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TALE UNIVERSITY
JUL 28 1922
DECEMBER, 1921 i. | BR Afi Y

Bulletin of the Onlversity of Georgia

Volume XXII /?f^ »V Number 1
Phelps-Stokes Fellowship
Studies, No. 6
The Negro Women of Gainesville, Ga.
RUTH REED.
A thesis presented to the Faculty of the
University of Georgia
in, iKtrtial fulfllhnent of the requirements
' '•' ' for the degree of
Master of Arts,

Entered at -the ?ost Office at Athens, Ga., as Second Class Matter, August 31, 1905.
¦under Act of Congress of Julj' 16th, 1904. Issued Monthly by the University.
Serial No. 321

The Negro Women
OF
Gainesville, Georgia

By
RUTH REED.

A thesis presented to thc Faculty of the
University of Georgia
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Arts.

THE NEGRO WOMEN
OF
GAINESVILLE, GEORGIA

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page
Preface  6
¦CHAPTER I.
Population and Property  7

¦CHAPTER II.
Location and Surroundings  12
CHAPTER ill.
Condition and Size of the Negro Homes  16
CHAPTER IV.
Employment of Negro "Women  22
CHAPTER V.
Income and Expenditures of Negro Families  30
CHAPTER VI.
Health and Morality  34
CHAPTER VII.
Education  40
CHAPTER VIII.
Lodges and Insurance  46
CHAPTER IX.
Churches  51

Chancellor's Foreword

The Phelps^S¦tokes Fellowship was established for the purpose
stated in the following resolutions:
"Whereas, Miss Caroline iPhelps iStokes in establishing the Phelps-
Stokes Fund was especially .solicitous to assist hi improving the
condition of the negro, and
"Whereas, It is the conviction of the Trustees that one of the best
methods of forwarding this purpose is to provide means to enable
southern youth of broad .sympathies to make a .scientrfic study of the
negro and of Ms adjustment to American civilization,
"Resolved, That twelve thousand five hundred dollars ($12,500)
be given to the University of Georgia for ths permanent endowment
of a research fellowship, on the following conditions:
"1. The University shall appoint annually a Fellow in Sociology,
for the study of the Negro. iHe shall pursue advanoed studies under
the direction of the departments of Sociology, Economics, Education
or History, as may be determined in each case by the Chancellor.
The Fellowship shall yield $500, and shall, after four years, be
restricted to graduate students.
"2. Each Fellow ishall prepare a paper or thesis embodying the
result of his investigations which shall be published by the University
with assistance from the income of the fund, any surplus remaining
being applicable to other objects incident to the main purpose of the
Fellowship. A copy of these resolutions shall be incorporated in
every publication issued under this foundation.
"3. The right to make all necessary regulations, not ¦inconsistent
with the spirit and letter of these resolutions, is given to the Chan
cellor and Faculty, but no changes in the conditions of the foundation
can be amde without the mutual consent both of the Trustees of the
University and of the Phelps-Stokes Fund."
This study by Miss Reed, under the direction of Prof. C. J.
Heatwole, is the first of the Phelps-Stokes studies made by a woman.
It is sane, graphic and, in my opinion, valuable.
DAVID C. BARROW, Chancellor.

PREFACE
In previous Phelps-Stokes studies, surveys have been made of
conditions affecting the race as a whole but it was felt that any
program looking toward the better adjustment of relations be
tween the races would be incomplete wihout some Investigations
of the problems peculiar to the relationship of the women of the
two races. In the present sudy an attempt has been made to deal
with those conditions of the negro home, community, institutional,
and industrial life which affect most vitally the position of the
negro women among her own race and her attitude toward the
white women for ivhom she works. A house to house canvas was
made in the negro settlements and in each case an attempt waa
made to interview the women of the house, the investigator asking
a series of questions which are published in the appendix* 256
negro homes were visited in all, and in addition to this, 65 of the
white women of the town who keep servants, were interview&d as
to their experience in dealing with the negro women as employees
in the home. Several days were spent in visiting in the negro
schools, and reports were also obtained from responsible persons,
as to the relation of negro women to the lodge and the church and
the extent of their interest in Insurance. Two weeks were spent
:n going over the county and city records, to gather data as to tha
amount of property owned by negroes, and their cases in the courts
RUTH REED.
Athens, Ga., May, 1920.

•.See Appendix A.

CHAPTER I.
Population and Property.
I. Location and History of Gainesville, Georgia.
With the increasing tendency of our Southern population to be
come urban, it appears to be clear that any study of race relation
ships must take account of the fact that new problems are arising
out of the changing conditions; and that if any satisfactory basis
of adjustment of affairs between the two races is to be worked out,
intensive study must be made of the problems peculiar to the negro
in the town.
From a glance at the composition of our urban population it will
be seen that the problem of the negro in this town is largely a
problem of the negro women, not only because it is she who comes
into most intimate contact with the whites in their homes, 'but be
cause of the greater number of women living in urban communities.
The United States census report for 1910 shows that as a whole
there is a deficiency of males in the Southern population and an
excess of females. In the South Atlantic division there were only
975 males to every 1,000 females, although the proportion of males
increased slightly since 1900. The following table will show the
relative number of the two sexes in the negro population of Geor
gia. TABLE I.
Composition of Negro Population of Georgia.

Georgia _ _ _ _
Rural communi
ties _ _ _ _ _
Urban communi
ties _ _ _
Gainesville _ _ _

Male

580,263 477,032
103,231 536

Female

596,724
475,129 121,595 650

No. Males to
1,000 Females

972
1,004 849 824

From this it will be seen that while there is a preponderance of
males in the rural population, in the urban communities the women
greatly outnumber the men.
Gainesville furnishes a favorable field for the study of the problem
from this point of view, not only because (as is seen from the table)
the disparity in numlbers between the two is greater for urban com
munities than in the state at large, .but because there is furnished
an opportunity for studying race relationships in a community
where the whites are in a position of numerical superiority. .Stone
In his Studies of the American Race Problem* has pointed out that

* A. H. 'Stone, Studies In American Eace Problem, page 343
7

where the greatest amount of friction between the two races had
developed has been in regions where 'the two races were in a posi
tion of numerical equality, and that there is least friction when
either race is greatly outnumbered by the other.
Located at the foot of the iBlue Ridge mountains in the region
north of the Black Belt, Gainesville is situated on a high plateau
at an altitude of 1,253 feet above sea level, and is surrounded by
hills and valleys on all sides except to the ¦=outh and southwest
where the land is somewhat more level. -, .
Incorporation as a town had taken place more than forty years
'before the Civil War, but at that time there was little more than a
few stores, a blacksmith shop, and several dwelling houses, ex
tending out Greene Street, the way by which the people came in
from the mountains to find a market for their produce. Hall
county was not a region of large plantations; very few of the people
owned slaves and in 1860 there were only 1,251 slaves in the entire
county. Cotton growing was not known to be profitable, and the
county was divided up into a number of small farms which were
cultivated by their owners, sometimes with the aid of a few slaves,
but more often by the family labor. There were a few large planta
tions but the number of slaves owned by most of the slave holders
was small and the United States census returns show that the num
ber of slaves was actually on the decrease, there being 1,336 slaves
in the county in 1850, and only 1,2 61 in 1860. The sentiment con
cerning slavery is shown by the fact that the delegates who were
sent to the 'State Convention to consider whether Georgia should
secede from the Union were instructed to vote against secession.
In 1860 the population of 'Gainesville was 34 4 of which 19 percent
were in slavery, most of thess were house and body servants, al
though some of them were field hands living in quarters provided
for them by their masters in the town.

II. GROAVTH OF NEGRO POPULATION IN GAINESVILLE.
The increase in the negro population of the town and the ratio
of Whites to Blacks can be seen from Table II.
TABLE II.
Population of Gainesville Since 1860.

Year

White

Negro

%'Whit6

% Negro

1860 

344

82

86.7

19.2

1870

407

65

86.2

13.8

1880* 

1890 _ _
2,493
709
77.8
22.2
1900
3,196
1,186
72.9
27.1
1910 
4,296
1,629
72.7
27.3
•Not given in- 1S80 census.
These figures show a decrease in the proportion of the negro
population in the decade immediately following the Civil War with
a steady rise in proportion after that date. The drop during the
period after the war was probably due to the unsettled conditions
following — when many negroes formerly kept as house servants by
their masters were no longer retained and those of the field
laborers who had been kept in town by their masters moved out Lo
be nearer to the land which they cultivated.
III. SOURCES AND CAUSE OF GROWTH OP POPULATION.
The sources of this growth of population may be seen from the
following table which was formed from the report of home makers
as to their birth place. TABLE in.
Birthplace of Heads of Negro Families.
Number born in Gainesville  29
Number born in White Counties  104
Number born in Black Counties  80
Number born in other States  43
Total  256
From this it is seen that the increase in population is largely
due to immigration from the white counties. Of late years there
has been a disposition for the counties north and west of Hall to
discourage the settlement of negroes there and from two counties*
ihe negroes have bean driven out. Immigration from other sec
tions has been encouraged by the increasing demand for negroes
for domestic service with the growth of the wealth of the town and
increased opportunities in other lines of industrial life. The growth
of negro population from all sources has caused the ratio of negroes
to the total population to be slightly increased.
The tendency of the population to stabilize itself can be seen from
Table IV. The report of the length of residence in Gainesville of
the heads of families. TABLE IV.
Length of Residence in Gainesville of Heads of Negro Families.
Number living in Gainesville less than 1 year  30
Number living in Gainesville 1 to 5 years  43
Number living in Gainesville 5 to 10 years  45
Number living in Gainesville 10 to 20 years  69
Number living in Gainesville over 20 years  69
Total  256

* Dawson and Forsyth Counties.

While it is shown from Table III that only 11.3 percent of the
home makers were born in Gainesville which prove that there must
have been much of restlessness in the period immediately follow
ing the Civil War; the rapid growth in the following period seems to
have given rise to a relatively stable population. This means much
for the growth of good feeling between the races for when the
negroes remain for many years in one place they tend to accumu
late property, establish churches and social organizations of their
own and become peaceful, law abiding, and industrious citizens, and
an asset to the community in which they live; whereas, if the popu
lation is a roving one, family ties are broken and when the restraints
of a settled life are withdrawn, there is much of agitation, arousing
of race antagonism and increase of crime.
IV. PROPERTY.
The fact that the negroes of Gainesville are tending to acquire
property in increasing amounts is shown by the steady rise in the
per capita wealth as shown by the tax books.
TABLE V.
Grovrth of Wealth of Gainesville Negroes Compared With Whites.

Whites

Negroes

Year

Total Value
$2,106,788

Per capita
wealth

S Increase over
Preceding Period

Votal value
Votal value

Per capita
wealth

Per ccnl increase
over preceding peri.

1900
190519111919

3,558,933 4,856,587
5,822,597

$ 659.60
1,113.34 1,130.49
1,355.35

68% 15%
11%

$ 16,257
23,25044,876
116,113

$13.70 19.60 27.5471.27

43%
40%
199%

From the above it will be seen that while the per capita wealth
for whites increased at a much more rapid rate during the period
from 1900 to 19 05, that of the negroes began to gain in the follow
ing periods, until in the period from 1911 to 1919 the value of
negro property in 'Gainesville almost doubled. This phenomenal in
crease in the value of property was probably due to the increase in
wages due to war time conditions, and to the tendency wide spread
among both whites and blacks to invest in real estate. It hardly
represents such an increase in savings by the negroes, for many of
them have merely bought property which they had not sufiicient
funds to pay for, and the transfer of title for property to them has
caused the tax books to register a marked increase in wealth. The
books show that this gain has mainly been one in property values of
small amounts, holdings of from $300.00 to $500.00 which shows
the increased tendency on the part of negroes to buy their homes.
The table given below will show the value of different holdings
for both men and women. It will be noticed that there are in all
only 254 negroes owning property, 163 men and 61 women. This
10

means that 30 percent of the men and 10 percent of the women own
property on which they pay taxes.
TABLE VI.
Value of Holdings of Negro Property.

Holdings

Less than $2.00 value _
$200 to $300 value  .
$300 to $500 value __ .
$500 to $1,000 value 
$1,000 to $1,500 value
$1,500 to $2,000 value
$2,000 to $2,500 value .
$2,500 to $3,000 value ,
$3,000 to $4,000 valte .
Grand total  .

Male I Female

48 17 41
37 10 5
1
3 1
163

13 2215 1

61

Total. 5630 63
5211 71
31
224

11

CHAPTER II.
Location and Surroundings of Negro Homes.
I. Negro Communities.
The affairs of the most vital importance to the negro woman are
those which affect the condition and surroundings of the home.
During the last fifty years changes have taken place in Gainesville
which have caused an entirely new type of negro community life to
grow up, resulting in reactions upon the home life which have had
both good and evil effects.
During the early years of the history of the town there was very
much less of segregation of the two races than at present. Whites
and blacks often occupied the same blocks, the whites on the front
streets and the blacks on the back streets, and alleys. Almost every
street had its settlement of negroes near it, the negroes who were
engaged in domestic service seeming to prefer being near to their
work. Then, too, it was quite a common affair for servants to oc
cupy houses to the rear of tne homes at the people for whom they
worked. The white and negro children often played together, and
the negro children helped with the work around the white home
and aided in the cultivation of the garden.
During the years after the Civil 'War, there grew a feeling of
estrangement between the races after the old relationship of master
and servant was broken up, and the negroes were shut out from
some parts of the life of the whites in -which they had previously
shared. A strong feeling of race conscioU'Sness developed among
the negroes, and a desire to obtain for themselves and their race
all the privileges of life which they had not enjoyed under the
regime of slavery. They began to organize their own churches
and schools, and these could best be maintained when all members
of the race were in a compact community. The Southeast side of
town was gradually given over to the negro settlements, and Athens
Street which runs north and south through that section of the
town became the center of the business and social life of the ne
groes. College Avenue, Summit, High, and Myrtle Streets which
run east and west across Athens Street, were occupied by the ne
groes on those parts of the streets which lay east of Athens Street
some sections of those' streets west of Athens Street which were
formerly occupied by the whites. Atlanta Street, a new street run
ning from South Bradford to Athens 'Street, was soon taken up with
negro houses, the whites occupying only a few houses at the western
extremity of the street. The southern end of Race and Pryor Streets
running north and south were populated in the same way and there
was developed a compact settlement known to the whites as "Negro
Town." Here they have their own theatre, barber shop, restaurants,
boarding house, grocery stores, and garage. A new brick office
12

building contains the offices of the negro dentist. Insurance agents,
hair dresser, and physician. The public school -building is located
almost at the center of this section and their churches are all on
this same side of town, with the single exception of the First Bap
tist church which still remains on West High Street where there
was in the earlier days quite a settlement of negroes. They have
developed their own leaders, they maintain two negro physicians
fnd a dentist; they have their own insurance agents who give their
entire time to the selling of insurance to the negroes, and three
of their churches maintain resident pastors who give most of their
time to work among their people.
But with all these advantages there are some disadvantages to
the negro from this process of segregation. A community with a
life apart from the remainder of the town has grown up, and with
little contact from the whites, except that in the industrial world.
The old friendly feeling between the races is giving way to one of
suspicion as each race withdraws more and more to itself. The
negro women who are engaged in domestic service are often forced
to go from one extremity of the town to the other in order to get to
their work. It is commonly known that police regulations are
not as strictly enforced in "Negro Town" as in other sections and
there is much more of fighting, shooting, and general disorder than
in any of the white districts. Serious moral and social crimes are
ignored and sanitary conditions are permitted to exist which men
ace the lives of the negroes of the whole community, and through
those engaged in domestic service, the welfare of many white
families. The section occupied by the negroes is not less healthful, or in
ferior in location to any other part of town. It takes up the whole
southeast side and occupies about the same proportion of hill and
level stretch as the north or west side. Several of the streets are
merely continuations of those occupied iby the whites and are in
no worse condition than in the white section. However some of
the narrow streets and alleys, which run off the main streets, some
of which are nearest to the white section, have the houses so closely
crowded together that there is no possibility of healthful living.
Generally it seems to be true that the broader streets are occupied
by the more prosperous and intelligent negroes, while the alleys
near the white sections are occupied by the more thriftless and ig
norant members of the race.
II. Small Groups and Isolated Houses.
Small groups and isolated houses of the negroes in the white
section are becoming less common every year. At present there is
a small settlement on the Gainesville Midland Railroad at the ex
treme southern end of the town and a smaller settlement of only a
few houses on East Grove Street at the back of the Main Street
Public School. There are a few isolated houses but a strong feel-
13

ing seems to exist among both whites and blacks that the good
feeling between the rates is better preserved by having the blacks
in a section of their own. In at least one instance there was such
a strong feeling of objection to the presence of a settlement of
negroes on Johnson Street in the southwest district of the town,
that the negroes felt themselves obliged to move over into "Negro
Town." The objection to the presence of the negroes was based
upon the fact that the negroes were very much given to visiting
among themselves in the evenings after work; and that conversa
tion, dancing, and singing was often prolonged until late at night
ending in fighting and shooting, much to the disturbance of the

One of the Poorer Type of Negro Homes in Gainesville.
peace of the whites living near. Some of the whites, however, de
plore this segregation of the blacks, seeing that it is a source of
great inconvenience to the housekeeper, since many of the cooks
live so far away that they cannot arrive in time to get breakfast;
and, in the case of washerwomen the clothes often have to be car
ried and gone far.* With all these difficulties the negro women are
less inclined to enter domestic service.

III. Surroundings of Negro Homes.
The surroundings of some of the negro homes are deplorable,
especially those in the narrow streets and alleys. The lots here

* Tlie street car lines do not approach near enougn to the negro section of
town to be of any great service. 14

are small and with all the accumulation of boxes, old chicken coops,
fire wood, and rubbish of various kinds there is not left much to
complete the scene of disorder. There is often a "wash house"
with its accompaniment of clothes lines, with the well near by; and
since the wash tubs are emptied into the yard without reference to
the drainage, the menace to the health of the inmates is incalcula
ble. In only 39 of the homes visited was there reported any connection
with the city water supply, and in one case it was found that as many
as five families were using from one well. On one street where tke
condition of the homes was especially bad it seemed to be the rule
for four families to use the same well. In such cases there was seen
to be very little regard shown for the condition of the surroundings
of the well, the bucket was often leaky and several efforts would have
to be made before a supply of water could be secured, that which
leaked out in the meantime adding to the already decayed condition
of the well curb.
Waste food and water are generally thrown into the back yard;
and a pig or cow often kept under conditions that seemed to furnish
fit cases for the visit of a sanitary inspector. One housekeeper ex
hibited a brood of chickens that she had raised in the house and many
reported that chickens were kept under the house. In almost every
case they seemed to be free to entsr the house and a very frequent
admonition to one of the younger children, during the time that the
round of inspection was being made was to "Run shoo the chickens
out of the house," if their presence was noticed at all. In not every
case however, did insanitary conditions prevail where a pig or chicken
were kept. In a good many cases the owners belonged to the thriftier
class, those who were anxious to better their condition; and the sur
roundings were often clean and perfectly sanitary.
Contrasting with the carelessness exhibited about the premises of
many homes of poor condition were the homes of the more well-to-do
and industrious negroes with their well kept premises, graveled
walks, and trim hedges or fences. There were often in the same
immediate community where conditions were vilest, but more
often the members of this class formed little groups to themselves
on the different streets.
Investigation showed that all of the negro homes visited have
outside privies that are the greatest drawbacks to sanitary condi
tions. Especially were those in the narrower streets dangerous,
for they were often as near to the home as the city regulation would
permit, and, as in the case of wells, were generally used by more
than one family. In many of the better class of homes the privies
were well kept and one of the families expressed regret that there
was no provision made for their people to have sewerage connec
tion.

15

CHAPTER III.
Condition and Size of the Negio Home.
I. Condition of Negro Homes.
Conditions within the home were not always an improvement
upon conditions without. In some cases a condition of indescribable
filth prevailed. Washing was not infrequently done within the
houses or on the porches during the time that the homes were
being visited, and the dampness of the floor, the presence of soiled
clothes; 'and in rainy weather, the damp clothes hung across one
corner of the room to dry, added to the unpleasantness of the at
mosphere. Broken window panes were mended by tacking a strip
of paper across them or by stuffing old garments into the opening.
In one instance where only one fire was maintained, washing, cook-
mg, and ironing were all going on in the same room under atmos
pheric conditions of which the owners of the clothes that were be
ing laundered must certainly have been ignorant.
The most poorly kept homes were those of the women who
worked away from home all day. Some of these were engaged in
domestic service that required their entire time; others were en
gaged as scrub-women at the mills, depots, or other places, and
worked from eight to nine hours a day. Not all of these homes were
poorly kept for there was some times an older daughter or a grand
mother who kept the home in fair condition, but the general condi
tion of this class of homes was bad. At one place there were found
three small children, all under six years of age, at home by them
selves. They reported that their mother worked at New Holland
Cotton Mill, and that the older children were all in school. When
asked of their father, the older one reported, "He don't work none.
He's a Preacher." The condition of this home was pitiable. Pieces
of wood and chips were scattered over the floor and the one window
which the room afforded, was so covered by the pieces of curtain
stuffed into the broken panes, that the room was very dark. Here
the children were left to themselves for the greater part of the day.
The homes of the women who "cook out" presented a much bet
ter appearance than those who work away from home during the
entire day or than of those who take in washing, very few of them
cook more than two -meals a day and are therefore free to spend the
time from 3 o'clock or thereabout in their own homes. This not
only gives them an opportunity to keep their homes in fairly good
condition but permits them to be at home during the time that the
children are out of school.
Very few white people realize that there are in "Negro Town"
many homes maintained by honest, industrious, peaceful negroes,
whose women never go out to service, but give their entire time to
the care of their homes and the rearing of their children. These
16

homes are clean, orderly, and often well furnished, and the children
are respectful ^nd obedient; there is evidenced among this class
a disposition to speak politely to the whites with whom they come
in contact and from them there is least of what is known as "Ne
gro impudence."
The following table will show the condition of the homes classi
fied with reference to the occupation of the housekeeper.
TABLE AIL
Condition of Negro Homes -with Refei-ence to the Occupation of the
Housekeeper.

No work except in own home
Remaining home part of day
Away from home all day 
Taking work in the home _ .

Good

1 % |Fair

%

Bad

%

39 50
21

52
10% 29%

26 35
10 29

35%T5%
37% 40%

12 6
17 22

13%15%73%31%

From this it will be seen that of those women who devote their
entire time to the care of their homes 5 2 per cent keep good homes,
and only 13 percent keep bad homes, while of those who are away
all day, there was not one whose home could be classed as good,
while 73 percent of them were in bad condition. From this it will
be seen that if the negro children of Gainesville are to have homes,
in which ideas of cleanliness and order are to be developed an in-
erasing number of the negro women must remain in the home.
This would be to the advantage of whites as well as negroes, for
if good ideals of home life and efficiency in house-keeping were
taught in the negro home the task of the white housekeeper in
training those who come to her as servants would be much less
arduous than at present.
But it will be seen from the table that 15 percent of the women
who give their entire time to their homes, have homes that are
properly classed as bad. Indeed some of the most poorly kept
homes belonged to women who reported that they "don't do no
work." Frequently these women would not be found in their own
homes, but, especially in the afternoons, would be visiting with a
neighbor. They often have the idea that work is degrading to them,
and they seem to have lost all sense of responsibility for performing
any sort of useful labor after the necessity for earning their own
living was removed at the time of their marriage. It is such ones
as these who are guilty of the grossest impudence to white women
who come into the community to employ servants. One woman
upon inquiring as to where she might find some one to cook, was
told to "go home and look in the mirrow." To the same inquiry
another negro wom'an replied that she knew of no one who wished
employment as a cook, but that if the ivhlte woman found such a
one, she would appreciate having the opportunity to see her, as she
herself desired to employ some one for the kitchen. From this it

17

will be seen that something more than the opportunity to remain in
the home fs necessary. Some training in what constitutes goo
home life, morality, and decency of conduct must be taught before
the remaining of such a class of women in the house can be any
thing but harmful. Some of this the negroes themselves could un
dertake through their lodges and their organizations, m the churc ,
and the public school should reach a greater number with its train
ing in domestic science and art. .
The practice of the negro women to ask to do all of their wor
In the mornings and return to their homes in the afternoon seem
to be a step in the right direction, if these women devote, their time
to the care of their homes after their return. If the work m the
average white home were well organized and the help efficient, it
could be done in four or ffve hours of the forenoon, and the serv
ants dismissed for the remainder of the day. The figures given in
Table VII show that 85 percent of the women who spend a part of
the day at home keep their homes in good or fair condition. Serv
ants coming from homes such as these, are likely to be more effi
cient and less frequently carriers of diseases which are bred in
filth. Of those taking in work, 31 percent keep homes that are in bad
condition while only 29 percent are in good condition. It is from
this source that there appears to come the greatest meniace to the
health of the white people, for their clothes are often carried into
homes where people are sick with contagious diseases, and with the
ignorance of the average negro woman as to the simplest rules of
precaution against infection, there seems little doubt that much cf
the spreading of diseases is due to this source alone. At one place
where the home was in fairly good condition, and the mother was
heating irons before an open fire, one of the girls of the family sat
shivering in the same room and reported that she was sick with the
"flues." When remonstrance was made that she was likely to en
danger the health of others by sitting near the clothes she protested
that she did not believe the disease was "catchhin." Such a, condi
tion could be partly remedied by instruction in the elementary rules
of hygiene, and sanitation, but there would probably still be a large
number who would be too careless to take the necessary precaution
to safeguard the health of those for whom they worked. Since it
would be impossible to inspect the homes of those doing laundry
work, it would seem to be the wisest plan to prohibit the taking of
laundry work to do in the negro homes and to provide public wash
houses where the negro women could go to do their work for a
nominal fee, and where adequate sanitary inspection could be made.
Besides safeguarding the health of the whites, this would relieve
the negro woman of having to do her work in a home that is al
ready over crowded and under circumstances that make it impossi
ble to maintain her home in decency or to do properly the work that
is given her to do. 18

II. Size of Negro Homes.
There seems to be a direct relation between the crowded condi
tion of the negro home and manner in which they are kept. Aside
from the carelessness and ignorance upon the part of the negro
housekeeper, it is not easy to regulate the affairs of a household of
four or five in three rooms in such a manner as to have the house
present an attractive appearance at the same time that washing
taken in, must be done in the house or on the porch as is the case in
bad weather. A study of the homes show that as a rule those with
the greatest number of rooms are better kept than those where con
ditions are more crowded. TABLE Vin.
Relation Between Size and Condition of Homes.

Good

%

Pair %

Bad %

Av. No. Persons
Per Room

1 room house

- 1

33H

2

66y,

1.5

2 room house _

_ 9

20

28

60

8

25

1.33

3 room house _

_ 14

24

22

31

21

45

1.24

4 room house _

_ 14

18

39

52

22

30

1.02

5 room house _

- 9

52

6

30

2

13

.86

6 room house _

_ 4

50

2

25

2

25

.61

7 room house

_ 2

40

3

60

.57
8 room house _
_ 1
100
.45
9 room house _
_ 1
100
.28
Prom this it will be seen that there is very little over-crowding
among the Gainesville negroes, so far as the average number to the
room is concerned. By far the most common type of home is the four
room cottage, which type is occupied by more than 75 percent of
the negro people. It will be noticed that of the four room cottages
70 per cent are classified as good or fair, while of the three room
houses only 55 percent are classed as good or fair. However the
families occupying only two rooms show 80 percent classed as good
or fair, but this is probably due to the type of a large number of
these families, which consist of husband and wife, both of whom
work out; or of husband and wife and one child with the wife giving
all her time to the home. Of the cottages with five rooms 87 per
cent were classified as good or fair, but these were generally owned
by the people living in them and this had its bearing upon the
manner in which they were kept.
Table IX will show the relation between the ownership of homes
and the condition in which they are kept.
TABLE IX.
Relation Between Ownership of Home and Condition.
Good
%
|Pair 3169
%3947
|Bad 2230
%
Occupied by owners _ _ _ _ _
Occupied by renters 
3134
3923
1641
19
III. Rent.
As has -been pointed out 'before, there is a marked tendency
on the part of the negroes to purchase their own homes. This
is due largely to the desire for ownership and prolbably also
to the high price of rent. Investigation showed that the average
rent for the three room cottage was $6.45 and for the four room
cottage $7,29 per month. As the tax books show that these houses
are valued at from $300 to $500, this represents a return of about
30 percent on the investment. Evidently negro rental property is
a profitable investment for in most instances there seems to be very
little spent for improvement or repairs. In many cases leaks in
the roof ex:isted and the houses presented a general delapidated

-—- — . s.

Home of Well-to-do Gainesville Negro.
appearance. In some cases the negroes improve the property which
comes into their possession, as is shown from the fact, that of the
120 painted houses, 52 percent were those occupied by the owners.
Of the 65 houses found to have screens, 5 3 percent were those oc
cupied by the owners. In some cases houses renting for the same
amount as the less attractive ones were in much better condition
than the average. These were of course secured by the more en
terprising negroes, while the others seemed content to take such as
rem.ained to them.
The cause of high rent could be partly explained when the con
dition of some of the rented houses was thoroughly investigated.
In one case a new house, screened and freshly painted occupied by

20

renters was found to be in such a condition of filth within, that it
was easily seen that if the house was occupied for any length of
time by that class of occupants there would be a great deterioration
in value. Owners of negro rental property complain that pieces
of dwellings are often torn off to be used as fuel and that fences
are invariably knocked down, and that if fruit trees or shade trees
exist on the premises, they are so badly used that they soon out
Uve their period of usefulness. Under such circumstances they
are forced to charge a high rent in order to save any return at
all on their investment.

21

CHAPTER IV.
Employment of Negro AVomen.
I. Classification of Occupations.
The United States census reports for 1910 show that there are
650 negro families in Gainesville and reckoning that 60 percent
of these are above 15 years of age there are about 390 adult negro
women in the town. Investigation showed that of these 183 or
46 percent are engaged in gainful occupation. While this indicates
that a large persent of the negro women are still at least partly
self supporting, it represents an immense change since the period
of the Civil War. At that time there was probably not one negro
woman in the entire town or county who gave her time wholly to
the care of her home and children for those who were not used as
field hands were engaged in domestic service in the homes of their
masters.* While the entry of which women into fields of occu
pation outside the home represents a new departure since the ante
bellum days, the withdrawal of the negro women from occupations
outside the home to_ become housewives represents a movement just
as novel and destined to produce just as great changes upon the
social and economic life of the town.
The following table will show the distribution of the negro women
in the different fields of occupation. TABLE X.
Occupations of Negro Women.
Professional and Business.
Teachers  10
Trained nurses  6
Hair dressers  8
Music teachers  2
iSeamstreesss  2
Insurance  4
Storekeepers  4
Restaurants  4
Total  ^  38 — 19% grand total
Hotel and Domestic.
Cooks  42
Maids  28
Nurses  15
Waitresses  12
Washerwomen  47
Scrubwomen  12
Total  156 — 81% grand total
* T. J. Woofter, Negroes of Athens, Georgia, 1912.
22

11. (Standing of Professional and Business AA'omen in Community.)
The place of the negro women in community as teachers and as
insurance agents will be discussed in the Chapters on Education,
Lodges'" aild Insurance. There were 6 reported as trained nurses,
although only two of these were graduate nurses from institutions
recognized as creditable by the members of their race. The others
had more or less training under those who were more skilled. All
were greatly respected in their communities and their services in
time of sickness highly regarded. They are often employed by the
lodges to care for their members during their illness, as well as by
the better class of negroes to care for their families when such care
is needed. The average compensation is $12.00 per week, including
board. One might assume that regard for personal appearance is the
ruling passion of the negro woman's life when 8 percent of their
number in the small community reported themselves as "hair
dressers" by profession. Be it said, by way of explanation how
ever, that only three of these devote their entire time to the duties
of their "profession," the others having additional work which oc
cupies a considerable portion of their time. One was found to
combine the duties of seamstress and hair dresser; another per
formed this work as a diversion from her duties as out of town
school teacher; three others gave most of their time to the care ot
their homes. The three who devote their entire time to the work
flnd steady employment in Gainesville. One of these occupies two
rooms in the Travis building, a neat brick building which was erect
ed by one of the enterprising negro men, to serve as an office build
ing. She conducts her affairs in a business-like manner and reports
an income of about $8 per week over and above expenses. The in
come of the others varies from $2 to $6, according to the amount
of time they devote to the work. Some of these do little more than
sell hair preparations for well established companies but others lay
claim to performing all the duties appertainihg to their professions,
including the now popular one among Ihe negroes of making the
hair straight.
The music teachers are women who have no other employment
except the care of their homes and who give a ;portion of their time
to teaching music as a means of supplementing the family income.
They are highly respected in the community and are often ot great
service in preparation of church and school entertainments. The
seamstresses flnd ample employment in sewing for the people of
their communities, and from the demand made upon them it would
seem to be a profitable line of work for others of the negro women
to enter.
There were found to be 4 storekeepers and 2 restaurant keepers,
of those who keep -store two are proprietors and two were engaged

•Chapters VII and VIII. 23

as clerks in small grocery stores. One of the proprietors had been
in business for about 33 years, and seemed to have made quite a
success of her business, having become owner of three dwelling-
houses, in addition to her store. The others seemed to be fairly
prosperous, although the stores run by the negroes were not pat
ronized to the same extent as the white stores in the community.
partly because the negroes do not keep so good nor so extensive a
line of goods, and partly because of the suspicion on the part of the
negroes of the members of their own race. The restaurants ara dirty
and unattractive in appearance and often have around them an un
desirable class of negroes.

Type of Restaurant Kept by Gainesville Negro Women.
Domestic Service.
From Table X, it will be seen that 81 percent of the negro women
engaged in the gainful occupations are those in domestic service.
This has always been and continues to be the chief form of employ
ment open to negro women. While there was no professional class
among the women at the end of the war there was a considerable
group of well trained, highly skilled domestics that have probably
never been surpassed. As has been pointed out in another study
made of the negroes of Athens,* domestic service in the days before
the war was considered a privilege by the slaves and only the more
intelligent were selected for house servants. These were given

* T. J. Woofter. Negroes of Athens, Georgia, page 43.
24

thorough training under the supervision of the mistress of the home
and a life time of service in the same capacity resulted in most
efficient performance of duty. After the war a number of these well
trained servants were retained in the families of their former owners
but training and service were now voluntary; and after the supply
of servants trained in ante-bellum days began to be exhausted the
quality of domestic service declined. This was due to the lack of
training on the part of the younger negro women as well as to the
fact that many of the better class ceased to go out to service and
gave themselves to the care of their own homes.
One of the most frequent causes of complaint against servants is
the shortness of the time of service in each place. Housekeepers com
plain that negro girls and women wishing employment come to them
utterly ignorant of the duties they are expected to perform and yet
demanding the wages usually given to experienced servants. Forced
to take them on their own terms they remain hardly long enough to
become familiar with their duties and then pass into some other
form of service or quit work altogether and another raw recruit has
to be trained in. In fact so short has become the term of service
in Gainesville and so unsatisfactory its character that many house
wives have despaired of getting anything approaching efflicient
service and prefer to do their own work. Reports of the number of
changes during 1919 may be seen from the following table.
TABLE XI.
Length of Time Employed of Gainesville Servants.
Number employed less than 3 months  26
Number employed 3 months to 6 months  11
Number employed 6 months to 1 year  9
Number employed 1 year to 2 years  5
Number employed 2 years to 5 years  9
Number employed 5 years to 10 years  3
Number employed over 10 years  6
This shows that 39 per cent of the negro women employed during
1919 served less than 3 months in one place. In fact the term of
service is much shorter in many cases, the servants remaining only
a week or two and then leaving without offering an excuse. This is
partly explained by the fact that many negro women enter the
service with no expectation of working longer than a few weeks,
with the desire to earn a few dollars for the purchase of some
article of clothing which the husband or father cannot afford to give
them. They enter domestic service until the desired sum is se
cured and then return again to their homes. Others come in from
the country to work during the time that they are not needed in the
crops, but return again as soon as the busy season begins. Still
others give no reason for their frequent changing of positions ex
cept that they get tired, "just want a change," etc.
That the amount of wages has some effect upon the length of the
2 5

period of service will be seen from the following which seems to in
dicate that a higher wage will hold servants for longer periods.
TABLE xn.
Relation Between Wage and Length of Service of Negro Servants.
Wage. Average term of service.
Those earning $3 to $4  3.1 months
Those earning $4 to $5  12 months
Those earning $5 or more*  4 years
Another cause of the short term of service and the general un
satisfactory condition of the servant situation is the habit which
the white women have of bidding against each other to secure the
best servants. Once a servant establishes a reputation for effi
ciency, the women in the community become anxious to secure her
and not infrequently will take her from another woman's kitchen
by the promise of a slightly increased wage. This makes the servant
independent in attitude for good places are always open to those
who are efficient workers. In a classification of causes given by
housekeepers and negro servants as to the cause of servants leaving
positions, the desire for higher wages occurred most frequently as
will be seen from the following ta'ble.
TABLE Xin.
Classification of Causes of Servants Withdrawal.
A. Given by Housekeepers."*
I. Discharged. (1) "Toting", 4.
(2) Irregularity, 3.
(3) Inefficiency, 3.
(4) Wastefulness, 4.
II. Voluntary withdrawal.
(1) Better wages,, 8.
(2) To remain at home, 3.
(3) Without excuse, 6.
(4) Desire to change, 4.
B. Given by -Negro Servants.
(1) Better wages, 8.
(2) Violation of contract, 5.
(3) Overwork, 6.
(4) -Unkindness, 4.
(5) Tired of work, 3.
(6) To remain at home, 4.
(7) "Just for change", 4.
The desire to remain at home due to the developing home life of
the negroes has already been discussed and the question of "toting"
will be taken up in a later section. Irregularity is much complained
of by the housekeepers who say that the servants stay away for
trivial causes, or for no cause at all; often leaving them without
* These figures obtained under ths World War conditions.
¦• See Appendix 2. 26

help at a time when they need it most, e. g. when there are guests
in the house. Complaint is also made that servants have no sense of
responsibility and will use unlimited amounts of fuel and supplies
unless carefully supervised.
Under the head of violation of contract are included those causes
for withdrawal given by negro women because of having been forced
to do more work than was bargained for at the time the wage was
agreed upon. Here they state that when employed as cooks they
are asked to perform the duties of chambermaid, nurse, etc. They
say that at the beginning of their term of service the housekeeper
requires only those duties stipulated in the agreement, but that
gradually other duties are added until a servant finds herself per
forming the work for a whole household for the same wage for which
she agreed to cook.* This shows the growing tendency for the
servants to wish to perform only one kind of service and so far as it
leads to an agreement between housekeeper and servant as to the
work to be performed it is perfectly justifiable, for if the house
keeper desires the wage to be fixed as a definite sum of money and to
do away with the old wasteful system of compensation by giving
food and clothes, she should be willing to define explicitly the duties
to be required of her servant for this fixed wage and to demand no
additional duties without further compensation.
Another cause for withdrawal given by servants, is that of over
work. They state that the housekeeper gives them no encourage
ment to finish their work early in the day, for if they are industrious
and finish the usual tasks, she will find them something else to do,
not satisfied unless they are thoroughly busy during the entire num
ber of hours that they have agreed to remain. Added to this, they
state that the housekeeper is often fastidious about her work, speak
ing sharply to them about any little omission of duty. Of course
this is often made a ground of complaint against the most efficient
and economical housekeepers who are merely careful in directing
their household affairs. Generally the servants wage includes meals
and they complained in at least three instances that these were not
sufficient for their needs and that they were forced to cook again
upon returning to their homes. They state that they are often forced
to walk a mile or two across town to the home at which they work
before preparing breakfast and that the light meal which is con
sidered sufficient for the members of the white family is not suffi
cient for them and that they are not allowed to prepare anything
more substantial for themselves. In other cases they state that an
insufficient amount of food was measured out for them to cook and
that after the family had eaten there was not enough left for them.

* In one ease a negro woman said that she had been asked to do scrubbing
which was humiliating to her.

27

(IV. Service Basket.)
The effect of the service basket or of "toting" on the situation has
been discussed at great length by all who have made any study or
the servant problem. Dating back to slavery days when the cook
carried to her children in the cabin a supply of food from the kitchen
ot her mistress, the negro servants here have always felt more or less
free to carry to their homes such of the supplies of the white
family as they or their children needed. This practice has dimin
ished with time, but is still carried on with more or less freedom
according to the amount of supervision the white women give to
their household affairs. During the early days, it was understood
that the wage paid the servant was not sufficient to maintain her
and her family, and more or less of "toting" was expected; but ot
late years, there has been a desire on the part of the white people
to commit the wage of servants to a definite sum of money and put
a stop to the uneconomical practice of compensation by allowing
food to be carried home. This has resulted in an increase of wages
for the negro women and an increasingly insistent demand upon
the part of the white housekeepers that no food be carried off from
the kitchen. The greater the increase in wage the more effective
has this demand become and the more inclined have the negroes
been to obey it, but when a low scale of wage prevails the negro
woman still persists in carrying home with her food sufficient to feed
her children.
The relation between the scale of wages and the practice of
"toting" can be seen from the following table made up from the
reports of eleven white housekeepers. TABLE IX.*
Relation Between Wage of Negro Servants and Service Baskets.
Wage. No. Carrying Service Baskets.
$3.00 to $4.00 per week  6
$4.00 to $5.00 per week  4
$5.00 or over  1
From this it will be seen that of those carrying service baskets
over 54 percent earn less than $4.00 per week.
(V. Washerwomen.)
By far the largest number of those engaged in domestic service
are washerwomen. This is the preferred form of work with the
negro women, because they can do the work in their own home,
without supervision, and can if necessary interrupt their work to
attend to their household affairs. This kind of work is most fre
quently undertaken by women who are not forced to earn their
living entirely, but who find it necessary to supplement the family
Income by some work of their own. Some, however, earn their
* Obtained from s-tatements given by white housekeepers.
28

living in this way, and do a tremendous amount of work, some of
them who do laundry for the college students, reporting that they
often work far into the night. This brings them considerably more
income than those who go into the white homes receive, but this
is partly offset by the high cost of fuel as will be shown in the
chapter on Expenditures. The income of washerwomen can be seen
from the following table, made up from the reports of those washer
women who were interviewed. TABLE X.
Income of AV^asherwomen.*
Number earning less than $2.00  4
Number earning $2.00 to $4.00  21
Number earning $3.00 to $5.00  4
Number earning $5.00 to $7.00  6
Number earning $7.00 to $10.00  3
Number earning over $10.00  3
Total  41

Fvum staten;e-jts given by washerwomen themselves.
29

CHAPTER V.
Income and Expenditures of Negro Families.
It was not possible in most cases to ascertain with any degree of
accuracy the income of negro families for the negro women state
that their incomes vary so much from week to week that it is diffi
cult to determine the average. Especially is this true of the washer
women who sometimes find their entire income cut off for several
weeks during the worst part of the winter when their expenses are
heaviest. Again most of the cooks receive, their meals in addition
to their wage and the value of this is difficult to estimate. And
the men of the family are often engaged in occupations which do
not furnish steady employment and their contribution to the sup
port of the family is in many cases irregular. Besides this, there
are often sources of income which are not reported, for example,
the railroad men re,ceive their wood in addition to their wages, and
this was not always mentioned as a part of the family income.
Therefore any estimate of the income of negro families is neces
sarily inaccurate. As far as could be estimated from the reports of
12 6 families it was found that the average income of the negro
families of Gainesville is between $500 and $600 per year.
This is often made up of the wages of several different members
of the family, the father, the mother, and several of the children.
It was found that of the 126 families making any report of income
and expenditures 35 were supported by the father alone, 20 were
supported by the mother alone, and 71 were living on a composite
income of wages of several members of the family.
The expenditures of negro families were far more difficult to
estimate than their income. Generally no idea was entertained as
to the amount expended for food, clothing, or fuel. Little discrimi
nation or foresight is exercised in buying, the custom in the ma
jority of the families seeming to be to send to the store and buy
their supplies in small quantities day by day as they are needed,
no account of the sum paid for any one article during a month being
kept. In most eases they do not ask the price of the food bought,
but merely go into the store and state that they wish to buy 25c
or 50c worth of the article desired. Except in cases where a stand
ard quantity is sold at once e.g. 2 5 or 5 0 pounds of flour, there is
no opportunity for taking advantage of differences in prices. In
most cases the quality of the article is not even investigated before
buying, although the obtaining of goods of an inferior character
causes the negroes to change their place of buying.
In cases where the mother works away fromi home the income is
most unwisely spent. -Here the buying is often delegated to a
younger member of tfie family and food of an inferior quality and
poor nutritive value is bought in small quantities. Those of the
30

women who remain in their homes and who give their entire time
to its management exercise more foresight and buy far more pru
dently than any other group. In many cases, however, all the sup
plies are bought by the man of the family, and when this is the
case they are bought in larger quantities. The following table will
show the manner in which the income is spent by the different classes
of homes with respect to the buying of food.
TABLE XA'I.
Food Buying of Negro Families.
JBuying by day|Week|Month
Families supported by fathers _ _ _ _| 8 I 23 | 4
Families supported by mother _ _ _ _| 14 (61
Families supported by composite income] 46 I 25 |
From this it will be seen that the largest per cent of those buying
their supplies by the day are among those supported by the mother
and their enjoying a composite income. While those buying more
prudently, are those families supported by the father. The small
number of those who buy by the month is most likely due to the fact
that negroes rarely ever get sufficient funds on hand at once to buy
a whole months supplies. A great many families are allowed little
or no credit at the stores, and since all supplies must be paid for in
cash they are forced to buy in small amounts. This failure of the
negro to enjoy the confidence of the whites in (business relations
causes him to have to pay his rent by the week instead of by the
month, and causes his home to be fairly beseiged on Monday morn
ing by those who come to collect the rent, the insurance premiums,
the payment on the furniture, etc. However, these collectors report
that they lose very little from the negroes and that in most cases the
negroes are generally ready with the money.
The income and expenditures of a fairly typical negro family is
given below. The family consists of father and mother and three
children and is supported by the savings of both parents, the fathei
being a team driver and the mother a washerwoman.
Income.
Father's income per month  $52.00
Mother's income per month  24.00
Total  76.00
Expenditures.
Amount spent for food  $12.00
Amount spent for rent  8.00
Amount spent for fuel  12.00
Amount. spent for insurance  16.00
Miscellaneous  28.00
Total  ^•-  76.00
From this it will be seen that the expenditure for food is only
31

10 percent of the total expenditures of the family. As has been
pointed out in a former study of the negroes of Athens, Georgia,*
this compares unfavorably with the laboring classes of other nations
where their higher standards of living cause them to spend the bulk
of their income for food.
The question of rent has been taken up in another section. As
much is spent for fuel as is spent for food especially in the home
where laundry is done. Wood is the fuel most commonly used, and
the average washerwoman buys her fuel by the week, having an ar
rangement with some farmer in the country near by to bring her
wood at $2.50 or $3.00 per load. It is needless to say that the size
of the loads varies considerably without any corresponding variation
in price and that much money is wasted by the negro family by not
buying their wood by the cord and having a considerable supply put
in at once.
It will be seen that the amount paid for insurance is more than
the amount paid for food. This would seem to be indicative of re- .
markable foresight and concern for the future upon the part of the
negroes but investigation shows that it is merely due to his habit of
"joining" and that many of them have been paying heavy premiums
for several years without receiving any benefit and merely continue
the paying from force of habit.
It was impossible to secure an estimate of the amount spent for
clothing with anything like approximate accuracy but in most cases
it formed a 'high per cent of that total expenditure of the family. It
was not uncommon to find that washerwomen and cooks spend aa
much as $15 for a pair of shoes and are owners of furs and Jewelry
of considerable value. Added to the amount that she pays to the
hair dresser and to the "canvassing lady" who sells various toilet
articles and cosmetics, the amount spent by the average negro woman
for personal adornment is considerable. The habit of buying second
hand clothes seems to be diminishing with the increased earnings of
the negro families, and with the decreasing willingness on the part
of the whites to clothe their servants with gifts, the cost of cloth
ing is advancing.
Much of the waste and unwise expenditure of the negroes could be
eliminated by giving the negro women some education along the line
of home economics. Very often the food bought is expensive, and
has little nutritive value. In one case it was found that the family
spent $1.00 per day for fresh meats and when further inquiry was
made into the family bill of fare, it was found that it included few
vegetables or fruits but that the chief article of diet was bread and
meat. The negro, too must be made to realize the importance to
himself of acquiring property and education, and .supporting those
agencies in his community which make for the uplifting of his race.
What is possible for the race may be represented by the budget

' T. .T. Woofter, Negroes of Athens, Georgia.
32

-•1 another family which is typical ot the best class of negro families.
Th s family consists of father, mother, and two children. The family
is supported by the father; the mother doing no work outside of the
home. They had bought the house in which they were living, and
reported that everything over and above running expenses were saved
to pay on the home. Per month.
Income  $72.00
Expenditures.
Food  30.00
Fuel  9.00
Insurance  2.00
Miscellaneous  10.00
Savings  21.00
Total  $72.00
In most cases the income of the family was found to be sufficient
for its needs, but some of the more Ignorant of the washerwomen
who were not considered skilled enough to do ironing, but who did
only the washing of the clothes reported that they spent for no
other items than food, rent, and clothing, and that their income was
hardly sufficient to maintain them. One reported that she was un
able to live upon what she earned and would suffer actual want
were it not for the help of her "neighbor."

CHAPTER VI.
Health and Morality.
I. Comparative Death Rates.
From the healthful location of Gainesville one might suppose that
the death rate there would be much lower among both races than
in the average Southern city, because of the fact that vital statis
tics have not been kept in Georgia. It was found to be impossible
to make comparisons with other cities where social an deconomic
conditions among the negroes are similar to those in Gainesville;
but flgures given for some of the -Southern cities Included within the
registration area will give an idea of the conditions prevaling among
the masses of the negro race in the South.
TABLE XVII.
Number Deaths Per 1,000 of Population.

Cities 1 1910 | 1900

1 Negro

White 1 Negro
"15.5" ~27.3"

White

Atlanta 

 1 25.4

18.6

Charleston 

 1 39.3

18.9 44.4

22.9

Jacksonville 

 1 24.

16.8 1 32.8

26.6

Savannah  

 1 34.1

19.4 1 38.1

23.4

1 23.8

19.3 1

It is found to be true in Gainesville as elsewhere that the death
rate among negroes is much higher than among the whites. And
the figures for the other cities show that the decrease in the num
ber of deaths in the period from 1900-1910 is not as great for ne
groes as for whites. Whether this is due wholly to social and eco
nomic conditaions or to the greater susceptibility of the negro to
disease is not known; but as long as the two races live in such
widely different environments one may assume that the bettering
of conditions under which the negro lives will lower his death rate.
In the negro population as a whole it is found that the average num
ber of years lived in the period from 20 to 60 years, which is the
productive period of life is 18 for males and 19.9 for females. In
the white population the corresponding averages are 27.1 for males
and 28.6 for females. Add to this the fact that 261.9 negro children
per 1,0 00 die before one year of age as compared to 12 9.7 for the
white race one may easily see that this shortening of the productive
period and the great loss of life by the abnormally high death rate
represents an immense economic loss to both whites and blacks.
* The flgures for Gainesville were not given in the census but were obtained
from the advance figures for 1019 from the newly begun Bureau of Vit-il
Statistics and the United States Census reports from 1910.
34
II. Causes of Deaths.
The reports for the Southern cities which are included within the
registration area show that more deaths occur from tuberculosis
than from any other single cause, there being 176 deaths per 1,000
among the negroes, and 9 8 among the whites from this cause alone.
Such reports as could be obtained as to the cause of deaths in Gaines
ville show pneumonia to be the greatest single cause of death there;
¦but there were 5 deaths from tuberculosis to 1 among the whites.
TABLE XATH.
Causes of Deaths Among the Population of Gainesville in 1919.

Cause I Negro | White
I Male I Female | ilale | Female
3 I 6 I 7~

Pneumonia __ _- __  | 6
Tuberculosis __ __ __  | 1
Influenza __ __ __ __  |

4 ' I 1
114 12

Accident  lit ] 4 | 3
Dysentery  2 | 1 ' 2
Heart Disease  ______! 2 | 1 I 6 ] 5
Dropsy  ill ! 1 | 1
Paralysis  f 1 ! 2 1 6
Miscellaneous  | 8 j 8 ; 12 | 1^
Total  Negroes 39 Whites 83
The usually high death rate from pneumonia is due to the epidemic
of influenza which visited the town during the winter of 1919. It
is interesting to note that the deaths from diseases of heart are
less for the negroes than for the whites. These figures agree with
the flgures for the country as a whole and the matter is explained
by those who have studied the question by the fact that the negro
is less subject to conditions of stress and strain in modern life
than is the white man and consequently less given to worry.
The insanitary conditions of the surroundings and the poorly
kept homes, discussed in a previous section undoubtedly increase
the causes for sickness among the negroes, and this has its effect
upon the whole community. In one case there was found a negro
woman who declared that she was suffering from "lung trouble,"
and who was apparently dying with tuberculosis; but who had
earned as much as 12 per week for laundry as long as she had been
able to work.
One thing characteristic of the household arrangements of all
negro women who work is the irregularity of their meals. Washer
women report that they often begin work and continue until late
in the morning before having breakfast and then the work is not
stopped until mid-afternoon to cook again. These hours vary from
day to day, and the disposition to have some quickly prepared food
BO as to take the least amount of time from other work results in a
low state of health and consequent liability to disease. Negro
women who work out often leave home in the morning before pre-
35

paring breakfast and this meal is supplied by food left over from
the day before, or by some poorly cooked food prepared by a
younger niember of the family. In few cases is the meal properly
prepared and very seldom does the whole family sit down to the
table together. 64 or about 30 percent of the homes visited report
that only two meals per day are served.
The United States census reports show that for the South as a
whole the death rate is highest among the negroes during January,
and next 'highest in July. More deaths probably occur in the winter
because living conditions are then harder and fuel more difficult to
obtain. Physicians who have practice among iDOth whites and
blacks say that negroes are more inclined to follow without question
the doctors directions concerning medicine and food, but that con
ditions under which they live often make their cases more difficult
to manage. Negroes state that their people are frequently not al
lowed credit at the drug stores, and the obtaining of medicine dur
ing times of illness is sometimes difficult.
III. Superstition About Sickness.
Cases of superstition as to the cause of diseases as frequently
met with occasionally suffering is ascribed to some occult power
as in the case of the old woman who declared that the "ole Black
Scratch am sho' after me wid all dat misery in my arm." Absurd
remedies are also proposed as when another woman suggested that
a wasps' nest ground to powder with the young in it and made into
a poultice would form an unfailing cure for ear ache. Still another
believed that sleeping with a pan of salt water under the bed was a
cure for rheumatism -and there seemed to be a pretty general belief
that sweeping under the bed would result in the death of the
patient. Signs of the approaching death of a relative are seen in
flying of a bird through the house, while the coming of a strange
cat to stay around the house is'taken to mean the return of health
to the sick one, especially if the cat be of several colors. There
seems to be in every community some woman with a stock of home
made remedies and she is generally called in prior to the summons
of a doctor and her remedies applied along with his. Sickness is
often ascribed to Divine Providence. And there exists a wide spread
belief that neglect of the sick during their illness will cause a like
disaster to overtake the one who is guilty of the neglect. Illness of
a violent nature always attracts a crowd and the sick in such cases
are less likely to be neglected than in cases of lingering illness.
IV. MoraUty.
Good home life is fundamental to good morals among all races,
and as we have seen in previous sections this is just beginning tq
develop among the negroes. The fact that a great many women
still go out to service and leave their homes for the greater part
36

of the day makes impossible a settled family life in which character
can be developed by regularity and good discipline. The absence
of true home life is seen in the fact that members of the family
seldom take their meals together, and that often those who are at
home together at meal time do not sit down to the table, but take
their food to sit in the door or before the fire. The looseness of the
family ties are seen too in the fact that mothers of large families
often do not knowa the whereabouts of their children as in the
case ot a mother of eleven who was living with a married daughter
but who declared that she knew of the whereabouts of only one
other child. "All married and gone. Don't know whar dey are —
n'other state I reckon." An effort was made to flnd out whether
or not the size of the negro family in Gainesville was increasing and
the question was asked of every negro mother Interviewed as to the
number of children her mother had. Out of the 222 who were thus
questioned, 40 declared that they did not know the number of
children in their mother's family.
, From the reports which were obtained it was found that the
negro mother in Gainesville has on an average 3.9 children, while
the mother's of these same women had on an average 8.2 children;-
This decrease in the size of the negro family accords with the
conditions obtaining in the South at large as will be seen from the
table. TABLE XIX.
Children Under 5 per 1,000 AA'omen 15 to 44 Years of Age.

Negro I White

I 1910 [ 1900 I 1910 I 1900
Virginia  545 | 594 | 577 I 591
North Carolina  _______
South Carolina __   .
Florida  — — — — .
Georgia 

661 I 674 I 675 | 677
654 ! 712 I 647 | 630

486 I 599 I 600 | 639
592 I 663 I 647 | 642

' Inquiry also showed that the age at which these mothers in
Gainesville was 18.9 as compared with 16.2 av. (age at time of
marriage of their mothers.) Here again 143 women out of 219
declared that they did not know how old their mothers were when
they were married. The decreasing size of the negro family and
the tendency of the negro women to wait until later in life to marry
should result in higher standards of living and make possible a
higher type of home life by keeping the women in the home.
- Of present conditions a report of the conjugal condition of the
negro mother in Gainesville is as follows:
Widows  34
Separated  11
Single  14
Married and living with husbands  178
37

This shows that only 178 or 7 5.1 percent of the women with
children have aid in rearing their families. This, of course, means
neglected homes and neglected children and presents one of the
darkest aspects of negro family life.
V. Divorce.
Of those separated very few reported themselves as divorced.
The court records of the country showed that during 1919 of the
52 suits for divorce only 4 were brought by negroes. This does not
argue any greater stability of family life among the negroes but
merely indicates that they do not resort to the courts for the settle
ment of their family difficulties. Of the four suits brought three
were for infldelity and one for cruelty. Many negroes seem un
conscious of the fact that a divorce is necessary before entering into
marriage again after a separation. And such marriages are en
tered Into freely without fear of interference from the -white man's
court. VI. Crime.
The court records show that in Gainesville during last year (1919)
there were arrested 7 8 women of whom 47 were negroes and 29
were white women. The ways in which women most commonly
offend against the law may be seen from the table below.
TABLE XX.
Offenses Against the Law of the Negro Women of Gainesville.
Fighting  ,  14
Disorderly conduct on streets  16
Selling whiskey  3
Late -hours  1
Unlawful assembly  10
Drunk on streets  3
This record shows that disorderly conduct on the streets and
fighting are the crimes for which the negro women are most com
monly arrested. It is significant to note from the dates of the arrests
on the charge of fighting that there are usually made three or four
at the same time showing that the fight must have been a com
munity affair. These occasions for strife often occur when a num
ber of women are visiting at the same house -during an afternoon,
and disputes among the children reach such a pitch that the mothers
also become involved. Jealousy and gossip form the motive force
of others.
As shown from the above and from the complaints made about
servants, discipline is the great need of negro life, to an extent
iiot being given by the home and the school. Servants need to de
velop some feeling of responsibility as to the quality of service they
render and the importance of regularity and faithfulness to duty.
The -disorder and fighting of negro children on the streets and their
boisterous ways in their games show that school and home need to
38

be supplemented by some other agency with a disciplinary effect.
This could probably be furnished by organizations analogous to the
Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts in which ideals of politeness, good work
manship, and service to others could be developed. These organi
zations could be conducted by the leaders among the negroes, their
teachers and college-bred people with the friendly co-operation of
the white organizations of the same type.

39

CHAPTER VII.
Education.
I. Location and History of Negio Schools in Gainesville.
At the end of the Civil War, Gainesville had not sufficient popula
tion to have a school established by the Freedman's Bureau, but
there grew up schools maintained by private agencies which at
tracted a great number of the negroes of both sexes. These were at
first taught in private homes, but when the negroes began to build
churches of their own the schools were moved there and maintained
until the beginning of the city public schools in 1892. At that time
there were two teachers in the schools which were taught in the
First Baptist church and St. Paul's Methodist church.
-Soon after the city system was inaugurated, a frame building was
erected for the negroes near the Southern depot, and this continued
in use until 19 03, when it was destroyed by the cyclone which swept
over the town. Again the negro schools were taught in the churches
until a new building could be erected. This time it was located on
Fair street where it is intersected by Hunter in the center of the
negro district. The new four room frame building and the favorable
location caused the attendance to increase rapidly until in 1912
two other rooms were added, and the teaching forces increased to six.
No work of High School grade is attempted, the eighth grade being
used chiefiy for review and more intensive study of the elementary
¦branches. Especially good work is done in analysis of those prob
lems in arithmetic which are likely to be met with by the students
after leaving school.
Besides the publi-c school with its eight grades, there exists in
Gainesville, the Northwestern -Normal and Industrial School owned
and maintained by the Northwestern Baptist Association of negroes.
This school is located on East Myrtle street and consists of two
frame buildings, one of which is used for a girl's dormitory and the
-other for class room v/ork. The latter is a two-story construction
with six large rooms, but only the ground floor is used. The small
number of students together with the great amount of room forms
quite a striking contrast to the crowded conditions in the public
schools. The teaching force consists of the principal and two negro
women and while there are only 36 pupils enrolled, the work ex
tends over 9 grades. 2 3 of the pupils, 5 boys, and 18 girls are en
rolled in the grades from the fifth up to the ninth, with only two
girls in the graduating class for this year.
Some attempt is made to teach the boys practical agriculture on
the 6 acres of land owned by the school and the authorities hope to
utilize the unused space of their building to introduce manual train
ing at some future time. There are 6 -girls boarding at the girl's
dormitory, and they are taught domestic science by the doing of the
40

house work and cooking under the supervision of one of the teachers.
Music is taught in the school. The value of the school to the ne
groes of the town seems to be in the fact that it furnishes a year or
two of additional training to the graduates of the public school and
affords a refuge to those who are unwilling to send their children to
a free school. For the most part the work is only a duplication of
that which is better done in the public school.
U. Enrollment and Attendance of the Public Schools.
The following table will show the growth in the number of pupils
enrolled in the schools 1903-1918. TABLE XXI.
Enrollment and Attendance of Public Schools of Gainesville.
1903-1918.

Year

1 Enrollment | Average
1 1 Attendance

Pupils- per
Teacher

1 White 1 Negro | |
jMale[Female|Male Female] White|Xegro

White j Negro

1903 _
1908 _
1913 _ _
1918 

 1 402| 389 168 213 520
_| 420| 454 125 187 710
_| 582| 665 1 226 251 | 936
 1 640| 678 j 191 254 | 678

137285270
301

495151*8

127 5268
~ 64

From the above it will be seen that the enrollment of the negroes
has increased much less rapidly than for the whites. The former
showing an increase of only 16 percent from 1903 to 1918 while
the latter enrollment has increased 65 percent. This smaller in
crease in enrollment of the negroes is mostly offset 'by the fact that
their attendance for 1918 shows an increase of 119 percent over that
for 19 03, while that of the whites shows an increase of 307 percent.
The failure of the negroes to increase their enrollment must be due
largely to the crowded condition of the school as well as to the fact
that the school has failed to provide the kind of training which the
place of the negro in industry demands. The falling off in the en
rollment of the boys is especially marked, there being an actual de
crease in the number enrolled in 1908 from the enrollment of 190 3
and another falling off in numbers in 1918. In each case this took
place in one of the flve year periods where the conditions in the
school were especially congested and just before an addition was
made to the teaching force. The figures for 1918 show an average
of 64 pupils per teacher, but this does not adequately represent the
crowded condition for at the beginning of the term in 1919 the
seven teachers enrolled respectively 26, 54, 78, 54, 68, 60, and 100
pupils. In the primary grades where conditions are worst the seat
ing capacity is- sufficient for little more than half of the pupils and,
the children are crowded together three or four in a seat intended
only for two and the desks placed so closely together as to leave
almost no aisle between them. Under such circumstances the teacher
41

can do little more than keep order and it is not surprising that the
attendance is irregular. The falling off in the enrollment of boys is
greater than for that of the girls, because there are not so many
offers of positions to girls of school age, and also because many of the
parents of the school children appear to believe that there are more
openings in life for the educated negro girls than for the boy."*
It was observed during the days that the investigator visited the
schools that a very large percent of the pupils came late to school
especially the girls of the upper grades. This was explained in
part 'by the fact that some of the girls go out to service in the
mornings before school and in the afternoons, and that often they
are delayed in getting to school. Still more likely than this how
ever is the disorganized state of the average negro howse where
some members of the family leave early in the morning for their
work, and others going out later cause the meals to be prepared
at irregular hours and the children left to go to school at their
pleasure TABLE XXII.
Average Age of the Gainesville School Children in the Grades.

»,

Negro

White 1

Diff. in Avr.

Male]

Pern. Avr.

Male Pem. | Avr.

First Grade _ _

7.9

7.8 7.8

7.3 7.1 7.2

.6

Second Grade _

9.5

9.1 9.3

' 8.4 8.1 8.2

1.1

hird 'Grade _ _

10.4

9.2 9.8

8.8

8.4 8.6

1.2

Fourth Grade _

11.8

11.4 11.6

10.2

9.6 9.8

1.8

Fifth Grade

12.4

11.6 112.

11.1

10.5 10.8

1.2

Sixth 'Grade _ _

13.9

12.6 |13.2

1 1'3.1

13.1 13.1

1.1

Seventh Grade |

16.9 1

13.2 |15.1

13.1

13.1 13.1

2.

It will be seen at once that the average age for the negro child
is in every case higher than that of the white child, beginning with
a slight difference in the flrst grade and in reaching the highest
point of difference in the seventh grade. It will also be seen that
the average age of the girl is in both races less than that of the boy
and that the greatest difference -between the ages of the white boy
and the negro girl is less. Whether to account for the difference
in age between the school children of the two races by racial dif
ferences or by differences in school conditions it is impossible to
say; but as long as the school facilities of the two races are not the
same, one may assume that a part at least of the retarded develop
ment of the negro child is due to lack of equal opportunity in the
schools and different social conditions.
Observation showed also that the ages of the girls In the different
grades not only varied less from the normal age than did the boys
and that the difference in age between the youngest and oldest girl

? Principal W. H. Harper thinks this accounts for the withdrawal of manv
of the negro boys. 42

was less than that of the corresponding ages for boys. A study of
the ages ot the children of two first grades will illustrate this.
TABLE XXni.
Comparison of Ages of Boys and Girls of First Grade.

|6 yrs.|7 yrs.;8 y
|M.;F.[M.|P.|M.
_ _ 23|23|16|13 24
. - _ 12|27| 71 2 4

rs. 9 yrs.|10 yrs.jll yrs.|12 yrs.|lo yrs.
P. M.jP.jM. 1 P. |M. j F. ]M. 1 P.|M.] |P.

Negro _ _
White _ .

12 6| 4| 4
3 1| 2; 1

11

1

1 1|
1 1

Thus in the first grade of the negro school the age of the boy
varies from 6 to 15, while the majority of the girls are 6 years of
age and not one is over 10. The fact is even more evident. In the
white school where 27 out of 34 girls are 6 years of age while only
127 out of 28 of the boys are 6, while the oldest is 10. This greater
variation in the ages of the boys is seen in all the grades.
IV. Expenditures.
There are at present nine teachers in the negro school, the princi
pal and 8 women teachers. All of these teachers have had some
training beyond High School, there being three graduates of Clarke
University, one of -Payne College, and the others graduates of various
negro academies in the State. All, except two of these, are Gaines
ville negro women who received their earlier training in the school
In which they are teaching and who understand thoroughly the con
ditions of the homes from which their pupils come. They appear
to be greatly devoted to their work and although laboring under
great difficulties are apparently successful in their teaching. In
some of the rooms the children seem to have been well disciplined,
and under excellent control, giving immediarte response to every
request of the teacher. In all the rooms the opening exercises were
excellent, the children entering into the singing with great spirit and
listening attentively to the religious features of the exercises.
These teachers receive from $290 to $720 annually for their ser
vices. The average expenditures per pupil and the average monthly
salary of teachers for 1913-1918 may be seen from the following
table. T.IBLE XXIA^
Exi)enditures for AATiite and Colored Schools.
No. Teachers. Average cost per pupil. Average salary teacher.
I w7]GT|Whlte I Colored | White | Colored

J  I M. I P. I M. I P.

1913 __ _ -124! 7! $1.70
1918  l27| 9| 1.61

.90
1.00

103.33 145.

44.331 78.00
44.001 80.00

$33.33 32.00

It will be seen that while the monthly cost per pupil actually de
creased in the period from 1913 to 1918 that of the negroes was
slightly increased. It will also be seen that there was a slight de-
43

crease in salary for the women teachers of both races with a slight
increase for the males of both races.
V. Effect of Schools Upon the Negro Women of Gainesville.
The United States census reports for 1910 show that there are in
Gainesville 1,273 negroes over 10 years of age and that of these
372 are illiterate. While this represents 29 percent of the negro
population as illiterate compared with the 4.1 percent for the- whites,
it yet represents an immense gain in literacy for the negroes during
the last half century by the reduction of their illiteracy 71 percent.
Not only has the illiteracy of the negro women in Gainesville been
reduced but investigation showed that there are in the town 31 ne
gro women who are graduates of colleges or normal schools of
recognized standing among their race, such as Clarke University,
"Tuskegee Institute, Payne College, etc. The record of the girl-grad-
utaes for the past three years will show that the majority continue
their education in order to become teachers and leaders among their
race. Record of girl graduates- of Gainesville, 1917-1919.
Students in Northwestern High -School  5
.Students in Clarke University  :  3
Student Morehouse College  1
Student iSpellman -Seminary  1
Teacher (rural school)  1
Nurse training  '¦___ 1'
Unknown  :  3
15
While this seems to argue that the school does provide for the
training of the leaders of the race it will be seen from Table X that
only 19 percent of the Gainesville negro women who work away
from home as engaged in professional or business pursuits. And that
817 of them are engaged in hotel and domestic service and for work
ers in their field almost no training is provided. Domestic science
has been introduced into the school and there is one teacher, a
graduate of Clarke University who gives her entire time to the work
but the training given reaches only those of the upper grades, most
of whom, later go to college, and the majority of the girls who go
out to service are not affected by it.
As the servant problem becomes more acute with the passing from
service oi those negro women trained under the regime of slavery
ahd during the early years after the war, it becomes evident that
some system of training must be built up to supplant the old if even
tolerable service is to be obtained. The looseness of family ties
among the negroes has heretofore prevented their training from be
ing given by the mother to the daughter and now that the condi
tions in the average honie are so far from ideal, there is no hope of
44

training being received there. The only solution seems to be the
:a' reduction of an efficient system of domestic training into the
schools, say, from the third grade up under the supervision of
trained workers capable of giving instruction in the fundamentals
of domestic science and art, simple principles of household economy
and sanitation in the home, as well as training in those moral
qualities essential to good service in any line. If such training were
introduced with extension work and night classes for over school
age it seems reasonable to suppose that there would soon be in ex
istence a sufficient number of trained workers for service in the
nomes as well as a large group of quiet and sensible negro women
giving their time to the care of their own home sand the building
up of negro family life.

45

CHAPTER VIII.
Lodges and Insurance.
I. The Lodge.
Lodges for negro women are of later growth than the lodges
for negro men but the growing importance of the lodge in the life
of the women of the town may be seen from the fact that there are
in Gainesville 5 lodges admitting women to membership with a total
of 178 women belonging. This does not mean however that there
are 178 negro women belonging to lodges for some of them are
members of more than one order. Some of these lodges or "house
holds" were organized as auxiliaries to the men's organization, and
they furnish a social center for the life of the negro women which
has a much stronger appeal to them- than the organization of the
women within the church. Each of the five lodges carries some
provision for sick benefits and all make some provision for burial
expenses. In some of the lodges the insurance feature seems to
be the chief attraction while in one of them it is reported that sick
benefits are sometimes not even claimed because the members are
of the well-to-do class of negroes, to whom the social feature of the
lodge is the main thing.
Membership in the lodges is highly selected, for most of the
thriftless and ignorant class are not members, while among those
who are leaders in the lodges, are some of the negro women who are
'best known and most highly respected by the whites. The purpose
of the organization as expressed in almost every case, is the uplift
of the negro race by the promotion of high ideals of home life ac
cording to religious principles. It has been questioned whether the
lodges promote these ideals but the quality of the membership of the
majority of those in Gainesville seem to argue that the lodge either
selects the best for membership or that those selected for member
ship have been greatly benefitted by their connection with the lodge.
About no other aspect of the negro woman's life has there been
more of speculation and misunderstanding than about the negro
lodge. There seems to exist among the white women of the town
a belief that the negro women in their lodges or in some other
organization established for that purpose, had formed an agreement
as to the amount of work, number of hours, and the wage which
they would agree upon with the whites. Some even believe that
this organization had prevailed upon its members not to go out to
service at all, adopting as its motto the words signified by the title
of the organization, W. W. T. K., or AVhite Women to the Kitchen.
The existence of such a belief among the white women of the town
is encouraged by such impudent replies of the negro women to those
seeking servants as "We's got our Union back of us." "We gets
instructions from our Union every day," or "we mean for the white
46

women to know what it means to do the work we're been doing."
No trace of any such Union was found among the negro women, and
from the respectable character of most of the negro women in the
lodges, it does not seem probable that such a sentiment is being
entertained by them. The existence of this spirit on the part of
some negro women is probably due to the coming in from the out
side of some negro women from those sections where the feeling be
tween the races is anything but friendly and where propaganda
among the negroes by interested parties has arraigned them against
the whites. That the negro women talk over the different peculiari
ties of the white women for whom they work cannot be doubted
when one sees how well informed their servants are as to who is
"particular" about house work, who has guests most frequently,
who serves the best meals and other matters of interest to employee.
This however can be accounted for by the fact that the women are
accustomed to visiting each other in the evenings after work and
this gives an opportunity for exchange of views as to the relative
vv'orth of different employers.
That the lodge furnishes a diversion from the routine of the
working day and that It, for that very reason, draws to it a large
number of the more intelligent class of negro women, gives it im
mense possibilities for good or evil. The looseness of family ties,
the laxity of work, a wrong attitude toward work and service pre
vailing amongst the negro women should 'be some of the things
against which the lodge should set its face and try by constructive
work to remedy. That such is the ideal of the founders of many
cf the lodges is seen from the sentiments expressed in the purpose
of the lodge and formulated in their mottoes and laws. The great
need is for the development of strong leaders, the extension of ideals
of the lodge to a greater number of women and a constructive pro
gram to provide for the normal training of young girls and the
strengthening of the home ties.
The following table will show some of the facts about the negro
women's lodges in Gainesville. TABLE XXX.
Lodges of Gainesville Xegro AA'^omen.

Name

Good Samaritan — — —
Independent Benev. Order
Court of Calanthe — —
Household of Ruth 
Ladies Court H. of Jericho

Membership

IDues

per

M.

S. B.

M. i F.
~71 ^1 90

1

1

60c

$l.oT) wk
11 [ 14
1
25c
1.00 wk
3 1 19
1
2 5c
1.50 wk
1 27
1
65c
1.50 wk
1 28
25c
1.50 wk
The Good Samaritans and the Independent Benevolent orders ad
mit both men and women to membership and the officers are pretty
evenly divided between the two sexes. The Good Samaritan organl-
47
zation owns property in Gainesville valued at $1,000. The Ladies
Court Heroines of Jericho is the sister organization of the Masons,
the Court of Calanthe, of the Knights of Pythias, and the Household
of Ruth, of Odd Fellows. Each of these lodges holds its meetings
in the small hall where the "brothers" meet, but -at different hours,
i;nd only the wives or sisters of the members of the men's lodges are
eligible to membership in the sisters. Men may become members of
the women's organization, and a few are admitted by the women
for the sake of convenience as to the keeping of the halls, door
keeper, etc. Generally speaking there seems to be a better type of
negro women in the entire organization than in those where the
membership is divided more equally between men and women.
The monthly dues of the organization represent only a small part
of the amount actually paid into the lodge; for Instance, in the
Independent Benevolent order, in addition to the regular dues, there
is paid a sum of 45c toward an endowment fund, ahd a special tax
of 25c may be levied as often. This, together with the amount paid
out for regalia and badges makes the lodge a rather expensive
affair, and the sick benefits to the members are small. In addition
to the sick benefits, however, a burial fee of $25.00 more is paid
out. No complaints were made about the failure to pay benefits,
and the sickness or death of a member of the lodge seemed to be
a matter of so much concern to the order as to cause them to give
any needed attention. This is a great protection to the negro women
in time of sickness, and if the desire to belong to many of the orders
is resisted the dues paid in are a sound investment. -Sometimes
excessive dues are paid as was shown in one or two instances when
the women answered that they belonged to "de Ruths" as well as
to "de Ladies of de Cote," and thus paid a considerable part of their
income for dues.
"Besides the lodges there has existed for several years an organi
zation of the negro women which is analogous to the woman's club
in the white community. The object of this club is -partly social
and partly educational. The meetings are not held regularly, but
several worth while books, such as "Pilgrims Progress" and some
of Shakespeares plays have been studied by the club, which also has
taken upon itself the providing for entertainment of negroes of note
who come to visit the town. The membership of the club is exclu
sive, the officers and members being those women of education and
good social standing in the community.
II. Insurance.
Insurance is about as constant an item ot expense in the budget
of a negro family, as is groceries or house rent. Out of 22 6 fami
lies interviewed as to insurance, 215 of the number reported some
sort of health or life insurance. In most cases there were insured
life and health of father, mother, and children in at least one com-
48

pany and often in as many as five. The following will show the
amount spent for insurance by the 215 negro families reporting
their insurance.
6 7 families spending 25 to 5 0c per week.
67 families spending 50c to $1.00 per week.
61 families spending $1.00 to $2.00 per week.
9 families spending $2.00 to $3.00 per week.
7 families spending $3.00 to $4.00 per week.
5 families spending $4.00 to $5.00 per week.
1 family spending above $5.00 per week.
The average expenditure for the negro family having insurance is
$1.38 per week. Reckoning from the flgures given by these 215
families, $15,245.36 was paid out for insurance during last year.
This includes only the report of 215 families and does not include
that paid out in insurance for lodges. This means an averoge of
$72.76 per year for those having insurance in commercial com
panies, including lodges. The different insurance agents doing busl-'
ness with the negroes report that practically "all of their policy
holders are insured with other companies, this disposition to insure
reaching its climar in the case of a few families spending from
$4.00 to $5.00 per week on premiums.
There are in Gainesville seven negro men and four negro womei^
who give their time to the selling of insurance to their people.
They are far above the average in intelligence and most of them'
look upon their work as one of great service to their race because
of its pTovision for care in cases of sickness. The companies for
which ttey work are managed entirely by negroes, most of them
with the home office in Atlanta. They seem' to have prospered, in
their work and many occupy positions of leadership in other lines
than their business. This work is carried on by a house to house
canvass for the selling of insurance and also for the collection of
premiums once every week.
Some of the white insurance agents report it is much easier to
sell insurance to negroes than to whites, because the negroes ask
no questions as to the nature and strength of the company, or its
standing through the years; but are inclined to aeCept without
question the statement of the agents and to rely implicitly on his
promises. Indeed it was found that most of the negroes did not
know the name of>the company they were insured with, but their
knowledge of the transaction was limited to the fact that they were
to pay a certain sum to the "polishin' man" every week and receive
a flxed Eum in return it they were sick. In In very few cases could
they tell at once how much they spent per week for insurance, but
would have to reckon up from their policies so much to one agent,
so much to another, etc.
The readiness with which negroes take to insurance is due in a
large part to the fact that their wages are small and that they do
49

not feel able out of them to keep any ahead for a time of need.
They are not allowed credit at the stores to the same extent as are
the whites, and while a period of sicknkess to a white family would
mean going in debt, to the negro, it would often mean actual want.
Some of the negroes enjoy a better Income when sick than when
well and actually at work as was the case with one old negro who
was insured with five different companies and received $15 per
week in benefits when sick, while he earned only $6 per week
when at work. This would seem to encourage laziness and fre
quent illnesses among the negroes, but the diligence of the insurance
companies in caring for their interests and the stringency of the
law against bogus claims, causes rather less of this than might be
expected. Although the assurance of a good income in times of sick-
aess undoubtedly does encourage many to give way to symptoms of
illness that might, much more readily be cured by work and whole
some exercise. In justice it should be said that the insurance agents
report, there are many industrious negroes who have been paying
their premiums regularly for several years, and who have never
made any claim for benefits.
While the existence of these companies has been of great benefit
to the race in providing against suffering for the neaessities of life,
they have on the other hand by the same and easy provision which
they have made for times of need tended to discourage the accumu
lation of property on the part of the negroes. This was noted from
the fact that as a rule the property holders in -Gainesville paid much
smaller premiums than those of the more thriftless class who paid
out a large portion of their income which might much more profitably
have been spent for better food, for the improvement of the home,
and for investments in real estate.
This tendency to carry insurance beyond the point where it is
actually useful, is due to the inability on the part of the negro to
understand his own interests or to resist the solicitations of the
agents who desire to enroll him in their companies. A more judi
cious spending of their income would result in the accumulation
of property, better homes, better food, and better health on the
part of the negroes.

CHAPTER IX.
The Churches.
Before the war the negroes had no separate churches for the
meetings of the blacks without the presence of the whites was
generally discouraged, but there was often among the negroes some
one who had received more of religious instruction than another
and who would be allowed to "exhort" his people. These negro
preachers were often taught to read by some member of the masters
family or who had the Bible read to him until he memorized the
scripture verses to be used as his text. Negroes were received
into the membership of white churches and at service time occupied
the pews at the rear of the church. Missionaries to preach to the
slaves were supported by several of the religious denominations of
the South and the effort to Christianize the negroes was urged as
one of the justifications of slavery. But at the end of the war all
of the Southern churches began to encourage the organization of
separate churches; and the negroes, glad of the opportunity to
have an organization over which they would have complete con
trol, were not loath to withdraw mem'bership from the ¦white
churches. I. Membership.
At present, there are in Gainesville seven negro churches with an
aggregate membership of 1,023 -members. If it is remembered
that the total population as shown by the 1910 census is only
1,629, it will be seen that a large majority of the negroes are mem
bers of some church. The only denominations represented are the
Baptist, Methodist, and Holiness; there being no other organized
congregation, although there were reported a few negroes of the
Presbyterian and Episcopal faith.
The distribution of the negroes in the different churches may be
seen from Table XXVI. TABLE XXVI.
Church Membership of Gainesville Negroes.

Church

Membership

Baptist.

First Baptist 
St. John's Baptist 
Sanders Chapel 
Methodist ¦Colored Methodist Episcopal 
African Methodist Episcopal 
St. Paul's Methodist Episcopal
Holiness — — —  — — —

Male I Female |Total
"To 0 i 200 1^00
104 I 206 400
3 4 7

186 6

I 13
I 12
I 100
I 39

15
20
286 -45

From a glance at the table it will be seen that in all the churches,
the women furnish by far the largest element. Not only is this true

51

of the membership, but the pastors report that those of the men
who are members of the church are much less regular in their at
tendance than the women. That the church is losing its hold upon
the negro men, cannot be doubted, but if the influence of the church
upon negro women were such as to influence their conduct and to
have great weight with them in the character of the moral training ,
which they give their children in the home, the outlook would be
less .^discouraging. The emotional element in the religious services'
has "a greater appeal to the women than to the men, as will be,
noted from the fact that the Holiness church which keeps its hold
on the people, alndost wholly by the power of its services to stir thej
emotions, has a membership of 39 women to only 6 men. THe'
churches were formerly thei only .places where the whole community.
cpiild get together a,nd this was a strong social as well as religious,
appeal!^. "The smaller attendance , of the men is partly accounted. for
by'the distractions afforded by their lodges and their various gather-,
ing places where they cpme together on Sundays, instead of ^.ttend;^
ing tli6.church.e_s. . The._ women's lodges, offer less.cornpetition thas
the men; because their meetings are held in the afternoons instead.
of the Evenings, and tliB meinbership Is. not so large. ^ -
J I't;',§eenis unfortunat^r^that , there -is such a; m-ultlplicity of or
ganizations in a community which could support only one or twq.,
efficient organizations at the best. The smallness of the member
ship, the rivalry and ill feeling existing between the different
cfifirfch'es present the- ptoJSr' carrying out of the* functions of the
cniifoh by causing a great waste in flnancial resources and spirltuai''
energy. '" - .... - - i
-Lft,; .. . .:j , II. '. Services-. "-' ¦" '•¦
.The regular services, at. most of the churches are held on j.Sunday.,
morning, Sunday evening, and the prayer- service on Wednesday is r
better, ^ttended than. the Sunday morning service, the reason seem
ing to be that a good many of the members -of the congregation,,
especially the women, are engaged in work during the morning, and
still others prefer to remain at home and rest, and then "just be
cause folks had rather get out at night." The Evening service is
usually scheduled to .begin at about 7:30 during thei.winter months,
and at a later hour during the summer months. To one not familiar •
with the customs of the negro,, i.t_would, be difficult to tell at any
particular time whether a service is--beg-inning--or ending, for there
is- muc;h coming ^nd going during the entire services especially' of.
tiie yooing people. They can be observed to -leave the church in'
groups, stand talking for a Je_w minutes, wajk up or down, the
streets, meet with other groups, and then return to the church ex
changing greetings as they come out, , Some do not go into the -
church at all until late in the service, these occupy the back seats
and take no part in the services. 52-

The meeting is begun with the singing of hymns selected from
the denominational song books, or in time of religious revival, by
one of the old plantation melodies started by some member of the
congregation and sung without accompaniment of organ or piano.
Many of their hymns are the same as those sung by the whites
with some special adaptation made for the negro voice. If no
adaptation has been made by the hymn book, new words and varia
tions of the tune are introduced by the negroes as the songs are
rendered and the result is most pleasing for the negroes love for
music and his "gift of song" is at its very best in the church services
where the emotions are allowed expression in this form.
For instance where the White children sing in Sunday School
"Bring them in! Bring them in!"
the negro children sing,
"Bring them in. Shepherd! Bring them in!"
adding to the beauty of the hymn by the addition of new words as
well as singing it with more feeling. Sometimes the hymns are
"lined out" the members of the congregation singing after the
words have been given out by the leader or by the minister. This
lining out is in itself musical and the feeling which is put into th^
reading seems to have a stimulating effect upon the singing which
follows. There is more of singing and praying preceding the sermon than
in the white church. The prayers are often rendered by volunteers
and are appealing from the note of sadness in them as well as the
direct conversational tone of the utterance. On Sunday's when the
communion is taken and frequently on other occasions an oppor
tunity is given for self expression and religious experiences are re
lated. These are the services which are evidently enjoyed most and
a large part of the congregation take part but again, the women
manifest greater interest. During times of revival this is a very
prominent part of the services, and the work of the speaker is often
interrupted by the shouting and praying of others. At these times
much personal work is done and the leaders of the church may be
seen going over the church making a personal appeal to the young
at the same time that personal testimony is being rendered. This
sometimes meets with a ready response upon the part of the young
people, but on other occasions, they appear to be much embarrassed
by being addressed in this way, and show a disposition to retire
from the church in the face of it.
The preaching, because of the longer preliminaries, begins rather
late, and the sermons are longer than in the white churches, the
negroes often remaining at church until far into the night. The
preacher receives much encouragement during the delivery of his
discourse, especially at the times when he reaches a high pitch of
oratory or puts on the "rousements" as the negroes call it. During
5 3

these times, both men and women give expressions to such remarks
as "Give it to 'em brother," "Aaint it de truf," "Now you're talkin',"
and other encouraging phrases; while those of the women who
occupy the front seats are seen to nod to each other and smile ap
provingly when some principle is enunciated with emphasis. -Most
of the Gainesville ministers are unsparing in their condemmnation
of the popular forms of amusement, such as the theaters and dance
halls, and the members of their church are reminded that they are
amenable to church 'discipline as well as to punishment in the
world to come. It is by no means an unheard of thing for a church
to withdraw membership from those of its number who have in
dulged in such pleasures, and great effort is made to induce the
members to make their lives during the week square with their
profession of religion on Sunday.
At the Holiness church, the principal part of the service is given
over to expression of religious convictions. This is followed and
sometimes accompanied by shouting, singing, the speaking of un
known tongues, the holy dance, and extemporaneous playing on the
organ. The preacher has a difficult time making himself heard
although he continues his exhortation to the mourners, and to those
who are "happy" during the whole time that this expression of
sentiment holds sway.
In all the churches there are many special occasions on which
great efforts are made to attract a crowd, and have an imposing
service. "Children's night" calls for weeks of preparation before
hand, and the recitations, and songs, as well as the display of
flowers, and the church decorations of mottoes, and banners makes
it an occasion of delight for negroes of all ages. At funerals, there
is always a "march" of the members of the lodge in full regalia, it
the deceased happens to have been a member of ths lodge. Other
special occasions are also celebrated by appropriate services.
III. Collections.
Some of ths churches are well organized for financial administra
tion. The church is divided into groups of 10 or 15 members called
"Units" and each one is placed in charge of a unit leader who sees
to it that each member of -his unit contributes his part to the sup
port of the church. In ons church the men are uniformly assessed
faOc per month, and the women 25c per month, while another church
follows the method of assessing according to income. Both pastor
and unit leaders agree that the women meet their obligations with
greater willingness than do the men, although their contributions
represent a considerable sacrifice from their scant earnings.
The table method of collection is used. At each service when a
collection is taken, the secretary or clerk with some one to count
the money, sit at the table in front of the church and keep the
record as the members of the church go up, and make their con-
54

.ributions. Many of the bett.3r class of negroes siy that this method
of taking collection is distasteful to them, and that they would pre
fer some less ostentatious manner of making their gifts, but that
the great majority of the congregation are unwilling to abandon the
method. The women take this as an opportunity for displaving their
finery, and often make their gifts in several installments, thus in
creasing the number of times they appear in f.-ont of the congre
gation.

St. Paul's M. E. Church in "Xegro Tomi," Gainesville.

At the St. Paul's :\Iethodist Church which is perhaps the best or
ganized, there are set aside special days for gifts to the various ob
jects fostered by the denominations. For Instance, on Easter the
contributions go to general benevolences, on Good-Tidings Day in
October, to Foreign Missions, and in February the funds contributed
go to the Freedman's Aid Collection for Schools. The pastor is paid
$800 per year and furnished a comfortable parsonage adjoining the
church. The contributions to missions and benevolences is also con
siderable. The amounts paid into the other churches are very small. The
Colored Methodist Episcopal and the African Methodist Episcopal
do little more than provide railroad fare and entertainment for the
pastor during the time that he is in town. St. John's Baptist has a
non-resident pastor who is paid about $200 per year. Sanders Chapel
a Baptist church of seven members was organized on the grounds
55

between the First Baptist and St. John's Baptist church in full reach
of them both and lor no other apparent reason than the desire to
multiply organizations. lA^. Organization Within the Church.
All of the churches except the -Holiness reported Sunday Schools
and most of them have some organization of women within the
church. The following will show the membership and the teaching force
of the Sunday Schools. TABLE XXVII.
Negi'o Sunday Schools in Gainesville.

Church

S. Teachers

Baptist.

St. John's Baptist
First Baptist — _
-Sanders Chapel 
Methodist. St. Paul's M. B. _
African M. E. 
Colored M. B.  .

It will be seen that the majority of the teachers in the Sunday
School are women, most of them being inexperienced girls without
any training for their work. Even with this, their attendance at
Sunday School is irregular and often on Sunday morning substitute
teachers will have to be found for many of the classes among those
who have made no pretence of preparing the lesson. With a teach
ing force of this sort there need be no surprise that the moral
result of the Sunday School training is almost nil. Here is an op
portunity for the whites to co-operate in training of teachers and
better organization of the Sunday School, a friendly -spirit of helpr
fulness and co-operation will invite friendliness in return and make
it possible for the stronger race to perform its duty of service for
the weaker one.
In almost every church there is some organization of the women
for neighborhood service. These organizations are however the
"Women's Home Mission," "The Ladies Aid" and the mem'bers con
tribute on an average about 10c per week. In the Baptist churches
the proceeds go to the support of the North Western High School
and the funds of the Ladies Aid are given over to local benevolences.
The negro women are very devoted to their organizations and reg
ular in attendance. Many instances of helpfulness were reported
and their organizations are well thought of in the neighborhood.
IV. Buildings.
•' Most of the church buildings are frame buildings, painted and in
fairly ^good condition. Sanders Chapel is being put up by the labor
56

of the members of the church and although it has been in process
of erection for three years it is not yet completed. St. Paul's
Methodist is a neat brick building with three Sunday School rooms
and a main auditorium accommodating about 300 people. The
negroes take pride in keeping their churches in good order. A
prominent part of every church is its steeple with a bell to summon
people to church. All of the churches are located in "Negro Town"
except the First Baptist which is on West High Street in a white
neighborhood. \. Influence of the Church Upon the Community.
From the large percent of those affiliated with the church no one
can doubt that the negro is intensely religious, but that it has less
hold on him than in former years seems also to be true. When
asked of their church membership, scorn of the church and what it
stands for was expressed in some homes while others showed merely
indifference saying, that they were too busy to go. Of the 250 homes
visited, only 28 did not have Bibles. And in every home where there
were church members, there was expressed great contempt for the
theatre, and the dance halls. The Holiness, forbid their members to
use tobacco, and it is believed that the people of this faith adhere
strictly to the teachings of their church, although, one old woman
declared, that she used "a. little snuff just to satisfy herself," and didn't
consider it worth while to report it to the church.
It is for the church to extend that moral influence and force to
strengthen the family life, increase respect for law, and order, and
encourage industry, and faithfulness to duty. This, the church is not
able to do, because of its lack of trained leaders of irreproachable
character, and pure lives. Because of their lack of ethical leadership
at the end of the war, the church has never been able to develop a
sufficient number of leaders, and it remains for the whites, to give them
such aid and encouragement in the development of leaders of the
negro church, as will make it possible for the negro church to exert
that moral force In the community, which the interests of both races
demand.

5 7

.VPPENDIX A
Questionnaire for Negro Home.
I. Condition of Home  Street  Yard 
House Painted  No. Rooms  Condition of Rooms
 Families in House  No. Persons in House 
Source of Water Supply  Closet 
II. Age  Place of Birth  Length of residence in
Gainesville  Married, single, widowed, divorced 
Age at time of marriage  No. children  No. chil
dren to mother  Membership in church  Lodge
 Employment  No. hours per day  Wage
 Time spent in present employment  Reasons for
fthange of employment.
III. Ownership of Home  Source of income 
Amount of income  Expenditures for food  Rent
.  Clothing  Lodge  Insurance 
Church  No. meals cooked per day in home 
Buying of supplies by day  wesli  or month 
B
Questionnaire for White Homes Employing Servants.
1. Number of servants employed  , 
2. Did you have references when employing your servants? 
3. What are their hours of work? 
Their Compensation? 
4. Does your cook carry a "Service Basket?" 
Does she receive any other form of compensation other than her
wage? 
5. Do your servants take Sunday off? 
6. Do they come regularly, and on time 
Are they honest?  Wasteful?  Efficient? 
7. What were your reasons for discharging of cook, or maid? 
8. What ars the most common causes of complain against negro
women as servants? 

1. Name of Company 
2. Management of Company  White or Negro.
3. Number insured  Men  Women 
Children 
4. Number receiving benefits from your Company last year 
5. Amount dispensed in benefits 
58

6. What is your method of collection?
of solicitation 
7. How many did you have to fall in arrears with their premiums
last year? 
8. Why is insurance so easily sold to Negroes? 
D
Questionnaire for Lodges.
Name 
Members: Male  Female  Officers: Male 
Female  Dues  Sick benefits  Death
benefits  Time and place of meeting 
Attendance  Value of property owned 
Questionnaire for Churches.
Location and value of church property 
Members: Male  Female  Time of service 
 Attendance  Dues  Pastor's
salary  Benevolences  Sunday School 
No. members: Male  Female  Teachers 
Male  Female 
Qualiflcations of Teaehers.
Organizations of women in the church 
Purpose  Members  Dues 
Service to community  

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Boas, Franze — ^The Mind of Primitive Men. Macmillan Co., 1911.
Bruce, P. A. — The Plantation Negro as a Freeman. G. P. Put-
man's Sons, New York.
DuBois, W. E. B. — The Souls of the Black Folk. A. C. McClury,
Jr. Co., Chicago, 1907.
The Philadelphia Negro, University of Pennsylvania. Publications
Philadelphia, 1899.
Giddings, Franklin H. — The Black Man's Rights. Independent,
August 2, 1919.
Hoffman, F. L. — Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Ne
gro. Macmillan Co., 1896.
Martin, A.E. — Our Neg Population. Kansas City, 1912.
McCurdy, Robert — ^Negro Women as Trained Nurses. An Experi
ment in a Chicago Hospital, Survey Nov. 8, 1913.
Murphy, A. G. — The Present South. Macmillan Co., 1904.
National Association of Colored Women Conference. Survey,
August 3, 1918.
Odum, H. W. — Social and Mental Traits of the Negro. Columbia
University Press, 1910. 59

Renter, B. B. — The Mulatto in the United States. Boston. R. G.
Badger, 1918.
Royce, Josiah — Race Questions and Prejudices. Macmillan, 1908.
Smith, W. B. — The Color Line. McClue, Phillips & Co., New
ork, 1905.
Smith, Percival P. — The Negro Problem from a British Point ot
View. Living Age, March, 1917.
School Reports — State School Superintendent.
Tillinghart, J. -A. — The Negro in Africa and America. Macmillan
Co., 1902.
Weatherford, W. D. — Negro Life in the South. Nashville, 1911.
Woofter, T. J. Jr. — The Negroes of Athens, Georgia. Phelps-
Stokes Studies, No. 1.
SPECIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
I — ^Sociological Study of the Negroes of Kansas City. Asa E. Martin.
II — ^Studies in the American Race Problem. Stone.
Ill — ^Plantation Negro as a Freeman. Bruce.
IV — ^Social and Mental Traits of the Negro. Odum .
V — Souls of the Black Folk. DuBois.
VI^Negro Women as Trained Nurses. Robt. McCurdy, -Survey Nov.
8, '13.
VII — National Association for Advancement of Colored People. Roy
Nash, Survey, December 30, '16.
VIII — ^Social Cost of iRace Prejudice. Geo. Elliott, Am. Jour. Soe,
March '17.
IX — ^Negro Problem from a British Point of View. Percival P.
Smith, (Living Age).
X — The Black Man's Fights. Franklin H. 'Giddings, Aug. 2, '19.
XI — Race Riots. New Republic. Aug. 9, 1919.
XII — ^Democracy and Jim Crowism. Seligman, -Sept. 3, '19.
XIII — Our Own Subject Race Rebels. Literary Digest, Aug. 2, '19.
XIV — White South's Protest Against Lynching. -Southern Work
man, Sept. '14.
XV — Rising Standards in the Treatment of the Negro. Hastings,
Oct. '19.
XVI — Colored Women in Industry. Southern Workman, Oct. '19.
XVII — ^Negro Girls and Y. W. C. A. Rose Butterham, Sept. '19.
XVIII — Negroes Progress in Fifty Years. Anna}s Am Academy,
Sept. '19.
XIX — Negro Children in Public Schools of Philadelphia. Odum.
XX — ^Higher Education of Negroes in the United -States — Edward
T. Ware.
XXI — Negro in Literature and Wit. DuBois.
XXII — Mind of the Negro Child. M. H. Pyle, School and Society.
XXHI — Up from Slavery. Booker T. Washlng,ton. '
XXIV — The Mind of Primitive Man. Boas. • ' - "
60

XXV — Race Question and Prejudice. Royce.
XXVI — American Negro Defective. Dependent. Delinquent, by Mc-
Cords.
XXVII — Negro in Africa and America. Tillinghart.
XXVIII — Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro. Hoff
man.
XXIX — Philadelphia Negroes. DuBois.
XXX — School Hygiene. Dresslar.
XXXI — 'United States Census.
XXXII — Mulatto in the United States. Renter.

61

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