,
tt
1832.
" David Greene,
tt
1832, resigned 1848,
" W, Armstrong, D. D.,
tt
1835, died 1846.
" S. B. Treat,
tt
1847.
" S, W, Pomeroy, D, D,,
tt
1848.
Union Missionary Sod
ety.
—
This society was
* EstabUshments ; the number of presses not known.
310 THE HALF CENTURY.
organized at Hartford, August, 1841, Its immediate
object was to support a mission among the Mendians,
in Africa, the tribe to Avhich the Amistad captives
belonged ; another object was to open a medium
through Avhich those who had become disaffected
with the American Board could send the gospel to
heathen nations. This society Avas remodelled by a
convention holden at Syracuse, Ncav York, Septem
ber, 1846, and is now called
The American Missionary Association. — It has
missions at Mendi, Africa, on the Island of Jamaica,
among the fugitives in Canada, among the Ojibwas,
and they support one missionary at the SandAvich
Islands, Rev, J, S, Green, and wife. They have
established a mission in Siam, having purchased the
property of the American Board in that place. Re
ceipts in 1849, $22,000. The society has eleven
ordained missionaries, and in the field, or about to enter
it, forty-three Americans and four native assistants.
This society supported Avholly, or in part, seven
teen home missionaries the last year. The society's
place of business is at New York ; Rev, George
Whipple, corresponding secretary.
Baptist Missions. — The Rev. Messrs. Judson and
Rice, two of the first missionaries of the American
Board, became Baptists on their way to India. Mr.
Judson Avas sustained by the English Baptist mission,
while Mr, Rice returned to America, to attempt the
organization of a board of missions among the Bap
tists, The intelligence of the change of sentiments

THE HALF CENTURY.

311

in Judson and Rice reached this country in February,
1813; its effect was electrical; a missionary society
was organized in Boston soon after, Mr, Rice came
and visited the Baptist churches, and other associa
tions Avere organized. In May, 1814, a convention
was holden at Philadelphia, where Avas organized
tbe General Missionary Convention of the Baptist
Denomination in the United States of America for
Foreign Missions. It meets triennially, and the
board of managers annually. The missionary rooms
are in Boston.
The following table embodies many facts : —

Year.

Place of Meeting.

Preachers and Texts.

Income.

1814

Philadelphia.

Dr. R, Firman, Matt, xxvui. 20.

$5,850

1817

"

Dr. T. Baldwin.

1820

(f

O. B. Brown.

1823

"Washington,

Dr. W. Stoughton. Acts xxviii. 15.

7,697

1826

New York.

J. Mercer, Matt, xxviii. 19.

1827

Boston,

W, Yates,

3,944

1828

New York.

"W. T. Brantley, Phil, ii, 16.

1829
Philadelphia.
Dr, Sharp.
1830
Hartford.
C. G. Somers,
1831
Providence.
B, Babcock, Jr. Ps, Ixvii, 1, 2,
1832
New York.
President Wayland. Rom, vii, 13,
1833
.Salem.
Dr. B. Stow. 1 John ii. 6.
42,496
1834
New York.
W. R. AViUiams, 2 Cor. x. 15. 16.
1835
Richmond.
S. H. Cone, Acts ix, 6,
1836
Hartford.
E. Galusha. Luke x. 2,
1837
Philadelphia.
C, G. Somers. Ps. Ixxii, 19,
50,000
1838
New York.
Dr, B, Stow. Acts xii. 24,
36,316
1839
Philadelphia.
J, B, Taylor, Luke xxiv. 46, 47,
53,000
1840
New York.
Dr. B. T. "Welch; John iii, 8,
57,781
1841
Baltimore.
Dr, R, Fuller, John xu. 32.
56,948
1842
New York,
Dr. R. E. Pattison. Ps, Ixxxvii, 7,
52,137
1843
Albany.
Dr. P. Church, Col. i, 29.
47,151
1844
Philadelphia,
Dr. S. "W. Lynd. 1 Cor, i. 21.
62,062
1845
Providence,
G, B. Ide, Is, xl. 9.
71,876
1846
Brooklyn.
Dr. G, W, Eaton, 1 Tim, i, 11.
1847
Cincinnati.
Dr. B, Stow, Matt, xxvii, 45, 61-3.
85,009
1848
Troy,
J. N. Granger. Gal. ii. 9,
85,894
1849
Philadelphia,
M. J, Rhees, PhQ. u. 5.
88,902
312

THE HALF CENTURY.

The Baptist Board have received from the United
States government considerable sums for the support
of schools among the Indians. The receipts in the
above table are designed to include only the church
contributions and voluntary donations.
The debt of this society in 1849 was $24,000.
The following table will show the state of the
society's missions at different periods : —

i

a
.^
^1
^.s.
¦•a:^
S
'i
II
II
<s;
.5^
^
S
s
1824
9
28
4
1834
28
72
106
16
1,500
1849
49
109
303
148
11,534
They occupy one hundred and ninety-eight stations.
Missionary Society of Methodist Episcopal
Church. — This society was organized in 1819, at
New York, and approved by the General Conference
in 1820. It has a foreign and a domestic department.
The foreign missions of the society are four — Libe
ria, South America, Oregon, and China. In 1849,
there were 55 persons laboring at these stations as
preachers, teachers, and mechanics, and the number
of communicants 1,379. . In the domestic field the
society has 414 persons, employed among the Ger
mans, Indians, and Swedes, and in destitute portions
of the United States and territories. The amount
of the society's receipts for tbe year ending May,
1849, was $84,405.
THE HALF CENTURY. 313
At the organization of the society, it included the
Methodists in all tbe states in the Union. In conse
quence of the abolition sentiments of the northern
portion of the church, they refused to cooperate
Avith the southern ; and at the General Confer
ence, holden in New York, in 1844, a separation was
agreed upon. Those residing in the slave states con
stitute the Methodist Episcopal Church South. This
portion of the church has a missionary society, the
receipts of which, for the year ending April, 1848,
was $62,613.
It has 2 missionaries in China.
" " 33 " among the Indians.
" " 7 " " the Germans.
" "130 " " the slaves.
" "_64 « in Texas.
Total, 236.
The amount of receipts from the whole church,
north and south, for missionary purposes, was, in
1820, $823; in 1830, $13,128; and in 1840,
$116,941. Total receipts in twenty-one years for
foreign and domestic missions were $638,851.
Protestant Episcopal Missions. — The Domestic
and Foreign Missionary Society of the Episcopal
Church was organized in 1820.
In 1835, the organization was changed, and it is
now called the Board of Missions, &c. A board of
thirty members is elected by the triennial convention,
which conducts the missionary operations in the in
terim. It had, in 1835, three missionary stations in
27

314 THE HALF CENTURY.
foreign lands — Greece, China, and Africa. It had five
missionaries, five female, and five native helpers.
The receipts for the year ending May, 1835, were
$26,154. In 1843, it had, in addition to the above, a station
on the Island of Crete, one at Constantinople, and
one in Texas. The number of ordained missionaries
was then twelve, and of assistants twenty-five. The
receipts for that year were $35,197.
Missions of the Free-will Baptists. — There are
in the United States .55,000 communicants in this
denomination. Their attention was called to the
subject of missions by Rev, Amos Sutton, an Eng
lish missionary, Avho visited this country in 1833,
and organized a society. In 1834, he made a tour
through the states, preaching on missions. He sailed
for India in 1835, taking with him two missionaries
and their Avives from this country. In 1843, the
receipts of the society Avere $3,502,
General Assembly'' s Board of Missions. — In
1802, the Western Missionary Society Avas formed at
Pittsburg. In 1825, it was transferred to the United
Foreign Missionary Society, at New York, which
soon after Avas transferred to the American Board, so
that the Presbyterian church had then no distinct
foreign missionary organization, .Believing that, as
a church, they ought to engage in this work, a socie
ty was organized at Pittsburg, in October, 1831,
which held its first annual meeting in May, 1833 ; its
receipts were $16,000. In 1834, it had sixteen mis-

THE HALF CENTURY. 315
sionaries, at three stations. The receipts for the year
ending 1835 were $17,000.
In 1837, the General Assembly appointed a board
of missions, consisting of forty ministers and forty
laymen, one fourth of whom go out of ofiice annu
ally. The Western Society committed its work to
this board, and New York became the centre of its
operations. The summary of the reports of 1839 and 1849
will present a vicAv of the progress of the board : —

Receipts.

Clergtj.

>dssistants.

Total.

Missions.

1839

$ 66,149

21

32

53

6

1849

110,534

51

77

128

16

The amount contributed by all the churches, of all
denominations, in the United States, for the year
ending in the summer of 1849, for foreign missions,
may be stated in round numbers at $650,000. Of
this sum $566,000 was paid by churches that con
tain 642,000 members, and $84,000 by churches
that contain 1,137,000 members.

Section 3. Home Missions.
In the latter part of the last century, the attention
of Christians began to be directed to the condition
and wants of the new settlements of our country.
The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
commenced this work on a small scale in 1789. The

316 THE HALF CENTURY.
Connecticut Missionary Society was formed in 1798,
though some churches in Connecticut had done some
thing as early* as 1792. The Berkshire and Colum
bia Missionary Society, comprising the churches of
Berkshire county, Massachusetts, and Columbia coun
ty, NeAV York, Avas organized in 1798, and the Mas
sachusetts Missionary Society May 28, 1799.
The leading object of these societies Avas to prop
agate the gospel in the new settlements ; most of
the missionaries were sent to Central New York, and
a few to the province of Maine. At the beginning
of the century, such men as Jedediah Bushnel, Seth
Williston, and James Hotchkiss, young and zealous
in the work of their Master, were laboring as mis
sionaries in what was then the far Avest, Bushnel
went to his grave in 1846, aged 77 ; Hotchkiss still
lives, at the age of threescore and ten, having com
pleted a history of the changes that have taken place
in Western New York during the last fifty years ; and
Williston, at the advanced age of fourscore years,
is speaking through the press about the millennial
glories seen in the shadowy distance, and is urging
the disciples of Christ to prepare for its coming.
Some of the societies I have named, and many of
those subsequently organized, were authorized by
their constitution to send the gospel to heathen na
tions. Hence it is said they had conceived the idea
of what is now called foreign missions. It is prob
able that, by the " heathen," they meant the Ameri
can Indians.

THE HALF CENTlfalY. 317
The idea of home mission, in its strict sense, was
not clearly comprehended till about 1816. Christians
were not aware that it was their duty to aid and en
courage feeble churches, scattered about in the midst
of those that were contributing money to sustain
ministers in the ncAV settlements. None of the soci
eties I have named were authorized to expend any
part of their funds for the support of missionaries at
home. In 1816, a Domestic Missionary Society was formed
in Connecticut, the object of which Avas " to build
up the waste places in that state." In 1818, a Do
mestic Missionary Society was formed in Massachu
setts. In each of these states there were tAvo organ
izations, one for sending the gospel to the new
settlements and heathen nations, and the other for
assisting feeble churches at home. In Connecticut,
the two associations have still a nominal existence,
though, I believe, separate collections are not taken
by the churches for their support. In Massachusetts,
they were united July 11, 1827.
In 1802, the General Assembly of the Presbyte
rian Church appointed a standing committee of mis
sions, and in 1816 a board of missions was instituted,
which began to act with considerable efficiency in
1830, but did not put forth all its energies till after
the division of the Assembly in 1837.
The following are some of the missionary societies
organized in the early part of this century : —
The New Hampshire Society, 1801,
27*

318 THB HALF CENTURY.
The New Jersey Society, 1801.
The Western Society, at Pittsburg, 1803
The Hampsliire County Society, 1802.
The Piscataqua, including a feAV churches in NeAV
Hampshire and some in Maine, 1S03.
The Vermont Society, 1S07.
The Rhode Island, Avhich is strictly a Awie mis
sionary society, 1820,
The United Domestic Missionary Society of Noav
York, 1S22.
As might be expected, many of these societies
sent their missionai'ies to the same region, and Avore
in danger of crowding too many into one section of
country, and of leaving other fields uncultivated.
As early as 1820, some attempts Avere made to uuito
the societies in New England under one board of
directors. These efforts Avere, hoAvever, ineffectual.
In May, 1826, the American Home Missionary Soci
ety Avas formed iu the city of Noav York, tho Do
mestic Missionary Society of that state being the
nucleus around Avhich' other state societies Avere gath
ered. The state societies in Noav England make
the collections, and use so ranch of the money as is
needed in their oAvn state, and pay over tho balance
to the American Society.
The Rev, Absalom Peters, D. D,, Avas secretary
of tho American Home Mission Society from May,
1826, to October 23, 1837. He Avas succeeded by
Rev, Milton Badger, D. D,, and Rev. Chai'les Hall,
D. D., associate secretaries, Dr, Badger was asso-

¦I'UE UAH' CENTURY. 319
ciated Avitli Dr, Peters three years previous to his
resignation, and Dr. Hall had been an assistant for
eight yeai-s.
At the end of the first year, (1827,) the society
reported 169 missionaries, 101 of Avhom bad been
appointed by tho Domestic Missionary Society.
The foUoAving table Avill shoAv the condition of the
society at different periods : —

JVumftfr

JWmBcr

Receipts.

(jf Missions.

of Churches.

1827

$ 18,140

169

196

1836

101,566

766

1,000

1839

82,664

666

794

LSI,-)

121,046

943

1,286

1850

157,160

1,032

1,675

The diminution of the receipts of the society from
1836 to 1839 Avas occasioned by the pecuniary em
barrassments of the country, and the general disaster
that befell, iu l!S:?7, almost every branch of Avorldly
enterprise. It palsied the hands of the benevolent,
from Avliich thoy did not recover for eight years. In
184 I, the contributions again reached the point they
had gained in 1836.
In IS 17, two missionai'ies Avere sent to Oregon by
the .Vinerican Home ]\Iission Society; they Avent to
their field of labor via Cape Horn and the Sandwich
Islands, It is a fact AVorthy of notice that the easiest
Avay to get to the most remote settlement in our
country, at that time, was by a voyage half round
tho Avorld,
In November, 18 18, the society sent two missiona-

320 THE HALF CENTURY.
ries to California. On their arrival, in the early part
of 1849, after the opening of the gold mines, they
were received by the people, and settled, with a sal
ary of $2,500 each. It may seem to future genera
tions as though this was an enormous salary to be
paid by a people dwelling in tents ; but let them be
told that the recent discovery of gold made money
plenty, and the means of living so high, that $2,500
in California was equal to no more than $400 in
Iowa. The General Assembly, I have said, first com
menced the Avork of home missions in an organized
form. It did, however, comparatively nothing. Dur
ing 40 years, or from 1789 to 1829, it 'sent out only
769 missionaries, and contributed only $77,941 to
their support, or less than $2,000 a year.
In 1829, the Assembly's board sustained 101 home
missionaries, and raised $15,000 for that object. In
1839, it sustained 260 missionaries, who preached to
260 congregations, and the churches contributed to
that cause $41,759. This Avas given by those
churches connected Avith the old school Assembly.
The churches belonging to the new school Assembly
have always sustained the American Home Missionary
Society, and many of the churches that are noAv old
school, previous to 1837. Since this last date, the
churches in the old school connection have given all
their support to their OAvn missions.
Many of the early missionaries to the new settle
ments were pastors of churches, Avho Avere sent out

THE HALF CENTURY. 331
for three months ; their churches at home being
supplied during their absence by the neighboring
ministers. The American Baptist Home Missionary Society
was instituted in 1832 ; and in 1843, by the aid of its
auxiliaries, sustained 368 missionaries and agents :
the receipts, in that year, were $40,583. In 1848,
the receipts of the parent society, not including
auxiliaries, Avere $26,136, and its missionaries 156,
The parent society does not include in its summation
what is done by auxiliaries.
The Methodist and Protestant Episcopal churches
have missionary societies, but their home and foreign
operations are managed by the same officers, and only
one collection is made for both objects.

Section 4. American Bible Society.
The first society formed in this country to pro
mote the diffusion of tbe sacred Scriptures, and for
supplying destitute families gratuitously, Avas the
Philadelphia Bible Society, It was organized in
December, 1808, and, on application to the British
and Foreign Bible Society, it obtained a donation of
200 pounds sterling. This Avas given to enable the
society to print an edition of the Bible in the German
language. The New York Bible Society, at a later
period, received from the same source 200 pounds to
enable it to print an edition of the Bible in the French

322 THE HALF CENTURY.
language, and the Delaware Bible Society received
100 pounds. Most of this money was received from
England, at a time Avhen the two countries were on
the eve of, or actually engaged in, war with each
other. In 1809, the Massachusetts, the Connecticut,
the New York, and the Maine Bible Societies were
formed. In 1810, the Georgia, and the Merrimac, at
Newburyport, were formed ; in 1811, the New Hamp
shire, NeAV Jersey, Albany, and Salem, Massachusetts,
societies were formed; in 1812, the Vermont, Nassau
Hall, and Washington County, Ncav York; in 1813,
the Virginia ; in 1814, the Connecticut Reserve,
Ohio, the Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Norfolk,
Virginia, and Fairfield County, Connecticut, were
organized. In the summer of 1814, an article Avas published in
the Panoplist, Boston, recommending the formation
of a National Bible Society. This Avas followed by
others in 1815. The plan, it is said, originated in
the New Jersey Bible Society. If so, then those arti
cles in the Panoplist Avere written by some member
of that society. The New Jersey society asked
counsel of the managers of the Ncav York society,-
who approved of the plan, and recommended that
the Hon. Elias Boudinot, the venerable president of
the New Jersey society, should fix the time and
place of a meeting of delegates from the various
Bible societies, and issue a circular invoking such
a meeting. In that circular it is said, " From the most correct

THE HALF CENTURY 323
information that has lately been received, it has be
come evident that the demand for Bibles in the
remote and frontier settlements of our country is far
beyond the resources of the several Bible societies
noAV existing in the United States,"
The writer says, in conclusion, that such a society,
" I have not the least doubt, will, in time, in point of
usefulness, be second only to the parent institution,
(the British and Foreign Bible Society,) Avill shed an
unfading lustre on our Christian community, and Avill
prove a blessing to our country and the Avorld."
Dated January 31, 1816,
The convention met on the second Wednesday
of May, in the city of New York, Avhen it appeared
that 60 persons Avere present, representing 35 Bible
societies. A constitution was adopted, and officers
chosen. The folloAving is the list of its presidents and sec
retaries : —
Hon. Elias Boudinot, LL, D,, Avas president from
1816 to 1821. He died October 24, 1821, aged 82.
Hon. John Jay was chosen president in May, 1822,
and died May 17, 1829, aged 83. He resigned on
account of the infirmities of age, in 1828, and Rich
ard Varick, Esq. was his successor. He died July
30, 1831, aged 79. Hon, John Cotton Smith suc
ceeded him, and died December 7, 1845, He was
succeeded by Hon, Theodore Frelinghuysen, LL. D.
For many years the secretaryship of the society
was filled by clergymen in New York. There were

324 THE HALF CE.VTURY.
two, and sometimes three or four. The following
persons have been secretaries : —
Rev. J. M. Mason, D. D., Avho died December 8,
1829, aged 60. Rev. J, B. Romeyn, D. D, Rev. J,
Milnor, D. D., from 1820 to 1839 ; died April 8, 1845,
Rev. S. S. Woodhull, D. D., from 1820 to 1825;
died 1825. Rev, T. McAuley, D, D,, from 1825 to
1839. Rev. C. G. Somers, from 1825 to 1833. Rev.
N. Bangs, D. D,, 1827, Rev. J. C. Brigham, D, D,,
from 1827 to the present time. Rev, S. Cone, from
1833 to 1835, Rev, E, S, Janes, D. D., from 1839
to 1843, Rev. N. Levings, D, D,, from 1843 to
January 10, 1849, at Avhich time he died, aged 53.
Rev. S, J, Prime, from 1849 to 1850.
There was no secretary who devoted his whole
time to the business of the society till Dr. Brigham
was appointed, in 1827. He Avas aided by clergy
men in NeAV York till 1839, when it was deemed
expedient to have two secretaries permanently em
ployed. Dr. Janes was then appointed. In 1843, he
Avas appointed a bishop in the Methodist Episcopal
church, and Dr. Levings succeeded him. It at length
became necessary, on account of the enlargement of
the society's operations, to have another secretary.
Immediately after Mr, Prime commenced his labors.
Dr. Levings died ; and, at the expiration of the year,
Mr. Prime resigned.
The treasurers of the society have, for the most
part, been men of business in New York, who have
performed the duties of the office gratuitously. The ¦

THE HALF CENTURY. 325
first were Richard Varick, W. W. Woolsey, John
Adams, and Hubert Van Wagenen. In 1818, John
Nitchie Avas appointed general agent and accountant.
In 1836, he became treasurer, and Joseph Hyde, Esq,
general agent. Mr. Nitchie died January 3, 1838,
and Mr. Hyde- still continues general agent, and is
also assistant treasurer.
The house occupied by the society Avas built in
1822, and cost $22,500, In it was a printing office,
bindery, depository, and rooms for the officers of the
society. In 1829, it was found necessary to erect a
new printing office, to enable the society to manufac
ture books to meet the demand, A building for that
purpose was erected on the opposite side of the
street, at an expense of $14,500. Its location Avas
inconvenient, and, still more room being Avanted, the
society, in 1831, having an opportunity to purchase
two lots adjoining tbe first house, did so, and, having
sold the house and lot built in 1829 for what it cost,
erected two new buildings on these lots, for $11,050.
In 1849, an additional story was put upon the
original building, making a building 100 feet on Nas
sau Street, four stories high, and 100 feet on Theatre
Alley, connected by the depository. So that the
buildings cover an area of about 7,000 square feet.
In May, 1829, the society resolved to supply every
destitute family in the United States Avith a copy of
the Bible in the course of two years,- provided the
auxiliary societies would cooperate, and filrnish the
means. In 1832, it Avas announced that the work
28

326 THE HALF CENTURY.
was nearly completed, and that provision had been
made for finishing it. On account of the greatness
of the Avork, and the difficulty of performing it, it is
likely that many counties Avere overlooked, and, in
consequence of the continual influx of foreigners,
and the constant emigration from the old states to
the new, many families must undoubtedly have been
omitted. In 1833, it was proposed to supply the destitute
families of the world, who were able and willing to
read the Bible, with a copy of the same, within a
definite period, provided other national societies
would unite with the American Society in the effort.
The British and Foreign Bible Society considered the
undertaking too vast, and not concurring, the project
was abandoned for the present.
In 1835, the society resolved, by the aid of the
friends of the Bible, to supply all the children in the
United States under 15 years of age, who were able
to read, with a copy of the Scriptures. Much was
done in successive years for the accomplishment of
this object, but the time has not yet come when we
can say every child and youth has a Bible he can
call his own.
In 1835, Dr, S. G. Howe, of Boston, caused to be
printed the Ncav Testament in raised letters, for the
blind. It Avas done chiefly at the expense of the
American Bible Society. See Blind Asylums, Chap
ter III.
The receipts of the society have been, at different

THE HALF CENTURY. 327
periods, as folloAvs : in 1820, $41,361 ; in 1825,
$50,167; in 1830, $149,267; in 1835, $100,806;
in 1840, $97,355 ; and in 1849, $251,970.
The great advance in 1830 Avas in consequence of
the resolution to supply every family in the United
States in two years.
The reduction in prices has been considerable
within 30 years.
The minion Bible, sheep, lettered, cost, in 1820,
sixty cents ; in 1849, thirty-seven and a half. The
nonpareil, sheep, lettered, in 1828, fifty cents ; in
1849, twenty-five cents. The nonpareil testament,
in 1830, 12 cents ; in 1849, six cents. The reduction
in prices of those which are in extra binding has not
been as great.
As early as 1820, the society began to collect a
library of Bibles in various languages, of versions,
translations, concordances, and other books throwing
light upon the history of the sacred Scriptures. It is
supposed that most of them have been given to the
society by benevolent individuals. Many of these
books are rare, and of great value. The library now
contains between 1200 and 1500 volumes.
The society has eight steam power presses con
stantly employed, some of which are so large, that
they can print 40 pages of the common 12mo, Bible
at one impression ; and such is the rapidity of their
motion, that they throw off 780 such sheets, or
31,200 pages, in an .hour.
In July, 1835, the managers of the Bible Society

328 THE HALF CENTURY.
learned that the Bible, translated into the Burman
language by Dr. Judson, of tbe Baptist mission, and
Avhich they had aided in printing, had Avords sig
nifying immerse and immersion, instead of baptize
and baptism. The society, being composed of differ
ent denominations, by their constitution Avas required
to circulate the Bible in common use — King
James's version. The managers understood that they
Avere not authorized to expend their funds for print
ing translations of the Bible made on different prin
ciples. The common versions of the Bible have
merely transferred the AVord baptize from the Greek,
Avithout translating it. They maintained that they
could not consistently patronize an edition of the
Bible that translated those Avords according to the
views of a particular sect. These facts, Avhen made
public, Avere a theme for much discussion and con
troversy for several years. The result was, that many
of the Baptist denomination AvithdreAv their support
from the American Bible Society, and organized one
Avhich allows them to appropriate funds to aid in
printing Baptist Bibles at the mission stations. It
Avas organized in 1837, and is called the American
and t^reign Bible Society. The receipts of this
society, in 1848, Avere $31,521. Prior to May, 1848,
it had published 300,000 volumes in foreign lands,
containing the Avliole Bible or a part of it, and
262,734 at its depository in New York. They have
published the New Testament in German, French,
and Italian.

THE HALF CENTURY. 329
The Baptist society publish the common version
in English, In 1850, an effort was made to substi
tute in its place a noAV translation, in which immerse
should be used instead of baptize. The society re
jected the proposal, and a new society has been organ
ized, of which Rev. S. Cone, of New York, is pres
ident. This society intends to publish a Baptist
Bible.

Section 5. Tract Societies.
The domestic missionary societies very early
adopted the practice of supplying their missionaries
with religious books for distribution in the new set
tlements. In 1807, a Tract Society was formed in
Connecticut for the purpose of publishing tracts, of
eight or ten pages on an average, for sale to those
who were in the habit of distributing religious books.
Its receipts during the first year Avere $568 ; with
this they published 48,000 tracts, stitched in blue
covers. Those Avho subscribed to the funds received
a certain amount.
The Vermont Tract Society was formed in 1808,
and the New York Tract Society in 1812.
In the spring of 1814, the New England Tract
Society was formed, and in 1816 was incorporated by
the Massachusetts legislature. A little more than
$3,000 were subscribed at its formation, or soon after,
and 300,000 tracts were published the first year, em
bracing fifty different kinds. In the preamble of the
28*

330 THE HALF CENTURY.
constitution of the society, it was said that tracts
had been distributed in this country for about twelve
years, in Avhich Christians in New England had taken
an active part. None of the societies that had been
formed, hoAvever, Avere on a plan sufficiently exten
sive or permanent to ansAver the purposes for which
such an institution was needed.
The first tract societies were formed in Europe,
and Avere suggested by the labors of Voltaire, who
published small books, of an infidel character, for
gratuitous distribution among the common people, for
the overthrow of Christianity. The friends of reli
gion, deriving a hint from his efforts, made use of the
same means for the defence of the cause that Avas
dear to their hearts, and thus foiled the enemy by
turning against him his oavu weapons.
The whole amount of money received by the
New England Society during the first five years was
in donations $3,145, and for tracts sold $7,913,
In October, 1822, Mr, William A. Hallock, having
just completed his course of study at Andover, Avas
commissioned to act as agent of the society for one
year. He Avas the first person ever employed in this
country in such an agency for so long a time.
In June, 1823, the Ncav England Tract Society,
by an act of the legislature, took for its name the
American Tract Society. Andover continued to be
the centre of its publishing operations until 1826,
though it had a depository in Boston, and an agent
there, through whom business could be transacted.

THE HALF CENTURY. 331
The original design of the society Avas to manufac
ture tracts for sale to those Avho wished to buy for
their oavu use or for distribution.
Tbe receipts of the society for the year ending
May, 1825, from sales and donations, Avas $10,802,
and for the year ending May, 1826, $6,335. The
Christian Almanac was commenced in 1821.
The American Tract Society, the centre of whose
operations is at New York, was organized in May,
1825, and held its first anniversary in May, 1826.
Rev. W. A, Hallock was appointed corresponding
secretary, which office he has holden to the present
time. It Avas an independent society. During the
first year of its existence, a plan of union was formed
betAveen it and the society at Boston, and the union
consummated. The national society, by this arrange
ment, selects and prints all the tracts. Consequently,
when the Boston society ceased to print, Andover
ceased to be the centre of its operations, and the de
pository was Avholly removed to Boston, and occupied
separate rooms in the basement of the Hanover
Street church, and was burnt, with the church, Jan
uary 31, 1830. The loss to the Tract Society was
$2,500, The Rev, S. Bliss is its secretary.
The society at Ncav York revised the tracts pub
lished by the Boston society, and republished most
of them. They omitted some entirely, and substi
tuted others in their place ; they abridged many of
the titles, and stitched those exceeding eight pages
in colored covers. They stereotyped each tract, and

332 THE HALF CENTURY.
thus were able to furnish new editions as they might
be called for.
By the liberality of a few benevolent individuals
in New York, a house was erected for the use of the
society, and tracts were printed in other languages.
Donations were made by the society of tracts to
home missionaries, and to individuals whose business
or location gave them facilities for distributing them
where they were needed.
In 1829, many cities and villages adopted the plan
of putting a tract monthly in every family that would
receive it. This mode of doing good was very pop
ular and very successful. It benefited not only those
who received them, but those who Avere engaged in
distributing them.
In 1833, the society had issued 276 tracts in Eng
lish, 40 in French, 29 in Spanish, 56 in German," and
a very few in Portuguese, Welsh, and Italian. They
had also 98 children's books, and about 20 bound vol
umes ; the first, Doddridge's Rise and Progress, was
published in 1829.
In 1834, the volume enterprise commenced in the
Southern States, and in 1835 in the Northern. This
consisted in sending an agent to a given place with a
quantity of bound volumes, and, by the aid of a few
individuals, offering these volumes for sale to every
family in the place. The agent was paid for his ser
vices by the receipt of a small percentage on the
books he sold. The object of this enterprise Avas to
supply families with cheap religious books, and, by

THE HALF CENTURY. 333
offering them to all, to gain access to many who were
destitute of such reading. Much good Avas thus ac
complished. The sales, however, in small towns and
in ncAV settlements, sparsely inhabited, would not
yield a percentage suffio-ient to defray the expenses
of an agent. In a fcAv years, all those places in the
land which an agent could afford to visit Avere sup
plied, and yet but a small part of the Avhole popula
tion bad been reached.
The Rev. R, S. Cook was obliged, in 1838, to
leave his pastoral charge in Lanesboro', Massachu
setts, in consequence of the loss of his voice, and
engaged in the sale of the Tract Society's volumes.
When he had regained his health, he had become so
attached to the means of cure, that he continued in
tbe work, and from his experience, and from informa
tion derived from the experience of others, the sys
tem of colportage had its origin, which differs from
what is called the " volume enterprise " in this — that
the agent receives a stipulated sum for his services,
and can therefore labor as faithfully in a sparsely
settled township as in the croAvded city, and can de
vote some time to religious conversation, without
feeling that he must press forward and sell a certain
amount each day. This work was commenced on a
small scale in 1840 and 1841, but was not made a
prominent part of the society's labor till after the
great meeting holden in New York in October, 1842.
A man is selected who is -judged to be peculiarly
adapted to the people among whom he is to labor ;

334 THE HALF CENTURY.
he goes to every house, conversing with families and
individuals, selling books where he can, and giving
to those who cannot pay for them, provided there is
a reasonable prospect of their being read.
This is thought by many to be an expensive mode
of doing good, but it is the only way in which the
people in many places can be reached. In countries
too thinly inhabited to have the gospel regularly
preached, and where they are perishing for lack of
knowledge, the colporteurs are the only persons who
call the attention of the people to the subject of re
ligion. During the year ending May, 1843, 27 colporteurs
were employed by the society; during that ending
May, 1847, 267 were employed. They receive $150
annually, in addition to their expenses.
The society pays usually $10,000 annually to the
missions of the American Board, towards printing
tracts in languages spoken by heathen nations.
The receipts of the American Society at New York
were, in 1828, $45,000; in 1838, $91,732; in 1848,
$237,296 ; and in 1850, induding sales, $308,266,
In February, 1845, a charge was brought against
the society of mutilating and altering the books they
published, which for a time elicited considerable feel
ing. The publishing committee is composed of per
sons of different denominations, and no book is pub
lished unless it be approved by all. Sometimes a
very desirable book, in other respects, may have a
paragraph offensive to a Baptist, Methodist, or Pres-

THE HALF CENTURY. 335
byterian, and it is expunged. The synod of New
York appointed a committee to examine this matter,
and report. It Avas thought that the society had
taken greater liberties with some authors than they
Avere justified in doing. This Avas more particularly
true of some books Avhose authors Avere dead.
It Avas finally disposed of by the promise of the
publishing committee that, in future, they Avould state
distinctly on the title-page the extent of the altera
tions they had made, so that they, and not the author
or his friends, should be responsible for Avhat was
added or suppressed. For a more complete history,
see the 25th report of the American Tract Society.

Section 6. Societies for the Moral and Religious
Benefit of Seamen.
Sailors were regarded in former times as a hard
ened class of men, Avho had fled from all the ameni
ties of civilized life, and Avere not to be reached by
sympathy or kindness.
At the close of the Avar of 1812, there Avere indi
viduals that began to inquire if something could not
be done to ameliorate the condition of those whose
home is upon the deep,
A society Avas organized in Ncav York, in 1816,
for promoting the gospel among seamen in that port.
A church was built for their accommodation in 1819,
where the gospel has ever since been regularly

336 THE HALF CENTURY.
preached. This Avas the first united public effort for
the improvement of seamen that Avas made in the
United States.
In October, 1819, tbe Rev. Joseph Eastburn, a
man Avho was devoted to doing good to his felloAV-
men, commenced a meeting for mariners in Philadel
phia ; in 1824 a house Avas built, and a church organ
ized in 1830.
The first efforts were made in Baltimore in 1823,
a house erected in 1825, and a society formed the
same year.
The city mission of Boston began to bestOAv labor
upon seamen in 1819. The Seamen's Friend Society
was organized in January, 1828, and a house for
public Avorsbip erected soon after.
Similar operations Avere commenced in Portland,
Maine, in 1823,
The American Seamen's Friend Society was or
ganized in 1827, and its annual meeting is holden at
NeAV York. It receives the aid not only of the in
habitants on the sea-coast, but of those residing in the
interior. It aims not only to provide the sailor with
religious instruction while in port, but to establish
boarding-houses, Avhere they Avill be kept from intox
icating drinks and from squandering their money.
They are encouraged to deposit their earnings in sav
ings banks, and are taught to respect themselves, and
that there are those who care for them.
Chapels and boarding-houses for seamen are opened
in all the commercial toAvns on the Atlantic coast, at

THE HALF CENTURY, 337
Havre, in France, at Canton, China, at Honolulu
and Lahaina, Sandwich Islands, and at Sydney, New
South Wales,
The society commenced in 1828 the Sailor's Mag
azine, a monthly periodical of thirty-two pages. It
has now two coi-responding secretaries, Rev, J,
Spaulding, and Rev. H. Looniis, Avhose office is in
the city of New York,
The receipts of the society are not very great ;
for the year ending May, 1849, they Avere $18,582.
This, however, is not all that is contributed for the
seaman's cause. The local societies scattered along
the sea-coast sustain chapels and preachers in their
own vicinity ; a considerable amount of funds is
used in this way, Avhich is not included iu the receipts
of the national society.
The Boston Seaman's Society is regarded as a
state society; and Rev. W. Bushnel], its secretary,
acts as general agent for the cause in New England.
A very great change has taken place in the character
of sailors since these efforts for their moral improve
ment were commenced. They are found to be as
susceptible of religious impressions as any class of
men in tbe community.

Section 7. Jewish and Protestant Societies.
Two societies have been organized, the specific
object of which is to induce others to abandon the
29

338 THE HALF CENTURY,
religion in Avhich they have been educated, and to
embrace a system essentially diflerent.
One of these is the jVinorican Society for Amelior
ating the Condition of the Jews, It Avas organized
in NeAV York, and held its first annual meeting in
1823, The Ladies' Boston Jcavs Society was organ
ized in 1816, The Boston society has acted upon
the Jews in foreign lands through the American
Board, The American society at first intended to open an
asylum in the United States, where converted Jews
might come from other countries and be relieved
from the persecutions to which they Avould be and
Avere exposed. It Avas thought that many would the
more readily renounce Judaism, if they foresaw that
they would have sympathy and encouragement.
The society purchased a farm, and at one time had
three or four converted Jews, The plan did not
succeed, the farm was sold, and the money put to
interest. The society continued to hold its annual
meetings, but did very little, till within a few years.
There are many Jews in the largo cities of the
United States, and converted Jews are now employed
by the society to visit them, and get access to them
in Avhatever Avay they can. They distribute among
them the New Testament, and tracts adapted to their
wants. They publish a monthly periodical, called
the JcAvish Chronicle. The receipts of the society
are about $8,000 per annum.
The other society to Avhich I allude is the Ameri-

THE HALF CENTURY. 339
can Protestant Society, In 1832, Dr, BroAvnlee, of
NeAV York, held a controversial correspondence Avith
the Romish priests of that city, Avhich Avas continued
for some time, and resulted in the establishment of
an anti-Catholic newspaper, and in the Avaking up of
an interest for the spiritual Avelfare of the Catholic
immigrants to this country. Out of this grew a so
ciety, Avhose object Avas to do them good. In 1839,
another society, called the Foreign Evangelical So
ciety, Avhich grcAv out of the labors and travels
of Dr. Baird in Europe, was formed. The object
Avas to send the gospel to the Catholics in Europe.
In 1843, another society Avas formed, called tbe
Christian Alliance, the object of Avhich was to send
the gospel into Italy.
In 1849, these three societies Avere united, and the
ncAv one is called the American and Foreign Chris
tian Union. Rev. Dr. Baird and Rev. H. Norton are
the secretaries.

Section 8, Benevolence of the Age.
There are some, Avho, having accumulated great
wealth, as the infirmities of age multiply, and death
seems apparently near, feel called upon to make some
disposition of their property. Some of this descrip
tion have no families depending upon them for sup
port ; and the distribution of their estates in the
manner prescribed by laAv might not, on the whole,

340 '£HE HALF CENTURY.
be best. They are obliged to appropriate it to some
public charity. Those who give away tlioir money
under such circumstances cannot be called benevo
lent. They have used it as long as thoy can, and
must now leave it to heirs, they know not Avhp jr
distribute it in a manner that is most plea.siliig to
them. The most illustrious instance of this kind of mu
nificence that has been recorded during tho last fifty
years is that of Stephen Girard, of Philadelphia, a
merchant and banker, who died in 1831, aged eighty-
four. His property amounted to eight or ten millions
of dollars. His largest bequest Avas two millions, to
gether with Avhat should remain after other bequests
Avere paid, to found and support a college in Philadel
phia for the education of white orphan boys.
It may be inferred that this was not an act of
Christian benevolence, from the fact that he enjoined
upon its trustees " that no ecclesiastic, minister, or
missionary, of any sect whatever, shall ever hold or
exercise any station or duty in said college, nor shall
any such person ever be admitted for any purpose, or
as a visitor, within the premises appropriated to the
purposes of said college." The reason assigned for
this strange prohibition was a desire to shut out the
children from all sectarian influences, till they should
be old enough and wise enough to chooso for them
selves. The Avill of Oliver Smith, of Hatfield, who died
in 1846, proves him to belong to the same class of

THE HALF CENTUR^. 341
munificent men. The following report of the trus
tees of the " Smith Charities " will shoAV the manner
in Avhich he disposed of his money, and the condi
tion of it in May, 1850 : —
" These tAvo funds are called the miscellaneous and
the contingent. The former arises from a legacy by
the late Oliver Smith, of Hatfield, of $200,000,
which is to be kept at interest until it amounts to
$400,000, Avhen, by the provisions of the will, it is
to be divided into three portions, as follows : Into a
fund of $30,000, Avhich shall accumulate for sixty
yeai's from the testator's decease, and then be applied
to the establishment of an agricultural school at
Northampton ; $ 10,000 for the use of the American
Colonization Society ; and $360,000 for tbe benefit
of indigent boys, girls, young Avomen, and widows,
in eight specific tOAvns. The contingent fund, from
the same source, is one from the income of Avhich
all the expenses of managmg the several funds shall
be paid.
" The report represents the miscellaneous fund now
to amount to $232,776.80, and the contingent fund
to $211,541.82. Aggregate, $444,318.62."
The agricultural school is to be established in the
year 1906, the Colonization Society is to receive
$10,000 about 1860, and about the same time indi
gent boys, &,c., in eight toAvns, are to begin to be
benefited by his donation. It seems, from the above
report, that he gives about one half of his money to
those who take care of the other half. Mr. Smith
OC)#

342 THE HALF CENTURY.
seems to have determined that the present generation
should have the least possible benefit from the use of
his money.
There is another class of benevolent, men, Avbo
have abounded more during the last fifty years than
at any period since the first settlement of our coun
try. They are those Avho, Avhile living, and at their
decease also, have given large sums to colleges, hos
pitals, asylums, and other public institutions for the
benefit of those Avho need it in all future time.
Among this class may be ranked the Phillipses, Bart-
letts, and others, by Avhose munificence the theologi
cal seminary at Andover came into being ; Butler,
who established in Providence an asylum for the
insane; Lyman, who established the State Reform
School at Westborough, Massachusetts ; Perkins, who
endowed an Asylum for tbe Blind ; and Dwight, the
munificent patron of normal schools.
The attention of wealthy men has been particu
larly directed to the colleges of our country Avithin
the last ten or tAvelve years. The LaAvrences, Wil
liston, and others, have reared monuments for them
selves more imperishable than marble,
I commenced this article more particularly to speak
of another class of benevolent persons — of those who
make sacrifices that they may be able to give for the
spread of the gospel, and to promote the triumphs of
the Redeemer's kingdom. During the last forty
years, there have been found individuals, and the
number has been gradually increasing, who have

THE HALF CENTURY. 343
made it a religious duty to lay by in store, as God
prospered them, a portion of their income, to be ex
pended in carrying forward the great Avork of Chris
tian missions. There has been, during the period of
which I speak, a more perfect development of the
benevolent spirit of the gospel in the souls of men
than has been known at any previous time since the
age of the apostles. These exhibitions of the benev
olent spirit have not been confined to the rich ; many
who have been poor in this Avorld's goods have done
what they could. There is now living a colored
woman, Avhose Avages have been one dollar a week,
and whose religious .charities for several years have
amounted to $32 annually. When asked Avhat she
would do if sick, or unable to labor by reason of the
infirmities of age, she replied, she Avould go to the
almshouse. Similar instances of faith and devoted-
ness are to be found in many of the churches of
Christ in this land.
When the American Board of Missions was organ
ized, one of its members received a letter from Mr.
Solomon Goodale, of Vermont, a plain farmer, in
which he promised and paid $500 for the immediate
use of the Board, and $1,000 towards a permanent
fund. Prior to 1816, he gave to the Board $3,885,
For a moderate farmer, at that time this was a noble
instance of liberality. He Avas one of those who
were waiting for an opportunity to engage in the
work of publishing the gospel to every creature. As
soon as the channel was opened, the stream of his
charity began to flow.

344 THE HALF CENTURY.
A young merchant in Boston, N. R. Cobb, member
of a Baptist church, on commencing business, resolved
to give away one fourth of his net profits, till he
should be worth $20,000, and then one half, and
Avhen Avortb $50,000, he Avould give all his profits.
It appeared, at the close of his life, that he had given
away $40,000.
The awakened .spirit of Christian philanthropy
that has been increasing in our land during the last
forty years is one of the loveliest features of the age.
Man begins to feel for man; there is "flesh in his
obdurate heart."

THE HALE CENTURY. 346
CHAPTER IX.
RELIGIOUS CONTROVERSIES.

Section 1, Unitarianism.
It is not my purpose to go back and inquire into
the origin of Unitarianism in this country, nor to
show how the Avay Avas prepared for its introduction.
At the beginning of the present century, there Avas
but one congregation that Avas professedly Unitarian,
and that was an Episcopal congregation worshipping
in King's, since called the Stone, Chapel, in Boston,
of which Dr. James Freeman, who died in 1835, was
pastor. My aim will be to give a sketch of its development
and progress during the period under revicAv. I shall
arrange the leading facts in chronological order.
At the commencement of this century, and for
several years after, the subject of Christ's divinity
was seldom alluded to in the pulpits of Boston and
vicinity. If there were any that did not believe,
they did not publicly declare it. There was an ex
tensive prejudice against the doctrines of Calvinism,
and very few of those who embraced them ventured
boldly to preach them.
The first book published in the United States,
written by an American, that denied the divinity of

346 THE HALF CENTURY.
Christ, was a treatise on the atonement, by Adin Bal-
lou, a Universalist minister, of Boston. It appeared
in 1803. It has had much influence in converting
Universalists to Unitarianism.
In 1805, Rev. John Sherman, pastor of a Congre
gational church in Mansfield, Connecticut, Avas dis
missed from his charge for denying the supreme
divinity of Christ. He published, soon after, a de
fence of his vieAvs. He finally left the ministry, and
before his death ceased to be a man of sober life.
In February, 1805, Rev. Henry Ware, of Hingham,
was appointed Hollis professor of divinity in Harvard
College. The professorship Avas founded by Thomas
Hollis, of London, He required that the persons
Avho, from time to time, should be appointed to fill
that office, should be men " of sound and orthodox
principles." Some of the board of overseers, suspect
ing that Mr. Ware Avas not " sound and orthodox,"
proposed that he should be examined ; but the mat
ter was overruled by his friends, who maintained that
he Avas orthodox, and " the suggestion that he might
be an Arminian Avas regarded as a slanderous imputa
tion." The chair Avas accordingly obtained, and his
real sentiments not divulged. In 1805, as I have
said in another chapter, the Panoplist was commenced.
It Avas decidedly orthodox, and manfully defended
the doctrine of Christ's divinity ; it did much, in those
days of silence and concealment, to resist the under
mining current of error. In the preface' to the fourth
volume, the editor, speaking of having been censured

THE HALF CENTURY. 347
for some things he had published, said, "When un
common zeal is displayed, and unusual means em
ployed, to sap the foundations of the faith once
delivered to the saints, and to rob the Son of God of
his glory, I deem it incumbent on those, Avho stand
up for the defence of the gospel, to counteract that
zeal, and expose and frustrate those means,"
In December, 1808, Rev, John Codman was settled
at Dorchester, In his ansAver to the church and soci
ety, he declared his belief in the Calvinistic system
of doctrines, and said, "as Arian and Socinian senti
ments have, of late years, crept into some churches,
he thought it his duty to declare that he believed the
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost to be the only living
and true God," The ordination sermon was preached
by Dr. Channing.
In about a year after his settlement, forty of his
parishioners expressed their dissatisfaction with him,
because he did not exchange with Boston ministers.
He claimed that it was his privilege to exchange
with whom he pleased, and refused to give any
pledge on that subject. Some of his people offered
their pews for sale, , and subsequently, at a parish
meeting, a vote Avas obtained to dissolve the pastoral
relation. The subject, hoAvever, was referred to an
ecclesiastical council, the members of Avhich were
equally divided. The result of the controversy at
Dorchester Avas, that the disaffected withdrew, and
Codman retained his place. After that, it was under
stood that a minister might regulate his own ex
changes.

348 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1810, Thomas and Noah Worcester, tAVO brothers,
then residing in New Hampshire, published a book
entitled Bible News, in which the supreme divinity
of Christ Avas denied.
In 1811, Rev. Abiel Abbot, pastor of a Congrega
tional church in Coventry, Connecticut, Avas dis
missed, on the ground that he was unsound in the
faith. He was a member of the council that dis
missed Sherman,
At this time, there were but two Congregational
ministers in Boston — Griffin, of Park Street, and
Huntington, of the Old South, Avho openly and bold
ly avowed the orthodox faith. At that time, says
Dr, Dwight, " Unitarianism seemed to be the predom
inating system ; " and yet none of the clergy acknowl
edged themselves to have adopted that system.
Porter, of Roxbury, in his convention sermon, in
1810, said of the doctrines of original sin. Trinity,
&c,, " Neque teneo, neque refello " — I neither affirm
nor deny.
In 1812, Dr, Kirkland Avas elected president of
Harvard College, It has since been said by his
friends, that he could not ha^re been elected, if it had
been known that he was a defender of Unitarian
sentiments. The style of preaching adopted by many at that
time was eminently conservative ; nothing Avas said
by them which afforded conclusive proof tnat they
had or had not departed from the faith of their Puri
tan fathers. When councils were called for the

THE HALF CENTURY. 349
ordination of a clergyman, especially in the eastern
part of Massachusetts, it was difficult to ascertain the
precise sentiments of the candidate. There Avere so
many who thought great particularity unnecessary,
that the efforts of those Avho were in favor of a rigid
examination were thwarted.
In 1812, there Avas published, in England, the
Memoir of Lindsey, by Belsham, the life of an avowed
Unitarian, by a Unitarian, Lindsey had corresponded
with American clergymen. In that Memoir Belsham
inserted a chapter upon American Unitarianism, A
few copies found their Avay to this country, but did
not fall at first into the hands of any who were zeal
ous for the orthodox faith. It was not till the spring
of 1815, that Dr, Morse, of CharlestoAvn, obtained
a copy. He immediately caused that chapter that
related to American Unitarianism to be published in
a pamphlet. It gave the names of men in New Eng
land who were known as Unitarians in Old England.
The pamphlet produced a great excitement ; conceal
ment was no longer possible.
The Rev. Alvan Lamson, in his History of Unita
rianism, in Rupp's History of Religious Denomina
tions, says, "During the first fifteen years of the
present century, controversy was seldom or never
introduced into the pulpit ; but Unitarianism was
making silent progress. Many, having ceased to hear
the opposite sentiments inculcated, embraced it, often
without any distinct consciousness of the fact. The
term Unitarianism was seldom heard in NeAV Eng-
30

350 THE HALF CENTURY.
land ; those since so called were denominated liberal
Christians." The brief History of American Unitarianism was
reviewed in the Panoplist for June, 1815. The war
now commenced ; the roar of the artillery began to
resound. Dr. Channing replied, in July, to the
review, in a letter of thirty-six pages, addressed to
Rev. S. C. Thacher. During the same month, Dr.
Worcester replied to Channing in a letter of the same
length. These were followed by two letters from each
of the two last named, before the close of the year.
In 1816, a long revicAV of the whole was published
in the Panoplist, which concluded Avith the following
remark : " In the early part of the controversy, there
Avas a most uncommon exhibition of anger and in
dignation throughout the whole extent of the liberal
party. These wrathful passions have been succeeded,
in many, by deep and pathetic lamentations over the
evils of controversy and separation."
From this time, the orthodox very generally re
fused to exchange with those Avho belonged to the
liberal party, and very soon tbe separation was com
plete. It Avas brought about Avith very little com
motion. This is one of the beauties of Congrega
tionalism ; there Avas no necessity of a formal trial of
pastors or churches for heresy. Each church, being
independent, had nothing to do but withhold felloAV-
ship, and the Avork Avas done.
The late John Peirce, D. D., of Brookline, Avhose
accuracy in statistics is Avell known, said, in a letter

THE HALF CENTURY. 351
written in 1846, that, in 1812, there Avere, in Massa
chusetts, 138 ministers liberal enough to be Armin-
ians, and 179 orthodox, and that in May, 1846, there
Avere 124 liberal enough to be Arminians, and 417
denominating themselves orthodox.
It was found that it is not always true that " like
people like priest," Sometimes the pastor and a mi
nority of the church were liberal, while tbe majority
was orthodox ; sometimes the pastor and a minority
of the church were orthodox, and the majority
liberal. The separation of the clergy was a signal
for the separation of pastors from churches, and for
the division of churches. This was a more difficult
and serious affair. When a church was divided, the
question was. To whom does the house belong, and
who shall have the funds ? The liberal party riiain-
tained that churches w^ere unknown in law, that to
the society with a minority of the church belonged
all the property, records, &c. In most cases, the or
thodox were forced to remain under the instruction
of liberal preachers, or go out and begin anew. The
subject was brought before the Supreme Court by
the church in Dedham, and decided, in March, 1821,
agreeably to the views of Unitarians, The judges
declared it to be the law of the state, that the property
belongs to the majority of the society. It has been
decided by two or three different benches of judges
in the same way, but by each on different grounds.
The last decision was in 1848. In regard to the rights
of churches, whether they are known or recognized

352 THE HALF CENTURY.
in law, an able discussion may be found in the Spirit
of the Pilgrims, vol. ii. p. 370.
In May, 1819, Dr. Channing preached his Balti
more sermon at the ordination of Rev. Jared Sparks,
in which he so set forth his OAvn views respecting
the Trinity and other allied doctrines, or rather so
misrepresented the views of the orthodox, that it
seemed necessary to answer it. Rev. Professor
Stuart, of Andover Theological Seminary, answered
so much of it as related to the doctrine of the Trin
ity, in a pamphlet of two hundred pages. It was
published in 1819, and was never answered by Chan
ning, Professor Norton reviewed it in an article in
the Christian Disciple, which he subsequently en
larged to a volume, and published, under the title of
A Statement of Reasons for not believing the doc
trine of Trinitarians concerning the Nature of God
and the Person of Christ.
In 1820, Rev. L, Woods, D. D., another of the
Andover professors, published a volume of letters of
one hundred and sixty pages, in which he defended
the other doctrines of the orthodox that Avere assailed
in the Baltimore sermon. To this Dr, Ware, profes
sor in the Theological School at Cambridge, replied ;
and in 1821, Dr, Woods answered the reply, A dis
cussion Avas carried on at the same time between Mr.
Sparks, of Baltimore, and Dr. Miller, of Princeton.
The books to which I have alluded formed the
most effective part of the controversy ; they were the
most thorough and critical. A vast amount of ser-

THE HALF CENTURY. 353
mons and short articles on different parts of the sub
ject have been published from time to time.
The Unitarians commenced a weekly paper, called
the Christian Register, in 1822, In 1823 was com
menced the Christian Examiner, a continuation of
the Christian Disciple, commenced in 1813,
The American Unitarian Association was organ
ized in Boston, in 1825, It includes all the Unitarian
clergymen in Massachusetts. They meet annually
in Boston.
In 1823, there was a correspondence between Pro
fessor Ware, of Cambridge, and Rev. W, Adam and
Rammohun Roy, a native of India, in regard to the
prospect of success, if the association should com
mence a mission in that country. In 1824, this cor
respondence was published in a pamphlet of one
hundred and thirty-eight pages. In 1825, an appeal
to Unitarians to engage in the work of missions was
published. The mission was never commenced.
A sermon was preached at the annual fast in 1828,
by Rev. Parsons Cook, of Ware, now Dr. Cook, of
Lynn, in which he presented facts and statements to
prove that Unitarianism Avas an exclusive system ; that
the chief offices of trust and profit in Massachu
setts were held by that denomination ; that it could
not be entirely accidental that governors, councillors,
judges, (fcc, (fcc, should belong to a sect which was
a small minority of the population of the state. He
avowed his belief that the thing was brought about
"by the political manoeuvring of liberal men,"
30*

354 THE HALF CENTURY.
A reply was addressed to Mr, Cook, through the
Christian Examiner, understood to have been written
by a distinguished judge of the Supreme Court. To
this Mr, Cook replied in 1829, in a pamphlet of thir
ty-eight pages, in which he brought out an array of
facts in support of the leading idea of the sermon.
The discussion of the subject at the time, and to the
extent it was discussed, had a salutary effect. There
does not seem to be any good reason for preferring
such a charge now against the leading men of that
denomination, I pass over many facts of smaller importance, and
speak of some developments made by a sermon
preached by Theodore Parker, at South Boston, May
19, 1841, It was preached at an ordination, in Avhich
he and several other Unitarian clergymen united in
the solemn service of investing another with the sa
cred office. The sentiments advanced in the sermon
were so decidedly anti-Christian, that it Avas supposed
his brethren would withhold from him their fellow
ship, and by so doing bear testimony against the
views he had published. No action was taken on
the subject, and nothing was done, Avhich conveyed
the idea to the public that, as a body, they could not
endorse his sentiments. Individuals expressed them
selves with more or less decision in opposition to
Parker's views. Rev, Mr. Lothrop, of Brattle Street
Church, said, " I do not approve of some of the sen
timents of Mr. Parker; I most seriously protest
against them; they seem to me to undermine the

THE HALF CENTURY. 366
very foundation of all Christian faith, and to be at
variance Avith Christian truth," But he said, "No
Unitarian clergyman feels himself responsible for his
brethren." " We recognize no creed, covenant, or
union of any kind, that interferes Avith individual
liberty and independence." This matter led some
Unitarians to feel the necessity of creeds, and to
acknoAvledge their utility, though I do not know that
any of their churches have ever adopted any thing
like a creed.
Since then, many in that denomination have de
plored the lack of fervor and zeal in their chnrches ;
they have adopted some measures for the purpose of
arousing them to more activity, and of infusing into
them more spiritual life.
Some think there is a portion of that denomination
that are advancing sloAvly towards a more evangelical
faith, while another portion is receding farther from
the truth.

Section 2. New Measures.
About the year 1826, this term began to be used
to designate certain means that Avere then employed
in revivals of religion for arresting the attention of
the sinner, and persuading him to be reconciled to
God. They consisted chiefly in a bolder and more
denunciatory style of preaching ; in praying for indi
viduals by name ; in reading, at the commencement
of a meeting, notes handed to the preacher by indi-

356 THE HALF CENTURY.
viduals, requesting prayers for an impenitent husband,
wife, child, father, brother, or sister ; in inviting those
who purposed to make religion their chief concern to
occupy a seat by themselves, called the anxious seat,
and in securing from them a promise that they would
serve the Lord. These resolutions were regarded by
some as evidence that the individual so resolving had
become a Christian. In many cases, persons were
admitted to the church very soon after beginning to
cherish a hope of piety, and females were encouraged
to speak and pray in public assemblies. These, in
Presbyterian and Congregational churches, were new
Tneasures. They were first introduced into churches in West
ern New York. " In the year 1826, there was a
very great religious excitement in the central and
western parts of the state of Ncav York, occasioned
principally by the labors of the Rev. Charles G. Fin
ney, an evangelist of great zeal and considerable
native eloquence. He had been a laAvyer, and hav
ing, as he hoped, been converted to Christ, entered
the ministry with little preparatory study." {Net-
tleton's Mem. p. 244. ) He rebuked not only the im
penitent, but professors of religion, and even minis
ters, with great severity, and introduced many of the
measures of which I have spoken. In every congre
gation in which he labored, he had, as a matter of
course, many warm friends and bitter foes ; those of
ardent temperaments being among the former, and
the more cool and deliberate among the latter. Many

THE HALF CENTURY. 367
young preachers, witnessing the results of his labors,
felt that a new era had commenced, and became bis
imitators, copying, as is usual in such cases, more
carefully his faults than his excellences. Some
other ministers invited him to their churches, and bade
him God-speed. There Avas another class of clergy
men, cautious and careful, who looked on with fear,
lest the ark of God should be endangered, and ven
tured to speak against the' measures that were becom
ing popular. Mr. Finney vindicated his course by
saying the measures he introduced were substantially
those of the Rev. Mr. Nettleton.
The Rev. Asahel Nettleton, of Connecticut, began
to preach in 1811. It Avas his purpose to have been
a foreign missionary, and to have gone out Avith Hall
and others who Avent to India ; but his preaching
was attended with such signal success, that he was
advised and persuaded by the pastors in his native
state to devote himself exclusively to the work of
an evangelist. He continued to do so until 1826,
when his health was so much impaired that he was
obliged to desist from his labors almost entirely. He
had, it is true, some measures peculiar to himself, but
was remarkably judicious and sound in doctrine, and
pastors felt their relations to their people strengthened
rather than weakened by his labors in their parishes.
Mr. Nettleton, hearing of the excitement in the state
of New York, regarded the measures employed as
detrimental to the purity of revivals, and Avas grieved
to learn that his course was referred to in justification
of them.

368 THE HALF CENTURY.
In January, 1827, Mr, Nettleton had an interview
Avith Mr, Finney, at Albany, and heard him preach
at Troy, but was convinced that it would be impos
sible to bring Mr. Finney to think as he did, or to
change his course. He therefore Avrote a long letter
to the Rev, Mr. Aikin, then pastor of a Presbyterian
church in Utica, and a friend of Mr. Finney, in which
he expressed fully his own vieAvs and feelings, and
what he knew of the views and feelings of many of
the best men in New England, with permission to
communicate it to Mr, Finney, and ministers in that
region. In tbe same month, Dr, L, Beecher wrote a
long letter to Dr, Beman, of Troy, giving a full ex
position of his views, for the purpose of correcting
through him, if possible, some of the measures that
Avere becoming popular.
Soon after this, Mr. Finney preached a sermon at
Utica, and afterAvards at Troy, which Avas published,
from Amos iii. 3 : " How can two walk together, ex
cept they be agreed? " The principle illustrated and
defended was this — If the subject is exhibited iii a
light that is beloAv our tone of feeling, or far above
it, we cannot be interested. There must be agree
ment of feeling, or no fellowship. This sermon was
reviewed by Mr, Nettleton and others, Avho showed
that a Christian, whose standard of feeling is far be
low that of Paul, is nevertheless pleased and inter
ested Avith his views and exercises, and that Paul was
interested and pleased Avith Avhat he found in those
who were only babes in Christ, The principle incul-

THE HALF CENTURY. 359
cated in tbe sermon Avas manifestly false. It was
plain to all who read the sermon, that Mr. Finney
and his friends had nailed the flag to the mast, and
that no reconciliation could be effected, except by
adopting their vicAvs and carrying out their measures.
The abettors and advocates of the neAV measures
were supposed to look upon their opposers "as cold
and dead," behind the spirit of the age, and hindering
and blocking the wheels of the chariot of salvation.
It Avas thought that something must be done to
promote union and agreement. Accordingly a con
vention of clergymen from Noav England and New
York met at New Lebanon, New York, July 18,
1827, and continued in session until the 28th, and
discussed tbe w^hole subject. The journal of that
convention was published in all the religious papers,
and in the Christian Spectator of that year, p, 499,
More than thirty topics Avere discussed, and the vote
on half of them Avas unanimous, on the others di
vided, Mr, Finney and his friends voting on one side,
and Mr, Nettleton and his friends on the other. The
convention consisted of eighteen, and a part of the
time of twenty clergymen, holding prominent places
in the Congregational and Presbyterian churches ; and
though it failed to bring about an agreement in re
gard to principles and measures in conducting and
promoting revivals of religion, yet it served to en
lighten the public mind in relation to this matter, and
to let them see what measures certain individuals jus
tified, and certain others condemned.

360 THE HALF CENTURY.
The journal of this convention was about the first
thing published in relation to measures, except what
appeared in secular papers and scattered through no
tices of revivals of religion. It was admitted by all
that there were evident tokens of the divine presence
and power in the churches ; and those who disap
proved of the measures of Mr, Finney and others
Avere reluctant to express their views publicly, lest
they should be thought by some to fight against God,
and by others to condemn all religious excitement,
ToAvards the close of 1827, it was deemed expe
dient to publish some of the long letters that had
been written and circulated during the year. Those
of Mr. Nettleton, of Dr, Beecher, of the Rev, Messrs.
Aikin, of Utica, and Frost, of Whitesborough, were
published in the New York Observer. The measures
that were most opposed by New England clergymen
in the New Lebanon convention were never intro
duced into New England churches, neither were
those evangelists who advocated ncAv measures in
vited to preach among them, except in a few places.
On May 27, 1828, the following note appeared in
several of the religious papers, which may be regard
ed as the end of the new measure controversy : —
" The subscribers, having had opportunity for free
conversation on certain subjects pertaining to revivals
of religion, concerning which we have differed, are
of the opinion that the general interests of religion
would not be promoted by any further publications on

THE HALF CENTl'UY. 361
those subjects, or personal discussions ; and Ave do
hereby engage to cease from all publications, corre
spondences, and conduct, designed or calculated to
keep those subjects before the public mind ; and that
so far as our influence may avail, Ave Avill exert it to
induce our friends on either side to do the same.
(Signed,)

L.

Beecher,

D. C, Lansing,

S.

C. Aikin,

A. D. Eddy,

C.

G. Finney,

S. Holmes,

E,

Cheever,

J. Frost,

N.

S, S, Beeman,

N. CoE,

E.

W. Gilbert,

J. Parker."

In these Avestern revivals the meetings were con
tinued several days in succession, usually four ; and
hence they came to be technically called four-days^
meetings ; and at a later period they were continued
a greater number of days, and were called protracted
meetijigs. These continuous meetings were received with
more favor than any other measures then in use.
Those who had stood strong against what was new
said protracted meetings Avere not new ; that the pen-
tecostal season was a meeting of this kind, and they
had been holden, from time to time, among all de
nominations. " It has long been a practice," says
Sprague, " in some parts of tbe church, and has re
cently become common in this country, to hold a
succession of religious exercises through a series of
days. In respect to this measure, though I am aware
31

362 THE HALF CENTURY.
that it is liable to great abuse, yet, in itself consid
ered, I confess that in certain circumstances, and Avith
certain limitations, it seems to me unobjectionable.
One principal reason Avhy sinners are not converted is,
that the impression which the truth makes upon them
in the house of God yields almost instantly to the
cares and levities of the world." Such meetings
were very common in New England, and in all parts
of the country, between the years 1828 and 1835.
They began, however, to be abused, and relied upon
as a means of promoting religion, having in them an
intrinsic power and efficacy. Members of churches
seemed to think that all that was necessary to secure a
revival of religion was a protracted series of religious
exercises; that if the minister Avould only "set the
machinery and raise the steam of excitement, con
verts would be made, as a matter of course," As
this feeling seemed to abound, the success of these
meetings diminished, and in many cases they were,
no doubt, hurtful. They destroyed the faith of God's
people in the ordinary means df grace, so that, after
having used the extraordinary Avithout success, they
fell back into a state of discouragement, or became
dissatisfied with their minister or their church, and
the faith of not a few became unsettled.
Since about 1834, protracted meetings have met
with less favor, and churches have been gradually
returning to the old paths, and relying more upon the
ordinary means of grace.
There have been consequences growing out of this

THE HALF CENTURY, 363
new-measure excitement and controversy of a serious
character, and very important in their bearing upon
tbe interests of religion.
I would here add, that, in 1832, Rev. W. B.
Sprague, D. D,, published his Lectures on Revivals
of Religion, Avith an Introductory Essay by Leonard
Woods, D. D., and an appendix of one hundred and
sixty-five pages, made up of twenty letters written
by distinguished clergymen of different denomina
tions, in which each gave an exposition of his own
views in relation to measures, and an outline of his
own experience.
The conclusion of the matter was, that " the ex
istence, progress, and happy fruits of revivals depend
far more on tbe spirit Avith which they are sought,
than on the particular shape and form of the meas
ures adopted."
It may be stated here as a remarkable fact, that
is full of instruction, that many of those who took
the lead in these new measures soon lost their stand
ing in the church, and many pastors their influence
among their people. Mr. Finney "soon adopted
sentiments incompatible with his standing, and went
out upon a platform of his own ; " one of his most
zealous and successful imitators has sunk into obscu
rity, and few of the pastors Avhere he labored would
desire a repetition of similar labors. Two of those
new-measure evangelists have since been deposed
and excommunicated, and another, being excluded
from the fellowship of his presbytery, has labored,

364 THE HALF CENTURY.
under the banner of union, to promote disunion and
division in churches.

Section 3. The Connecticut Controversy.
I CALL it by this name, because it began in Con
necticut, and its effects were more apparent there than
any Avhere else. The subject matter of it was, for a
time, called Taylorism, because the controverted doc
trines Avere advocated and defended by Dr. N. Tay
lor, of Yale College,
It appears that, in the summer of 1821, while the
controversy Avas in progress between Dr. Wood, of
Andover, and Dr, Ware, of Cambridge, Dr. Taylor
said that "Dr. Ware had the better of the argument"
in regard to original sin. Near tbe close of the same
year. Professor Goodrich, in a public lecture, was
understood to discard the common views of Ncav
England divines respecting original sin. The ex
pression of such views by two such men excited a
suspicion in the minds of some that the leading men
at New Haven Avere unsound in the faith.
In July, 1826, Professor Fitch published two ser
mons on the nature of sin. His doctrine Avas, " that
sin, in every act and instance, is reducible to the act
of a moral agent, in Avhich he violates a known rule
of duty." He denied that the having of a propen
sity or bias of the mind to evil, so strong as to ren
der it morally certain that its possessor will sin, is

THE HALF CENTURY, 365
itself sin. He maintained that sin consists not in
any preexisting propensity to sin, but in acting ac
cording to that propensity ; or, in other Avords, that
man is not a sinner till he has committed an outAvard
act of transgression.
These sermons were sharply reviewed in the Chris
tian Advocate, a periodical published in Philadelphia,
in the numbers for March and April, 1827. It was
supposed to have been written by Dr. Green, who
believed that the sin of Adam is imputed to his pos
terity, and that the having of a propensity to evil is
sin. He maintained that the infant, previous to any
actual transgression, is a sinner.
In 1827, Dr. Fitch replied to the reviewer in a
pamphlet of ninety-five pages, and vindicated the
doctrine taught in the sermons.
In September, 1828, Dr. Taylor preached the Con-
do ad Clerum at the commencement at Yale. His
subject was "human depravity," in which he advo
cated substantially the same views of sin that had
been presented by his colleague. Dr. Fitch. He said,
that sin does not consist in any attribute of the soul,
nor in any constitutional propensity of our nature,
nor in the imputed guilt of Adam's first sin, but in
man's oAvn act, in his free choice of some object
rather than God as his chief good. The Spirit of
the Pilgrims, a decidedly orthodox monthly journal,
(December, 1828,) in a brief notice of the sermon,
said, " We have here an able and satisfactory discus
sion of the natural and entire depravity of man."
31*

366 THE HALF CENTURY.
This is supposed to have been written by Dr, L.
Beecher. The suspicions awakened by the remark
of Dr. Taylor, in 1821, were remembered and strength
ened by his sermon in 1828. It Avas reviewed by
Dr. Harvey, ably and elaborately, in March, 1829.
The sentiments of Dr. Taylor Avere pushed, however,
beyond bis assertions, to inferential results, and he
was made responsible for what he did not say, as Avell
as for what he did. The revicAV Avas replied to in
the Christian Spectator by Professor Goodrich, which
was substantially the lecture to Avhich I have already
referred. This paper called forth, immediately, anoth
er pamphlet from Dr, Harvey, in Avhich he called
upon Dr, Taylor to prove that he was in no sense
chargeable with heresy.
In 1829, there was published, in the Christian
Spectator, a revicAV of Spring's Essay on the Means
of Regeneration, which was understood to have been
Avritten by Dr. Taylor, In this review, Dr, T, took
the ground that " antecedent to regeneration, the
selfish principle in the sinner's heart is suspended, and
that he then uses the means of regeneration with
motives neither sinful nor holy,"
This article on regeneration excited more alarm
than any thing that had been said in the Condo ad
Clerum, and led to the controversy between Drs.
Tyler and Taylor.
In September, 1829, during the anniversary at
Andover, a conference was had between some of the
Yale professors and several clergymen of Connecticut

THE HALF CENTURY. 367
and Massachusetts, to see if an explanation of vicAvs
would not produce peace and harmony.
In December, 1829, Dr, Tyler, then pastor of a
church in Portland^ published his Strictures on Dr.
Taylor's Review of Spring's Essay. He declared it
to be his belief that Dr. T. had adopted principles
which lead, by inevitable consequence, to the denial of
important doctrines, and that his speculations will pave
the way for the gradual influx of error upon the Amer
ican churches. He aimed, in his Strictures, to show
that, previous to regeneration, there is no suspension
of tbe selfish principle, and no time in which the sin
ner is not supremely selfish. These Strictures Avere
regarded by those Avho did not sympathize with Dr.
Taylor, as a triumphant refutation of his theory of
regeneration, which Avas thought to be a virtual de
nial of the agency of the Holy Spirit in the renewal
of the heart. Dr. Taylor replied through the Chris
tian Spectator, in March, 1830.
In a note in the Condo ad Clerum, Dr. Taylor
accounted for the existence of sin in the moral sys
tem, by supposing it impossible for God to prevent it.
In 1830, Dr, Woods, of Andover, addressed to him a
series of letters on this subject, Avhich were candid
and conclusive.
In the early part of 1832, Dr. HaAves, of Hartford,
thinking the difference between Dr. Taylor and his
opponents consisted more in the mode of explaining
their views of truths, than in any real difference
of opinion, requested Dr. T. to furnish him with "a

368 THE HALF CENTURY.
frank and full statement of his religions views," In
reply to this, Dr. T. sent him his creed, Avith notes
appended, which was published in the Connecticut
Observer, February 20, 1832. It appeared, after
wards, that, by the advice of Dr. H,, some assertions
in the original manuscript were omitted in the one
finally published. The creed, taken by itself, with
out note or comment, Avas pronounced satisfactory ;
but the explanations were such that the letter did
nothing tOAvards promoting union.
In April, Dr. Tyler reviewed this letter, in the
Spirit of the Pilgrims, in which he pointed out the
inconsistency of the creed with the notes, particularly
in regard to the doctrines of decrees, election, original
sin, and regeneration. In August, Dr. Taylor replied,
through the same periodical. The September and
October numbers contained Dr. Tyler's ansAver, and
the December number, Taylor's reply, which Avas
continued in the January and February numbers of
1833, In the May number. Dr. Tyler answered him,
Avhen the editors refused to publish any thing further
on either side.
Soon after this, Dr, Taylor published a letter in
the Christian Spectator, which was regarded by many
as an extraordinary production, because in it he en
deavored to show that he and Dr, Tyler Avere, after
all, perfectly agreed, and yet he had charged Dr. Ty
ler with adopting a theory which involved the idea
that " sin is a good thing," that " God is the responsi
ble author of sin," and that his views, carried out to

THE HALF CENTURY. 369
their legitimate results, lead to Universalism, infideli
ty, and atheism,"
Dr. Tyler published a pamphlet, in Avhich he com
mented upon this letter, Avhich ended the controversy
between these two individuals. He showed that
they differed on nine points brought to view in the
discussion. In 1832, a pamphlet appeared, without the names
of the author, publisher, or printer, entitled Letters
on the present state and probable results of theo
logical speculations in Connecticut, by an EdAvardean,
since ascertained to have been written by Dr. Harvey.
In this the Avriter asserted, that nothing Avas more
certain, than that there Avould be a separation of the
Congregational churches of Connecticut, if this state
of things continued much longer, and that the friends
of sound doctrine would seek other seminaries than
Yale for the education of their sons.
Dr. Spring published, in 1833, his Essay on Native
Depravity, in which he spoke of the pamphlet by an
Edwardean as " written with clearness, force, and a
Christian spirit." About the same time. Dr. Griffin
published a volume on Divine Efficiency, by which
he meant " tbe effectual power of God immediately
applied to the heart to make it holy." There are
two theories, he says, which deny this, one of which
is advocated by Drs. Taylor and Fitch.
These discussions, though they did not result in
any change in the views of those engaged in them,
yet led many to investigate the doctrines of the Bible
more thoroughly.

370 THE HALF CENTURY.
In 1833, an address to the Congregational churches
of Connecticut was printed and circulated, but not
published. It is supposed to have been Avritten by ~
Dr. Harvey, The object of the pamphlet was to
urge a division. It also urged the importance of a
new theological seminary.
September 10, 1833, a convention of clergymen
opposed to the vicAvs of Dr. Taylor assembled at
East Windsor. After tAvo days of prayerful delib
eration, they came to the conclusion that it Avas
expedient to establish a theological seminary in
Avhich the vicAvs advocated by Dr. Tyler should be
taught. They organized themselves into a pastoral
union, adopted a constitution, and appointed a board
of trustees. May 13, 1834, the corner stone of a
seminary was laid at East Windsor, and Dr. Tyler,
on the same day, was inducted into the office of
president. During the summer of 1834, a manifesto
Avas published by the professors of the theological
seminary at New Haven. In October, the trustees of
the neAV seminary published an appeal to the public.
The pastoral union embraces a majority of the
Congregational clergymen in Connecticut, on the
east side of the river, and a small minority of those
on the west side. They have not separated from
the General Association, There has been no separa
tion of churches. The new seminary is under the
control and patronage of the Pastoral Union, Avhich
meets annually during the Aveek of the anniversary
of the seminary.

THE HALF CENTURY. 371
There was quietness in the churches until 1839.
At the meeting of the General Association in June
of that year, S. H. Cox, D. D., appeared as the dele
gate of the neAV school assembly. He was the first
delegate from that body to Connecticut. The mem
bers of the Pastoral Union sympathized Avith the old
school assembly, and opposed the receiving of Dr.
Cox. There Avas a Avarm and animated discussion
of the matter. Dr. Cox Avas finally received. A
report of this meeting was published in a New Haven
paper by Dr. Bacon, which called forth a reply from
a Hartford paper, which Avas the organ of the Pas
toral Union. At the annual meeting of the Pastoral
Union, in August, a new edition of their protest was
published, accompanied by a letter from Rev. G, A.
Calhoun, of Coventry, to Dr. Bacon.
This called forth a series of letters from Dr. Bacon
to Mr. Calhoun, to which he replied, in 1840, in a
pamphlet of eighty-four pages.
Since then, there has been quietness among the
churches in Connecticut, though the same diversity
of doctrinal views continues to exist.

Section 4. The Presbyterian Church.
The number of communicants in the Presbyterian
church, at the commencement of the present century,
I do not know. Their published documents do not
show the number. There were four synods, ^ — New

372 THE HALF CENTURY.
York and New Jersey, Philadelphia, Virginia, and the
Carolinas, — including twenty presbyteries, having one
hundred and fifty-tAvo ministers. In 1807, the statis
tics Avere more complete ; there Avere then 330 min
isters, 598 churches, and 17,871 communicants.
Their collections for charitable purposes in that year
were $4,641.
These churches were made up in part of the de
scendants of Scotch, English, and Irish Presbyteri
ans, with Avhom the descendants of New England
Puritans, as they emigrated to the new settlements,
united. Fifty years ago, there Avere very few
churches in the western half of Ncav York, in Ohio,
or any state farther west. There Avas not then, and
is not now, any essential difference in the doctrines
of Presbyterians and Congregationalists. They dif
fered mainly on the subject of church government,
which difference neither party was disposed to regard
as a Avail of entire separation.
The emigration from NeAv England westward,
fifty years ago, was considerable ; and Presbyterians,
finding themselves in communities where Avas a large
sprinkling of Congregationalists, endeavored to fix
upon some plan of union, under which they could
labor harmoniously, and still preserve to each their
respective privileges. The Puritan emigrants could
not easily forget that " the Bible is the only infallible
guide in matters of church order and discipline."
To these new settlements missionaries were early
sent, both by Congregationalists and Presbyterians.

THE HALF CENTURY. 373
With a vicAV to prevent alienation, and to promote
harmony, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
church and the General Association of Connecticut
adopted, in 1801, Avhat was called the plan of union.
It Avas agreed that, if a Congregational church should
settle a Presbyterian minister, or a Presbyterian
church a Congregational minister, each church should
be permitted to conduct its discipline and manage its
affairs in its own way. If there was any difficulty
between a church and its minister, it should be re
ferred to a presbytery or council, according as the
minister Avas Presbyterian or Congregational. The
effect of the plan of union Avas to Presb yterianize
Congregational churches. It prevented the forma
tion of a general Congregational association ; their
churches Avere reported to the General Assembly, and
not to any Congregational body.
In process of time, there began to be considerable
friction in the Avorking of this system. Congrega
tionalists felt that their system was thrown into the
shade, and Presbyterians felt that New England the
ology was prevailing more rapidly than they could
wish. In 1826, the American Home Missionary Society Avas
organized, and controlled the action of state societies.
This Avas, and still continues to be, a voluntary asso
ciation, subject to the control or dictation of no eccle
siastical tribunal. To the funds of this society a
majority of the churches connected with the Pres
byterian Assembly contributed, and preferred to do
32

374 THE HALF CENTURY.
SO rather than act through the Assembly's Board of
Missions. There was a portion of the Presbyterian church,
especially those that Avere not of New England ori
gin, Avho were opposed to voluntary societies, and
thought the church ought to control all such matters,
and make all societies amenable to the church.
At a meeting of the Assembly in 1828, a resolu
tion was offered, signed by a few ministers and lay
men of Philadelphia, declaring it expedient to reor
ganize the Board of Missions acting under the Gen
eral Assembly. It Avas manifest that the portion of
the Assembly who were not descendants of the Puri
tans were jealous of Congregationalists, strongly op
posed to the American Home Missionary Society,
and were desirous of conducting all these matters in
the name and under the direction of the church.
If the Assembly, at that time, had unitedly abandoned
all voluntary associations, and contributed monej'" to
be expended under the direction of the Board of
Missions, it is presumed the Presbyterian church
would never have been divided. The resolution Avas
discussed two whole days, and indefinitely postponed.
This shows that the majority of that Assembly was
in favor of voluntary associations, and favorably dis
posed toAvards New England sentiments and modes
of operation.
In 1829, the subject was called up again, and a
vote to reorganize the Assembly's Board of Missions
was passed, and also the folloAving resolution :

THE HALF CENTURY. 376
" While the Assembly would solicit the cooperation
of the churches with its oavu Board of Missions, yet,
as many of our churches have already united their
efforts Avith the American Home Missionary Society
and the American Board, therefore resolved, as the
sense of this Assembly, that the churches should be
left entirely to their unbiased and deliberate choice
of the channel through Avhich their charities shall
flow forth to bless the perishing." This resolution
weis a sort of compromise betAveen the two parties
then in the Assembly.
The same objections Avere urged against the Amer
ican Education Society.
At the meeting of the Assembly in 1831, the case
of Rev. A. Barnes came before that body by a com
plaint of the majority of the presbytery of Philadel
phia against the minority.
It appears that in February, 1829, Mr, Barnes
preached a sermon to his church and congregation in
Morristown, Ncav Jersey, entitled the Way of Salva
tion, which was published in the beginning of 1830.
There were individuals in the First Presbyterian
Church in Philadelphia who, Avishing to obtain Mr.
Barnes for a pastor, circulated this sermon among the
electors. This was a signal for an attack upon the
sermon by those who preferred that he should not be
a pastor in that city. It Avas severely revieAved by
Rev. W. M. Engles, which was answered by Dr,
Wilson, of that city. Several answers and replies
followed in quick succession. Notwithstanding this

376 THE HALF CENTURY,
shoAV of opposition, Mr. Barnes received a call, was
dismissed from his charge at Morristown, and recom
mended by his presbytery to the presbytery of Phil
adelphia. June 23, he presented his letter to the
presbytery, preparatory to his installation on the 25th.
There was a strong opposition to receiving him, on
the ground that he Avas not sound in doctrine. He
was received, hoAvever, by a vote of thirty to sixteen.
Immediately a paper was presented, containing for
mal charges of his unsoundness in the faith, and
signed by A. Green, D. D., and Rev. Messrs, Engles,
Potts, Boyd, Hoff, Parker, and Williamson, The
charges being the same that had been discussed at
length in presbytery and by reviewers, it Avas, voted
to proceed to the installation, and he was accordingly
installed. In October foUoAving, the above-named individuals
complained to the synod against the presbytery for
irregular proceedings. The synod decided that the
presbytery had given cause for complaint, and re
ferred the complainants back to the presbytery, Avith
an injunction that the presbytery should hear and de
cide on the objections made against the orthodoxy
of Mr, Barnes, In November, the case came before
the presbytery, at Avhich meeting only a part of the
members Avere present. The complainants and their
friends Avere the majority ; they voted that the com
plainants might sit as judges, Mr. Barnes Avas, of
course, condemned ; but time Avas given him for reflec
tion and recantation, before final action was had.

THE HALF CENTURY. 377
In 1831, as I before said, the presbytery complained
to the Assembly of the irregular proceedings of the
minority. The Assembly, having investigated the
whole subject, heard the sermon, and the objections
made to it, came to the conclusion that " it contains
a number of unguarded and objectionable passages ;
yet they Avere of the opinion that, after the explana
tion that had been given by Mr, Barnes, the pres
bytery ought to have suffered the whole to pass with
out further notice ; and that they ought to suspend
all further proceeding in the case,"
The majority of that assembly sympathized with
Mr. Barnes, and the decision, though in theory final,
Avas by no means satisfactory.
Shortly after, there appeared in the Christian Ad
vocate, published in Philadelphia, a series of articles
on the present state of the Presbyterian church,
written by Dr. Green, in which he asserted that the
character of the last Assembly was determined by
the labors of Dr. Beman, of Troy, who had spent
the previous winter at the south, and Dr. A, Peters,
then secretary of the American Home Missionary
Society, who, during the previous year, had been on
a tour to the west. He accused these brethren with
having taken special pains to procure the election of
members to the Assembly of a particular stamp, of
men who were favorable to New England theology
and voluntary associations. He also said, " The pe
culiar ardor of excitement now prevalent is attributa
ble principally to a special cause, which ought to ba
32*

378 THE HALF CENTURY.
distinctly marked. It is not the case of Mr. Barnes.
That case was indeed made an adjunct and auxiliary
to the principal cause ; but tbe cause itself, the bane
ful apple of discord, Avhich has been thrown into the
midst of us, is the inflexible purpose and untiring
effort of the secretary of the American Home Mis
sionary Society (Dr. Peters) to amalgamate the Board
of Missions of the Assembly with that society."
No man knew the cause of the difficulties then exist
ing better than Dr, Green. The seat of the war Avas
in the presbytery to Avhich he belonged, and he him
self Avas the leading man of one of the parties.
The Home Missionary Society was remarkably
prosperous from the beginning ; it at once outstripped
the Assembly's Board of Missions. " The reasons,"
says Dr. Parker, " are obvious. According to its plan
of operations, every $162 secured the planting of a
missionary for one year over a feeble church. Its
funds Avere collected by soliciting from the benevo
lent considerable annual donations to its treasury.
On the plan of the Assembly, every missionary cost
$466. Its collections were mainly in small sums.
The fifty cent plan, or a cent a week, Avas greatly
relied on." The Home Missionary Society extended
its influence rapidly. Here Avas the germ of the dif
ficulty, as Dr, Green had said.
The Home Missionary Society was as much under
Congregational as Presbyterian influence, and it Avas
feared that Congregationalism might invade the
bounds of Presbyterianism. It seems to have been a

THE HALF CENTURY. 379
desire to counteract the influence of a society in
which New England Puritanism formed so important
an element, that led to the reorganization of the As
sembly's Board. The charging of Mr. Barnes Avith
heresy Avas therefore only "an adjunct," designed,
probably, to produce an impression upon the public
mind that this class of ministers embraced funda
mental errors.
The General Assembly of 1832 voted that it was
expedient to divide the presbytery of Philadelphia in
such a way as will be calculated to promote the peace
of ministers and churches. A second presbytery was
soon after formed on the principle of elective affinity,
bringing together those who were agreed in doctrines
and measures. The synod refused to receive said
presbytery, whereupon its members appealed to the
Assembly of 1833, Avhich directed the synod to re
ceive them.
In October of that year, the synod did receive the
presbytery, then dissolved it, and, having united it
with the first, proceeded to divide the presbytery
geographically. There was another appeal to the
Assembly of 1834, which set aside the doings of the
synod, and reconstituted the second presbytery, as
originally organized, on the principle of elective
affinity. The Assemblies of 1833 and 1834 Avere exceed
ingly stormy. Irregularities were complained of in
the synods of Cincinnati and Western Reserve •
many Avere suspected of heresy; committees were

380 THE HALF CENTURY.
appointed on the state of the church. The terms
"old school" and " ncAv school" were in common
use ; it was manifest that there were two parties,
who could not be easily reconciled to each other.
It was a source of grief to the good people of Phila
delphia to Avitness the annual contentions of the
Assembly ; they Avere desirous it should meet in some
other place.
Soon after the adjournment of the Assembly of
1834, there Avas a meeting of the minority, old
school, to take into consideration the state of the
church. They drcAV up Avhat was called the Act
and Testimony, and sent it forth to the churches.
It began thus: "In the, solemn crisis to Avhich our
church has arrived, Ave are constrained to appeal to
you in relation to the alarming errors Avhich have
hitherto been connived at, and have noAV at length
been countenanced and sustained by the acts of the
supreme judicatory of our church," The document
bore strong testimony against errors in doctrine, in
discipline, and in church order. It recommended that
a convention of those who should approve of the
Act and Testimony should meet at Pittsburg the
next year, just before the meeting of the Assembly.
The convention met in May, 1835, and adopted a
report to the Assembly, in which most of their griev
ances were embodied. The following are some of
them : —
The Assembly has arrogated to itself poAver that
belongs to the presbyteries. It maintains that it may

THE HALF CENTURY. 381
condemn a book or printed sermon Avithout condemn
ing its author. It has sanctioned the gathering of
presbyteries by elective affinity.
It is a grievance that a missionary society operates
among our churches, and is patronized by them,
which is in no sense amenable to the judicatories of
the Presbyterian church.
The plan of union, referring to that of 1801, is a
grievance. The Assembly does not contend for pu
rity of doctrine. The errors in doctrine, Avhich were
thought to be alarmingly prevalent, were these : —
1, A denial of Adam's federal headship,
2, A denial of original sin.
3. A denial of the imputation of Adam's sin to
his posterity.
4. A denial of Christ's federal headship.
5. A denial of the imputation of Christ's right
eousness to believers.
6. A rejection of the vicarious nature of the atone
ment. 7, It is assumed by many that man's obligation is
measured by his present ability.
8. A denial of the omnipotent agency of the Holy
Spirit in regeneration.
By a denial of these doctrines, nothing more is
true than that the new school party did not explain
them in the manner they Avere explained by the old
school party. It is not true that the above doctrines
were denied, but only the philosophy by which the
old school party explained them.

382 THE HALF CENTURY.
The new school party had the majority in tbe As
sembly of 1835, as they had had for several years
previous. In March, 1835, Dr, Junkin, president of Lafay
ette College, addressed a letter to Rev, A. Barnes,
notifying him of his purpose to prefer charges against
him, before the presbytery, for errors of doctrine in
his Notes on Romans. Dr. Junkin said, "Most con
scientiously do I believe you have fallen into danger
ous error. I feel that your doctrine shakes the
foundation of my personal hopes for eternal life. If
it be true, then I cannot read my title clear to man
sions in the skies,"
Mr, Barnes was tried before his presbytery in July,
and acquitted, Dr, Junkin appealed to the synod,
Avhich met in November, by which the decision Avas
reversed, and Mr. Barnes suspended from the minis
try. By the same synod, the second presbytery of
Philadelphia and that of Wilmington Avere dissolved.
Mr. Barnes signified his intention to appeal to the
next Assembly, and did so ; in the mean time, he
submitted to the decree of the synod, and refrained
from preaching until the Assembly met.
In May, 1836, the Assembly met again at Pittsburg,
Avhen Mr. Barnes's appeal Avas sustained, and he was
restored to his ministerial standing.
Aroused by these continual defeats, the old school
party determined to make one mighty effort. It Avas
a case of life and death.
The Assembly of 1837 Avas to meet in Philadel-

THE HALF CENTURY. 383
phia. Another convention of the old school mem
bers of that Assembly convened one week previous
to the meeting of that body, to fix upon a plan of
procedure. They Avere somewhat divided, but finally
fixed upon a course, Avhich they pursued.
When the Assembly convened, there Avas a small
majority of old school men. They first abolished
the plan of union of 1801, and/declared it to be un
constitutional. Then it fdloAved that the synods
and presbyteries organized on that plan were uncon
stitutional, and Avere no part of the Presbyterian
church. The synod of the Western Reserve, of
Utica, Geneva, and Genesee, were exscinded. This
matter was Avarmly debated for three days, before the
final vote Avas taken. A resolution Avas also passed,
affirming that the American Home Missionary Soci
ety and American Education Society were injurious
to the peace and purity of the Presbyterian church,
and it was recommended that they should cease to
operate in any of the churches under their care.
The synods of Albany, Cincinnati, Ncav Jersey,
Michigan, and Illinois, Avere requested to take special
notice of irregularities and errors of doctrine, said to
exist Avithin their bounds, and report to the next As
sembly. The second presbytery of Philadelphia
Avas also exscinded by that Assembly. The plough
share of division Avas driven through the Assembly.
These synods were not exscinded for any error in
doctrine, nor for any violation of the standards of the
church, for then it would have been necessary to

384 THE HALF CENTURY.
have preferred charges, and proved them guilty.
Very happily, the plan of union Avas discovered to
be unconstitutional, and those synods which had
been gathered on that plan were not constitutionally
a part of the Presbyterian church,
August 17, 1837, a convention of delegates from
the exscinded churches met at Auburn, New York,
to determine Avhat course they should pursue. They
decided that the exscinding acts of tbe Assembly
were unconstitutional, resolved to maintain their
organization, and send commissioners to the Assem
bly of 1838, as before. They did so, but the com
missioners Avere rejected by the moderator; they ap
pealed from his decision to the house, Avhich sus
tained the moderator. They then AvithdreAV, and
organized themselves as the General Assembly of the
Presbyterian Church iu the United States, From
that time to the present there have been two assem
blies, bearing the same name, each claiming that the
history of Presbyterianism in this country, prior to
1838, is its history.
The trustees, and other corporate bodies in the
Presbyterian church, held much valuable property for
their seminaries and for missionary purposes. After
the separation, the question arose. To which body
does this property belong ? The Avhole of the prop
erty Avas in the hands of a board of trustees, incor
porated by the legislature of Pennsylvania, one third
of whom were elected annually by the Assembly.
In 1838, both bodies elected their trustees. When

THE HALF CENTURY. 385
the board met, those from the ncAv school Assembly
claimed their seat, and, on being refused, commenced
a suit in the courts of Pennsylvania. They gained
their cause in the loAver court, but the defendants ap
pealed to the Supreme Court. The judge, after hear
ing the case, on account of some informality, ordered
a new trial ; but, in doing it, he expounded the law
in such a manner, that it was evident his decision
would be against the ucav school party, and so they
withdreAV the suit. Each party claims to have gained
its cause, though the old school Assembly holds most
of the funds.
Soon after the trial of Mr. Barnes for heresy had
commenced. Rev. L. Beecher, D. D., president of
Lane Seminary, was prosecuted for heresy by Dr.
Wilson, of Cincinnati, and tried before the synod.
Rev. Dr. Duffield, then of Carlisle, -was also tried by
the body to which he belonged for heresy. Both
trials were failures, though they called forth very
interesting discussions of several points of doctrine.
The old school Assembly has the advantage of the
other, which seems destined, at- some future day, to
become extinct. Some of the new school churches
are withdraAving and connecting themselves with the
old school Assembly, and others are connecting
themselves Avith Congregational bodies.
In 1832, six years before the final separation, there
were connected with the General Assembly 2,381
churches, 1,730 ministers, and 217,348 communi
cants. There is connected Avith the new school
33

386 THE HALF CENTURY.
Assembly now, in 1850, churches, 1,568 ; ministers,
1,473 ; communicants, 139,797, There were con
nected with the old school Assembly, in 1849,
churches, 2,459 ; ministers, 1,803 ; communicants,
192,033.

Section 5. The latest Controversy.
In April, 1847, the Massachusetts Sabbath School
Society published a small volume on Christian Nur
ture, by Horace Bushnel, D. D., of Hartford, the
doctrine of which was, " The child is to grow up a
Christian," He should be so trained under the influ
ence of parents, that he shall never know the time
when he became a noAv creature in Christ, This
book Avas revised and published under the sanction
of the society's committee, consisting of seven ortho
dox clergymen of Boston and vicinity. It Avas there
fore presumed to be sound in faith.
In June of that year, a pamphlet was published,
addressed to Dr, Bushnel, and Avritten by Dr.
Tyler, of East Windsor, in which he said, if he un
derstood the book correctly, it contained sentiments
at variance, not only Avith commonly-received opin
ions on that subject, but with the Bible. The Sab
bath School Society immediately suppressed the
book, without assigning any reasons : it was regarded
as a remarkable procedure. The book furnished the
topic for many newspaper essays, and some for the

THE HALF CENTURY. 387
graver quarterlies. The Unitarian papers commend
ed it, and some Episcopalians regarded it with a
little favor.
Dr. Bushnel, after a foAV months, put Avith it some
other discourses on kindred topics, and a severe letter,
first published in the Religious Herald, commenting
upon Dr. Tyler, and the seminary over which he
presides, and made a volume of 200 pages, Avhich Avas
sent forth to the Avorld. To this Dr. Tyler replied
in the spring of 1848, in a pamphlet of 80 pages.
There was, for a time, a prospect that we should
have a protracted discussion of the whole subject of
Christian education. Just at this time, another sub
ject was brought forward by Dr. Bushnel, Avhich, on
accoimt of its great importance, diverted the public
attention from his book on Christian Nurture, which
since then has lain quietly upon the shelf
In 1847, Dr, Bushnel was appointed by the General
Association of Connecticut, to preach the Condo ad
Clerum at the commencement at Yale, in August,
1848 ; the subject assigned Avas, the Divinity of
Christ. He had also been appointed to preach the
annual sermon in September of that year, at the anni
versary of tbe Theological Seminary at Andover.
The sympathy of the Unitarians with the views ex
pressed in his book on Christian Nurture, procured for
him an invitation to preach the sermon at the anniver
sary of the Theological School at Cambridge in July.
He therefore prepared three sermons, related to each
other, on the atonement, the divinity of Christ, and

388 THE HALF CENTURY.
dogmas in theology, which, in 1849, Avere published
in a volume entitled God in Christ, to Avhich Avas
prefixed an Essay on Language, of 100 pages.
The impression was very general, that in these
discourses Dr.' Bushnel had departed from the faith of
the orthodox ; and the way Avas prepared, Avhen the
book appeared, as the warriors say, to give it a warm
reception. No book has been published, of late years,
that has been so extensively reviewed as Bushnel's
God in Christ. It has been reviewed by Congrega
tionalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists, and by all has
been regarded as containing some truths blended with
much that is false.
Near the close of 1849, a pamphlet of 60 pages,
entitled Contributions of 0, C, or Criticus Critico-
rum, appeared, written by a friend or friends of Dr.
Bushnel, and designed to defend him against the at
tacks of his reviewers.
The association to which he belongs appointed a
committee of five to examine his book, and report to
that body whether it contained heresy or not. The
committee could not agree. Three of them brought
in a report disapproving of some things, but, on the
Avhole, concluding it to be free from heresy ; the
report of the other two fixed upon two or three points
in Avhich, in their opinion, the book was at Avar Avitb
tbe Bible. The majority report was adopted by the
association. In January, 1850, the Fairfield West Association
took the subject into consideration, and appointed a

THE HALF CENTURY. 389
committee, consisting of Messrs. Hall, Smith, and
Atwater, to examine Dr. Bushnel's book, and report
their views of the same at an adjourned meeting.
At the next meeting, January 29, Dr. Hall made a
report in the form of a remonstrance and complaint
from that association to the Hartford, Central, of which
Dr. Bushnel is a member. The Hartford associa
tion, in reply, said, " We cannot think it consistent
with the established rules of judicial proceedings, or
with justice to ourselves or Dr. Bushnel to review our
decision, or institute a ucav investigation of the case,
until new evidence of a decisive character shall be
presented to us."
The Fairfield Association then printed their re
monstrance and complaint, and sent it to the several
district associations, requesting them to examine and
report their views on the whole subject. Most of
them did so, and expressed generally their dissatisfac
tion with the sentiments understood to be taught in
the book.
At the meeting of the General Association, in June,
1850, the Fairfield West Association presented a
memorial to that body, requesting it to take such
action in relation to it as should protect itself from
any imputation of heresy Avhich might rest upon it,
from the fact that one of the sermons was preached
by the appointment of that body. If they remained
silent, it might be supposed that the association sanc
tioned the sentiments taught in the book.
The General Association took occasion to reaffirm
33*

390 THE HALF CENTURY,
their belief in that system of doctrine taught in the
Catechism of the Westminster Assembly, and by so
doing declared their disbelief of Avhatever there may
be in Dr, Bushnel's book that is contrary to that com-
pend of Christian doctrine.

Section 6. Subjects of Controversy in the Prot
estant Episcopal Church.
In 1833, there was commenced at Oxford, Eng
land, the publication of a series of papers called
Tracts for the Times. They have been also called
the Oxford Tracts, and the peculiar sentiments incul
cated in them have been called the Oxford theology.
Among the Avriters of these tracts were Rev. E. B.
Pusey, D. D., professor of Hebrew at Oxford, Rev.
J. H, Newman, fellow of Oriel College, and Professor
Keble, The professed object of the tracts AA'as to
call attention to the primitive church, to its doc
trines and usages. The Avriters Avere not satisfied
Avith going back to the reformation ; they found
much that they approved and commended prior to
the reformation. They were apparently delighted
with things that were when the pope reigned supreme
over all Europe, and was acknowledged by all as the
spiritual head. Many of the Episcopal clergy and
laity favored these tracts. The Bishop of Chester,
in his charge to the clergy of his diocese, warned
them of approaching dangers, " of a revival of the

THE HALF CENTURY. 391
worst evils of the Romish system." The Bishop of
Oxford approved of the tracts, and defended the
writers of them.
The Avriters of these tracts maintained the doctrine
of unbroken apostolical succession, of tradition, of
the celibacy of the clergy, and of prayers for the
dead. The tract No. 90 came out more distinctly
than any that preceded it in favor of Romanism. In
1843, Dr. Pusey preached a sermon, in which he dis
tinctly maintained the doctrine of transubstantiation,
m consequence of which the . chancellor took from
him the privilege of preaching in the university for
the space of two years.
Since then, 47 members of the university at Oxford,
with Mr, Newman at their head, have conformed to
the church of Rome. Mr. Newman speaks of having
succeeded in turning 78 persons from Protestantism
to Popery. Pius IX., as a token of his regard for
the valuable services rendered by Mr. Newman, has
conferred upon him the title of D, D. Dr. Pusey
still remains in the church of England, but is known
to be a Romanist at heart. Through the influence
of Pusey, NcAvman, and Keble, hundreds have gone
back to the dark ages, and acknowledge tbe pope as
their spiritual head.
In 1840, the Tracts for the Times were republished
in this country, and strong tendencies towards Ro
manism began to be apparent in portions of the
American Episcopal church.
In July, 1843, at the examination of the students

392 THE HALF CENTURY.
of the Episcopal Theological Seminary in Ncav York,
the Rev, Drs, Smith and Anthon, having learned,
from personal conversation, that one of the students,
Mr, Arthur Carey, had become substantially a Ro
manist, requested that the committee should pay
particular attention to the views that might be ex
pressed by the senior class, and especially on all sub
jects in which the Protestant and Papal tenets conflict
Avith each other, A motion Avas made that a com
mittee be appointed to examine the sermons the
senior class had written during their last year. The
motion was negatived. On the ensuing Sabbath, the
young men were to be ordained as deacons. When
the bishop, according to usage, called upon the peo
ple to declare if there was any reason Avhy any of the
young men should not receive orders, Drs. Smith and
Anthon protested against the ordination of Carey,
The bishop said he had examined the case, and Avas
satisfied, and so were all except the protesters, and
proceeded to ordain them, Drs, Smith and Anthon
left the house.
Against this act of Bishop Onderdonk a solemn
voice of remonstrance went forth over the land ; and
as the meeting of the General Convention Avas near
at hand, it Avas expected that the question of Oxford-
ism Avould be the principal point to be discussed, and
that the decision of the convention would determine
the policy of the church on that subject.
All the low church portion of that denomination,
and many of the high church, had expressed them-

THE HALF CENTURY. 393,
selves strongly against the Oxford theology. Bishop
Mcllvaine had written a book of 550 pages, for the
express purpose of preventing the spread of those
views. The election of delegates was understood to
turn principally on that point, and it Avas supposed
that the utmost- strength of the parties would be
called out. The convention met, and the subject
was introduced. Never was there a better opportu
nity for those who were disposed to contend earnestly
for the faith, to shoAV the spirit of martyrs, than was
afibrded on that occasion. It was expected that the
anti-tractarians would take a flrm stand, and if the
vote of the convention went against them, that they
would separate themselves from the body, and organ
ize an Evangelical Convention.
The test vote on the question, after a warm and
earnest debate, was, 92 to let the evil alone, and 55 in
favor of taking some measures to remove it. Here
the agitated question was suffered to rest ; the minor
ity submitted to the majority. It seemed to those
who were looking on and Avaiting for the result, that
aU regarded the unity of the church to be more im
portant than its purity of doctrine.

394 THE HALF CENTURY.
CHAPTER X.
NEW RELIGIOUS SECTS.
Section 1. Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints.
The founder of this sect was Joseph Smith, who
was born in Sharon, Vermont, December 23, 1805.
In 1815, he removed, with his father, to Palmyra,
New York, and in 1819 to Manchester.
His education Avas very limited ; some say he could
not read. He says that, soon after removing to Man
chester, bis mind was exercised on the subject of
religion, but, seeing there was such a diversity of
sects, he knew not what to do. He betook himself
to prayer, confiding in the promise, " If any man lack
wisdom, let him ask of God, Avho giveth to all men
liberally and upbraideth not, and it shall be given
him." While praying earnestly, a great light shone
around him, and two angels came and told him that
all existing denominations were in error, and that the
fulness of the gospel should in a short time be made
knoAvn to him.
In the evening of the 21st of September, 1823,
while praying, the room Avas filled with light, and a
glorious personage appeared before him, a messenger
from heaven, and informed him that the time for the
gospel to be preached in its fulness and power had

THE H.A.LF CENTURY. 395
come ; that the millennial reign of Christ was to com
mence ; and that he Avas a chosen instrument in the
hands of God to usher in this glorious dispensation.
He was told Avho were the original inhabitants of
this country, and from whence they came, and that
there was a bundle of metallic plates deposited in a
certain place, containing an account of the aboriginal
inhabitants, which was a part of the Bible that Was
lost. These plates, he said, were subsequently put into
his hands, together with a breastplate and the Urim
and Thummim, which consisted of two transparent
stones, set in the rim of a bow, fastened to a breast
plate. By looking through these stones, he could see
the strange characters on the plates translated into
plain English.
This is taken from a sober history of this matter,
written by the dictation of Smith himself He pre
sumes to say that all Christian sects were wrong, and
that the Lord raised him up to teach the true religion,
and to reveal through him things that had been con
cealed from all others.
The origin of the Mormon Bible was in truth as
follows : —
Rev, Solomon Spaulding, a graduate of Dartmouth
College, was settled in the ministry at New Salem, in
Ashtabula county, Ohio, previous to 1810. His
health failed, and he Avas laid aside from his pastoral
labors. In that neighborhood there are many mounds
and ancient fortifications ; and being interested in

396 THE HALF CENTURY.
historical antiquities, he conceived the idea of Avriting
an account of the origin of these mounds : he gave it
the form of a translation of a lost manuscript, pur
porting to have been found in these mounds, and to
have been written by one of the ancient race, who
lived at the time these ancient Avorks were construct
ed. It Avas written about 1812. He afterwards re
moved to Pittsburg, where he died in 1816. A
printer in that city read the manuscript, and
proposed to publish it ; to which Mr. Spaulding ob
jected. It remained in the printing office a consider
able time, in which Sidney Rigdon, who, from the
beginning, has held a conspicuous place in the Mor
mon church, was a workman. The Mormon Bible
appeared about 1827, and is nothing more nor less
than the book Avritten by Mr. Spaulding. His wife,
a respectable woman, afterwards married a Mr, David
son, and in 1839 was living in Monson, Massachu
setts. She has testified, under oath, that the Mormon
Bible is the book her husband Avrote for his own
amusement, and that of his neighbors, in 1812.
There is no reason to doubt her testimony, and Sid
ney Rigdon and Joseph Smith knew perfectly well
that the account they gave of the origin of that book
was entirely false. And yet they had the presump
tion to set about the establishment of a new religious
sect, founded on a known falsehood.
The first Mormon church was organized at Man
chester, New York, April 6, 1830. A fcAv individu
als were ordained, Avho professed to have, the power

THE HALF CENTURY. 397
of healing diseases, of casting out devils, of impart
ing the Holy Ghost, and of speaking in unknown
tongues. Strange to tell, they had many folloAvers.
Churches were multiplied in several states of the
Union, and in England. The main body of them
removed to Kirtland, Ohio, with the intention of
building a city and a temple. They were there in
1836, and finished a temple, which is still standing.
There were great numbers of them in Missouri, to
Avhich place they emigrated from Kirtland and other
places, for the purpose of establishing themselves
there permanently, and of making that their Jerusa
lem, Here they met with great opposition : violence
was threatened, if they did not leave the state. The
governor of Missouri issued an exterminating order
in 1838, and they were obliged to flee for their
lives. In 1839, they removed to Illinois, and began the
city of Nauvoo, on the bank of the Mississippi. Here,
at one time, were 1,500 houses and 15,000 inhabitants.
A temple was erected, 120 feet by 80.
These latter-day saints Avere regarded as a nuisance
by the inhabitants of the surrounding country. They
were charged with committing depredations upon the
property of the people in adjacent towns, and the
leaders of the church Avith screening them from pun
ishment, A Presbyterian clergyman, who resided in~ the
vicinity of Nauvoo, in 1843 gave the following
account of them : " Here are 15,000 souls deluded
34

398 THE HALF CENTURY.
and under the absolute dominion of Joe Smith. He
literally leads them whithersoever he will. They
have unlimited belief in his prophecies; and no wick
edness, however vile, no swindling, hoAvever great,
no blackguardism, hoAvever low, no hypocrisy, how
ever errant, and no prophecy, however absurd and
preposterous, can break the force of their belief in
him, or dissipate the dreadful delusion that covers
their minds, I recently heard Avith my own ears
these heartless leaders tell their followers that they
had a revelation from the Lord to tell them how they
should vote. They one and all believed it, and voted
in obedience to the pretended revelation."
Nauvoo became an incorporated city, held the bal
ance of political poAver in the county, and had great
influence in the state elections ; they had a munici
pal court, and a large body of armed men. It was
believed the Mormons committed depredations upon
property in tbe region ; but the Nauvoo courts cleared
the accused. The people in that part of Illinois be
came greatly excited, and determined to obtain satis
faction, or drive them from the state. The governor
finally called out the militia of the state to suppress
the insurrectionary spirit. On the 24th of June,
1844, Smith surrendered the arms he bad obtained
of the state, on being commanded to do so by the
governor, and gave himself up a prisoner, Avith his
council. Smith was arrested on the charge of treason,
and others for other crimes, and imprisoned at Car
thage, The jail was guarded by sixty soldiers. The

THE HALF CENTURY. 399
next day, all tbe guard being absent except eight, a
mob rushed upon the jail, broke in, and commenced
firing upon the prisoners ; Smith, in attempting to
escape through a window, received one hundred
balls, and fell down dead. His brother Hiram shared
the same fate.
Gluiet Avas not restored. The Mormons organized,
and went on Avith their Avork for a time ; but the peo
ple Avere annoyed by them, or in fear of being an
noyed, and made assaults upon the city, burned their
houses, and frightened many of them from the
ground. The Mormons continued to commit out
rages upon the inhabitants of the surrounding coun
try. Several individuals Avere Avaylaid and shot.
None felt safe. The people determined they should
leave, or be massacred. In the autumn of 1845,
they promised to leave in the spring. Accordingly,
in the spring of 1846, they all left the city, some re
turning to the places from Avhence they came, but
most of them commenced a march across the country
to Upper California, and are located at Salt Lake,
west of the Rocky Mountains. They, in connection
with others, took the preliminary steps for becoming
one of the United States, They adopted a constitu
tion, and petitioned Congress for admission into the
Union. September 9, 1850, Congress established
over them a territorial government, which is called
Utah.

THE HALF CENTURY.

Section 2. Millerism, or Second Adventism.
William Miller was born in Pittsfield, Massachu
setts, February 15, 1782 ; he removed Avith his
father, while young, to Hampton, Washington Coun
ty, New York, and Avas an avowed Deist till 1816,
when he became hopefully pious, and united with
the Baptist church. He had only a common school
education, but was a man of more than ordinary tal
ent. He had read much history, and, after his con
version, turned his attention to the study of the
prophecies in connection with history.
He embraced peculiar vieAvs respecting the second
advent of the Savior, and fixed in his oavu mind the
time when it Avould take place. His views were
substantially the folloAving : that Jesus Christ will
appear a second time in 1843, in the clouds of heav
en ; that he would then raise the righteous dead, and
judge them together with the righteous living, who
would be caught up to meet him in the air ; that he
would purify the earth Avith fire, causing the Avicked
and all their works to be consumed in the general
conflagration, and Avould shut up their souls in the
place prepared for the devil and his angels ; that the
saints Avould live and reign Avith Christ on the new
earth 1000 years; that then Satan and the wicked
spirits Avould be let loose, and the wicked dead be
raised, which he called the second resurrection, and,
being judged, should make war upon the saints, be
defeated, and cast down to hell forever.

THE HALF CENTURY. 401
The following sketch of the progress of Millerism
in this country is from a recent number of the
Advent Herald. Miller died December 20, 1849,
aged 68.
" In this country, the first laborer in the cause was
William Miller, Avho discovered his principles in 1818,
but did not commence their promulgation till 1831,
when he Avrote a series of articles in the Vermont
Telegraph. In 1832, he sent forth a synopsis of his
views in a pamphlet, and soon after, in obedience to
conscientious convictions of duty, he commenced
public lecturing about the country. In 1836, a vol
ume of his lectures was published and widely circu
lated. Early in 1838, a copy of these lectures fell
into the hands of Rev. J, Litch, a minister of the
Methodist Episcopal church, who soon after pub
lished, at Lowell, a pamphlet entitled the Midnight
Cry, proclaiming ' the second coming of Christ about
A. D. 1843,' He also commenced preaching thp
same doctrine. He also published other works. In
1839, Mr. Miller visited Massachusetts, and lectured
at Lowell and other principal towns. At Exeter, he
became acquainted Avith Rev. J. V. Himes, of the
Christian Connection, Boston, a receiver of the doc
trine, and on his invitation came to Boston, where so
much interest was awakened that Marlborough Chap
el was hired for his lectures. Here he published a
revised edition of his lectures, of which Mussey sold
5000 copies, and then the publication was undertaken
by Mr, Himes, Mr, Himes commenced the publication
34*

402 THE HALF CENTURY.
of a newspaper, March 20, 1840, called Signs of
the Times, issuing semi-monthly, and circulating all
over the country. Rev. Charles Fitch, pastor of the
church Avorshipping in Marlborough Chapel, now de
voted himself to the work of lecturing. In October,
1840, the first General Conference of Second Advent
believers was held in Chardon Street Chapel, Boston.
During the winter of 1841-1842, conferences Avere
numerous throughout New England ; and, in the
spring of 1842, the standard was raised in the city of
New York, by a series of meetings in Apollo Hall,
BroadAvay, held by Messrs. Miller and Himes, Dur
ing the summer of that year, camp-meetings were
held in various places ; and, finally, a large tent was
procured, capable of holding 4000 persons, in which
meetings were held at Concord, Albany, Springfield,
Salem, Newark, (fcc Public excitement greatly in
creased, and multitudes of laborers now entered the
§eld. During this season, Mr, Fitch extended his
circuit into Ohio, and contributed to spread the doc
trine in the west,"
The preachers of these sentiments connected Avith
their meetings certain revival measures, and made use
of the asserted fact, that the world was near its end,
as a reason why sinners should immediately repent.
Meetings were continued sometimes for a series of
days, and numerous conversions were reported. The
serious application that was made of the doctrine, and
the practical duties derived from it, influenced many
minds more than the arguments urged in support of

THE HALF CENTURY. 403
it. Some good people said, " The Lord is evidently
with them, and blesses their labors ; and therefore the
doctrines they teach must be true," Many little
books and tracts were published and scattered as pro
fusely as autumn leaves, and, to most minds, about as
void of nutriment. As the supposed end of the world
(h'ew near, the excitement Avas intense. Some neg
lected their business ; they had property enough to
support them till the final conflagration, and why
should they accumulate more? Some, who Avere
poor, quartered themselves upon those who were rich ;
some gave away their property to those who wished
to use it. There were some, however, who were
more considerate ; they continued to work at their
calling, built houses and substantial fences, and c<fa-
ducted in all respects as they Avould if the world was
to continue many years, and assigned as a reason for
so doing, that the command of Christ Avas, " Occupy
till I come,"
At this stage of the excitement, many who had
regarded it as ephemeral, and as something which
could do no harm, perceived their mistake, and did
what they could to enlighten the minds of those who
needed instruction on this subject. Many valuable
Essays were published by Stuart, Pond, Dowling,
Weeks, and others, in opposition to the peculiar
sentiments of Miller. They proved, as conclusively
as any moral truth can be proved, that the world
would not end in 1843, for there Avere prophecies to
be fulfilled before the end should come, that would

404 THE HALF CENTURY.
not be previous to that time ; they proved, more
over, that it is not in the power of man to fix the
time when the Savior shall come, for it is hidden
from men, even as a foreknowledge of the day of
death is hidden. But it was too late ; arguments
• Avere of no avail; opposition to their sentiments was
persecution; they had seen the star that foreboded
the appearing of the Son of man, and kneAV he would
come. Some provided themselves with Avhite robes,
called "ascension robes," in which they expected to
have time to array themselves after Christ's appearing
should be announced.
Many persons became deranged under the excite
ment, and were carried to lunatic asylums, and some
committed suicide. The 23d of April was the day
fixed upon on which the affairs of this world would
end ; the day came, and passed peaceful and quiet as
other days, with no remarkable appearance in the
heavens above, or in the earth beneath, except, here
and there, a deluded disciple of Miller was gazing
at the eastern portion of the heavens, to see if he
could not discern a gathering cloud or a chariot
of fire.
It was hoped, though hardly expected, that the
advocates of these peculiar vieAvs would come out
and say they Avere mistaken ; but no, they had too
much pride of opinion to confess they were in error ;
they were forced to admit, hoAvever, that there was a
little mistake ; that the event would take place at the
end, rather than at the beginning, of the JcAvish year.

THE HALF CENTURY. 405
They might be sure the end would come March 22,
1844. About a week previous to this last date, Mr. Miller
lectured in a country village, and at the close said,
that " within the succeeding ten days he expected to
witness the end ; to see Daniel, and Abraham, and
Paul, and all the prophets and apostles ; and that he
had no more doubt of this than of the fact of his
own existence." He urged those who heard him to
search the Scriptures ; that if they would do so a
fortnight, they Avould be convinced he was correct.
At the close of his lecture, he bade them all farewell,
assuring them they would see his face no more. The
specified day came, as calm and bright a harbinger
of spring as ever shone upon the earth. The Son
of man did not appear in the clouds of heaven.
Strange as it may seem, handbills Avere posted up in
one of our cities, announcing a course of lectures, for
the next week, on the second advent. Publishers of
books, and lecturers, Avho had reaped a bountiful har
vest, were interested in prolonging the time and con
tinuing the excitement ; some fixed upon September
of that year, and some thought it would be in 1847,
as chronologers differed four years in the dates of this
world's history ; but they did not succeed. The ex
citement was at an end. Some returned to their
employments, believing that Christ Avould come in
the manner they had been taught, but they could not
tell when he Avould come, and that it was their duty
to be in constant readiness. Very few, ij; is believed,

406 THE HALF CENTURY.
returned to the churches from which they came out ;
some became entirely unsettled in their religious be
lief, and others teach that the souls of the wicked will
be annihilated at death.
The Christian Avorld has learned from this devel
opment the importance of doctrinal preaching ; min
isters have been taught to feed their flocks Avith
knowledge. It may be said, in conclusion, that many distin
guished men, connected chiefly with the Episcopal
church in England, believe that Christ will appear
on earth a second time, and reign in person a thou
sand years. Among these English adventist Avriters
are found the names of Bickersteth, Keith, and W.
Cunningham. I belie Ve they have never fixed the
day of his coming, but have warned men of the
speedy approach of that day.
The more intelligent followers of Miller have cov
ered their retreat by identifying themselves Avith the
English Adventists, and are not ashamed of the good
company in Avhich they now find themselves.

Section 3. New Sects, mostly evangelical.
There are many circumstances, in which, when
men are placed, some new views of a truth are forced
upon their attention. If they proceed to harmonize
these with other truths, they form a creed that differs

THE HALF CENTURY. 407
SO much from others, that it forms the nucleus of a
new sect.
Those who embrace the substantial and funda
mental doctrines of the Bible are broken up into so
many fragments, that much of the power of Chris
tianity seems to be lost. There is one advantage,
however, groAving out of this division. If any of
these sects are loose in their practice, or have in their
system any great error, the moment they separate
themselves from tbe great whole, their influence is
circumscribed, and their system is put to a severe
test. Several new sects, that are for the most part evan
gelical in their sentiments, have sprung into being
during tbe last fifty years, of which I propose to give
a brief account.
The prevalence of a spirit of liberty has had much
to do with this matter. Men are free, and claim the
right to think for themselves in religious as well as in
political matters.
Christians, called also the Christian Connection, is
a sect composed of those Avho withdreAv from three
Protestant denominations — the Methodists of the
south, the Baptists of the north, and the Presbyteri
ans of the Avest.
Previous to the revolution, the Methodists in the
Southern States were regarded as a branch of the
Church of Eligland; but after the revolution, they
regarded themselves as severed from that church, and
free to organize a system of their own. The ques-

408 THE HALF CENTURY.
tion was debated in their conferences, Avhether they
should adopt the Episcopal or Congregational form
of government. The majority were in favor of Epis
copacy ; and so many of the minority as could not
submit to that system Avithdrew, and called them
selves Republican Methodists. This was in 1793.
Subsequently, they resolved to be known only as
Christians, acknoAvledging no head but Christ, and no
creed but the Bible.
About the year 1800, Dr. Abner Jones, of Hart-
land, Vermont, a member of a Baptist church, had
some trials of mind in regard to sects, and thought it
expedient there should be another. His plan was,
that there should be no creed but the Bible, His
views spread Avith considerable rapidity, and many
Baptist churches were organized on that platform.
During a revival among the Presbyterians in Ken
tucky and Tennessee, in 1801, many preachers be
came exceedingly zealous, broke aAvay from the Cal
vinistic creed, and organized themselves into a separate
presbytery. In 1803, they agreed to be known only
as Christians, to adopt the Bible as their guide, and
baptism by immersion as the only scriptural mode.
These three fragments subsequently united, and
form Avhat is called the Christian Connection. I do
not know the date of their union. They have a Book
Concern, located at Union Mills, Ncav York, They
publish three ncAvspapers, and have three literary
institutions. In 1844, they had about 1,500 churches,
with as many preachers, and 325,000 communi-

THE HALF CENTURY. 409
cants. Many of this sect reject the doctrine of the
Trinity. Church of God. — The sect bearing this name
may be regarded as an offshoot from the German Re
formed church, which received persons to its com
munion Avithout any evidence of repentance or regen
eration. During a revival in some of those churches
in the neighborhood of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in
1820, some ministers became convinced that none
ought to be admitted to the church who did not give
evidence of conversion. In 1825, they began to
form German churches in accordance with that opin
ion, and called them churches of God. They believe
in three sacraments — baptism, the Lord's supper, and
feet-washing. They are confined chiefly to Penn
sylvania and Ohio. They have 83 ministers, 125
churches, and 10,000 communicants.
Campbellites, or Disciples of Christ. — Thomas
Campbell, a seceder from the Presbyterian church in
Ireland, came to this country and settled in Pennsylva
nia about 1810. He was in favor of uniting all sects,
by adopting the Bible as their creed. Alexander, the
son of Thomas Campbell, had just completed his ed
ucation in Scotland, and fell in with his father's
views. They considered ' nothing binding, unless
they could produce in support of it " Thus saith the
Lord." The father and son soon embraced the views of
the Baptists, and were immersed in 1812. This
brought them into closer connection Avith the Bap-
35

410 THE HALF CENTURY.
tists than with Presbyterian churches, of one of Avhich
Alexander became pastor. Some of the Baptists dis
sented from some of his novelties, which created so
much discord that, with thirty of his foUoAvers, he
removed to Virginia in 1825. There his sentiments
Avere more cordially received ; and in 1828 the asso
ciation to Avhich be belonged rejected all human for
mularies, and all claim to jurisdiction, and held" only
an annual meeting to hear reports of the progress of
their churches. The Campbellite Baptists are numer
ous in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, Indi
ana, and Ohio. They reported, in 1849, 1,898
churches, 848 ministers, and 118,618 members, Al
exander Campbell is said to be a man of talent, has
held many public debates Avith infidels and others,
and has shoAvn himself to be a strong man. In the
American Biblical Repository for 1839 and 1840 may
be found an account of his peculiar views and a reply
to it by himself. He is noAV betAveen sixty and sev
enty years of age ; and it is believed the denomina
tion Avill break up at his decease, for the want of a
leader. Methodist Protestant Church. — This is made up
of a secession from the Methodist Episcopal churches
in the Southern and Western States, The reason
of the separation was, that the rulers in that church
denied that the members of the churches had a right
to be represented in conference, and claimed that all
the power AA'-as in the hands of the ministry.
The flrst convention of these seceding churches

THE HALF CENTURY. 411
Avas holden in Baltimore, in 1830. The two princi
ples Avhich form the basis on Avhich they stand are,
that Christ is the head of the church, and that mem
bers have a right to take part in its government and
discipline. They have 798 preachers, 771 churches,
and 62,305 communicants.
Reformed Methodist Church. — This is also a
secession from the Methodist Episcopal church. It
began in Whitingham and Readsboro', Vermont,
in. 1814. A foAv individuals became dissatisfied with
the anti-democratic form of government, and organ
ized themselves into a church on Congregational
principles, retaining the doctrines of the Episcopal
Methodists. At the time of the True Wesle3ran secession, under
Rev. Orange Scott, they had in New England and New
York 50 preachers and 3,000 members. Since then,
they have been numbered among the Wesleyans.
The True Wesleyans. — This order of Method
ists claim that all Avas not gained by the Reformed
Methodists Avhich should have been. They maintain
that tbe Episcopal form of government, as it exists
in Methodist churches, and the slavery of man by his
fellow-man, are contrary to the principles of Wesley,
the founder of Methodism. Rev. Le Roy Sunder
land, Orange Scott, Luther Lee, and others from the
Methodist Episcopal church, together with several
from the Protestant and Reformed Methodist churches,
met in convention at Utica, in May, 1843, and, after

412 THE HALF CENTURY.
several days' deliberation, adopted a form of disci
pline acknowledging all men to be free and equal,
and giving to local preachers and members of
churches a right to vote in all matters pertaining to
the government of the church. They deny the ex
istence of bishops, and believe that all ministers have
equal authority. They numbered, at that time, 300
ministers and 20,000 members.
The division that took place in the Methodist Epis
copal church, dividing it into the churches north and
south, on account of slavery, took away the chief
reason for organizing the Wesleyan conference, and
has prevented its growth. The division took place
in 1844.
Reformed Mennonite Society. — The Mennonites
in this country are Germans, who baptize by pouring
the water upon the head, and reject infant baptism.
In 1811, some of their ministers were impressed
with the conviction that many errors had crept in
among them, that their churches Avere corrupt in
doctrine, and that it was time to return to the old
paths. They consulted together, and appointed Rev,
John Herr, of Pennsylvania, to be their leader in the
work of reform. They do not think it right to num
ber their people, because it looks like making a dis
play. They may be found in Pennsylvania, and in
the border counties of New York and Ohio,
Cumberland Presbyterians. — At the commence
ment of this century, there was a remarkable revival

THE HALF CENTURY. 413
of religion in tbe Western States. The people went
twenty and fifty miles to attend religious meetings,
carrying their provisions with them, and remaining
several days. This Avas the commencement of camp-
meetings in this country. They grew out of the
wants of the people, Avhich could not otherwise be
met. There being a scarcity of ministers, it Avas
proposed that some of the best educated and most
promising young men should be selected from among
the converts, and be licensed to prea(?h the gospel.
This movement was among Presbyterians, whose
rules required that ministers should be well edu
cated. In 1802, three young men were licensed in Cum
berland county, Kentucky. Some of the ministers
opposed the measure, and complained to the synod
of the irregularity of the presbytery. The presby
tery Avas reproved by tbe synod, and the licenses
they had given declared to be invalid. The ag
grieved petitioned to the General Assembly for re
dress. The action of the synod was approved. In
February, 1810, three ministers withdrew from the
presbytery, and organized an independent presbytery,
which they called the Cumberland presbytery. They
adopted the Presbyterian confession of faith, omitting
the article on predestination, and admitted young
men to licenses who had only a good English edu
cation. They have increased very rapidly, and have done
35*

414 THE HALF CENTURY.
much good in the Avestern country. They have
three colleges, and two religious newspapers. They
have 1,200 congregations, 850 ministers, and 80,000
communicants. Some statements say they have only
480 churches, 350 ministers, and 50,000 communi
cants.

THE HALF CENTURY. 416
CHAPTER XI.
MISCELLANIES.

Section 1. Exploring Expeditions.
Several expeditions have been fitted out at the
expense of the United States, during the last fifty
years, to explore sections of our own and other coun
tries. After the purchase of Louisiana, Messrs. Lewis and
Clarke Avere sent to explore the Missouri River to its
source, and were then to cross the Rocky Mountains,
and follow down the first stream they should strike
to the Pacific Ocean. They left St. Louis May 14,
1804, spent the winter at the Mandan villages, crossed
the Rocky Mountains in the spring of 1805, foHoAved
a stream, which they called Lewis River, to its junc
tion Avith another they called Clarke River, which
united stream they named Columbia River, and pro
ceeded to the Pacific, Avhere they spent the winter,
and returned to Washington in 1806.
August 8, 1838, several ships sailed from Norfolk,
Virginia, under the command of Charles Wilkes, to
explore the Southern Ocean, and to approach as near
the South Pole as possible. This they were to do
in the summer, and, on the approach of winter, to-
enter the Pacific Ocean, survey the coasts and bar-

416 THE HALF CENTURY.
bors along the American continent, and visit various
groups of islands. They proceeded as far as 67° south
latitude, until prevented by ice, and traversed the icy
barrier betAveen 62° and 67°, from 158° east longi
tude to 94°, a distance of 1,500 miles, seeing land in
twelve places. Mr. Wilkes claims to have first dis
covered the southern continent from 160° east longi
tude. The expedition returned in 1842, and a' jour
nal of the voyage has been published, in eight
splendid voluiues, with plates and maps.
In 1842, an expedition was fitted out, under Colonel
J. C, Fremont, to the Rocky Mountains, They
went as far as Fremont's Peak, to the sources of the
Platte and Arkansas Rivers, and returned to St.
Louis in the autumn of the same year.
In 1843, Colonel Fremont set out on another ex
pedition, and proceeded to Oregon, thence south to
New California, and returned in 1844. The journal
of these two tours was published by Congress in
1845. Near the close of 1848, Colonel Fremont set out
on another expedition, to explore the country about
the sources of the Rio Grande and Colorado. The
company was overtaken by a terrible snoAV storm
among the mountains, in which their mules perished,
and the men barely escaped with their lives. The
colonel found his Avay to California, assisted in the
organization of a state government, was elected sena
tor to Congress, and took his seat in September,
1850.

THE HALF CENTURY. 417
In November, 1847, an expedition Avas fitted out
under the command of W. F. Lynch, an officer of
the navy, to explore the Dead Sea, The expedition,
having finished the survey, returned in December,
1848. Mr. Lynch's journal, published in 1849, forms
a large octavo volume, full of interesting and minute
details. I may add here that the American Board of Com
missioners have, by means of agents sent by them to
explore portions of different countries, and by the
journals of their missionaries that have been pub
lished, added much to the stock of our geographical
and ethnological knowledge.
In July, 1823, Rev, J. C, Brigham, now secretary of
the American Bible Society, sailed from Boston to
make explorations in South America, He Avas sent
by the American Board, spent some time in Buenos
Ayres, crossed over to Chili, came up the Pacific
shore, visiting the principal places, went through a
part of Mexico, and returned home in 1826, His
letters, containing much valuable information, may
be found in the Missionary Herald of those years.
Near the close of 1828, Rev, Dr, Anderson, now
secretary of the American Board, was sent on an
agency to Greece. He returned in December, 1829,
and published an interesting volume of travels in
Greece. In 1830 and 1831, Rev. Eli Smith and Rev. H. G.
O. Dwight, missionaries in the vicinity of the Medi
terranean, were directed to visit the Armenian Chris-

418 THE HALF CENTURY.
tians in the countries where they reside, to ascertain
their condition, and the prospects of doing them
good. They left Malta in March, 1830, and returned
in 1831, They Avent over a portion of Asia Minor,
Georgia, and Persia. Their researches Avere pub
lished in 1833, in two volumes.
In 1835, Rev. Samuel Parker Avas sent by tbe
American Board to visit the tribes of Indians Avest
of the Rocky Mountains, He went over the moun
tains to the mouth of the Columbia, took passage
from thence in a ship to the Sandwich Islands, and
returned by the Avay of Cape Horn in May, 1837,
He published a volume of observations and incidents,
of much value.
In December, 1829, Rev. Josiah Brewer, missionary
of the American Board, published a volume, being
a journal of a year's residence at Constantinople.
In 1843, Rev. J. Perkins, D. D., missionary to the
Nestorians, published an octavo volume, entitled
Eight Years' Residence in Persia.
In 1837, Rev, Dr. Robinson set out on an expedi
tion to the Holy Land, at his own expense, for the
purpose of making biblical researches. He arrived
at Alexandria, in Egypt, near the close of the year.
He spent about a year in visiting localities in Pales
tine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia, that are mentioned in
the sacred Scriptures. He Avas accompanied by Rev.
Eli Smith, In 1841, Dr, Robinson published his re
searches in three octavo volumes ; a learned and val
uable work.

THE HALF CENTURY, 419
Our knoAA'ledge of the earth and its inhabitants has
been very much increased by the labors of American
travellers. Other nations have done much in the same Avay.
The English have been indefatigable in their efforts
to find a ship passage from Baffin's Bay to Behring's
Straits, and to penetrate as far as possible the Arctic
Ocean. Sir John Franklin has been absent more
than three years on a voyage of discovery in the
waters north of the American continent, and, as
nothing has been heard from him, fears are enter
tained that he, Avith his creAv, are lost. Lady Frank
lin has offered a large reward for information respect
ing him, and diligent search is being made for the
missing fleet.

Section 2. Diseases.
I DO not propose, under this head, to give any
thing like a history of the diseases that have prevailed
during the last fifty years ; I shall only put down a
few notes, and bring together a fcAV scraps of infor;
mation that I have found in my survey of the history
of the past.
Consumption. — From one fourth to one seventh
of all the deaths, says Dr. Shattuck, Avho has in
vestigated this subject pretty thoroughly, in the
Northern and Middle States, and, perhaps, throughout
the civilized world, are caused by consumption.
This frightful mortality, if ever arrested, must be by

420 THE HALF CENTURY.
a removal of causes that induce it, rather than by the
discovery of any means of curing it when it has
become seated. If the causes Avere better understood,
the number of deaths might be greatly diminished
by precautionary measures. From the fact that it
prevails least among farmers, and most among females
and persons of sedentary habits, Ave may fairly infer,
that if all our population would accustom themselves
daily to one or two hours' exercise in the open air,
the victims of this disease would be fewer than they
are. The lungs must have, as a condition of health,
a supply of pure atmosphere. If any will shut them
selves up in small rooms, or large ones unventilated,
the blood will not be sufficiently arterialized to pre
serve health.
Scarlet Fever. — This disease prevailed in New
England first in 1735, and continued making fright
ful havoc among children for two or three years, and
then ceased to prevail, so as to excite much alarm,
for almost a century.
In 1832, there were 200 deaths by this fever in
Boston, and 222 in 1839. The disease was then
epidemic ; and during those and the intermediate
years, it prevailed extensively in New England.
Spotted Fever. — This was a malignant fever, in
which the patient had large red spots here and there,
which gave the name to the disease. It prevailed as
an epidemic from 1806 to 1815. It first appeared in
Medfield, Massachusetts, and last in Berwick, Maine,
in 1815. In .1812, the United States army in New

THE HALF CENTURY. 421
York and Vermont suffered by it severely. It pre
vailed most among the scattered population of the
interior, and very little in the large towns on the sea-
coast. Dr. Gallup, on the epidemics of Vermont, says,
" There are but few towns Avbose surviving inhab
itants Avill not long, with grief, remember the winter
of 1812 and 1813, for the loss of 20, 40, or 80 of
their most valuable citizens ; most valuable to society
on account of their being adult persons, and at the
acme of human life."
In Thompson's History of Vermont, it is said,
"The disease continued its devastations about two
years. It Avas the most alarming disease ever known
in the state. It usually attacked persons of the most
hardy and robust constitutions, and often proved fatal
in a fcAv hours. It was not uncommon that the pa
tient was a corpse before a physician could be brought
to his assistance." It prevailed most in the winter.
Inoculation for the Kine Pock. — That inoculation
for this disease was a preventive of small-pox was
discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner, of England, in
1796. The experiment Avas first tried in this coun
try by Dr. Waterhouse, of Harvard University, in
1799. During the last half century, we hav'e suffered
far less from tbe small-pox than we should, had it not
been for this invaluable discovery. Dr. Jenner died
in 1823, aged 73,
Cholera. — This terrible disease, the scourge of
the world, first appeared in North America, at Q,ue-
36

422 THE HALF CENTURY.
bee, June 8, 1832, and at Montreal on the 10th. It
reached its height in each city in ten days, Avhen the
deaths Avere about 150 a day. By the last of June,
it had spread in Canada to the distance of 500 miles.
The Avhole number of deaths in Q,uebec, from June
8 to September 1, was 2,218, and, in Montreal, 1,843,
It appeared in the city of New York June 27, 1832,
on Avhich day two children died in one family. By
the 4tli of July, it had spread to every part of the
city, and was at its height on the 25th, when there
were 115 deaths. By the last of August, it had dis
appeared. The whole number of deaths was 2,521.
The first case occurred in Philadelphia July 16,
and the disease was at its height on the 25th, Avhen
there were 71 deaths. The whole number of deaths,
up to September 1, was 747,
It appeared in Boston August 15, The greatest
number of deaths in a day was 6, which Avas Septem
ber 1. The Avhole number of deaths in the city
Avas 85.
The following table Avill show its ravages in some
other places during the summer of 1832 : —

Albany,

Commen

ced July

3. Continued 61 days.

406 deaths.

Newark, N. J.,

((

0.

' 56

64

CC

Brooklyn, N. Y.,

"

11.

" 69

191
tt
New Haven, Conn
, "
((
11.
' 50
17
"
Buffalo,
CC
15.
' 55
144
CC
Bergen, N. J.,
"
CC
' 56
80
CC
Sing Sing,
CC
17.
' 50
162
**
Eochesler,
"
23.
48
135
(c
Poughkeepsio,
Aug.
3.
28
162
CI
Baltimore,
CI
10.
' 42
649
CC
Utica,
"
12.
27
177
IC
THE HALF CENTURY. 423
It commenced in Cincinnati in July, but did not
become epidemic till September. It continued
through most of the summer of 1833, but Avas not
very severe.
It was most fatal in Ncav Orleans, Avhere it com
menced in October, 1832. During ten days previous
to November, there Avere 1,500 deaths. It spread
through all the cities and large towns at the Avest ;
but the deaths did hot, in such places as St. Louis
and Cincinnati, exceed 25 or 30 a day. It prevailed
in the valley of the Mississippi through most of the
summer of 1833, Avhen it disappeared from the country.
In December, 1848, it reappeared almost simul
taneously at New York and Ncav Orleans ; at the
former place, hoAvever, the cases were comparatively
few, and most of those at the quarantine, and at the
hospital on Staten Island.
It commenced in Ncav Orleans about December 12,
increased rapidly, and continued through the winter.
During the first ten days of January, 1849, the deaths
were 75 a day. The panic was very great for a time.
It is not known how many died; but it is believed
that it decimated the inhabitants that remained in
some wards of the city.
The cholera broke out in New York during the
week ending May 19, 1849 ; it was at its height dur
ing the week ending July 21, Avhen there were 714
deaths. The mortality that week was the greatest
ever known in any city in the United States ; the
deaths by all diseases Avere 1,409.

424 THE HALF CENTURY.
In Boston, deaths by cholera in 1849, 611, between
June 3 and September 30.
It was very severe in St. Louis and in Cincinnati.
It continued in each city from May to August, and
there were in each city more than 6,000 deaths.
It spread extensively over all the Middle and West
ern States, and in many towns in Ncav England,
The president of the United States appointed
August 3d as a day of fasting and prayer to God that
he would avert " the pestilence that walketh in dark
ness and the destruction that wasteth at noonday,"
It was very generally and seriously observed through
the country.
There were some cases of cholera in western
cities and villages in 1850.

Section 3. New Systems of Medicine.
There have been, within a few years past, three
new systems of medical treatment of the sick intro
duced into this country — hydropathy, bomosopathy,
and Thompsonianism, or the botanical practice.
Hydropathists profess to cure all diseases, that are
curable, by various applications of cold water. The
use of Avater as a remedial agent in diseases has been
known from the days of Hippocrates, but it was re
served to this age to discover its power to cure all
diseases.

THE HALF CENTURY. 426
In 1816, Vincent Priessnitz, a small farmer in Sile
sia, instinctively immersed his Avounded finger in cold
water, and held it there until it ceased to bleed. He
observed that it healed very soon, and without in
flammation. He thereupon resorted to the use of
water for all similar injuries, and began to prescribe
the same for the bruises and wounds of his neighbors.
He Avas visited by persons from other toAvns, and
finally devoted all his time to patients. He estab
lished a sort of hospital, and was prosecuted for
quackery. The government sent a commission to
investigate his practice. The report was, that he
prescribed nothing but cold water, simple diet, and
exercise, which were harmless, and he was allowed
to continue his business.
In 1833, two men of distinction, having been in
jured by the malpractice of other physicians, and
benefited by the prescriptions of Priessnitz, became
his devoted friends, commenced a Avar upon drugs,
and celebrated the praises of hydropathy. This,
more than any thing else, brought Priessnitz into no
tice, and spread his fame in Europe and to America.
Water was used as a stimulant and sedative, as an
astringent and aperient, and, indeed, as a universal
agent for producing changes in the animal economy.
The temperance movement in this country had in
some measure prepared the Avay to hear about the
virtues of cold water. Since 1840, several hydro
pathic hospitals, or " water cures," as they are called,
have been opened in this country. There is one at
36*

426 THE HALF CENTURY.
Brattleboro', Vermont, one at Philadelphia, one at
Cleveland, Ohio, one at Northampton, Massachusetts,
and others too numerous to mention. Every body
believes that Avater is an important agent ; it is much
used in diseases by all physicians, but the number is
comparatively small of those who are prepared to re
gard it as the grand cathdicon, a remedy for all dis
eases. The fundamental principle of homoeopathy is, that
the remedy for a disease, whatever it may be, is the
substance which, Avhen given to a healthy person,
will produce that disease. Other physicians, I be
lieve, admit that this is true in some cases, but not
universally ; they give a nauseating medicine to cure
nausea, and many stimulate the system in fevers.
Another principle of homoeopathy is, that the medi
cine given should act directly on the part diseased ;
that to create disease in a healthy part to draw it
away from the part diseased, increases human suffer
ing and endangers life. They say a very small quan
tity Avill affect a diseased organ ; hence the reason of
their giving infinitesimal doses. This system requires
of its practitioners a very thorough knowledge of
diseases and remedies. If, however, the patient is
not cured by the medicine, it is very certain he will
not be killed by it.
The author of this system is Samuel F. C. Hahne
mann, of Saxony. He was born in 1755, and died a
few years since. He spent much time, in the early
part of his life, in translating English medical works

THE HALF CENTURY. 427
into the German language ; and, being dissatisfied with
the theory respecting the effect of Peruvian bark, he
began to perform experiments. He found that it
would produce chill and fever in a well man, and
would also cure the disease thus created. He exper
imented with other drugs, and satisfied himself that
the surest remedy for any disease is a small dose of
that Avhich, if given in large quantities, will produce
it. He manufactured his own medicines, for the sake
not only of having them pure, but to get them in as
concentrated a form as possible. In Germany, the
apothecary and physician are distinct persons, and the
laAvs do not allow tbe latter to interfere with the
business of the former. .. Hahnemann Avas prosecuted
by the apothecaries for manufacturing his oavu medi
cine, and was obliged to remove from the state. In
1810, he published his first treatise on tbe subject,
which was followed by a dispute, that continued
until 1822. In 1821, he took up his residence in
Anhalt-Cothen, where he continued till his death.
This mode of practice has been introduced into
England, Scotland, and the United States. In 1834,
there were but three homceopatbic physicians in this
country. A medical school, in which this system Avas
taught, was established at Allentown, Pennsylvania,
about 1837. Soon after this, there were homoeopathic
physicians in Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and St. Louis.
From an address delivered before the Hahnemann
Academy of Medicine in New York, in January,
1850, it appears that in the state of New York there

428 THE HALF CENTURY.
are 300,000 people who employ homoeopathic physi
cians, and that not less than 300 of the regular grad
uated and licensed physicians of the state have
adopted this mode of practice. It is spreading ex
tensively in other states. »
Dr. Thompson, the founder of the Thompsonian
school of medicine, died in Boston since 1840. His
personal history I have not ascertained. The leading
principle of his system is, that all diseases are pro
duced by cold, and that stimulating or heating med
icines are the true remedies. Another principle is,
that all metallic and mineral medicines, and especial
ly mercurial, are extremely injurious ; and that God
has given us, in the vegetable world, a specific for
every disease. The disciples of this system are
numerous, and are scattered over all the land.

Section 4. Rural Cemeteries.
Though it matters not Avhere the dust of our
friends slumbers, yet Ave love to think of their re
mains as lying in a place beautified by nature and
adorned by art.
Some, perhaps, may think it savors more of pride
than of piety to spend much time or money in orna
menting a graveyard. But to suffer the burial-place to
be the most neglected spot in all the town seems to me
to indicate a great lack among the people of the kind
and gentle affections, and to show that their minds

THE HALF CENTURY. 429
are absorbed in the cares of this life. If the fence
is broken down, cattle graze where they will, and
swine AvalloAV on the ncAvly-made grave ; if head
stones are defaced, or have fallen doAvn, and briers
and brambles grow thick over all the ground, does
it not indicate a want of public spirit, and an unbe
coming indifference to the scenes of eternity ?
It is certainly pleasant to think that, when Ave die,
our bodies will not be cast uncoffined into a pit by
tbe Avayside, but decently interred in a spot
" sequestered from the haunts of men,
In the loveliest nook in all the lovely glen."
Much attention has been given to the improvement
of cemeteries, or rather to the opening of rural cem
eteries, during the last tAventy years.
President Dwight, of Yale College, I believe, first
called attention to this subject, which led to the
beautifying of the graveyard in Ncav Haven. In
1825, the people in Boston began to talk about a
rural cemetery ; and finally a company purchased a
lot of land tAVO miles west of Cambridge, consisting
of hill and dale, of forest and open ground, Avhich is
beautifully laid out, and the lots are sold to those
who may choose to purchase. It is called Mount
Auburn, and was consecrated September 26, 1831,
on which occasion an address Avas delivered by Chief
Justice Story.
This cemetery covers more than one hundred acres
of land. " It abounds with elegant monuments of

430 THE HALF CENTURY.
taste and touching testimonials of aftection ; and
with singular beauty intermingles the charms of floral
culture Avith the untrained Avildness of nature. Its
silent Avalks, its shaded retreats, its calm Avaters, are
all sacred to tender and reverential sentiments,"
Laurel Hill Cemetery, on the banks of the Schuyl
kill, four miles from Philadelphia, was consecrated in
1836. The grounds are laid out Avith serpentine
gravelled Avalks, and tbe Avhole is shaded by ancient
forest and ornamental trees.
Green Mount Cemetery, at Baltimore, cost $65,000.
It Avas consecrated in 1838.
Harmony Grove Cemetery, in Salem, was conse
crated in June, 1840.
Very many of our cities and large towns have pro
vided themselves, Avithin a feAV years, with rural cem
eteries. The moral effect of this attention to tbe
place where the dead are buried is good. It invites
the living to walk' among the tombs, and vieAV the
ground where they must shortly lie. Such grave
yards are a visible memento of the belief of the liv
ing in the doctrine of immortality. Men cannot
feel that their friends, Avhose graves they protect and
adorn, have sunk into non-existence,
" Indifference to these things is not natural to any
good mind or heart. Nature says, ' Bury me Avith
my fathers,' "

THE HALF CENTURY. 431
Section 6. Supplying Cities with Water.
A PLENTIFUL supply of puro water is of great im
portance to the inhabitants of large cities. The
people of Rome, 2,000 years ago, paid more attention
to this subject than has been given to it by any other
people, ancient or modern. It was conveyed to the
city from the neighboring mountains, through aque
ducts constructed at a great expense. In the reign
of the Emperor Nerva, the nine main aqueducts dis
charged daily 27,800,000 cubic feet of Avater, and all
the aqueducts 50,000,000 cubic feet, which was about
300 gallons daily to each individual.
The aqueducts of Constantinople, during the last
century, furnished 6 gallons a day to each inhabitant
of the city, and those of London 21 gallons.
The first attempt to supply a city with water in
this country, on a large and liberal scale, Avas made
in Philadelphia, about the year 1800, by raising it
from the Schuylkill, at the foot of Chestnut Street, by
a steam engine, and throAving it into a reservoir on
high ground, from which it was conveyed to families
in wooden pipes. About 700,000 gallons Avere daily
thrown up, at an expense of $200. This was aban
doned in 1811, and the next year an engine was
stationed at Fairmount, the site of the present water
works, at an expense of $350,000. Three or four
years after, this was abandoned for the present sim
pler and less expensive mode of raising it. A dam
was thrown across the Schuylkill, and a power ob-

432 THE HALF CENTURY.
tained which turns six large wheels, each of which
works a forcing pump that throws the water into reser
voirs on the bank ; they are 56 feet above the highest
ground in the city. The Fairmount Avaterworks
went into operation in July, 1822, and cost one and a
half millions of dollars. The daily expense of keep
ing them in operation, it is said, does not exceed $10,
The city of New York is supplied with water
taken from Croton River, at Sing Sing, and is con
veyed to the city through an aqueduct 40i miles
long. A high dam is thrown across the river, and a
pond raised Avhich covers 500 acres. It is introduced
into a reservoir, in the upper part of the city, that
covers 35 acres, and is called Croton Lake. It passes
from thence to a smaller reservoir, from which it is
conveyed in pipes over all the city. The aqueduct
is of solid masonry, 9 feet by 6, and discharges into
the city daily, on an average, 35,000,000 gallons of
water. The work was commenced in 1836, and
completed in 1842. The water was let in on July 4
of that year, and' the completion of the work cele
brated by a grand procession, October 14. It cost
$10,375,000. The city of Boston is supplied with water from
Long Pond, or Lake Cochituate, in Framingham.
The aqueduct is brick, laid in water cement. It fills
a reservoir in Brookline, Avhich holds a sufficient
quantity to supply the city two weeks. There is
another reservoir on Beacon Hill, back of the State
House, made of Granite, which is above ground, and

THE HALF CENTURY. 438
a third on Telegraph Hill, "in South Boston. These
reservoirs are connected with each other and Avith the
main pipes, which distribute it through tbe city
The distance from the pond to the reservoir in
Brookline is 15 miles. The work was commenced
August 20, 1846, and so far completed that the Avater
Avas introduced into the city October 25, 1848.
There was a grand water celebration on that day. It
was admitted into the reservoir on Beacon Hill in
November, 1849. The whole expense, up to that
date, was $3,900,000; and when the reservoir at
South Boston is completed, the city will have ex
pended four and a half millions of dollars. The
amount of water discharged from the lake daily
through the aqueduct is 10,000,000 gallons.
The cities of Detroit and St. Louis have hydraulic
works, by which the water of the lake and river are
thrown into reservoirs, and from thence distributed
among the inhabitants of those cities.
In 1849, Utica, at an expense of $75,000, was well
supplied with water.

Section 6. Ice Trade.
The following article was prepared by a son of the
author, who died April 17, 1849, in the 23d year of
his age : —
The ice trade of the United States, like many other
commercial enterprises, had its origin in Boston. In
37

434 THE HALF CENTURY.
1805, Frederic Tudor, of that city, made the first
experiment. He could find no ship-owner willing to
receive so strange an article on board his vessel ; and,
accordingly, purchased a brig of 130 tons, loaded it
with ice, and despatched it to Martinique, one of the
West India Islands. He lost $4,500 by the enter
prise ; but he was too far-seeing to be discouraged by
this. He followed up his experiments, though with
continued losses. In 1815, he made shipments of ice
to Havana, under a contract Avith the government of
Cuba. This contract proved profitable. In 1817,
he exported ice to Savannah, Georgia, and in 1820,
to NeAV Orleans. In 1833, the first shipment of ice
to the East Indies was made by Mr. Tudor.
Up to 1832, Mr. Tudor was the principal exporter
of ice ; other persons engaging in the traffic Avere
frightened out of it by losses. The amount of ice
shipped by Mr. Tudor, up to this time, was compara
tively small — only 4352 tons. It was taken entirely
from Fresh Pond, in Cambridge.
Since that period, many others have embarked in
the enterprise, and the ice trade has greatly increased.
During the year 1847, the amount shipped from Bos
ton to Southern ports in the United States was
51,887 tons; to foreign ports, 22,591 tons; — total,
74,478 tons. Three hundred and fifty-three vessels
were employed, and the total returns, direct and in
direct, amounted to $507,651.
This ice was taken from ponds in the vicinity of
Poston. The article used in packing it was sawdust.

THE HALF CENTURY. 435
of which, during that year, 4,600»cords were brought
from Maine, costing $2 50 per cord, delivered.
The price of ice in foreign countries varies accord
ing to the competition. In Havana, where it is a
monopoly, it sells at 6i cents per pound. In Calcut
ta, the price has never risen above 6 cents, and it is
noAV 2i cents per pound.
In our southern cities, the price of ice is brought
very low by competition, and it is so common that
even tbe negroes use it. In Ncav Orleans, it is sold
at from half a cent to 3 cents per pound, and the
amount used exceeds 28,000 tons annually.
From these foAv facts, it Avill be seen that the traffic
in ice is productive of great Avealth to our state. The
transitory formation of a Avinter's cold is shielded
from the dissolving heat, and exchanged for the cost
liest products of tropical climes ; and the money
expended for its preparation and transportation, as
well as the clear profits of the trade, adds to our
national Avealth. Thus, by Yankee ingenuity and
enterprise, the greatest discomfort of our climate con
tributes to our means of happiness, and is made to
distil luxurious coolness among the nations swelter
ing beneath a vertical sun. How wonderful ! that
what is to us the freeest gift of nature should become
so valuable an article of export I Not more wonder
ful would it be if we could box up the sunlight, and
ship it to those polar regions where months of con
tinued "darkness make the people sigh for the light
of day.

436 THE HALF CENTURY.
Section 7. Famines at the Cape Verd Islands
and in Ireland.
There was a terrible famine of bread at the Cape
Verd Islands in 1831 and 1832. In the spring of
1831, there was such a lack of water that the people
could not irrigate their fields, which yield nothing
without. This Avas folloAved by the Avithholding of
the usual rains in July and August, and by extreme
heat, so that every green thing disappeared. No
vegetable food of any consequence Avas raised upon
the islands that year, nor did the earth yield her
increase until the autumn of 1832, and then but
sparingly. The famine commenced in the latter part of 1831,
and, in a year, 30,000, out of a population of 100,000,
died of starvation. On the Island of St. Antonio,
11,000 died out of a population of 26,000. The
famine Avas somewhat less severe on the other
islands. The news of their condition reached this country
in the spring of 1832 : cargoes of provisions were sent
immediately from Noav York, Portland, Philadelphia,
and some other cities, Avhich arrested the progress of
death till the islands became fruitful. When told that
this timely supply Avas the voluntary contribution of
men, women, and children, they were filled with
astonishment. One of the chief men of the island
expressed the gratitude of those who were relieved
in the following language : —

THE HALF CENTURY. 437
"Magnanimous citizens of the United States!
Souls of the most refined philanthropy ! May Heaven,
with a liberal hand, pour upon you its choicest bless
ings ! Far from us you did hear the doleful accents
of our groans ; the bitter cries of our deep lamentations
penetrated to the bottom of your hearts. O bene
factors of the people of Cape Verds, what a sweet
change have you wrought in our condition ! "
A terrible famine commenced in Ireland in 1845,
but Avas most severe in 1846. The immediate cause
was the loss of the potato crop, in consequence of the
potato rot. In that country, there were four millions
of people that were sustained principally by this
vegetable. Rents and taxes are so high, that it takes
all the produce of the land, except a few barrels of
potatoes, to pay them. The people, therefore, in
ordinary seasons, are on the verge of starvation. If
any wide-spread calamity deprives them of any im
portant agricultural product, the whole goes for taxes,
and the people must suffer the horrors of famine. Of
course, when the potato crop failed, the suffering
became intense. Many thousands perished for the
Avant of food, and thousands more in consequence of
the famine fever. One Avho visited some parts of
Ireland in 1847, says, " Death seemed to pace the
streets, I met every Avhere collections of skeletons,
whose haggard looks spoke volumes of hopeless mis
ery. Wretched countenances, emaciated forms, the
dying and the dead, funerals and desolation, caught
the eye on every side; busy villages were becoming
37*

438 THE HALF CENTURY.
cemeteries ; cabins were being turned into charnel-
houses." England contributed liberally for the relief of
poor famished Ireland. In 1845, Sir Robert Peel
ordered an importation of corn from the United States,
to the amount of £100,000. This was distributed
during the ensuing Avinter, and kept many alive who
otherwise must have sunk down to the grave. The
next year, the government thought it better to pro
vide employment for the people, by Avhich they could
support themselves, than to furnish provisions gratui
tously. During that year, the suffering Avas greatly
alleviated by large and liberal supplies of food and
clothing sent from the United States. Collections
were made very generally through the country, and
many a valuable cargo of bread stuffs was sent by
our people to the sufferers in Ireland. In 1847, the
crops in that country were good, and the people
have since been as well supplied with food as before
the famine.

Section 8. Literary atid Sdentific Associations.
The following literary and scientific associations
have been formed in this country during the last fifty
years : —
The New York Historical Sodety was formed De
cember 10, 1804. Governors Clinton, Morris, and
Lewis, Dr. Hosack, Chancellor Kent, and Hon. Albert
Gallatin have been among its warm supporters. The

THE HALF CENTURY. 439
society published its first volume in 1809, and has
added one about every seven years. It has a library
of 14,000 volumes.
The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts was
founded in 1805, chartered in 1806, and is designed
for young artists.
The Amencan Academy of Fine Arts, at New
York, Avas founded in 1808. John Trumbull, LL.
D., Avho died in 1831, Avas once its president. It is
supported entirely by artists.
The American Antiquarian Sodety, at Worcester,
Massachusetts, Avas incorporated in 1812. It was
founded principally through the instrumentality of
Isaiah Thomas, LL. D., who Avas president until his
death, April 4, 1831, aged 82. The building was
erected in 1820, and given to the society by Mr,
Thomas, He also, at his decease, left the society a
legacy of $30,000, and a valuable collection of books.
The annual income of the society is $1,480. Its
library contains 16,000 volumes, of which 1,300 are
newspapers. The Academy of Natural Sdences, at Philadelphia,
was formed in 1812, and incorporated in 1817, It
has a library of 10,000 volumes, and a valuable cabi
net, and has published several volumes of original
matter. William Maclure has been its most munifi
cent patron.
The Literary and Philosophical Society of South
Carohna was formed in 1813, Hon. J. R. Poinsett,
late secretary of war, was active in its formation,

440 THE HALF CENTURY.
«
and , Stephen Elliot, the botanist, was its first presi
dent. The East India Marine Society, at Salem, Massa
chusetts, was incorporated in 1801. Its object was
to collect facts relative to the physical and natural
history of the ocean. No person can be a member
unless he has navigated the seas near Cape Horn or
Good Hope either as captain or supercargo: It has a
large and valuable museum, and is much indebted to
Nathaniel Bowditch, LL. D., a very remarkable man,
who died March 16, 1838, aged 65. He was the
translator of the Mecanique Celeste of La Place.
The Boston Athenceum was formed in 1804, and
incorporated in 1807, By the munificence of its
friends, it built, in 1849, a superb edifice in the vicini
ty of the State House, and has a library of 40,000
volumes. The Essex Historical Sodety was incorporated
June 11, 1821. Edward A, Holyoke, LL, D., Avas
its first president.
The Maryland Academy of Sdences and Literature
was established at Baltimore in 1821,
The Franklin Society of Natural Science was
formed at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1821, and
incorporated in 1823,
The Maine Historical Sodety was incorporated
February 5, 1822, In 1831, it published a volume
of valuable historical matter.
The Rhode Island Historical Society was formed

THE HALF CENTURY. 441
April 19, 1822, and incorporated soon after. It has
published four or five volumes.
The New Hampshire Historical Sodety was in
corporated June, 1823. It has been an efficient insti
tution ; it has published several volumes, most of
which Avere prepared by John Farmer, Esq,, one of
the most eminent antiquarians in the country, Avho
died August 13, 1838, aged 50,
The Connecticut Historical Sodety Avas incorpo
rated May, 1825, but bad but one meeting previous to
1839. The Historical Sodety of Pennsylvania was estab
lished in 1825, and has published four or five volumes
of Memoirs. The National Academy of Design, at New York,
was formed in 1826. S. F, B. Morse is its president.
The Albany Institute was established in 1828. It
has a respectable library and a very valuable museum
of natural history.
The Boston Sodety of Natural History Avas incor
porated February, 1831, G. B, Emerson is its presi
dent. It has considerable funds, a valuable collection
of specimens, and has published five or six volumes.
The Historical and Philosophical Sodety of Ohio
was established at Columbus, in 1830.
The Indiana Historical Sodety Avas incorporated
in 1831.
The Virginia Historical and Philosophical Sodety
was instituted in 1831.

442 THE HALF CENTURY.
The Essex County Natural History Sodety was
incorporated February, 1836.
. The Kentucky Historical Sodety was formed
March, 1838.
The Vermont Historical and Antiquarian Sodety
was incorporated November, 1838.
The Georgia Historical Society, incorporated De
cember, 1839, has the best collection of autographs
in the country.
The American Statistical Association, at Boston,
Avas incorporated February, 1841. It has published
one volume.
The New England Historic- Genealogical Sodety,
at Boston, Avas incorporated in March, 1845. It pub
lishes a quarterly Register, Avhich Avas commenced in
January, 1847.
The American Association for the Advancement of
Sdence was formed about 1846, and meets semi
annually, and continues its meetings three or four
days. It is destined to be a popular and efficient
institution. The above list Avill show that a new impulse has
been given to the pursuits of literature and science
during the last fifty years. There were but four
such societies prior to 1801,

APPENDIX. ¦

The Fugitive Slave Bill passed both houses of
Congress, and was signed by the president September
18, 1850. It provides that the judges of the United
States courts, and commissioners appointed by them,
shall have power to issue Avarrants, and cause fugitive
slaves to be arrested and brought before them ; and
if it appears to them that tbe person arrested is a
fugitive from the prosecutor, he shall be authorized to
take the individual back to a state of bondage. If
the marshal or a deputy refuse to execute the war
rant, be shall pay a fine of $1,000. If any person
conceal a fugitive slave, or assist him to escape, or at
tempt to rescue him Avhen arrested, he shall be liable
to a fine of $1,000 and six months' imprisonment.
The enactment of this law has produced much
excitement in the free states, and is regarded by
many as unconstitutional, because it virtually sus
pends the habeas corpus act. .
Many have already pledged themselves not to obey
it ; they Avill incur the penalty, rather than aid or
abet in the execution of the law. Three or four
slaves have already been arrested and carried away
into slavery. I trust that He who has guided this
nation through many perils will interpose, and merci-
, fully save us from the evils Avhich this law portends.

The eleventh asteroid Avas discovered June, 1850.
It is called Parthenope.

444

APPENDIX.

European Sovereigns that have died during the last Half Century.
George III., England,
George IV., "
"Waiiam IV., "
Napoleon Bonaparte, France,
Louis XVm.,
Charles X., "
Louis Philip, ' " "
Charles IV,, Spain,
Ferdinand VII,, "
Francisca, queen of Portugal,
John VI.,
Paul I., Russia,
Alexander, "
Gustavus IV., Sweden,
Charles XIII.,
Charles XIV,,
Christian VII,, Denmark,
Frederic VI., "
Christian VIII., "
Frederic WiUiam III., Prussia,
WilUam I., Holland,
WilHam II., "
Charles Emanuel IV,, Sardinia,
Victor Emanuel I., "
Charles Felix, "
Charles Albert, "
Pius VII., Rome, "
Leo XII.,
Pius VIII.,
Gregory XVI., "
Ferdinand, Two Sicilies,
Francis, "
Selim III., Turkey,
Mahmoud II., "
Francis II., Austria,
Frederic Augustus, Saxony,
Anthony L, "
Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria,
Frederic, Wurtemberg,
Capo d'Istria, Greece,

died January 29,
" June 26,

1820, 1830,

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, 1824,
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1850,1819,
, 1833,1816, 1826,
1801,

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