YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Bought with the income of the WILLIAM C. EGLESTON FUND WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE CITY AND COUNTY EDITED BY WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE VOLUME I ILLUSTRATED CHICAGO— MILWAUKEE THE S. J. CLARKE PUBLISHING COMPANY 1922 PREFACE More than fprty years have elapsed since the story of the City and County of Milwaukee was presented in anything like a compact, comprehensive and accessible form. Since then the newspapers, the local governmental depart ments and various agencies have hourly and daily recorded the several activi ties of the community. These activities have grown in number, variety and importance, and have amplified themselves in so many diversified directions that only an assembling of certain leading facts will afford a true picture of the whole. The current records have served their purpose and the needs of their period. These records, however, soon become obscured in the mass of things, and the important and more outstanding facts and events become imbedded in the mesh of routine and in matters of temporary concern only. Thus, the essential facts and data must periodically be rescued from their submerged state and brought to the light again, collected and arranged with order and sequence, and with a due regard for their meaning and import. And since history is a continuous record of activities, tendencies and move ments it demands not only their adequate treatment but successive presenta tion as well. The story which has been halted must be resumed and told to its finish, which means that it must be brought up to the present time, and left to the future to be resumed and told again. "With this thought in mind the History of Milwaukee, city and county, is approached, presenting in compact form not only the struggles and trials of a pioneer day and the story of humble beginnings but emphasizing the crown ing achievements of a later period as well. In his treatment of the work as a whole the editor has aimed to deal more generously with the history of the past forty years and to reveal with reasonable clearness the forces and in fluences that have made for the growth and development of a great urban center of population. While the early pioneer and settlement period is by no means minimized it has been sought to accord the fullest measure of attention to the later period. It will here be recognized that the city secured in this period that economic, civic and social momentum which has reared it to its present splendor and importance as an American city. A large part of the manuscript was prepared by J. Seymour Currey who wrote an acceptable history of Chicago several years ago and whose services as a writer on historic subjects have been recognized. The chapters on the Industrial Beginning and Achievements, the Commercial Rise and Expansion, the Milwaukee Harbor, the Auditorium and the Milwaukee Association of Commerce, Alt-Milwaukee to an American City were written by the editor in v vi HISTORY OP MILWAUKEE the belief that his immediate identification with these interests and institutions qualified him to treat them more intimately and adequately. The entire his tory, however, has been written under the supervision of the editor who has spared no effort in verifying the facts presented. In the treatment of these several subjects some of which are primary and basic in the city's growth and development, the authors have aimed to go beyond the mere recital of facts and events by bringing cause and effect into play and in drawing from them permissible and warrantable deductions and conclusions. . The Editor. An American city ! "What splendid forces — latent and active — are implied in that name ! Let us miss no opportunity to bring to our service the best thought and experience of the world in city planning, city building and city living. Let us not only proclaim a place among our sister cities of the Great Republic, but deserve to be arrayed with the most progressive among them. Only by exemplifying the truest and best in American urban life shall we render ourselves worthy of being an integral part of the greatest nation on earth. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE. CONTENTS PAGE Preface v Introduction 17. CHAPTER I Discovery of the Great West 21 II Ordinance of 1787 : 37 III Discovery of the Great Lakes 43 IV Mail Carriers and Routes 53 V Indian Villages 61 VI Days of the Pur Trader 67 VII The Lead Mining Industry 77 VIII Solomon Juneau and His Family 83 IX Byron Kilbourn and George H. Walker 99 X Life and Labors of Andrew J. Vieau 107 XI Milwaukee in the Pioneer Period 113 XII The Lady Elgin Disaster 129 XIII The Great Milwaukee Fire 147 XIV Lincoln in Milwaukee 153 XV Immigration and Race Origin 171 XVI Beginnings, Dates, Events 189 XVII The Era of Internal Improvements 207 XVIII Industrial Beginnings and Achievement 219 XIX Commercial Rise and Expansion 257 XX Harbor and Marine Interests 269 XXI The Coming of the -Railroads 319 XXII Banking and Finance 339 XXIII Life and Fire Insurance 369 XXIV The Chamber of Commerce 379 XXV Milwaukee Association of Commerce 383 XXVI The Milwaukee Post Office 415 XXVII The Milwaukee Auditorium 421 XXVIII The Municipal Government 435 XXIX Water Works Department 469 XXX The Health Department 477 XXXI City Planning and Zoning 481 XXXII Milwaukee County Government 557 XXXIII Woman's Suffrage in Wisconsin 565 XXXIV Participation in War 571 XXXV Roosevelt's Visit to Milwaukee 607 XXXVI Milwaukee Public Schools 629 ix CONTENTS PAGE XXXVII Higher Institutions of Learning 647 XXXVIII The Public Library and Museum 667 XXXIX Milwaukee's Musical History 675 XL The Progress of Art in Milwaukee 685 XLI Newspapers and Trade Publications 707 XLII Public and Private Charities 739 XLIII The Transition Period 755 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Bruce, William George Frontispiece Milwaukee— An Old-Time View 20 Milwaukee in 1840— Outline Map 24 Milwaukee in 1820— Bird 's-eye View 36 Form of Proclamation — 1825 44 An Old Marriage License 44 Old Settlers' Club— Presidents 52 Milwaukee in 1853 — Bird's-eye View 60 Milwaukee in 1873 — Bird's-eye View 66 Site of First House— Tablet 80 Solomon Juneau — Portrait 84 Solomon Juneau Monument 88 Solomon Juneau, First Mayor of Milwaukee 92 Solomon Juneau — Original Letter 94 Juneau Trading with Indians — Bas Relief 94 Byron Kilbourn — Portrait 98 Byron Kilbourn Residence 100 Walker, George H. — Portrait 104 Chestnut Street in 1860 112 Increase A. Lapham — Quit Claim Deed 124 Sinking of "Lady Elgin" 130 "Augusta" — Schooner 134 Steamer "Lady Elgin" 140 John Wilson, Captain of the ' ' Lady Elgin " 140 Matthew Stein Gun Shop, The 172 Rufus King Residence 176 Old Cream City Base Ball Club 176 Wisconsin Street in an Earlier Day 180 John Pollworth 's Restaurant 1 80 Milwaukee House 184 Mrs. Milwaukee H. Smith Hackelberg 190 Charles Milwaukee Sivyer — Tablet 194 Bauer & Steinmeyer 's Store 208 East Water Street in the Early Forties 208 West Water Street— Looking North 210 Wisconsin Street— About 1867 214 Ludington Block 216 Original Penny Store 216 Skyline of Milwaukee — Looking North 218 First Steam Flour Mill 218 Northeast Corner Milwaukee and Wisconsin, 1871 220 Looking North on Main Street, 1870 220 Republican House 224 Old Newhall House 224 Astor Hotel 226 Medf ord Hotel 230 Wisconsin Street — Looking West 232 xi xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Miller Hotel and Third Street 236 Menominee Valley — Manufacturing Center 240 Milwaukee Manufacturers ' Home Building 240 The Hotel Wisconsin 244 Toy Theatre and Chinese Restaurant .' 246 East Water Street, North of Wisconsin Street 258 New Plankinton Hotel and Old Plankinton House 260 Grand Avenue East from Sixth Street 262 The Pfister Hotel .' 264 View of Milwaukee — Looking West 266 Old-Time Schooner Entering Harbor 270 Car Ferry "Grand Haven" 270 Steamer ' ' Christopher Columbus " 274 Kinnickinnic Basin 274 Harbor Plans— Outline Sketch 278 A Lake Coal Carrier 282 Menominee River, Coal Dock Center 282 Jones Island and Kinnickinnic Basin 288 Coal Handling Scenes 294 Menominee River, Coal Shipping Center 298 Milwaukee River, Grain Elevators 298 Sidewheeler "John A. Dix" 304 Old Goodrich Dock 304 Milwaukee River and Commercial Center 310 Milwaukee River North from Buffalo Street 314 Old Lake Shore Depot 320 First Railway Depot 320 Old Lacrosse Depot and Third Street in 1860 322 Railroad Rate Table 324 Officers and Employes, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry 326 Chicago & Northwestern Station 330 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. Station 330 Stock Yards at West Milwaukee 334 East Water Street — Looking North from Wisconsin Street 338 First Wisconsin National Bank Building 346 The Marshall & Ilsley Bank 350 Second Ward Savings Bank 356 Old Insurance Building 370 Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company Building 374 Northwestern National Fire Insurance Company Building 374 Chamber of Commerce and Mitchell Building 378 Merchants ' Association — Dinner Program 384 Merchants' Association — Menu Cover Design 386 Merchants' Association — Banquet Menu 386 Milwaukee Athletic Club 390 Grand Avenue, West from Bridge 392 Wells Office Building 396 View of Milwaukee — Looking Southwest 398 Majestic Building 402 The Milwaukee Club. . . 404 The Calumet Club 408 The Wisconsin Club 408 Milwaukee Yacht Club 410 Old Elks' Club House 410 Post Office— Old Building 414 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii PAGE Post Office and Wisconsin Street 418 Soldiers' Home Fair Building, 1865 422 Auditorium Building 424 Auditorium — Interior Main Arena 428 Exposition Building — Old 430 City Hall and Market Square 436 Old Courthouse and County Jail 440 Old-Time Campaign Document ' 442 City Hall and Bergh Fountain 444 Old City Hall 448 Fourth of July Announcement 450 Milwaukee Engine Company No. 1 452 Hook and Ladder Company No. 1 456 Expenditure of City Tax Revenues 458 Mass Meeting of Electors 460 Carpenter, Matthew H. — A Sentiment 462 Army Call of 1862 for Volunteers 466 Water Tower and Park 470 McKinley Park— Bathing Beach 470 Columbia Hospital 476 Milwaukee Hospital 476 Washington Park — Moonlight Scene 482 Christian Wahl— Bust 484 Mitchell Park — Sunken Gardens 484 Lake Park, Grand Terrace 486 Entrance to Lake Drive 490 Skyline of Milwaukee from the Bay 490 •North Point Light House 490 Grand Avenue Viaduct 492 Prospect Avenue 494 Layton Boulevard — Looking South from National Avenue 494 Juneau Park — Solomon Juneau Monument 496 Civic Center Group — Clas 500 Arteries — Proposed East and West, in Connection with Auditorium and City Hall Sites 502 Sketch of Suggested Grouping of Public Buildings 504 City Hall Civic Center— Map 504 Bridge and River Scheme — Clas 506 Lakeshore Drive and Parkway — Clas 508 Civic Center Scheme — Bird's-eye View Milwaukee's Proposed Parkway. . . . 508 Washington Monument 510 Arteries — Proposed East and West, in Connection with Revised Park Board Site 512 River Improvement Scheme — Clas 514 Von Steuben Monument 518 Plan Proposed by Park Board in 1909 520 Lake Front Study— Clas 522 Bridge and Dock Area — Clas 522 Auditorium Site — Plan for Grouping 524 Dr. E. B. Wolcott Monument 526 City Hall Civic. Center— Bird's-eye View 530 Civic Center Plan 1 532 Civic Center Plan 2 532 Kosciuszko Monument 534 City Hall Site— Proposed Grouping 538 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Auditorium Site — Suggested Grouping 540 Robert Burns Monument 544 Goethe-Schiller Monument, Washington Park 544 Washington Park, Seal Enclosure 546 Lief Ericson Statue, Juneau Park 546 Washington Park — Winter Scene 550 South Shore Park Bathing Beach 554 Courthouse and St. John's Cathedral 556 Soldiers ' Monument 570 Milwaukee Light Guard — Group 576 Milwaukee Light Guard — Card of Thanks 582 National Soldiers ' Home 590 Fourteenth District School 630 Twenty-third District School 630 Trinity Hospital 646 Marquette University Administration Building 646 Concordia College 650 Milwaukee-Downer College Buildings 650 Milwaukee University School 656 Milwaukee State Normal School 662 Riverside High School, East Side 662 Public Library 668 Old Dam at North Avenue 672 Layton Art Gallery 684 Old Academy of Music 690 Pabst Theatre 696 Davidson Theatre 702 Ivanhoe Commandery Temple 706# Kenwood Masonic Temple 706 Emergency Hospital 740 St. Mary's Hospital 740 Grand Avenue Methodist Church .._. 742 Grace Lutheran Church 742 The Rescue Mission 744 St. Paul's Church 746 Altenheim (Lutheran Old Folks' Home) 748 Trinity Lutheran Church 750 The Gesu Church 752 Temple Emanu-El 754 St. Josaphat's Church ¦ 754 Old-Time Milwaukee Garden Saloon 760 Sehlitz Park, Now Lapham Park 760 Henry Wehr 's, a Famous Restaurant 766 Old-fime Whitefish Bar Bay Resort 778 Old-World "Bierstube" 778 Bar at Sehlitz Palm Garden 784 Interior of a Famous Palm Garden 784 PARTI EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY PIONEER AND SETTLEMENT PERIOD IMMIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE INTRODUCTION Every community has its story of humble beginnings, of earlier struggles and trials, and of hard won achievements. Every generation receives its inspiration and guidance from the preceding generation. Every people demonstrates its character and worth by the estimate it places upon its pro genitors, and the respect and appreciation it manifests for them. Thus, an eventful past, with its achievements and its lessons, is reduced to historic record that we may enter into the charm of its romance, profit by its teachings, and emulate its examples in effort equally worthy and benefi cent. Moreover, it enables a grateful progeny to measure human values, pay tribute to the builders of a former day, and realize as well as recognize the blessings and benefactions conferred by preceding generations. The story of an Indian village that grew in less than a century to the pro portions of a great American city, that has reared mighty structures dedicated to the useful arts, to commerce and trade and to the cultural aspirations of man, is not wholly without interest or charm. True, it notes no historic battles, no brilliant or decisive strokes in war fare, no epoch making turns in the tide of human affairs, no momentous events in our national history. And yet it tells of a most splendid conflict — a conflict in which man has grappled with the elements of nature in order to subject them to uses for which the Creator intended them — a conflict in which mind has triumphed over matter. The founders of Milwaukee were men of character, of vision, of action. The Indian instinctively sought that spot where three rivers converged and opened into a beautiful inland ocean. But, the white man saw the gifts of nature, the advantage of location and environment, and proceeded to build a habitation that should suit his fancy, his needs, his purposes. He applied his ingenuity, his enterprise, and his industry, and thus performed his part in the great march of human progress and civilization. It was the trading instinct that first brought the white man to the haunts of the Indian. It was, however, the industrial bent rather than the com mercial instincts of the former that gave stimulus to subsequent economic stability and population growth. The individual mechanic, who, single handed and alone, fashioned useful things became the founder of monster industrial enterprises. The individual worker gradually resorted to the group 17 18 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE system, then came the era of organization and of quantity production. Thus, great manufacturing plants, whose products now go to the four ends of the world, found their inception with the simple mechanic in overalls, who under stood the immediate wants of his fellowman and knew how to supply them. A glance at the east and west shore lines of Lake Michigan reveals a peculiar phenomenon. The east shore presents a series of small cities and villages while the shores of Wisconsin maintain a number of large and impor tant manufacturing centers. The hinterland of the two shore lines has, no doubt, much to do with the material vitality of these cities but the primary cause must be sought elsewhere. The population that sought the west shore was in the main industrially inclined. It included a preponderance of skilled mechanics. There were, of course, those who were trained in commercial and professional pursuits, but the artisan at all times predominated. The Yankees who came from New England and the Knickerbockers, as they were then called, who came from New York state between the thirties and forties of the last century, were young, strong and hopeful. They sought business opportunities and concerned themselves with transportation, bank ing, insurance and general commercial undertakings. With the tide of immigration that rolled in between the years of 1840 to 1875 from Germany, Austria, Ireland, Scotland and the Scandinavian countries, came also that industrial impetus which since has so strongly char acterized the Wisconsin lake cities and led to Milwaukee's rise as a great manufacturing center. In connection with the foregoing it should be added that the transition, too, from a community whose racial origin was at one time more largely foreign than native, passing in an orderly, logical and consistent manner from a stage of foreignism to Americanism, constitutes a chapter that deserves treatment in the light of present day conceptions and of developments of a more recent period. What is told of the men of Milwaukee in point of industry and perse verance, is equally true of the women. They braved the privation and hard ships of a pioneer day. They bore the burdens of motherhood and shared with their husbands the sterner realities of life in a new and rough country. In the subsequent development and maintenance of educational, charitable and welfare endeavor they assumed the larger task, and thus made a mag nificent contribution to the social and moral progress of their time and their community. It is safe to say that adequate recognition has never been accorded to the part which women here played in the earlier foundations of a social order and in the development of those agencies which gave practical expression to the higher and nobler impulses of man. Histories are frequently subject to revision not so much as to the bare. facts they chronicle but rather as to the spirit they breathe, the atmosphere they aim to reflect, and the impressions they ultimately convey. Even isolated facts may" obtain their true setting and relative import in the light of later facts and conditions. Constant research and the coupling of event with event lead to the correction of misstatements, the adjustment of values and INTRODUCTION 19 the fixing of conclusions. Again, histories already begun must from time to time be brought up to date and amplified by subsequent events. In the light of the marvellous progress made by the city and county of Milwaukee during the past two decades, and in amplification of the assembled records of the past, a new history must be deemed timely and desirable. The more important events of that period, a record of the later influences and forces that have entered into the growth and development of a great population center, must be rendered accessible to present and future generations. The lessons and precepts of that period must not be lost. The contribution which the people of that political unit with which this volume deals, have made to the economic and civic life of the nation is well worthy of a dignified and permanent record. Out of the aggregate of events, out of its successes and its failures, must spring the history of a nation. The people of whom this history treats have manifested the same inven tive genius, the same enterprise and energy, the same constructive ability and the same loyalty and patriotism that has characterized the nation as a whole. They have been so closely interlinked with its material progress as to share in its adversities as well as in its successes ; they have constituted so intimately a part of its political life as to share fully in its burdens as well as its blessings. At all times have they responded, willingly, readily and unselfishly, to the national spirit and impulse as they have complied with the duties of citizen ship at home. It is with this thought in mind, and in this manner of approach, that the task of writing a new history of Milwaukee city and county, as an integral part of the Great Republic, is undertaken — a history that shall be concise, comprehensive and complete in form and presentation, and worthy of the people whose story it tells. WILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE. AN OLD TIME OIL PAINTING OF MILWAUKEE Probalily painted in the early '40s. Painting belongs to the Old Settlers Club CHAPTER I DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST In the year 1634, Jean Nicollet, accompanied by seven Indian companions, entered Lake Michigan by way of the Straits of Mackinac, and thus was the first white man to behold the broad surface of this inland sea. "Along its northern shores his canoe was paddled by his dusky oarsmen," says H. E. Legler in his "Leading Events in Wisconsin History." "At the Bay de Noquet he briefly tarried, and finally came to the Menomonee, where that river pours its waters into Green Bay." Later Nicollet ascended the Fox River until he came to the country of the Mascoutens and at that point he turned south, when within three days' journey of the portage, into the Wisconsin River, thus missing the route to the Missis sippi which Joliet and Marquette followed in 1673. At length in the course of his extended journey he reached the country of the Illinois Indians. After a sojourn with these tribes he returned to Green Bay, "doubtless along the western shore of Lake Michigan," says Legler. However, as this is a con jecture the statement may not be accepted as fully authentic. Nicholas Perrot came to visit the Wisconsin Indians in 1665, having been intrusted by the authorities at Montreal with the task of making peace among the tribes who were "fierce as wild cats, full of mutual jealousies, without rulers and without laws." In this mission Perrot succeeded remarkably well. Voyages of Joliet and Marquette. — The discovery of the Upper Mississippi River was made on the celebrated voyage of Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The beginning of the recorded history of the Great West dates from this year and this voyage, and its importance requires some account of the events which marked one of the most brilliant and daring enterprises in the annals of west ern adventure and exploration. The Mississippi River had been discovered by a Spaniard, Hernando De Soto in 1541, at a point near the present City of Memphis ; but this discovery had been well-nigh forgotten at the period of time here spoken of. That a great river existed, far to the north of the region where De Soto found and crossed the Mississippi, was well known to the French from the reports made to them by the Indians, vague and indefinite though they were; and these reports excited the imagination and stimulated the ambition of many of the adventurous spirits of the time. It does not appear to have been suspected by any of the early French explorers that the Great River of which the Indians told them, was one and the same with that discovered by the Spanish explorer, more than a century 21 22 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE before. Many conjectures were made as to where it reached the sea, on which point the Indians could give no reliable information. Some thought that it emptied into the "Sea of Virginia," others contended that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, while Frontenac, the governor of New France, was convinced that it discharged its waters into the Vermilion Sea, that is the Gulf of Cali fornia ; and that by way of it, a passage might be found to China. The Great Unknown River. — Reports having reached France, regarding the "Great River of the West," as it was often spoken of, the French minis ter, Colbert, wrote to Talon, the intendant at Quebec, in 1672, that efforts should be made "to reach the sea;" meaning to explore the great unknown river and solve the mystery of its outlet. This was followed by appropriate instructions. Father Dabloii, in the "Jesuit Relations," says: "The Count Frontenac, our governor, and Monsieur Talon, then our intendant, recogniz ing the importance of this discovery [to be made], * * * appointed for this undertaking Sieur Joliet, whom they considered very fit for so great an enterprise ; and they were well pleased that Father Marquette should be of the party." It must be understood that the government of New France at this period was of a dual character. The French King did not believe it safe to intrust the affairs of his American dominions to the hands of a single man, and there fore the office of "intendant" was created, the incumbent possessing coordi nate authority with the governor general. Thus the acts of the intendant were regarded as of equal authority with those of the governor general, and as mentioned above through the joint action of these two officials the expedi tion was authorized. Choice of Leader. — The authorities were not mistaken in the choice they made of Louis Joliet. He was a young man then twenty-eight years old, possessing all the qualifications that could be desired for such an undertaking; he had had experience among the Indians, and knew their language; he had tact, prudence and courage, and, as the event proved, he fulfilled all the expectations which were entertained of him by his superiors. Father James Marquette was a Jesuit missionary, thirty-six years old, and, in addition to his zeal for the conversion of the Indians, he was filled with a burning desire to behold the "Great River" of which he had heard so much. He was sta tioned at this time at St. Ignace, and here Joliet joined him late in the year 1672, and brought him the intelligence of his appointment to go with him in the conduct of the expedition. "I was all the more delighted at this good news," writes Marquette in his journal, "since I saw that my plans were about to be accomplished ; and since I found myself in the blessed necessity of exposing my life for the salvation of all these peoples, and especially of the Illinois, who had very urgently entreated me, when I was at the point of St. Esprit, to carry the word of God to their country." Here at St. Ignace they passed the winter. As the spring advanced, they made the necessary preparations for their journey, the duration of which they could not foresee. In two bark canoes manned by five Frenchmen, besides the two intrepid leaders, the party em barked, "fully resolved to do and suffer everything for so glorious an enter- DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 23 prise;" and on the 17th of May, 1673, the voyage began at the mission of St. Ignace. Father Marquette writes in his journal: "The joy that we felt at being selected for this expedition animated our courage, and rendered the labor of paddling from morning to night agreeable to us. And because we were going to seek unknown countries, we took every precaution in our power, so that if our undertaking were hazardous, it should not be foolhardy." The journal of Father Marquette is the principal source of our information, and is full of detail and written in a simple style. Joliet also kept a record and made a map, but, most unfortunately, all his papers were lost by the up setting of his canoe in the St. Lawrence, while he was returning to Quebec the following year to make a report of his discoveries. Thus it happens that Marquette's name is more frequently and prominently mentioned in all the accounts than that of Joliet. Beginning of the Journey. — The adventurous voyagers proceeded along the northern shore of Lake Michigan, the only portion of the lake which had at that time been explored, and entered Green Bay. They arrived at the mis sion established by Father Allouez two years before, and from here they began the difficult ascent of the Fox River. On its upper waters they stopped at a village of the Mascoutins, from whom they procured guides ; and by these friendly savages they were conducted across the portage into the upper waters of the Wisconsin River, whence the travelers made the r way alone. As the Indians turned back, they "marvelled at the courage of seven white men, ven turing alone in two canoes on a journey into unknown lands." They were now embarked on the Wisconsin River and soon passed the utmost limits of Nicollet's voyage on this river made thirty-five years before. Their route lay to the southwest, and, after a voyage of seven clays on this river, on the 17th day of June, just one month from the day they started from St. Ignace, they reached its mouth and steered their canoes forth upon the broad bosom of the Mississippi, "with a joy that I cannot express," wrote Marquette. "Here, then, we are," continues the good Father in his journal, "on this so renowned river." Westward, coming down to the water's edge, were lofty wooded hills intersected by deep gorges, fringed with foliage. Eastward were beautiful prairie lands ; while great quantities of game — deer, buffalo and wild turkey — were seen everywhere. In the river were islands covered with trees and in the water they saw "monstrous fish," some of which they caught in their nets. Following the flow of the river, they note the changes in the scenery, while passing between shores of unsurpassed natural beauty, along which a chain of flourishing cities was afterwards to be built. Afloat on the Mississippi. — Steadily they followed uhe course of the river towards the south, and on the eighth day they saw, for the first time since entering the river, tracks of men near the water's edge, and they stopped to examine them. This point was near the mouth of the Des Moines River, and thus they were the first white men to place foot on the soil of Iowa. Leaving their men to guard the canoes the two courageous leaders followed a path two leagues to the westward, when they came in sight of an Indian village. As they approached, they gave notice of their arrival by a loud call, upon OUTLINE MAP OF MILWAUKEE MADE IN 1840 See Key on opposite page KEY TO MILWAUKEE MAP OF 1840 A. The East Side. B. Kilbourn Town. C. Walker's Point. D. Milwaukee River. E. Menomonee River. F. Red Bridge. G. Menomonee Bridge. H. Spring Street Ferry (Grand Avenue). I. Walker's Point Ferry. K. Old Harbor Entrance. L. Proposed Straight Cut (New Harbor En trance ) . N. Lighthouse. 0. Courthouse. P. The Canal. 1. East Water Street. 2. Swamp — Present City Hall Site. 3. Market Street. 4. Division Street (Juneau Avenue). 5. Chestnut Street. 6. West Water Street. 7. Spring Street (Grand Avenue). 8. Chicago Road. 9. Prairieville Road. 10. Green Bay Road. 11. Washington House. 12. Kilbourn Warehouse. 13. Leland & American House. 14. Fischer Kroeger's German House. 15. St. Peter's Chapel (Cathedral). 16. Fountain House. 17. Milwaukee House. 18. Cottage Inn. 19. Ludington's Corner. 20. Wisconsin Street. 21. Beam & Company Store. 22. George H. Walker's Home. 23. Rogers Old Corner. 24. Market Square. 25. George Dousman's Warehouse. 26. Longstreet's Warehouse. 27. Walker's Warehouse. 28. Sweet & Jervis Warehouse. 29. Barber's Wharf near Ludwig's Garden. 30. Little German Tavern. 32. River Street Swamp. 33-34. Small Islands in the Milwaukee River Later Removed. 35. Lake Brewery. 36. Huron Street. 26 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE which the savages quickly came forth from their huts and regarded the stran gers attentively. Some of their number who had evidently visited the mis sion stations recognized them as Frenchmen, and they responded to Mar quette's greeting in a friendly manner and offered the "calumet," or peace pipe, which greatly reassured the visitors. Four of the elders advanced and elevated their pipes towards the sun as a token of friendship ; and, on Mar quette 's inquiring who they were, they replied, "we are Illinois;" at the same time inviting the strangers to walk to their habitations. An old man then made them a speech in which he said, "All our people wait for thee, and thou shalt enter our cabin in peace." The Illinois Indians lived at this time beyond the Mississippi, whither they had been driven by the fierce Iroquois from their former abode, near Lake Michigan. A few years later most of them returned to the east side and made their abode along the Illinois River. Indeed, Joliet and Marquette found a large village of them on the upper waters of the Illinois, while ascending that river a few weeks later. It may be remarked here, however, that the Illinois Indians never fully recovered from the disastrous defeats they suffered from the Iroquois, and held only a precarious possession of their lands along the Illinois River after that time; until a century later, the last broken remnant of them was exterminated at Starved Rock by the Pottawatomies and Ottawas. Visit to the Illinois Indians. — While still at the village of these Illinois Indians, a grand feast was prepared for the travelers, and they remained until the next day, when they made preparations for their departure. The chief made them two gifts which were a valuable addition to their equipment, namely, an Indian lad, the chief's own son, for a slave, and "an altogether mysterious calumet, upon which the Indians place more value than upon a slave." The possession of this "mysterious calumet," was th^ means of placating several bands of hostile Indians, whom they met later in ' their journey. The chief, on learning their intention to proceed down the river "as far as the sea," attempted to dissuade them on account of the great dangers to which they would expose themselves. "I replied," says Marquette, "that I feared not death, and that I regarded no happiness as greater than that of losing my life for the glory of Him, who has made us all. This is what these poor people cannot understand." These were no idle words of Marquette's, for before the lapse of two years from that date, he died of privation and exposure, a martyr to the cause he had so much at heart. The sequel to the story of the little Indian boy mentioned above was a sad one. He accompanied the voyagers to the end of their journey. In the following year, when Joliet was on his way to Quebec to make the report of his discoveries, his canoe was overturned in the rapids of the St. Lawrence near Montreal, as previously stated. The rest of the narrative is quoted from Mason's "Chapters from Illinois History." "His box of papers, containing his map and report, was lost, and he himself was rescued with difficulty. Two of his companions were drowned; one of these was the slave presented to him by the great chief of the Illinois, a little Indian lad ten years of age, whom DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 27 he deeply regretted, describing him as of a good disposition, full of spirit, industrious and obedient, and already beginning to read and write the French language." Friendship of Marquette and Joliet. — On the departure of the party, Mar quette promised the Indians to return to them the next year and instruct them. They embarked in the sight of the people, who had followed them to the landing to the number of some six hundred. The people admired the canoes and gave them a friendly farewell. We cannot fail to note the liar-. mony which existed between the two leaders on this expedition, in such strik ing contrast with the bickerings and disagreements observed in the accounts of other expeditions of a like nature. For there is no severer test of the friendly relations between officers of an exploring expedition than a long absence in regions beyond the bounds of civilization. Joliet and Marquette were friends long before they started together on this journey, and both were single minded in their purpose to accomplish its objects. No more lovely char acter appears in the history of western adventure than that of Marquette, a man who endeared himself to all with whom he came in contact, and made himself an example for all time. Joliet, in turn, "was the foremost explorer of the West," says Mason, "a man whose character and attainments and public services made him a man of high distinction in his own day." Continuing their journej' the voyagers passed the mouth of the Illinois, without special notice, but when in the vicinity of the place where the city of Alton now stands, and while skirting some high rocks, they "saw upon one of them two painted monsters which at first made them afraid." The paintings were "as large as a calf," and were so well done that they could not believe that any savage had done the work. Joutel saw them some eleven years later, but could not see anything particularly terrifying in them, though the Indians who were with him were much impressed. St. Cosme passed by them in 1699, but they were then almost effaced ; and when, in 1867, Parkman visited the Mississippi, he passed the rock on which the paintings appeared, but the rock had been partly quarried away. They had scarcely recovered from their fears before they found themselves in the presence of a new danger, for they heard the noise of what at first they supposed were rapids ahead of them; and directly they came in sight of the turbulent waters of the Missouri River, pouring its flood into the Mississippi. Large trees, branches and even "floating islands" were borne on its surface, and its ' ' water was very muddy. ' ' The name Missouri, which was afterwards applied to this river, means in the Indian language "muddy water," and the river is often spoken of to this day as the "Big Muddy." They passed in safety, however, and continued on their journey in good spirits and with thankful hearts. They now began to think that the general course of the river indicated that it would discharge itself into the Gulf of Mexico, though they were still hoping to find that it would lead into the South Sea, toward California. As they passed the confluence of the Ohio and the Mississippi, the shores changed their character. They found the banks lined with extensive fields of cane- brakes ; mosquitoes filled the air, and the excessive heat of the sun obliged 28 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE them to seek protection from its rays by stretching an awning of cloth over their canoes. While they were thus floating down the current of the river, they were in communication with Europeans, probably the Spaniards of some savages appeared on the banks armed with guns, thus indicating that Florida. The savages at first assumed a threatening attitude, but Marquette offered his "plumed calumet," so called because of the feathers it was adorned with, which the Illinois chief had given him, and the strangers were at once received as friends. These savages told them that they were within ten days' journey of the sea, and with their hopes thus raised they soon resumed their course. Soothing Effect of the Calumet. — They continued down past the monot onous banks of this part of the river for some three hundred miles from the place where they had met the Indians just spoken of, when they were sud denly startled by the war-whoops of a numerous band of savages who showed every sign of hostility. The wonderful calumet was held up by Marquette, but at first without producing any effect. Missiles were flying, hut fortunately doing no damage, and some of the savages plunged into the river in order to grasp their canoes ; when presently some of the older men, having perceived the calumet steadily held aloft, called back their young men and made re assuring signs and gestures. They found one who could speak a little Illinois ; and, on learning that the Frenchmen were on their way to the sea, the Indians escorted them some twenty-five miles, until they reached a village called Akamsea. Here they were well received, but the dwellers there warned them against proceeding, on account of the warlike tribes below who would bar their way. Joliet and Marquette here held a council whether to push on, or remain content with the discoveries they had already made. They judged that they were within two or three days' journey from the sea, though we know that they were still some seven hundred miles distant from it. They decided however, that beyond a doubt the Mississippi discharged its waters into the Gulf of Mexico, and not to the East in Virginia, or to the West in California. They considered that in going on they would expose themselves to the risk of losing the results of their voyage, and would, without a doubt, fall into the hands of the Spaniards, who would detain them as captives. The upshot of their deliberations was the decision that they would begin the return voyage at once. The exploration of the river from this point to the sea was not accomplished until nine years later, when that bold explorer, La Salle, passed entirely down the river to its mouth ; where he set up a column and buried a plate of lead, bearing the arms of France; took possession of the country for the French King, and named it Louisiana. The party were now at the mouth of the Arkansas, having passed more than one hundred miles below the place where De Soto crossed it in the previous century, had sailed eleven hundred miles in the thirty days since they had been on the great river, an average of about thirty-seven miles a day, and had covered nine degrees of latitude. On the 17th of July, they began their return journey, just one month to a clay after they had entered the river, and two months after they had left the mission at St. Ignace. DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 29 The voyage up the river in the mid-summer heat was one of great diffi culty, but steadily they "Avon their slow way northward," passing the mouth of the Ohio and that of the Missouri; until at length they reached the mouth of the Illinois River. Here they left the Mississippi and entered the Illinois, being greatly charmed "with its placid waters, its shady forests, and its rich plains, grazed by bison and deer." They passed through the wide portion of the river, afterwards known as Peoria Lake, and reached its upper waters, where, on the south bank, rises the remarkable cliff, since called "Starved Rock." They were thus "the first white men to see the territory now known as the State of Illinois." On the opposite bank of the river, where the Town of Utica now stands, they found a village of Illinois Indians, called Kaskaskia, consisting of sev enty-four cabins. It should here be stated that the Indians removed this village, some seventeen years later, to the south part of the present State of Illinois, on the Kaskaskia River, where it became noted in the early annals of the West. The travelers were well received here, and, on their departure, a chief and a number of young men of the village joined the party for the purpose of guiding them to the Lake of the Illinois, that is, Lake Michigan. The course of the river was now almost directly east and west, and the voyagers could not fail to notice the ranges of bluffs flanking the bottom lands through which the stream meanders in its flow. This broad channel once carried a mighty volume of water from Lake Michigan to the Missis sippi, at a time when the glaciers were subsiding and the lake level was some thirty feet higher than in historic times. The travelers soon arrived at the confluence of the Desplaines and the Kankakee rivers which here, at a point some forty-five miles from Lake Michigan, unite to form the Illinois River. Under the guidance of their Indian friends they chose the route by way of the Desplaines as the shortest to the lake. On reaching the place where the portage into the waters tribu tary to Lake Michigan was to be made, their Indian guides aided them in carrying their canoes over the "half league" of dry land intervening. As this portage is much longer than that, it is likely that the "half league" mentioned by Marquette referred to one stage of the portage, between the Desplaines and the first of the two shallow lakes which they found there and on which they, no doubt, floated their canoes several miles on their way to the waters of the south branch of the Chicago River. Reaching1 Lake Michigan. — Here their Indian friends left them while they made their way down the five miles that yet intervened before they would reach Lake Michigan. Groves of trees lined its banks, beyond which a level plain extended to the margin of the lake. This level plain was the only por tion of the "Grand Prairie" of Illinois which anywhere reached the shore of Lake Michigan, a space limited to some four miles south of the mouth of the Chicago River. They were not long in coming into view of that splendid body of water which they were approaching, and must have beheld its vast extent with the feelings of that "watcher of the skies" so beautifully written of by Keats, "when a new planet swims into his ken." No date is given by Marquette in his journal of the arrival of the party 30 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE at this point, but it was probably early in September of the year 1673 thai the site of the present City of Chicago was first visited by white men. It is quite possible that coureurs de bois ("wood-rangers") may have visited the spot while among the Indian tribes, but no record was ever made of such visits before the time that Joliet and Marquette arrived upon the scene, and made known the discovery to the world. The mouth of the river is shown on all the early maps as at a point a quarter of a mile south of the present outlet, owing to a long sand spit that ran out from the north shore of the river near its confluence with the lake, which has long since been dredged away. This was Joliet 's first and only view of the Chicago River and its banks, as he never passed this way again. The stimulating breath of the lake breezes which met them as they issued forth upon the blue waters of the "Lake of the Illinois," must have thrilled the explorers with feelings of joy and triumph, having escaped so many dangers and won such imperishable renown. Turning the prows of their canoes northward, they passed the wooded shores still in their pristine love liness. The emerald hues of the prairies, which they had left behind them, were now replaced by the mottled foliage of the early autumn, and the waves breaking on the beach of sand and gravel must have impressed them deeply as they proceeded on their way. The shores began to rise and form bluffs as they passed the regularly formed coast on their course. Throughout their journey the voyagers gaze on scenes familiar now to millions of people, then unknown to civilized man. They see the gradual increase in the height of the bluffs, reaching an elevation at the present town of Lake Forest of 100 feet or more above the surface of the lake, and the bold shores of the present site of the City of Milwaukee. No comments are made regarding the events of this part of the journey by Marquette in his journal, and it most likely was made without special incident. He closes his narra tive by saying that "at the end of September, we reached the Bay des Puants (Green Bay), from which we started at the beginning of June." The world renowed voyage of Joliet and Marquette thus ended at the Mission of St. Francis Xavier, where the Village of De Pere, Wisconsin, now stands. The explorers had traveled nearly twenty-five hundred miles in about one hundred and twenty days, a daily average of nearly twenty-one miles, had discovered the Mississippi and the Chicago rivers, as well as the site of the present City of Chicago ; and had brought back their party without any serious accident or the loss of a single man. Here they remained during the fall and winter, and in the summer of the following year (1674), Joliet set out for Quebec to make a report of his discoveries to the governor of Canada. It was while nearing Montreal on this journey that his canoe was upset in the rapids, his Indians drowned, and all his records and a map that he had care fully prepared were lost. Joliet never returned to the West. He was rewarded for his splendid services with a grant of some islands in the lower St. Lawrence, including the extensive island of Anticosti, and died in 1700. As regards the credit due Joliet for the discovery made, the late Mr. Edward G. Mason in his valuable work entitled, "Chapters from Illinois History," says: "Popular error assigned the leadership of the expedition which discovered DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 31 the Upper Mississippi and the Illino s Valley to Marquette, who never held or claimed it. Every reliable authority demonstrates the mistake, and yet the delusion continues. But as Marquette himself says that Joliet was sent to discover new countries, and he to preach the gospel; as Count Frontenac reports to the home authorities that Talon selected Joliet to make the dis covery; as Father Dablon confirms this statement; and as the Canadian authorities gave rewards to Joliet alone as the sole discoverer, we may safely conclude that to him belongs the honor, of the achievement. He actually accomplished that of which Champlain and Nicollet and Radisson were the heralds, and, historically speaking, was the first to see the wonderful region of the prairies. At the head of the roll of those indissolubly associated with the land of the Illinois, who have trod its soil, must forever stand the name of Louis Joliet." Marquette Continues Exploration. — Father Marquette was destined never to return to the French colonial capital. His health had become impaired on account of the hardships he had suffered during the return journey on the Mississippi, and he remained nearly a year at the Mission of St. Francis Xavier in an effort to recover his health and prepare himself for another journey to the Illinois Country, as he had promised his Indian friends he would do. Early in the summer of 1674, that is, about seven or eight months after his return to Green Bay from the voyage described in the previous pages, Joliet started on his journey to Quebec to inform the authorities regarding the new countries he had found. As already related, Joliet met with disaster on this journey, and had it not been for the journal kept by Marquette we should have had no detailed record of the explorations of the previous year, though Joliet gave some oral accounts afterwards, records of which have only in recent years come to light. Later in the same year Marquette, having re covered from the poor health he had been suffering, received "orders to pro ceed to the mission of La Concepcion among the Illinois." On the 25th of October, 1674, accordingly, he set out with two companions, named Pierre and Jacques; one of whom had been with him on his former journey of dis covery. From this journey Marquette never returned; and indeed it would seem to have been a most perilous risk for him to have taken considering his physical condition, having only recently been "cured," as he says, of his "ailment," and starting at a time of year when he would soon be overtaken by the winter season. But no toils or exposure could deter those devoted missionaries of the cross from engaging in any undertaking which seemed to hold out the least prospect of saving souls, as the history of those times abundantly shows. Details of the Journey. — The route taken was by way of the difficult portage at Sturgeon Bay, where now there is a canal, cutting through the peninsula, and thus saved them a circuit of nearly one hundred and fifty miles. Accompanying his canoe was a flotilla of nine others, containing parties of Pottawatomie and Illinois Indians ; and in clue time they embarked their little fleet on the waters of Lake Michigan. They encountered storms and the navigation proved difficult, but at length the party arrived at the mouth 32 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE of the Chicago River, which Marquette calls' "the river of the Portage," early in December. Finding that the stream was frozen over, they encamped near by at the entrance of the river and engaged in hunting, finding game very abundant. While here the two Frenchmen of the party killed "three buffalo and four deer," besides wild turkeys and partridges, which, con sidering the locality as we of this day know it, seems difficult to imagine; and this passage in the journal composes the first sketch on record of the site of the great city of the West. Having followed the course of the river some "two leagues up," Mar quette "resolved to winter there, as it was impossible to go farther." His ailment had returned and a cabin was built for his use and protection. There he remained with his two Frenchmen while his Indian companions returned to their own people. It must be borne in mind that Marquette's destination was the village of Illinois Indians on the Illinois River, where he and Joliet had been entertained the year before ; and that the cabin here spoken of was merely a temporary shelter where he would remain only until spring. But sometime during the interval of the fifteen months since Marquette had pre viously passed the portage, two Frenchmen had established themselves, about "eighteen leagues beyond, in a beautiful hunting country," and these men in expectation of the holy father's return had prepared a cabin for him. stocked with provisions. This cabin Marquette was not able to reach, and the two hunters, hearing of the good Father's illness, came to the portage to render such assistance as was in their power. One of these Frenchmen was called "the Surgeon," perhaps because he possessed some knowledge of medicine, but his true name is not given. The other was called "La Taupine," that is, "the Tawney," whose proper name was Pierre Moreau, a noted coureur de bois of the time. Indians passing that way also gave assistance, and late in March Marquette found himself with strength recovered and able to set out on his journey to the Illinois, though not before he was driven out of his winter cabin by a sudden rise of the river which obliged him to take refuge near the place now called "Summit." As in the previous year, Marquette kept a journal which has come down to us among that valuable series of papers called the "Jesuit Relations." This journal is the sheet anchor of all the writers treating of the history of the two journeys of discovery and exploration which we are here narrating. Marquette occupied a portion of the time during his stay at the cabin in writ ing the memoirs of his voyages. In his journal the good Father breathes the spirit of self-sacrifice, the concern for the conversion and spiritual welfare of the savages; and with it all he shows a keen curiosity and interest in the manners and customs, the country and habitations, of the tribes he meets with. Winter Quarters of Marquette. — The location of the cabin in which Mar quette spent the winter of 1674-5 was marked with a cross made of mahogany wood, at the base of which in recent years was placed a bronze tablet with an inscription. The site was fixed upon in 1905 by a committee of the Chicago Historical Society under the guidance of the late Mr. Ossian Guthrie, an in telligent and devoted student of local antiquities, with a view of marking the DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 33 spot in a suitable manner. An entire day was spent by the party in driving and walking over many miles of country in order to compare the topography with the journal of the missionary, and a series of photographs taken. The investigations resulted in confirming the opinions of Mr. Guthrie, namely, that Marquette 's winter cabin was situated on the north bank of the south branch of the Chicago River at the point where now it is intersected by Robey Street, and from which at the present time oan be seen, by looking westward, the entrance to the great Drainage Canal. There is also a monument at Summit a few miles distant from the site of Marquette's winter cabin, marking the spot where Marquette landed after being flooded out of his winter quarters at Robey Street. This monument is constructed of boulders taken from the Drainage Canal while in process of building, and was placed there in 1895 by the Chicago and Alton Railroad Company. The inscription on the monument reads, "Father Marquette landed here in 1675." Marquette reached the Illinois village which he called Kaskaskia in the journal of his first visit, and which he refers to as the "mission of La Concep- cion" in his later journal. This was on the 8th of April, 1675, and on reach ing the village "he was received as an angel from heaven." There was always an atmosphere of peace wherever the good missionary went, and, no matter how unfavorable the circumstances were, he was the object of solicitude and kind attentions from his followers. From the time that he crossed the portage he discontinued his journal, probably owing to his increasing weakness. The account of the remainder of his journey is written by Father Dablon, his superior at Quebec. He summoned the Indians to a grand council and "dis played four large pictures of the Virgin, harangued the assembly on the mysteries of the Faith, and exhorted them to adopt it." His hearers were much affected and begged him to remain among them and continue his in structions. Last Days of Marquette. — But Marquette realized that his life was fast ebbing way, and that it Avas necessary if possible to reach some of the older missions AAThere he could either recover his health or hand over his responsi bilities to others. Soon after Easter he started on his return, pledging the Indians on his departure that he or some other one Avould return to them and carry on the mission. He set out with many tokens of regard on the part of these good people, and as a mark of honor a party of them escorted him for more than thirty leagues on his way, and assisted him with his baggage. Some writers have supposed that he took the route by the Desplaines-Chicago portage, but it is more probable, according to Mason, that he ascended the Kankakee, guided by his Indian friends, and reached the Lake of the Illinois by way of the St. Joseph River. His destination was St. Ignace and his course lay along the eastern shore, Avhich, as yet, was unknown except through reports from the Indians. Now alone with his two companions, he pushed forward with rapidly diminishing strength, until, on the 19th day of May, 1675, the devoted priest felt that his hour had come, and being near a small river, he asked to be placed ashore. Here a bark shed was built by his companions, and the dying man Avas placed within its rude walls. 34 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "With perfect cheerfulness and composure," relates Parkman, "he gave directions for his burial, asked their forgiveness for the trouble he had caused them, administered to them the sacrament of penitence, and thanked God that he'Avas permitted to die in the Avilderness, a missionary of the Faith and a member of the Jesuit brotherhood." Soon after he expired, and was buried by his companions at that place, Avhile they made their way to St. Ignace Avith their sad tidings. Two years later, a party of Ottawa Indians, who Avere informed of the death and burial place of Marquette, Avere passing that way, found the grave, opened it, Avashed and dried the bones, and placed them in a box of birch bark ; and bore them, Avhile chanting funeral songs, to St. Ignace, where they Avere buried beneath the floor of the chapel of the mission. A statue noAv stands in a public place near the Avater front at the Town of St. Ignace placed there in recent years. Thus ends the story of Marquette, who is, one may say, the patron saint of the people of Illinois and Wisconsin. He participated with Joliet in dis covering the Mississippi River and described its vast expanse of plain and forest. He came again and spent a Avinter in a rude cabin on the river bank, and from here passed on to his chosen field of work where his last missionary labors were performed. Memorials of him have been placed all over the West, where he spent the last two years of his brief but memorable career. The story has been often told but never loses its interest. "Let it be told in every western home," writes Pres. E. J. James, and "every good cause in this section will feel the beneficent results of its influence," in awakening a pride in our earliest annals, "and quickening the spirit of service in all our people." A statue of Marquette, clad in his robes, has been placed by the State of Wis consin in Statuary Hall in the Capitol at Washington. Father Marquette's Successor. — The promise made by Marquette to the Illinois Indians did not long remain unkept. Father Claude Allouez was sum moned by his superior to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Father Mar quette, and promptly responded to the call. Allouez, with two companions, embarked in a canoe at St. Francis Xavier in October, 1676, just two years after Marquette had set out from the same place ; but OAving to the ice in Green Bay they were not able to reach Lake Michigan until the following February. At length in April, 1677, the party reached "the river that leads to the Illinois," that is, the Chicago River, Avhere they met eighty Indians coming towards them. The chief presented a fire brand in one hand and a feathered calumet in the other, from which Allouez discreetly made choice of the latter. The chief then invited the little party of whites to his village, which was some distance from the mouth of the river, "probably," as Mason says, "near the portage Avhere Marquette had passed the winter" two years previously. Allouez remained at this village a short time and then passed on to the Illinois River Mission, which he reached on the 27th of April. After erecting a cross at the mission he returned to Green Bay, as he had made the journey, it seems, "only to acquire the necessary information for the perfect establishment of the mission." He came again the next year, but retired to the Wisconsin Mission in 1679 "upon hearing of the approach of La Salle, Avho believed that the Jesuits were unfriendly to him, and that DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT WEST 35 Allouez in particular had sought to defeat his plans." "The era of the dis coverer and missionary was now giving place to that of the explorer and colonist," and the great figure of Robert Cavelier de La Salle appears upon the scene. P<1 CHAPTER II THE ORDINANCE OF 1787 Owing to its profound influence on the later history of the State of Wis consin and its people some account will here be given of the Ordinance of 1787 and a brief analysis of its proA'isions. The Ordinance of 1787 was passed by the Continental Congress on the 13th of July in the year named in the title of the ordinance, and the Federal Constitution Avas adopted by the same body on the 17th of September of the same year. Thus the famous ordinance enjoys a priority of date of more than tAvo months over that of the constitution. The Ordinance of 1787 has been termed by Senator George F. Hoar "one of the title deeds of American con stitutional liberty," and it has, indeed, all the author.ty and force of an article of the constitution itself. By the Ordinance of 1787 there Avere to be formed from the Northwest Territory not less than three nor more than five states. In case there should be only three states formed the ordinance provided that these states should have certain boundaries, Avith this proviso: "It is further understood and declared that the boundaries of these three states shall be subject so far to be altered, that if Congress shall hereafter find it expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two states in that part of the said territory which lies north of an east and Avest line draAvn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan." Before the formation of states, hoAvever, there were territorial divisions. When the Territory of Illinois came to be formed in 1809, the boundaries Avere established on the same lines as those of the present State of Illinois except that the territory extended nortlrwards to the boundary line between Canada and the United States. When the Enabling Act (enabling the people of Illi nois to form a state constitution) was passed, April 18, 1818, the northern boundary of the new State of Illinois was fixed in accordance with the Ordi nance of 1787, on the east and west line drawn through the southerly or extreme bend of Lake Michigan, afterAvards ascertained to be forty-one degrees and thirty-nine minutes of north latitude. Nathaniel Pope who Avas the delegate in Congress from the Territory of Illinois moved an amendment to the bill, Avhich Avas then under consideration in the committee of the Avhole, by striking out that part which defined the northern boundary and inserting "forty-two degrees and thirty minutes north latitude." The amendment was agreed to and the bill was passed. The effect of Pope's Amendment Avas to include within the limits of the new state a strip of country sixty-two miles in width, extending from Lake 27 38 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Michigan to the Mississippi River, containing an area of 8,500 square miles of fertile country, diversified Avith forests and riA-ers, Avithin Avhich at the present time are located fourteen counties with many populous and pros perous cities. Mr. Pope's Argument. — In presenting the amendment to the enabling act in 1818, Mr. Pope made the following argument: "That the proposed new state (Illinois), by reason of her geographical position, even more than on account of the fertility of her soil, was destined to become populous and influential; that if her northern boundary was fixed by a line arbitrarily estab lished rather than naturally determined, and her commerce Avas to be con fined to that great artery of communication, the Mississippi River, which washed her entire western border, and to its chief tributary to the south, the Ohio River, there was a possibility that her commercial relations with the South might become so closely connected that in the event of an attempted dismemberment of the Union, Illinois would cast her lot with the southern states. "On the other hand," he continued, "to fix the northern boundary of Illi nois upon such a parallel of latitude as would give to the state jurisdiction over the- southwestern shores of Lake Michigan, Avould be to unite the in cipient commonwealth to the states of Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York in a bond of common interest Avell nigh indissoluble. By the adoption of such a line Illinois might become at some future time the keystone to the perpetuity of the Union. It was foreseen, even at that early time, that Chicago would be a lake port of great importance, and that a canal would be' con structed across the state between the lake and the Mississippi; and Mr. Pope urged that it was the duty of the National Government to give Illinois an outlet on Lake Michigan, which, Avith the support of the population back of the coast, Avould be capable of exercising a decisive influence upon her oavh affairs, as Avell as strengthening her position among her sister states." Effects of Altering the Boundary. — When Ave reflect that the region affected by Pope's amendment was at that time an almost unbroken wilderness, that the advantageous position of Chicago and its contiguous territory was only a matter of speculation, Ave must recognize in Pope's action in proposing and urging the adoption of his amendment the Avork of a keen and far-sighted statesman. "No man," says John Moses in his "History of Illinois," "ever rendered the state a more important service in Congress than did Nathaniel Pope." That the fixing of the northern boundary of the state Avhere it is today had momentous consequences can be seen in the subsequent history of the state. Had the northern tier of counties included Avithin the sixty- two mile strip become attached to Wisconsin, as it inevitably Avould have been, the State of Illinois would have lacked, Avhen issues of tremendous moment were at stake, a vital element in her legislature at the time of the breaking out of the Civil war, an element that Wisconsin did not require, as the Union sentiment in that state was at all times very strong. Whether or not the splendid support given to the Union cause in the State of Illinois Avas of such importance as to justify Pope's declaration, Avhen arguing for the amendment, that the state might become "the keystone to THE ORDINANCE OF 1787 39 the perpetuity of the Union," may be regarded differently by historians. But the commanding position occupied by Illinois during the Civil war, with one of its citizens in the presidential chair and another leading the armies of the Union, went far to make good the claim made by Pope in his declaration. The part taken by Pope in the boundary matter well illustrates what has been called "his almost superhuman sagacity." Hon. Clark E. Carr, in an address made in 1911, referred to Pope's dis tinguished services in the following eloquent words: "Long after that great statesman had passed aAvay, his arguments were tested, in the midst of car nage and death, in the smoke of battle by braAre Illinois heroes, some of them led by his oavu son, Maj. Gen. John Pope, and proAred to be sound." Analysis and Comments on the Ordinance. — It may be well to recall the opinions of eminent statesmen regarding the importance of the Ord nance of 1787 in the formation of the states under its provisions. A brief summary of the ordinance may here be inserted : These provisions, it is declared, shall "forever remain unalterable unless by common consent"; "no person shall be molested on account of his mode of Avorsh'p or religious sentiments" ; every person shall be "entitled to the benefits of the Avrit of habeas corpus and of trial by jury"; "religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of educa tion shall forever be encouraged"; "the utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians"; there shall be formed "not less than three nor more than five states in the said territory"; "there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." Perhaps to some readers the word "ordinance" as applied to an act of Congress may not be readily understood. Why was it not called an "act" for certainly we should so call it if it had passed in a similar manner at the present day. The term "ordinance" is now limited in its use to measures passed in a city council. There is no legal distinction, hoAvever, between an ordinance and an act or statute. The term has gone out of use as applied to acts of Congress, though at the time of the old Continental Congress it was quite usual to so employ it. But after the United States became a nation, by the rat'fication of the Constitution in 1789, the term act or statute became the usual one. Lincoln's View of the Ordinance. — In his great Cooper Institute speech Mr. Lincoln referred to the Ordinance of 1787, making use of the provisions therein contained to buttress his arguments against the extension of slavery into the territories. He showed that federal control as to slavery in federal territory, as asserted in the ordinance, was the deliberate expression of the highest power then existing in the country; and that after the Constitution had been ratified, namely, in 1789, an act was passed by the new Congress "to enforce the Ordinance of 1787, including the prohibition of slavery in the Northwestern Territory," and that this act had been signed by George Wash ington. Quoting from Dr. William F. Poole's treatise on the ordinance, summariz ing the benefits accruing to posterity, it is said: "The Ordinance, in the 40 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE breadth of its conception, its details, and its results, has been perhaps the most notable instance of legislation that was ever enacted by the representa tives of the American people. It fixed forever the character of the immigra tion, and of the social, political and educational institutions of the people who were to inhabit this imperial territory — then a wilderness, but now covered by five great states." Of the ordinance as a Avhole Daniel Webster said: "We are accustomed to praise the lawgivers of antiquity — we help to perpetuate the fame of Solon and Lycurgus ; but I doubt Avhether one single law, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787." A Famous Boundary Controversy. — When Wisconsin had arrived at the dignity of territorial existence in 1836, the southern boundary of the territory was naturally placed at the line of the northern boundary of Illinois as it was fixed by "Pope's Amendment" Avhen the latter state Avas admitted to the Union in 1818 ; that is, at 42 degrees and 30 minutes north latitude. The Ordinance of 1787, under the terms of Avhich the states of Ohio, Indiana. Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin Avere after Avards formed, prescribed the northern boundary of the state Avhich became Illinois on an east and Avest line clraAvn through the southern bend of Lake Michigan, that is, sixty-tAVO miles south of Avhere it Avas eventually placed. It Avas claimed by the Wisconsin statesman of that day that Illinois Avas not entitled to the strip of land thus enclosed and added to its area. They contended that this land belonged to the neAV territory and that Congress should repeal that part of the act creat ing the State of Illinois though it had been a settled transaction for eighteen years. It Avill be remembered that by reason of "Pope's Amendment" the line had been changed while the enabling act Avas passing through Congress so that an area of some eighty-fiATe hundred square miles in the northern part of the state had been added to Illinois against the plain provisions of the Ordinance of 1787. This tract of country had been rapidly filled with settlers, great projects of public improvement Avere under Avay, and it had thus become a very im portant addition to the wealth and population of the state. The Wisconsin people appealed to the language of the Ordinance of 1787 Avhich seemed to justify their claim. The Ordinance of 1787 provided for the erection of three states out of the northwest territorj- (which afterwards became Ohio, Indiana and Illi nois), and further specified that "if Congress shall hereafter find it exjDedient they shall have authority to form one or tAvo more states in that part of said territory Avhich lies north of an east and west line draAvn through the southerly bend of Lake Michigan," and that this provision Avas to "-forever remain unaltered except by common consent." The Legislature of Wisconsin Territory sent a someAA'hat belated memorial to Congress nearly three years after the organization of the territory, declaring that the determination of the nothern boundary of Illinois Avas "directly in collision with and repug nant to the compact entered into by the original states Avith people and states THE ORDINANCE" OF 1787 41 Avithin the NorthAvest Territory." Finding that Congress gave no heed to this protest the Legislature passed a resolution that Congress had "vio lated the Ordinance of 1787," and that "a large and valuable tract of country is noAv held by the State of Illinois contrary to the manifest right and consent of the people of the territory." Appeal to the Ordinance of 1787. — Congress, however, still turned a deaf ear to these proceedings, and in 1840 the people living in the disputed tract in Illinois Avere invited by a resolution of the Territorial Legislature of Wis consin to hold an election to vote on the question of forming a const .tution for the proposed neAv State of Wisconsin, as if the tract were really a part of Wisconsin Territory. Strange as it may seem, the people of the counties within the disputed tract complied with the invitation, and delegates Avere chosen to a convention to be held at Rockford. This convention formally declared that Wisconsin Avas entitled to the disputed tract as it claimed. Nothing came of this, as it Avas found that the people of Wisconsin Territory generally regarded the movement for the formation of a state government as premature, and no action was taken on their part in the matter until a year or two later. So matters stood until 1842, when a neAv impulse was given to the move ment for a state organization in Wisconsin. It Avas argued that if the strip of country in Northern Illinois Avere reckoned as a part of Wisconsin Terri tory, as it rightfully should be, there Avould be a sufficient number of in habitants, when added to those of the territory, to warrant a demand to be admitted as a state to the Union. Orators became belligerent in their claim for the "ancient limits," Avhich Avas hoAV they described the disputed land in Illinois. One member of the Legislature declared that Wisconsin ought to assume jurisdiction over Northern Illinois, saying: "Let us maintain that right at all hazards, unite in convention, form a state constitution, extend our jurisdiction over the disputed tract if desired by the inhabitants there, and then, with legal right and immutable justice on our side, the moral and physical force of Illinois, of the Avhole Union, cannot make us retrace our steps. ' ' It seemed impossible, however, to arouse any marked interest among the Wisconsin people themselves on the subject, the interest being almost wholly confined to the Illinois northern counties and the politicians guiding the sentiments there. This Avillingness of the Northern Illinois people to unite with Wisconsin seems the more singular when it is remembered that already the Illinois and Michigan Canal, reaching far to the south of Wisconsin's possible limits, was in course of construction; and that the chief dependence of these northern counties Avas on the rapidly groAving City of Chicago, Avhose future was bound up with the canal's prosperity. The Illinois people, how ever, recovered their senses and in later appeals from the Wisconsin leaders became indifferent, and finally were entirely reconciled to their Illinois allegiance. Failure of Congress to Heed Appeals. — The last shot in the controversy was fired by a committee of the Territorial Legislature which late in 1843 prepared an address to Congress on the boundary question, running in part as 42 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE follows: "Had Ave formed a constitution and state government, and ex tended our jurisdiction over all the territory appropriated, though it might have involved us in a conflict With Ulino's, no one could truly say we had done more than exercise our lawful rights in a lawful manner." But Con gress made no response to this warlike appeal, and the subject failed to attract any further attention ; no doubt for the reason that the boundary as it stood A\-as an accomplished fact, and any disturbance of the line after a quarter of a century from the time it Avas established would result in. endless confusion. Wisconsin Avas admitted to the Union May 29, 1848, the present boundary line being accepted without further question. It is an interesting fact in this connection that Avhile the boundary line is described as at "42 degrees, 30 minutes of north latitude" in all the acts and proceedings connected Avith the subject, and boundary posts and monuments were placed in supposed accordance Avith that line, yet it was found in later years that the old surveys were incorrect, and that there Avas a variance of three-fourths of a mile in places from the true parallel. Indeed the line of monuments is north of the parallel in the Avestern part of the state, and zigzags to and fro, finally landing some distance south of the parallel at the eastern end on the shore of Lake Michigan. Wisconsin Avas admitted as a state of the Union on May 29, 1848, after a probation period of tAvelve years as a territory. It Avas the fifth state to be formed out of the Nortlnvest Territory Avhich had been organized under the Ordinance of 1787. We have previously given some account of the boundary controversy Avith Illinois while Wisconsin was yet a territory. But in the generally prosperous conditions preA'ailing throughout the regions occupied by Illinois and Wisconsin all the grievances between the two sections Avere forgotten, or became the subject of humorous references. It is recalled that Hon. James R. Doolittle of Wisconsin, in a speech at the beginning of Avork on the great Chicago Drainage Canal in 1892, spoke in terms of praise for the work. The veteran ex-senator said he hoped to see the great enter prise completed and a "Avaterway established betAveen the lakes and rivers." He continued as f oIIoavs : "I say it with just as much earnestness as if all my interests were identical Avith Chicago. I still liAre in Wisconsin. I live in the state to AA'hich Chicago belongs according to the Ordinance of 1787. (Laughter and applause.) I sometimes give an excuse to those gentlemen Avho ask me, 'Why is it you practice laAv in Chicago, and yet liAre in Wisconsin?' I tell them that by the Ordinance of 1787, Chicago belongs to Wisconsin, and I haA^e a right to be there. But independent of all that my interests are of' a national char a cter . " CHAPTER III DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES A prospect of Lake Michigan from any point along its shores is like that of the ocean itself in its seeming boundless expanse. And yet all this vast flood is destined to pass over the Falls of Niagara in its eventual flow to the sea. There will be considerable loss in its volume from eAraporation before reaching the falls, and it will also be somewhat diminished by reason of the withdrawal of a small fraction of its Avaters for the use of man and his works. The entire volume of the four great lakes above the falls, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron and Erie, must find an outlet into Lake Ontario and so on down to the sea through the Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers. It can well be imagined that the flood pouring over the brink of the cliff at Niagara is so tremendous that there is not on earth a riA'al to it in its size and magnifi cence save the great Victoria Falls of the Zambesi River in South Africa. The Order in Which They Were Discovered. — With a map of the Great Lakes spread out one sees them clustered in a group like a hunch of tubers on a stem, each one connected Avith the other by rivers or straits. Going back to the time when these large bodies of water Avere as yet unknown to civilized men, it is curious to note the course of events through which their existence and bounds were made knoAvn to map makers and geographers. It would be natural to suppose while looking at the map that Lake Ontario Avould have been the first one of the great lakes to be opened to the knowledge of white men, always remembering that the French were the leaders in these dis coveries. From their settlements on the St. Lawrence the French gradually pushed westward into the Avilderness, but in the early period of their ad vances they chose the Ottawa River as the route toAvards the Avest and north west rather than the St. Lawrence itself. This led them in the direction of Lake Huron, and thus this lake was the first one of the Great Lakes to be discovered. Champlain Avas the man aa'Iio, in 1615, first saAV the waters of Georgian Bay, which opened from the larger body of Lake Huron, and thus became the pioneer in the discovery of the Great Lakes of the Nortlrwest. The discovery of Lake Ontario followed soon after, which was also discovered by Champlain. Lake Erie Eluded Them. — A feAv years later, that is in 1634, Nicollet crossed Lake Huron, and passing the Straits of Mackinac, entered the northern waters of Lake Michigan and penetrated as far as Green Bay. Here he entered the mouth of the Fox River and traveled as far as the portage into the Wisconsin River, but he did not continue to the Mississippi as he might 43 <^fr7/^ *. THERE is a purpose of Marriage between iM^/^/M' JLn&r residins in and residing in ^SfclS^ri of which proclamation is hereby made for the time. £/- 'C**jr\\ 182 S~ At £cy/*-^ " the J&r-i^&Tt. <0Qay of &** It is hereby certified, That the above-mentioned Parties have been Three Times Proclaimed in order to Marriage, in the Parish Church of 4^-^z^ /Zz^d^Z /' and that no objections have been offered. %^-c^^ Elder. Sess. Clerk. aee®9|a$J€> «.*<•»- At CLJLC^I — the 24 day of %/tfcy^ is2j^ The above Parties were Married by Lyucyf vtc^*> o^uAJ Minister. COPY OF AX OLD WISCONSIN MARRIAGE LICENSE IN POSSESSION OF THE OT D SETTLERS CLUB OF MILWAUKEE DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 45 have done if he had held on a few days longer. The discovery of the latter river Avas reserved for Joliet and Marquette, who passed over the same route thirty -nine years later. In 1658 De Groseilles entered Lake Superior through the St. Mary's River. Thus four of the Great Lakes had become known to the French, but still Lake Erie eluded their knoAvledge, and it Avas not until 1669 that Joliet, passing south on Lake Huron through the St. Clair River, discovered Lake Erie, the last one of the group to become known. Thus the five great lakes Avere discoArered in the folloAving order • Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Superior and Erie. Between the discovery of Lake Huron the first, and Lake Erie the last, there Avas an interval of fifty-four years. It will be interesting to make a brief survey of what was happening in other parts of the country during this interval. Champlain had founded Quebec in 1608, that is twelve years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, and in 1609 Hudson sailed up the river noAv called by his name ; and five years later the first Dutch settlements were made at New Amsterdam, noAv New York. Settle ments had been started on the James River in Virginia, and others were scat tered along the Atlantic Coast at Delaware and Maryland. Iroquois Blocked Way. — After the discovery of Lake Erie in 1669 it Avould seem to have been inevitable that Niagara Falls Avould almost at once have been discovered by the French. But it must be remembered that the Iroquois, those "pests of the wilderness," who held possession of the region about the Niagara River Avere hostile to the French and prevented their approach. It Avas well knoAvn, however, that there was a great cataract somewhere along the riA'er connecting the two lakes, Ontario and Erie. But during a lull in the age-long hostility between the Iroquois and the French, La Salle organized his expedition to explore the Mississippi, and laid his route by Avay of the Niagara River. A part of his force, starting from Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario, Avent in advance of La Salle himself, and landed at the mouth of the Niagara River. Father Hennepin Avas with the advance party, and he lost no time after landing in making a search for the falls so long knoAvn by report, but as yet never seen by white men. The Imperial Cataract. — Parkman's account is Avell Avorth quoting as to what happened, Avhich at the same time is a fair specimen of the famous historian's style. "Hennepin, with several others," he says, "now ascended the river in a canoe to the foot of the mountain ridge of Lewiston, Avhich, stretching on the right hand and on the left, forms the acclivity of a vast plateau, rent with the mighty chasm, along which, from this point to the cataract, seven miles above, rush, Avith the fury of an Alpine torrent, the gathered waters of four inland oceans. To urge the canoe farther Avas impos sible. He landed, with his companions, on the west bank, near the foot of that part of the ridge now called Queenstown Heights, climbed the steep ascent, and pushed through the wintry forest on a tour of exploration. On his left sank the cliffs, the furious river raging below; till at length, in primeval solitudes, unprofaned as yet by the pettiness of man, the imperial cataract burst upon his sight." The date of the discovery was December 6, 1678, so that AA'hen it is remem bered that Joliet and Marquette discovered the Upper Mississippi in June, 46 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE 1673, it is seen that the great river of the West, as Avell as the Illinois country and the sites of Chicago and Milwaukee, were actually discovered more than five years before the discovery of Niagara Falls was made. Hennepin, in his account, described the falls as 600 feet in height, which, of course, was a great exaggeration. It is well known that the falls are only about 174 feet high, but Hennepin Avas given to enlarging on his facts. With all his failings, however, he will go doAvn to posterity as being the discoverer of the most wonderful natural feature, perhaps, in the world. The Great Lakes together with their connecting straits and rivers were now completely made known to the civilized Avorld. Aspect of Lake Michigan. — As one stands on the shore of Lake Michigan and gazes on its broad expanse stretching far to the north, east and south, a noble view is presented. One realizes the great extent over which his eye wanders by noting the lake craft in the distance, some vessels lying "hull down" with their white sails only in sight, and some trailing clouds of smoke along the horizon, indicating passing steamers beyond the limit of vision. Those in plainer sight seem to stand motionless while in strange contrast the waves near the shore dash violently on the breakwaters and piers, throwing up clouds of spray, or break in thunderous surges on the sand and gravel at one's feet. Such a view from the bluffs along the north shore forms a grand and impressive spectacle, and such an outlook is one of the principal attractions to the dwellers in the beautiful homes that have been built in the neighbor hood. When tossed by the wind the ruffled surface of the lake shows many shades of blue and green according to the light reflected upon it from the sky; and when light, fleecy clouds are passing over it, casting broad shadows upon its far-extending surface, the colors are shoAvn in varied hues ranging from neutral tints to most beautiful olive greens and violet blues. One of our local poets happily likened its broad expanse under these conditions to a "pictured psalm." "A level plain of a vast extent on land is certainly no mean idea," wrote Edmund Burke in his celebrated essay on the "Sublime and Beautiful." "The prospect of such a plain may be as extensive as a prospect of the ocean; but can it ever fill the mind with anything so great as the ocean itself?" This can be well understood by those who have long dwelt on the shores of Lake Michigan. But when "¦ — storms and tempests wake the sleeping main, And lightnings flash while winds grow hoarse and loud, And writhing billoAvs toss their Avhite crests high," then, indeed, Lake Michigan's aspect changes from the beautiful to the sub lime. It is then when darkness adds its terrors to the scene that the perils of the mariner come home to the observer with moving force and quickened sympathy. Natural History of Lake Michigan. — Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water in the world, with an approximate area of 31,200 square miles. DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 47 Next in order of size comes Lake Victoria Nyanza in Africa, Avith an approxi mate area of 22,500 square miles. It is 320 miles long and 85 miles broad at its widest part. "Lake Michigan receives the drainage of only a very narrow belt in north eastern Illinois and northwestern Indiana, comprised mainly in the drainage of the Chicago and Calumet rivers," writes Frank Leverett, the eminent geologist, in his monograph published by the United States Geological Survey. ' ' It drains about one-half the area of the southern peninsula of Michigan and adjacent portions of Wisconsin, mainly tributary to Green Bay. South of the Green Bay drainage system only a narrow belt is tributary to the lake. The watershed draining to Lake Michigan is estimated to be 45,000 square miles, and the total area of the basin (including the lake itself) is 68,100 square miles. ' ' Physical Features of Lake Michigan. — There is no other lake in America, north or south, which traverses so many degrees of latitude, extending from 45 degrees, 55 minutes on the north, to 41 degrees, 37 minutes on the south. There are a number of islands in the northern part of the lake : Beaver Island, comprising an area of about forty square miles, the Fox Islands and the Manitous. South of the latter there is a stretch of over two hundred miles to the southern end of the lake in which there are no islands or even a sand bar of any description rising above the surface. As the bed of the lake is composed of clay, sand and gravel throughout this portion of its extent, there is no danger to navigation from the occurrence of rocks either in its bed or on its shores, and vessels driven by storms can find good holding ground for their anchors. There are, hoAvever, some rather dangerous shoals and reefs, especially in the Adcinity of Racine and South Chicago which are plainly indicated on the Government "Lake Survey" charts, printed for the use of navigators. The elevation of the surface of Lake Michigan above the level of the sea is 581 feet, and its approximate maximum depth is eight hundred and seventy feet. Its southwestern shores are bordered with "dunes" .of sand rising in mounds of many graceful shapes. Many of these dunes rise to a height of 100 feet or more. Schoolcraft's Observations. — "These dunes are, however, but a hem on the fertile prairie lands," wrote Schoolcraft, in 1820, "not extending more than half a mile or more, and thus masking the fertile lands. Water, in the shape of lagoons, is often accumulated behind these sand-banks, and the force of the winds is such as to choke and sometimes entirely shut up the mouth of the rivers. We had found this hem of sand-hills extending around the southern shore of the lake from the vicinity of Chicago, and soon found that it gave an appearance of sterility to the country that it by no means merited." On other portions of the lake the shore consists of a somewhat irregular line of bluffs, from fifty to seventy-five feet in height, though there are eminences which attain a much greater altitude, as for instance, "Bald Tom," situated on the Michigan shore, on a line directly east of Chicago, which is 240 feet in height. An English traveler, in the course of a description of the vieAv landward 48 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE from the deck of a passing steamer, used the expression, "the monotonous shores of Lake Michigan," Avhich as they appear from a distance may have deserved such a mention, if by that it Avas intended to notice the absence of hills or mountains in the vicinity of its shores. But Schoolcraft's observations as above quoted Avill go far to give a true impression to the beholder. The Avhole extent of the shore line of Lake Michigan is 1,320 miles. The length of the shore line bordering on Wisconsin, from the Illinois state line on the south to the end of the Door Peninsula on the north, is about tAVO hundred miles. This does not reckon in the coast line of Green Bay. The fluctuations in the level of the Avaters of the Great Lakes have at tracted much attention among scientific observers, to ascertain if possibly these fluctuations could be identified Avith regular tidal movements. As early as 1670, Father Dablon in the "Jesuit Relations," says, "as to the tides, it is difficult to lay doAvn any correct rule. At one time Ave haAre found the motion of the Avaters to be regular, and at others extremely fluctuating. We have noticed, however, that at full moon and new moon the tides change once a daj- for eight or ten days, AA'hile during the remainder of the time there is hardly any change perceptible. It is Avorth Avhile remarking in this connection that Schoolcraft, Avho Avas an eminent geologist and Avho A'isited Green Bay in 1820, did not believe there were any tides in the lakes. "Governor Cass caused observations to be made," he says, "Avhich he greatly extended at a subsequent period. These give no countenance to the theory of regular tides, but denote the changes in the level of the Avaters to be eccentrically irregular, and dependent, so far as observations extend, altogether on the condition of the winds and currents of the lakes." AVhether or not there is actually a lunar tide in Lake Michigan Avas made the subject of an address by Lieut. -Col. James D. Graham, a Government engineer, before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1860. Referring to the Avritings of the early missionaries and explorers, he said that in the lakes Avere noted some peculiar fluctuations in the eleva tion of the Avaters of these inland seas. "In the speculations indulged in by some of these writers," he continued, "a slight lunar tide is sometimes sus pected, then again such an influence on the SAvelling and receding Avaters is doubted, and their disturbance is attributed to the varying courses and forces of the winds. Lack of Systematic Observations. — "But Ave have noAvhere seen that any systematic course of observation Avas ever instituted and carried on by these early explorers, or by any of their successors Avho have mentioned the subject, giving the tidal reading's at small enough intervals of time apart, and by long enough duration to develop the problem of a diurnal lunar tidal Avave on these lakes. The general idea has undoubtedly been that no such lunar influence Avas here perceptible. "In April, 1854, I Avas stationed at Chicago by the orders of the Govern ment," continued Colonel Graham in his address, "and charged Avith the direction of the harbor improvements on Lake Michigan. In the latter part of August of that year, I caused to be erected at the east or lakeAvard ex- DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 49 tremity of the north harbor pier, a permanent tide-gauge for the purpose of making daily obserA'ations of 'the relative heights and fluctuations of the surface of this lake. "The position thus chosen for the observations projects into the lake, entirely beyond the mouth of the Chicago River, and altogether out of the reach of any influence from the riArer current upon the fluctuations of the tide-gauge. It was the fluctuations of the lake surface alone that could affect the readings of the tide-gauge. "On the first day of September, 1854, a course of observations was com menced on this tide-gauge, and continued at leasf once a day, until the thirty- first day of December, inclusive, 1858. * * * These observations were in stituted chiefly for the purpose of ascertaining with accuracy the amount of the annual and also of the secular variation in the elevation of the lake surface, with a view to regulating the heights of break-waters and piers to be erected for the protection of vessels, and for improving the lake harbors." Results of Tidal Observations. — The result of this series of tidal observa tions, continued over a period of four years and four months, is given by Colonel Graham as follows: "The difference of elevation of the lake surface, between the periods of lunar low and lunar high water at the mean spring tides is here shown to be two hundred and fifty-four thousandths (.254) of a foot ; and the time of high water at the full and change of the moon is sIioavii to be thirty minutes after the time of the moon's meridian transit." For the benefit of readers who may not be accustomed to terms familiar enough to residents of tide-water regions, we will here state that "spring tides" have no relation to the spring season. Spring tides occur twice a month. Colonel Graham sought to justify himself in taking so much pains to ascertain the facts regarding tidal movements in Lake Michigan, by saying: "Although this knowledge may be of but small practical advantage to navi- gators, yet it may serve as a memorandum of a physical phenomenon Avhose existence has generally heretofore been either denied or doubted." He con cluded his paper by submitting his observations as a solution of the "problem in question," and as "proving the existence of a semi-diurnal lunar tidal wave on Lake Michigan, and consequently on the other great fresh Avater lakes of North America," A'arying from fifteen hundredths of a foot to twenty-five hundredths of a foot, that is, from one and four-fifths inches to three inches' rise and fall. "Col. J. D. Graham's report on the tides of Lake Michigan," says R. A. Harris in the Coast and Geodetic Report for 1907, "have not been altered by subsequent observations." Graham's work was discussed by Ferrel in his book "Tidal Researches"; and Harris accords Colonel Graham the honor of being the discoverer of tides in the lakes. Prof. Rollin D. Salisbury of the University of Chicago, sums up the matter in his work, entitled, "Physiography," as follows: "Tides are imperceptible in small lakes and feeble in large lakes and inclosed seas. In Lake Michigan, for example, there is a tide of about two inches." Sudden and Gradual Fluctuations. — Oscillations of the lake level are 50 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE familiar phenomena to residents on the shores of the lake. "They are gen erally attributed by scientific men," Avrote Thomas C. Clarke in the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1861, "to atmospheric disturbances which, by increasing or diminishing the atmosphere pressure, produce a corresponding rise or fall in the water level. These are the sudden and irregular fluctuations. The gradual fluctuations are probably caused by the variable amount of rain which falls in the vast area of country drained by the lakes." Thus it may be said in general that the levels of lakes with river outlets of a limited volume change from time to time, according to the amount of precipitation on their surfaces and the contiguous territory. The sources of supply of such a body of water as Lake Michigan, for example, are springs and rivers; and, since they are dependent upon rain and snow, the sources of the supply of lake water may be said to be atmospheric precipitation. The fluctuations in the level of Lake Michigan in different seasons is thus accounted for, though in the case of the frequently observed sudden changes in lake levels the cause is found in the atmospheric pressure. "A sudden change in atmospheric pressure on one part of a large lake," says Professor Salisbury, "causes changes of level everywhere. If the pressure is increased in one place, the surface of the Avater there is lowered and the surface else where correspondingly raised." Disastrous Fluctuations. — On the 30th of April, 1909, a very remarkable rise of water of the lake occurred, reaching a height of six feet at Evanston. It rose and retired within the space of a few hours, coming just after a storm of unusual severity. The account of it in the Evanston Index of the next day says: "The lake shore presents a highly interesting sight following the. action of the tidal wave Avhich Avashed clear to the middle of the lake front park, filling the lagoon with debris and'leaving a big windrow of driftwood of all sizes and shapes to mark its extreme reach. ' ' The Chicago Tribune of May 1, 1909, states that the storm above referred to caused the loss of five lives, and of property estimated' at $2,000,000. Collapsed and unroofed houses dotted the stretch of prairie land near the Illinois Central Railroad in the neighborhood of Seventy-fifth Street. "The storm caused unusual disturbances in Lake Michigan at the Thirty-ninth Street pumping station; variations in the lake level of between four and five feet occurred." The authorities caused the flow of water into the Sanitary Canal to be nearly doubled in order to ease the pressure, but despite the efforts made the Chicago River at times was reversed and ran its old course into the lake. In the Coast and Geodetic Survey Report for 1907, it is stated that "the most common cause of these periodic movements is the wind blowing over bodies of water in Avhich they occur. The sudden variations in • barometric pressure may cause 'seiches' (tidal AvaA'es) in lakes and other nearly enclosed bodies of water." Gradual Fluctuations of the Lake. — The variations in the water levels of the lake extending over comparatively long periods of time, for example a month, a year, or even for a longer period, have been carefully measured at stated intervals, for more than fifty years. Results from such measurements. DISCOVERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 51 disregarding the sudden rises and subsidences of which we have spoken, show a slow increase or decrease in the general height of the surface, as compared with the level of the sea, such fluctuations sometimes extending over years of time. The mean stage of water on the lake, for the period extending from 1860 to 1907 (inclusive), is given on the chart of Lake Michigan, issued by the United States Lake Survey, as 581.32 feet above mean tide at New York. The highest stage of water on record Avas that of "the high water of 1838," when it stood at 584.69 feet above sea level. The lowest stage was that of December, 1895, during which month the average was 578.98 feet. Thus be tween the extremes there Avas a variation of 5.71 feet. There had, however, been many noteworthy fluctuations throughout the period from 1838 down to the end of the century between these extremes, as will be shown below. For example, in the year 1869 the level declined to 580 feet, folloAved two years later by a rise to 582.7 feet. Again, there was a decline in 1873, to 579.9 feet, followed by a rise, in 1876, to 583.5 feet. In 1880, a low stage was again reached when the level stood at 580.7 feet ; after which there was a gradual rise to the year 1886, when the level stood at 583.6 feet. After that there was a gradual descent for ten years, and, in 1896, the level dropped to 579 feet, the lowest on record. The level again began to rise, so that by the year 1900, the elevation was 580.7 feet above the level of the sea. Aspect of Milwaukee from the Lake. — In an article printed in Scribner's Magazine for March, 1892, by Charles C. Rogers of the United States Navy, he says: "Perhaps the most pleasing prospect of the lake (Lake Michigan) is Milwaukee, whose cream-colored buildings produce a peculiar and most agree able effect. Eight railways center here after traversing a rich and rapidly improving country, whose grain forms the chief element in the city's pros perity. In entrances and clearances, it follows closely upon Chicago, the number last year (1891) exceeding 20,000; one of the chief contributors to this record is the line of wooden steamers to Ludington, in the service of the Flint and Pere Marquette Railroad. Its vessels are built especially to con tend with the lake ice; they run regularly in winter and are never detained more than a few hours." FORMER PRESIDENTS OF THE OLD SETTLERS CLUB OF MILWAUKEE COUNTY AVHO AVERE ALL LIVING AT THE TIME THIS GROUP PICTURE AATAS MADE IN 1918 Photo bv Guttenstein CHAPTER IV MAIL CARRIERS AND ROUTES The first mail route that crossed the Alleghany Mountains was established in 1788, coming Avest as far as Pittsburgh. Within the next few years routes were extended to Louisville (1794), to Vincennes (1800) and from Vandalia to Springfield (1824). As the northern part of Illinois was sparsely settled, it AA-as not until the early '20s that mail Avas brought to Chicago by regular "express" as the carriers were called. Before that time letters arriving had come through special conveyance or messenger as opportunity offered, and when conditions were favorable. In 1826 David McKee agreed with the Government to carry dispatches and letters once a month between Chicago and Fort Wayne. This was mainly for the convenience of soldiers or agents occupying Fort Dearborn. He took with him an Indian pony to carry the mail bag and sleeping blankets, driving his pony ahead of him. For his own food he relied upon the game which he could kill, and for his pony's eating he cut down an elm or basswood tree here and there on the path. The route lay from Chicago to Niles, Michigan ;: thence to Elkhart, Indiana ; and thence to Fort Wayne. The average tr'p took fourteen days, it being sometimes accomplished in ten days. Writing of the mail at Chicago in 1825, Mrs. Kinzie says, "The mails arrived as may be supposed, at very rare intervals. They were brought occa sionally from Fort Clark (Peoria), but were more frequently from Fort Wayne, or across the peninsula of Michigan, which Avas still a wilderness peopled with savages. The hardy adventurer who acted as express was, not unfrequently, obliged to imitate the birds of heaven and 'lodge among the branches,' in order to insure the safety of himself and his charge." The carriers often suffered from "snowblind" having to suspend the journey or hire it done by another while they recovered in some cabin or other stop ping place along the route. Although usually provided with parched corn against the scarcity of game, there were many times when the mail carriers traveled for days on the verge of starvation; just as common a hardship was freezing the feet, in some instances the men losing their toes as a result. One might wonder why horses were not in general use for these long wilder ness journeys. The question is answered by point'ng out the difficulty of progress through forests crossed by feAv or no paths. In writing of his western tour, Storrow says, "The thickness of the forest rendered marching difficult, and almost entirely impeded the horse ; but for exertions in assisting him over crags, and cutting away branches and saplings with our tomahawks, 53 54 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE we should have been obliged to abandon him. The land Avas broken with hillocks and masses of rock." The eastern mail was brought to- Wisconsin twice a year by a soldier, whose route was overland from Detroit, around the southern bend of Lake Michigan and through Chicago. About the year 1825 postoffices Avere estab lished in towns west and south of Chicago, and mail routes put through con necting these places. In this way the older settlements in Illinois Avere more closely connected with the northern part of the state. Of the route between Green Bay and Chicago much is found in historical records, as it was one of the oldest western routes. In an account of one who lived in Green Bay in 1825, we read, "Once a month a mail arrived, carried on the back of a man who had gone to Chicago, where he would find the mail from the East, des tined for this place. He returned as he had gone, on foot, via Milwaukee. This day and generation can know little of the excitement that overwhelmed us when the mail was expected — expectations that were based on the weather. When the time had come, or was supposed to have come, that the mail carrier was nearing home, many of the gentlemen would start off in their sleighs to meet him." Alexis Clermont, Pioneer Mail Carrier. — One of the well known carriers of the early days was Alexis Clermont, who regularly made this journey, after the Black Hawk war. He has told his own story of it: "I Avould start out from the postoffice in Shantytown, taking the Indian trail to Manitowoc. jOnly twice would I see the lake between Green Bay and Milwaukee — at Sauk River, twenty-five miles north of Milwaukee, and at Two Rivers. From Milwaukee I went to Skunk Grove, then to Gross Point, where I struck the lake again, and then I would see no more of the lake until I reached Chicago. * * * In making my trips I was not alone. An Oneida Indian always accompanied me. The load was limited to sixty pounds and we usually had that weight. As a rule it took us a full month to make the round trip from Green Bay to Chicago and return. We carried two shot bags filled with parched corn; one of them hulled, the other ground. For the greater part of our diet we relied upon the Indians, or on Avhat wild game Ave could kill ; the bags of corn were merely to fall back upon, in case the Indians had moved away, as they Avere apt to do, on hunting and fishing expeditions. At night we camped out in the woods, wherever darkness overtook up, and slept in the blankets which we carried on our backs. In Chicago Ave merely stopped over night, and promptly returned the way we came ; unless Ave were delayed by a tardy mail from Detroit, which reached Chicago by steamer in summer, and by foot, overland, in Avinter. * * * Our pay was usually from $60 to $65 for a round trip such as I have described, although in the fall sometimes it reached $70." The receptacle carried by the express Avas not always the bag that is re ferred to so frequently. John II. Fonda, in starting on his trip from Green Bay to Chicago, Avas intrusted "with — not mail-bag — but a tin cannister or box of a flat shape, covered with untanned deer hide, that contained the dis patches and letters of the inhabitants." MAIL CARRIERS AND ROUTES 55 In the period about 1825 "the United States mails coming from the East to Chicago and other lake ports were conveyed, during the season of navi gation, by the irregular and tardy conveyances of sail vessels, and the in habitants of the country were oftentimes for weeks and months without intelligence of Avhat Avas passing in other parts of the Avorld from which they were completely isolated." The privilege of mail seiwice "was purchased partly by voluntary contributions of the citizens and an allowance from U. S. Quartermaster's Department, and the military post fund at Fort Howard. The Government at Washington found it Avould not pay to establish a mail route, or defray the expenses of carrying the mail, and decreed, no doubt wisely, that no expenditure could be made by the Post Office Department for that purpose, exceeding the net proceeds of the mail matter." The narrative of Alexis Clermont, from which the aboA^e account is in large part derived, is printed in the Wisconsin H'storical Collections in Vol. XV. In that interesting volume, entitled "Historic Green Bay," by Ella Hoes Neville, Sarah Greene Martin, and Deborah Beaumont Martin, it is related that one Moses Hardwick was also employed during the '30s as mail carrier to Milwaukee, where Solomon Juneau was at that time postmaster. The small newspaper published semi-monthly at Green Bay, in 1834, had this refrain at the head of its columns : "Three times a week without any fail, At four o'clock we look for the mail, Brought with dispatch on an Indian trail." Trusty carriers, it is said, "were hard to find, although the pay was ample according to the scale of wages in those days, $45 to Milwaukee, and from $60 to $65 to Chicago and return, but communication must have been very irregular, to judge from letters that passed between Bernard Grignon Avho had the contract for transporting the mail, and the Milwaukee postmaster." "The mail carrier (it was said), was necessarily a man of tough fibre and strong nerve, for, burdened as he Avas Avith his pack, mail pouch, and loaded musket, he was forced to keep on his feet day and night, wading through snow so deep at times as to require snow-shoes. When overcome Avith sleep he wrapped himself in his blanket and lay doAvn in a snow-bank, taking such rest as he could with the wolves howling around him." Unsettled State of the Country. — "The country was in a wild, unsettled state," continue the authors above quoted from. "Acts of violence were frequent, although summary punishment was usually inflicted upon the of fender. The enlisted soldiers at the fort were often desperate characters, and officers were in danger of assasination by their own men in revenge for arbitrary punishment, as Avell as from the suspicion and enmity of the Indians. In the summer of 1821, the post surgeon, William S. Madison, was shot and instantly killed near the Manitowoc River by a Chippewa Indian concealed in the brush. The murderer was captured, taken to Detroit, and tried at the September term of the Supreme Court. 56 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "His counsel, James D. Doty, denied the jurisdiction of the court, alleging that the murder was committed in a district of country to which the Indian title had not been extinguished, and therefore the United States could not take cognizance of the crime, for the Chippewa and Winnebago nations, both being sovereign and independent, exercised exclusive jurisdiction within their respective territorial limits. Further, he argued that the American Govern ment, by repeated treaties with the Indians, had acknowledged that its dominion extended no further than as actual OAvners of the soil by purchase from the savages; that the Indians must be either citizens of the United States or foreigners; yet were evidently not considered citizens by our Gov ernment, the privileges of our laAvs and institutions not being extended to them, nor had any act of theirs been construed as treason or rebellion. "He said they had been regarded by the French, English and American gOArernments as allies, and were not a conquered people. Various other argu ments Avere urged by the brilliant young advocate, but his plea was over ruled by the court, and Ketauka Avas sentenced to be hung at Green Bay, on December 21, 1821. The sentence Avas executed at the appointed time and place." Moses Hardwick, Noted Mail Carrier. — In one of the chapters of the Wisconsin Historical Society's collections (for 1882) there is a sketch of a mail carrier of the period of 1817, contributed by Morgan L. Martin. This mail carrier's name was Moses HardAvick. He Avas a discharged soldier and was employed for several years by the quartermaster at the fort in carry ing the mail from Detroit by Avay of Chicago and Milwaukee to Fort Howard during the season when lake navigation was closed. He made monthly trips on foot between these points for seven consecutive Avinters, commencing in 1817. "It Avas a service," says the Avriter, "Avhich few could perforin, requir ing poAvers of endurance and strength, with Avhich men are rarely endowed. The depth of siioav Avas such as to require the use of snoAV-shoes, and to give no opportunity for providing a comfortable camp for the night. The person engaged in this serA'ice Avas obliged to keep on his feet day and night until overcome by fatigue and Avant of sleep, when rest becoming an absolute necessity he wrapped himself in his blanket, lay down in a siioav bank, and took the needed repose, after Avhich he continued the same routine of tramp ing and rest until his destination Avas reached. The seA^erity of the trial of strength seems almost incredible, for in addition to the mail-bag, weighing usually from fifty to sixty pounds, the carrier had the necessary supply of proAdsions to pack on his back. * "There Avere two or three other men engaged in this arduous service, but none it is believed suffered greater hardships than Hardwick ; and yet after many years of this severe and continued labor, exposed to all changes of weather, he lived to the remarkable age of eight-eight years." Hardwick was employed to carry the mail on the route between Green Bay and Mil waukee when it was established in 1833. In an address before the Old Settlers' Club in 1873, Judge Andrew G- MAIL CARRIERS AND ROUTES 57 Miller, who came to Mihvaukee in the late thirties, referred to the early mail carriers and the mail routes. He said that between Milwaukee and Green Bay the only intermediate stopping places Avere Port Washington, Sheboy gan Falls and ManitoAvoc; and that "the postman traveled the trail on foot, delivering the mail at the terminus of his route on the fourth day. Return ing from holding court in Green Bay, in October, 1839, a beautiful Indian summer day, between Sheboygan Falls and Mihvaukee, I met the mail car rier on foot, AA'ho Avas the only white man I observed on the trail that day, but there Avere numerous Indians enjoying their hunting season." John H. Fonda. — Having previously referred to John H. Fonda we will here give some account of this picturesque traveler with a brief description of his moArements through the West. Fonda was a rover who left accounts of his traA^els in the form of memoirs Avhich are printed in the early records of Wisconsin. He belongs to the "Realm of Vagabondia" who, urged by his boyish love of roving, joined in about 1819, a party Avhich was going to Texas, taking their departure from New York State. After folloAving the occupation of fur trader in that country for about four years which seemed to be as long as his interests in his surroundings held out, he traveled in a haphazard fashion toward Saint Louis, sometimes crossing the plains "on board an old pack mule," at one time stopping for a season in a mixed settlement of trappers, Mexicans and Indians; moving on again to Saint Louis in charge of a caravan of wagons and cattle over a barren coun try, that even then seemed to him rich in its possibilities. In Texas he had been a fur trader; in Saint Louis he was a bricklayer; and next, after a few months in that place, hearing that fortunes were to be made in lead mining near Prairie du Chien, and that a number of men were starting up the Missis sippi, he made himself onei of this party. It Avas sufficient for him that they were seeking new experiences. On the journey up the river rumors of Indian disturbances in the mining region came to them, so they branched off at the Illinois River, went on up the Desplaines, across the old slough into the Chicago River, and thus Fonda first entered Chicago paddling doAvn toward Fort Dearborn in a canoe. Feeble Beginnings of Chicago. — "At this period," he relates, "Chicago was merely an Indian agency; it contained about fourteen houses, and not more than seArenty-five or one hundred inhabitants at the most. * * * The staple business seemed to be carried on by Indians and runaway sol diers, AA'ho hunted ducks and musk-rats in the marshes. There was a great deal of Ioav land, mostly destitute of timber. The principal inhabitants were the agent (Dr. Alexander Wolcott), a Frenchman by the name of Ouilmette, and John B. Beaubien. It never occurred to me then that a large city would be built up there." From Chicago he started to Green Bay, but at the scanty trading settle ment of Milwaukee he stayed two years, perhaps for no reason at all, per haps for one having to do with the fact that a feAV years later he married the niece of the only merchant in the settlement. In 1827 he roved toward Green 58 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Bay. In all his Avanderings the scenery on the Avay afforded him as much interest and excitement as actual adventures. At Fort HoAvard, near Green Bay, he was delighted to see Yankee sol diers, after eight years' absence from his eastern home. Colonel McKenney was in command of the fort, and visiting him was Gen. Lewis Cass, Avho Avas there on a commission to hold a treaty with the local Indians. At Green Bay, he Avas continually hearing rumors increasingly alarming, of Indian disturb ances, — the first warning notes of the Winnebago Avar; he "continued," as he said, "to hang around the fort, leading a sort of free ranger life, — some times accompanying the officers on their hunting tours, but refusing all pro posals to enlist." Soon there came a task that suited his fancy. "It was the winter of '27 that the U. S. Quartermaster, having heard of me through some of his men with whom I was a favorite, came to me one day, and asked me if I thought I could find the way to Chicago. I told him it wasn't long since I had made the trip up the lake. He said he wanted to get a person who was not afraid to carry dispatches to the military post at Fort Dearborn. I said I had heard that the Indians were still unfriendly, but I was ready to make the attempt. He directed me to make all the preparations neces sary, and report myself to his quarters at the earliest moment. I now began to consider the danger to be provided against, Avhich might be classed under three heads, viz., cold, Indians, hunger. For the first it was only needful to supply one's person with good hunting shirts, flannel and cleer-skin leggins, extra moccasins, and a Mackinaw blanket; these, with a resolute spirit, were deemed sufficient protection against the severest weather. And fortunate was he who possessed these. Hunger, except in case of getting lost, was easily avoided by laying in a pouch full of parched Indian corn and jerked venison." Against danger from Indians, he provided himself with adequate arms, — a rifle, a sheath knife, and tAvo pistols, — took unto himself a comrade for sociability's sake and was ready to start on the long journey to Chicago. Suffice it to say that Fonda with his companion started for Fort Dearborn (Chicago) on foot in the dead of the Avinter of 1827, passed through a coun try then little known to the Avhite man, depending upon his compass and the course of rivers to keep the right direction. On the fourteenth day after leaving Green Bay (Fort HoAvard) they arrived at Juneau's settlement on the Milwaukee River, and at the end of one month arrived at Fort Dear born. Here he delivered his dispatches and in a few days started on the return journey, arriving at Green Bay, about the last of February. In the Black Hawk war he served in the army and from that time forward lived at Prairie du Chien for the remainder of his life. Mail Carriers of the Early Days. — It is amusing to regard these two com panions together, — Fonda, the valiant, free lance, tall, poAverful, good- natured; and Boiseley beside him in comical contrast, a short, uncouth, hir sute Avoodsman, Avith long arms, having an endurance and power even greater than that of his companion. These tAvo left Fort Howard on foot Avith MAIL CARRIERS AND ROUTES 59 letters and dispatches for the Indian agent at Fort Dearborn. The trip Avas made by land, and in a little more than a month their destination was reached. This Avas the second time that Fonda had come to Chicago, and in his approach as a carrier of dispatches, he felt a certain importance, a dignity Avhich his former arrival as a casual tourist had lacked. The dis patches Avere delivered to Captain Morgan, whom he found in command at the fort with a company of volunteers from the Wabash country, who had come in response to Gurdon S. Hubbard's appeal for aid. The two men then went out from the fort into the settlement to a house "built," as Fonda says, "on the half breed system, — partly of logs and partly of boards." At this house, kept by a Mr. Miller, Fonda and his companion stayed Avhile in the settlement. Of the place at the time of his second visit he said, "With the exception, that the fort was strengthened and garrisoned (that is, by the volunteers mentioned), there Avas no sign of improvement having gone on since my former visit." In another month they Avere back at Fort Howard Avith return dispatches from Fort Dearborn. Regarding this experience Fonda makes his- confes sion: "The Quartermaster at Fort Howard expressed himself satisfied Avith my performance, .and he wanted me to make another trip ; but as I had seen the country, which was all I cared for, I did not desire to repeat it. Get ting my pay from the Department and a liberal donation from the people, a portion of which I gave to Boiseley, I left Uncle Sam's employ and took up my old profession, as a gentleman of leisure, and continued to practice as such until the spring came, when with a vieAV to extend the field of my labors, I made ready to bid goodbye to Green Bay." Urged on by the "joy of the open road," he started forth with his little goblin of a companion towards Fort Crawford, near Prairie du Chien, where Col. Zachary Taylor took command in 1829. Fonda in the Black Hawk War. — During the Black HaAvk Avar Fonda served in the army, and for his service he received at the end of the war a land warrant, whereupon he married and settled down. From that time he hVed at intervals, in Prairie du Chien, taking his family with him as he moved from place to place. After his last discharge from the army he was a Justice of the Peace for a number of years. In 1858, Fonda related the story of his pioneering. He was then about sixty years old, and for the past thirty years a resident of Prairie du Chien, having come there as a young man when it was the extreme frontier settlement in the Northwest. He is interesting rather as a personality than in any historical connection with Milwaukee or Chicago. He was one of the brotherhood of Borrow and Stevenson, of Josiah Flynt and Richard Hovey. He felt the glory of the open air and knew the worth of a Avayfaring companion. He loved adven ture, was brave in danger, of great physical endurance and did well what ever he set himself to do. It is characteristic of him that he fought hard against the Indians and yet could say, "No person under heaven sympathizes more sincerely with them than I do." *>il^ •¦# THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE IN 1853 Copy of an old lithograph print CHAPTER V INDIAN VILLAGES When Lieutenant James Gorrell of the British army visited the western posts in October, 1761, in order to take them over from the French (Canada noAv having passed into the possession of the English in consequence of the surrender of Quebec two years before), he found at Green Bay, or La Bay as the French called it, but one family of Indians in the village at that place, the other Indians having gone, according to their custom, on their annual hunt. The English detachment under Lieutenant Gorrell consisted of twenty men. The absent -hunters Avere not expected back at the village until the following spring when it would be in order to hold councils Avith them and cultivate their friendship and loyalty. There were six tribes that visited La Bay Avhere they met with the traders, some of them having two or more villages within their limits, and each of these subdivisions would expect the indispensable wampum belts as well as various other presents. In May of the folloAving year (1762), at a council with the chiefs of the Folles Avoines, the name given by the French to the Menomonees, Lieutenant Gorrell pre sented them Avith belts of Avampum and in addition a number of other articles both useful and ornamental. While Lieutenant Gorrell Avas at La Bay holding councils with the re turning Indians he was visited by a party of Indians from "Milwaeky" mak ing complaint of a certain trader among them, but as the trader had come to them from Mackinac the lieutenant referred the visitors to the officer in command at that point. In later years when Col. Arent de Peyster was in command at Mackinac, he delivered a speech to the Indians in which he spoke of "those 'runegates' of Milwakie, a horrid set of refractory Indians." In the same speech he alluded to "a sensible old chief at the head of a re fractory tribe," probably the Milwaukee band whom he had already called "runegates," and who no doubt dwelt in a village at this place. The Menomonee Indians. — The Menomonee Indians were an Algonquian tr'be the members of which, according to Dr. William Jones, claimed to understand Sauk, Fox and Kickapoo far more easily than they did Chippewa, Ottawa or Pottawatomie. "Hence it is possible," writes a contributor to Hodge's "Handbook of American Indians," "that their linguistic relation was near the former group of Algonquians. Grignon speaks of the Noquet as a part of the Menomonee, and states that 'the earliest locality of the Menomo- 61 62 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE nee, at the first visit of the Avhites, was at Bay de Noque and the Menomonee River, and those at Bay de Noque were called by the early French Des Noques or Des Noquia.' "The Jesuit Relation for 1671 includes the Menomonee among the tribes driven from their country, that is, 'the lands south of the Michilimackinac, ' Avhich is the locality Avhere the Noquet liA^ed Avhen they first became known to the French. It is generally believed that the Noquet, who disappeared from history at a comparatively early date, were closely related to the Chip- peAva and were incorporated into their tribes ; nevertheless, the name Menomonee must have been adopted after the latter reached their historic seat: it is possible they Avere previously knoAvn as Noquet." Charlevoix says: "I have been assured that they had the same origin and nearly the same language with the Noquet and the Indians at the Falls." "The people of this tribe," says the same writer, "Avere first encountered by the whites Avhen Nicollet visited them, probably in 1634, at the mouth of the Menomonee River. In 1671, and henceforward until about 1852, their home was on or in the vicinity of the Menomonee River, not far from where they were found by Nicollet, their settlements extending at times to Fox River. They generally have been at peace with the whites. A succinct account of them, as Avell as a full description of their manners, customs, arts, and beliefs, by Dr. W. J. Hoffman, appears in the Report of the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology for 1896. In their treaty with the United States, February 8, 1831, they claimed as their possession the land from the mouth of Green Bay to the mouth of the Milwaukee River, and on the Avest side of the bay from the height of land betAveen it and Lake Superior to the headAvaters of the Menomonee and Fox rivers, Avhich claim Avas granted. They now reside on a reservation near the head of the Wolf River, Wisconsin. Characteristics of the Tribe. — "Major Pike described the men of the tribe 'as straight and well made, about middle size; their complexions generally fair for savages, their teeth good, their eves large and rather languishing; they have a 'mild but independent expression of countenance that charms at first sight.' Although comparatively indolent, they are described as gen erally honest, theft being less common than among other tribes. Drunken ness was their most serious fault, but even this did not prevail to the same extent as among some other Indians. Their beliefs and rituals are substan tially the same as those of the Chippewas. They have usually been peaceful in character, seldom coming in contact with the Sioux, but bitter enemies of the neighboring Algonquian tribes. They formerly disposed of their dead by inclosing the bodies in long pieces of birchbark, or in slats of wood, and burying them in shallow graves. In order to protect the bodies from wild beasts, three logs Avere placed over the grave, two directly on the grave, and the third on these, all being secured by stakes driven on each side. Tree burial was occasionally practiced. "The Menomonee — as their name indicates — subsisted in part on Avild rice ; in fact it is spoken of by early Avriters as their chief vegetable food. Although making such constant use of it from the earliest notices Ave have INDIAN VILLAGES 63 of them, and aware that it could be readily groAvn by sowing in proper ground, Jenks, who gives a full account of the Menomonee method of gather ing, preserving and using the Avild rice, states that they absolutely refused to sow it, evidently OAving to their unAvillingness to 'wound their common mother, the earth.' " There are two rivers in Wisconsin bearing the name of Menominee or Menomonee, the former being a comparatively small stream that flows into the Milwaukee River at Mihvaukee, the latter forming part of the boundary line between Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Indians at Milwaukee. — "The Indians were principally PottaAvatomies, " says A. J. Vieau, in the narrative elsewhere quoted from. "Those Avho Avere at Avhat came afterAvards' to be called Walker's Point, on the south shore of Milwaukee River, were considerably intermixed with Sacs and Winnebagoes. They were lazy fellows as a rule, and preferred to hunt and fish all summer long to cultivating corn. They were noted players of the mocassin game and la crosse, were heavy gamblers and given to debauchery. In the winter time these felloAvs scattered through the woods, divided into small hunting parties, and often Walker's Point was practically deserted. "But in the summer there was a large settlement here, the bark wigwams housing from a thousand to twelve hundred Indians of all ages and condi tions. On the old Juneau marsh, where are noAv Water, Main, Milwaukee, Jefferson and Jackson streets, Indian ponies would graze in great droves in the earlier years, it being then, I am told, a quite dry meadoAV ; but as far back as I can remember it, it was flooded and the home of countless water fowl. "The Spring Street flat, from the river back to the bordering highlands, the Indians had under quite excellent cultivation. On the lime ridge there was a big Indian settlement. Some of the Indian families there would raise as much as one hundred and fifty bushels of corn and a considerable store of potatoes; they were quite industrious and counted as honest, in striking contrast to what we used to call 'the Walker Point rogues.' On the K.nni- kinnick River, there was a small band of one hundred fifty or two hundred Pottawatomies. ' ' The Menomonee Tribe was peaceful and friendly, and in consideration in part of benefits received of government, they ceded to the United States the lands described in the following treaty : ".The Menomonee Tribe of Indians, in consideration of the kindness and protection of the government of the United States, and for the purpose of securing to themselves and posterity a comfortable home, ceded and forever relinquished to the United States all their country on the southeast side of Winnebago Lake, Fox River and Green Bay, described in the following boundaries : Beginning at the south end of Winnebago Lake and running in a southeast direction to Milwaukey or Minnawakey River, thence down said river to its mouth, thence north along the shore of Lake Michigan to the entrance of Green Bay, thence up and along Green Bay, Fox River and Winnebago Lake to the place of beginning excluding all private land claims, 64 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE which the United States has heretofore confirmed and sanctioned — and also all the islands in Fox River and Green Bay are likewise ceded, the lands ceded comprising by estimation, two million five hundred thousand acres." This treaty and a cession from the PottaAvatomies and other tribes in cluded the lands covered by this city. The mouth of the Milwaukee River was the extent of the Menomonee 's lands on the south, the lands of the Pot- tawatomies, and other tribes extending from that point south and west. The cession of the friendly Menomonee was made in 1831, the year before the Black Hawk war. The cession of the Pottawatomies and of the Sacs and Foxes, which tribes were warlike, was made in 1833, the year after that war. At Milwaukee, says A. C. Wheeler in his history, the unexplored wilder ness of Wisconsin lay all about the early traders. "If the treacherous natives in a moment of vindictiveness came out of their lurking places and shot doAvn the trader they had but to fall back into the recesses of their own forests, and pursuit or punishment was impossible." Still the red man Avas sus ceptible to a certain kind of treatment which the early traders knew how to employ. He quickly realized that outrages and revengeful cruelty toAvards the whites reacted disastrously upon him in many Avays for early in their relations he found that he had become dependent upon the trader for the supply of his wants, rude as they might be. Thus the Avisdom of the chiefs often put a restraint upon their followers Avhich operated as a protection to the traders. The Indians at Mahn-a-Avauk-kie, as the Indians called this trading post, were very difficult to manage. "At one time O-nau-ge-sa, a well known chief, Avould seem to Avink at the overbearing disposition of certain bullies of his tribe," says Wheeler, "and the violence must needs be overlooked by the sufferers from it. Treachery lurked under the guise of friendship, and the scalping knife Avas worn nearest the heart. Discretion was the higher law, and it required all the shreAvdness of the white men to preserve their OAvn standing in the community of traders." The Whiskey Tribute. — O-nau-ge-sa levied a tax of several gallons of Avhiskey a Aveek for himself and his followers, and if the traders refused the regular supply, or demanded money therefor, it Avas regarded as a cause for hostility, upon Avhich "the scalping knife leaped from its lurking place, and the lords of the forest put on their most fiendish Avar paint." A copious supply of fire Avater pacified them but it usually brought a demand for more and that made demons of them. "When under its influence all the dark vil- lany of their natures came uppermost, and to refuse to satisfy their drunken thirst but precipitated violence. Therefore was cunning greatly exercised by these early traders in order to save their own lives as well as to preserve their goods and chattels." These Mahn-a-waukies Avere incurable thieves besides being confirmed whiskey sots. "They Avould at all times," says the historian, "rather steal than trade, and it is but justice to say that the fear of the Avhite man's guns alone savred the trader's stock from rapid depletion Avithout equivalent returns." INDIAN VILLAGES 65 The historian invites us to gaze Avith him on the scene presented in 1818. "Could the reader have seen Milwaukee then," he says, "he would have beheld the still expanse of forest and river rendered picturesque by these savages, mayhap in an encampment, or it may be gathering the wild oats in their canoes, Avhere noAv commerce has piled up monuments of brick and stone, and mechanical industry thunders night and day." He Avould haAre beheld the far-flung lines of breakers on the shore of Lake Michigan, its sur face as today stretching aAvay blue in the distance beyond the bounds of human vision. VIEW OF THE CITY OF MILWAUKEE IN 1873 From an old lithograph print by Beck and Pauli CHAPTER VI DAYS OF THE FUR TRADER I Wisconsin, Early Forms of Name In the oldest French documents the name is spelled "Misconsing, " " Ouisconching, " " Ouiskensing, " etc., but in time the name was finally crystallized into "Ouisconsin," says R. G. Thwaites in a footnote on page 233 of his volume in the American Commonwealth series. "The meaning of the aboriginal word thus variously rendered," con tinues Thwaites, "is now unknown. Popular writers declare that it signifies 'gathering of the waters,' or 'meeting of the waters', having reference pos sibly to the occasional mingling of the divergent streams over the low-lying watershed at the Fox-Wisconsin portage ; but there is no warrant for this. In order to preserve the sound in English it became necessary, on the arrival of the Americans, to modify the French spelling." Thus the official spell ing has become "Wisconsin." Pioneer Traditions. — The rich variety of picturesque names applied at one time or another to the historic site upon Avhich the City of Milwaukee now stands is constantly met with in the narratives of the explorers and missionaries, and in the traditions of the aborigines. One writer says : "Man-a-Avaukee (rich and beautiful land) !" said the Indian brave as the sIoav current carried his canoe out of the forest twilight. His gutturals christened a metropolis, and he was its first citizen ; for Milwaukee stands on "the ashes of by-gone wigwams." "The future heart of the city was a swamp of wild rice which his squaw beat into the bottom of the canoe as he paddled slowly along. Three rivers — the Milwaukee, the Menomonee and the Kinnickinnic — brought the beaver, the muskrat, the mink and the otter to his traps among the alders. "After the first Indian found 'Man-a-waukee' it wasn't many moons be fore other Indians followed him to the 'rich and beautiful land.' They came with the war-paint washed from their faces to set up their tepees when white winter covered river and lake. Some of the later arrivals, in a different dialect, named the attractive spot 'Mahn-a-Avaukee Seepe' — 'gathering place by the river.' "On the open glades in the forest the squaws planted and harvested the golden corn while the braves stalked wild game in the woods and took fish and furs from the streams. A warm welcome awaited the pale-face when he journeyed hither from the land of the sunrise." "Near Thanksgiving time in 1674, fifty-four years after the Pilgrim 67 68 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Fathers landed on Plymouth Rock," says the Avriter of the historical leaf lets for the First Wisconsin National Bank, "Father Marquette, the Jesuit missionary, saw the beautiful Milwaukee harbor and its sheltering bluffs. It is possible that he stopped here, where many years later a great university was named in his honor. He Avas on his Avay, Avith a party of Indians, from Green Bay to 'Chicagou. ' During the next decade other missionaries fol lowed him, and they left record of 'Millioki, ' 'Mehvarik,' and 'Mie-sit-gan.' "Indian legends tell of a great battle on the Mihvaukee between the Menomonee and the Sioux tribes for the mastery of this rich territory," continues the account printed in the bank leaflet already quoted from. piping of the blue-bird mingled thenceforth Avith the lapping of the Avaters "But never after that Avas the Avar-whoop heard in ' Man-a-waukee, ' and the where the Avild daisies held watch over the braves Avhose spirits roamed the 'Happy Hunting Grounds.' " Early Mention of Milwaukee. — Among the early notices of Milwaukee in which the name of that city appears in one or another of the various forms of spelling met Avith in the records is found a mention by St. Cosme in his letter to the Bishop of Quebec printed in John G. Shea's "Early Voyages Up and Down the Mississippi." The letter states that St. Cosme and his party set out from Michilimackinac on September 14, 1698, and reached Mehvarik on the 7th of October, Avhere they remained tAvo days, "partly on account of the wind and partly to refresh our people a little, as duck and teal shoot ing was very plenty on the river." In Lieutenant James Gorrell 's Journal, printed in the Collections of the Wisconsin Historical Society, Volume I, it is stated that he visited Detroit in 1762, and there met "a party of Indians from Mihvacky," as he Avrites the name in his journal. A note by the editor of the reprinted collections, Mr. Reuben Gold Thwaites, says that at the time it Avas "quite an Indian toAvn, " and adds that there was "an English trader residing there." In Hodge's "Handbook of American Indians," other modes of spelling are given, — Meliwarik and Mehvarik (St. Cosme), Mellioki (Shea), and Mihvau- kie (in a Congressional document in 1824; . Origin of Name. — In Schoolcraft's "Mississippi," the author gives the fol lowing account of the origin of the name, Milwaukee, or Milwaukie. "The name of Mihvaukie exhibits an instance of Avhich there are many others in which the French have substituted the sound of the letter I in place of n in Indian words. Min, in the Algonquin languages signifies good. Waubie is a derivative from auJcie, earth or land, the fertility of the soil along the banks of that stream being the characteristic trait AA'hich is described in the Indian compound." In William George Bruce 's "Century of Progress" it is stated that the name is of PottaAvatomie origin, first spelled Mil-wah-kie, derived from Man- na-wah-kie, meaning "good land." But Mihvaukee cannot compare with Chicago in the variety of its forms of spelling as found in the early records, giving occasion for President John Quincy Adams' remark that "during his administration no two government officers, Avriting from Chicago, ever spelled the name the same way;" and Doctor Stennett, the historian of the Chicago DAYS OF THE FUR TRADER 69 & Northwestern raihvay, gives examples in his book of a score or more of the uncouth combinations that served to indicate the name of Ch.cago. The early fur traders made extensive use of the streams and lakes for the transportation of their furs to the great centers of the trade, principally at Mackinac Island. The accumulations of their Avinter's trading Avith the Indians Avere made up into bales and transported along the smaller channels and trails, eventually passing into the great routes as they neared their destination. Canoes and barges in charge of voyageurs, usually Canadian French, Avere employed in great numbers. The share of the Indians in this trade Avas that of trapper and hunter with whom the traders exchanged various articles of merchandise for their furs. Each year the fur traders assembled in great numbers at Mackinac Island AA'hich although only a village of some five hundred permanent inhabitants Avas SAvelled to a transient population of several thousands, — traders, voy ageurs and Indians, Avho remained during the summer, until as fall approached they gradually left the island and returned to their Avinter hunt ing grounds and trading posts scattered throughout the vast region of the Avestern country. Gurdon S. Hubbard. — About the time that Solomon Juneau was becoming established at Mihvaukee in 1818, Gurdon S. Hubbard, then a young man under twenty years of age, Avas in the employ of the American Fur Company AA'hich made its headquarters at Mackinac Island, or Michilimackinac as the traders of those days seemed to prefer to call it. During the Avinter of 1818-19 young Hubbard Avas learning the details of the fur trade at Mackinac, and in the spring he accompanied Antoine Deschamps on a trip to the Illinois country with a stock of supplies suitable for the trade with the Indians. In later years Hubbard wrote a book of reminiscences in which is de tailed many adventures in the life of the fur traders of those days, a book which is of great value to the historian in later times. Hubbard made many trips to and from Mackinac in succeeding years and became Avell knownr to the traders and Indian tribes throughout the country among the latter of whom he was knoAvn by an Indian name which meant "Swift Walker," by reason of his speed Avhen traversing the trails of the region. He Avas in trusted by the American Fur Company with the conduct of many expedi tions in later years. Navigation of Lakes and Rivers. — The boats which in the spring had brought the furs to Mackinac and had deposited them in the warehouses of the American Fur Company were in due time loaded Avith merchandise of every description for the Indian trade, and dispatched in fleets on their return journeys in the fall, not to appear again until the following spring or early summer. These fleets were called "brigades," and one of them described by Hubbard was in charge of a commander (in this case Antoine Deschamps) with himself as clerk, and a full complement of voyageurs to act as paddlers on the twehe boats of the br'gade. There Avere also passen gers to be accommodated who found this the speediest method of reaching various points on the distant frontiers. In fact these passengers were con sidered a very desirable addition to the expedition as they paid well for 70 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE their subsistence and transportation. The Fur Company at Mackinac bore the necessary expenses of these expeditions and provided ample supplies besides the merchandise designed for bartering with the Indians. The boats in use by the fur traders Avere called "batteaux." They very much resembled the boats used in later days by fishermen on the lake. Each of them was manned by a crew of five men besides a clerk, called "the bour geois." "Four of the men roAved while the fifth steered," continues Hub bard. "Each boat carried about three tons of merchandise, together with the clothing of the men and rations of corn and tallow. No shelter Avas provided for the voyageurs, and their luggage was limited to twenty pounds in weight for each man, carried in a bag provided for that purpose. The commander of the brigade took for his OAvn use the best boat, and Avith him an extra man who acted in the capacity of orderly to the expedition. The will of the commander Avas the only laAv known. The clerks were fur nished with salt pork, a bag of flour, tea and coffee, and a tent for shelter, and messed with the commander." The men had only such shelter as was provided by the boat tarpaulins, and no other covering than a single blanket for each of them. Their rations consisted of one quart of "lyed corn" and two ounces of tallow daily, or "its equivalent in Avhatever sort of food is to be found in the Indian country." Characteristics of the Voyageurs. — The voyageurs, or "engages," were a race of people unlike any other class of men. In Mrs. John H. Kinzie's book, entitled "Wau-Bun," she describes them as follows: "Like the poet they seemed born to their vocation. Sturdy, enduring, ingenious, and light-hearted, they possessed a spirit capable of adapting itself to any emergency. No difficulties baffled, no hardships discouraged them; Avhile their affectionate nature led them to form attachments of the warmest char acter to their 'bourgeois,' or master, as well as to the native inhabitants among whom their engagements carried them." An atmosphere of romance surrounded the lives of these children of the frontier. They are always regarded with the greatest interest by his torians through the sympathy felt for the hardships they endured and the example they furnished of light-hearted cheerfulness at all times. Their simplicity, their readiness to undertake any task of physical endurance, their inextinguishable sense of fun and hilarity, and their capacity for enjoy ment under every vicissitude that fell to their lot, rendered them the most picturesque feature of the life of the early day, especially in the part they took in the fur trade AA-hich Ave are here describing. "One of the peculiarities of the voyageurs," Avrites Mrs. Kinzie in "Wau- Bun," was "their fancy for transforming the names of their 'bourgeois' into something funny resembling them in sound." Thus Kinzie, the Chicago trader, would be called by them "quinze nez" (that is, fifteen noses), and another of the traders (Mr. Shaw) was by the voyageurs called "Monsieur Le Chat" (that is, Mr. Cat). It is related that on quitting the Indian coun try Shaw married a Canadian lady and became the father of several chil dren. "Some years after his return to Canada, his old foreman, named DAYS OF THE FUR TRADER 71 Louis la Liberte, wrent to Montreal to spend the Avinter," Mrs. Kinzie relates. "He had heard of his old 'bourgeois' marriage, and was anxious to see him. "Mr. Shaw Avas walking in the Champ de Mars with a couple of officers when La Liberte espied him. He immediately ran up and seizing him by both hands accosted him, "Ah! mon cher Monsieur le Chat, comment vous portez vous?" "Tres bien, Louizon." "Et comment se porte Madame la Chatte" (Hoav is the mother cat?) "Bien, bien, Louizon; elle est tres bien." (She is very well.) "Et tous les petits Chatons?" (And all the kittens?) This Avas too much for Mr. ShaAv. He answered shortly that the kittens Avere all quite well, and bidding him call at his house, turned aAvay with his military friends, leaving poor Louizon much astonished at the ab ruptness of his departure. Practices of the Fur Traders. — It is a generally accepted notion among white people that the traders took advantage of the ignorance and sim plicity of the savages with whom they dealt. On one occasion a lady travel ing in a party conducted by Joseph Rolette, a famous fur trader of those days, remarked, "I would not be engaged in the Indian trade; it seems a system of cheating the poor Indians." "Let me tell you, madame," replied Rolette, "it is not so easy a thing to cheat the Indians as you imagine; I have tried it these twenty years, and have never yet succeeded." While one of the American Fur Company's boats, on another occasion, was passing through Lake Winnebago enroute to Green Bay for supplies, it came in sight of a party in charge of Rolette himself returning to his post at Prairie du Chien after an absence of several Aveek's duration. As Rolette was one of the agents of the American Fur Company the men of both parties were his employees. The meeting of the boats in these lonely Avaters Avas an occasion of great excitement among the men and the news from home was eagerly inquired for by the men of the returning party. The boats AA'ere stopped, earnest greetings exchanged, questions folloAving each other rapidly. Rolette asked if the new house was finished, whether the chimney smoked, if the harvest ing had been completed, and if the mill was at work. Then he asked about his favorite horse, about the store, and about other activities of various descriptions; and having exhausted his stock of inquiries he shouted the order to his men to move on. Then suddenly seeming to remember something he called out, "arrefez, arretez!" (stop, stop!) "comment se portent Madame Rolette et les enfas?" (How are Mrs. Rolette and the children?) Having now received satisfac tory answers to his questions the parties then resumed their melodious boat songs, bent themselves to their oars, and quickly lost sight of each other. Of Rolette the editor of the Wisconsin Historical Society collections says : "In consequence of his early settlement in the country, and from his energy and enterprise as a trader and a merchant, Rolette Avell deserves to be kindly remembered as one of the prominent pioneers of Wisconsin. Boats of the Fur Traders. — When Mrs. Elizabeth Therese Baird was traveling from Green Bay to Mackinac Island in 1825, she took passage in 72 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE one of a fleet of six boats laden Avith furs belonging to the American Fur Company, in charge of her brother-m-laAV, Joseph Rolette. Mrs. Baird at that time Avas a young woman scarcely fifteen years of age. In later years she contributed a paper to the collections of the Wisconsin State Historical Society, printed in volume XIV, pages 17-64, draAvn from her recollections of the time. This interesting lady Avas born at Prairie du Chien in 1810, and Avas the granddaughter of an OttaAva Indian chief, thus having a strain of Indian blood in her A-eins. "Mrs. Baird," says the editor of the historical series quoted from, "Avas a Avoman of charming personality and excellent educa tion, proud of her trace of Indian blood, and had a wide acquaintance with the principal men of early Wisconsin." In the previous year (1824) she had been married to Henry S. Baird, a rising young laAvyer of Green Bay. During his life there it Avas said of him that he had taken long journeys in the course of his laAV practice by various primitive modes of conveyance to Mackinac and Detroit by sailing craft, to Prairie du Chien by bark canoes Avith Indian voyageurs, and to Mihvaukee on horseback. Journey from Green Bay to Mackinac. — Mrs. Barrel's descriptions of the boats in use by the fur traders and other particulars of the journey are here given in her own Avords in the main, though involving some repetition of portions of the previous narratives in this history. The route taken by the party Avas along the eastern shore of Green Bay to its opening into the northern portion of Lake Michigan, and thence to Mackinac Island. Thf account is replete Avith many lively details of the passage. "In each of the boats," she says, there were seven men, six to roAV and a steersman, all being Frenchmen. There was in addition in each boat a clerk of the American Fur Company, to act as commander, or bourgeois. These boats were each thirty feet long, the furnishing of Avhich Avas com plete. The cargo being furs a snug-fitting tarpaulin Avas fastened down and over the sides, to protect the pelts from rain. This cargo Avas placed in the center of the boat. A most important feature of the cargo was the mess basket, one of the great comforts of the trip and a perfect affair of the kind. It was Avell filled Avith everything that could be procured to satisfy both hunger and thirst, such as boiled ham, tongue, roast chicken, bread, butter, hard biscuit, crackers, cheese, tea, coffee, chocolate, pickles, etc., and an abundance of eggs. Then there were wines and cordials, and in addition Ave depended upon securing fresh game and fish on the Avay. Rolette was a generous provider, sending to distant markets for all that this part of the country could not supply. "The mess basket on this occasion seemed to have an extra supply of eggs. It seemed strange, however, that such faithful Avorkers as the men Avere should have been fed so poorly; they had nothing but salt pork, 'lyed corn' and biscuit, the general food of Avorkmen in the fur trade. Our boat carried tAvo tents and had a cot bed and camp stool for my use. "The party in our boat consisted of Rolette (the head man), John Kinzie (of Chicago), my husband and myself. Starting quite late in the daA' Ave DAYS OF THE FUR TRADER 73 were only able to get as far as Red Banks before it Avas time to stop and camp for the night. As I stepped from the boat I saw that my tent Avas almost ready for me, so quickly did these men arrange matters for the encampment. "Next morning daAvned gloriously, and we started off in our boats after breakfast in fine spirits, cheered and enlivened by the merry songs of the boatmen AA'ho always begin the journey Avith a song; always keeping Avithin easy distance of the shore in case of a sudden squall or violent wind. The camping hour Avas always hailed Avith delight by the men at the close of a hard day's work, and it Avas an agreeable change to the passengers as Avell. "As Ave roAved away from Red Banks on that most beautiful June morn ing many Avere the amusements indulged in by the crews of the boats. This morning the men began by throAving 'hard tack' at each other, but this did not last long as the prospect of needing the biscuits later checked their sport. Shortly after Ave began to see eggs flying in the air which continued Avith considerable activity until the end of the day's journey. It was re newed after the men got ashore amid great hilarity until the ammunition Avas nearly exhausted." This stopping place Avas afterwards called "Egg Harbor," in honor of the occasion, a name it has ever since borne. The Shores of Green Bay. — "The names of some of the islands in Green Bay have been changed since our trip in 1825, and many that in that day had no names whatever have since been christened. Then Ave knew by names only Washington Island, the Beavers, — Big and Little, — Chambers, Fox, and Pottawatomie, or Rock Island. Never were we obliged to dine or encamp on the east shore at any spot not attractive. One night Ave encamped at a place called Petit Detroit, not far from Death 's Door. It is a small island formed like a half moon, the inner portion being a most beautiful har bor beyond which rose rather high hills. The whole island Avas then a per fect garden of wild roses. Never have 1 seen at one time so many flowers of any kind as I then saw. The charms of the place so attracted us that AAre made an early landing. The men had to clear a spot to pitch the tent, and in finishing their Avork they very thoughtfully decorated my tent with roses." Mrs. Baird, in her account, goes on to describe the practical features of the long journeys of the fur traders. "This fleet of boats," she says, "was originally loaded at Prairie du Chien, and then unloaded at the portage between the Wisconsin and Fox rivers, where the men carried first the packs of furs on their backs, then returned for the boats, and reloading them Avould run down to the Big Chute, now Appleton. Here the boats again had to be unloaded and the furs portaged around by the men. The boats, hoAvever, made the journey down the swift Avater, Avhich Avas called 'jumping the rapids.' The unloading was repeated at Grand Kaukauna; but at Rapides Croche and at Rapides des Peres, noAv De Pere, the loads Avould be carried through on the boats, all the men walking in the water to guide the boats with their valuable cargoes. Our boats Avere loaded for the last time at Kaukauna, not to be unloaded until they reached Mackinac. "We now traveled slowly, Avaiting for a day Avhich would shoAV signs 74 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE of being fine throughout, that Ave might make in safety 'La Grande Traverse' —to cross the lake to the east or north shore. The crossing started from Rock Island and Ave made a successful crossing. We Avere six days in mak ing the journey from Green Bay to Mackinac." As they neared their des tination the fleet stopped at Pointe a la Barbe to give the men an opportunity to shave for the first time since they left Green Bay and to array themselves in fresh garments so that they might make a presentable appearance upon their arrhal at the "grand emporium of the West." "Each man looked Avell in his striped cotton shirt, blue pantaloons, red sash around the Avaist and red handkerchief around his neck. Caps of all sorts they Avore but no hats. They purchased high hats Avhen they reached Mackinac ; everybody then wore the hat since called the 'stoA^e-pipe. ' The Fashion for Tall Hats. — Making a brief digression at this point in our history Ave may remark that one can scarcely imagine the rage among all classes of men for the tall hats of the period of Avhich Ave are writing. As Ave see by the above allusion to this ungainly feature of men s attire even the A-oyageurs did not consider themselves completely equipped in dress until they had provided themselves Avith tall hats, a notion Avhich they shared Avith men of all classes and degrees eA'ervAvhere. It is recalled that when the mounted men of the Kentucky volunteers made their appearance at the battle of the Thames, in 1813, they Avore stoA-e-pipe hats in the charge that resulted in the death of Tecumseh, and doubtless the ground Avas streAvn Avith hats of this description in all stages of battered ruin after the fight. It has been said that when Sir Thomas Picton led the charge of the British cavalry at Waterloo he Avore a frock coat and a tall hat, not having had time to put on his military uniform before the action commenced. It is recalled by A-eterans of the Civil Avar that General Sheridan habitually wore a hat Avith an abbreA-iated croAvn' of the same description, in battle and on his cam paigns ; and after the Avar he was often seen on the streets of Chicago in a tall silk hat of the latest fashion. Conductors on passenger trains in the thirties and forties usually Avore tall hats while on duty; Mississippi River pilots likeAvise Avore high hats as Avell as the ocean pilots of the present day. EA'en the Indians Avore them if they were able to procure them, though often deA'oid of other clothing, as it is mentioned in the recollections of a pioneer printed in the "Proceedings" of the Wisconsin Historical Society for 1916. John Kinzie, the Chicago pioneer, is shown Avearing a high hat in a picture of the Fort Dearborn mas sacre of 1812, where he Avas present endeavoring to assuage the fury of the savages on that terrible occasion. Everyone is familiar with the numerous portraits of Abraham Lincoln that are in existence shoAving the tall hat in all its glory. Effects of the Fur Trade on the Indians. — The fur trade was at its height in 1820, and seriously on the wane by 1835. The fur trade was dependent for its successful prosecution on the Indian hunter though his achancement towards civilization was imperilled by this occupation. The most important step for the improvement of the Indian's condition Avas in the practice of DAYS OF THE FUR TRADER 75 agriculture rude as were his methods. It Avas a distinct reversion in savage life when- they became hunters exclushely. "The introduction of the fur trade," says Tlrwaites, "Avrought a serious change in the life and manners of the Indians. They Avere induced to aban don much of their agriculture and most of their A'illage arts. Becoming hunters, they took a backAvard step in the long and painful road towards civilization. Heretofore they needed furs only for raiment, for sleeping mats and tepee coverings. Now they found that peltries were eagerly sought by the white trader, Avho Avould exchange for them Aveapons, cloth, iron kettles, tools, ornaments, and other marvelous objects of European manu facture, generally far better and more efficient than those Avhich they had been wont to fashion for themselves. "Thus the Indians soon lost the arts of making clothing out of skins, kettles from clay, Aveapons from stone and copper, and beads from clam shells. They were not sIoav to discover that Avhen they hunted their labor Avas far more productive than of old. Comparatively slight effort on their part now enabled them to purchase from the Avhite traders Avhatever they desired. Moreover, the latter brought intoxicating liquors, heretofore un known to our savages, but for Avhich they soon acquired an inordinate greed, of which advantage Avas taken by charging prices therefor that brought enormous profits to the traders. Aside from this new vice, the general result Avas disastrous to the improvident aborigines, for in considerable meas ure they ceased to be self-supporting. They soon came to depend on the fur traders for most of the essentials of life ; and so general was the credit system among them, the summer's supplies being bought on the strength of the folloAving Avinter's hunt, that the tribesmen were practically ahvays heavily in debt to the traders, Avhich rendered it advisable for them to stand by their creditors wheneA'er two rival nations were contesting the field. In the end these conditions materially assisted in the undoing of the Indian." In the forest traffic of the American Fur Company the variety of goods Avas extensive, and the enumeration of a feAv of the articles may be found interesting. There were blankets, shawls of brilliant hues, coarse cloths, cheap jewelry, beads of many colors and sizes, ribbons and garterings, gay handkerchiefs, sleigh and haAArks' bells, jewsharps, mirrors, combs, hatchets, knives, scissors, kettles, hoes, firearms, gunpoAvder, tobacco, and the never failing intoxicant. These goods Avere brought to Mackinac from Montreal in canoes, bat- teaux, and later by sailing vessels; the cargoes were there divided and dis tributed to the several larger agencies and posts, whence they ultimately found their way to the farthest "trading shanties." This Avas the heyday of the fur trading days, but the trade gradually declined, as American agri cultural settlement slowly developed. The Fur Traders of Revolutionary Times. — The influence of Gen. George Rogers Clark on the MihAraukee Indians was felt even in those early days succeeding his conquest of Illinois. Clark did not himself penetrate into Wisconsin, but from his headquarters in Kaskaskia there were sent out active agents by him to gain the neutrality of the tribes, throughout the southern 76 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Wisconsin region, toAvards the struggle then in progress betAveen the Ameri cans and the British. In this he Avas successful and he secured a promise of neutrality from the Sauk, Fox and Winnebago chiefs, and an alliance with the Americans even was accepted by the Mihvaukee PottaAvatomies. The British maintained three sloops on Lake Michigan during the Avar, and one of them made a reconnoitering voyage around the lake in 1779, "visiting and supplying the Indians and traders at the mouths of several rivers on the east shore, and at ' Mill Ava key' on the Avest," according to a narrative printed in the collections of the Wisconsin State Historical Society (Volume XI, 203). At the last named port the captain found a Avhite trader and a "mixed tribe of Indians of different nations." This allusion to the Mihvaukee trading post of that early period hints at certain complications Avith the American and Spanish settlers of Cahokia, Illinois, which would require many pages of narrative to set forth clearly. The events thus referred to may be found in full detail in the collections of the Wisconsin State Historical Society, Vol. XVIII, preface (p. XXI), and on page 416 of the same volume. The events thus referred to occurred many years prior to the permanent occupation of Milwaukee as a fur trading center. But it may be said that the fur trade of Mihvaukee, carried on at that time, as it was, by visiting traders from Mackinac (then in British possession) was not of sufficient im portance to exercise much influence on the later development of that trade, except as indicating Avhere the site of a great city Avould eventually be established. In his volume entitled, "Leading Events of Wisconsin History," the late Henry E. Legler AA'rote as f oIIoavs : "The influence of the fur trade has been well described by Frederick J. Turner as 'closing its mission by becoming the pathfinder for agricultural and manufacturing civilization,' for Avhere the posts were located, the leading cities of the state haA^e since been built. 'The Indian village became the trading post, the trading post became the city. The trails became our early roads. The portages marked out the locations for canals at Portage City and at Sturgeon Bay; Avhile the Mihvaukee and Rock River portages inspired the project of the canal of that name, which had an influence on the early occupation of the state. The trader often put his trading house at a river rapids, where the Indian had to portage his canoe, and thus found the location of our Avater poAvers.' "Among the cities that have been built on the sites of the trading sta tions and 'jack-knife posts,' as the dependent stations Avere termed, may be enumerated, Mihvaukee, La Crosse, Green Bay, Prairie du Chien, Manitowoc, Sheboygan, Eau Claire, Black River Falls, Hudson, Racine, Taa^o Rivers, Kau kauna, Peshtigo, Oconto, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Chippewa Falls, Kewaunee, Portage, Trempeleau, Madison, St. Croix Falls, Shullsburg, Rice Lake, Cass- ville, Menomonee. "For many years the fur trade avhs Wisconsin's chief source of wealth. It continued such until the lead mine fever in Soutlrwestern Wisconsin de veloped a ucav channel of industry and started the immigration that brought thousands of settlers to the territory." CHAPTER VII THE LEAD MINING INDUSTRY Among the earliest exports passing through the port of Mihvaukee Avas the movement of lead from the mines in Southwestern Wisconsin across the territory both in pig metal form and in the form of shot, for both of which there was a constant demand at home and abroad. During the period that the lead mining industry flourished in Southwestern Wisconsin, there were lively times and every sort of business activity. It con tinued to flourish until the discovery of gold in California proved a stronger magnet. Its decline was hastened by unfriendly tariff legislation, and in addition inadequate transportation facilities operated largely to prevent its continued successful prosecution. "In this age of myriad ribbons of steel radiating from every commercial center," says Legler in his volume, "Lead ing Events of Wisconsin History," "it is hard to appreciate the difficulties encountered by the pioneers in transporting commodities. "There Avere then no railroads in the Northwest, and the great transporta tion projects all centered in canals. The lead industry and its transportation necessities influenced many of the early canal schemes Avhich played a large part in the early politics of the territory. The Fox- Wisconsin route, as well as that of the greater Mississippi River highway, Avas used for the shipment of ore to a considerable extent." Shot Tower on the Wisconsin River In the year 1831, Daniel Whitney, a merchant of Green Bay, built a shot tower at Helena on the Wisconsin River, which on account of its contiguity to the lead mines insured a reliable supply of metal for the manufacture of shot. Whitney had observed that shot towers were successful commercial ventures in Missouri and a company was formed under the name of Whitney, Platte & Company to build one. The tower was two years in course of construction. It was built on the summit of a bold escarpment fronting Pike Creek. A contemporary description is cited by Legler, as follows: "One hundred feet from the base of the rock there is a ledge or landing place ; on this ledge rises the shot tower, of frame construction, eighty feet to the roof ; of course the depth from the top of the tower to the base of the rock is 180 feet. A well or shaft has been sunk through the rock, which is of sandstone, 100 feet, and a lateral drift or entrance ninety feet in length, has been cut from the bank of the creek to the perpendicular shaft." 77 78 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE The daily output of the shot toAver employing six hands was 5,000 lbs. of shot, and the process of making it is described as folloAvs: "At the edge of the cliff stood the melting house Avith tAvo kettles in which the mineral was prepared for dropping. A little to the east of this Avere an arch and a large kettle protected by a small roof. Here the lead Avas tempered by the addi tion of arsenic, and run into 'pigs' for further use; the pigs thus obtained were used to give the requisite brittleness to the lead from Avhich the shot was made. A small portion Avould suffice to temper a kettle holding 1,000 pounds of lead. The 'dropping ladle' Avas perforated with holes of varying size, and when partly full of melted lead would be tilted gently sidewise, forc ing the metal out in drops to form the shot, which falling 180 feet Avould assume a spherical shape and at the same time be cooled. At the bottom of the shaft the shot fell into the shot-cistern, filled Avith water, Avhich served to break the fall, and cool the shot." Shipping Routes for Lead and Shot. — The earliest shipments of shot made at Helena Avere to Galena and Fort Winnebago, though shipments of lead had been made to the east by Avay of Green Bay in previous years. "The importance of the early shot trade of Wisconsin in deA'eloping lines of com munication Avith the lake, overland across the state, deserves mention here," says Prof. O. G. Libby in a chapter by him in the "Collections" of the state historical society, for 1895. "The Helena shot toAver passed from the owner ship of Daniel Whitney in 1836, and Avas bought up by certain Buffalo capi talists, Avho held it Avith but little interruption till 1847. "Noav Avhen Ave remember," continues Professor Libby, "that the Missis sippi markets Avere monopolized by the shot makers of Missouri, the signifi cance of this change of OAvners Avill be at once apparent. Cut off from western markets by the competition of long-established rivals, the only course open Avas to develop eastern markets, with Avhich the Buffalo capitalists were already more or less familiar. As a consequence of this, the shipments of shot betAveen 1841 and 1844 Avere made to Buffalo and by no other than the lake route. For at least ten years then, interest and necessity combined to turn the shot trade through Mihvaukee." In the Mihvaukee Sentinel for September 18, 1838, it is stated that "it Avas a common thing to see oxen hauling Avagons laden Avith lead from Grant and La Fayette counties appear at the Avharves after a journey of eight or ten days." Even two years before this time the Mihvaukee Advertiser an nounced that, at Racine, "two Avagons, containing 4,200 lbs. of Pig Lead, arrived there last Aveek from the rapids of Rock River." Increasing Popularity of the Lake Route. — FolloAving the example of the shot toAver OAvners the lead smelters began sending an increasing proportion of their product to the lake ports. This movement had begun as early as 1836 and 1838, and in a Madison paper for 1841, cited by Professor Libby, the folloAving statements appear: "The Lead Trade: We are pleased to observe by notices in the Mihvaukee and Southport (Kenosha) papers that this trade is beginning to find its Avay to our lake ports on its Avay to eastern markets. The Mihvaukee Courier of the 4th inst. says: 'Our citizens on Satur day afternoon Avere not a little surprised by the appearance on our streets THE LEAD MINING INDUSTRY 79 of four sucker teams loaded Avith lead from the furnace of Thomas Parish, near Muskoday in Grant County. These teams brought over about ten tons of lead to be shipped to New York.' " The Madison paper adds to its quotation from the Courier that "the lead which, arrived here on Saturday Avas shipped on the steamer 'Madison' on Monday, and Avill be in NeAv York Avithin tAventy days from the time it left the furnace near the Mississippi River ; and the OAvner will get his returns in about four Aveeks from the time the lead was smelted. A gentleman from Galena recently informed us that he shipped over ninety days since about fifteen hundred dollars Avorth of lead to New York by the southern route and he had not then got his returns from it. Besides getting a better price for their lead on the lake shore than can be afforded on the Mississippi, our miners can procure their necessary supplies more cheaply, generally, at the lake cities than at Galena or other points on the river where they have been in the habit of trading, and this including the cost of transportation. The teams of which the Courier speaks returned Avith salt which was obtained at Mihvaukee for about two dollars and fifty cents per barrel, and can be sold at the mines at about seven dollars per barrel." Influence of the Lead and Lead Mining Industry. — The history of the lead mining industry has been very fully investigated by A'arious industrious in vestigators AA'hose contributions to this important branch of activity have been printed at different times in the series of the state historical society publications. The preparation of these contributions has required much painstaking research and an adequate presentation of the subject would need a volume or more to contain the details. The lead was brought across the country to Lake Michigan in wagons drawn by oxen, at a cost of $10.00 a ton. The teamsters found it a profitable business as they got loading both Avays, carried their own proAasions, and the prairies afforded all the fodder for their cattle at the nightly camping places in the open. The teams Avould return to the mining regions laden with lumber, shingles, salt and merchandise, Avhich under these circumstances could be obtained from lake shore ports to better advantage than from any other quarter. In 1842, nearly two million pounds of lead and 2,614 kegs of shot were shipped from Milwaukee to NeAv York; and in 1843, the shipments from the same point totaled 2,200,000 lbs. of lead and 250,000 lbs. of shot. The route from Mihvaukee was by way of the Straits of Mackinac, Lake Huron, and Lake Erie to Buffalo, where it was transshipped on the Erie Canal to New York and from there distributed to Boston and other Atlantic cities. Commenting upon this movement of heavy metals, a Buffalo paper said, "Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin Avill soon send to this mart an incalculable amount of lead and copper, in addition to the whole of their surplus agricul tural products. We already export lead to England, from Avhence Ave have heretofore imported many millions of pounds. * * * Capitalists interested in the lake and canal trade should not delay in aiding the construction of a canal or railway from Milwaukee, or some other point on Lake Michigan, to the Mississippi River." i^!» IN** &f % Y/A -W JM ***• soya*?*. "•'. K ^iWoiW ^^tif^,-. fe«4«*« TABLET ERECTED ON WISCONSIN TRUST COMPANY BUILD ING (FORMERLY PABST BUILDING), FOOT OF WISCONSIN STREET, NEAR BRIDGE THE LEAD MINING INDUSTRY 81 Milwaukee Merchants Alert for Trade. — An advertisement in the Mil waukee Courier for April 5, 1843, announces that Weeks and Miller of Center Store, Milwaukee, offer goods in exchange "for most kinds of country prod uce — lead, shot, furs, peltries, etc." A Mihvaukee store at Walker's Point advertises that "James Rathbun has just arrived from New York with an extensive assortment of goods suitable to the Avants of the country round about Avhich he will sell or exchange at the lowest prices for cash, wheat, shot, copper, lead, flax and timothy seed." A Rochester (Ncav York) paper, in 1844, says that "Within the last eighteen months an excellent road has been opened from Mihvaukee to the Mississippi, passing through the mining district AA'hich will be much used hereafter in sending lead to the East by way of the lakes." Mail stages followed close after the freight routes already in use. It was announced in the Argus of September 26, 1844, that "we would call the atten tion of the traveling public to C. Genung & Co.'s line of mail stages noAv running betAveen Madison and Mihvaukee, on the old United States road leading from Madison through Cottage Grove, Lake Mills, Aztalan, Summit and Prairieville to Mihvaukee." In Lapham's "Wisconsin," referring to the trade of Mineral Point, he says: "The quantity of lead and copper sent from here is very considerable; most of it finds its Avay to Galena, Illinois, Avhence it is shipped doAA'n the Mississippi and by Avay of the ocean to New York. Within the last few years, however, much of it is sent by wagons to Lake Michigan, mostly to Mihvaukee, and thence sent direct by Avay of the lakes to New York." A Milwaukee newspaper published the f olloAving item in 1847 : ' ' The 'Lead schooners' (a Arariation of the term 'prairie schooners' as used by the pioneers to denote the great covered Avagons carrying the emigrants and transporting heavy freight) are constantly arriving here from the mineral region. These singular teams, drawn by six, eight or more yoke of oxen, excite some curiosity in those who are not used to such sights in the East. The teamsters and their cattle sleep under the canopy of heaven beside their camp fires, their meals prepared military fashion, and rising Avith the early dawn to continue their journey." Decline of Lead Production. — "Next to the Avheat and grain products," says Miss Phelps in her "Story of Wisconsin," "the minerals of Southwestern Wisconsin brought wealth. This, the oldest settled region, kept for a long time a distinct character allied to the south and southwest. Its population, however, remained nearly stationary. The production of lead reached its highest point in 1844, and thereafter declined. With the decline of mining the old frontier character of the mining region passed away, the shifting populace moved off to new centers, notably to California in 1848. About the middle of the '40s the lines of transportation shifted. Lead began to be hauled to the lake board; by 1847 the bulk of the product crossed the terri tory in wagons drawn by six- and eight-yoke ox-teams, and was transshipped by steamer to the East. "With this change in connections the population of the south Avestern por- 82 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE tion of Wisconsin began to assimilate to the type of the remainder of the territory. The lead-mining region, however, has never quite overtaken the remainder of the state in enterprise and in the production of wealth." Planning for Improved Transportation Lines. — By 1847 the overland lead trade from the mining regions to Milwaukee was well established. Just as in 1839 and 1840 the delays and difficulties of the Mississippi route brought about the opening of better and shorter routes to the eastern markets, so. now it began to be keenly felt that improvements must be made in the means of communication between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. The agri cultural interests also began to suffer for want of transportation facilities. "The capacity of production has satiated and overpowered the capacity of consumption," wrote a correspondent to his paper; "we need a reliable, liberal market for our increasing agricultural products." But men's thoughts tended towards canal navigation as the most desir able method of transporting products of all description. Railroads were dreamed about and, indeed, occupied the thoughts of multitudes. Canals, however, had proved successful in several states. Steam navigation on the large rivers and lakes was already established and steadily increasing. Canals were enormously popular Avherever the country Avas adapted for their con struction. The Erie Canal in New York State was opened in 1825, and was regarded as the mother of canal transportation. As early as 1826 Ohio began the construction of a canal to join the waters of Lake Erie and the Ohio River. Indiana launched an extensive system of improvements, and Illinois began the construct' on of a canal between Chicago and the Illinois River in 1836. AYisconsin, then a territory, began a preliminary survey for the Mihvaukee and Rock River Canal in 1837 which, however, was destined never to be completed. CHAPTER VIII SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY An interesting sketch of Solomon Juneau and his family is found in the pamphlet issued in June, 1921, under the title of the "Milwaukee Diamond Jubilee." This sketch is here included in the early history of Milwaukee as it contains many details not readily accessible from other sources, although throughout the pages of this volume frequent mention is made of Juneau in connection with the stirring events of the early day. More than a century ago, 2,000 miles intervening, two babes were born, a boy and a girl, who were destined to play important roles in the early his tory of the great NorthAvest. The boy was born of pure Alsatian French parents, the girl was of French and Indian extraction. The boy was reared in a home of refinement, the girl grew to womanhood amidst the primitive surroundings of the frontier. Fate decreed they should meet. Across the broad expanse of wilderness extending from the St. Lawrence Valley to the beautiful shores of La Baye Verte (Green Bay), braving the perils and hardships which lay before him, this young man — in all the strength and beauty of youth — came to seek his fortune in this land of vast commercial advantages. It was at the old Indian trading post in historic Green Bay that he met the noble-hearted child of the forest that fate had decreed should be his. Joined in the holy bonds of matrimony, they began their journey through life and together laid the foundation of a city. At the outbreak of the French Revolution, in 1789, Francois and Therese La Tulipe left France and sought refuge in Canada, settling in the little ham let of L'Asumption, near Montreal. As did many others, who left France during those troublous times, they changed their name from La Tulipe to that of Juneau, trying in a way to obliterate all sad memories connected with hav ing to leave the land of their birth and of their honored ancestors. "The French Revolution was a violent reaction against that absolutism which had come in time to supplant the old feudal institutions of the country. It began with an outbreak of insurrectionary movements in July, 1789, includ ing the destruction of the Bastile. On January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI was beheaded, the Christian religion was deposed, the sacredness of the re public and Avorship of reason established, and a disastrous reign of blood and terror followed, which was brought to an end in 1794, when Robespierre, himself, suffered the same fate to which he had condemned countless numbers of his countrymen." — Library of Universal Knowledge, Vol. XII, p. 598. Birth of Juneau. — Solomon Laurent Juneau, the subject of this sketch, second son of Francois and Therese Juneau, was born at L'Asumption, Can- 83 SOLOMON JUNEAU Mihvaukee's first permanent wliite settler, village president and mayor From an engraving in possession of the Old Settlers Club of Milwaukee County SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 85 ada, on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, August 9, 1793, where his boy hood days were spent. On reaching manhood he became imbued with the spirit of adventure so common among the young men of the St. Lawrence Valley in those early days, and during the summer of 1816, at the age of twenty -three years, he left L'Asumption to seek his fortune in the great Northwest, arriving in Mackinac in September. Shortly after his arrival at that place, he met Jacque Vieaux, a French trader, who had trading posts at Mackinac, Green Bay and Milwaukee, and into whose employ he entered at the Green Bay and Milwaukee posts as a clerk, which position he held until the year 1818, after which year he was not connected with Mr. Vieaux in a business way. He attended the village school at L'Asumption, later entering a Catholic college where he completed his education. He Avas well educated in French, and was in this country but a short time before he mastered the English language which he spoke fluently, and was well versed in many Indian dia lects, especially the Menomonee tongue. Solomon Laurent Juneau was a man of rare personality. Of commanding figure, in height he was six feet four inches, he had brown curly hair, clear cut features, and large gray eyes. While of a jovial temperament, he never for a moment lost his natural dignity; of a kind and benevolent nature, he was the friend and confidant of all. The Indians looked upon him as a father, and whatever advice their beloved "Solomo" gave them, was accepted and followed in eA'ery detail. His Avord was sacred, and once given, nothing could make him change his promise either in public or in private life. During the year 1818 the American Fur Company established a trading post at Milwaukee and Mr. Juneau was their authorized agent up to the time of the removal of the Indians in 1838. He, hoAvever, continued in business on his own account in Mihvaukee until 1852, when he removed with his family to Theresa, Wisconsin. As agent of the American Company he settled in Mihvaukee in 1818, at which time he erected the log house, corner of East Water and Wisconsin streets, which he occupied as his residence until the year 1835, Avhen he erected a dwelling house on the southeast corner of Michigan, and East Water streets, where he resided a number of years, later building the commodious dwelling, corner of Milwaukee and Division (now Juneau Avenue) streets where he lived until 1852. During his many trips as an Indian trader between Milwaukee and Green Bay, he was attracted to a pretty spot on the banks of the Rock River where during the early '30s he established a trading post, which in later years became a prosperous village. Mr. Juneau named the post Theresa, in honor of his mother, whose memory and early teachings he held sacred and were his guiding spirit in all dealings through life Avith his fellow men. Mr. Juneau's mother died February 2, 1815. His father died in 1828. In September, 1820, Mr. Juneau married Miss Josette Vieaux, of Green Bay. Seventeen children were born to them, three dying in youth. Seven of their children were born in the old log house. Mr. and Mrs. Juneau resided con tinuously in Milwaukee for thirty-two years. 86 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE White men had visited Milwaukee trading with the Indians prior to the advent of Solomon Juneau, but their stay was of short duration. To Mr. Juneau must be conceded the honor of being the first permanent white settler, as well as the first land owner, he having acquired title to a large tract of land. He was known as the most successful of all the Indian traders and in and around Milwaukee, being closely connected with the commercial life of that region. He was closely identified with every step in the progress of Milwaukee. In 1835, when a postoffice was established, he was appointed postmaster, which office he held for a period of nine years. In 1837, when Milwaukee was incorporated as a village, he was elected president. In 1846, when Mihvaukee became a city, he was chosen its first mayor. He encouraged every under taking that could benefit the community. He was a member of the State Historical Society, and was liberal in his contributions to its archives and picture gallery. Aside from his interests on the east side, he had property on the west side. He and Byron Kilbourn were warm personal friends and close business associates in many enterprises. He assisted Mr. Kilbourn in the platting of the west side. Mr. Kilbourn was an intimate friend of Mr. Juneau's entire family. Mr. and Mrs. Juneau were generous in their gifts to the city which they founded. He built the first courthouse, and with the land upon Avhich it stood, they presented it to the county, that the people might have a temple of justice. They gave the land upon which St. Peter's Catholic Church stood (corner Martin and Jackson streets), and the material for building, that their family, the incoming white population and the Indians might have a place to worship; they gave largely to St. John's Cathedral, among which was a strip of land between the pastor's house and the Cathedral, for which they and their descendants were forever to have two seats in the church; they gave the land for the first Government lighthouse at the head of Wisconsin Street ; they gave the land, corner of Milwaukee and Division streets, whereon a college was erected. All this they gave that their city might be as other cities. To those who were too poor to buy, they gave land and in many instances the material for building, that their poor might have homes. Generous Hosts. — They were fond of entertaining their friends and pos sessed the virtues of hospitality and that warmth of heart which Avas char acteristic of those good old pioneer days. The feAv remaining old settlers look back with fond recollection to those ties of friendship and good cheer which at all times prevailed in and around the Juneau home. Mr. Jean Pierre Husting, Mayville, Wis., once said of Mr. and Mrs. Juneau : "They united in their personality those qualities of unselfishness, generosity, Christianity, nobility of purpose and good will toAvard all mankind, rarely, if ever, found in any one individual." After his removal to Theresa, Mr. Juneau engaged in many business pur suits, among AA'hich Avere a general merchandise store, saw and grist mill, and trading with the Indians. He was postmaster of the village. At the time of his death he was reputed to have left quite a fortune. Aside from his business enterprises, he had large real estate holdings. Mr. Juneau lived to SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 87 see his Indian trading post at Milwaukee develop into a thriving city, which from the very first had been his highest ideal. In the early part of November, 1856, Mr. Juneau left Fond du Lac for the Indian Reservation at Keshena, near Shawano, Wis., to attend the annual payment of the Indians. He had not been well for some time, the death of his wife had completely crushed his spirit and broken his health. His daughter, Mrs. Frank Fox, at whose home he had been visiting in Fond du Lac prior to his departure, for the reservation, tried in vain to persuade her father to abandon the trip, but all effort on her part and that of her husband were of no avail. OAving to his indisposition and the inclement weather, he was taken very ill shortly after his arrival at the reservation, and he continued to grow worse until November 14, when he passed away. All that medical aid and careful nursing could do Avas done for him. Doctors Hiibschmann and Wiley did not leave his bedside until death came. To Doctor Hiibschmann he gave his dying messages for his children, and he proved a faithful messenger. With him at the time of his death were Doctor Hiibschmann, Indian agent ; Doctor Wiley, Hon. Geo. W. Lane, B. Hunkins, Edward Outhwaite, Wm. Johnson, Wm. Powell, Chas. Corron and others. At the time of his death Mr. Juneau was sixty-three years, three months and five days. When the announcement of his death reached Milwaukee, it was a great shock to the citizens and in fact to the entire country from Green Bay to Chicago. The Indians were broken hearted over the loss of their beloved "Solomo." He was buried on the reservation, the Indians would have it so. Had not the "Great Manitou" claimed his spirit. Why then did they not have the right to claim his body. The spot selected by the Indians was on a knoll just back of the Council House. But there were others who claimed him — his grief-stricken children and the citizens of Milwaukee. The funeral on the reservation was held from the Catholic Church, fol lowed by a large concourse of Avhite men and Indians. Four of his pall bearers were Indians, one of whom was the famous Chief Oshkosh. During the services at the grave, the deep and solemn grief of the Indians, both men and women, over the loss of their "Solomo," was indeed pathetic. When the news of Mr. Juneau's death reached Theresa, his sons, Nar- cisse and Paul, and his son-in-law, Frank Fox, left for the reservation to con vey the remains to Milwaukee, the trip both ways being made by team. The Indians accompanied them as far as Shawano, loth to give up all that remained of their beloved friend. On arriving at Milwaukee his remains were taken to the home of his daughter, Mrs. H. K. White. The funeral was held on November 26, from St. John's Cathedral, Reverend Riordan officiating. Interment was in the Catholic Cemetery at the head of Spring Street. This, however, was not the final resting place of Solomon Juneau and his wife. After a period of six teen years their remains were removed to Calvary Cemetery. The monument erected to the memory of Mr. and Mrs. Solomon Juneau in Calvary Cemetery bears the inscription: "In memory of Solomon Juneau, Founder of Milwaukee, Born August 19, 1793, at L'Asumption, Canada." THE SOLOMON JUNEAU MONUMENT Located at the lake front, Juneau Park SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 89 On the reverse side, "Josette Juneau, Wife of Solomon Juneau, Born at Fort Howard, 1803." In 1906 members of the Old Settlers' Club of Mihvaukee placed marble markers at the head of the graves of Mr. and Mrs. Juneau. Mrs. Solomon Juneau. — Josette Vieux Avas born at Fort Howard, Brown County, Wis., April 16, 1803. She Avas the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Jacques Vieux and was the granddaughter of an Indian chief, Ah-ka-ne-po-way. Her girlhood was spent amidst the primitive surroundings of the frontier. She was taught to read in French. Reared a Roman Catholic, she began at an early age to do mission work among the Indians, which work she continued for many years after her marriage. She Avas of medium height; her black hair and eyes, clear olhe complexion, Ioav SAveet voice and courteous manner, gave evidence of her French and Indian origin. In 1820, at the age of seventeen years, Miss Vieux was married at the old Mission Church in Green Bay to Solomon Laurent Juneau. Their wedding journey from Green Bay to Milwaukee was made in a bark canoe, jDaddled by Indians. She received from her parents the customary wedding presents of those pioneer times, consisting of feather beds, pilloAvs, quilts, blankets, etc. Although young in years at the time of her marriage, she was an adept in the art of housekeeping. The country at the time Mr. Juneau brought his young bride to Milwaukee Avas destitute of roads; nothing but the Indian trail traversed the wide expanse of prairie and forest between Milwaukee and Green Bay, and travel was made on foot or on horseback. There was little to break the monotony during the first few years aside from an occasional vessel bringing goods and taking away furs, or the Indian traders passing through that section from Green Bay to Chicago. Mrs. Juneau exercised great influence over the Indians and Avas of much assistance to her husband in carrying on his business in the fur trade Avith the Indians, speaking several Indian dialects. She dressed in Indian costume, which style of dress she wore for many years. Of a retiring nature, she mingled little with the incoming white population and rarely spoke English, French being the language used in the home circle. Jas. S. Buck, in his "Pioneer History of Milwaukee," pays the folloAving tribute to Mrs. Juneau: "She was among Avomen Avhat her husband Avas among men, one of the noblest Avorks of God. Honest and true, a fitting Avife for the noble-hearted man with Avhom she lived so long. "Many of the first settlers were indebted to this brave-hearted Avoman for their personal safety, more than once, in 1836, Avhen the Indians were anxious to destroy them, which they certainly would have done upon one occasion, had she not interfered to protect them, upon AA'hich occasion she stood guard over the whites all the night long during her husband's absence." Mrs. Juneau possessed many noble traits of character. Aside from her many duties to her family, she was every ready to minister to the wants of the sick and the needy. The poor she had always with her. Her home was a stopping place for ministers of all denominations who passed through the trading post. She made them all Avelcome. She might be called the guardian angel of the unfortunate. Many a poor girl who had started life Avrong was 90 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE taken into her home, given religious instruction, taught to do housework and sew, and positions secured for them. As years passed, and the tide of immigration continued to flow into the infant metropolis, the inhabitants numbering thousands, Avhere a few short years before the country was but a Avilderness, Mrs. Juneau longed for the quiet of the country, and persuaded her husband to remove to their summer home at Theresa. There, surrounded by every comfort a loving and indul gent husband could provide, she settled down to enjoy the declining years of her life. After removing to Theresa she became ill and gradually failing, Mr. Juneau took her to Milwaukee to consult their family physician, Dr. E. B. Wolcott. It Avas found her malady Avas of a more serious nature than was at first sup posed. Doctor Wolcott, assisted by Doctor HeAvitt and a specialist from Chi cago, held a consultation and it was found necessary to perform an opera tion, which proved unsuccessful. At the time of her death Mrs. Juneau was fifty-two years, seA'en months and three days. Thus closed in perfect peace, a life of love and service to God, November 19, 1855. The funeral was held from the residence of her daughter, Mrs. H. K White. SerA'ices were conducted by Reverend Riordan at St. John's Cathedral, of which church she was a devout member during her residen'ce in Milwaukee. Burial was in the Catholic Cemetery at the head of Spring Street. Uriel B. Smith pays the following tribute to Mrs. Juneau: "I was in timately acquainted with Mrs. Solomon Juneau. My child, Milwaukee Smith, was born October 10, 1835. She was the first white child born in Milwaukee, and Mrs. Juneau was present at her birth, and attended upon my wife in such a kind and motherly manner as to win the love and esteem of my wife as well as myself. "Mrs. Juneau was also an attendant and watcher at the death bed of my wife some tAvo years after, and during the whole period of our acquaintance we were on the most intimate terms. "For such services rendered to my wife during her sickness, I offered ample remuneration, which Avas immediately declined — she saying to me, 'Such serA-ices were due all, and that, too, without consideration.' Such inci dents cannot be forgotten. I trust that Milwaukee today has her equal — I knoAV it has not her superior." Martin's Estimate of Solomon Juneau. — In the narrative of Morgan L. Martin, printed in the Wisconsin Historical Collections, Volume XI, extended mention is made of Juneau and others contemporaneous Avith him. "I first visited Milwaukee in July, 1833," he says, "on a tour of exploration. With me were Daniel Le Roy and P. B. Grignon, and Ave Avere mounted on horses. As far as Fond du Lac our course lay on the same trail that Judge Doty and I had made in 1829. After that we struck southeast to the shore of Lake Michigan, following it closely until Mihvaukee was reached. "Jacques Vieau and Solomon Juneau traded at this point. I had known them and their families since 1827, for their homes were really in Green Bay at which place they obtained all their supplies. Both Vieau, senior, and Juneau were in Chicago with the greater part of their families at the time SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 91 of our arrival, but young Jacques Vieau, son of the elder, officiated under the parental roof. "When we set out dn our tour, we agreed to eat everything we saw, and one time we Avere compelled to thus dispose of a hawk. At Milwaukee there were no provisions for us, but there were > several Indians loafing around and we engaged one of them to go out and get us some ducks. These Jacques cooked for us and we ate them cold upon our return trip which was made by way of the lake shore. On Sheboygan River, four miles above its mouth, there was an Indian village. We found a net spread near the mouth of the river, and in it two fine fish Avhich we appropriated without ceremony. En Route to Green Bay. — "Next morning an Indian from the village over took us and supplied us with dried and smoked whitefish which we found quite palatable. Manitowoc was out of our line of travel so we did not see the native village said to be there. We reached Green Bay after a delight ful trip, in which the eager search for provisions only served to strengthen our appetites. Both Solomon Juneau and Jacques Vieau were intelligent and worthy men, Mr. Juneau having the polished manners and airs of the French gentleman. In a certain 'History of Milwaukee,' published by the Western Historical Company, in 1881, Juneau has been described as being on a par with the Indians, as to intelligence and manners. That they and their fami lies were far removed above the savage tribes by Avhich they were surrounded, is proven by the fact that they Avere enabled to procure goods and supplies to a large amount on the usual credit from the American Fur Company. "Neither of them did at that time regard themselves as permanent settlers of Milwaukee, but were temporary residents there for the purposes of trade with the Indians. Their homes were in Green Bay. When I first visited Milwaukee in the summer of 1833, on the tour of exploration before nar rated, they and their families were not there, the premises being in charge of employees and one of Vieau 's sons. A further evidence that all were mere sojourners was found in the fact that no land was cleared, fenced, or even under cultivation, except a small patch of ground used by a brother of Juneau, in which he cultivated a few vegetables. Subsequent events, how ever, proved Solomon Juneau to be the first permanent settler, when the land he occupied was ceded by the Indians and subjected to sale as Govern ment land. Martin a Frequent Visitor. — "From 1833 forward, I was a frequent and always welcome visitor to the house of Solomon Juneau. His home was the 'old trading house,' and so far from being the filthy, disgusting home repre sented in the 'History of Milwaukee,' was in all respects neat and comfort able; for the proverbially neat and tidy French women know how to make their habitations attractive. In the fall of 1834, the late Governor Doty, Byron Kilbourn and myself were at Milwaukee and spent a few days, being entertained at the hospitable old trading house, the only habitation there. In April previous, on my way home from Detroit, Mr. Juneau's house was my only stopping place between Chicago and Green Bay; my business relations with him compelled my sojourn there for several days. At none of my visits did the partially cured skins or the odors giveu off by fresh meats and fish hSk SOLOMON JUNEAU, FIRST MAYOR OF MILWAUKEE AND HIS CITY COUNCIL Bas-relief on pedestal of Solomon Juneau Monument SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 93 which had become rank produce an unsavory smell. If there Avere any such they never invaded the comfortable dAvelling in Avhich Ave Avere entertained, but Avere confined to the storehouse, the usual adjunct of all Indian trading posts. "As a man, Solomon Juneau needs no encomiums from me. He Avas always the same unselfish, confiding, open-hearted, genial, honest and polite gentleman. Our business relations commenced in October, 1833, and con tinued for several years. His first hint of the prospective A^alue of his loca tion at Mihvaukee came from me, and he was so incredulous that it was some times difficult to prevent his sacrificing his interest to the sharks who soon gathered about him. Himself the soul of honor, and unaccustomed to the wiles of speculators, Avithout a friend to caution him he Avould have been an easy prey of designing individuals. Green Bay was his home as well as that of the Vieaus, and it Avas not until 1835 or 1836 that Juneau first thought of permanently residing in Mihvaukee, after it came to be seen that the place Avas going to become a village. Martin and Juneau Original Plat Owners. — "Juneau and I were joint OAvners of the original plat of Mihvaukee. We never made any written memorandum of the terms of our partnership, and on account of his residence on the spot he took the principal management of our joint interest for more than three years. At the close, accounts were adjusted between us and property valued at hundreds of thousands divided, Avith as little difficulty as one would settle a trifling store bill. "It would take a volume to enumerate the many admirable traits of char acter which distinguished my friend, Solomon Juneau. The intimate rela tions existing between us made me well acquainted Avith his family, and their every day social relations. Mrs. Juneau, instead of the pure French of her husband, had a slight tincture of Indian blood. Her native tongue Avas French, and that language Avas used in their family intercourse, though both spoke English. They both probably had also acquired a knoAvledge of the languages of several Indian tribes, with Avhom Mr. Juneau was accus tomed to do business; but that they 'dressed and ate like Indians, and in their domestic conversation spoke in the Indian tongue,' is far from the truth. Mrs. Juneau was an amiable and excellent woman, and many of the first settlers around Milwaukee will no doubt bear ample testimony to the deeds of charity by which she was distinguished." The Dawn of a Better Day. — "But in the year 1818," says the historian, "the first grey streaks of the coming dawn in Milwaukee were visible. So faint were they that the wily chief, O-nau-ge-sa, with all his natural watch fulness, did not perceive them. They were to gradually brighten into the rosy tints of civilization, as the night of barbarism sank away in the west." Up and down the river Solomon Juneau pursues his search for a suitable place for settlement. Finally he finds "a green spot at the foot of a long, wood-covered hill that rises to the east, and here he builds his own cabin with the river between him and the opposite SAvamp." But wandering traders have already appeared and for a brief time have lent an appearance of activity to the scene. "Mr. Hypolite Grignon is already t^tv^ /^^-^t^yv ^h4*< -yu*^-^ — - a^v^s t^T1^ Yf^J^^ COPY OF A LETTER AVRITTEN BY SOLOMON JUNEAU IN 1838 SOLOMON JUNEAU TRADING AVITH THE INDIANS Bas-relief on pedestal of Solomon Juneau Monument SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 95 here," says the chronicle, "and James Kinzie (the half-brother of John Kinzie of Chicago) is expected with a large stock of goods from the American Fur Company at Mackinac. There are three other white men in the settlement, and this constitutes the entire white population. Chicago, or 'Eschicagou' ¦ (as Col. Arend De Peyster called it), contains two white inhabitants living outside of Fort Dearborn. Detroit is composed of French half-breeds, and has one brick house Avhich had been built by Governor Hull many years before. There is one little steamboat on the Upper Lakes called the 'Walk in the Water,' which makes the round trip from Buffalo to Detroit once in two weeks, but never ventures into the unknoAvn Avaters past Mackinac." About this time Jacques Vieau built a trading post up the Menomonee two miles Avhere the Green Bay trail crosses that river. "The sand heaps at the mouth of the Mihvaukee River," says historian Wheeler, "with the one or two bark wigwams and the scarcely better tenements that had been erected under the supervision of French Avanderers, offered no attraction to him ; and so we find the first trading post which was destined to be permanently located aAvay off to the west. Here Vieau, who coming from Green Bay, a place already somewhat advanced in civilization and Christianity, had more refined ideas, perhaps, than his neighbors, built a log house, a magazine and repository for furs. All three of these structures were standing in 1836." From the time when Jacques Vieau first settled here up to 1818, there was very little of historic interest transpired, says Wheeler: "the Indians flitted about the bluffs, and when a companion died they lighted their funeral fires on the burial ground at the foot of Michigan Street, and danced their wild orgies between the lurid flames and the dark midnight on the lake. ' ' Juneau as a Young Man. — "A feAv years later than 1818," Ave read in Wheeler's "Chronicles," "there might have been seen, leaning against "the door of Jacques Vieau 's log house, a young man attired in a calico hunting shirt and corduroy pantaloons. His countenance is rather pleasing, not from any beauty in its outline, but on account of an open, frank expression, Avhich is at once indicative of a generous nature and a steady will. This is Solomon Juneau, clerk for Jacques Vieau, his father-in-law. He stands in the doorway of the cabin, and looks listlessly across the great marsh to the east, and up to the oak-crowned bluffs beyond ; nor does it occur to him that in the short space of a few years the bayou beneath his eyes will be swarming with vessels, and that a populous city will be crowning the eminences with wealth and magnificence. "Young Juneau does not for a moment allow his youthful enthusiasm to soar into even improbabilities; not being a visionary young man his fancy sees no Utopia in the green banks of the Mahn-a-Avaukie. The outlines of a few duties to be carefully performed are enough for his contemplation at present." Juneau's Claim as "First Settler." — But lest the foregoing account might seem inconsistent Avith the statement frequently made that Juneau was the first settler and founder of Milwaukee in 1818, it is' proper to add some explanation. In Isabella Fox's biography of Solomon Juneau, published in 1916, it is stated that "as agent of the American Fur Company he settled 96 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE in Milwaukee in 1818, and continued to live there until 1852." Isabella Fox Avas a grand-daughter of Solomon Juneau, and in the biography mentioned she says that "white men had visited Milwaukee, trading Avith the Indians prior to the advent of Solomon Juneau, but their stay Avas of short duration. To Mr. Juneau must be conceded the honor of being the first permanent white settler as well as first landowner, he having acquired title to a large tract of land." Jacques Vieau who has been mentioned as having built a trading post two miles up the Menomonee River, Avas a resident of Green Bay and his trading post here was a branch of his Green Bay establishment. Henry E. Legler, in his book, "Leading Events of Wsconsin History," says of Juneau, "It was as Vieau 's clerk that he came to Milwaukee in 1818; he Avas the first landowner here, for the others exercised 'squatter sovereignty' merely. This fact has probably had some influence in crediting Juneau with having been Milwaukee's first permanent settler." Many years later (in 1887) Andrew Vieau, in an interview with the editor of the Wisconsin Historical Collections related to him that he wras a son of Jacques Vieau, and that his father had for many years previous to 1818 "considered Green Bay his home; he had a farm there and I and several other members of the family were born upon the homestead." As to the form of the name which is variously spelled, AndreAV said: "The family name was originally De Veau; but as that meant calf or Areal in French, other children would annoy my ancestors in their youth by bleating in their presence, so the name Avas changed to Vieau in self-defense." In Andrew J. Vieau 's narrative, printed in the "Collections of the Wiscon sin State Historical Society," Volume XI, it is stated that Solomon Juneau was "appointed clerk to Jacques Vieau in 1818 at Mackinaw. "Thus it Avas, " says the son, "that Juneau arrived at the Milwaukee River in August of that year in my father's company. The next year father withdrew as agent of Avhat had by that time become the American Fur Company, and procured the agency for Juneau, who had in the meantime married my half sister, Josette. He had a farm there and I and several other members of the family were My father had for many j^ears before this considered Green Bay his home. born upon the homestead on the Avest bank of the Fox River. "Green Bay also became Juneau's home and remained such until about 1834 or 1835, when Milwaukee began to grow and Juneau platted the village and settled there permanently. Juneau Avas one of the last to recognize that Milwaukee was destined to become a permanent settlement, and had to be persuaded by his friends into taking advantage of the fact. Green Bay re mained as his home and that of my father despite their business interests at Milwaukee. From about 1810 forward the family Avould frequently remain at the Bay during the winters while father was off among the Indians." Description of Mackinaw Boats. — A description is given of these boats by Mrs. Elizabeth Therese Baird in a chapter of reminiscences, printed in the Wisconsin Historical Society's collections, Volume XIV, p. 17. In 1825, she made a journey from Green Bay to Mackinac Island, accompanied by her husband. Their route lay along the eastern shore of Green Bay and the SOLOMON JUNEAU AND HIS FAMILY 97 northern shore of Lake Michigan. They took passage in a Mackinaw boat, one of a fleet of six AA'hich Avere laden with furs. "In each of the boats," she Avrites, "there were seven men, six to row and one a steersman, all being Frenchmen. There Avas, in addition, in each boat a clerk of the American Fur Company to act as commander or bourgeois. The furnishing of these boats, each thirty feet long, was quite complete. The cargo being furs a snug-fitting tarpaulin was fastened doAvn and over the sides to protect the pelts from the rain. The cargo Avas placed in the center of the boat. A most important part of the cargo Avas the mess basket, one of the great comforts in the past days, Avell filled with everything to satisfy both hunger and thirst. Rolette, who was in charge of the fleet, wras a gen erous provider, sending to St. Louis for all that this part of the world could not supply. "It seemed strange that such faithful Avorkers as the men Avere, should have been fed so poorly. They had nothing but salt pork, 'lyed' corn, and bread or biscuit. This was the general food for workmen in the fur trade." The boats are usually unloaded from the time they leave port until they reach their destination, which in this case occupied six days. "This fleet of boats," she continues, 'Svas originally loaded at Prairie du Chien, and then unloaded at the portage between the Wisconsin and Fox rivers, where the men carried first the packs of furs on their backs, then returned for the boats, and after reloading them would run down to the Big Chute, noAv Appleton. Here the boats again had to be unloaded and the furs portaged around by the men. "The boats made the journey doAvn the swift Avater which was called 'jumping the rapids.' The unloading was repeated at Grand Kaukauna, but at the rapids beloAv the loads were carried through, all of the men Aval king in the water to guide the boats and their valuable loads. Our boats it Avill be seen Avere loaded for the last time at Kaukauna, not to be unloaded until they reached Mackinac." A'ol. 1—7 BYRON KILBOURN Founder of Kilbourn Town, now known as the West Side CHAPTER IX BYRON KILBOURN AND GEORGE H. WALKER Byron Kilbourn "Byron Kilbourn came to Mihvaukee in 1835, from the State of Ohio. He Avas by profession a civil engineer, and as such, held a high rank in his profession," says James S. Buck in his "Pioneer History of Mil waukee." "In person he Avas tall and commanding, sharp features, keen, expressive eye; looked you square in the face AA'hen speaking, and Avas in every respect one who would command attention from all Avith Avhom he came in contact. "He was possessed of a Avill of iron, good judgment, excellent executive abilities, great brain power, saw far aAvay into the future, and possessed a magnetism that Avould both attract and attach to himself and his plans all Avho came under its influence. He was a born leader. "He kneAV the value of money, and how to use it; could tell at a glance the competency of every man, and the right place for him. He Avas the originator of our railroad system, and it Avas mainly due to his great executive abilities that they Avere so soon completed. "His positive character often made him enemies, but for that he cared very little. The more he Avas opposed the stronger became his will, and the result Avould be the accomplishment of Avhatever he undertook. "He took a deep interest in politics and was a democrat. He was twice mayor, and to his liberality is the city indebted for the ground upon which stands the Kilbourn Park Reservoir. Such Avas Byron Kilbourn. He has left a record, both in city and state, that shall never die. He died and Avas buried at Jacksonville, Florida, December 16, 1870." Juneau and Kilbourn. — In Wheeler's history it is said that Juneau and Kilbourn were rivals, but the tAvo men were friendly to each other and cooperated in procuring legislation, in 1839, to consolidate the two toAvns knoAvn at the time as "JuneautoAvn" on the east side and "Kilbourntown" on the west, in the ToAvn of Mihvaukee, Avith two wards, the East and the West. In commenting upon the rivalry which existed between the two towns the historian remarks: "The Milwaukee River Avas the dividing line with our settlers. Not only the nation but states, communities, sects and families, all have a Mason and Dixon's line." The very harmony of our system, observes our historian in a curious strain of reasoning, its "discords, antagonisms and 'Avars,' afforded a healthy recrimination essential to the stimulation and pros perity of the contending opinions." Whether the reader Avill agree with such 99 OLD BYRON KILBOURN RESIDENCE Corner Grand Avenue and Fourth Street after same had been converted into stores Originally built in 1855 BYRON KILBOURN AND GEORGE IT. WALKER 101 a vieAv or not the fact remains that Avhatever virtue there may have been in that doctrine it Avas thoroughly tested in the early days of Milwaukee. In a paper by James Seville, printed by the Old Settlers' Club of Mil waukee, in 1916, it is said that there were but feAV men of his time "whose opinions had more influence in the state at large than those of Mr. Kilbourn. He could do more with the Legislature, governor, etc., than any other man, and that, too, Avithout any seeming effort on his part. He Avas a man of large build, a large head and brain, a skilful engineer, and just such a man as is required to manage large enterprises; sociable, communicative, benevolent and always ready to engage in anything to help his adopted city." Byron Kilbourn Avas born in Connecticut in 1801, but when a young lad his parents moved to Ohio. His father was a member of Congress in 1812 and again in 1814. Having received a good education young Kilbourn, at the age of twenty-two, entered the service of the state as an engineer for the great system of internal improvements then being carried on by Ohio. In 1832, he journeyed to the far-off country beyond the western shores of Lake Michigan. He landed in Green Bay May 8, 1834, and soon found employment as a sur veyor of public lands. In the course of his travels he was attracted by the advantages offered by the region around the mouth of the Milwaukee River. Here he found Solomon Juneau who had been settled here many years in the fur trade Avith the Indians. "Juneau Avas one of Nature's noblemen," says a writer in a history of Mihvaukee published in 1881, "and Avas the very soul and embodiment of hospitality and good cheer. Among his pleasantest recollections Mr. Kil bourn often adverted to the cheerful fireside scenes in Mr. Juneau's wildwood home after days of travel, toil and privation." Here Kilbourn determined to settle and purchased a tract of land on the Avest side of the Milwaukee River at the same time that Juneau purchased a tract on the east side. Both of these tracts were in the same section and were divided from each other by the river. These two tracts extending along the river for one mile constituted the nucleus of the present City of Mil waukee. "The east side was platted in the summer of 1835," it is stated in the article on Milwaukee, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, "and very soon after ward the plat of a settlement on the Avest side Avas also recorded, Byron Kilbourn being the chief projector and proprietor of the latter." These tAvo settlements bore the popular names of Juneautown and Kilbourntown respec tively. A third settlement, begun on the south side by George H. Walker, and known as "Walker's Point," was subsequently platted. The rivalry between the east and Avest sides of the river became intense, the plats were so surveyed that the streets did not meet at the river, and there were bitter quarrels over the building of bridges. On one occasion a force of armed men was assembled on the east side "to defend their rights," and a cannon was leveled at Mr. Kilbourn 's house on the opposite bank of the river. After some further complications the "bridge war" was amicably settled, and since that time bridge building has gone forward in an orderly manner. "When the public mind began to comprehend the importance of railroad 102 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE communication Avith the interior," says a AArriter in a history of Milwaukee, published in 1881, "Mr. Kilbourn Avas by common consent designated as the most suitable person to lead the first enterprise of that description. He Avas accordingly elected president of the 'Mihvaukee and Mississippi Railroad Company.' This company Avas organized in the early part of 1849, and Mr. Kilbourn continued to occupy the position of president of the company until 1852." In 1846, the City of Mihvaukee Avas chartered, and Mr. Kilbourn Avas chosen a member of the first board of aldermen. In the next year Mr. Kil bourn Avas chosen a delegate to the state constitutional convention, and in that body he drew up and reported the "Declaration of Rights" and some other important articles. In 1848, he Avas elected mayor of Mihvaukee, Avhich had then become a city of about fifteen thousand inhabitants. Mr. Kilbourn was again elected mayor in 1854. "It has been said that no man in Wisconsin has made so many railroad speeches," says the Avriter above quoted, "or has so often presided over state and district conventions and other public meetings as Byron Kilbourn. Mr. Kilbourn Avas a zealous Free Mason and left the use of a beautiful hall to the lodge and chapter named after him. He Avas a member of this lodge and chapter, and also of Wisconsin Commandery, K. T. "Owing to exposure in early life Mr. Kilbourn was afflicted Avith rheuma tism, and in the fall of 1868 he made a tour of the South for the benefit of his • health. He spent several months at Hot Springs, Ark., but received no especial benefit. Finding the climate of the extreme South most agreeable to his exhausted system he- located at Jacksonville, Florida, Avhere on December 16, 1870, he died suddenly and painlessly of apoplexy, in the seventieth year of his age. He passed away full of years, an honor to his family name, and a benefactor to his race." George H. Walker. — In 1834, George 11. Walker came to Mihvaukee from Virginia, Avhere he Avas born October 22, 1811, and located on the south side of the river. He Avas then tAventy-three years of age. Here he erected a log house, "the first," says J. S. Buck in his "Pioneer History," "ever built by a Avhite man upon that side of the river." The spot is known to this day in common parlance as "Walker's Point." He carried on the business of an Indian trader and Avas identified thereafter Avith the groAvth of Mihvaukee in many and various Avays throughout his life. In 1842, he Avas elected to the territorial legislature and was made speaker of that body, and tAvo years later Avas re-elected to the same office. In 1851, Walker Avas elected mayor of Mihvaukee and again in 1853. He was a demo crat in politics but at the breaking out of the Civil Avar he took a decisive stand in favor of the preservation of the Union. "The city Avas largely indebted to him," Avrites J. A. Watrous in his "Memoirs of MihA'aukee County," "for the building of the Milwaukee and Mississippi Railroad. He Avas at one time president of this railroad company, and long a member of the board of directors. He built the first street rail way in Mihvaukee at a considerable loss to himself Avhich Avas the foundation of the present splendid system. One of the last public acts of his useful life BYRON KILBOURN AND GEORGE IT. WALKER 103 Avas to aid in securing the location here of the National Soldiers' Home." He died at his home on Biddle Street, September 20, 1866. George H. Walker engaged in many building enterprises and promoted various corporations of a semi-public or public nature. He built a large four- story brick block bearing his name, which stood on the corner of South AVater and Clinton streets, and wras. at one time, the center of the largest trade upon the South Side. This brick building is undoubtedly the most substantial brick building ever built in the City of Milwaukee. In a pamphlet issued by the Mihvaukee Times in June, 1921, the leading events of his life are described. From this pamphlet much information has been derived for this work, as for example the following paragraph : "Colonel Walker Avas a very active, energetic and pushing citizen. He Avas a large and portly man, with a genial manner, betokening hearty good AA'ill to all Avhom he met, Avith genuine kindliness beaming from eA'ery feature of his face. He had a magnetic presence, and a most hearty greeting for all Avhom he kneAV. He Avas selected to fill many offices of responsibility by his felloAv citizens, and among them Ave find he Avas made supervisor, twice elected a member of the Territorial Legislature, in 1842 and 1844, and on each occasion Avas made speaker of the loAver house, was appointed register of the Mihvaukee Land office, elected alderman, and twice elected mayor of Mil- Avaukee, once in 1851 and subsequently in 1853. At that time the mayors held office for but one year. As register of the Land office one of the strong char acteristics of the man became especially prominent, and that was his most perfect honesty. In this position as register he had abundant opportunity for making himself very wealthy, but he would neither permit himself nor any of his subordinates to take advantage of the knoAvledge which the office afforded them to enrich themselves. This characteristic Avas always a prominent one throughout his life. His integrity Avas unquestionable. "From 1835 to 1849 he Avas continually pestered by men who tried to 'jump his claim' to his qua.rter section, and Avho insisted that the pre-emption laAA-s of that day did not permit the location of a 'float' claim upon so valu able a piece of land." Colonel Walker's Picturesque Home. — The writer of the pamphlet re ferred to describes the location of Colonel Walker's home Avith some interest ing details. He says that it was located upon a high hill fronting upon Han over Street in the center of the double block lying between South Pierce and Virginia streets. The house Avas built in the style of an old Virginia mansion, with broad doors and Avindows, spacious rooms with a Avide hall running through from front to rear, into Avhich might be driven a horse hauling logs for the fire places. The house had a beautiful outlook over the city and a complete view of Milwaukee Bay dotted over with the white-winged messengers of commerce. Hanover Street in front of the residence had been graded doAvn some twenty- five or thirty feet leaving a steep bank in which many deep cavities had been left. These cavities formed convenient nesting places for hundreds upon hundreds of swallows in which to brood and rear their young. The Avhole front and perpendicular face of this block of land was a curiosity to passersby GEORGE H. AVALKER Founder of Walker's Point, now known as the South Side BYRON KILBOURN AND GEORGE H. WALKER 105 upon the street beloAv, and they often stopped to vieAV the myriads of birds flitting in and out from these holes in the clay bank, busy Avith their domestic duties. In consequence of this deep cut of the street in front of his resi dence, Colonel Walker's only means of access to his home was by way of Greenbush Street, upon the Avest front of this tract of land. As the colonel was a very ponderous man, it Avas difficult for him to do much walking, and at a regular hour each morning he could be seen getting into his buggy, which he filled to its full capacity, to drive doAvn to his place of business, returning Avith the same regularity at noon and in the evening. His horse and buggy and his corpulent figure and benignant face were known all over Mil- Avaukee, and nothing seemed to please him more than to be greeted with the familiar appellation of "George," omitting all titles whatsoever. Pioneer Railroad Construction. — It was through the active and persistent Avork of Colonel Walker and other prominent citizens that the City of Mil- Avaukee AA'as at this time induced to loan its credit to the first railway enter prise by issuing its bonds to the Milwaukee & Mississippi Railroad Company for the sum of $234,000, and it further aided this enterprise, which was then urgently in need of funds, by subscribing in cash for $16,000 worth of the railroad company's stock. In addition to his many other enterprises for the development of the city, Colonel Walker undertook the construction of a street raihvay, which was opened to the public in May, 1860. It began at the foot of East Water Street, north to Wisconsin Street, east on Wisconsin to Jefferson, on Jefferson to Biddle, on Biddle to Van Buren, north on Van Buren to Juneau Avenue, thence up Prospect Avenue to Albion. The cars ran on a single track with turn outs at intervals. The cars were entered by a single step and door at the rear and drawn by mules. The fare-box was at the front of the car where passengers deposited their fares. This Avas the beginning of the present. splendid system of street railways in Milwaukee. Activities in the Civil War. — At the breaking out of the Civil war no man lh'ing north of Mason and Dixon's line could have been more ardent in his loyalty and more active in his efforts for the preservation of the Union than Col. George H. AValker. Though a Virginian by birth and a democrat in his political allegiance he joined the party of the Union and aided in the most conspicuous manner in its efforts to suppress the rebellion. He made it his daily and nightly occupation to attend meetings in every part of the city and lent his voice and great influence toward arousing his fellow citizens to the necessity of prompt action for the preservation of the Union. He Avas seen at these meetings with Hon. Matt. Carpenter, Judges Mc- Arthur and Hubbell, engaged in awakening the loyalty of the people. Being a corpulent and heavy man as heretofore noted, he would often And difficulty is ascending the steps of the platforms used for the speakers, and it was necessary for his friends at such times to assist him in the operation. But ready hands pulled and pushed him up amid the cheers and laughter of his audiences. He worked most faithfully and loyally until there was no longer necessity for such patriotic labors. 106 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE And at the conclusion of the Avar, he was among the foremost in securing from the Government the location and purchase of grounds near this city for the establishment of a comfortable and adequate Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, for the Avounded, maimed and worn-out veterans Avho had helped pre serve our common country. He wras appointed one of the Board of Soldiers' Home Commissioners by the secretary of Avar, and held this office at the time of his death. It is said that his trip to Washington, D. C, on behalf of the Soldiers' Home caused his death, as he never recovered from a cold contracted at that time. Col. George H. Walker died September 20, 1866, at the early age of fifty- four years and eleven months, after an active life spent in hardships, trials and labors in behalf of his fellow men, mourned by a loving wife and by every one AA'ho knew him. Truly may it be said of him as Avas said by the poet Homer, "He Avas a friend to man and lived in a house beside the road." A. C. Wheeler's "Chronicles of Milwaukee." — Concerning this excellent history it may be remarked that a vein of humor pervades its pages through out. Writing of the difficulties he encountered in gathering the facts about early history the author, in his introduction, says: "So bitterly opposed were some even to open their mouths that the author was at first fain to believe that the early hisory of Mihvaukee had formerly been the witness of a mon strous iniquity in which all the first inhabitants were implicated." The reluctance hinted at above gradually disappeared and the author acknoAvledges the assistance of many of the old settlers in the preparation of his history, which Avas published in 1861. ' ' To such men as Colonel Walker, Byron Kilbourn, Elisha Starr, H. Kirke White, Jonathan E. Arnold, Joshua Hathaway, William Brown and a host of others, the author is indebted for all that is of any material value in these pages." CHAPTER X LIFE AND LABORS OF ANDREW J. VIEAU After stating that he Avas born in Green Bay in 1818, Andrew J. A7ieau, in his narrative, says that he went to the French school kept by John B. Jacobs in 1826 or 1827. Mr. Jacobs abandoned the school a year or tAvo after and J. B. Dupre became his successor. After some time Avith Dupre young Vieau received instruction at home from his father's old clerk, Petteel. "Father FauA'el Avas also my teacher for a time. Rev. R. F. Cadle, the Episcopalian missionary, came in 1830. He Avas a very fine gentleman, and I went to his excellent mission school in company AA'ith my brothers, Nicholas and Peter." It is thus seen that the elder ATieau had an exalted idea of the value of education for the younger generation. "There I remained until 1833, when I Avent to clerk for R. & A. J. IrAvin at their general store and post office in Shanty Town. Robert IrAvin Avas the postmaster and I served as his deputy. This Avas during the Black HaAvk Avar, and I Avell remember the soldiers coming down the Fox River Avith Black HaAvk in 1833 on his tour to the East. The IrAvins failed in 1834, and I Avent to Mihvaukee to clerk for my brother-in-law, Solomon Juneau, Avho was agent for the American Fur Company." It is stated in the narrative that Juneau AA'as doing a fine business in those days. "I think," says the narrator, "that the company alloAved him one-half the profits as a commission." Young ATieau remained in the employ of Juneau seven months and then went to Chicago to clerk for Medore Beaubien a merchant there. "I suc ceeded in this neAv position," he continues, "to a Mr. Saxton, who had gone to Racine to do business there. There Avere several clerks in Beaubien 's store and I was at the head of them. I stayed in Chicago until September, 1836," AAdien the payments to the Indians Avere made in that year. In the course of the narrative young Vieau enters upon a brief description of what he saAV in Chicago which Ave will quote in this place. "Chicago Avas very small then," he says. "The principal store was kept by Oliver Newberry and George W Dole, on South Water Street, corner of Dearborn. Beaubien 's store occupied the opposite corner. Maj. John Greene was commandant at Fort Dearborn, Avith perhaps one company of soldiers. J. B. Beaubien, father of my employer, lived in the old American Fur Com pany's post, south of Fort Dearborn on the lake shore. There were, perhaps, from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty buildings in Chi cago, shops and all, at the time of Avhich I speak. They were mostly un- 107 108 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE painted and there was certainly no promise of the place ever amounting to anything. On the streets mud was knee deep, and Avagons had often to be lifted out of the mire with handspikes. I am sure that nearly every inhabitant of the place Avould have smiled incredulously if any one had prophesied that here was to be the great city of the Avest. " Milwaukee in 1836. — In December, 1836, Andrew J. Vieau (Avhose narra tive has been so freely drawn upon) returned from Chicago to Juneau's post in Mihvaukee and served him for a time as his bookkeeper. Soon after he bought out the Juneau establishment, "lock, stock and barrel," and con tinued the business on the Avest side of the river, a half block north of Spring Street. There had been a big rush to Milwaukee Avhile he was in Chicago, and it continued unabated during that fall. In the folloAving February he Avas married at Green Bay to Rebecca R. Lawe. "Our bridal trip," he says, "Avas made across the country to Mihvaukee on Avhat Avas called a 'French train.' The sleigh Avas a deep box, 6 feet long by 35 inches broad, Avhich slipped easily on the surface of the siioav, Avhen drawn by tAvo horses hitched tandem. There Avere, of course, no Avagon roads in those days, but there Avere tAvo regularly traveled trails to MihA'aukee. "The one Ave took led first on a short cut southeast from Green Bay to Manitowoc. At Manitowoc rapids, 2y2 miles from the lake shore, the path turned almost due south, striking the mouth of the Sheboygan River. Thence Ave Avould proceed south along the lake shore, sometimes on the beach and aga n on the high land, for fifteen or sixteen miles ; thence Avest southwest to Saukville; thence directly southeast to Mihvaukee. This path between Green Bay and Mihvaukee Avas originally an Indian trail, and very crooked; but the Avhites would straighten it by cutting across lots each Avinter with their jumpers, wearing bare streaks through the thin covering, to be followed in the summer by foot and horseback travel along the shortened path. "The other trail Avas by Avay of Fond du Lac, taking advantage of the military road along the east shore of Lake AVinnebago ; thence south-south- Avest to AATatertoAvn ; thence east to AVaukesha, and coining into Mihvaukee on the Kilbourn Road. The time occupied in traveling from Green Bay to Mil- Avaukee Avas four days, either by foot or by 'French train,' the distance being estimated at 125 miles." Having returned to Mihvaukee from his Avedding trip in the picturesque manner described, Aleau soon afterAvard sold out his establishment to Solomon Juneau, his brother-in-laAv, not being satisfied to lead the humdrum life of an Indian trader, these tAvo men buying and selling out to each other on fre quent occasions. In the fall of 1837, he removed to Port AVashington with a small stock of goods and was appointed postmaster at that place. "A little settlement had been established here," he relates, "by Wooster Harrison and other Michigan City speculators, but the place had been starved out and practically abandoned." It is interesting to note in this connection that Abraham Lin coln about this time contemplated making Port Washington his home, having traveled all the Avay from his place of residence at NeAv Salem, Illinois, to make the necessary arrangements. An article in the Wisconsin Magazine of LIFE AND LABORS OF ANDREW J. VIEAU 109 History for September, 1920, describes this episode in the life of the great Emancipator, and mentions the man whom he met on that journey. Abraham Lincoln in Quest of a New Home. — In a history of Port Wash ington it is stated that the first dAvelling house built in the village Avas erected by "Gen." Harrison, as Wooster Harrison, above mentioned, was familiarly termed by the old settlers. This first dAvelling house was erected in 1835. "It is still standing," so a Avriter states in the history mentioned which Avas published in 1881. "It is a little story-and-a-half frame building Avith gable ends, the sills resting on the ground. A partition divides the first floor into two apartments, and also the upper or half story. It was at this house that the first votes of the town Avere polled. "This old and time-Avorn structure has become one of the sacred relics of the past, commanding a prominent place in the history of the town of Port Washington, not only on account of the relation it bears to the first white settler of the village, but because it once served as a shelter to one of Amer ica's greatest statesmen. It may be of interest to mention the fact that the great and martyred President, Abraham Lincoln, during his days of 'rough ing it,' once Avalked from Milwaukee to Sheboygan, and stopped a night or two in this old house." Lincoln's Purpose in making, the Visit. — Professor Julius E. Olson of the University of Wisconsin contributed the article printed in the Wisconsin Magazine of History referred to above, and in the article he elucidates some particulars of this historic visit, AA'hich does not appear to be mentioned either in Nicolay and Hay's or Miss Ida Tarbell's Avorks. Mr. Lincoln's purpose in making the journey was to find a location Avhere he might establish himself in the practice of the law, as he was just then completing his preparation for that profession. Professor Olson says that in an interview furnished by Harry W. Bolens to the Milwaukee Daily News, sometime during the Lincoln centennial year (1909), Mr. Bolens, AA'ho had formerly been mayor of Port Washington, stated that the Lincoln visit was made at some period betAveen 1835 and 1840, the exact year not being known. Mr. Lincoln Avas returning from Sheboygan having concluded after his visit to that place that "it had no future before it." Mr. Lincoln remained at Port Washington ' two days during Avhich time he arranged with General Harrison for the rent of quarters for his laAv office. This was in the fall of the year (probably 1835), and the arrangement was that Mr. Lincoln should return in the spring and take possession of his quar ters. "In the spring, however, the floods put a quietus on all travel, the West was fairly afloat in the freshet, and the heavy rain storms kept up until late in the summer. Under these conditions Mr. Lincoln decided to locate else- Avhere and later sent his regrets to General Harrison." From this it Avould appear that Lincoln's presence in Mihvaukee in 1835 (at least about that time), Avhile going to Sheboygan and Port Washington, considerably ante dates the visit he made in 1859 to Mihvaukee when he addressed the AViscon- sin State Agricultural Society giving his views on agriculture ; though in Conard's excellent work it is stated that this latter visit was his "only visit." What had induced Mr. Lincoln to direct his attention to the lake shore 110 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE region north of Mihvaukee and to look here for a location for his new home] Professor Olson ansAvers the question. Mr. Lincoln had seen considerable of Southern AATisconsin during his brief service in the Black HaAvk Avar and kneAv the country had many attractions. In fact the Black HaAvk Avar Avas AViscon- sin's introduction to the American people, just as it proved to be the start to emigration from the eastern states to Illinois. "There Avas an immediate and rapid increase of immigration, not only in the mining region, but in vari ous parts of AA'hat is noAv AVisconsin, more especially in that portion bordering on Lake Michigan," using the quotation from the history of AYashington and Ozaukee counties found in Professor Olson's article. "Lincoln kneAv of this strong trend of immigration," adds Professor Olson. "Then he may have Avanted to see Lake Michigan, particularly as the eastern part of the state Avas the most accessible." Lincoln in Milwaukee. — Lincoln visited Mihvaukee. October 1, 1S59, and made an address at the State Fair being held there at the time. He attended the performance of a so-called "strong man" Avhich greatly interested him. The performer Avent through the usual antics, — tossing iron balls and letting them roll doAvn his arms, lifting heaA'y Aveights, etc. Apparently Lincoln had never seen such a combination of strength and agility before, and every iioav and then gave vent to the ejaculation, "By George! By George!" After making his speech Governor Hoyt introduced him to the athlete ; and as Lin coln stood looking cIoavii at him from his great height, evidently pondering' that one so small could be so strong, he suddenly gave utterance to one of his quaint speeches. "AVhy, " he said, "I could lick salt off the top of your hat!" Lincoln Avas called on by many of his admirers during his visit to Mil waukee. He stopped at the NeAvhall House and in the evening he delivered a campaign speech, standing on a table Avhile doing so. The presidential cam paign of 1860 occurred a year later than the period of his visit above spoken of. All of Lincoln's speeches at that period Avere discussions of the issues raised during the debates of the previous year betAveen himself and Senator Douglas. These debates had attracted nation-Avide interest, and the able and original treatment of these subjects at the hands of Mr. Lincoln Avere doubtless responsible for the immense popularity he had achieved Avhen the nominating convention met in Chicago in May, 1860. Vieau Leaves Port Washington. — "In the spring of 1839," continues the narrative of A. J. ATieau, Avhich is Avritten remarkably in the vein of Sinbad, the Sailor's, narratives, "I closed up my post, bought a lot of sugar from the Indians, loaded a boat Avith the sugar and furs that I had collected and Avent up to Milwaukee, Avhere I disposed of my venture, having had an ex cellent Avinter's trade. I had started in Avith only seven hundred dollars' Avorth of goods. AYhile at Port AYashington I Avould take in loads of turkeys, venison, and other game by ox-teams to Mihvaukee, in Avhich enterprise I Avas particularly successful. "AYhen I left Mihvaukee for the Port, my frame house in the former place Avas rented from me by Governor Harrison Luding- ton, then a young man neAvly married. AVith the results of my venture I now built two neAv houses and had money enough left in the fall of 1839 to go into LIFE AND LABORS OF ANDREAY J. VIEAU 111 business with Solomon Juneau AA'ho had traded but little since I originally bought him out. In the spring of 1840, we dissolved partnership and divided our stock. That summer I bought and handled lumber from Tavo Rivers and other points, and dealt as Avell in dry goods, groceries and Indian sup plies. This store was on the Avest side of East AYater Street, between Huron and Michigan streets. "I thus continued in trade in Mihvaukee and made money, until the fall of 1843, when I Avent to Tavo Rivers, then called Twin Rivers, and took pos session of John LaAve's old saAvmill there. The place Avas then a small fish ing A'illage of some eight or ten houses, Avith perhaps tAventy-five inhabitants. A part of the time I ran the saAvmill myself, but leased it for the most part, at first to Bascom and Ward ; then to Daniel Smith of ManitoAvoc ; in 1845, to H. H. Smith of Mihvaukee, who finally bought the plant about 1846. I also did some trading with the Indians while at Two Rivers. ' ' Editor's Note. — It is not generally knoAvn to the people of Milwaukee that the small park bounded by National Avenue, South Pierce, Hanover and Greenbush streets Avas named Vieau Park at the public opening of the same in memory of Jacques Vieau, father of Andrew J. Vieau, and father-in-law of Solomon Juneau. MEMORY 6J f9(i CHESTNUT STREET, CORNER OF THIRD STREET IN 186U CHAPTER XI MILAVAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD The first permanent settlement of Milwaukee was made by Jacques Vieau Avho came in 1795. Vieau Avas an Indian trader and was quite successful, though he lost his property in 1832. He was well known for his integrity. Solomon Juneau bought A'leau 's trading post in 1819, at Avhich time "he Avas already married to Vieau 's daughter, Josette, so that his relations with Vieau were necessarily close," says EdAvin S. Mack in a sketch entitled, "The Found ing of Milwaukee," printed in the Proceedings of the AVisconsin State His torical Society for 1906. ATieau, however, soon resumed trading, becoming the agent of Michael Dousman of Chicago. His son, Andrew J. Vieau, is quoted at length in the Wisconsin Historical Society's Collections for 1888. He says that his father was "the first man to engage in the Indian trade on the ground noAv occupied by the City of Milwaukee." The editor in a note qualifies this statement (which also applies to the statement contained in the first sentence of the previous paragraph) by saying that "there were, off and on, several traders at the mouth of the Milwaukee River previous to the arrival of Jacques Vieau, chief among them, Alexander La Framboise, v ho commenced his trade in 1785." Continuing his narrative Andrew says : "The family name Avas originally De A'eau, but as that meant veal or calf in the French, the language Ave were familiar with in childhood, other children would annoy my ancestors in their youth by bleating in their presence ; so the name was changed to Vieau in self-defense." Other particulars about his father are given. He Avas a full- blooded Frenchman but he married Angeline, daughter of Joseph Le Roy, a trader at Green Bay in 1786, and she Avas of Indian blood, so his children partook of that strain. His father's family were quite numerous, the children, in order of their birth, were as follows : Madeleine, Josette, Paul, Jacques, Louis, Joseph, Amable, Charles, Andrew (the narrator), Nicholas, Peter, and Mary, — "a round dozen in all," as he says. Andrew's narrative is continued as follows: "My father (Jacques) first Avent to Mackinaw from Montreal as a voyageur for the NorthAvest Fur Company, in 1793, when he Avas forty-two years of age. His first trip in that capacity was to La Pointe in Lake Superior. In 1794, he returned to La Pointe, but this time as a clerk for the company. In 1795, he was appointed one of the company's agents being sent out with a supply of goods to explore and establish posts on the west shore of Lake Michigan. The goods Avere con- 113 114 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE tained in a large MackinaAv boat, heavily loaded and manned by tAvelve men. He Avith his family, consisting then of mother, Madeleine, Paul and Jacques, followed in a large bark canoe, in Avhich Avas stored'also the camping equipage. My father's clerk on that trip Avas Mike le Petteel. " Establishing a Site for a Trading Post. — The expedition started from Mackinaw in July, and the first important camping place Avas Avhere KeAvaunee is noAv situated. Here he established a "jack-knife" post to open the trade, and left a man in charge of it. "My father's expedition," continues AndreAv, "arrived at Mihvaukee on either the 18th or 20th of August (1795). He met at the mouth of the river a large number of PottaAvatomies, but mingling freely Avith them were Sacs and Foxes, and a few Winnebagoes AA'ho had mar ried into the other three tribes. The Indians told my father that he Avas the first AA-hite man AA'hoin they had seen there, and he Avas Avarmly Avelcomed. He had a good stock of goods, and French traders Avere ahvays particularly Avell received at the outposts of civilization in those days. He erected tAvo log buildings, one for a dAvelling and the other for a Avarehouse, a mile and a half up the Menomonee River, on the south side at the foot of the lime ridge. I Avas in Mihvaukee during the Civil Avar period (nearly seventy years after the arrival of my father), and the places Avhere the store and dAvelling had stood Avere plainly visible from the remains of banks of earth Avhich had sur rounded them." The editor of this narrative remarks in a note, as f oIIoavs : "It Avill be noticed that noAvhere does- the narrator mention Jean Baptiste Mirandeau, Avho is reported in all existing histories of Mihvaukee to have been in Jacques Vieau 's company. In ansAver to later questions relative to his recollections of Mirandeau, I have letters from A. J. Vieau, dated October 27 and 29, 1887, in Avhich he says in substance: 'I never heard my father say that Jean B. Mirandeau Avent to Mihvaukee in his company. I never heard him say Avhat time Mirandeau arrived there. I am of the opinion that Mirandeau came after my father, but not long after. He Avas never in any sort of partnership Avith my father. I haA'e heard my father and mother and older brothers all say that Mirandeau carried on blacksmithing and did father's work AAdienever engaged to do it, like any other mechanic' He was, from my father's account of him, a very good man but had one bad fault — he drank Avhisky, and that Avas the cause of his death. "Mirandeau married a Pottawatomie squaw Avith Avhom he lived till his death in the spring of 1819. After his death she and her children went to live among the PottaAvatomies again, except Victoria, Avho Avas raised by the Kinzies in Chicago, and in 1822 she married a Canadian named Joseph Por- thier. Mrs. Porthier is still living (1887) in the toAvn of Lake near Mil- Avaukee. I think nearly all Mirandeau s sons and daughters married Indians. Louis Avas alive fifteen years ago near Grand Rapids, Wisconsin. Several of the others Avent with the PottaAvatomies to Kansas in 1837. "Mirandeau Avas buried on the slope of the hill on Avhat is now the north east corner of Alain and Michigan streets. When in 1837 or 1838, Michigan Street Avas being graded Solomon Juneau told the workmen to take care of Mirandeau 's bones, their resting place being marked by a Avooden cross. I MILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 115 was standing near the graA-e AA'ith others Avhen the blacksmith's skull came tumbling doAA'ii the bank. The greater part of the hair Avas still attached to the skull, and some one remarked that the reason for this Avas that Mirandeau had drunk so much poor Avhisky that he had become sort of pickled. I do not knoAv how much truth there Avas in the remark. The rest of the bones came doAvn almost immediately after, and all the remains Avere picked up by Juneau's orders, put in a box and placed in the regular cemetery." Life Routine of a Fur Trader. — "My father remained at his post during the Avinter of 1795-1796, and indeed, every Avinter thereafter for tAvo or three years. Each spring, after packing up the Avinter 's peltries and buying all the maple sugar obtainable from the Indians, father would start out with his family and goods on his return to MackinaAV, after leaving a clerk in charge of the post, to superintend the planting of potatoes and corn and the purchase of Avhat were called 'summer furs.' These Avere the 'red skin' or summer skin of the deer ; this was the only summer fur that Avas good for anything, for all other animals shed their hair during that season. "Upon his return doAvn the lake father Avould stop at his various 'jack- knife posts' and collect their furs and maple sugar, and often relieve the men stationed there by substituting others for them. This trip to Mackinaw would, Avith fair Aveather, take about a month. He Avould set out on his return in August, distributing goods to the lake shore posts, and stay at Milwaukee until May again. Thus he did not abandon any of his posts ; he was not doing a roving business, but was in possession of the establishments the entire time." It is stated in the further course of A. J. Vieau 's narrative that his father while still in charge of the lake shore posts was ordered by the Fur Company to the Fox-Wisconsin portage in 1797 or 1798, and thither he went Avith his family, remaining there in the company's behalf for two or three seasons. Then he returned to Mihvaukee and resumed his former mode of life there, going either to MackinaAV or Green Bay, each spring, Avith 'long-shore goods and returning in the fall. "After disposing of his interests to Juneau in 1819," continues the narra tive of A. J. ATieau, "my father Avas equipped by Alichael Dousman of Chicago, and for several years traded at his old post on the Alenomonee River near the bluff. He AA'as an active man, very prompt and precise in his business deal ings and sociable in his manner, so that he commanded much influence with the Pottawatomies. In the Avinter of 1832-33 the small-pox scourge ran through the Indian population of the state. Father and his crew were busy throughout the AA'inter in burying the natives Avho died off like sheep. * * * In this work and in assisting the poor wretches who survived, my father lost much time and money, while of course none of the Indians Avho lived oA'er were capable of paying their debts to the traders. This winter ruined my father almost completely, and in 1836, aged seventy-four years, he removed to his homestead in Green Bay where his father-in-law, Joseph Le Roy, still lived." Cabins of the Pioneers. — Living conditions in the thirties while terri torial government prevailed (1836 to 1848) were hard but Avholesome. In the Wisconsin Magazine of History, for December, 1919, Miss Louise Phelps 116 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Kellogg describes some of the features of life among the settlers. "As a rule each family Avas a unit largely self-sufficing," she Avrites. "AVhen necessity arose for combined labor, it was accomplished by voluntary services called 'bees,' Avhich were made the occasion of social recreation. The most impor tant 'bee' Avas that for cabin-making. The logs Avere cut and trimmed before hand, and people came for miles around to take part in the 'raising.' The proper space haA'ing been marked off, the logs Avere quickly rolled and laid in place, notched at the ends to hold firm. The roof Avas made of bark or 'shakes,' the floor of puncheons — logs split in Iavo with rounded side down. The interstices between the logs were chinked in with clay or mud and usually Avhitewashed both inside and out. Sometimes the entire cabin was made Avithout the use of nails. A blanket was used for a door until a board one could be made. WindoAvs were coA^ered Avith shutters, but feAV had in them any glass. "The most important part of the structure Avas the chimney, which some times occupied all one side of the cabin. This Avas commonly built of small stones and clay, although sticks occasionally took the place of stones. Into this capacious fireplace great logs Avere hauled, somet'mes by the help of a horse, to keep the family Avarm in the severe Wisconsin Avinters. Almost all the immigrants from the older states brought Avith them furniture, cook ing utensils, linen for tables and beds, and some store of quilts and clothing. Additional furniture was quickly proA'ided by the handy skill of the men and boys. Bedsteads Avere improvised Avith one side fastened betAveen the logs, ticks Avere filled Avith straAv or hay and most houseAvives brought Avith them a cherished feather bed. The 'truck patch' quickly furnished vege tables, Avhile the avoocIs and streams abounded Avith fish and game. Deer Avere easily obtained, and plenty of smaller animals and game birds Avere Avithin reach of a gun." This attractive picture of living conditions among the pioneers is made more interesting by other matter-of-fact details. "Tools and implements were precious," continues Miss Kellogg in her account. "Except the axe and hammer, tools Avere freely borroAvecl and lent, agricultural implements were almost common property. One grindstone usually served a considerable community. ' ' The neighbors assisted one another not only at house raising but at ploAving and harvesting, clearing land and grubbing stumps, fencing and planting. "Sickness, death, and marriage Avere community affairs; eA'eryone lent a helping hand, and any skill or ability he possessed was at the service of his neighbors." A Pioneer Journey from New York State. — The incidents of a journey undertaken by one of the emigrating families from the eastern portion of NeAv York State about the year 1820, form a picture of pioneer conditions such as Avas commonly experienced among the arrivals in the NeAv AATest of that period. The folloAving account, substantially quoted beloAv, Avas Avritten by one of the daughters of the family as she recalled the scenes of her girl hood days. In an address prepared in later years and read before a small company of fr ends, she said: "I Avill ask you to take Avith me the journey which seemed like a Aveary march from one Avorld to another. MILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 117 "No railroads had then been planned, and as a great internal improve ment the Erie Canal was being constructed. Aly father and second brother had preceded us and my mother and eldest brother had charge of the cara van, the mental picture of Avhich may increase your appreciation of the rail way and palace car of the later days. We may see several wagons waiting loaded AA'ith household necessities (all else had been sold at auction), Avith only room for personal belongings and places for the accommodation of the members of our large family. Breaking the Old Home Ties. — "When all Avas ready a tearful company assembled at the parting, and the caravan moved on toAvard 'the West' not knoAving Avhither it was going beyond that indefinite destination. At Utica we exchanged our teams for canal travel as far as Rochester, then wagons aga n to Buffalo, Avhere Ave arrh'ed just in time for the steamer waiting with fires burning at the wharf. We Avere to sail on the 'Superior,' the second steamboat put afloat on Lake Erie. Only time remained to get a hasty din ner which I decided to forego. "I had asked about the boat and it had been pointed out to me, so being somewhat enterprising, I set out on nry oaa-ii account to make sure of my passage and got safely aboard Avithout question. So when the family were ready to take ship one silly lamb was missing. In great consternation the missing one was sought for everywhere. The moments were growing pre cious. If they should miss the steamer it might be two weeks before an other trip would be made. "At the last moment my mother remembered my question as to the whereabouts of the steamer, and Avith a faint hope of finding the lost one they all came dashing down to the wharf, the horses being urged to the top of their speed in dread of being left, AA'hen, behold, the lost child stood wait ing for them, well satisfied with her performance and quite innocent of any intention to give the anxiety and trouble she had caused. The Voyage on Lake Erie. — "Very soon Ave were steaming out into the open sea Avhich practically was just as boundless as the broader Atlantic, for when you are out of sight of land, Avhat matter whether the distance be one hundred or one thousand miles. And as for sea-sickness the inland sea is worse for the waves are shorter and the motion more upsetting. Well, as retribution for the trouble I had caused my friends, or as a precaution lest I climb over the guards to have a visit with the fishes, I was taken very ill and continued so during the four or five days between Buffalo and Detroit. The voyage, I think, was stormy but I only know that it seemed interminable and that I was very, very sick. I did not recover quickly and was still poorly when we embarked again on a small boat which plied between Detroit and Monroe, the place to which Ave were going." A few Avords as to the status of both Michigan and Wisconsin at this period may be appropriate in this place. At the period referred to in the pioneer's narrative Lewis Cass Avas the governor of Michigan Territory which included the present State of AATisconsin, the capital being at Detroit. This area had previously formed a part of the old Northwest Territory under the Ordinance of 1787, but in the organization of Indiana Territory in 1800 it was 118 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE included in its boundaries. In 1S09, it became a part of Illinois Territory after its formation. AYhen Illinois Avas admitted to the Union, in 1818, it became a part of Michigan Territory, and did not have a separate and dis tinct existence until 1836, AA'hen it Avas organized under a territorial form of government and took the name of AYisconsin, although Governor Doty en- deaA-ored long and hard to secure the adoption of the name of "Wiskonsan" in AA'hich, fortunately, he did not succeed. Territorial Days (1836-1848).— "Previous to 1S36," says H. E. Legler in his A-olume, "Leading Events in AYisconsin History," "Wisconsin had been a neglected section, successively, of the territories of the Nortlrwest, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. As early as 1824, Judge James Duane Doty, Avho rep resented the judicial authority of Michigan Territory in the region Avest of the lake, had begun an agitation to secure separate territorial government for Wisconsin. * * * He represented that the seat of government (Detroit), being 600 miles distant, totally inaccessible during the Avinter season and nearly so by land at all periods of the year, the people regarded it as little more than the capital of a foreign government : that their Azotes for repre sentatives could not be fonvarded in time to be counted : that this being the home of some of the most numerous and Avarlike nations of Indians Avithin the United States, the people ought to haAre better facilities for protection," etc. AYhile Judge Doty Avas partial to the ungainly orthography of the name of "Wiskonsan," he also proposed as an alternative choice the name "Chip- peAvau. " Other names proposed during the long period of agitation Avere, "Huron" and "Superior," but the euphonious rendering of the French "Ouisconsin" finally preA'ailed in the present form. Into the territorial lump Avas included a large section of Avhat is uoav IoAva, Minnesota and a part of Dakota. "Until given separate territorial rights," says Legler, "Wiscon sin Avas an orphan in the neglectful charge, first of the NortliAvest Territory, then of the territories of Indiana, Illinois and Michigan." Albert Fowler, Early Settler. — The first county clerk of Alihvaukee County Avas Albert FoAvler, a sketch of Avhom is given in J. S. Buck's "Pioneer His tory of Mihvaukee." He Avas also the first justice of the peace in the count}'. He Avas thirty-one years of age Avhen he came to Alihvaukee and soon after his arrival he entered the employ of Solomon Juneau as a clerk. "He Avas the first Avhite man of Anglo-Saxon blood to settle in Alihvaukee," says AYatrous, and he held many toAvn and county offices during his residence here. In 1853 he remoA-ed to Rockford, Illinois, Avhere he Avas three times elected to the mayoralty of that city. He died there at the age of eighty-one. Air. Fowler's narrative of his coming to Alihvaukee in the fall of 1833 is full of interest and presents a lively picture of pioneer conditions. "Having acquired a feAV hundred dollars," he relates, "by speculating in corner lots and trading Avith the Indians at Chicago, during the summer and autumn of 1833, I left during the early part of November of that year, in company Avith R. J. Currier, AndreAv J. Lansing and Quartus G. Carley for Alihvaukee. The journey passed without further incident than the difficulty experienced in getting through a country Avith a team, Avhere neither roads nor bridges MILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 119 existed; until the evening of the 12th of November, 1833, Avhen Ave Avere en camped on the banks of Root River, and on Avhich occasion the great meteoric display occurred that so alarmed the Indians and Avhich has become a matter of historical remark to this day. "AYe pursued our journey the day folloAving, I being compelled to sAvim Root River n.o less than three times in getting over our baggage and team. although the weather Avas so cold as to freeze our Avater-soaked clothing. At Skunk Giwe Ave found Col. George H. AYalker Avho had a small store of Indian goods and Avas trading there. We reached Milwaukee on the 18th of November, 1833. After our arrival in Alihvaukee, my three companions and myself took possession of an old log cabin Avhere Ave lived during the Avinter of 1833-4, doing our oavu cooking and amusing ourselves as best Ave could, there being no other Avhite man in the place during the Avinter except Solo mon Juneau." Fowler made a trip to Chicago a feAv Aveeks after his arrival in Alihvaukee Avhich was the occasion of considerable hardship and suffering. ' ' In the early part of the month of January, 1834," he says, "Airs. Juneau Avas taken ex ceedingly ill, and there being neither medicines nor physicians nearer than Chicago, I Avas started off by Juneau on an Indian pony, clad in Indian mocassins and leggins and a spare blanket, for medical aid. The journey in mid-winter, through eighty-five or ninety miles of wilderness, Avas one of great hardships, and one I should never desire to undertake again. The Indians predicted I Avould perish, but thanks to a vigorous constitution and a physique already inured to frontier life, I succeeded in reaching Chicago, obtaining the desired aid, and Avas reAvarded Avith the double satisfaction of having assisted in relieving a most kind and noble hearted Avoman, besides the gift of a neAv su.t of clothes from Mr. Juneau." "In the spring of 1834, my companions Avent up the river to the school section and made a claim, upon AA'hich they afterAvards built a mill, and I Avent into Air. Juneau's employ, kept his books and accompanied him in his trading expeditions among the Indians. I soon learned to speak the Potta watomie and Alenomonee languages with considerable fluency, dressed in Indian fashion, and Avas known among them as 'Red Cap,' a name given me because I wore a red cap wlen I first came among them. I remained in Air. Juneau's employ until 1836. After he was appointed postmaster I assisted him in the post office, and prepared the first quarterly report ever made out at that office." Modes of Travel. — There Avere several different modes of travel employed by the immigrants of the '30s and '40s. J. S. Buck mentions in his book tAvo men, Balser and Holmes, Avho came from Michigan City in an open boat draAvn by a horse following the beach the wdiole distance. Enoch Chase came in 1835, traveling in a wagon from Chicago in company Avith James Flint 4and Gordon Alorton. The first day they traveled as far as Gross Point, tAvelve miles from the starting point, and the next day they covered the dis tance to Sunderland's, back of the present City of AVaukegan. "We intended to stay at Louis ATieau's trading house at Skunk Grove (in Racine County) the third night, but found the house filled Avith drunken 120 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Indians, and concluded to push on, reaching Root River which Ave crossed on a pole bridge before dark. * * * The folloAving day Ave reached Walker's Point in Alihvaukee about noon." Edward D. Holton's Reminiscences. — In his address before the Alihvaukee Chamber of Commerce in 1858, EdAvard D. Holton gave a rapid and interesting review of his arrival in Alihvaukee in 1838, and of his subsequent experiences as a citizen. Portions of his address are given beloAv : "When a boy of fifteen or sixteen years of age I read the history of the Valley of the Alississippi by the Rev. Timothy Flint, an itinerant missionary of the Presbyterian Church. NeA-er will the impressions of his graphic and delightful descriptions of our own portion of the great valley pass from my mind. I longed to depart from my NeAv England mountain home and become a citizen of that fair land. FolloAving the open door of opportunity I made my Avay first to Wisconsin in the fall of 1S38. I spent one day in Milwaukee. A period of high water was then preA^ailing on the lake and much of the loAver part of the settlement was submerged — no sideAvalks, no streets; specu lation had raged here through the years 1836 and 1837, and everything was now prostrated. Surely a more desolate, down-at-the-heel, slip-shod looking place scarcely could be found than was Alihvaukee in October, 1838. Its population was from twelve to fifteen hundred. "I turned away from the toAvn then Avith the feeling that if it Avas a fair sample of the glorious and beautiful AVest, I had seen enough. But my journey took me into the interior of the state, through all the southern part of our oavii and the northern and central parts of Illinois. At this time the popula tion Avas very sparse. As an illustration, I passed a night and a day at the cabin of a gentleman Avho Avas almost the sole occupant of the beautiful little prairie known as Prairie du Lac which later became the site of the Village of Milton, in Rock County, and the populous region round about. The owner and occupant of that cabin is noAv a member of this board and is present upon this floor. I allude to N. G. Storrs. ' r At AA'hat is now the site of Janesville, I tarried a number of days. There were there then three log houses and one log blacksmith shop. John P. Dickson, just elected a member of the Legislature from the City of Janes ville, entertained travelers in his more £han usually ample log house. Old Squire Janes, a frontiersman from Avhom the toAArn took its name, Avas residing there. At that time there Avere no bridges and but few roads in the Avhole country. But the weather was delightful, and Avho that saw Southern Wis consin and Northern Illinois in that early clay, when the annual fires swept prairie and opening, and made them clean and smooth as a house floor, will ever forget their beauty, or the facility Avith which the traveler passed through the country even without roads and bridges? Most fully now did my owrn obserA-at!ons confirm the description given by Mr. Flint, of the beauty and natural Avealth of the country ! "It Avas not difficult for the commonest observer to arrive at a conclusion, after an observation of the surrounding country, that important towns must arise upon the Avest shore of Lake Alichigan, and hence it was that my OAvn MILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 121 mind turned again toAvard Alihvaukee as one of those natural commercial points to Avhich this delightful interior country must become tributary. Takes Up His Abode in Milwaukee.—' ' On the 12th day of November, 1840, I took up my abode in Alihvaukee, Avith the profession of merchant. I first opened my goods in one corner of a Avarehouse knoAvn as Hollister Ware house, just beloAv AYalker's Point bridge, but soon after removed to another location on the corner of AYisconsin and East Water streets." Air. Holton then recalled some of the early business men of the period. There Avas Alaurice Pixley, a brother of John Pixley, Avho did business on the Avest side of East Water Street ; Ludington & Company, composed of Lew7is Ludington, Harrison Ludington and HarA'ey Birchard ; Gary & Taylor, clothing ; Higby & Wardner, general merchandise ; Cady & FarAvell, iron and tin ; J. & L. Ward. This firm did a large business and Avas "the first to induce the transportation of lead across the country by wagons draAvn by oxen from the lead mines." This business was continued to a greater or le'ss extent for tAvo or three years. Among the other places of business mentioned by Air. Holton in his address Avere the shop of Robert Davis, Tailor ; the shoe shop of Richard Had- ley ; and the store of George Bowman. These were all above Michigan Street, and on the Avest side of East Water Street. Below Alichigan Street and above Huron, was the store of AYilliam BroAvn & Company, one of the first firms Avhich did business in Alihvaukee. Next to them was the store of L. Rock well & Company ; next, that of Geo. F. Austin, and of CoAvles & Company. George Dousman was the leading forwarder of that day; and Holton 's store was the only one on the east side of the street. BeloAv Alichigan, and aboA-e Huron, Avas the residence of Mr. Juneau, and the Cottage Inn. The hotels and taverns Avere made up as follows : The Alihvaukee House, kept by Graves & Alyers. on the corner of Wisconsin and Main streets; the Cottage Inn, kept by Air. Vail ; and the Fountain House kept by N. P. Hawks. The Cottage Inn was consumed in the great fire of 1845. "And now I am amazed," cont'nued Mr. Holton in his address, "AA'hen I A'isit either the northern or southern ends of our city and witness the extent of business done. Now, hundreds of people come to the city daily to do busi ness, and in coming from the north, market their productions and make their purchases, and do not get east of the river, or south of Tamarack Street. The same is approximately true when an equal number approach the city from the south and do not get north of the Mihvaukee and Menomonee rivers; so numerous and extensive are the mercantile and manufacturing establishments in those quarters of the town, Avhere, at the time to which our observation goes back, not one of them existed." Professional Men and Others. — Following the mention of the business men Air. Holton gives the names of professional men and others belonging to that period. Among the members of the legal fraternity there were J. H. Tweedy ; Upham & Walworth; Wells, Crocker & F.nch; Graham & Blossom; Charles J. Lynde; J. E. Arnold; and Francis Randall. The physicians of that day Avere Drs. E. B. Wolcott, Proudfit, Hewett, Bartlett and Castleman. Members of the clerical profession were Rev. Lemuel Hull, rector of St. Paul's Church; 122 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Rev. Stephen Peet, minister in charge of the Presbyterian Church; Rev. Air. BoAA'les, of the Alethodist Episcopal Church; and Rev. Father Alorrissey of the Catholic Church. Others mentioned by the speaker Avere Cyrus HaAvley, clerk of the court ; Rufus Parks, receiver ; Colonel Alorton, register ; Daniel Wells, deputy sheriff : Clark Shepardson, blacksmith ; Ambrose Ely, shoemaker ; C. D. Davis, livery keeper ; James Murray, painter ; Elisha Starr and Geo. Tiffany, stage men ; AlattheAv Stein, gunsmith; Doney & Alosely, founders; I. A. Lapham and Joshua HathaAvay, land agents ; B. H. Edgerton and Garrett Vliet, surveyors ; Harrison Reed, publisher of the Sentinel; Daniel II. Richards, publisher of the AdA-ertiser; Alexander Mitchell, banker; and Messrs. Kilbourn, Juneau, G. H. AYalker, L. AY. AVeeks, James II. Rogers, Alayor Prentiss, and E. Cramer. proprietors, land dealers and money lenders. These Avere the names of the leading men of that day and their occupations. Beginnings of the Grain Business. — Air. E. D. Holton, in his address before the Alihvaukee Chamber of Commerce in 1858, gaA-e some interesting informa tion about the grain business in its early days. "Up to 1841, no grain had gone out of AYisconsin, " he said. "I think I am correct in stating that I purchased during the Avinter of 1840 and 1S41 the first cargo of grain that Avas sent from the then territory. The amount Avas small; I advertised to pay cash for it, and gathered about four thousand bushels Avhich Avent to Canada in the spring of 1841. From this time on more or less grain eame to toAvn, and I suppose I am correct still in saying that the firm of Holton & Goodall, up to 1844, purchased more Avheat than all others put together. But still the amount AA'as trifling, not exceeding in the entire year, nor even reach ing, as much as hoav arrives in a single day in the season of marketing this commodity. As the grain business increased there Avere Avarehouses built for handling this important staple. In 1848, the first building to use a steam engine for the eleA'ation of grain Avas completed by Alanson SAveet. From that time on building operations Avere frequent in adding to the facilities for storage. "It took three days in 1841," says Holton, "to ship the 4,000 bushels of Avheat I spoke of, as the first shipment made from Wisconsin. Now, I suppose, if need be, more than as many hundred thousands of bushels could be shipped in the same time." Piers Along the Lake Shore. — The first pier Avas built at the foot of Huron Street in the year 1842, by Horatio Stevens, of NeAv York. He added to this a second in the next year, and Air. Higby built a third in 1845. These piers Avere near together. In 1S45, Doctor Weeks built the south pier. For several years these piers did nearly the entire business both for imports and exports, until their construction," says Holton, "vessels and steamers anchored off and in the absence of a harbor they anSAvered the purpose admirably. "For, in the bay, and received and discharged their cargoes at infinite cost and trouble upon a small steamboat, or scoavs. " The opening of the neAv harbor AA-as begun and partly brought into use in 1844. From 1S40 until the new harbor came into use the little steamer, "C. C. TroAA'bridge " performed the business of running up and doAvn the river, taking freight and passengers. AIILAYAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 123 to and from the steamers and A-essels in the bay. This little steamer dreAV about tAvo feet of Avater and Avas able to get OA^er the bar at the mouth of the rher. Increase A. Lapham. — The records of early Alihvaukee as Avell as those of the state are filled with allusions and frequent mentions of this distinguished man. Increase A. Lapham came to Alihvaukee in July, 1836. He Avas then a young man of tAventy-frve having emigrated to this state at the invitation of Byron Kilbourn, and at once became a conspicuous figure among the early settlers and later among the scientific men of the state, as his tastes Avere chiefly in the direction of scientific investigations. He studied and made knoAATi through various publications the physical features, topography, geol ogy, natural history, meteorology and antiquities of the state. The animal-shaped mounds of AYisconsin early attracted his attention of which he made an extended survey, and an account of Avhich Avas published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1855. He also examined and described seA'eral masses of meteoric iron found near Alihvaukee on Avhich he found peculiar marks afterAvards known as "Laphamite markings." Air. Lapham 's education consisted only of that obtained in the common schools, supplemented by his OAvn studious efforts. In 1860, he received from Amherst College the degree of "LL. D." In the biographical sketch printed in Conard's "Mihvaukee," it is stated that Doctor Lapham made numerous obserA'ations on the rise and fall of Avater in Lake Alichigan by Avhich the highest and loAvest and the mean or aA'erage stage Avas determined. These observations were used by the engineers of Alihvaukee and Chicago in establishing their systems of seAverage and Avater supply. "In 1849, he made a series of A-ery careful observations by Avhich he discovered in the lake a slight lunar tide like that of the ocean. This im portant fact Avas announced in the papers at the time, and the observations Avere communicated to the Smithsonian Institution. Many years later Lieut. - Col. James D. Graham of Chicago made a like discovery at that city, the tide there being much larger than at Alihvaukee." More extended remarks are made on the subject of lake tides in another portion of this Avork contained in the- chapter on the Natural History of Lake Alichigan. At the unveiling of the Lapham Memorial in Lapham Park, Alihvaukee, on June 18, 1915 (the centennial anniversary, it may be noted, of the battle of Waterloo), Air. William Ward AVight made an address Avhich contains many interesting facts concerning the subject of this chapter. Increase Allen Lapham Avas born at Palmyra, NeAv York, Alarch 7, 1811. His father, Seneca Lapham, was a contractor on the Erie Canal, and in 1824 the family lived at Lockport, N. Y., where stupendous and intricate engineer ing Avas employed in the construction of the canal locks at that place. He acquired experience and knowledge in surveying Avhile at Avork Avith his father, and was afterAvards employed in similar work in Ohio and Ken tucky. On his arrival in Alihvaukee he engaged in a variety of occupations and soon gained recognition for his scientific accomplishments both at home and in more distant centers of learning. "Air. Lapham was intensely interested in the education of youth, and his KNOW AIX MEN, That part 1/ of the first part, in consideration of /L&t\^ //[s&'Zsi-s&L/lSj h*>w~ paid by J <\J £/ S^VL^C^C^~ , partty of the second part, the receipt whereof is hereiy acknowledged, do£d hereby laroaix, sell, convey, and forefer QUIT CL AIM, to the said part Of oj the second part, rhsj heirs and assigns forever, tftc follomjig real estate, viz: £ZsfS^<' Together with all the privileges and appttrtenances to tJie same belonging: TO HAVE ANp TO HOLD the scone to the said part is of the second part, /Vw-j heirs and assigns forever: Hereby covenanting that the title so conveyed is ctecxt free, atnd unincumbered by any act of the grantor herein. In witness whereof the said partis of the first part has hereunto set h*%~3 hand and seai , JJtis £fo^i/CL£~^<*~ day of £-&&$ fet^fe*"**' ,n 'Ae Vear «ffA*e«» hundred and Ihnmt ylZry£'f/li£j^> , In the presence of j a COPY OF A QUIT CLAIM DEED ISSUED BY INCREASE A. LAPHAM IN 1843 AIILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 125 name appears at the head of those citizens AAdio, on March 1, 1851, became incorporated by legislathe act as the Normal Institute and the High School of Alilwaukee. This institution became later the Alihvaukee Female College, and still later the Alihvaukee Downer College. . Of this girls' school he became president in 1851, and so continued until he declined further election in 1863. He Avas a trustee from 1851 until his death, tAventy-four years. In the Avelfare of the young women gathered in that college he was deeply interested, tem pering and holding in check the extreme vieAvs of the early patron of the school, Miss Catherine Beecher, yet advocating the advanced and symmetrical development of the feminine mind. His books, his collections, the wealth of his varied learning were always at the service of teachers and pupils." "How gladly Avould I," continued Mr. Wight in his address, "his remote successor at the head of the trustees of Mihvaukee Downer College, exhibit to President Lapham the present institution in the Eighteenth Ward the seeds of Avhich his labors planted and his industry watered!" In a bibliography of Wisconsin authors published in 1873, Doctor Lap- ham's name appears as the author of a long list of Avorks in the form of contributions to periodicals or in separate volumes and pamphlets, on his chosen subjects. Of these the list mentions some fifty titles. In a list of eminent meteorologists by Prof. Henry J. Cox, of the United States Weather Bureau, and Dr. J. Paul Goode of the University of Chicago, published by the Geographic Society of Chicago in 1906, Doctor Lapham is named by these authors as "the man who took a prominent part in influencing Congress to establish the Weather Service, then known as the Signal Service, in this country." He helped to organize the new service and for a time in 1870 he served as forecaster in charge of the Storm Warning seiwice. In 1873 he was appointed state geologist of Wisconsin. Doctor Lapham was married October 24, 1838, to Ann M. Alcott of Rochester, N. Y. Mrs. Lapham died in Alihvaukee February 25, 1863. In the address of Air. William Ward Wight at the unveiling of the Lapham Memorial in Lapham Park, Mihvaukee, June 18, 1915, he adds this tribute to the memory of Mrs. Lapham: "She Avas a worthy helpmeet for her husband; his papers received her criticism, all his labors her encouragement, all his scien tific tasks her assistance, all his varied successes her applause." In the publication of the "State Historical Society" (Volume VII, 472), Dr. Lyman C. Draper Avrites of the death of Doctor Lapham, as follows: "Wisconsin's great naturalist, Increase A. Lapham, LL.D., died of heart dis ease AA-hile alone in a boat on Lake OconomoAvoc, September 14, 1875, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Coming to Wisconsin in 1836, he, probably more than any other person, dreAV attention by his writings to the advantages for settlement and enterprise which the territory, afterAvards the state, of AYisconsin, presented to eastern emigrants; and as a scientist his name had become familiar to the savants of both hemispheres. For tAventy-tAvo years he served as president or vice president of the Wisconsin State Historical So ciety. The services and memory of such a man deserve fitting memorial recognition by the society." 126 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Rapid Growth of City. — I. A. Lapham, Avriting of the growth of the city in his history of Wisconsin, in the early times, says : "No toAA'n or city has grown up Avith anything like the rapidity of Mil- Avaukee. Within ten years from the time AA'hen the first family arrived here, Avith a vieAV to permanent residence, Ave see a city Avith a population of at least ten thousand. "The City of Rochester, in Western NeAv York, has often been referred to as having increased more rapidly in Ave a lth and population than any other in the Avorld — and perhaps she has been entitled to that distinction. Air. O'Reilley, AA'ho has written a very valuable book, entitled, 'Sketches of Rochester and Western New York,' asks exultingly, 'Where, in Avhat place, through all the broad and fertile West, can there be shown any toAAai Avhich has surpassed Rochester in the permanent increase of population, business and Avealth?' AYe may answer the question by making a little comparison. "Rochester was laid out in 1812, and in 1810, or in four years, the popu lation AA'as 331. In 1820, or eight years, the population Avas 1,500. "Alihvaukee Avas laid out in 1835, and in 1S39, or in four years, the popula tion Avas 1,500 — or as much increase in four years as Rochester had in eight. But in 1843, or in eight years, the population of Alihvaukee Avas over six thousand, or an increase of four times as much as Rochester during a similar period." The "Father of the TypeAvriter. " — An important page in the history of inventions Avhich have had their birthplace in Alihvaukee should be assigned to the inventor of the typeAA'riter, and the beginnings of his useful invention. Christopher Latham Sholes was born in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, February 14, 1819. At an early age he entered a neAVspaper office to learn the printing business, and at the age of eighteen he joined a brother in the same business at Green Bay, Wisconsin. A year later, Avhen only nineteen he compiled the house journal of the Territorial Legislature and attended to its printing. At tAventy years of age young Sholes took charge of the Wisconsin "In quirer" at Madison, and later he edited the Southport (Kenosha) "Tele graph." In 1844 he became the postmaster, receiving his appointment from President Polk. "Later," says the biographical sketch of C. L. Sholes in the "National Cyclopaedia of American Biography," "during his residence at Alihvaukee he Avas postmaster, and filled with credit the positions of commis sioner of public works, and collector of customs. He AA'as for a long time editor of the 'Sentinel,' and the 'NeAvs' Avhich at a later date Avas absorbed into the 'Sentinel.' " While discharging the duties of collector of customs at Alihvaukee in 1866, Sholes became interested in making a consecutive numbering machine, especially for use on bank notes and on the pages of blank books. His attention being directed to an account of a machine devised by John Pratt, an American inventor, published in an English journal, for Avriting by me chanical means, he at once saAv the possibilities of "a revolution in the handling of a pen," and "from that moment he devoted his AA'hole time and MILWAUKEE IN THE PIONEER PERIOD 127 thought to the idea which has given to the Avorld the typeAvriter. ' ' This avoii- derful creation is the result of his creative genius. "In 1867, the first crude instrument Avas made. James Densmore became interested, and, in 1S73, the invention Avas so far perfected as to Avarrant the production of machines on an enlarged scale. The Remington factory at Ilion, N. Y., Avas selected, and the manufacture begun. For a long time the financial returns were small, and Mr. Sholes, aa71io Avas to receive a royalty on each machine, disposed of his right for a comparatively small sum. Later he inA'ented several improA'ements, which Avith an excess of conscience char acteristic of the man he gave to the persons in control of the manufacture. In the last years of his life, although confined to his bed, he invented two neAv machines for typeAvriting which Avere more satisfactory to him than any of his preA'ious inventions. This last Avork of the Aveary hours in the chamber of sickness Avas consigned to the care of his executors." Mr. Sholes' Political Activities. — "In addition to his inventive powers," continues the sketch, "Air. Sholes did much as an editor and a politician. He Avitnessed the eA'olution of the State of Wisconsin from its Avild begin nings, and contributed no small share to shape the laAvs that Avere necessary to set the new state government in successful motion. Although at all times interested in general politics, he was never a strictly party man. He was raised a democrat, but in 1848 joined the free-soil movement. He served in the State Senate in 1848-49 from Racine County, and in 1852-53 represented Kenosha County in the Legislature ; and in 1856-57 was state senator, being president pro tern, for more than a year. He Avas a man of such broad and generous sympathies that he took naturally to the side of the minority. His innate abhorrence of wrong and cruelty made him an abolitionist, and he Avas one of the most active founders of the republican party in the state. He AAras a dreamer and an idealist, and though not a AA'riter of poetry, Avas imbued Avith a true poetic nature." Air. Sholes disliked the details of business and the painstaking efforts usually found necessary to make money was with him a particular aversion. A man of an excessively tender conscience in all matters pertaining to the practical affairs of life he failed to secure the pecuniary reward that was undoubtedly due to his abilities in perfecting the first successful typewriting machine. "He lived to see the work of his genius," says the cyclopaedia article already quoted from, "accepted throughout the Avorld, and to hear the pleasing compliment rendered him, that he Avas 'the father of the type writer.' " Air. Sholes died in Alihvaukee February 17, 1890, at the age of seventy-one years. The foregoing sketch of.C. L. Sholes and his invention is by no means a complete history of the typewriter. Such a history is found in widely scat tered publications of which the more important ones are the biographical cyclopaedia mentioned above, under the names of James Densmore, G. W. N. Yost and John Pratt. In a historical sketch of Kenosha County of which C. L. Sholes was one of the early settlers (printed in the collections of the State Historical Society) 128 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE it is quaintly remarked by the AA'riter that C. L. Sholes had "always been for- Avard in every improvement and good Avork, and that if the spirits of the de parted influence none to worse deeds than they did to him Ave shall not be very jealous of their visits." In Commemoration of Sholes' Invention. — On the occasion of the "Dia mond Jubilee," held in Alihvaukee during the month of June, 1921, a letter AA-ritten by Mr. Frederick Heath was sent to the committee in charge urging that some action be taken to honor the memory of C. Latham Sholes, the inventor of the typewriter. Air. Heath is a member of the county board, and in the course of his letter he said: "It is more than fifty years since the typeAvriter was invented, and it AAras a product of Alihvaukee genius. Mr. Sholes, the inventor, has never been fittingly recognized by Mihvaukee, and it is coming to be a matter of remark on the part of visitors to the city. EA-en his graA'e lacks a monument and a collection is now being taken up nationally by court reporters and stenographers for such a purpose. "A feAv years ago, the Alihvaukee County Board, of Avhich I am a member, purchased a piece of ground Avest and north of the Grand Avenue viaduct, and just beyond Avhat Avas knoAvn as Castalia Park. It Avas knoAA'n as the Winkler tract, and I had it named Sholes Park; Avith the design also of making it a so-called historic park, in Avhich might be placed educational evidences of the lives of the early settlers, such as a log house, trading post, windmills, etc. The park has never been formally thrown open to the people, and I Avould suggest that it be fittingly dedicated." CHAPTER XII THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER The appalling disaster, known in the history of Lake Alichigan as the "Wreck of the 'Lady Elgin'," occurred on September 8, 1860, on Avhich occa sion 297 lives were lost, most of them residents of Alihvaukee. The particulars of this disaster are narrated in the folloAA'ing pages. In point of the number of lhes lost this disaster Avas the greatest that had ever up to that time occurred on any of the Great Lakes. It remained the most important eA'ent of that kind for fifty-five years until the foundering of the steamer "East land" in the Chicago River on July 24, 1915, AA'ith the loss of 812 lives. The steamer "Lady Elgin," a large side-Avheel steamer, and the finest one on the lakes, left Chicago late in the evening of •September 7, 1860, AA'ith nearly four hundred passengers on board bound for Alihvaukee. While pro ceeding on her course about three hours later, that is, about tAvo o'clock in the morning of September 8th, the steamer came into collision AA'ith the schooner "Augusta" bound for Chicago. Immediately after the collision the captain of the schooner hailed the captain of the steamer inquiring if his ship had suffered any damage and Avhether help Avas needed, but receiving an answer that no assistance Avas required the schooner proceeded on her course. On her arrival in Chicago Harbor next morning the captain of the schooner learned from the papers that the steamer had gone doAvn in half an hour after the collision and that a large number of lives Avere lost. Position of the Ill-fated Steamer. — The blow received by the unfortunate steamer Avas far more serious than her captain realized at first. • The boAV of the schooner had struck her foi'AA'ard of the paddle box on the port side, the broken stump of her bowsprit entering the saloon Avhere many of the pas sengers, largely composed of young people, Avere occupied in dancing and merry-making at the time. A great hole Avas opened in her side reaching far below the water line and the Avater began pouring in flooding the engine room and loAver decks. The steamer Avas proceeding north about five miles from shore and Avas then about opposite Highland Park, a village tAventy- three miles from Chicago. As Alihvaukee is eighty-five miles from Chicago the steamer had covered a little more than a quarter of the distance to that port Avhich Avas the destination of the great majoriy of her passengers. There AA'as a gale.bloAving from the northeast accompanied by rain, and the Avaves Avere running high. The steamer Avas brought to a stop imme diately after the collision and three boats were loAvered manned by sailors provided with mattresses and sail-cloth for the purpose of stopping the hole 129 THE SINKING OF THE 'LADY ELGIN" ON LAKE MICHIGAN ON THE MORNING OF SEPTEMBER 8, 1860, HALF AN HOUR AFTER SHE HAD BEEN RUN INTO BY THE SCHOONER "AUGUSTA" OF AA'AUKEGAN, ILLINOIS From an illustration in the New York Illustrated News THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 131 in her side ; but the oars Avere broken or lost in the attempt and the boats drifted aAvay, eventually arriving on the neighboring shore Avith their occu pants in safety though no passengers Avere Avith them. It Avas the report of these men that gave the first intelligence of the disaster on shore and Avhich Avas telegraphed to Chicago from the Highland Park Railroad Station. Foundering of the Steamer. — Large quantities of AA'reckage Avere loosened as the steamer Avent down, and the passengers seized upon any object that would serve to keep them afloat. In the cargo was a drove of cattle and the struggling animals were precipitated into the lake among the passengers. Alany found a precarious hold on the backs of these animals as they sAvam about, although none of the cattle reached the shore alive. A large piece of the hurricane deck of the steamer became detached at the moment Avhen the steamer Avent down, and on this raft-like object the heroic captain gathered more than fifty people and navigated the improvised raft toward the shore at Winnetka. The steamer had no other boats than those lowered by the sailors in the attempt to stop the leak and these did not return to the ship, and consequently proved of no assistance in the work of rescue. The raft ran on a sand bar at some distance from the shore and went to pieces and most of those Avho had so nearly reached a place of safety were lost in the raging surf, and Avith them the captain who was plainly seen from the shore holding a child in his arms whose life he Avas endeavoring to save while retaining his hold on the raft. His efforts, hoAvever, Avere in vain, as will appear in the later course of this narrative. Newspaper Accounts. — The issue of the NeAv York Illustrated News for September 22, 1860 (preserved in the rooms of the "Old Settlers' Club" at Alihvaukee), contains an account of the disaster accompanied by a number of illustrations, a portrait of Capt. John Wilson, and a picture of the schooner "Augusta" after her arrival at Chicago showing her damaged condition. There are other vieAvs, one of them a large double page picture of the steamer just before she sank, which of course is drawn from description. The disaster is described as taking place tAventy-five miles from Chicago and ten miles from shore. The schooner, says the account, struck the steamer "at the midship's gangway on the larboard side." She sank in half an hour "in nearly three hundred feet of water." Mr. Caryl, the clerk of the steamer, Avas one of the survh'ors, and his account is printed among others, which is substantially as follows: "Left Chicago Harbor at 11:30 P. AI. of the 7th with Alihvaukee excursionists, a party of about three hundred persons known as the 'Union Guard' and their invited friends." The plan of the excursion party Avas to spend the day in Chicago AA'here they Avere to attend a political meeting Avhich was to be addressed by Stephen A. Douglas, United States Senator from Illinois, and return to Alihvaukee in the evening. The Union Guard Avas a volunteer military company composed of Irishmen and demo crats, and, as in consequence of a controversy with the state government some months before, their arms had been called in by the adjutant general, it was intended that the profits from the excursion should be used to pur chase a new outfit. Efforts to Stop the Water. — In the direction opposite to that in which 132 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE the steamer Avas moving the schooner "Augusta," lumber laden, Avas bearing doAvn upon her, though all lights Avere burning both on the steamer and schooner, Avith her sails set and approaching at a high rate of speed Avith the Avind in her favor. As appears from subsequent reports both the officers of the steamer and the schooner had seen the lights of the other for some time before the collision. After the crash a dumb panic seized the throngs of passengers. The mate reported afterAA'ards that he passed through the cabin after the collision and "the silent Avomen sat there Avith their beautiful pale faces, motionless and resigned, soon to be engulfed in the raging Avaters of the lake." At this point Lake Alichigan is about sixty miles in Avidth, and the land on the Alichigan shore even in clear daylight is invisible. No life savings creAV Avas then in sei'A'ice, the GoA'ernment not haA'ing yet established the station at Gross Point Avhich indeed did not begin its existence until June, 1871. There Avas therefore little or no hope of relief from the shore. The three boats of the steamer Avere quickly loAvered manned by sailors provided with blankets and mattresses Avith Avhich it Avas intended to stop the yaAvning gap in her side, as stated above. The engine and Aval king beam had broken away from their fastenings as the result of the collision and dropped through the bottom of the steamer, thus relieving her of an immense Aveight but at the same time causing another great opening through Avhich the Avater rushed hastening the inevitable moment of her sinking. In an editorial article of one of the papers it avhs said: "A tragedy Avhich almost puts a paralysis upon one's faculties, and certainly strikes too deep for Avords to utter or tears to express its agonies," is that of the sinking of the "Lady Elgin." "The excursionists were composed," it says, "of a A'olun- teer military company of Alihvaukee knoAvn as the 'Union Guard.' In the party Avere many youths and maidens, the floAver and beauty of Alihvaukee and Chicago, and of young and old from various parts of the states and foreign countries. Universal merriment and revelry prevailed among the passengers, a band furnishing the music f or .the dancing in the saloon Avhich was brilliantly lighted." Outside the sky Avas dark and murky, the moon had risen at midnight and it Avas able to lighten the gloom only slightly through the heavy clouds, Avhile a steady rain Avas falling. The Account of the Captain of the Augusta. — Captain Alalott, of the schooner." Augusta," states that Avhen he first discovered the steamer's lights, both red and bright, he supposed her to be from a quarter to a half mile dis tant, and steering northeast; it Avas raining very hard at the time. "We kept our vessel on the course east by south, until Ave saAv a collision Avas probable, Avhen Ave put the helm hard and stiuck the steamer tAvo or three minutes afterAvards on the port side ; the steamer kept on her course, her engine in full motion. The 'Augusta' headed around north, alongside the steamer, but they got separated in about a minute, Avhen the schooner fell into the trough of the sea; all the head gear, jibboom and stanchions Avere carried aAvay. We took in sail and cleared aAvay the anchor, supposing the vessel Avould fill. After avc had cleared the Avivck and got up the foresail, THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 133 Ave succeeded in getting before the Avind, and stood for land ; Ave lost sight of the steamer Hve minutes after the collision." Air. Beman, second mate of the steamer "Lady Elgin," stated that "at half past tAvo a small squall struck us, and in five minutes more Ave saAv the lights of the vessel one point off the port boAV. I sung out 'hard-a-port,' but the A-essel seemed to pay no attention, and struck us just forAvard of the paddle-box, larboard side, tearing off the Avheel and cutting through the guards into the cabin and hull. AVe Avere steering nortlrwost by Avest, a point to Avinchvard ; our course at the time Avas nortlrwest. After striking us the vessel hung for a moment, and then got clear ; I went below to see Avhat damage Avas done, and Avhen I got back the vessel was gone." The Prince of AYales, afterAvard King Edward ATII, Avas traveling in America at the time of the disaster, and the same storm AA'hich prevailed over so extensh-e a territory as to include both the Lake Alichigan region and the surrounding shores of the great lakes, held him and his party storm-bound at Toronto, Canada, for a week. It Avill be remembered that the Prince visited Chicago in the latter part of the same month as that in which the disaster occurred. There is a piece of sheet music to be obtained at any music store entitled, "Lost on the Lady Elgin," by Henry C. AYork, who it Avill be recalled was the composer of many popular songs. The refrain of the song is as follows : "Lost on the 'Lady Elgin,' Sleeping to wake no more ! Numbered in that three hundred Who failed to reach the shore." There Avere some' notable passengers on board and among others was Mr. F. A. Lumsden of Ncav Orleans, the proprietor of the "Picayune," one of the most prominent of the southern neAvspapers. Air. Lumsden had estab lished this paper some thirty years before the event described. His AA'ife and son Aveie AA'ith him and all of them perished. On board, also, was another gentleman, Herbert Ingrain, Esq., M. P., Avell knoAvn both in England and America as the proprietor of the London Illus trated Nbavs, Avho had his son Avith him, both of whom perished. Mr. Ingram's history is very interesting from the fact that he "rose from the ranks" and from a mechanic became one of the richest commoners in England, and a member of the English Parliament. About twenty years before he had started the London Illustrated Ncavs. It was at this time that the illustrated papers first began to appear, and owing to the energy and judgment Avhich Air. Ingram bestoAved upon the Illustrated News, it succeeded, and got the start of the five or six competitors which made their appearance about the same time in London. Since the starting of the pictorial paper Air. Ingram's career had been one of unbroken prosperity, and everything he had put his hand to of any importance had succeeded with him. He Avas a large landed proprietor, and his paper realized a princely income. The body of Air. Ingram was recovered and sent to England Avhere it is noAv lying in the churchyard of the Church of St. Botolphe, Boston, England. THE SCHOONER "AUGUSTA," AFTER THE COLLISION WITH THE "LADY ELGIN," AS SEEN AT THE LAKE STREET BRIDGE, CHICAGO, AN HOUR AFTER HER ARRIVAL THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 135 The body of his son, a lad of twelve years of age, Avas never found. A monu ment to Mr. Ingram's memory Avas built for him surmounted by a statue of himself. In Harper's Magazine for September, 1908, there is an article by William Dean Howells giving an account of a visit made by him to old Boston, the "Af other of the American Athens," and in the course of his description he notes the monument to Herbert Ingram standing near the church and overlooking the market place of the city, of whom he Avrites, that he founded the "Illustrated London NeAvs" Avith the money he made by the invention and sale of "Old Parr's Pills." Regarding the monument the guide book records, "that AA'hilst on a visit to America in 1860 Ingram was drowned, together with his eldest son, Herbert, in Lake Michigan." Thus a reminder of this great disaster exists in a quiet churchyard over seas, but few of the visitors to that spot will know the details of the event as we have here related them. Even our oAvn Howells did not seem to con nect the event with the monument he Avas describing. Scenes in Milwaukee When the News Arrived. — The news of the calamity created the wildest excitement in Milwaukee and Chicago and the morning papers in both cities Avere filled with A'ivid details of the disaster. There Avas scarcely a house or place of business which had not lost an inmate or an employee and it was said that there were 300 orphans in the homes of Mil waukee caused by the deaths of young parents on board of the ill-fated steamer. An eye witness related that the scene in Milwaukee on Saturday morn ing, when the news of the catastrophe was first received, can nevef be effaced from his memory. The stores in the principal streets Avere deserted imme diately, many of them being left open and unattended, and all rushed to the telegraph office to learn the extent of the disaster. In walking along the streets, it seemed as if every second person met was either crying or so dumb- stricken that he could not express himself, nor recognize his friends and acquaintances. The campaign in which Abraham Lincoln was the presidential nominee of the new republican party was in full swing, but the political excitement was forgotten in the face of such an appalling calamity. All the tales of the survivors were unanimous in, according to Captain Wilson, the commander, praise for his bravery and daring throughout. He was foremost in confront ing danger and earnest for the safety of his passengers. He was droAvned within a hundred feet of the shore. More than a hundred persons arrived within fifty yards of the beach but were swept back by the returning Avaves and lost. Up to nine o'clock on Saturday night only twenty-one bodies had been recovered most of which were recognized by friends as those of residents of Milwaukee. Scenes at the Wreck. — At about ten o'clock in the morning of the day of the wreck a number of reporters for the newspapers of Chicago reached the scene at Winnetka where most of the passengers from the "Lady Elgin" came ashore. The surf was rolling in heavily and breaking in thunder along the beach, the gale having risen to a fearful fury from the northeast. The 136 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE shore there is an uneven bluff, ranging from thirty to sixty feet in height, Avith a narroAv strip of beach at its base. "The Avhole beach for three miles Ave found streAvn Avith fragments of the light upper portions of the ill fated steamer," said one of the papers, "and out to sea, Avhere the Avaves Avere rolling more lieaA'ily than is usually seen even in our September gales, the surface of the angry Avaters for miles in extent, as far as the eye could reach seaAA'ard, Avas dotted Avith fragments of the Avreck, and rafts and spars, Avith AA'hat Avas made out clearly to be human beings clinging to them. At this time various authorities estimated that from eighty to one hundred persons could have been counted driving at the mercy of the maddened elements, toAvard the high rolling breakers and surf-Avashed beach and bluff, from the top of Avhich thousands, with straining eyes, Avatehed their progress, and Avith pale cheeks noted that many met their fate in the Avaves." Parties of men Avere on the alert and ready for the Avork of rescue. Word was sent to Evanston, some four miles distant, and the citizens and its entire student community came up in force. Attention Avas first directed to a large raft coming in steadily but bravely over the Avaves, upon Avhich Avere clinging a large number of human beings, since knoAA'n to have been some fifty in number. Around it and beyond it on all sides Avere single surA'ivors and groups of tAvo or three or more keeping afloat on pieces of Avreckage, but interest centered about the fate of that large raft. It neared the seething line of surf. AVith a glass, those on shore could see that the company on board the raft seemed to obey the orders of one man, and that there were ladies and children on board. The hearts of those on shore forgot to beat for an instant AA'hen they saw the raft break up and disappear in the seas. Of the entire number on board of the raft only fifteen appear to have been saved. Among the lost was the brave heart who tried his best to saA'e those com mitted to his charge and Avho perished in the attempt — brave Capt. Jack Wil son, the commander of the unfortunate steamer. Spencer's Rescue Work. — Among the students of the Garrett Biblical Institute at EA'anston many of Avhom rendered heroic service on that day was Echvard W. Spencer Avho by his oavii exertions saved seA-enteen lives. Spencer Avas a man of slight physical frame but a famous swimmer, having been brought up on the banks of the Alississippi River Avhere he had learned the art thoroughly. As he looked out on the distressing scene he perceived at once that it Avas a case of SAvimming out and seizing the half-drowned people and forcibly draAving them through the surf, as feAV or none of them Avere able to reach the shore by their OAvn efforts. lie divested himself of his outer clothing and AA'ith a line fastened around his body he boldly SAvam through the Avaves Avhen he Avould grasp the persons in the Avater and br'ng them through to a point Avhere others could help them to a footing on dry land. Others folloAved his example and soon there Avere a number of rescuers working by the same methods. The steepness of the bluff along the Winnetka shore, Avhere most of the unfortunates reached the land, made it very diffi cult to get a foothold after coming out of the Avater in a Aveakened condition. THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 137 Spencer repeatedly plunged through the surf and each time brought out a sufferer, though some Avould escape his grasp and drown in spite of every effort to help them. But soon Spencer's strength began to be exhausted and he Avas obliged to lie clown to recover his strength after each effort. All day, at short in tervals, he Avould rise to enter again upon the Avork of rescue. This continued until he had in this manner saved the lives of seventeen persons. The last persons saA'ed by Spencer were a man and his AA'ife. The man Avas observed coming toAvard the shore near the high bank of the bluff, to strike against AA'hich Avould be almost certain death. He Avas clinging AA'ith one arm to a piece of wreckage, and in the other he seemed to be holding a bundle Avhich he AA-as trying to keep above Avater. It Avas seen that it Avas a woman or child Avhom he was trying to bring to the shore. Spencer at this, moment Avas almost at the end of his endurance, but he pulled himself together for another effort. "Cost AA'hat it may," he exclaimed, "I Avill save them or die in the attempt." Soon he Avas seen far out in the lake where he reached the man AA'ho then cried out, "Save my Avife!" "I'll saA'e her and you too," he ansAvered; and fastening his hands in their cloth ing he said to them, "You must swim uoav for your lives and mine as Avell." They obeyed his instructions and safely reached the land. Many rescues Avere made on that dreadful day Avhich deserve to be recorded. Altogether there were about one hundred lives saved along this shore. Recognition by Evanston People. — The citizens of Evanston presented Spencer Avith a gold watch in recognition of his heroism and efficient services in saA'ing lives. Alany years later the class of 1898 in the Northwestern Uni versity erected a bronze tablet in the reading room of the University library AA-h'ch bore this inscription: "To commemorate the heroic endeavors of Edward W. Spencer, first Nortlrwestern student life saver. This tablet is erected by the Class of 1898. At the AA'reck of the Lady Elgin, off Winnetka, September 8, 1860, Spencer SAvam through the heavy surf sixteen times, rescuing seventeen persons in all. In the delirium of exhaustion Avhich fol lowed, his oft-repeated question was, 'Did I do my best?' " The Lady Elgin disaster occurred many years before the establishment of the Government life-saving seiwice, now knoAvn as the Coast Guard. The strain upon his physical endurance on that occasion broke his health so that he Avas neA'er the same man as he had been before. At that time the poAver to reAvard life savers had not been conferred on the Secretary of the Treasury to bestoAV medals for heroic deeds, and thus no official recognition was ever given to Air. Spencer Avho so richly deserved it. But he Avon an enduring fame and will be remembered as long as golden deeds such as his are cherished in the memories of his neighbors and friends. Efforts to Obtain Medal for Spencer.— At different times during the years 1907, 1908 and 1909, persevering efforts Avere made to obtain a medal from the Government in recognition of Spencer's heroic services at the time of the disaster above described. Air. David D. Thompson, for many years editor of the Nortlrwestern Christian Advocate, joined Avith the Evanston Historical Society and a number of other friends and neighbors of Evanston, in these 138 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE efforts. Air. Thompson Avas a frequent A'isitor to Washington during those years and often was a Avelcome guest of President Roosevelt at the White House. On one occasion Avhile at the table he related the story of Spencer's rescue work at the time of the Lady Elgin disaster nearly half a century before, which attracted the deepest interest of the President. The President was so much impressed AA'ith the story that he soon after caused an investiga tion to be made to ascertain Avhether a medal could not be obtained even after so long a time had elapsed since the eA'ent. A bill Avas introduced in Congress but it failed of passage because it AA'as feared that by conferring a medal on an individual for an action so long in the past would open the door for many other claims that could not be considered. Spencer died in California in 1917 at the age of eighty-one. In the later years of his life the papers of Los Angeles, near Avhich city he had his resi dence, frequently printed pictures of him Avith long accounts of the rescue work performed by him at the time of the Lady Elgin disaster. He was about the most popular hero of that section of the country on account of his exploit at the famous disaster Avhich Ave haA'e here described, an event not connected with the history of California, but adopted as a part of their heritage in common AA'ith us dAvellers here on the shores of Lake Alichigan. Distressing Scenes Along Shore. — ThenceforAvard the scene on shore until 2 P. AI. Avhen the last survhor Avas drawn out of the surf, Avas a scene which lookers-on will neA'er forget. Of its nature the best proof is the fact that the forty or fifty persons saA'ed along this shore Avere less than 'one-third of the number that came from the open lake to pass that fearful gauntlet of the line of breakers, several hundred feet off shore, Avhere under the very eyes and almost Avithin hail of those on shore the majority perished. The rafts Avould come into the line of surf, dip to the force of the waves and then turn completely over. Again and again would rafts containing from one to five persons gradually near the shore and then be lost, Avhere a stone's cast would reach them, yet really as far from human help as if in mid-ocean. A peculiarly distressing experience AA'as that of Airs. Jane Cook and her daughter Elizabeth of Fond du Lac, Avho had but a day or tAvo before come up the lakes from Buffalo on the steamer Sun, intending to land at Mil waukee. But owing to the gale bloAving at the time the steamer did not make its usual call there and they AA'ere brought to Chicago, Avhere they were placed on board of the Lady Elgin to return to Alihvaukee. Both of them were lost. William FarnsAvorth, an early settler of Sheboygan, was also among the lost. The Damage Done in the Collision. — It afterAvards became evident from the appearance of a portion of the AA'reck Avhich came ashore near Waukegan that the final catastrophe Avas brought about by the dropping of the engine, Avalking-beam and its supporting frame through the side and bottom. At the point mentioned all that part of the hull abaft the midships, on the larboard side, lay upon the beach, a full .fourth of the hull from the plank shear to the keel. The most rational explanation of the disaster seems to have been, according to contemporary accounts, that the colliding vessel carried aAvay the larboard paddle Avheel and most of the engine braces on that side, and THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 139 that as soon as the steamer rolled a-port, the engine, Avalking-beam and its heaA'y frame, having nothing to support them, Avere loosened and fell through, carrymg away a large part of the hull. These heavy objects Avent out on the larboard side of the vessel, producing the catastrophe, Avhich all the sur vivors describe as very sudden. It is probable that the first violent roll after the collision did the fatal work. On no other hypothesis can the separa- ration of the hull be accounted for, or the positive testimony of some of the officers be explained, than that the Avalking-beam Avent doAvn through the lower part of the hull before the upper works floated off. The Lady Elgin and Her Captain. — The Lady Elgin Avas built in Canada about nine or ten years before, and named after the wife of the then governor- general of British America, Lord Elgin. She Avas a side-Avheel steamer of about three hundred feet in length and 1,000 tons burden. She Avas a fast and favorite boat, and went on three or four excursions annually. For the first five years after her construction the Lady Elgin AA'as employed in the Canadian traffic of the lakes, and carried the mails along the northern shores, Avhile the Grand Trunk Railway, Avhich now performs that service, was yet incomplete, or eAren in embryo. Four or five years previous to the disaster she was purchased by Hubbard, Spencer and Company of Chicago, to whom she belonged at the time of the calamity. Captain AYilson, her com mander, was a man of ten" years' experience in the navigation of the upper lakes, a fine officer, vigilant in his duties, and a popular commander among the travelers on Lake Alichigan and Lake Superior. He Avas also a man of family and resided in Chicago. The News at Milwaukee. — It was Sunday forenoon Avhen neAvs of the appalling calamity reached Mihvaukee. ' Inquiry brought the confirmation "Only thirteen saA-ed. " Out of 400 happy pleasure seekers only thirteen saved ! "The excitement Avas dreadful. A croAvd of several hundred collected about the Sentinel office, and it required the presence of all the clerks to pass out to the croAvd the slips on which Avas printed the meager intelligence," reported the Alihvaukee Daily Sentinel, in black bordered columns, on Monday morning, September 10, 1860. "Still the extent of the calamity, the aAvful magnitude did not seem to be fully comprehended by the public. That some thing appalling had transpired Avas felt, but that so many of our citizens had been hurried into Eternity was hard to believe. "It would be utterly impossible to convey any idea, to those Avho did not visit the Third Ward, of the scene presented there. It seemed as though sounds of moaning proceeded from every third house. Little crowds of women Avere congregated along the walks, some giving free expression to their grief, others offering condolence. Never before has our city been stricken with such a calamity. "The scene at the lake shore depot baffles description. Thousands had congregated there to await the arrival of the noon train, and as it approached the crowd, impatient to learn tidings of friends, could not Avait for the loco motive to stop, but besieged the train. "Then it was that the heart-rending tidings Avere received by broken- CAPTAIN JOHN WILSON OF THE" STEAMER "LADY ELGIN" Published in the New York Illustrated News, September 22, 1860 THF STEAMER "LADY ELGIN" AS SHE LAID AT HER DOCK IN MILWAUKEE '' *" BEFORE SHE AVAS LOST THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 141 hearted parents and friends Avith demonstrations of grief that could not be repressed. Timothy O'Brien Avas the first survivor Avho Avas recognized, and it was doubtful for some time whether he could survive the rude but honest congratulations of his friends. All about the long depot Avere anxious females, some with their heads boAved, and others too heaA-ily stricken to Aveep. With each detail of news there Avere fresh Avails and Avringing of hands. "A special train of ffw cars Avas sent to the scene. At the suggestion of Charles H. Larkin a committee Avas formed with John L. Doran as chair man, Avhose duty it became to take charge of the Avork of searching the beach and earing for the bodies recoA'ered. Francis Hubschmann, the acting mayor, issued a proclamation declaring Tuesday, September 11, 1860, a day of mourn ing, fasting and prayer, and ordering the closing of all public offices. At a meeting of citizens held at Albany Hall suitable resolutions Avere adopted and arrangements made to proA'ide for destitute survhors. " The surA'hors as recorded in the neAA'spapers f olloAA'ing the disaster Avere : Timothy O'Brien, Frank Boyd, Thomas Keogh, John AIcLander, EdAvard Burke, John J. Crilley, Charles Beverung, AYilliam Beman, John Doyle, AY. Ehvood, John • Gillmore, Bridget Kehoe, Fred Kuttemeyer, Thomas Ken nedy, Adelbert Doebert. Wm. Kinsella, Isaac Kingsley, John H. Alillard, Charles Alay, Wm. Aliller, Patrick Alaher, James AleAIanus, John AlcCanley, John AIcLinden, Patrick Myers, T. AleCoslen, John O'Brien, James Rogers, John Rossiter, E. J. PoAvers, Wm. Weiger, Fred Snyder, Wm. Sh-yer, AY. G. Smith, P. Walsh, Wm. Wilson. A military and civic funeral procession Avas held on Tuesday morning. It Avas formed at the City Hall Square and moA'ed to St. John's Cathedral Avhere a solemn requiem high mass was read for the repose of the souls of the A'ictims. Some of the survhors had a miraculous escape from a Avatery grave by holding to pieces of Avreckage. It is told of Charles BeA'erung, the drummer boy of the band, that he SAvam ashore on his drum Avhich he had conA-erted into a life preserver. On the anniversary a year later in the calm of retrospection, the Sentinel said: "Never, perhaps, did such a calamity fall upon one city, as did that of the Lady Elgin disaster upon Alihvaukee. The victims of the Avreck Avere mostly poor — mostly from the Third Ward — mostly Irish. Whole blocks of houses Avere rendered nearly tenantless ; and, perhaps never Avas more real Christian charity exhibited than Avas there and then. Never Avas there a nobler sight than that of the Sisters of Charity, like ministering angels, dis pensing their God-directed .aid and assistance." Every year since I860 a solemn requiem mass is read on the morning of September 8th. On this day the survivors attended in a body until they had all passed aAvay. The last survivor, Adelbert Doebert, a musician, died at Alihvaukee November 10, 1921, at the age of eighty-nine years. Number of Lives Lost in the Disaster. — "The loss of Ffe in the Lady Elgin disaster is nowadays given as 295," says Dr. Henry AI. Bannister of Evanston, in his account of the AA-reck. "It may have been more. AYhen a vessel goes down in deep AA'ater in Lake Alichigan feAv bodies are recovered 142 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE and sometimes not any. None, so far as I haA'e heard, Avere recoA'ercd from the Alpena, lost October 16, 1880, or from the Chicora, lost January 24, 1895, in the same Avaters. Only about tAvo hundred, hoAvever, Avere rescued or thc'r bodies Avashed ashore from the Lady Elgin, though she sank a number of miles from the shore in deep Avater. There must have been, therefore, a large number that Avent to the bottom with the ship." Doctor Bannister in his lifetime Avas recognized as an eminent scientist and his observations are perfectly reliable and can safely be accepted as good authority. The Lady Elgin had about four hundred people aboard AA'hen she sank and only about one hundred bodies Avere recovered besides the same number rescued. Thus half the Avhole number Avere entirely unac counted for, the most of Avhom presumably Avent down Avith the ship and remain at the bottom Avhere their bones are no doubt lying at the present hour. The loss of the Lady Elgin is the classic event in the long and thrilling chapter of marine disasters on Lake Alichigan. It resulted in poignant grief to hundreds of families especially in Alihvaukee where the great ma jority of the lost previously lived, and it was the great event Avith Avhich all disasters of a like nature were compared. In these days of coast guards and numerous lighthouses, of fog-horns and careful regulations for sailing, the chances of such appalling events are reduced to the lowest proportions, and it may be ferA-ently hoped that such disasters cannot again occur for ages to come. Lessons of the Disaster. — When a vessel founders far from land, either on the lake or on the ocean, the scenes at the crisis of the calamity are of the most heart-rending description. The interest aroused among the readers of a tale like this easily becomes morbid, and although it is perhaps not wise for the historian to dAvell at too great length upon calamities of any kind, yet the Avarnings and cautions involved in such narratives have their uses. HoAvever, it is needful and proper to relate enough to give the later genera tions of travelers a knoAvledge of necessary precautions, at least such as it is in their poAver to take for themselves. The most important lessons of the Lady Elgin disaster were the necessity of life-saving stations along the shore Avhich in consequence of this dire event began to be apparent, a full supply of life preservers (those provided by the steamer were merely short pieces of plank six feet long and a foot Avide with a short line looped at the end), a better system of signalling between passing vessels, and a larger number of life-boats than Avere carried by any of the passenger steamers at that time. A few days after the disaster Dr. Daniel P. Kidder, one of the professors at the Garrett Biblical Institute at Evanston, addressed a letter to a Chicago paper in which he said: "A principal object of the present note is to suggest, Avhile the topic is before the minds of the community, that measures be taken to establish life-boat stations along this shore." Eventually such measures Avere taken and though it Avas not until 1871 that a life-boat Avas proA'ided by the Government, manned by students of the Nortlrwestern University, it THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 143 speedily proved its usefulness, and in time a regular station house Avith crew and full equipment Avas established on land donated by the University. Other Notable Lake Disasters. — The Indians of the Alackinac Island region called Lake Alichigan "the man-devouring lake," so Ave are told by Col. Arent de Peyster AA'ho Avas in command of that post AA'hen it Avas held by the British in 1776. In A'ieAv of the dangerous character of the Avaters of the Straits of Alackinac and of the lakes which are connected by them the epithet is an appropriate one, as Avill appear from the record of disasters, a feAv of which Avill be mentioned in this place, particularly those occurring on Lake Alichigan. The earliest disaster of which there is a record was that which befell the Griffin, built by La Salle at the entrance to the Niagara River, in 1679. She was a small sailing vessel of about forty-five tons burden, Avas armed Avith five small cannon and carried about thirty-four men. La Salle himself Avas in command and in due time the vessel safely reached Alackinac and then con tinued its voyage to Green Bay. Here La Salle left the vessel in charge of the pilot and continued his journey in canoes doAvn the Avest shore of Lake Alichigan after leaving orders for the A'essel to folloAv him a feAV Aveeks later to the St. Joseph River. His purpose was to reorganize his party at St. Joseph and push on to the Illinois River at Peoria Avhere he intended to build another A'essel and go doAvn the Alississippi River to its mouth as that river had never yet been fully explored. Not finding the Griffin at the expected rendezvous La Salle went on to the Illinois without knowing any further particulars as to the cause of her failure to arrive. It seems from later accounts that after La Salle had parted company with the Griffin in Green Bay she Avas loaded Avith furs to be sent back to the Niagara River where they were to be forAvarded to Montreal. Some Pottawatomie Indians reported that after La Salle 's departure the pilot, AA'ho had anchored off the north shore of the lake under the shelter of a headland near the Avigwams of these savages, determined to proceed to Alackinac, despite the Avarnings that a mighty tempest was raging in the open lake, which Avas Avhite AA'ith foam. "Alocking at their fears and assert ing that no wind could stay his course," says E. G. Alason in his "Chapters from Illinois History," "the pilot set sail in the face of the increasing storm. Hardly had the little vessel gone a quarter of a league from its anchorage when the nathes saAv it rolling wildly amid the huge waves, and then with its canvas furled, driven irresistibly before the blast. In the gathering gloom and floods of rain it disappeared from view, and they never saw it more." There Avere discovered, hoAvever, some relics of the disaster. Alason relates that in the folloAving spring there was found "some clothing along the shore, and in the summer a hatehAvay, a bit of cordage and a few packages of beaver skins." These, AA'ith the head of a flagstaff, were the sole relics of the un fortunate craft, which undoubtedly foundered not many hours after it was last seen from the Pottawatomie Arillage. Alidnight guns had been heard by the wondering savages aboA'e the roar of the tempest, her last appeals for help as she Avent to her doom in the depths of the lake. "Romance has been busy Avith her fate," says Alason, "and has even 144 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE fancied that the Griffin, shaped as Ave see her in the picture in Hennepin's 'NeAv DiscoA'ery, ' after the fashion of ancient men-of-Avar, her boAV and stern built high and her beak head displaying a flying griffin and an eagle, Avith her five small cannon and all the rest of her antique equipment, is preserved to this day beneath the sand dunes of the coast." Loss of the Propeller Phoenix. — The Alihvaukee Sentinel and Gazette, in its issue of November 24, 1847, contained the startling announcement that the propeller Phoenix had been burned on Lake Alichigan AA'ith the loss of 250 lives, and told that it Avas "the most terrible calamity that has ever occurred on the waters of Lake Alichigan." The folloAving account is summarized from the Sentinel and Gazette, a photographic copy of Avhich, taken from the files preserved in the State Historical Society at Aladison, is before us as Ave Avrite. The Phoenix had left the previous Aveek from Puiialo bound for Lake Alichigan ports. She had made a stop at AlanitoAvoc and lay there for several hours Avaiting for the sea to go cIoavii, intending to make the next call at Sheboygan, tAveiity-five miles distant. At one o'clock in the morning she started on her fatal A'oyage. After being out an hour or tAvo the firemen discovered that the pumps did not Avork and this fact AA'as immediately re ported to the engineer, but he seemed to pay no attention to this alarming condition. Soon afterAvard it Avas observed that .the Avater in the boilers AA'as A'ery Ioaa'. Before any steps had been taken to remedy the difficulty, and about four o'clock in the morning, the boilers had become red-hot on top and had' com municated fire to the boat. The firemen in the hold at once took active steps to stop the fire, but the progress of the flames Avas so rapid that they Avere soon drh-en out of the hold. The alarm had iioav become general, the pas sengers Avere all aroused, lines formed on deck and Avater passed up in buckets and poured upon the flames. But it soon became apparent that all efforts to cheek the fire Avere utterly unavailing, and both passengers and ci-cav began to think only of Iioav they might saA'e their lives. The Phoenix carried three boats. Captain SAveet Avho Avas confined to his quarters Avith a fractured knee resulting from an injury he had received Avhile coming up Lake Erie, consented, at the entreaty of Air. Blish, to enter the first boat to leaA'e the burning propeller in company Avith tAventy others, and reached the shore in safety. The second boat, carrying nineteen persons also arrh'ed safely on the shore, about ten miles north of Sheboygan. The light of the fire Avas first seen at Sheboygan at 4:3(1 in the morning and the propeller DelaAvare, then lying there, immediately got up steam and started to the assitanee of the burning vessel. But it Avys an hour and a quarter before she reached her and aid Avas impossible by that time. The Phoenix Avas burned to the Avater's edge. The rescuing vessel could only take the burning Avreck in tOAv and bring her into the harbor Avhere she sunk soon after. The propeller Delaware avhs able to rescue only three persons from the burning Avreck, and these besides those Avho had reached the shore in the boats Avere all that Avere saved out of a total 300 souls. The boats Avhen they left the burning propeller made directly for the shore, distant about four THE STORY OF THE "LADY ELGIN" DISASTER 145 miles. The intention was to leave the passengers on the land and return to the wreck to take off others, but long before this could be done all human aid was unavailing. Scenes and Incidents. — Among the incidents of this famous Avreck it is related that "one man ascended to the mast-head and there remained till the mast itself toppled over into the lake. As the fire advanced the shrouds became thronged Avith human beings who, scorched by the ascending flames, gradually dropped off one by one. Alany, frightened, or despairing, threAV themselves into the lake, in the vain hope of struggling to the distant shore." The Phoenix had on board a full cargo of freight, and of her passen gers, about fifty Avere Americans, including the creAv, and 250 emigrants, all Hollanders and all coming to Alihvaukee. Among the latter Avere many AA'ho had considerable sums of money Avith them. It was supposed that they had in the aggregate some fifty thousand dollars in gold. One young girl of seven- teen was the sole survivor of a party of twenty-five Avho had together $18,000. An old man, the father of nine children, Avas left to .mourn the loss of all those for whose sakes he left his native land and emigrated to America. "Indeed," concludes the account, "the whole calamity is the most afflicting in its details that Ave have e\rer been called upon to record." The vessel Avas insured in Buffalo for $12,000. Her books, papers, freight and pas senger list, etc., were all lost. The Burning of the Sea Bird. — On the morning of the 9th of April, 1868, the steamer Sea Bird, Avhile on her Avay from Tavo Rivers, Wis., to Chicago, and while opposite Lake Forrest, 111., caught fire and was totally consumed. There were seventy persons on board at the time, and of these but three escaped. The Sea Bird was a sideAvheel steamer of about five hundred tons burden, and Avas making the first trip of the season on her regular route along the Av;st shore of the lake. "Koav the fire originated," says Andreas, "AA'as never knoAvn, but is Avas supposed to have been through the carelessness of one of the porters, AA'ho Avas obserA'ed by one of the survivors to throw a scuttle of coal and ashes over board, and a very short time afterward the fire broke out in the after part of the vessel, near Avhere the porter had stood. It Avas a little be fore seven o'clock in the morning AA'hen the fire Avas discovered, as the pas sengers were rising from breakfast. The steamer AA'as immediately headed for shore, but the AA'ind Avas bloAving heavily from the northeast and droA-e the flames forward, soon stopping the machinery. The fire rapidly drove the passengers toAvard the boAV, and then over into the lake. No boats seem to have been lowered nor any effective effort made to save life, by the officers. If there Avere any life-preservers, on board, and there presumably were, none was used. Panic seems to have seized officers, creAv and pas sengers alike. Before noon the vessel Avas burned to the Avater's edge. The survivors were A. C. Chamberlain, Air. Hennebury of Sheboygan, Wis., and James H. Leonard of ManitoAvoe. "In recalling lake disasters," says a recent Avriter, "many old residents confuse the particulars of the Lady Elgin disaster AA'ith those of the Sea Bird. The details of the former event are related in previous pages of this history. Vol. I— 10 146 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE The Lady Elgin Avas lost September 8, 1860, and nearly three hundred persons droAA-ned. Its loss Avas occasioned by a collision Avith a lumber schooner on a stormy night, the steamer sinking Avithin half an hour after the accident. The Lady Elgin Avas a much larger steamer than the Sea Bird. The tAvo events were separated by an interval of nearly eight years. Loss of the Steamer Alpena. — The steamer Alpena Avas built in 1866, and bought by the Goodrich Company tAvo years later. She Avas a staunch boat of 650 tons burden, and for several years Avas engaged on the route betAveen Chicago, Grand Haven and Muskegon. The Alpena left Grand HaA'en for Chicago about 8 o'clock Friday evening, October 15, 1880, though the Aveather bureau signals indicated that a severe storm Avas approaching. Captain Napier Avas in command. She carried a creAv of thirty men and there Avas a "fair passenger list," numbering in all about seA'enty-fiA'e persons. The steamer as she put out into the open lake encountered a gale of great severity. The narrator Avho contributed an article ghing this information in the Chicago magazine for June, 1912, says that he AA'as the clerk of the propeller Messenger which safely made her regular trip that night from Benton Harbor to Chicago. At midnight the gale had greatly increased in violence and it Avas thought that the Alpena encountered the full force of the storm AA'hen about forty miles from Chicago at Avhich point she probably foundered. At all events she Avas never seen after her departure from Grand HaA'en. Not a soul surA'ived to tell the tale. Loss of the Car Ferry steamer Pere Marquette, No. 18. — The loss of the carferry steamer, Pere Marquette, No. 18, occurred September 9, 1910, while she Avas on her A'oyage from Ludington, Alich., to Alihvaukee. She sank in Lake Alichigan, betAveen 6 and 8 o'clock on Friday morning, AA'hen about thirty miles off Sheboygan, Wis. Tavo passengers and thirty-one of the officers and creAv Avere droAvned. Thirty-three persons AA'ere rescued by car ferry No. 17, AA'hich had been summoned to the scene by a wireless call for help. The exact cause of the disaster could not be ascertained. The weather at the time it occurred was good and only a moderate sea was running. Accident to the Steamer, Christopher Columbus. — The Chicago Daily News Almanac for 1918, printed the following record of the painful event referred to above. "Sixteen lives Avere lost by a peculiar accident to the Avhaleback excursion steamer, 'Christopher Columbus,' in the river at Mil- Avaukee, Wis., June 30, 1917. The craft Avas starting on its return trip to Chicago AA'hen it became unmanageable and ran into the river bank, AA-here it struck one of the supports of a large steel Avater tank on top of a toAver 100 feet high. The tank fell and hit the steamer, carrying aAvay part of the pilot house and the tAvo upper decks, and flooding the ship AA'ith Avater. There Avere some four hundred excursionists on board at the time, most of them teachers and pupils in Chicago summer schools. In addition to the sixteen killed a number of other persons Avere severely injured." CHAPTER XIII THE GREAT AIILWAUKEE FIRE The most serious fire that ever occurred in Alihvaukee Avas that which broke out October 28, 1892, often referred to as "the Great Fire." The fire started in the eA-ening of the date above mentioned at 275 East AVater Street, between Detroit and Buffalo streets, on the premises of the Union Oil com pany, and quickly communicated to an adjoining wholesale drug establish ment. The fire spread to other large buildings near by and involved a large portion of the Third Avard before it Avas finally got under control, destroying sixteen blocks which included extensive residence districts. The surging flames shot high in the air and the reflection of them in the heavens could be seen at a distance of thirty miles from the city in A'arious directions. "The conflagration," writes Air. E. P. Bacon in Conard's history, "was prevented from extending farther northward than Detroit Street by the strong wind which prevailed from that quarter. It extended eastward and southerly to the lake in one direction and to the main arm of the river in the other. It swept over the side tracks of the Chicago & Northwestern railway which were filled with standing cars, and there were 215 cars con sumed, most of AA'hich were loaded with merchandise of various kinds. The freight houses of the company were partially destroyed, with a large portion of their contents. "The loss sustained by the company, including claims paid to owners of freight damaged and destroyed, amounted to $160,000. The total number of buildings destroyed by the fire Avas 440, of Avhich 81 were brick and 359 were of frame or Avood. The value of the buildings and contents destroyed, as estimated by the officers of the fire department, was upwards of $4,500,000. The insurance thereon Avas $2,111,450, which was collected by the owners." Fire engines from other Cities. — Two firemen and an unknown man were killed during the efforts made to combat the flames, besides a number se riously injured. Fire engines from the cities of Racine, Kenosha, Sheboygan and Oshkosh quickly arrived in the course of the evening and rendered effective aid. Four engines from Chicago with forty men came by the Chicago & Northwestern raihvay, the train making a speed of fifty-six miles an hour, but they did not reach the scene until near midnight AA'hen the fire had been brought pretty well under control. They afforded great relief, hoAvever, to the almost exhausted force of the Mihvaukee fire depart ment in staying the further progress of the flames. "The region devastated by the fire," continues the narrative, "was one 147 148 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE of the oldest quarters of the city and contained a large number of frame dwellings AA'hich had been occupied for many years by a class of laboring men AA'ith their families, mainly of Irish origin. Large business blocks, Iioav - ever, used for commercial and manufacturing purposes, coA'ered the Avesteru portion of the region, a large number of AA'hich Avere destroyed. Hundreds of families Avere driven from their homes by the flames in their rapid progress, Avithout opportunity being given by the occupants to rescue any of their possessions." Relief Measures Organized. — A mass meeting of citizens Avas called the following morning by the Chamber of Commerce in the exchange room of their building, and measures Avere promptly adopted to afford relief to the victims of the conflagration. A committee Avas appointed to take general charge of the Avork of proA'iding relief, knoAvn as the "Board of Organiza tion and Control," consisting of the folloAving persons: E. P. Bacon, F. G. BigeloAv, C. C. Rogers, J. E. Hansen, H. C. Payne, AYashington Becker, Jas. A. Bryden, P. J. Somers, Patrick Cudahy, Rev. J. J. Keogh, J. G. J. Camp bell, Frank Siller, James Hannan, and George AY. Forth. Air. Bacon Avas elected chairman. A special Relief Committee Avas appointed at once to AA'hich all applica tions Avere to be made, and through Avhich the distribution of funds should be administered, consisting of J. G. J. Campbell, chairman ; Rev. J. J. Keogh, James Hannan, George Koeppen, Frank Siller, Bernard Goldsmith, Adolph Meinecke, Rev. Judson TitsAvorth, Rev. James D. Foley, Paul J. Foley, Cor nelius Corcoran, G. Frellson, and R. D. AVhitehead. Efficient Aid Extended. — The committee had the advantage in organizing their Avork of relief of the example furnished by the Chicago Relief and Aid society in their Avork of a similar character after the great Chicago fire, tAventy-one years before. The report of the Chicago society Avas published in a thick volume of 440 pages, in 1874. The report gave a complete history of that great event and of the disbursements made in the vast Avork of relief after that unparalleled disaster, and the committee had access to the record there printed for their guidance. The population of Chicago at the time of its great fire (in 1871) AA'as 334,270. The loss of life Avas estimated to be not less than three hundred persons though the number Avas never accurately ascertained. The property losses Avere given at $196,000,000. One hundred thousand people Avere driven from their homes by the Chicago fire. In the Avork of relief the vast sum of $5,000,000 AA'as disbursed, contributed by every civilized country on earth as Avell as by every state and nation of the Avestern hemisphere. The Chicago AYorld's Fair Avas dedicated October 21, 1892, seven days before the great fire in Alihvaukee occurred. It Avill be remembered that the AYorld's Fair Avas not opened to visitors until Alay first of the folloAving year, namely, Alay 1, 1893. An interval of over six months took place betAveen the "dedication" and the formal "opening." The immense amount of neAvs in regard to the AYorld's Fair AA'hich filled the ordinary channels of the neAvspapers prevented the Avide publicity which the great importance of the Alihvaukee fire Avould othei'Avise have claimed. THE GREAT MILWAUKEE FIRE 149 The Avork of the Alihvaukee committee Avas of much the same character as that of the Chicago committee though of course AA'as not on so large a scale. Both committees discharged their Herculean tasks in a thoroughly credit able manner, so that both cities have ahvays taken pride in the splendid record made by them. Methods of Relief. — The first and most pressing needs Avere food for those rendered destitute, and shelter for the homeless. The Alihvaukee com mittee lost no time in supplying food and money as the first requisite and then proceeded to make plans to provide houses for the victims of the great conflagration. "This committee deA'ised a plan for the systematic canvassing of the city for funds," says Air. Bacon in his account, "but voluntary contribu tions were offered so freely that solicitation proved Avholly unnecessary. The spontaneity and liberality with which money AA'as poured into the hands of the committee by all classes of citizens, was a demonstration of human kindness and sympathy rarely witnessed. Alany of the individual contribu tions Avere three or four times as large as would have been expected if solicited, and people of all conditions of life and of all creeds, were par ticipants alike. Over $53,000 had been contributed before three o'clock of the day following the fire. The population of Alihvaukee in 1890 according to the Federal census Avas 204.468, and ten years later, in 1900, it was 285,315. Thus for the year 1892, the year in Avhich the fire occurred, it was not far from 230,000. "Telegrams were received from the mayors of several cities and from A'arious commercial organizations offering aid, which were gratefully ac knowledged, but the kind offers Avere courteously declined on the ground that local contributions Avere on such a scale that they seemed likely to meet all requirements. Several contributions Avere, hoAvever, received from indi viduals residing elseAA'here AA'ho Avere former residents of Alihvaukee, or were specially interested in her Avelfare. ' ' Collections Avere taken for the relief fund in all the churches of the city on the Sunday next folloAving the occurrence of the fire (October, 30), Avhich amounted in the aggregate to $6,293. Members of several branches of trade and clerks and employees of large establishments, and some benevolent societies also, made up separate funds among themselves, AA'hich they con tributed to the general fund. Several neAvspapers, both English and German, opened their column's for subscriptions to the fund, through AA'hich medium $10,448 Avas contributed and added to the fund. Proprietors of the principal places of amusements gave benefit performances, the proceeds of which were contributed to the fund. By the 14th of November the contributions amounted to $136,825, and the Board of Organization and Control adopted a resolution to the effect that a sufficient amount of money had been subscribed to meet all probable requirements for the suitable relief of the sufferers by the fire, and directed that the public be so notified through the press of the city Avhich was immediately done. ' ' The tAvo principal raihvays Avhose lines concentrate in Alihvaukee, namely : the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, and the Chicago & Northwestern each 150 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE contributed $5,000, although the latter suffered a very heavy loss from the fire. The Mihvaukee Street Raihvay company also contributed $5,000." Work of Various Committees. — Other committees Avere appointed in order to make more effective the Avork of relief, one of AA'hich was an advisory committee to give aid and counsel to the fire sufferers in their endeavors to better their condition, and also to aid in the proper adjustment of insurance claims. This committee consisted of Bernard Goldsmith, chairman ; Rev. J. J. Keogh, Benjamin M. Weil, Matthew Keenan, and Peter Doyle. The committee rendered valuable assistance in numerous cases. A committee on providing quarters was also appointed to devise some plan for temporary quarters for families unable to privide dAvelling places for themselves. This committee con sisted of S. E. Hansen, chairman ; Jeremiah Quin, John Johnston, EdAvard Bar ber, and Emil Durr. The report of the last named committee recommended that barracks be constructed for 100 families, or such portion as might be found requisite, on such suitable public or private grounds as might be secured for the pur pose. The recommendation AA-as adopted and the committee Avas authorized to proceed at once AA'ith the erection of the barracks. Before the close of the week the barracks for ten families Avere erected in the Lake Shore Park grounds. It was then found that dAvellings and apartments had been secured for occupancy by the homeless families to such an extent that further provision was unnecessary. In a short time all the homeless families Avere comfortably housed and provided Avith needful furniture and bedding. The Board of Organization and Control held tAvo meetings daily during the first three days folloAving the fire, and daily meetings thereafter during the ensuing Aveek, then less frequently until the 15th of December. A feAv days after the fire the relief committee Avas authorized to give to the head of each family made destitute by the fire the sum of $50, and, in addi tion thereto, $5 for each child or other dependent of the family, for the purpose of immediate relief. On the 5th of November the sum of $70 to $100 was authorized to be given to each family for furniture, varying according to the size of the family, excepting to those whose loss of furniture Avas made good from insurance. - No money Avas given to any person or the family of any person oAvning real estate or other available property. Pupils in public or parochial schools who had lost their school books in the fire Avere supplied with new ones, and mechanics who had lost their tools were provided with money to purchase a new supply. Sewing Avomen Avere supplied Avith sewing machines and Avork- ing girls received money for neAv clothing. "The case of every applicant for aid in any way," continues Mr. Bacon's narrative, "AA'as carefully investigated by the relief committee. It is believed that very feAv if any received aid from the fund that Avere not in destitute circumstances and had become so in consequence of the fire ; and on the other hand that none Avho Avere rendered so destitute were refused needed aid." Expenditures for Relief. — During the Avinter months f olloAving the fire aid had been rendered to 1,710 persons, including members of families and single persons, mostly old people in the receipt of monthly alloAvances. By the 6th THE GREAT MILWAUKEE FIRE 151 of Alay, 1893, the number requiring continued aid Avas reduced to fifty-seven persons comprising old, and infirm people, AvidoAvs and invalids. The amount remaining in the hands of the treasurer Avas $655, AA'hich Avas ordered to be distributed among the remaining beneficiaries from month to month until exhausted. The total amount thus distributed, according to the treasurer's statement was $137,436. "It is worthy of note," concludes Air. Bacon's chapter, "that the entire expense incurred in the administration of the fund Avas only $1,158, being less than one per cent of the amount disbursed. There Avas received for in terest- on deposits $1,016 Avhich nearly covered the expenses of administra tion." The systematic manner in AA'hich the work of relief had been performed by the various committees Avorking in cooperation reflected the highest credit on the public-spirited citizens Avho devoted time and means to the relief of distress resulting from the losses in the great fire of 1892. The Great Fire of 1871 in Chicago. — During the preparation of the manu script for this history the City of Chicago has been engaged in the commemo ration of the fiftieth anniversary of its great fire Avhich occurred on October 9th, 1871. This event also claims the particular notice of the people of Alihvaukee because of the distinguished share they had in the work of relief and aid rendered by them in that dreadful event. In the report of the Chicago Relief and Aid Society, published some three years after the great fire, in a volume of over 400 pages, there occurs frequent mention of the aid rendered by the people of AYisconsin and Milwaukee in particular to the sufferers in that great calamity. The numerous proclamations and telegraphic messages calling attention to the extremely serious nature of the disaster, and the Avords of sympathy thus extended, accompanied by more substantial gifts of money and provisions to the people of the stricken city, are briefly noticed in the folloAving quotations from the report. On the day of the great fire, the governor of Wisconsin, Hon. Lucius Fair- child, issued a proclamation, in which he appealed to the people of the state for aid to the sufferers from forest fires, then raging, in the regions of the northern part of the state. That part of the proclamation referring to the Chicago fire Avas as folloAA's : "The telegraph also brings the terrible news that a large portion of the City of Chicago is destroyed by a conflagration, which is still raging. Alany thousands of people are thus reduced to penury, stripped of their all, and are noAv destitute of shelter and food. Their sufferings will be intense, and many may perish unless provisions are at once' sent to them from the surrounding country. They must be assisted noAv. "In the aAA'ful presence of such calamities the people of Wisconsin will not be backAvard in giving assistance to their afflicted fellow-men. I, there fore recommend that immediate organized effort be made in every locality to forward provisions and money to the sufferers by this visitation, and suggest to mayors of cities, presidents of villages, town supervisors, pastors of churches, and to various benevolent societies, that they devote themselves immediately to the work of organizing effort, collecting contributions, and 152 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE sending forward supplies for distribution. And I entreat all to give of their abundance to help those in such sore distress." Response to the Call of Humanity. — From far aAvay SAvitzerland Avas re ceived a message from the United States minister to that country, Hon. Horace Rublee, Avell-knoAA'n in Alihvaukee (having been appointed to that post by Pre sident Grant, the year before), addressed to Mayor Mason of Chicago, enclos ing a draft for $1,500 for the relief of the fire sufferers. In the accompanying message Mr. Rublee said, "this sum is the amount of divers contributions made in SAvitzerland for the benefit of the sufferers by the great fire in Chicago, and forAvarded through this legation." A message Avas received by Mayor R. B. Alason of Chicago from H. Luding ton, mayor of Alihvaukee, on the day of the fire, saying, that a car load of pro visions Avould be sent the next morning, and this Avas folloAved up by the visit of a representathe from the Alihvaukee Chamber of Commerce with offers of further supplies and contributions. Mayor Ludington closed his letter accompanying this offer with a Avarm expression of sympathy in these Avords : "Yours Avith respect and sorroAA-ful feeling for the sad calamity that has been cast upon your once beautiful city." Many car loads of provisions and materials of all kinds Avere sent to during the period of distress through AA'hich the city passed in those troublous Chicago by the kind and generous people throughout the state of- AYisconsin, days. CHAPTER XIY LINCOLN IN AIILAYAUKEE The centennial of the birth of Abraham Lincoln occurred February 12, 1909, and the anniversary Avas distinguished at that time quite generally throughout the country by a great number* of neAvspaper articles and remin iscences concerning this renoAA'ued man. The A-ast- volume of literature in existence, know among collectors .as " Lincolniana, " received a great acces sion in that year and has continued to increase ever since. Much additional information in the form of the recollections of former friends, neighbors and associates has been published, and the neAvspapers of former years have been carefully searched for every scrap of mention or reference to the great Eman cipator. Thus Ave find that Alihvaukee has had a notable share in the incidents of Air. Lincoln's wonderful career. In a previous chapter of this history Ave have described Air. Lincoln's appearance in AYisconsin, first as a captain of Illinois volunteers in the Black HaAvk Avar of 1832, and some years later as a visitor to Alihvaukee and Port AYashington Avhile on a search for a location for a future residence. Again, in 1859, Air. Lincoln came to Alihvaukee to make an address at the State Fair, in September of that year. An article by J. E. Moriarity was printed in recent years, in the Alihvaukee Free Press, giving interesting de tails of h.s visit, and quotations from his speeches made on that occasion. "FeAv among us remember the day," Avrites Air. Moriarity, "AA'hen Mil waukee Avas just branching out of its infancy, that Abraham Lincoln spoke before the people of this city at the State Fair, held September 30, 1859, at the old BrockAvay Fair grounds. There was nothing about Abraham Lincoln in those days to distinguish him much above the average man in public life. True, it Avas just folloAA'ing the close of the famous 'Lincoln-Douglas' debates which had trained the eyes of the continent on the rising young laAvyer of Illinois. He had battled his Avay in a feAv short months to the front rank among the orators, and when the time came for choosing a speaker for the annual exhibit of the AYisconsin Agricultural Society Abraham Lincoln was invited as worthy of that honor. Previous Visits Referred To.— "Before going further," continues the Avriter, "Ave might state that this Avas not Mr. Lincoln's first connection with Milwaukee. Few among us know how close Mihvaukee came to being the home of the martyred president of the United States. Back in 1836 or 1837 (the exact date is not knoAvn) Avhen young Lincoln Avas a member of the 153 154 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Illinois legislature, he began to look about him for more lucrative prospects in his laAv practice. He Avas then living in New Salem, and it was about this time that he came north to Milwaukee AA'hich Avas a thriving toAvn in those days. He found the prospects here favorable but Avent on to Port Washing ton for further investigation. He returned to Mihvaukee after a short stay, and soon afterAvard he Avent back to his home in Illinois." The writer then quotes from Henry Bleyer, the A'eteran neAvspaper man, avIio said of the visit, "he did not meet with much encouragement in Mihvaukee, hoAvever. The same was true of Port Washington." It AA'as not until 1859 that Mr. Lincoln again came to Mihvaukee, this time as the state fair orator. "There was no brass band to greet him at the depot when he arrived. There was no croAvd of hacks or sAvarming reporters. It was just plain Abraham Lincoln, the citizen, aa'Iio was met by a representative of the State Fair board and quietly conducted to the old NeAA'hall House where he was to stay." The old Brockway Fair grounds were located at Twelfth Street and Grand Avenue AA'hich was "the edge of the city" in those days. Just where the platform stood from AA'hich Lincoln spoke is a much disputed question. It Avas someAvhere, probably, near the intersection of the tAvo streets — near the grand stand not far from the gate. "It Avas a dusty day, a high Avind sAveeping the grounds, making it uncomfortable for speaker and audience. The papers of the next morning made slight mention of the occasion, merely that "at the conclusion of the address three lusty cheers were given to the 'Kentucky boy.' " "That Avas all," proceeds the account. "And yet but a feAv months later the country over was ringing with the name of Abraham Lincoln." In the National Republican convention, held in the f olloAving May at Chicago, he was nominated for the presidency and triumphantly elected in the folloAving No vember of 1860. Epitome of the Address. — "One feature, I believe, of every fair is a regular address," Mr. Lincoln began. "The Agricultural Society of the young and prosperous state of AYisconsin has done me the high honor of selecting me to make that address upon this occasion, an honor for Avhich I make my profound and grateful acknoAvledgment. I presume I am not expected to employ the time assigned to me in the mere flattery of the farmers as a class. My opinion of them is that, in proportion to numbers, they are neither better nor Avorse than other people. In the nature of things they are more numerous than any other class, and I believe there are more attempts to flatter them, the reason for Avhich I cannot perceive, unless it be that they can cast more votes than any other. On reflection I am not quite sure that there is not a positive suspicion against you in selecting me, in some sort a politician, and in no sort a farmer, to address you. The farmers being the most numerous class, it follows that their interest is the largest interest. It also folloAvs that that interest is most worthy of all to be cherished and cultivated and that if there be inevitable conflict betAveen that interest and any other, that other should yield." "Air. Lincoln then branched into a discussion of labor and capital, the LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 155 relation of one to the other, a discussion that has often been repeated, and which has been heard many times in Milwaukee since in the Socialistic campaigns," continues Mr. Moriarity. "But he Avas not a Socialist. Mr. Lincoln's argument aimed rather at the existence of slavery and he had not talked many minutes before he struck right into the heart of his subject. "He met a willing audience. He Avas in the heart of the abolition north, in the country where everyone Avas excited, AA'here the Missouri Compromise was being fought out as bitterly as the conflicts in the Avar that Avas to follow. "Those farmers of Wisconsin, Avhom he did not flatter, whom he did not praise, were attracted to him as a man, and according to the feAv survivors who remember his speech, cheered him repeatedly throughout. They were free men, believed in free labor, and his comparison of the lot of the 'mud tiller' Avith the 'free laborer' touched them Avith sympathy for the black men of the South aaKo were held in bondage to the soil AA'hich they tilled; Avho were sold as so many cattle, were traded back and forth as so many horses, AA'ho worked their lives throughout, creating Avealth for their owners but never a cent for themselves. "No community whose every member possesses this art (the art of deriving a comfortable subsistence from the smallest area of soil) can ever be the victim of oppression in any of its .forms. Such community will alike be independent of the crowned kings, money kings, and the land kings." Took Interest in the Fair. — Lincoln was given a rousing applause, "three lusty cheers for the 'Kentucky lad.' " "Such words today," continues Mr. Moriarity 's narrative, Avould be hurled across the continent, printed from coast to coast in a single day. He Avas attacking an institution, that institution that while it AA-as tottering seemed to be on its strongest legs, bound to exist as long as the South was the South and the North Avas the North. "Air. Lincoln Avas royally entertained that afternoon, and it is said he enjoyed the attractions as much as any man at the fair. There Avere the ordinary county fair attractions of that time, the races, and all was followed by a big fireman's parade. He did not get much opportunity to see Milwaukee. He viewed the city in his carriage as he rode to the grounds and again on his way back to the hotel. He saw many of the improvements that had occurred since the time more than twenty years before AA'hen he had thought of settling in the city as a young lawyer. "He may have remained around the fair grounds for a while after that speech. No one remembers. He was just the 'Hon. Air. Lincoln.' He had given his speech and he might go. Perhaps some croAvded around to shake his hand and tell him of their sympathy in the new cause. "The next we know of him in his visit to Mihvaukee was that night at the Newhall house. Train service was crude in those days. There was no two-hour schedule to Chicago, and no trains running every two hours. There was no railroad commission to appeal to for better service. Automobiles had not made their appearance and Air. Lincoln Avas obliged to remain in Mil waukee until the next day. "Peter Van Vechten, Jr., then a youngster Avorking in his father's store adjoining the Newhall house, tells a picturesque story of the night of Septem- 156 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE ber 30, 1859, at the NeAvhall house. 'He arrived at the hotel rather late from the Fair grounds. Alauy local politicians had gathered at the hotel. Some remained around to talk to him, or gathered in the lobby to talk over his speech. Slavery AA'as a great question in those days, more important than the tariff question of today, and caused more discussion than the Canadian reciprocity treaty. " 'After supper a number of Air. Lincoln's friends prevailed upon him to make a short speech," said Air. Yan ATechten. 'There Avas not much of a crowd there, not over fifty men. He consented. " ' "What shall I stand on'?" he asked. " 'There Avas nothing there, so I ran back to the store and got a dry goods box. This Ave placed in a corner in the lobby. I don't remember much of that speech. I knoAV it Avas on the slavery question. One sentence stands out prominently in my mind, hoAvever, a sentence AA'hich has often since been quoted. " ' "I do not belieA'e," he said, "that this nation can exist half free and half slave." ' "Those Avords became a part of the campaign issue Avhen he Avas nominated for president and proved to the South that the time had come to make or break Avhen Air. Lincoln Avas elected. "Little more of Air. Lincoln's visit can be learned. That Avas the last time he ever A-isited Alihvaukee. In the campaign Avhich folloAved there Avas no use of his spending time in Wisconsin. The Badger State Avas strongly for aboli tion, and it was in this state that Republicanism and Air. Lincoln 's policies had their birth. He spent the time fighting the question out in the east and on the border states, AA'here the battle for A-otes Avas to be followed by the battle of blood. "Then came his election, his inauguration, lapping almost into the period of the Avar. There Avas no traveling and little speech-making for him after that. He Avas confined to a ghastly business AA'hich ended in his oavh death by an assassin 's bullet, after he had piloted the country to the freedom for AA'hich he pleaded in his only Alihvaukee address." AYalter Distelhorst, president of the Alihvaukee Historical Society, in an address delivered before that body on February 8th, 1922, gave a most inter esting account of "Lincoln in Alihvaukee," which Ave republish hereAvith : If the Alihvaukee neAvspapers in 1859 had told Avith the same richness of detail the story of Lincoln's visit to this city as they do today Avhenever some celebrity comes to toAvn, Ave might haA-e a Arery interesting picture of the incident and of the period. But the art of quick photography and of photo engraving Avere not discovered until many years later, so that no illustrations appear in the papers of the day upon which Ave must depend for the printed record of Lincoln's visit; and furthermore, there did not seem to be at that early time that intense curiosity on the part of the newspaper-reading public for the intimate details that obtains at the present day. If it did exist, the journalists of 1859 did not cater to it, for their reports are extremely brief, not to say barren, of such facts as Ave today would like to read. As to Lincoln's personal appearance, Ave are safe in saying that Alihvau- LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 157 keeans of this early day did not see the Lincoln Avith AA'hom Ave are familiar, for the AleClure portraits sIioav that he Avas smooth-shaven in 1859. His pictures do not show him as Avearing a beard until 1861. There is a story to the effect that Avhile he Avas riding on the train to Washington a little girl, his felloAv passenger, suggested that AA'hiskers Avould improve his appearance, and that it Avas her suggestion upon AA'hich he acted when he let his beard grow. The Alihvaukee Public Library has on file only the Alihvaukee Sentinel and the Daily News of this particular period. Both Avere morning papers of four pages, eight columns AA'ide (as is the present Aviclth of the Alihvaukee dailies), the length being about four inches more than now. The editors must have been unusually busy AA'ith their "blue pencils" on the Lincoln "copy, " or the papers may haA'e been short-handed of compositors (all type being at that time set by hand), for it does seem that in view of Lincoln's participation in the epoch-making debates with Douglas only a short time be fore, which served to make him a national figure, someAvhat more extended mention should have been made of his address in Alilwaukee. In connection Avith these debates, it may be of interest to quote from an Associated Press report AA'hich appeared in the daily papers of the country on October 7, 1921, under a Galesburg, 111., date line. My quotation is taken from the Alilwaukee Journal, the item in full reading as folloAvs : Standing AA'here Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas stood on the same day in 1858, in front of "Old Alain," the historic building of Knox college, Dr. AYilliam E. Barton, Chicago, spoke on the emancipator at a celebration commemorative of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. The celebration Avas under the auspices of Knox college, AA'hich conferred on Lincoln the honorary degree of doctor of laAvs. "Lincoln's high title to honor in that notable series of debates lies in the fact that he did not rest his case on the opportune split in the party of his opponents, but forced the moral issue, and Avould not permit even so astute an opponent as Douglas to evade it," said Doctor Barton. "Standing in this spot, Lincoln said to Douglas: " 'Judge Douglas declares that if any community Avants slavery, they have a right to it. He can say that logically if there is no Avrong in slavery; but if you admit that there is Avrong in it, he cannot logically say that anybody has a right to do AA-rong. Noav, I confess myself as belonging to that class of society who contemplate slavery as a moral, social and political AA-rong. He is blowing out the moral lights around us AA'hen he contends that avIio- ever Avants slaves has a right to hold them.' "On that platform Lincoln lost the senatorship of Illinois in 1858 and on that platform he won the presidency in 1860." It is not unlikely that these debates Avere largely influential in inducing the Wisconsin Agricultural Society to invite Lincoln to deliver the annual address at the State Fair. Yet in its announcement in the Sentinel running during Fair Week, Lincoln's name Avas not given. Evidently this Avas a paid advertisement, similar to our present-day display advertisements, for it ap peared in a 9~y2 inch single-column space on the front page and presented the 158 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE program for the Fair in a Avay similar to that folloAved today. It Avas headed "Ninth Annual State Fair of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Sep tember 26, 27, 28, 29 & 30, 1859." Lincoln's speech AA'as mentioned as the "annual address" which was to be delivered on Friday at 10 a. m. In the issue of Alonday morning, September 26th, the Sentinel article on the opening of the Fair had these Avords : "Hon. Abram (note the spelling of the first name) Lincoln, of Illinois, will deliver the annual address." In the issue of Friday morning, September 30th, substantially the same Avords were used — and that Avas the day of the address. No more space was given in the Alonday issue to Lincoln and his forth coming address than to "Professor Steiner" aa-Iio Avas scheduled to make a balloon ascension on the Saturday following. On Tuesday the Sentinel in referring to the speaker said: "No better orator for the occasion could haA'e been found in the Avhole Northwest." This is not Avaxing unduly enthusiastic, in the light of similar mention of our public men today by a journal that is of the same political faith as the man referred to. We learn also from the neAvs columns that the schools closed on Thursday and Friday to permit "scholars and teachers" to visit the Fair. An announce ment appeared for several days to the effect that the banks would close at 1 o'clock on Thursday afternoon, to permit their employees to visit the Fair also, and it bore the signature of a number of banks, but nothing was said about the folloAving day, the day on AA'hich Lincoln AA'as scheduled to give his address. Henry W. Bleyer, a A'eteran Milwaukee neAvspaper man, who died in Madison on January 19th, 1922, at the age of 86 years, recalled that Mr. Lincoln's train Avas late Avhen he reached Milwaukee on Friday, September 30th, so that Lincoln did not arrive until late in the forenoon. These recol lections are included in a letter AA'hich Avas Avritten at Air. Bleyer 's dictation by his nephew, Prof. Willard G. Bleyer, of the University of Wisconsin, at Aladison, AA'here he resided. The date of the letter is October 3rd, 1921. Owing to his advanced age, Air. Bleyer was himself unable to write. Air. Bleyer, the uncle, recalls that the distinguished A'isitor was driven in a carriage to the Newhall House, and from there to the fair grounds. It was probably after his speech that he made the rounds of the fair grounds with the president of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, Elisha W. Edgerton. George Richardson, a Mihvaukee pioneer, Avho Avas a boy at the time of Lincoln's visit, told the writer (in a personal reminiscence at the Old Settlers Club in the fall of 1920) that Lincoln walked over to the scene of the plow ing contest, in the course of his rounds, the contest being held somewhere in the vicinity of Avhat is noAv about Twelfth and Clybourn streets, outside the Fair Grounds proper, and that his homely comments on the contest were enjoyed by the by-standers quite as much as his more formal words a few minutes before. The address has until very recently been practically unknown. Prof. Julius E. Olson, of the Unhersity of Wisconsin, Avriting in the quarterly LINCOLN IN AIILWAUKEE 159 of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, the "Wisconsin Alagazine of History," Volume TV, Number 1, for September, 1920, says that the only place in which he found it was in the C. S. Hammond & Company edition of Lincoln's Avorks, which Avas published in 1907, and in none of the other biographies of Lincoln, so far as he knoAvs. A page of the manuscript was reproduced in connection with this article, the page being among Professor Olson's treasured possessions. On October 1, 1859, the "Sentinel" printed Lincoln's address in full on the front page. It ran seA'eral columns. For this journalistic feat the writer had been led to believe that the paper Avas indebted to Henry Bleyer, as the AA-riter had understood from Julius Bleyer, a brother of Henry and a Alilwaukee newspaper man, too, but the letter already referred to (now in the collection of the Alilwaukee, Historical Society) explains that "the manuscript was secured from Lincoln by a 'Sentinel' reporter" — obviously not Air. Bleyer — "and the speech was set up in the 'Sentinel' composing room," of which another uncle of Professor Bleyer, Louis Bleyer, was foreman. This letter also corrects another mistaken impression on the AA-riter 's part (and this was generally shared because it was repeated in the press at the time of Air. Henry Bleyer 's death), that during the Civil war, after President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, that Mil waukee negroes A-isited the "Sentinel" office and begged Air. Henry Bleyer for bits of the manuscript penned by their beloved Lincoln's own hand. Professor Bleyer writes: "Louis Bleyer kept the original manuscript and later gave it to my uncle, Henry W. Bleyer. After Lincoln became prominent, Henry W. gave away pieces of the manuscript to various persons, cutting it up for the purpose. Another uncle, George, gave Lathrop E. Smith, of Beloit, the page of the manuscript reproduced in the 'Wisconsin Alagazine of History,' Avhile Smith and George Bleyer were working together on one of the Beloit papers. "The story about Henry Bleyer distributing some of the pieces of manu script to negroes from the steps of the 'Sentinel' office is incorrect. My uncle (Henry) says that he recalls giving some pieces to some of the leaders among the negroes in Buffalo, New York, after he moved to Buffalo in 1860, but not to any negroes in Alilwaukee." The manuscript, Air. Bleyer says, Avas in large part written in ink on legal cap paper, "but apparently on the train Lincoln had AA'ritten a page about the importance of the steam plow, in lead pencil." Referring to the page of the manuscript reproduced in the Historical Society quarterly, Professor Olson says in his article that "a 'Sentinel' printer" gave it to Air. Smith that same year (1859), and ultimately it came into his (Professor Olson's) possession. The headline over the article in the "Sentinel" on the day after the address was a single line of small blackfaced type — "Hon. Abram Lincoln's Address." The introduction follows: In another column we publish in full the A'ery able address of Abram Lincoln, of Illinois, before the AYisconsin State Agricultural Society. It is in every sense a practicable and readable effort and will receive attenthe 160 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE perusal. Yesterday a high AA'ind combined with the dust rendered the day somewhat unfavorable but there Avas a large attendance at the Fair Grounds nevertheless. At 11 o'clock the plank auditorium at BrockAA'ay's Avas filled AA'ith an expectant croAvd Avaiting Avith commendable patience the appear ance of Abram Lincoln who had been announced to deliver the address at 10 o'clock. It Avas not far from noon AA'hen the distinguished gentleman made his appearance and he Avas immediately welcomed AA'ith clapping of hands and a stamping of feet on the raised seats AA'hich caused the afore mentioned BrockAvay to show considerable nervousness. Upon being in troduced Air. Lincoln Avaited a few minutes for the applause to subside and " spoke as follows. Just before the opening of the Wisconsin State Fair late in August, 1921, the Alihvaukee "Journal" ran a considerable portion of Lincoln's address delivered at the Fair sixty-two years before, under title of "Here's Lincoln Alessage to Wisconsin Fair in 1859," tAvo lines of type across two columns, the letters being half an inch high. The address in full can be found at the Public Library, so only two excerpts will be given : "I presume I am not expected to employ the time assigned me- in the mere flattery of the farmers as a class. Aly opinion of them is that, in proportion to numbers, they are neither better nor Avorse than other people. In the nature of things they are more numerous than any other class, and I believe there are really more attempts at flattering them than any other, the reason of AA'hich I cannot perceive, unless it be that they can cast more votes than any other. On reflection, I am not quite sure that there is not cause of suspicion against you in selecting me, in some sort a politician, and in no sort a farmer, to address you. "But farmers being the most numerous class, it follows that their interest is the largest interest. It also folloAvs that that interest is most worthy of all to be cherished and cultivated — that if there be inevitable conflict betAveen that interest and any other, that other should yield. "In all this, book learning is available. A capacity and taste for reading gives access to AvhateA-er has already been discovered by others. It is the key, or one of the keys, to the already solved problems. And not only so; it gives a relish and facility for successfully pursuing the unsolved ones. The rudiments of science are aA'ailable, and highly aA'ailable. Some knoAA'l- edge of botany assists in the dealing with the vegetable Avorld — Avith all groAving crops. Chemistry assists in the analysis of soils, selection and ap plication of manures and in numerous other Avays. The mechanical branches of natural philosophy are ready help in almost eA'erything, but especially in reference to implements and machinery. "The thought recurs that education — cultivated thought — can best be combined Avith agricultural labor, on the principle of thorough Avork; that careless, half-performed, slovenly Avork makes no place for such a combination; and thorough Avork, again, renders sufficient the smallest quantity of ground to man; and this, again, conforms to AA'hat must occur in a Avorld less inclined to Avars and more devoted to the arts of peace than LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 161 heretofore. Population must increase rapidly, more rapidly than in former times, and ere long the most valuable of all arts Avill be the art of deriving a comfortable subsistence from the smallest area of soil. No community Avhose eA-ery member possesses this art can eA'er be the victim of oppression in any of its forms. Such community will be alike independent of croAvned kings, money kings and land kings." In the Sentinel art'cle, after the text of the address Ave find the folloAving : "At the conclusion of the address three hearty cheers Avere given for the 'Kentucky boy' and the Secretary proceeded to read the aAvards of the premiums." In the Daily NeAvs of the same date Ave read that the speaker occupied an "eleA'ated stand" — and the article does not contain much else, the editor going on to explain the reason for the brevity of the mention (the article also appeared on the front page) in these Avords : "Air. Lincoln's address Avas a Avritten one and Avill doubtle-,s be pub lished, hence AA-e refrain from giving a synopsis of it. *" * * Air. Lincoln spoke about an hour and Avas listened to AA'ith attention ¦by -the large auditory. He is a man of ability and is possessed of a stentorian A'oice Avhich could be distinctly heard by every person in the A'ast assemblage." The Daily NeAvs, Avhich Avas democratic, made another mention of the occasion on its editorial page. This Avas headed "In Questionable Taste" and refers to the short speech made by Lincoln the evening before at the Newhall House. Some of Lincoln's friends had gathered there after dinner and insisted on his addressing them. We read: "There is some diversity of opinion as to the propriety of bringing black republican speakers here to make political speeches under the auspices of the State Agricultural Society." Peter Van Axechten gave some reminiscences of this Newhall House ad dress in an article written for the Alihvaukee Free Press of February 12, 1911, by J. E. Moriarity. Air. Van Vechten worked in his father's store adjoining the NeAvhall House at the time, and brought a box from the store for the speaker to stand on. (This is corroborated in Professor Bleyer 's letter.) Air. Van Axechten 's recollection as here given is that about fifty persons heard this talk, but the Daily NeAvs, from Avhich the foregoing quotations were taken, was probably nearer right AA'hen it gave the number as 250. (Newhall House, Avhich Avas located on the nprthAvest corner of Michigan Street and Broachvay, Avas on January 10th, 1883, the scene of one of Alil- AA-aukee s greatest tragedies, AA'hen it Avas destroyed by fire and sixty-four persons lost their lives. In Lincoln's day it was the largest and finest hotel in the AYest, being of brick, six stories high and having 300 rooms, accord ing to the "History of Alihvaukee, " 1663 pages, published by the Western Historical Company, of Chicago, in 1881. The hotel Avas built by Daniel Newhall and his associates in 1857 (p. 1426), and the property, including building, site and furnishings, represented an outlay of $270,000. Alessrs. M. Kean and A. AI. Rice were the landlords at the time of Lincoln's visit.) 162 history; of AIILWAUKEE A letter from W. P. Powers, of Los Angeles, Cal., appeared in the Mil- AA-aukee Journal of September 4th, 1921, which throws considerable light on Lincoln's visit to Alilwaukee. David J. Powers, mentioned in the letter, was the secretary of the Agricultural Society, under whose auspices Lincoln spoke. The letter follows: "In 1859 my father, David J. Powers, in arranging for the State Fair at Milwaukee, invited Abraham Lincoln, a laAvyer of Springfield, Illinois, to deliver the address. "Air. Lincoln had become widely known through the debates between himself and Stephen A. Douglas. "To the first letter of invitation, written in July, no answer was re ceived, and a second letter Avritten a few Aveeks later brought the following reply : " 'Dear Sir: — Reaching home after an absence of nine days I find yours of the twelfth. I have also received that of July 27th; and to be plain, I disliked to decline the honor you tendered me. Two difficulties were in the way — first, I could not AA-ell spare the time from the courts ; and secondly, I had no address of the sort prepared, and could scarcely spare the time to prepare one ; and I Avas Avaiting, before answering yours, to determine whether these difficulties could be surmounted. I will write you definitely on the first of September, if you can safely delay so long. " 'Yours very truly, A. LINCOLN.' "Upon receipt of the letter my father, reading between the lines, thought he saw the real reason for the stand-off Avhen he remembered that he had said nothing about compensation in either of the previous letters. He there upon wrote him again, saying he had neglected to mention in his former letters that there would be a compensation of $100, which appeared to strike him favorably, as in a feAv days a letter came to the effect that he was pleased to say that he had so arranged matters in the courts that he could come. "He came and delivered the address, and it appears in some of the lives of Lincoln, interested as he was in the absorbing topics of the day, he was little adapted to a talk to farmers, and the address gave slight promise of the Avonderful heights to AA'hich his genius later on attained. "His address was largely deA-oted to the desirability of steam plows, a want that is now so happily filled by the modern tractor of which he seemed to have a vision. "He was careful in his a.ddress to avoid anything of a political nature, but in the evening at the old Newhall House, to a select company of those of his own faith, he freely held forth on the subject that was next to his heart. "My father said he had given the letter to the Illinois State Historical Society, and it is now in the Lincoln Memorial Collection at Springfield, Illinois. "Noav comes to the writer, the interesting part of this matter. At the San Francisco Exposition in 1915, entering the Lincoln Memorial room in the Illinois Building, my attention was attracted to a frame over which LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 163 was the inscription, 'Letters of Abraham Lincoln previous to I860.' Re membering the story often told by my father, I intuitively looked at the letters under the glass in the frame and to my surprise and delight the first one I saw was addressed to D. J. Powers." There is more to the letter, but the rest is of a personal nature and has no special bearing on this particular subject. At the time of Lincoln's visit Milwaukee had a population of about forty-six thousand. The edge of town Avas at about Twelfth Street, and the stand from which Lincoln spoke was probably close to what is now the corner of TAvelfth Street and Grand Avenue, or perhaps a little to the north of this spot. Mr. Lincoln on leaving the grounds was driven about the city. Accord ing to Mr. Richardson's recollection, he attracted comparatively little atten tion, and Mr. Richardson himself, with others, did not stay for more than a part of the address at the Fair, little realizing that they were in the presence of a later president of the United States and one of the greatest figures of all time. On October 4th, following Lincoln's address in Milwaukee, he gave an address during the afternoon at Beloit and during the evening at Janes- ville, both being political addresses. In view of the manner in which the Milwaukee papers handled Lincoln's speech, it is unlikely that he was at that time considered seriously as . a candidate for the presidency. This reminder is found in the Carl Schurz essay, "Abraham Lincoln" (Houghton Mifflin Company, 1891) : "As late as April, 1859, he had written to a friend who had approached him on the subject that he did not think himself fit for the presidency. The vice-presidency was then the limit of his ambition." Lincoln's visit to Wisconsin on the occasion of his address at the State Fair at Milwaukee in 1859 was his third to this state. His first visit was in 1832 during his participation in the Black Hawk war. He was among the first to respond to the call of Governor Reynolds for volunteers to repel the invasion of Black Hawk. It is an early testi monial to his leadership that at the age of twenty-three he was chosen captain by his fellow militiamen. His power over men was shown when he defended an old Indian who strayed into camp and was detained because the men thought he was a spy, and they wanted blood. Before Lincoln's company got as far as Wisconsin, however, it was mus tered out; and on the same day (May 28th) he re-enlisted as a private in the Independent Spy Company and with that organization crossed the state line near Beloit on June 30, 1832. With the company Lincoln pushed north, but they did not come in con tact with the enemy, and no fighting was done. On July 10th they were mustered out near Fort Atkinson, and returned home before the battles of Wisconsin Heights and Bad Axe, with which the Black Hawk war was ended on August 2d. In all Lincoln spent about two weeks in Wisconsin at that time. The Black Hawk war episode was an important one in the life of the 164 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE future president, because it brought him to the notice of Alaj. John F Stuart, the Springfield laAvyer, AA'hich resulted in the latter 's gh'ing Lincoln en couragement and a.ssistance in his laAv studies, and in his inviting Lincoln in 1S37 to become his laAv partner. The record of Lincoln's second visit to AYisconsin to AA'hich reference is made also in Professor Olson's article is found largely in the "History of Washington and Ozaukee Counties," 1881, Western Historical Company, Chicago. The visit is more or less shrouded in mystery. If Lincoln did come to Wisconsin, and it is very likely that he did, in the light of Avhat folloAvs, then of course he visited Alihvaukee also. Oil page 508 of the "History" Ave read: "The first dAvelling house built in the village Avas erected by Gen. (Wooster) Harrison in 1835. It is still standing (1881), apparently in a good state of preservation. It is a little story-and-a-half frame building, gable end, the sills resting on the ground. A partition divides the first floor into two apartments, and also the upper or half story. It Avas at this house that the first votes of the toAvn Avere polled. This old and time Avorn struc ture has become one of the sacred relics of the past, commanding a prom inent place in the history of the toAvn of Port Washington, not only on account of the relation it bears to the first Avhite settler of the village, but because it once served as a shelter to one of America's greatest states men. It may be of interest to mention the fact that the great and martyred president, Abraham Lincoln, during his days of roughing it, once Avalked from Alihvaukee to Sheboygan, and stopped a night in this old house. After the defeat of the Alerrimac by the Alonitor, Air. Lincoln, in company AA'ith some of his Cabinet officers, visited Fortress Monroe to get a practical knoAA'l- edge of the fort. While vieAving the Avorks, desiring some information, he approached an officer, avIio proved to be Capt. Berger, from Port Washing ton. 'Well, my man,' said Lincoln, 'AA'here are you from?' 'Port AYash ington,' replied the Captain. 'Port Washington — let me see: that is in Wisconsin about tAventy-five miles north of Mihvaukee is it not?' The Cap tain ansAvered that it AA'as. 'I stopped there over night once,' said the President; 'just name over some of the men aa-Iio lived there in the early days.' The Captain proceeded to name over quite a number, finally men tioning that of Harrison. 'Harrison, that is the man!' said Air. Lincoln. 'I remember him Avell.' He then Avalked off to join his escort, leaving Capt. Berger very much elated to think that his toAvn had been honored by the presence of so great a man." Harry W. Bolens, ex-mayor of Port AYashington, and a well knoAvn journal ist, in an intervieAv in the Alihvaukee Daily NeAvs during the year of the Lincoln centenary (1909), supplemented this story. He said that the visit occurred some time betAveen 1836 and 1840. Lincoln also visited Sheboygan, Mr. Bolens said. Lincoln returned at once to Port AYashington and stopped there for tAvo days, during Avhich time he rented quarters for a laAv office from General Harrison. This AA'as in the fall. It AA'as Lincoln's intention to return in the spring, but floods prevented all travel in the Aliddle West LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 165 during the folloAving year, rains continuing till early fall, so Lincoln sent his regrets to Harrison and remained in Illinois. Professor Olson thinks that all this may be true. The records sIioav an abnormally heavy rainfall during 1836. Furthermore, Ann Rutledge died on August 25, 1835, the great tragedy of Lincoln's life. He Avas driven nearly insane with grief, Ave read in all his biographies. Friends urged a change of scene, and his Wisconsin trip probably resulted, there being some Aveeks at this period in his life Avhich none of his biographers can account for satisfactorily. In this connection, biographers and lecturers on Lincoln call attention to his great liking for William Knox's poem "0, Why Should the Spirit Of Alortal be Proud?" He often quoted passages from it during these dark days. (The first stanza is as folloAvs : i Oh, Avhy should the spirit of mortal he proud? Like a SAvift -flitting .meteor, a fast-flying cloud, A flash of the lightning, a break of the Avave, He passeth from life to his rest in the grave.) Carl Schurz, considering this great tragedy, Avrites in his essay on "Abra ham Lincoln ' ' : "In the meantime he had private sorroAvs and trials of a painfully afflict ing nature. He had loved and been loved by a fair and estimable girl, Ann Rutledge, aaTlo died in the flower of her youth and beauty, and he mourned her loss with such intensity of grief that his friends feared for his reason. Recovering from his morbid depression, he bestoAved AA'hat he thought a new affection upon another' lady, Avho refused him. And finally, moderately prosperous in his worldly affairs, and having prospects of political distinc tion before him, he paid his addresses to Alary Todd, of Kentucky, and Avas accepted. But then tormenting doubts of the genuineness of his oavu affec tion for her, of the compatibility of their characters, and of their future happiness came upon him. His distress AA'as so great that he felt h.mself in danger of suicide, and feared to carry a pocketknife with him; and he gave mortal offense to his bride by not appearing on the appointed wedding day. Now the torturing consciousness of the wrong he had done her grew unendurable. He won back her affection, ended the agony by marrying her and became a faithful and patient husband and a good father. But it was no secret to those Avho knew the family Avell, that his domestic life was full of trials. The erratic temper of his wife not seldom put the gentleness of his nature to the severest tests; and these troubles and struggles, which accompanied him through all the vicissitudes of his life from the modest home in Springfield to the White House at Washington, adding untold private heartburnings to his public cares, and sometimes precipitating upon him incredible embarrassments in the discharge of his public duties, form one of the most pathetic features of his career." Tavo years before Lincoln's trip through Milwaukee to Port Washing- 166 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE ton and Sheboygan, a pioneer Norwegian, Kleng Peerson, traveled alone from Chicago to Mihvaukee on foot, over the Chicago-Green Bay Indian trail. This trail had for some time been used by the half-breed who packed the mail on his back betAveen the tAvo lake shore posts. Peerson found only Solomon Juneau and one other white man at Alilwaukee at that time. If Lincoln actually made the trip, as it seems likely that he did, it is strange that no record of it has come down to us. Quite likely he spent less time here than at Port AYashington, but Alihvaukee was the more im portant post and Avithout doubt even for a brief visit Lincoln would have come in contact AA'ith more AA'hites in Alihvaukee than at the post further up the lake shore. Henry Bleyer is quoted in the Milwaukee Free Press in Mr. Aloriarity's article as saying that Lincoln met Avith little encouragement to settle either here or at Port Washington at that time, and so returned to Illinois. And as success came to him later in his native state, there Avas little likelihood of his leaving; so that Wisconsin lost its opportunity of numbering the Great Emancipator among its famous sons, if it ever had the opportunity. Alihvaukee achieves connection with Lincoln once more in the controversy which raged in 1916 and 1917 over the Bernard statue of Lincoln. The Alil waukee Sentinel took part in this controversy and is quoted as folloAvs by the Literary Digest under date of February 10, 1917, the article appearing in the "Art AYorld" of June of that year under the title of "A Alistake in Bronze," AA'hich gives a hint as to its purpose: "The question arises (says the Sentinel), is it realism at all? Is it a faith ful presentment in bronze of the real Lincoln? That question is still fairly capable of settlement. There are entirely credible and competent Avitnesses noAv living who kneAv Lincoln in the flesh and remember perfectly well how he looked — no difficult thing, for 'Old Abe' was a striking figure that, once seen, was never forgotten. "We have tried this test, by submitting to some who kneAv Lincoln in life the appalling photographic cut of the production, which is supposed to perpetuate for Cincinnatians the appearance of Lincoln. The consensus of usually indignant testimony is that it is fearfully and wonderfully unlike Lincoln as they knew him. "The sculptor seems to have evolved his conception of Lincoln out of his inner consciousness, though he states that he was greatly assisted by contemplating a man he met in Louisville, who was six feet four and one-half inches tall, Avho Avas born not far from Lincoln's birthplace, and Avho had been splitting rails all his life. "The finished artistic result of these processes is one that, so far as our own inquiries go, is calculated to stir to wrath and resentment those who knew Air. Lincoln in life and must be admitted to be competent witnesses as to his personal appearance. "It is perfectly possible to combine good art with a respectable degree of verisimilitude in these productions. If we are going to have statues of Lincoln, a decent respect for the memory of 'Old Abe' seems to require that they resemble him, and are not freaks of fancy that Avith a few alterations LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 167 might do duty as figures of Ichabod Crane, or Dominie Sampson, or St. Simeon Stylites on his penitential pillar." A noble statue of Lincoln, seated, occupies the crest of the Upper Campus hill at the State University of Aladison, in front of Bascom Hall (formerly known as "Alain Hall") Avhere it dominates the vista between the great elms over the beautiful lawns. A mile to the east is the State Capitol, under whose great dome is housed the machinery that keeps this great Common wealth functioning in our democracy, and toward Avhich the spirit of Lincoln gazes steadily out of the bronze eyes. It is one of the shrines of the State of Wisconsin. It helps to shape the ideals of the thousands of young men and young women from this Nation and other nations who are training them selves for citizenship in the shadow of this great memorial. Adolph Weinman is the sculptor, the original of Avhich it is the replica being at Hodgensville, Ky., Lincoln's birthplace. It is the Lincoln whom his neighbors knew and loved, the statesman who piloted a nation through a great war and then gave his own life on the altar to heal the breach caused by the four years of bloody warfare. Weinman was born in Germany in 1870, but came to this country at an early age and was educated in the public schools of New York. He was a pupil of St. Gaudens, another of the outstanding sculptors of the immortal Lincoln. A personal reminiscence by a Alilwaukee man of the nomination of Lincoln at the convention of 1860 may be of interest. Amherst W. Kellogg, a resident of Wisconsin since 1836, was an eye-witness. The following is from an inter view given by him to the Milwaukee Sentinel on October 23, 1921: When Illinois presented the name of Abraham Lincoln I was much surprised at the demonstration that occurred ; however, Avhen Seward was nominated by New York he seemed to awaken even greater enthusiasm. Salmon P. Chase Avas Ohio's favorite son; Edward Bates Avas Alissouri's choice; Pennsylvania presented Simon Cameron. On the first ballot SeAvard had more votes than any of the others, but not enough for a nomination. Before the second ballot was taken Simon Cameron withdrew his name and his votes went to Lincoln, who then almost equaled Seward's vote. With the third ballot the excitement grew intense ; state after state turned over to Lincoln and he seemed likely to succeed ; but we who had been keeping tab found as the last vote was cast that he was two votes short of the number necessary to nominate. Then just before the figures of the ballot were an nounced Carter of the Ohio delegation got the floor and shouted: "Ohio changes four votes from Salmon P. Chase to Abraham Lincoln." With that such a wave of emotion swept over the vast audience as I have never seen in all my experience ; Avomen threw up their parasols and men their hats. Though we were packed in so we could scarcely move, Mr. Daggett (S. S. Daggett, also of Milwaukee, AA'ho was at that time seventy years old) danced up and down like a boy. One man standing beside us, down whose face the tears were pouring in streams, cried out: "I can^ help it! I can't help it! I've been Avorking for him a week and I didn't really hope for it." Another old man near us began to shout at the top of his voice: "Glory, Glory Halle- 168 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE lujah! Now, Lord, lettest Thou Thy servant depart in peace, for mine eyes have seen the redempt on of Egypt" (as Southern Illinois Avas then called). AleaiiAvhile the chairman of the convention, George Ashmun of Alassa- chusetts, moved that the vote for Abraham Lincoln be made unanimous. AVith that the enthusiasm broke out afresh and continued until the audience Avas fairly exhausted. XotAvithstanding the impression made by Lincoln in his address at the State Fair, the feeling of dismay AA'hich Avas common throughout the country, as Carl Schurz rem.nds us, doubtless Avas shared by citizens of Alihvaukee and AYisconsin when after Lincoln's election the Southern states seceded and Avar became imminent. Air. Schurz Avrites : "Honest Abe Lincoln," avIio Avas so good-natured that he could not say "no;" the greatest achievement of AA'hose life had been a debate on the slavery question ; aa-Iio had neA'er been in any position of poAver ; avIio was Avith- out the slightest experience of high executive dut'es, and aa'Iio had only a speaking acquaintance Avith the men upon AA'hose counsel and cooperation he AA'as to depend. Nor AA'as his accession to poAver under such circumstances greeted Avith general confidence even by members of his party. While he had indeed Avon much popularity, many Republicans, especially among those avIio had adA'ocated Seward's nomination for the presidency, saAv the simple "Illi nois laAvyer" take the reins of government with a feeling little short of dismay. The orators and journals of the opposition Avere ridiculing and lampooning him AA'ithout measure. Alany people actually Avondered Iioav such a man could dare to undertake a task AA'hich, as he himself had said to his neighbors in his parting speech, Avas "more difficult than that of Washington himself had been." The Gettysburg address is great, if short, but the closing Avords of Lincoln's second inaugural, Schurz says, are "like a sacred poem. No American presi dent had eA'er spoken Avords like these to the American people. Americans never had a president avIio found such Avords in the depths of his heart." Let us consider Lincoln s Avords : Fondly do Ave hope, fervently do Ave pray, that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass aAvay. Yet if God wills that it continue until all the Avealth piled up by the bondman s 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood draAvn Avith the last shall be paid by another draAAii Avith the sAvord, as Avas said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether." With malice toAvard none, Avith charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work Ave are in ; to bind up the Nation's wounds; to care for him Avho shall have borne the battle, and for his AvidoAV and for his orphan ; to do all Avhich may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and Avith all nations. And then the closing scenes of the Avar. The fall of Richmond, Avith Lincoln himself entering the city .on foot, Avhere the slaves crowded about him, kissing his hands and his garments, AA'hile tears streamed doAvn his care-furrowed cheeks. FolloAving close on the heels of the neAvs of Lee's surrender, came the LINCOLN IN MILWAUKEE 169 stunning neAvs of Lincoln s assassination. And all the ciA'ilized Avorld Avept beside his coffin. The judgments of those mourning nations of his Avorth and greatness have neA'er been reversed. The "History of Alihvaukee," page 736, says: "The city was hushed in grief. Silently and sorroAvfully the buildings, many of them still gaily flaunting the joyous decorations of the Aveek before, Avere clad in the habiliments of avoc ' ' It Avas the saddest Aveek in Alihvaukee s history. Alayor Abner Kirby issued a proclamation, the day, April 15th, being the last of his term. This is Avhat he said. Alayor 's Office, April 15 — The joy of the Nation is turned into mourning. The Ch'ef Alagistrate of our country is reported to haA'e been slain at the hands of an assassin, and the life of our Secretary of State taken by a still more infamous hand. Therefore, I, Abner Kirby, Alayor of Alihvaukee, do hereby recommend that all the dwellings and business places of our city forth- AA'ith be clad in mourning as a token of the deep and common sorrow that preA-ails : and that the people, abstaining from all excitement improper for such solemn occasion, postpone their ordinary duties today, and that in all the churches, tomorrow, such services be performed as Avill duly express the great and general grief. ABNER KIRBY, Alayor. Word of the assassination, which occurred on Friday night, April 14th, did not reach Alihvaukee until the folloAving day. Issuance of the foregoing proclamation was Kiirby's last official act, for John J. Tallmadge was inaugurated as mayor immediately afterAvard. Tall- madge s first public proclamation, AA'hich appeared on Tuesday, April 18th, announced the public funeral, set for the following Thursday. Services Avere held in all the churches between 9 and 10 o'clock. The procession was scheduled at 11 o'clock, but rain interfered and the sun did not come out till afternoon, so that the procession did not start until 3 o'clock. There Avas a hearse, and the following Avell-knoAvn Mihvaukee ans acted as pallbearers: Hans Crocker, Jackson Hadley, Alexander Alitchell (later United States senator), Angus Smith, John Bradford, James S. BroAvn, Doctor John son, John W. Cary and Alortiz Schoeffler. There were 4,000 persons in line, the procession being over a mile long, Avhile 40,000 more, with bared heads, lined the streets as the solemn pageant passed to the accompaniment of dirges, tolling bells, muffled drums and the firing of minute guns, the afternoon sun shedding its benign rays over all. A great meeting on the Courthouse Square had been arranged to take place during the forenoon, but this too had to be postponed on account of the downpour. Addresses Avere to have been made from three stands at different parts of the grounds, three speakers being scheduled at each stand. George H. Walker, founder of Alihvaukee 's South Side, was one of the chairmen, and Senator Matt H. Carpenter was one of the speakers. These eulogies had to be given indoors, meetings being held in the Plymouth Con gregational and the First Presbyterian Churches. Milwaukeeans have a personal interest in the splendid Lincoln memorial recently completed at Washington. Lyman H. Browne, for many years a 170 HISTORY OF A1ILWAUKEE resident of this city, informed the Avriter that his brother-in-law, Fred Drew, of Washington, D. C, was the contractor and builder. Theodore G. Joslin some time ago described the memorial in the Boston Transcript, the article being reprinted in the Literary Digest of December 20th, 1919; We read : "A great axis planned scores of years ago is completed by the memorial. At one end is the Capitol, containing the national legislative and judicial bodies, which is a monument to 'the United States Government. A mile to the westward, in the center of the axis, is the mounment to Washington, Avho established the Government. Terminating the axis is the new memorial to Lincoln, who saved the Government." The movement to establish the Lincoln memorial had its inception in 1867. The memorial, costing over two and a half million dollars, takes the form of a monument symbolizing the union of the Nation, enclosing in the walls of its sanctuary three memorials of the man himself — one a statue of heroic size expressing his humane personality; the others memorials of his two great speeches, one of the Gettysburg address and the other his second inaugural, each with attendant sculpture and painting telling in allegory of his splendid qualities evident in those speeches. William Howard Taft turned the first spadeful of earth on Lincoln's birthday in 1914. CHAPTER XV EMIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN In the process of assimilation, as exemplified in sections of the Aliddle West, where, during the last half of the nineteenth century emigrants grouped themselves in great numbers, striking social situations have been evolved which either have escaped, or have been deemed unworthy, the attention of the essayist and fiction Avriter. Every phase of American life, susceptible to literary treatment, has been explored to the fullest. The conditions, characters and complications of a quaint New England village, of a peaceful Dutch settlement in New York State, or a German county in Pennsylvania; the race problem and Creole life of the South, and the thrilling picturesqueness of the western frontier — all have been treated by author and poet. The home-hunting foreigners, Avho came to the north central west, may have tended to that prosaic industrialism which leaves no surface indications of romance or dramatic situations, and yet upon closer analysis they reveal in unique setting and scenery, life's drama in climaxes as compelling and touching as those enacted in other parts of the new world. Where the foreigners are sparsely sprinkled among the natives the absorp tion is necessarily rapid, but where those of similar racial origin have settled in numbers, they cling tenaciously to language and customs, and stand out in stronger contrast to social order of the native. The assumption that the transition stages from a raw emigrant to a fullfledged American citizen are colorless, or that the collective newcomer merely offers in subdued colors a reproduction of old world customs and mannerisms, might be wholly true if the foreigners wholly isolated themselves from the natives. But where, in the commingling of foreign and native born, the amalgamation proceeds along social as well as economic and civic lines, the element of conflict and heart interest become pronounced and appealing. The clashes between foreign and native tradition, between old and new world conceptions are bound to ignite the sparks of prejudice and hatred. In the manifest course of human adjustment many situations are created in which tolerance and the nobler impulses of man may come vividly into play. The writer has here seen an unplowed field rich in material and setting for the dramatist and novelist. In thus directing attention to what seems to the author an unexplored, or at least only partially explored field for study and treatment, he is convinced that much, in the inner struggles and outward movements of the emigrant, during the transition period, constitutes an essential factor in American life, 171 'I . . -jr-^. 1 Ktmmmmmmm mmmm l v THE OLD MATHEAV STEIN GUN SHOP ON MARKET SQUARE IN THE LATER '40s AND EARLY '50s See old Town Pump to the left below IAIAIIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 173 and is therefore Avorthv of permanent record. Admiration is aroused AA'hen the progress of the emigrant is contemplated, Avhen his preconceptions per ceptibly have yielded to openmindedness, AA'hen alienism has faded into a sturdy loyalty to American institutions, Avhen the humblest and most unpromis ing beg nnings are folloAved by useful service and valuable contributions to the prestige, power and prosperity of the nation. Racial Complexion. — It Avould be difficult to establish Avith any degree of. accuracy the racial origin of the population. That is, it avouIc! be practically impossible to deal in exact figures, separating the nathe from the foreign born and at the same time trace the ancestry of the native born. ATet Ave may venture appropriate figures based upon the A-arious sources of information that haA'e been at our command. Before doing so, it may be Avell to ascertain the probable order and the periods in which the different nationalities made the'r appearance. The Indian, the primitive man, Avas first joined by the French Canadian. Then came the Anglo-American from the New England states and the so-called Knickerbockers, Dutch descendants from NeAv York State. The "NeAv England Society" and the "Sons of NeAv York" flourished for seA'eral years as social and patriotic bodies. The Easterners Avere folloAved in large numbers by the Irish and Germans, with a sprinkling of ScandinaA'ians, Hollanders, Bohemians and Austrians In the period from 1844 to 1878 the German immigration outnumbered all other nationalities. During the latter part of this period the Polish immigra tion began to secure momentum, continuing for some years. AYhile the emigra tion from Central Europe declined, the peoples from eastern and southern Europe began to turn toAvards the United States and Alihvaukee received a goodly number of them. Those coming from eastern and southern Austria-Hungary included Sla vonians, Croatians and Hungarians. The Slovaks and Serbs came sonieAvhat later. During the past thirty years there has also been a steady but some what meager influx of Italians, Greeks and Russians. Composition of the Population. — Prof. LaAvrence AI. Larson, in his revieAv, remarks that "Alilwaukee is a cosmopolitan city. She has drawn her citizen ship from all parts of the civilized Avorld. In the old Third ward, once the heart of the city, the Italian noAv (1908) reigns supreme; while in Kilbourn town the African and the Russian JeAv have inherited the earth. On the South side of the city the Poles are the strongest, numbering more than 90,000 and controlling tAvo or three Avards. The Scandinavian elements are located principally on the south side. Greeks and Hungarians have their rep resentatives in the city, and occasional Asiatics may also be found. The more distinctly American population is found in greatest numbers on the East side and in the southern part of the West side. But most numerous of all is the German element. It is estimated that at least 200,000 Germans, native born or of German parentage, live in Alilwaukee. "It is therefore inevitable," continues Professor Larson, "that the city should display certain prominent foreign characteristics. On the religious side these are particularly evident. Stronger than all the Protestant churches combined is the Catholic church AA'ith its large German, Polish, Irish and 174 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Italian parishes. Of the Protestants more than half belong to the Lutheran churches, mainly Germans and Scandinavians. The presence of these two powerful organizations has created an interesting situation in the system of elementary schools. About forty per cent of the total school attendance is found in the parochial schools. Alongside of the public school system has grown up therefore, a group of rival systems entirely independent of the former." Language Difficulties of the Immigrants. — The first obstacle met with by the newly arriving immigrants was the diversity of languages among them. The acquisition of the English language by foreigners Avas of course a neces sity, but it often proved a very difficult task for the older men and Avomen. The children, however, quickly learned to speak and Avrite it, and families gradually dropped the use of their native forms of speech, and thus could co operate Avith their neighbors in affairs of business and government. The estab lishment of schools for the young Avas the chief agency in this amalgamating process, and feAv neighborhoods Avere AA'ithout a schoolhouse and teachers, even in the earliest stages of settlement. Thus AA'as developed a community spirit of vital importance in the main tenance of our American form of government and its institutions. Americans indeed have made language a more powerful nationalizing instrument, says a recent writer, than even the English people themselves have been able to do in their oavii country. The same writer goes on to say that the old stock of native born Americans have been largely replaced by the newly arriving elements from foreign countries, now represented in our population; and that the nationalizing processes have been of such a thoroughgoing character as to produce a new type spoken in a purer language than that in use in the country of its birth. "Political and social institutions in the United States," continues the writer above mentioned, "have a quality which speedily transmutes various types into one type, the public school probably being the most powerful of them." The German Immigration. — "When Milwaukee Avas but a small cluster of houses in the early thirties," writes H. E. Legler in his volume, "Leading Events of Wisconsin History," "Germans had made their home in the village, but it was not until a decade later that colonists began to arrive in consider able numbers from the fatherland. Political disturbances at home sent many of them over the ocean, and the Ioav price of land and liberal laws of Wiscon sin attracted many of them to this territory. * * * Between 1840 and 1848 pamphlets and books describing the resources and favorable climatic condi tions of Wisconsin Avere circulated in great numbers in some parts of Germany, and undoubtedly greatly influenced intending settlers to seek the golden NorthAvest. In the Rhine region, in the Wupper valley and in the duchy of BrunsAvick these guides for immigrants found especially eager readers. "Milwaukee soon became known as the German Athens of America, but the German population of Wisconsin Avas not confined to the chief city of the territory. The wooded sections along the lake shore and in the interior attracted large numbers of homeseekers. The early German settlers were mostly of the Catholic faith, but in the early forties Pomerania and Branden- IMMIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 175 burg, as the result of religious contentions, lost many of their people, and their leaders directed many of them to Wisconsin." Prominent among the citizens of Wisconsin who were born in Germany was Carl Schurz whose political career opened in this state when he was yet a young man of twenty-seven. He settled at WatertoAvn, Wis., in 1856, and became prominent in the republican party of the state. He had received a good education in his native country, and after his arrival began the study of law. He was admitted to the Wisconsin bar in 1858, and began the prac tice of law in Alilwaukee. In the Republican National Convention of 1860, he Avas chairman of the Wisconsin delegation AA'hich voted for William H. Seward for the presidential nomination. He was a member of the committee appointed to notify Mr. Lincoln of his nomination. In 1861, he was sent as minister to Spain, but he returned to the United States in the following year and was commissioned brigadier general. As a commander of division he took part in the second battle of Bull Run. He was promoted to the rank of major general and was present at the battles of ChancellorsA'ille, Gettysburg and at Chattanooga. After the close of hostilities he resigned his commission and thereafter became identified with Alissouri affairs. From 1869 to 1875, he was United States senator from Missouri, and in 1877 he was secretary of the interior in President Hayes' cabinet. In 1881, he removed to New York City where he became engaged in editorial work, and died there in 1906. A most interesting study of Wisconsin's German element, by Kate A. Everest, is printed in Volume XII of the Wisconsin Historical Collections. ' ' In the Western States many large German settlements were formed," she says, "especially in Ohio, but they did not become centers of attraction, nor of any political importance. The masses of colonists had German sentiments, but not the German ideals. They would not suffer themselves to be directed by their countrymen, especially since the leaders,' who were often idealists and free-thinkers, were men far removed from the general German sentiment ; but the immigrants settled rather where business interests were most favorable. ' ' The general sentiment of later years is Well expressed by Friedrich Kapp and Carl Schurz. 'The well-being of the Germans,' says Kapp, 'does not lie in separation from the American educational interests nor in fantastic dreams of founding a German state in America — a German Utopia. * * * A German nation within the American they cannot be, but they can throw the rich treasures of their life and thought into the struggle for political and human interests, and their influence will penetrate the more deeply and create for them a wider field of activity, the less peculiar they make it. ' " In a speech by Carl Schurz in New York he expressed himself as follows : "Let us never forget that we as Germans are not called upon here to form a separate nationality, but rather to contribute to the American nationality the strongest there is in us, and in place of our weakness to substitute the strength wherein our fellow Americans excel us, and to blend it with our wisdom. We should never forget that in the political life of this republic, we as Germans have no peculiar interests, but that the universal well-being is ours also." These sentiments were held and expressed by eminent writers and .pub- OLD (.REAM CITY' BASEBALL CLUB— 1869 Archie McFadden, M. Lumkin, E. C. AVells, AY. H. Dodsworth, AY. C. Smith, George Redding J. H. AA'ood, F. A. Smith, C. S. Norris. OLD RUFUS KING RESIDENCE Northeast corner Mason and A'an Buren streets. Built by Henry AA'illiams, 183S IAIAIIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 177 licists many years ago and are still held by the clear-thinking men of our later time. We honor the German element in our population, and that element in turn forms a most valuable ingredient in the development of the "one hundred per cent Americanism" of AYisconsin people. Native versus Foreign Born. — The attitude AA'hich obtained among the Germans, and the reciprocal prejudice AA'hich the native and foreign born entertained for each other, were some years later Avell expressed by Hugo Miinsterberg, who said : "The German immigrant can justly claim to be a respectable and very desirable element of the American population; he has stood always on the side of solid work and honesty; he has brought skill and energy over the ocean, and he has not forgotten his music and his joyfulness; he is not second to any one in his devotion to the duties of a citizen in peace and in Avar, and without his aid many of America's industrial, commercial, and technical triumphs would be unknown. "But all that does not disproA'e the fact that he is often somewhat unfit to judge fairly the life which surrounds him. First, he belongs almost ahvays to a social stratum in which the attention is fully absorbed by the external life of a country, and which is without feeling for the achieA'ements of its mental life; he was poor in his fatherland, and lives comfortably here, and thus he is enthusiastic over the material life, praises the railroads and the hotels, the bridges and mills, but does not even try to judge of the libraries and universities, the museums and the hospitals. "On the other hand, he feels socially in the background; he is the 'Dutch man, ' aa'Iio, through his bad English, through his habits and manners, through his tastes and pleasures, is different from the majority, and therefore set apart as a citizen of second rank, if not slighted, at least kept in social isolation. On the side of the German, the result of this situation is often an entire ignorance of the Anglo-American life. "But there were more important factors — industry and civic virtues, Avhich, brought from Germany, helped to build up the land and the nation, and it is unfair to stamp the German-American as a citizen of second rank and thus to isolate him socially." In placing an estimate upon the American the same AA-riter says: "What most quickly misleads is, doubtless, his consuming interest in money-making, together with the sharp struggle for existence, the gigantic scale of his undertakings, his hasty, impulsive movements, his taste for strong sensational stimuli, his spoils politics, and the influence of corporations upon his legis lation. But is not all that merely the surface vieAV? The American is not greedy for money; if he were, he would not give away his wealth with such a liberal hand, and would not put aside all the unidealistic European schemes of money-making AA'hich exclude individual initiative, as, for instance, the pursuit of dowries, or, on a lower level, the tipping system. ' ' The American runs after money primarily for the pleasure of the chase ; it is the spirit of enterprise that spurs him on, the desire to make use of his energies, to realize his personality. And there is one other factor : in a country where political conditions have excluded titles and orders and social distinc tions in general, money is in the end the only means of social discrimination, A'ol. 1—12 178 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE and financial success becomes thus the measurement of the ability of the in dividual and of his poAver to realize himself in action. That the struggle for existence is sharper here than in Europe is simply a fairy tale. - In a country AA'here the greatest enterprises are undertaken in the service of charity, and Avhere the natural resources of the land are inexhaustible, even the lowest. classes do not struggle for existence, but, seen from the Continental stand point, merely for comfort; of this the lyrical character of the discussions of social problems here compared AA'ith their dramatic character in Germany gives the fullest evidence. "But the most amusing misunderstanding arises when the American him self thinks that he proves the purely practical character of his life by the eagerness with which he saves his time, on the ground that 'time is money.' It strikes me that, next to the public funds, nothing is so much Avasted here as time. Whether it is wasted in reading the endless newspaper reports of murder trials or in sitting on the base-ball grounds, in Avatching a variety show or in lying in bed, in Avaiting for the elevator or in being shaved after the American fashion, in attending receptions or in enjoying committee meet ings, is quite unessential. "The whole scheme of American education is only possible in a country AA'hich is rich enough not to need any economy of time, and AA'hich can there fore allow itself the luxury of not asking at AA'hat age a young man begins to earn his OAvn living. The American shopkeeper opens his store daily one hour later than the German tradesman, and the American physician opens his office three years later than his German colleague of equal education. This may be very good, but it is a prodigality of time which the 'Germans Avould be unable to imitate. "Add to it the American's gratefulness and generosity, his elasticity and his frankness, his cleanliness and his chastity, his humor and his fairness; consider the vividness of his religious emotion, his interest in religious and metaphysical speculation, his eagerness ahvays to realize the best results of science — in short, look around everywhere without prejudice, and you cannot doubt that behind the terrifying mask of the selfish realist breathes the idealist, who is controlled by a belief in ethical values. "Undeniably, every one of these characteristics may develop into an ab surdity; gratitude may transform- the capture of a merchant vessel into a naval triumph, speculative desire may run into the blind alleys of spiritualism, fairness may lead to the defense of the most cranky schemes, and the wish for steady improvements may chase the reformer from one fad to another; and yet it is all at bottom the purest idealism. "Whenever I have AA'ritten about America for my German countrymen, I have said: 'You are right to hate that selfish, brutal, corrupt, vulgar American who lives in your imagination; but the true American is at least as much an idealist as yourself, and Emerson comes nearer to representing his spirit than do the editorial Avriters of the New York Journal.' If I had to draw the American AA'ith a feAv lines, I should emphasize three mental elements. " 'All the essential features of his public life spring from the spirit of self- IMMIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 179 determination, AA'hich was developed by his separation from his mother country; the features of his economic life, from the spirit of self -activity which was developed by his pioneer life ; and the features of his intellectual life from the spirit of self-perfection, AA'hich has partly a utilitarian and partly Puritan origin. ' Every one of these three strong tendencies involves dangers, but essentially they are forces of purely idealistic power." The Story of an Old Neighborhood. — The older section of the city known as the Lower East Side was described in a paper before the Old Settlers' Club some years ago by William George Bruce as follows : "The section of the city now known as the lower Seventh and First Avards is not only one of the oldest but also one of the most interesting as far as its earlier history is concerned. It possessed a community life seventy years ago that Avas peculiarly its OAvn, and Avas in its time the very heart of the small city. While the upper and eastern part of the ward, known as Yankee Hill, was the residence district of the better conditioned, the lower part was the industrial and commercial centre. "It was the home of the mechanic, the laborer, the small shop keeper, and the small manufacturer. Everybody knew eA'erybody else. The policeman Avore no uniform but he Avas known by everybody in town. Every physician, preacher and lawyer was known by everybody. The names and location of streets Avere as familiar to eA'eryone as the alphabet. "To tell the story of this section means after all only to say something in a fragmentary Avay of some of the people who resided there and Avho were a part and parcel of its activities; to recall names that later figured in the life and traffic of the city. Again, such a story must be told from the stand point of recollections and the vision and views of a child — a condition of life as seen by a small boy and remembered as a man. "Aly earliest recollections take me back as a four year old boy peering out of the windows of my grandfather's old home on East Water Street near the corner of Johnson Street, a two storied wooden structure with a moss covered roof, slanting towards the street. Large locust trees shaded the cottage which sat back a respectable distance from the street and gave the immediate neighborhood a village air. "This section of the city was distinguished from the others in point of nationality in that its residents were in the main German-born. The people residing on the hill and who were known as Yankees, came from New York and the New England states. That portion lying to the south of the hill and known as the Third Ward was almost wholly settled by the Irish as they landed here. "The Know-nothing movement which had its inception in the East and which swept across the country in early '50s found some expression here. The Germans of this neighborhood were obliged to hear the cry 'Damn the Dutch,' and the constant influx of both Germans and Irish gave the Yankee element some" concern. But, when these foreigners began to manifest their thrift and industry, adding to the growth and development of the city, and incidentally adding to the wealth of so-called Yankee element, the motto 'America for Americans' became more faint and finally died out. -.?wmmm •f —— iwutmw S5B_ J— wim™ — -H mi 1 === ^^s-^SiSSB _, mi | » ... ¦¦ — - C/-Jf» vfl| gPM, 13 13 I - JOHN POLLAVORTH'S HO.ME RESTAURANT Located at No. 2 Grand Avenue and established in 1S40 AYISCONSIN STREET The dAvelling* to the right gave way as a site for the Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company Building. IAIAIIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 181 "The larger industries Avhich clustered in the valley at that time Avere Alabbett's lumber yard, Elmore's coal yard, Higby 's elevator, Bertchy's mill, the old Davidson ship yard and the Pierron Pottery. It Avas the small indus tries, however, that thrived more actively. The machine had not yet come into use as a potent factor in manufacturing products. Shoes Avere made by the shoemaker who took the measurements of the foot, the tinsmith made the pots and kettles, the cooper made Avashtubs, etc. "The German market at the corner of East Water and Division streets, noAv knoAvn as Juneau AA'enue, Avas a bee hive in small trade. It was more popularly known as the 'Green Market,' a designation which had its origin from the green vegetables AA'hich formed the principal commodity. The good houseAvives from all sections of the city came here to get the provisions, their vegetables and dairy products. "The hills uoav forming the handsomest residence districts in the First and Sixth wards then were the choice grazing grounds for the cattle that fur nished the butter and cheese that was sold by the market women. The little back yard gardens on the northside proA'ided the cabbages, onions and lettuce AA'hich was brought in wagon loads to the market before sunrise each morning. "The market life, aside from its congenial commercialism, had its interest ing phases. The market men and women were not devoid of that human interest which embraces the liveliest gossip and AA'hich concerns itself with everything from the merry wedding bells to the solemn strains of a requiem. It was the clearing house for the news of the day and AA'hen the good house wife carried home the day's proA'ender in her basket she took with her also the town gossip of the day. "Alany of the small vendors and hucksters of the Green Alarket later became well to do business men and in course of time retired Avith a hand some competency. Their sons in many instances are now among the important merchants and manufacturers of the city. Their daughters are the Avives of some of the most prosperous men in the community. The Main Street. — East AVater Street from AVisconsin Street to Juneau Avenue Avas like the main street of a country town. There Avas the butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker; the small dry goods merchant, the-. druggist and the hotel keeper. At the corner of Biddle Street was Hoffmann's butcher shop. The owner- of this small shop was none other than John Hoffmann, later the head of Johni Hoffmann Sons & Co., the wholesale grocery house. Across the street was the.' small retail grocery store of John AVellauer, who later with John Hoffmanm founded the great grocery house above mentioned. "Further down the street were John Poss, the butcher; Krauthoefer, the shoemaker; Boeshaar and Manschot, the cobblers; Stephen Hoff, the grocer,. the father of Stephen H. Hoff, later of Hackett, Hoff & Thiermann; Higlerv the second hand man, father of James A. Higler, manager of the Alhambra Theater; Koch's barber shop, OAvned by the father of William Koch, a promi nent musician; Chaintron, the dyer; Gebhardt and Hubmann, the bakers; Memminger's restaurant conducted by the father of the late Fire Chief Mem- minger; Wiese's drug store; Grosch's horse shoeing shop; Friedberg's notion. 182 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE store, conducted by the father of Joseph Friedberg, later manager of the Friend Bros. Clothing Co.; Mittendorf's milliner shop, etc. "At the German market a modest booth in Yankee notions Avas conducted by the mother of Bishop A. F. Schinner ; Oscar F. Miller the late manager of the Alhambra Theater Avas born and raised on Market Street ; a curly headed handsome lad raised in the same neighborhood, later Judge John C. LudAvig ; Hans J. and Alax Greve the show printers saw their boyhood days here ; the immediate relatives of Solomon Juneau resided here ; the Geilfuss family from which A. B. and Frank Geilfuss sprang, lived in this vicinity, etc. The Old Pierron Pottery. — There Avas a time Avhen Mihvaukee promised to be a great pottery center. Clay was brought in vessel loads across the lake from Ohio and eastern points and loaded on the docks at the foot of Johnson Street. Here it was taken to the Pierron Pottery, for a time knoAA'n as the Hermann Pottery, and turned into jars and jugs. These Avere set out on the streets and back yards to dry and were then placed into large kilns to be burned into solid earthenware. "At night the heavens Avould blaze in scarlet red from the heat AA'hich shot forth from the great kilns as an emblem of useful industry. These kilns Avere for years fed Avith the choicest maple Avood brought in by the farmers from the neighboring country districts. "The interior life and activities of the pottery Avas intensely German in character. The men AA'ho were gathered here had come from different portions of Germany, but principally from South Germany. They possessed all the prejudices of a divided Germany. The Bavarian avIio came from South Ger many had no particular love for the Mecklenburger aaKo came from Northern Germany. They differed in religion, in politics, and in their social vieAvs. They Avere known to each other as Hans, Fritz or Michel, or else as the Prus sian, the Bavarian, the Hannoverian, the Pommeranian, etc. "They enjoyed their pint of beer during the several luncheon periods of the day, denounced the money grasping Yankee and the corruption in Ameri can public life and incidentally praised the solidity of Germany's officialdom and the beauties of their native villages. "The pottery industry thrived until the competition from Akron and other Ohio points became too strong, and what was once a thriving local industry has been converted into a Avarehouse and distributing center for Ohio pottery." Polish Immigration. — The immigration of Poles had its beginning in the early '60s. A feAv families came and settled on the loAver east side toAvards the south. The tide of immigration secured its real momentum, however, in the early '70s of the last century AA'hen a great number of Poles arrived daily. The old Reed Street Station Avas the scene of their coming.- William George Bruce, in an article published in one of the local news papers offers this description of the advent of the Polish immigrants: "We deemed it one of the sights to behold these anxious men and women and abashed children nestled among the boxes, bundles and bedding of an old world household, awaiting transfer to a permanent abode. Usually a rickety express wagon took them to the southern limits of the city which up to this IAIAIIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 183 time had only been sparsely populated. They Avere travel stained, poor and ignorant, but they were hopeful, courageous and ambitious. "The Avooded lands south of Greenfield Avenue were soon transformed into a vast area of cottages with high basements accommodating two families, with gardens in the rear and some shrubbery and a rest bench in the front. "Their life in a new Avorld began. Everybody Avent to Avork. The men dug seAver trenches, built streets, bridges and houses. The boys and girls entered the factories and mills and stores. Alany of the married Avomen went out to do a day's Avashing in addition to doing their daily houseAvork. "They imbibed the American spirit. Progress was in the air. With the passing of time the rising generation performed more exacting duties in the industrial and commerc.al life of the city. They entered the skilled trades. Some of the young men entered the professions. Others went into the chan nels of trade, still others into the public seiwice, until there are among the present generation young lawyers, physicians, judges and representatives in the city, county, state and national legislative bodies. "The Poles also settled upon the east and the north sides of the city. The colony on the south side is by far the larger. These several colonies, aggre gating a population of approximately one hundred thousand, note the progress of the Polish-American by thousands of neat and cozy homes and the mar velous size and beauty of their churches." Air. Bruce, in discussing the tendency of the Polish element to colonize, says: "If the Polish-Americans have colonized in certain sections of American cities, it has been done in response to expedience rather than from a desire to foster isolation. Their colonies or neighborhoods not only manifest from Avithin an intense progress in the A'arious activities that make for a modern city, but they are an essential part of the community as a whole."' He adds: "There is a disposition on the part of those of other nationali ties to ridicule Polish names. In the days o£ political conventions it Avas not uncommon to resort to laughter and jeers when the names of the Polish- American delegates were read. I took occasion to remind one of these con ventions that these names were no more subject to laughter than Avere any series of German, Irish, or Scandinavian names. These names had been in herited from honorable fathers and mothers, were borne by the families of the present generations and hence were sacred to them. The com-ention there after indulged in no more laughter at the mention of Polish names. In his home life the Pole may foster the traditions and the nobler impulses of a mother country, but in his economic and ciyic life he is an American." In discussing the advancement by the Polish-American element, the same author says: "My evening Avalks frequently extend into the southern part of the south side and when I contrast the scenes which attended the earlier Polish immigration at the railway station with the thousands of clean and comfortable homes, magnificent churches and schools, the business blocks on Mitchell Street, Kosciuszko Park and the many beautiful streets Avhich char acterize the Polish section, I am thrilled with the transformation that has taken place. Here is the evidence, eloquently demonstrated, that the Polish immigrants were industrious and thrifty, laAv abiding and God fearing, and mspap i in Jiwl THE OLD MILAVAUKEE HOUSE. AA'HERE THE FIRST PASSENGER ON THE UNDER GROUND RAILAA'AY ARRIVED IN SLAVERY DAYS. (From a wood cut in Milwaukee Under the Charter, published in 18*4) IAIAIIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 185 that to the best of their ability, they are making their contribution to the progress of the city and to American civilization as a Avhole." AYhile many of the Poles hail from Austria and Russia, the larger number come from what was the grand duchy of Posen, formerly a part of Germany. A number of Poles, specially those formerly residing on Jones Island, were known as "Kashubes" who have their OAvn peculiar dialect and customs and came from a northeast section of German-Poland. Alonsignor Goral, in a chapter on the Poles in Alihvaukee, says, "AYhoever is closely acquainted Avith the psychology of the Polish nation AA'ill readily understand why it always has been, and still continues to be, the ambition of the Poles to organize a parish and to haA-e their own school and church Avhen- eATer the numbers warrant it. It is admitted by all that at least ninety-five per cent of the Poles are Catholics. There is probably no other nation on God's earth that loA'es so fanatically and clings so tenaciously to its language and national traditions as the Poles do. Woe to those that Avould ever dare to conspire against this most sacred heritage of theirs!" The Jewish Pioneers. — The first Israelite to come to Wisconsin was Jacob Franks who settled in Green Bay in 1794. He was an agent of the Canadian Fur Company and became one of the enterprising men of that settlement. Franks and Aleyer LeA'i of La Crosse, concerned themseh'es in the erection of the first sawmills in the territory then known as AYisconsin. Isador S. Horwitz, who is the acknoAvledged historian of the JeAvish element in Wisconsin, says that the arrival of Jews in Alilwaukee had its beginning in the early '40s. The records of those years reA'eal a number of Jewish names. Among the first and most prominent among them were the Schoyer brothers. Gabriel Schoyer, the older, conducted a mercantile enterprise on East Water Street for a number of years. In the year 5610, according to the Jewish calendar, or in the year 1847, the beginning for a Jewish Synagogue with ten members Avas made. The first religious services were held on the JeAvish neAv year, Rosh Hashona, and the feast of Yom Kippur. The synagogue was at first located at the home of Henry Neuhaus and a year later at the home of Isaac Neustadel. In 1849 the first regular JeAvish congregation was formed and located over a small store on Chestnut Street conducted by Nathan Pereles. Gabriel Schoyer became president of the con gregation and Solomon Adler its secretary. The congregation later erected the Temple Emanu-El on BroadAvay and Johnson Street. The first JeAvs to arrive here were of English and Holland birth and later came the Bohemian and German. The Russian JeAvs Avho are represented in larger numbers came at a later period and colonized in the area bounded by Chestnut, Center, Third and Sixteenth streets. The JeAvish worshipping places are Emanu-El and B'ne Jeshuruin (Re form), Beth Israel, Anshe Stard, Anshe LeboAvita, Aloshab Zkenim, Anshe Ungarn, Degel Israel, Agudath Ahim and Beth Hamedrosh Hagodel (Ortho dox). Italian Immigration. — The Italian population is estimated at nine thousand, of which probably one-quarter is American born. The greater number live 186 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE in the district bounded by Alichigan Street, BroadAvay, the lake and the river. They are mostly Sicilians AA'ho came from the Province of Palermo. The Italians residing elsewhere in the city come from south, central and north Italy. Fully seventy-five per cent of the Italians of the city are common laborers. The number of skilled mechanics and small tradesmen is minor. G. La Piana, who in 1915 made a survey of the Italian population in Milwaukee, states that many of those who had been farmers, fishermen and mechanics in their native land, had been obliged to resort to common labor in this country. He claims that the difference in language and usage in a neAv country has been respon sible for this condition. This explanation, hoAvever, must be deemed insufficient. Some years ago (1912) the editor of this volume met a distinguished Italian nobleman in Rome who was much concerned in the progress of the 7,000,000 Italians Avho had left their native land and Avere noAv settled in different countries of the world. "We have just held a convention here in Rome" said the nobleman, "of delegates Avho came from all parts of the Avorld for the purpose of advancing the interests of Italians who had left their mother country. "It is a pecular fact that our Italian emigrants are not sharing adequately in the economic fruits of their adopted countries. They colonize, for in stance, in the American cities, and at the same time isolate themselves from the life and activities about them. They continue to eat Italian food, drink Italian wines, and sing Italian songs. This is all very well. But they should assimilate some of the customs, habits and Avays of their new surroundings. "Italians Avho live in America should become Americans, in England become Englishmen, in France become Frenchmen, in Germany become Germans. They should, as do other nationalities, find their way into the commercial, indus trial, professional and political activities of their adopted countries, and share, adequately in the material and civic advantages afforded them. "The object of this international convention, Avhich was under the patron age of the Queen of Italy," said the nobleman, "Avas to stimulate our country men in distant lands to make for greater material and civic progress and thus secure a more adequate share of the world's material blessings." Skandinavian Element. — Among the immigrants who came to Mihvaukee in the '40s and '50s there was a liberal sprinkling of Skandinavians, particu larly of NorAvegians. Upon landing they lived for a time on the lower east side. Later, as their numbers grew, they settled on the central and eastern part of the south side. Many of them became identified with the marine activities. They excelled as seamen and fishermen, and in some of the me chanic arts. A number of them owned vessel property and became well to do. They founded a number of churches, some of AA'hich have discarded the native tongue, and employ only the English language in their sermons. When the tide of Skandinavian immigration was directed to Minnesota it practically ceased here. Negro Population. — The negro population compared with that of other American cities has ahvays been rather small. At no time did the number IMMIGRATION AND RACE ORIGIN 187 exceed the three thousand mark. When the leading hotels some years ago dispensed with colored help the population dAvindled to even a smaller num ber. During the AYorld war, when white labor was at a premium, several of the larger manufacturing concerns brought several hundred negroes from the South. Some of these have returned to their native states again. Variety of Nationalities. — During the World Avar in 1918 a local patriotic woman's committee made a survey of the city and located the foreign born, and the districts in which they dAvelled Avithout, however, dealing in any statistics or attempting to separate accurately the native from the foreign born. They prepared an interesting chart showing the sections where the foreign born resided indicating proportionately their race origin. Aside from the native born, some twenty nationalities Avere represented as follows: Albanian, Anglo-Saxon, Armenian, and Syrian, Austrian and Hungarian, Belgian, Bulgarian, Chinese, Colored, Croatian, Czecho-SIovakia, English, German, Greek, Hebrew, Holland, Irish, Italian, Polish, Roumanian, Russian, Scandinavian, Scotch, Serbian, Slovene, Welsh, Dalmatia, Ukriane, Alacedonian, Turkish (thirty-one nationalities). Recording also the following scattering nationalities : Arabians, Canadians, Finns, French, Lithuanian, Spanish and Swiss (thirty-seven nationalities in all). The Census Bureau gave out the following statistics regarding the country of birth of foreign born white for Mihvaukee for the year 1920 : Total foreign-born white 110,068 England 1,968 Scotland 589 Wales 252 Ireland 1,447 NorAvay 1,852 Sweden 863 Denmark 732 Belgium 109 France (incl. Alsace-Lorraine) 565 Luxemburg 164 Netherlands 528 Switzerland 931 Germany 39,576 Poland 23,060 Austria 5,906 Hungary 4,803 Czechoslovakia 4,497 Jugo-Slavia 4,359 Russia 7,105 Finland , 147 Lithuania 398 Portugal ; 7 Spain 43 Italy ; 4,022 188 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Greece 1,815 Bulgaria 53 Roumania 633 Turkey, Europe 14 Other Europe 283 Asia 386 Africa 14 Australia 37 Canada, French 223 Canada, Other 1,830 Newf oundland 26 Cuba and other AVest Indies 29 Alexico 36 Central America 4 South America 45 Atlantic Islands 4 Pacific Islands 8 At Sea 82 Country not specified 623 These figures are based on a population of approximately four hundred and sixty-five thousand. Basing the population of city and county in round numbers at one-half million, the proportion of nationalities will probably undergo but slight changes. On the Avhole it may be safe, assuming that cities like Cudahv, South Alihvaukee and AVest Allis have large percentages of foreign born, to fix the entire foreign born population at 125,000 and the native born at 375,000. The census of 1920 fixed the citizenship of foreign-born white men at 50,856, the number of those naturalized at 27,448, and those who had taken out their first papers at 12,454, leaving the number of aliens at 14,731, with 1,953 unreported. CHAPTER XATI BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS A compilation of dates relating to the beginning of things in the several acth-ities of men, the inauguration of moA'ements, establishment of enter prises and institutions, events and occurrences was made in 1915 and am plified since then by John R. AYolf, a Alilwaukee journalist, as folloAvs : Advertising. — Alarch 15, 1890 — First Avhole page ads published by Frank A. Lappen. Aeronautics. — Alarch 2, 1908 — Aero Club ; 1910 — Aviator Art Hoxey at State Fair; 1911-12-14 — AA-iator Lincoln Beachey at State Fair. Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co. — Alay, 1847 — Established as Reliance Works by Decker & Seville ; 1860, bought by EdAvard P. Allis, Charles D. Nash and John P. AIcGregor, and conducted under name of E. P. Allis & Co. : Alarch, 1913, incorporated in Delaware. Area. — 1910 Census — 14,585.8 acres; metropolitan district — city and im mediate environs, 112,826.6 acres; 1910—24.35 miles; 1900—21.5; 1880—15. Art.— 1886— Alilwaukee Art Society; 1910— revived ; April 5, 1888— Lay- ton Art Gallery opened; Feb. 17, 1890 — Carl Alarr left for Germany; April 21, 1890— Art League organized; April 10, 1896— Carl Alarr 's "Flagellants" presented to city by Airs. Emil Schandein. Later placed in lobby of Audi torium. Automobiles. — Alay, 1899 — First car operated by George L. Odenbrett; 1912 — A'anderbilt Cup and Grand Prix races. Auditorium. — September 21, 1909 — Opened. Baseball Championship. — April 8, 1868 — Founded; 1887, annexed. Bald Heads. — June 30, 1889 — Neumueller's Park scene of a picnic held by the Aloonshiners, an organization of bald-headed men. Bennett Law. — April 18, 1890 — Bennett LaAv Democrats organized; Alarch 14, 1890 — West Side Turners support laAv ; Alay 2, 1890 — Wisconsin Lutherans called convention to oppose Bennett Law. Bethel Home. — August, 1868 — Established by the Wisconsin Seamen's Friend Society. B'Nai B'Rith.— June 29, 1861— Gilead Lodge, No. 41. Butterine. — April 26, 1915 — First butterine factory. Canal. — January, 1838 — Alihvaukee and Rock River. Cemeteries. — 1850 — Forest Home; Nov. 2, 1857 — Calvary; 1859 — Holy Trinity; January 11, 1865 — Union; August, 1880 — Pilgrim's Rest; April 1, 1872— Greenwood; September 6, 1894— AYanderers' Rest; June 5, 1909— Holy Cross. 189 MRS. MILAVAUKEE H. SMITH HACKELBERG First white girl born in Milwaukee, 1835 BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EATENTS 191 Centenarians. — October 2, 1914 — Airs. Louise K. Thiers, 100 ; December 25, 1914— Thomas Kelly, resident of the Soldiers' Home, 100; 1913— Airs. Kath- erine Orzechowski, 100. Chamber of Commerce. — 1854 — Known as Board of Trade; February 3, 1863, new building; November 18. 1880, present building at Alichigan Street and Broadway opened. Churches. — 1835 — Alethodist Alission, Rev. Alark Robinson first pastor, place of worship, carpenter shop, Huron and East Water streets; Alay, 1841, first church built on east side of Broadway, between Oneida and Biddle streets ; 1848, first German Alethodist Church, ReA'. Casper Jost, pastor, built on Fifth Street; 1849, Welsh Alethodist Church built on lake shore at Huron Street; Alarch 25, 1865, Norwegian Alethodist, Rev. A. Haagenson. 1836 — First Baptist Church, Washington Street and First AA'enue, Elder Griffin ; 1855, First German Baptist Church, Chestnut and Third streets ; Rev. Carl Kleppe. 1836 — St. Paul's Episcopal, Alilwaukee and Wisconsin streets. April 13, 1837 — First Presbyterian, ReA-. Aloses Ordway. 1837 — First Congregational Church; 1857, Welsh Congregational Church. August, 1837 — First Catholic services held in home of Solomon Juneau by Rev. Fleurimont Bonduel, Alarch 19, 1844, Very Rev. John Alartin Henni con secrated bishop of Alilwaukee ; St. Alary 's 1846 ; 1863, St. Stanislaus Church established at Grove and Alineral streets by Father Bonaventura Buczynski. 1839— St. Paul's Lutheran; 1847, Trinity Lutheran. 1848 — Our Saviour's Norwegian EA'angelical, Scott and Reed streets. 1841 — Unitarian. 1844 — Universalist. April 19, 1846 — Corner stone of St. Alary 's Catholic Church laid; conse crated September 12, 1847. 1847 — Evangelical. 1848— First Reformed (Dutch). October 5, 1856— B'ne Jeshurum; August 5, 1869— Temple Emanu-El; 1900 — Sinai. 1862 — Trinity Evangelical, Fourth and Lee streets, ReA-. William Geyer. November 17, 1877 — Union Gospel. September 6, 1878 — Lutheran Theological Seminary. 1889 — First Christian Science. Alarch 9, 1890 — Alethodists celebrated semi-centennial. City Hall. — February 24, 1894 — Corner stone laid; December 23, 1895— inaugural proceedings ; cost of building and fixtures, $1,016,935 ; height of flag pole, 393 feet; bell weighs 20,505 pounds and cost $4,000. Clearing House, — December 1, 1868. Clocks. — 1906 — Street clocks removed by Alayor Becker. Colleges. — September 14, 1848 — Milwaukee College; 1895 — Alihvaukee- Downer: 1864 — Alarquette University. Common Council. — 1851 — First meeting held in Spring Street Methodist Church, Grand Avenue and Fifth Street. Courts. — 1835 — Albert Fowler appointed justice of peace; 1836 — Court- 192 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE house site donated by Solomon Juneau and Alorgan L. Alartin; June 13, 1837 — Federal Court opened by Judge AYilliam C. Frazier; 1S37 — Cyrus HaAA-ley first clerk of Federal Court; July 7, 184S— J. S. Rockwell first United States marshal; Alarch 18, 1859 — Erasmus Foote elected first judge of Alunicipal Court; election later declared unconstitutional and James A. Alallory, then district attorney, appointed judge; 1872 — Courthouse, cost $1,000,000; June 29, 1889— Jury commission; April 19, 1910 — Civil courts. Dancing. — October, 1856 — First academy, Prof. L. W. Vizay; November 26, 1910 — People's dances, Auditorium. Debate, Liquor.— April 30, 1909— Rose-Dickie. John Dietz, Cameron Dam Hero. — April 28, 1905 — Seventeen Alihvaukeeans sworn in to arrest Dietz; October 8, 1910 — Captured. Dime Museum. — December 31, 1SS9 — Closed. Disasters. — Alay 7, 1S75 — Steamer Schiller lost off England; Joseph Sehlitz, Henry Friend, Herman Zinkeisen, Marcus Stein and Airs. Alarie Millner and child of Alihvaukee lost ; April 20, 1S93 — AYaterAvorks crib disaster, fifteen lost; Alarch 1, 1892 — Seven killed in AA-reck in Alilwaukee road yards; Feb ruary 4, 1895 — Three droAvned AA'hen car ran into open draAV at Kinnickinnic bridge ; Alay 29. 1914 — Air. and Airs. Henry Freeman saA-ed from the steamer Empess of Ireland, lost in St. LaAvrence Rher. Drama. — 1 850-56 — Albany Hall, on site of Chamber of Commerce ; Alarch 24, 1862, burned. February, 1852 — Young's Hall completed; February 17, 1852, burned; Alarch, 1853, rebuilt; April 8, 1853, opened AA'ith the production of "The Czar and the Ship Carpenter," by the Alusical Society; June 21, 1859, burned. 1860 — Academy of Alusic ; 1869, leased to Young Alen's Association, became first public library. January 10, 1865 — Daniel Bandmann. January 31, 1865 — Alusic Hall dedicated; 1869, name changed to Academy of Alusic. October 21, 186S— Stadt Theater, Third Street, dedicated. August 29, 1889— Bijou Opera House. August 17, 1871 — Grand Opera House opened AA'ith production of "Alartha" by the Philharmonic Society. April 16, 1890 — Booth and Alodjeska played at Grand Opera House. April 6, 1890 — Ernest Possart, German actor, first appearance. 1891— Pabst Theater; 1890— Davidson Theater; 1909— Drama Club. Alarch 20, 1910 — Hechvig Beringer 's golden jubilee at Pabst Theater. Alay 21, 1915 — Liuhvig Kreiss silver jubilee, Pabst Theater. Druids.— August 22, 1853— Walhalla Grove, No. 2. Earthquake. — August 31, 1886. Eight-Hour Day.— Alay 9, 1890— Carpenters' demand granted. Epidemics.— Cholera, 1849—104 die; Ship fever, September, 1850—37 die; Smallpox, 1871—774 die; 1872—217 die; 1894-5— 2G8 die; rioting during removal of patients to isolation hospital. Exposition Building.— September 6, 1881— Opened; June 4, 1905, burned. Famous Sayings. — 1898 — "There are some things worse than Avar; some BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 193 things better than money." — Senator John L. Mitchell in debate on question of declaring war on Spain after the destruction of the battleship Maine. Father of Weather Bureau. — November 1, 1870 — Increase Allen Lapham. Federal Building.— April 22, 1899— Opened. Fire Department. — December, 1836 — First fire, Samuel Brown's residence. Cherry Street, between Second and Third streets; 1837 — Volunteer Hook and Ladder Co.; 1839 — "Neptune, No. 1," first fire engine; 1840 — Second com pany; 1844 — Third company; February, 1869 — Alarm system; March, 1874 — Paid department established; February, 1878 — Relief fund established; August 17, 1885— Thomas A. Clancy joined Engine Co. No. 4; 1858-1867— Jobst H. Buening, first chief ; December 2, 1877 — Fire insurance patrol ; 1889 — Henry Haerter, first fireman pensioned; September 4, 1889 — Alayor BroAvn christened Cataract; 1885 — Fire and Police Commission; Thomas Shea, Gen F. C. Winkler, Jacob Knoernschild, Jerome R. Brigham ; April 10, 1915 — First fire engine placed on Jones Island. Fires. — April 6, 1845 — First big fire burned block bounded by Broadway, East Water, Huron and Michigan streets ; August 24, 1854 — Block bounded by Broadway, Alichigan, Huron and East Water streets, old Alitchell Bank, Tre- mont House, United States Hotel at East Water and Huron streets, and four livery stables on BroadAvay destroyed. January 18, 1851 — Block bounded by Broadway, Erie, East Water and Chicago streets ; March 20, 1860 — Twenty stores on AYisconsin Street; January 1, 1863 — Camp Siegel barracks, three soldiers killed; November 15, 1869 — Gaiety Theater, three killed; February 2, 1865— ATan Etta, Treedman & Co.'s tobacco factory; October 23, 1865— Block on Wisconsin Street betAveen Broadway and Milwaukee streets ; October 10, 1871 — Refugees from Chicago fire came to Milwaukee ; January 10, 1883 — NeAA-hall House, northwest corner of BroadAvay and Alichigan streets ; 90 to 100 killed; October 20, 1883— First Assistant Chief George M. Linkman joined department; October 26, 1913 — Goodyear Rubber Co. Building, 380 East AVater Street; nine firemen killed and seventeen injured; October 28, 1892 — Twelve blocks in the Third Ward; started in Union Oil Co. store on East Water Street and burned to the lake and the river; tAvo firemen killed, two women died from excitement ; loss, $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 ; Milwaukee 's most disastrous fire; April 9, 1894 — Davidson Theater burned; Third Asst. Chief August Janssen and eight other firemen killed ; fifteen firemen injured ; Alarch 28, 1895 — Grand Avenue, Landauer Bros, wholesale dry goods house, loss $1,000,000 ; July 18, 1899— Hotel Grace, Park and Reed streets, one fire man killed and six injured; February 3, 1903 — Schwaab Stamp and Seal Co., 372-4 East Water Street; nitric acid gas caused death of Chief James Foley Capt. AndreAV White and Pipeman EdAvard Hogan and Thomas Droney ; Asst. Chief Thomas A. Clancy and twelve firemen overcome; February 24, 1905 — Lieut. Charles Dressel killed by fall from hosecart; February 13, 1909 — H. W. Johns-Manville Co., Clybourn Street, fire firemen killed, one employe killed and several firemen injured; January 3, 1910 — American Bridge Co., Seventeenth Street and St. Paul Avenue, four firemen killed; October 29, 1910 — Phoenix International Light Co., 317 Chestnut Street, one fireman J (M" - ' f V Mi - / i ' — • *¦ ' TABLET ERECTED ON FIRST WISCONSIN NATIONAL BANK BUILDING, CORNER AYISCONSIN AND MASON STREETS The first white boy born in Milwaukee was Charles Milwaukee Sivyer AA'hose parents resided on the site now occupied by the First Wisconsin National Bank. He died at Los Angeles, California, in October, 1921, at the age of eighty -five, and AA'as buried in Mihvaukee. BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 195 killed; Alarch 24, 1911 — Aliddleton Alanufacturing Company, 354 BroadAvay, fire firemen killed; Alarch 19, 1914 — Windsor Hotel, one life lost. First Bank Chartered. — 1839 — Wisconsin Alarine & Fire Insurance Co. (now Alarine National Bank). First Barbecue. — January 1, 1841 — Honor of Harrison and Tyler's election. First Blacksmith Shop. — 1835 — D. W. Patterson. First Block Pavement. — 1861 — West Water Street from Clybourn Street to Grand Avenue. First Brewery. — 1840 — Owens & Pawlett. First Brick.— September, 1835— Nelson Olin. First Bridge. — Built by Byron Kilbourn across the Alenomonee to connect Chicago road and Kilbourntown (west side). First Commissioners of Public Works. — Alay 10, 1869 — C. Latham Sholes, Henry Alillman and James Reynolds. In April, 1871, Mr. Reynolds resigned; succeeded by Jacob ATelten. First City Attorney. — 1846 — Charles E. Jenkins. First City Clerk.— 1846— A. H. Bielfeld. First City Comptroller. — 1852 — Cicero Comstock. First City Directory. — February 10, 1847 — Julius P. B. AlcCabe; April, 1881, A. G. AYright began publication of city directory. First Electric Car.— April 3, 1890— Wells Street line. First City Engineer. — Alay 20, 1869 — Theodore C. Brown. First Dam. — 1842 — Built on Alihvaukee River for Rock River Canal Co., by Capt. John Anderson. First City Treasurer. — 1846 — Robert Allen. First Commissioner of Health. — April, 1877 — Dr. I. H. Stearns. First Commissioners of the Public Debt. — 1861-65 — Alexander Mitchell ; 1864-72— Charles H. Larkin; 1871-86— Guido Pfister. First Constable. — October, 1835 — Sciota Evans. First Express Line. — 1852 — Arthur Flanders, over Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien Road. First Foundry. — 1842— Egbert Alosley, Loring Dewey and Stephen New hall. First German Settler. — 1835— Wilhelm Strothman. First Grocer, Wholesale.— 1845— P. W. Badgley. First Hotel.— 1835— Triangle, East Water Street, Jacques Vieau; 1836, called Cottage Inn. First Lighthouse.— 1838. First Match Factory.— 1844— R. W. Pierce. First Marshal. — 1846-7 — Thomas H. Fanning. First Mayor. — 1846 — Solomon Juneau. First 'Milwaukee Surgeon in the Philippines. — 1899 — Dr. John R. McDill. 7'7 ¦ '/ First Motion-Picture Theatre.— July 10, 1906— Saxe Bros., N. E. Grand (J Avenue and Second Street. First Murder.— November, 1836— Indian named Alanitou killed by Joseph Scott and Cornelius Bennett at southeast corner of Michigan and East Water 196 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE streets, murderers escaped from jail; Scott hanged in Indiana; Bennett never found. First Natatorium. — February 14, 1890. First Newspaper. — July 14, 1836 — The Advertiser, democratic, published on the site of the Republican House by Daniel H. Richards ; June 9, 1847, absorbed by the Evening Wisconsin, founded by William E. Cramer. First Passenger Conductor. — November 21, 1850 — EdAvin Bridgeman of the Alilwaukee & Mississippi. First Pier. — 1842 — Built by Horatio Stevens of New York, foot of Huron Street. First Planing Mill. — 1843 — Robert Luscombe and John T. Perkins. First Poet.— 1836— Egbert H. Smith, Oak Creek. First Postmaster. — 1835 — Solomon Juneau; August 7, 1843, removed; suc ceeded by Josiah A. Noonan. First President of the Common Council. — 1874 — H. M. Benjamin; served until 187S. First Sailing Vessel. — 1779 — British sloop Felicity, Capt. Samuel Robert son, A-is'ted Alihvaukee. First Steamboat. — June 17, 1835 — United States. First Survey of Lots.— 1834— By William S. TroAvbridge. First Tannery.— 1848— Pfister & Vogel. First Tax Commissioner. — 1869-72 — AlattheAv Keenan. First Type Foundry. — December, 1856. First Vessel Built Here. — 1836 — Sloop Wenona, by George Barger for AYilliam BroAA-n. First Water Registrar. — 1872-4 — AlattheAv Keenan (secretary board of Avater commissioners). First Woodenware Factory. — 1844 — C. E. Woolsey. Five Times Mayor.— 1898, 1900, 1902, 1904, 1908— David Stuart Rose. Flood.— November 2, 1858; March 23, 1865. Flushing Tunnel.— September 8, 1884— Finished ; September 18, 1888, first serA'ice. Foundation. — May 24, 1915 — Alihvaukee Foundation organized at meeting of Wisconsin Trust Company directors. Gas Works. — November 12, 1852 — First jet lighted. Gatherings.— June 8, 1880; August 26, 1889— G. A. R.; June 17, 1888— First national skat tournament; June 20, 1889 — Saengerfest, July 23, 1893 — Turnfest; 1896— Semi-centennial ; 1898— Carnival ; August 3-7, 1909— Home coming; September 1910 — American Health Association; August 4, 1913 — Perry Centennial; June 11, 1914 — Comptrollers. German Association. — Alay 8, 1880 — Organized to protect immigrants. Harugari. — February 18, 1855 — Guttenberg Lodge, No. 57. Home for the Aged. — September, 1878 — Established by the Little Sisters of the Poor. Home for the Friendless. — October, 1867. Hospitals. — July, 1848 — St. Alary 's, at Jackson and Oneida streets; August 3, 1863 — Alihvaukee, established by the late Rev. William Passavant; Octo- BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 197 ber 15, 1877 — City (isolation), Mitchell Street and Nineteenth Avenue; August, 1880 — County; Alay, 1888 — Johnston Emergency Hospital. House of Correction. — 1865 — Windlake Avenue. House Numbers. — April 24, 1865 — Property owners given ten days to number houses under penalty of $5. Humane Society. — December 5, 1879. Illumination. — April 5, 1880 — Streets lighted by electricity by Prof. C. H. Haskins ; February 28, 1890 — $600,000 municipal electric light plant plans before board of public Avorks. Immigration, Board of. — Alarch, 1879. Indians. — September 4, 1862 — Fear of Uprising; October, 1844 — Last annual dance. Industrial School for Girls. — February 11, 1875 — Alichigan Street; April 15, 1875 — Jackson Street; 1878, North Point. Infants' Home.— June 1, 1882. Insurance, Fire. — February, 1852 — Mihvaukee Alechanics; February 20, 1869 — Northwestern National ; Alarch, 1871 — Concordia. Insurance. Life. — November 18, 1858 — Northwestern Alutual Life Insurance Co. organized in Janes\-ille ; moved to Alihvaukee, March 7, 1859 — February 14, 1915, George W. Young, 50 years in its employ; October 1, 1915, occupied new building on Wisconsin Street ; April, 1910 — Old Line Life Insurance Com pany of America. Inventor of Typewriter. — 1868 — C. Latham Sholes. Investigations.— Alarch 3, 1905— Beef "trust;" March 9, 1905— Tenement houses; October 2, 1911; Senator Isaac Stephenson; July 13, 1914 — Vice com mission. Jenny Lind Club.— 1861. Jitneys. — February 6, 1915 — First license issued to AY. B. Putnam; May 2, 1915, Robert Stauss killed ; June 3, 1915, 1,000 licensed. Journalism. — 1910 — School founded at Alarquette University by Rev. J. E. Copus, S. J. Klondike Gold Excitement. — July 15, 1891 — NeAvs of discovery; Milwau- keeans prepare to leave for gold fields. Knights of Honor.— September 9, 1870— Milwaukee Lodge, No. 300. Knights of Pythias.— September 9, 1870— Alilwaukee Lodge, No. 1; May 21, 1890 — Wisconsin brigade, uniformed rank, organized ; July, 1890 — encamp ment. Labor. — February 20, 1887 — Federated Trades Council organized; August 14, 1887, received charter ; Alarch 7, 1890 — Eight-hour clay, building trades. Legion of Honor. — 1880 — Six subordinate councils. Library, Public— February 7, 1878— Established, taking over books of Young Alen's Association. Library and Museum Building.— 1898— Cost $627,674. Lincoln. — April 18, 1865 — Funeral services in memory of President Lincoln. Literary Workshop.— 1915— 420 Marshall Street. Lynching.— September 6, 1861— Marshall Clark lynched following murder of Darbey Carney. 198 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Man Girl. — Alay 4, 1914 — Ralph Kerwiniec discovered to be Aliss Cora Anderson. Marine. — 1847 — Dry dock, floating; slip, February, 1877, Wolf & David son; Alay 4, 1877 — Life saving station; 1838 — Lighthouse, foot of Wisconsin Street; 1855 — Lighthouse, North Point; November 1, 1870— U. S. Signal service; January 5, 1890 — Whale Club; 1908 — Strike of lake seamen, fire men, oilers, watertenders, cooks and stewards against Lake Carriers' Asso ciation ; December 5, 1912 — Lightship, three miles off Wisconsin Street ; May 15, 1915 — Interstate Commerce Commission divorces lake-rail lines: order effective December 1, 1915. Marine Disasters.— June 17, 1852— S. P. Griffith burned ; 322 lost ; October 24, 1856 — Steamer Toledo foundered off Port AYashington; thirty lost; Sep tember 8, 1860 — Steamer Lady Elgin lost off Winnetka, 111. ; about 300 droAvned ; April 9, 1868 — Steamer Sea Bird burned off Waukegan, 111. ; seventy- three drowned; October 14, 1872 — Steamer Lac La Belle foundered in Lake Michigan; seven lost; September 15, 1873 — Steamer Ironsides foundered in Lake Michigan ; Captain SAveetman and sixteen others lost ; September 9, 1875 — Bark Tanner AA-recked; Captain HoAvard droAvned; crew of nine saved by a volunteer life-saving creAv, Henry M. Lee, N. A. Peterson, Burnt Oleson, Henry Spark and John McKenna, assisted by the revenue cutter Andy Johnson and the tug F. C. Maxon; October 16, 1880 — Steamer Alpena foundered in Lake Alichigan ; about 100 lost ; Alarch 19, 1885 — Steamer Lake Michigan crushed by ice in Lake Michigan; no lives lost; October 20, 1887 — Steamer Vernon found ered; tAventy-tAvo lost; October 30, 1888 — Explosion on tug Lawrence kills Capt. John Sullh'an and three others; May 18, 1894 — Schooner AI. J. Cum- mings lost off Alihvaukee ; six drowned; January 21, 1895 — Steamer Chicora lost in Lake Mchigan; thirty-six drowned; September 9, 1910 — Car ferry Pere Marquette No. 18 foundered in Lake Alichigan; tAventy-eight lost; Octo- er 8, 1913 — Explosion, cutter Tuscarora; November 7, 1913 — Storm on great lakes ; 244 sailors droAvned and seventeen vessels lost. Masonic. — July 5, 1843 — Alihvaukee Lodge, No. 22. Medical Society County. — 1846-53, lapsed; November, 1879, revived. Merchants' and Manufacturers' Association. — Alarch, 1861 — Organized as Alerchants' Association. Later changed to Alihvaukee Association of Com merce. Military. — 1845 — AYashington Guards; Alilwaukee (German) Riflemen; 1854, reorganized as the City Rifles; 1847 — AlihA'aukee (German) Dragoons; 1848 — Alilwaukee City Guards; 1854 — Alilwaukee Union Sarsfield Guards; National Guards; 1855, reorganized as the Union Guards; July 16, 1855, again reorganized as the Alihvaukee Light Guard; 1856 — Washington Artillery; 1857 — Alilwaukee Light Guard Cadets; 1858 — reorganized as Alilwaukee Cadets; 1861, changed name to Mihvaukee Zouaves; July 13, 1861, mustered into the U. S. service as Company B, Fifth AYisconsin Regiment; August 3, 1864; mustered out; 1857 — Black Yagers; entered U. S. service for three months as Company D, First AYisconsin Regiment; mustered out at expira tion of that term; 1858 — Alontgomery Guards; July 16, 1861, mustered into U. S. service as Company B, Fifth Wisconsin Regiment; mustered out at BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 199 the close of Civil war; 1858 — Juneau Guards; 1858 — Mihvaukee Cavalry Company; 1859 — Green Yagers; October 10, 1861 — Second Wisconsin Bat tery; June 15, 1869 — Company A, Sheridan Guards; September 14, 1874 — Company K, Kosciuszko Guards; June 20, 1879 — Company L. South Side Turner Rifles; April 22, 1880 — Light Horse Squadron organized; April 25, 1884 — Sheridan, Kosciuszko and Lincoln Guards and South Side Turner Rifles organized into Fourth Battalion, W. N. G. ; 1887 — Company I, Rusk Guard ; October 24. 1888, mustered into National Guard as Company E ; January 19, 1889— Company F, Badger State Rifles; June 25, 1898— Fourth Infantry at Oshkosh riots; July 26, 1898 — Company D, Scofield Guard; February 28, 1899 — Fourth Regiment mustered out at Anniston, Alabama. Milk Famine.— July 3, 1914. Milwaukee Lyceum. — January 10, 1839 — Lucius I. Barber, president. Milwaukee to Liverpool. — July 21, 1856 — Schooner Dean Richmond sailed with 14,000 bushels of wheat; arrived December, 29. Monuments and Statues. — November 7, 1885 — Washington; Gift of Miss Elizabeth Plankinton ; July 6, 1887 — Juneau : Charles T. Bradley and William H. Metcalf ; November 15, 1887— Ericson : Mrs. Joseph T. Gilbert ; March 25, 1901— Elk: B. P. O. E.— June 19, 1905— Kosciuszko : Popular subscription; June 28, 1898 — Soldiers : Popular subscription ; July 14, 1908 — Schiller-Goethe : Popular subscription; June 26, 1909 — Burns: James A. Bryden; August 1921, Baron von Steuben. Music. — January, 1843 — Beethoven Society; E. D. Holton, President; May 1, 1850 — Alusical society; Jacob Aiahler, president; 1840 — First music hall built at Third and Chestnut streets by John Hustis; July 23, 1858 — Lieder- taf el ; John Alarr, president ;. November 20, 1877 — Arion Musical club ; June 16, 1859 — Deutscher Alaennerverein, originally the Catholic Young Alen's As sociation; September 17, 1871 — Nunnemacher 's Grand Opera House (now Pabst theatre); "Alartha" presented by Philharmonic Society; March 29, 1905— "Parsifal," in English. Museum, Public. — April 14, 1882 — Accepted collection of Wisconsin Natural History Society. Odd Fellows.— 1846— Kneeland Lodge, No. 5. Odotological Society. — August 25, 1878 — To protect and further interests of dentists. Orphan Asylums. — Alay 9, 1848 — St. Rose's (Catholic) ; January 4, 1850 — Protestant; June 12, 1877— St. Arincent's. Paper Mill. — 1848 — North side of Menomonee River, block west of AYest Water Street bridge ; owned by Ludington & Garland ; destroyed by a freshet in 1864. Parks. — June 1, 1864 — Quentin's park opened; April 4, 1865 — Juneau park established; 1889 — Park law authorized, $1,000,000 bond issue; 1889 — Park Commission : Christian Wahl, Calvin E. Lewis, Charles Manegold, Jr., Louis Auer and John Bentley. Pfeil Funeral Pyre.— October 22, 1855. Phonological Institute for Deaf Mutes. — January, 1878 — 594 National AA'enue. 200 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Police Department. — September 10, 1855 — Organized AA'ith Chief William Beck and eleven patrolmen; chief's salary, $800; men, $30 a month; October 26, 1885— John T. Janssen made chief. May 7, 1921, Jacob G. Laubenheimer made chief. Thirteenth City (Census 1920) 13. Alihvaukee 457,147 12. San Francisco 506,676 11. Buffalo 506,775 10. Los Angeles 576,673 9. Pittsburgh 588,343 8. Baltimore 733,826 7. Boston 74S.060 6. St. Louis 772,897 5. Cleveland 796,841 4. Detroit 993,678 3. Philadelphia 1,823,779 2. Chicago 2,701.705 1. New York City 5,620,048 Population. — 1915, estimated — 41 9,054. GroAvth— 1S50— 20,061; 1860—45,246; 1870—71,440; 1880—115,587; 1890 —204,468; 1900—285,315; 1910—373,857; 1920—457,147. Press Club, English. — September 7, 1910 — Silver jubilee ; Theodore Roose velt guest of honor; "The Big Stick" published, HarloAve Randall Hoyt, editor; Fred AY. Luening, associate editor. Press Club, German.— 1887. Postal Service. — 1835 — First post office, soutliAvest corner East Water and AYisconsin streets; April 13, 1915 — Louis Alanz a letter carrier for fifty years; aged 80 years April 9, 1915; oldest letter carrier in the United States. Pound. — Alay 12, 1865 — Thirty coavs Avere reported in Caleb Wall's Seventh AYard pound. Railroads, Steam. — 1S47 — Alihvaukee & Waukesha chartered; 1851 — Alil waukee & Alississippi finished to Waukesha ; 1S54 — Finished to Aladison ; 1S57 — Built to Prairie Du Chien; 1854 — Mihvaukee & WatertoAvn built from Brookfield to Oconomowoc ; 1854 — Line south from Fond du Lac, iioav oAvned by Chicago & Northwestern ; 1856 — Alihvaukee & La Crosse begun ; 1858 — Reached La Crosse; 1866— Union depot, Reed Street; 1879-80— AYest Alihvau kee shops; December 19, 1886 — First train ran into neAv Union passenger station, betAveen Third and Fourth and Everett and Clybourn streets, at 5 ;45 p. m., Sunday; June 24, 1889 — General passenger and freight departments of the Alilwaukee road moved to Chicago ; December 10, 1889 — NortliAvestern depot, Wisconsin Street ; June 16, 1905 — Passes abolished. Railways, Street. — July 1859 — River and Lake Shore City Raihvay; Alay 30, 1S59, first tAvo cars operated AA'ith four horses each, from East Water Street bridge to Juneau Avenue; one car's receipts first day Ayere $38; Alarch, 1865— Alihvaukee City; 1874— Cream City; June 1, 1874 — West Side; April 17, 1890 — Pittsburgh syndicate bought Cream City; April 3, 1890 — First electric car, AY ells Street; February 4, 1905 — Public Service Building planned; BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 201 February 11, 1905 — Henry C. Payne, president Cream City; October, 1905 — Alilwaukee-Northern organized ; October 28, 1907, first train to Cedarburg ; November 2, 1907, Port AYashington ; September 22, 1908, Sheboygan ; February 1, 1915 — Railroad commiss:on rescinds order directing Electric Co. to sell thirteen tickets for 50 cents; June 14, 1915 — U. S. Supreme Court upholds Circuit Court order in thirteen-tickets-for-50-cents (coupon) case. Real Estate. — Alay 22, 1905 — Raihvay Exchange (Herman) building, sold for $400,000; Alarch 3, 1890— Pabst Building site leased for 99 years. Riots. — April 6, 1845 — Rev. E. Leahy attacked in Spring Street (Grand Avenue) Alethodist Church and at U. S. Hotel ; Alay 8, 1845 — Bridge ; Alarch 4, 1850 — Residence of State Senator John B. Smith in Third Ward mobbed by crowd which objected to a measure he had introduced in the Legislature and which became known as "the blue liquor laAv"; June 24, 1861 — Bank; Alay 4, 1886 — Bay ATieAv; five killed; Alarch, 1889 — Chinese mobbed; August 22, 1893— Unemployed ; Alay 3, 1896— Street raihvay. Roosevelt Shot. — October 14, 1912 — Theodore Roosevelt shot by John Schranck while leaA'ing Hotel Gilpatrick. Royal Arcanum. — December 29, 1877 — Alpha Council, No. 43 ; February 2. 1878, Allen Council. Sane Fourth Commission. — 1911. Schools, — 1835 — Private schools established; 1845 — Thirteen schools, four public; 356 pupils out of 1,781 children of school age; 1885 — State Normal School ; August, 1857 — Three high schools established ; 1860 — abolished ; No vember, 1859 — Normal class established; 1859 — Rufus King first superin tendent; 1879 — First kindergarten; June 7, 1904 — Frank AI. Harbach, sec retary; Alarch 18, 1890 — Supreme court decides against reading bible in public schools. Settlement. — 1789 — Jean Baptiste Alirandeau and Jacques A'ieau arrived ; September 14, 1818 — Solomon Juneau located on the site of the Wisconsin National Bank, northAvest corner of AYisconsin and East Water streets ; 1833 — Alorgan L. Alartin of Green Bay became a partner of Juneau; 1834 — George H. Walker located on Walker s Point, south of the Alihvaukee River ; 1835 — Laid out as a village ; 1835 — Byron Kilbourn bought a tract on the west side ; September, 1835 — First toAvn meeting held at Juneau's home; May 4, 1835 — Charles AlihA'aukee Sivyer, first Avhite boy born in Alihvaukee; October 10, 1835 — Alihvaukee H. Smith, daughter of Uriel B. and Lucy C. Smith, born; first Anglo-Saxon girl born in Alilwaukee ; December 25, 1837 — Louis Bleyer, son of Henry Bleyer, first German child born in Alihvaukee ; September 12, 1844 — Aid. Henry Smith arrived from Stark County, Ohio, AA'ith his parents, tAvo brothers and sister; January 31, 1846 — Charter adopted; July 5, 1869 — Old Settlers' Club organized. Slave Rescued. — 1842 — Caroline Quarles ; Alarch 11, 1858— Joshua Glover, a runaAvay slave, rescued by abolitionists led by Sherman AI. Booth, editor of the Free Democrat. Slot Machines.— March 22, 1905— Destroyed by Sheriff Cary; June 9, 1915, destroyed by Sheriff Alelms. 202 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Socialists. — 1910 — Emil Seidel elected mayor; 1910 — ATictor L. Berger elected congressman from Fifth District. Soldiers' Home. — Alarch 31, 1864 — Opened; June 28, 1865 — Great fair raised $110,000 in ten days for neAv building. Sons of Hermann. — April 20, 1848 — Alilwaukee Lodge, No. 1. Spelling, in Early Days. — AliiiAvaki, AlineAvaki, Alaunawaukee, Aieloaki, Alel- leoki, Aleloaky, Alilouaqui, AlihA'aukie, Alihvalky. St. Andrew's Society. — January 25, 1859 — Alexander Mitchell, president. Stockyards. — 1870 — Established by Mihvaukee road. Strikes.— Alarch 10, 1890— SAvitchmen; Alay 15, 1905— Alolders. Swimming record. — August 17, 1894 — AYorld 's record, eighty yards; fifty seconds, George J. AYhittaker. Tax, Income. — Alarch 19, 1865 — Incomes for year; Alexander Alitchell, $53,071; Guido Pfister, $42,221; Angus Smith, $30,000; 1913— Largest tax payer, Patrick Cudahy, $9,556.36; largest Avoman taxpayer, Charlotte Hartig, $5,128; 1914 — Largest corporation tax, Sehlitz BreAving Co., $103,852. Titanic Victim.— April 15, 1912— Capt. E. G. Crosby among the 1,517 victims. Telegraph.- — January 17, 1848 — First dispatch sent to The Evening Wis consin from the Chicago Journal ; ' ' Chicago and Mihvaukee united. Telephone. — 1 877 — John S. George, first subscriber ; first exchange, 411 Broachvay. Traveling Men. — December 9, 1893 — Post B. Travelers' Protective Asso ciation ; June 29, 1895 — Alihvaukee Council, No. 54, United Commercial Trav elers of America. Turners. — July 18, 1853 — Turnverein AlihA'aukee. United Workmen.— Alarch 23, 1877— Schiller Lodge, No. 21. Visitors.— 1679— La Salle ; October 7, 1698— De St. Cosme ; 1778— Charles de Langlade; April 28, 1853— Ole Bull; April 28, 1853— Adelina Patti (at the age of 13) ; September 30, 1859 — Abraham Lincoln; October 14, 1860 — Stephen A. Douglas; January 23, 1865 — Ralph AValdo Emerson; February 5, 1865 — John B. Gough ; 1S65 — Artemus Ward ; 1865 — Josh Billings ; September 4, 1865, June 9, 1880— Gen. U. S. Grant ; October 2, 1865— Gen. AY T. Sherman ; NoA'ember 2, 1870 — James A. Garfield; January 2, 1872 — Grand Duke Alexis; September 12, 1878— President Rutherford B. Hayes; 1880— Henry Ward Beecher; July 9, 1S87— Earl of Aberdeen; October 6, 1887 — President Grover Cleveland and bride, Frances Folsom Cleveland; June 20, 1889 — June 28, 1899, September 1, 1901, April 4, 1903, September 7, 1910, October 14, 1912— Theo dore Roosevelt ; April 10, 1890— Rev. T. De Witt Talmage ; January 12, 1890 — Princess Engalitcheff ; Alarch 9, 1890 — George Francis Train; March 15, 1S90— Bill Nye: 1890-1910— Nelly Bly; October 9, 1894— October 16-17, 1899 — President William AIcKinley; October 21, 1896 — Carl Schurz; January 11, 1898— Clieiro ; February 9, 1898— James J. Corbett ; February 10, 1899— Wal ter A. AYyckoff; October 26, 1900— James AVhitconib Riley; March 4, 1902 — Prince Henry of Prussia ; April 10, 1903 — George Kennan ; June 5, 1904 — Alayor Weaver of Philadelphia, AA'ith liberty bell; October 26, 1904— Elbert Hubbard; NoA'ember 3, 1904 — Gen. Nelson A. Aliles; January 14, 1905 — BEGINNINGS, DATES AND EVENTS 203 Alelba ; Alarch 16, 1905 — Harry K. Thaw and wife, on their honeymoon trip ; January 25, 1905 — Judge Ben. B. Lindsey; April 21, 1906 — Admiral Robert E. Peary; October 16, 1906— Sir Thomas Lipton; Alarch 2, 1907— Edward Payson Weston; Alay 29, 1907 — Gen. Tamemato Kuroki; October 16, 1907 — Sir Thomas Lipton; November 7, 1907 — Senator Benjamin R. Tillman; April 21, 1908— Dr. Frederick A. Cook; February 9, 1909— Admiral Robley D. Evans; February 10, 1909 — James Bryce; Alarch 6, 1909 — Count Johann von Bernstorff ; November 12, 1909— Opie Read; October 21, 1910— Karl Lieb- knecht; November 17, 1910 — AYoodrow Wilson; December 8, 1910 — Charles W. Eliot; February 20, 1912 — Attorney-General Wickersham; February 8, 1913 — Capt. Roald Amundsen; August 9, 1913 — Cardinal Gibbons; January 23, 1914— Aliss Anne Alorgan ; 1912, 1915— William H. Taft. War. — August 6, 1847 — Alexican war enlistments; April 15, 1861 — AYar meeting called to order by Dr. Lemuel Weeks; April 25, 1861 — Seven com panies recruited and assigned to the First AYisconsin Regiment; April 23, June 9, 1861 — Camp Scott, north side of Grand Avenue, between TAvelfth and Fourteenth streets; Alay 8, 1861 — Flag, gift of the women of Alilwaukee, presented to the First Wisconsin Volunteers by Airs. George H. Walker ; July 2, 1861 — First engagement at Falling Waters; George Drake first Alihvaukee soldier killed; February 13, 1862 — Alilwaukee celebrates capture of Fort Donaldson on February 12, 1862 ; October 19, 1862 — State draft ; November 1863 — National draft; October 19, 1861 — Alihvaukee Ladies' Association for the aid of military hospitals organized; February 27, 1865 — City enjoined from paying bounties; 1898 — Camp Harvey, state fair grounds, Spanish- American war ; July 28, 1914 — Alany Alilwaukeeans marooned in Europe AA'hen great Avar broke out. Waterworks. — October 24, 1873 — River supply; September 14, 1874, lake; July 21, 1914 — Record consumption, 65,975,480 gallons. Weather. — June 4, 1816 — Blizzard; June 17, 1816 — Snow storm; (knoAvn as the year that had no summer) ; January 1, 1846 — 35 to 40 below zero ; June 2, 1866 — Tornado ; Alay 2, 1875 — 25 below zero coldest Alay day in history of weather bureau ; Alarch 19, 1881 — Record-breaking snoAv storm ; Alay 31, 1889 — SnoAv; June 23, 1892 — forty-one days' rain ended; Alay 18, 1894 — SnoAv; May 24, 1901— Snow ; Alay 27, 1907— Snow. Whisky Cases. — October, 1875— July, 1876. Wisconsin's Birthday.— Alay 29, 1848 — Wisconsin admitted to the Union. Woman's Industrial Exchange. — 1882. World's Fairs. — Alay 20, 1890 — Wisconsin commissioners to Chicago AYorld 's Fair appointed; August 9, 1904 — Mihvaukee day; June 29, 1904 — Wisconsin building at St. Louis presented to the management. Youngest Mayor. — 1906 — Sherburn Alerrill Becker, aged 29 years. Young Men's Association. — December 8, 1847 — J. H. Van Dyke, president. Y. M. C. A.— December 22, 1876— Organized ; Alay 3, 1890— German branch opened. Y. W. C. A.— September, 1892. Zoo.— 1905. PART II INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL HARBOR AND RAILROADS BANKING AND FINANCE CHAPTER XVII THE ERA OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS Along in the middle thirties a great waA'e of enthusiasm swept over the country in favor of public improvements. Building of railroads, canals, and new towns everywhere were proposed. The legislatures of the older states Avere besieged with demands for new lines of communication, improvement of country roads, building of bridges and establishment of stage lines. The sentiment became so strong that the more conservative element of the com munities, both rural and urban, Avas overwhelmed and completely silenced for some years while the fever lasted. At the sessipn of the Territorial Legislature of Wisconsin, held in 1837 and the following years, the most important measures for internal improvements were discussed. "Numerous roads Avere ordered to be laid out, charters granted for railroads that were never built, ferries were licensed and dams pemitted on unnavigable streams," Avrites Aliss Kellogg in her "Story of Wisconsin." Petitions to the national government were sent asking for the improvement of harbors on Lake Alichigan and for the rivers flowing into the lake, for lighthouses and mail routes. "Two large projects for Avater- ways were vigorously promoted. These were the Mihvaukee and Rock River canal and the Fox- Wisconsin Improvement. The former was promoted by Alilwaukee capitalists, the latter by those of Green Bay. Both projects se cured land grants from Congress and both became seriously involved in political disputes. No work of importance was ever done on the Rock River project; the canal at Portage and the water control of the lower Fox River are the results of the Fox-Wisconsin improvement which, in 1872, was taken over by the Federal government. In fact the navigation of either route Avas possible only to light draft and small sized craft that could never compete in modern times with the rail carriers." Land Speculation. — The internal improvement craze was accompanied by an era of wild speculation in town sites. About the year 1836 the speculative madness reached its height. Men besieged the land office and purchased tracts of land from the Government at a $1.25 an acre which in a few days would be regularly staked out and platted into town sites, exhibiting in the highly colored drawings the public spirit and generosity of the promoters in provid ing public squares, church sites, and schoolhouse reservations. The prairies of Illinois, the forests of Wisconsin and the sand hills of Alichigan presented an almost unbroken chain of imaginary cities and villages which as yet were in a state of nature. 207 IP "J--"--J Jx ' ¦|Sii6'0-;£ a .« *$... EAST AVATER STREET, SOUTH OF AVISCOXSIX STREET, IX THE EARLY FORTIES j.A.SHourSLmv^ A BUSINESS HOUSE ON CHESTNUT STREET Corner of Fourth Street, occupied by Bauer & Steinmever until 187', THE ERA OF INTERNAL IAIPROYEAIENTS 209 Often in these pictorial prospectuses could be seen a flowing stream Avinding its romantic course through the heart of an ideal city thus creating Avater lots and AA-harfing facilities even though no stream existed on the spot. But Avhere a real stream, hoAvever diminutive, did find its way to the shores of the lake, no matter what Avas the character of the surrounding country, some enterprising promoter Avould hasten to the nearest land office and secure the tract at the Government price. "Then the desolate Avaste of sand and fens," says a historian of the period, 'hvas suddenly elevated into a m;ghty city AA'ith a projected harbor and lighthouse, railroads and canals, and in a short time the circumjacent lands were sold in lots. Not the puniest brook on the shore of Lake Alichigan Avas suffered to remain Avithout a city at its mouth, and AA'hoever Avill travel around the lake will find many a mighty mart staked out in spots suitable only for the habitations of wild beasts." Speculation in Milwaukee. — In a paper by Silas Chapman, read before the "Old Settlers' Club" in 1893, he graphically described the conditions pre vailing at that time. "Speculation ran rampant," he said, "prices of every- thing went upward, and this speculat'on culminated in 1836 by platting and throwing on the market lots, not only in cities and villages, but on mountain tops and under water. It mattered not where the real estate Avas, it became real to the speculator, and his credit if not his money was invested in it. It was supposed to be a fact that lots Avere platted and sold that were then and are to this day under Avater. It was nearly true of lots in Alilwaukee." The land AA'here our city is now located has just been surveyed and was an enticing field for speculation. The place was outside of civilization and could only be reached by tramp boats on the lake. The land was platted, the plats looked well on the map and the maps were ready. In all nearly 5,000 lots were in the market." "Then began the furious and reckless sale of lots," continues Chapman. "Sellers were as reckless as buyers, for everybody was a seller and everybody AA'as a buyer. There was no limit to the prices and expectation of prices. Lots Avere sold for a given price with a guarantee that within a named period they could be sold at a certain per cent advance. Mr. Juneau is said to have sold lots AA'ith such guarantee, and afterwards, according to his ability, honor ably redeemed his pledge." Alilwaukee recovered slowly from the madness of 1836. "It has since kept its real estate at a fair but not at a speculative value. ' ' Canal Building. — "The movement toward establishing steamboat naviga tion," says E. B. Usher, in his "History of Wisconsin," "by the route then uppermost in the minds of all southwestern AYisconsin, as well as Green Bay, began early. It obtained a footing in 1834 by the chartering of the Portage Canal Company by the Michigan Legislature." Morgan L. Martin, a leading citizen of Green Bay, Avas chiefly instrumental in procuring the charter AA'hich was to enable Daniel AYhitney to build the canal. In 1838, Martin was elected to the Wisconsin Territorial council AA'hich position he held until 1844, and Avas twice its president. In 1845, Alartin was a delegate to Congress and during that time he pro cured the first grant of lands to aid "the improvement," and in the years AA'EST AVATER STREET LOOKING NORTH FRO.AI SPRING STREET, NOAV GRAND AVENUE The original Caswell store and building to the left THE ERA OF INTERNAL IAIPROYEAIENTS 211 from 1851 to 1853 he lent his powerful aid to the Avork. When the state failed to complete the canal Alartin deAoted his whole energies and all the fortune he had made at Alilwaukee and Green Bay to render it a success. However, in spite of these efforts, it may be said that no more complete extinction of the great expectations and high hopes indulged in by the people of Wisconsin in regard to canals and waterAvays could be imagined than the Fox-Improve ment Company was shown to be in its hugely disappointing results. The Fox- Wisconsin Improvement. — From the time of the early explorers the portage from the upper waters of the Fox River to those of the Wisconsin Rher had been seen to be a reasonable possibility. The natural obstacles were not great, as only a boggy plain but 1^ miles in width separated the two rivers at the site of the modern City of Portage. The Fox River, however, was much broken by rapids, and until improvements could be made in its channel the naA'igation of that river for boats of considerable size would be impossible. For canoes and boats of fight draft a limited communication could be kept up. The early explorers found it answered their purpose, and it was across this portage that Joliet and Alarquette, on their, voyage for the discovery of the Alississippi River in 1673, carried their canoes from the Fox to the Wisconsin. In 1836, the Illinois and Alichigan canal to connect Chicago with the Illi nois River at La Salle was begun, about the time that the Territory of Wis consin was organized, and it was opened for navigation soon after Wisconsin was admitted as a state in the LTnion, in 1848. The people of Wisconsin, haA' ing this example before them, began an agitation for an improvement of the Fox Rh'er by Congress, and a canal to connect the two rivers at the ancient portage. In 1846, a grant of land in aid of the project was made by Congress. But the board of public works, having this enterprise in charge, soon ran the state in debt, and in 1851 it Avas announced the work would have to stop on account of the sIoav sales of land. Work Continued by a Citizen of Green Bay. — At this critical juncture Alorgan L. Alartin, a citizen of Green Bay, offered to do the work from Green Bay to Lake Winnebago through the channel of the Fox River, the cutting through the portage plain having already been completed. This proposal was accepted by the Legislature and Alartin began his task with a large force of men, being given state scrip as the work progressed, which was to be redeemed from the proceeds of land sales and prospective tolls. Hostile legislation interfered with this arrangement, but in spite of many discourage ments the Fox and Wisconsin Improvement Company, as it was called, sent its first boat through on its passage from Pittsburgh to Green Bay in 1856. A year or two previously Congress had increased the land grant to the company, but as the enterprise still lacked capital for its future operations, the Avhole enterprise AA'as foreclosed by creditors, and the corporate title Avas changed to the "Green Bay and Alississippi Canal Company." In 1872 the entire plant was sold to the United States government. Subsequent Status of the Work. — "The Fox- Wisconsin improvement," said the late R. G. Thwaites in his book, "Story of Wisconsin," "cost the state and nation millions of dollars but it has never been a complete success. The 212 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE loAver Fox has by means of an elaborate system of locks been made navigable for boats of a feAv feet draught betAveen Green Bay and Omro, but the traffic- is slight, the chief advantage accruing to the thrifty manufacturing towns of Neenah, Alenasha, Appleton, Kaukauna and Depere, AA'here splendid Avater poAvers have been incidentally developed by the goA-ernment works. "From Omro to Portage there is a slight spasmodic freight traffic for small flat-bottomed steamers of not over three feet draught. The canal at Portage, fast falling into decay, is sometimes not opened throughout an entire season (1887). The AYisconsin River is clogged Avith shifting sandbars and wliolly unreliable for vessels of three feet draught except at high Avater. It is seldom used noAv that logging on the Upper Wisconsin has been greatly re duced in extent ; and a government engineer has made the assertion that the only way to 'improve' it for a national Avaterway, is 'to either lath-and-plaster- the bottom or construct a canal alongside all the Avay from Portage to Prairie du Chien.' " Concerning the general sentiment of the people regarding the Fox-Wis consin improA'ement Air. ThAA-aites remarks : "In early days, there Avas no doubt AA'hatever in the minds of the Wisconsin public, that this projected improve ment, apparently so feasible, could be easily constructed and the historic streams be made to bear monster Avar and freight vessels through the heart of the state, between the Great Lakes and the great river artery of the con tinent; but it is iioav the general opinion that the difficulties in the Avay are too great to be OA-ercome, chiefly owing to the peculiar character of the Wisconsin River, and 'improvement talk,' so common in former years, is iioav no longer heard in our legislatures and political coiiA'entioiiS; " The Milwaukee and Rock River Canal. — A charter for the Mihvaukee and Rock River Canal Company Avas obtained in 1S3S from the territorial legis lature, as previous efforts to secure Congressional aid had proved a failure. Congress, hoAveA-er, finally voted a land grant to the canal company, and its promoters endeavored to procure financial aid from the territorial govern ment, but it Avas ultimately refused. In accepting the gift of land from Con gress it Avas stipulated that the territory was to conduct the sales therefrom and to use the proceeds in completing the canal. "In accepting this gift," Avrites Reuben Gold TliAvaites, in his volume on Wisconsin, in the American Commonwealth series, "The territory unwittingly became in effect a partner in the undertaking, a condition of affairs leading to much popular discontent and legislative bickering, and ultimate disaster to the canal (1844), upon AA'hich some $57,000 had been expended, chiefly in improvements to the Alil waukee River. "The territory fell heir to some of the canal bonds, AA'hich it repudiated, although later the state itself paid them. When Wisconsin entered the Union, the Federal Government claimed that she still Avas OAving upAvards of $100,000 to the canal fund, and Avithheld this sum from the net proceeds due the state from the sale of public lands Avithin her bounds. As to Avhether or not this canal, had it been completed as designed, Avould have proved a valuable asset of the commoiiAvealth, is still an open question in AYiscon sin historA'. " THE ERA OF INTERNAL IAIPROYEAIENTS 213 Preliminary Steps in Construction. — During the year 1S37 a preliminary surA'ey of the proposed route of the Alilwaukee and Rock River Canal, and an approximate estimate of the cost of the Avork, had been submitted by Byron Kilbourn and Increase A. Lapham, both of AA'hom Avere surveyors. The cost Avas estimated to be about $800,000, and its length about fifty-one miles. A charter Avas obtained from the Territorial Legislature dated January 5, 1838, and Avork commenced July 4, 1839. The object of the proposed canal Avas to connect the Avaters of the AlihA'aukee River and the Rock River near Lake Koshkonong and thus to form a Avaterway from the Great Lakes to the Alississippi. Air. Kilbourn Avas the president of the company. The canal Avas to be built by a prhate corporation, aided by the pro ceeds of a Federal land grant held in trust by the territory of Wisconsin in anticipation of Wisconsin being admitted as a state in the Union. The congressional grant of lands had been secured the year before the work began. A newspaper published in Green Bay called the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, to open connection Avith the Alississippi, as the "Green Bay hobby," and the Milwaukee and Rock River Canal as the "Alilwaukee hobby." Historical events of Avhatever character were regarded in those days as good material for humorous accounts, and this occasion was no exception in this respect. In his "Pioneer History," J. S. Buck relates that Air. Kil bourn, at the head of a procession led by a brass band, arrived at the spot where the "incision" in the earth was to be made. The Avork having been performed in a satisfactory manner, the participants marched to the old "American," at the corner of Third and West Water streets, then kept by James Ward, AA'here a dinner suitable for the occasion had been provided. Canals Versus Railroads. — There is a very full discussion of the early canal and railroad enterprises of the '40s in the publications of the Wis consin State Historical Society (XIV, pp. 206), and in the article there printed we find the following passage in reference to the Milwaukee and Rock Rher Canal: "While a bare beginning Avas made in building it, for a number of reasons the project was soon recognized as a failure." Argu ments were urged to bend the energies of the people in the direction of railroad building. Even during territorial days agitation was begun to divert the Federal grant of lands from canals to railroads. The Alilwaukee Sentinel and Gazette, on October 23, 1841, published an article on the subject, as follows: "The Alilwaukee and Rock River Canal has been regarded as a project of great importance, and is one which has received the favorable consideration of Congress as well as the public gen erally. But the mere connection of Lake Michigan Avith Rock River will not answer the end for which the work was originated, until it shall be con tinued to the Mississippi ; and then the immense expense of such a work ren ders its construction impracticable; and, if constructed, that it should pay the interest upon the money expended. While a railroad, besides offering every facility of a canal for purposes of transportation could be built in AVISCONSIN STREET LOOKING FRO.AI CORNER OF .AIAIX STREET AND BROADWAY BEFORE CHAPMAN'S FIRST BUILDING WAS ERECTED. The old Insurance Building in course of construction. About 1867 THE ERA OF INTERNAL IAIPROVEAIENTS 215 one quarter of the time, and Avould be available at all seasons of the year, a canal Avould be locked up by ice nearly half the time." The Aladison Argus, in 1844, remarked upon the project, as follows: "A canal is to be made from Mihvaukee to the Rock River, and there it stops. * * * What is there at Rock River? Neither an ocean nor a lake nor even a navigable rher. There are neither steamboats nor flatboats run ning on Rock River anywhere in the neighborhood of the proposed termi nation of the canal, and the river will not admit of this kind of navigation to any advantage." Instead, hoAvever, of the blessing the canal might have been, says C. R. Tuttle in his "History of Wisconsin," "it proved a curse and a blight upon the early prosperity of the territory, owing mainly to the antagonisms that grew up between the officers of the canal company and the territorial officers intrusted with the disposition of the lands granted by Congress and of their proceeds, and to the conflicts between the benefi ciaries of the land grant, and some of the leading politicians of the time." Growth of Wheat Production. — In the early part of the Civil war period the state of Wisconsin had become one of the principal producers of wheat among the western and northwestern states, the effect of which was to greatly enhance the growth and relative importance of Alihvaukee which had uoav become the state's chief port for the shipment of surplus products of every kind. "The impetus thus given to Alilwaukee," writes Thwaites, "was such as to assure her future as a great lake port. In due time she became a promi nent center for the influx and distribution of immigrants from the eastern states and from Europe, her manufacturing interests grew to large pro portions, and her commerce and population kept full pace with the growth of the sturdy state of which she had early become the metropolis." Effects of the War. — The war Avith its heavy demand for men to supply the Union armies seemed to threaten a shortage of farm labor, a danger which the South did not fear with its abundant supply of slave labor. But the invention and perfection of the reaping machine during the few years before the war prevented by its use a deficiency in grain production. "The reaper is to the North," said Edwin M. Stanton in 1861, "what slavery is to the South. By taking the place of regiments of young- men in the western harvest fields, it releases them to do battle for the Union at the front, and at the same same keeps up the supply of bread for the nation and the nation's armies." The Commissioner of Agriculture, in his report for 1862, asserts that owing to the absence of so many farm laborers at the front, it would have been impossible to harvest the wheat crop for that year had it not been for the increased use of mechanical reapers each of which effected a saving of the labor of five men. "Notwithstanding the enormous draft of recruits from our rural districts to fight in the armies of the Union," says Thwaites, "agricultural operations could still not only be carried on by the North, and in numberless instances by mere youths, but the product itself was substantially increased." Comparison with the Southern States. — Comparing the northern and southern sections of the country at the time previous to the Civil war it has MILWAUKEE'S ORIGINAL PENNY STORE— BARRETT'S 245 AVater Street — Built 1836 bv father of Caleb Harrison THE LUDINGTON BLOCK. CORNER WISCONSIN AND EAST AVATER STREETS, IN THE EARLY SEVENTIES. Site of Pabst Building, later knoAvn as First AVisconsin Trust Company Building THE ERA OF INTERNAL IAIPROVEAIENTS 217 been found, generally speaking, that in the South slavery and manufactures excluded each other. The South lived almost entirely by agricultural indus tries, its capital was monopolized by agriculture. "Alanufacturing industry," says Von Hoist, "did not accord with the longing for aristocratic leisure which must characterize the free population in a community AA'hich OAves its specific industrial character to slave labor." Therefore the manufacturing industries of the northern states easily surpassed those of the southern states, and this, indeed, was one of the determining factors in the great Civil war of 1861-1865, which abundantly proved the superiority of the North in its ma terial resources over the limited advantages possessed by the South in the prosecution of that unhappy war." EA'en the importance of cotton, claimed to be the "king" of agricultural productions, failed in the final test in com parison Avith the food producing power of the North. THE FIRST STEAM FLOUR MILL Original Site, South Water Street. Xoiv located on Virginia Street SKYLIXE OF MILAVAUKEE LOOKING NORTH Taken from the south side CHAPTER XVIII INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT The labors of the earliest artisans who came here Avere naturally confined to the satisfying of local needs. Gradually, as the land in the surrounding territory became settled the farmers required many things which these skilled mechanics could supply. They could grind AA'heat into flour, make a harness and build a wagon, quarry stone and make brick, shoe a man as well as shoe a horse, and turn raw products into usable articles. But, the local artisans by no means met 'every need. The ships that plied regularly between Alilwaukee and Buffalo brought in many articles of household equipment, wearing apparel and food products. The mechanics required tools, every household needed pottery and hardware, cloth for wear ing apparel, and food products such as coffee, tea and spices. But the same economic law which governs exports and imports of a nation applied here in a diminutive way. The balance of trade had to be kept at an equilibrium. The ability to buy was governed by the ability to produce and market. The importations had to be met in gold or its equha- lent in agricultural or manufactured products. The earlier exports consisted of furs, lumber and grain. It was not until the production ability of the community had met both local needs and those of a surrounding territory and had reached a surplus that the exports of manufactured articles found its beginning. When it is contemplated that Milwaukee has, in a very brief period, risen from most humble beginnings to one of the most important industrial centers in the United States, we may well inquire into the causes that have led to it. This development assumes significance when it is remembered that Mil waukee was reared within the shadows of a great world city, exposed to all the absorbing power of Chicago the great metropolis of the Midwest. Large cities do not as a rule spring up adjacent to each other, but usu ally, owing to the trend of commerce and the exigencies of distribution, leave large areas of territory between them. Thus, it follows that every other large city coming Avithin the commercial zone of Chicago is located at a dis tance of several hundred miles from that city. Chicago becomes the veritable hub with Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis, Omaha, St. Paul and Minneapolis, all placed upon the outer rim and within a night 's ride from the great world city with its three million population. Milwaukee is the only city, which lies within a distance of only eighty- five miles and only* a two hours' ride from Chicago, which has resisted the 219 LOOKING NORTH ON MAIN STREET, NOAV BROADWAY, TOWARD MASON STREET, 1870. r * ri fTJSFpST 1 ^ ], |1 f »,¦: a igMjjj II' i * » s4 *; U ! NORTHEAST CORNER OF MILAVAUKEE AND AVISCONSIN STREETS 1871 AFTER A BIG SNOWSTORM. INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEMENT 221 absorbing power that all great metropolitan centers possess, and has groAvn to over a half million population. Natural conditions and environment, more than accident, usually cause the location of cities. It is true that three rivers and the promise of a fine harbor primarily prompted the location of Alilwaukee, but its subsequent groAvth in population strength and rise as a producing center must in large part be found in the character of the people avIio sought their homes here. East and West Lake Shore Cities. — In order to demonstrate this statement let us for a moment look at the east and AA'est shores of Lake Michigan. On the east shore may be found a series of small cities and villages AA'hile on the Avest, or AYisconsin shore, are presented a number of important manufacturing cities, including Kenosha, Racine, Sheboygan, Manitowoc, and Alilwaukee. True, the Wisconsin shore offers many fine harbors but the Alichigan shore has been equally blessed with harbor possibilities. Thus, the industrial deA'elopment of the AYisconsin lake cities is due to other causes besides favorable Avater inlets. Nor can it be held that a rich hinter land alone has been the main cause for their groAvth. The interior of the State of Alichigan is fully as fertile as is the State of Wisconsin. While favorable harbor entrances and a fertile back country have con tributed to the growth of the lake shore cities, it was in the main the enter prise of the population that availed itself of the natural advantages Avhich were at their command. Admitting all this, Ave must find the real cause of the power and prestige of these Wisconsin cities in the industrial character of the earlier settlers and of the subsequent immigration that added itself to them. The new comers Avere mechanics who came from both the old and the new world, while those AA'ho settled on the east shore folloAved agricultural pursuits. This accounts for the fact that nearly all the important manufacturing cities bordering on Lake Alichigan are located on the Wisconsin shore. An Industrial Population. — The population that settled them not only understood how to build houses and ships, make a plow and shoe a horse, but they also kneAv how to tan hides into leather, saw lumber and grind flour. There were butchers, bakers, and basket makers, bookbinders, broom and brick makers, coopers, cobblers and cabinet makers, potters, printers and paper makers, weavers, Avagon and Avheelbarrow makers. The young Yankees who came from the New England states and the so- called Knickerbockers AA'ho came from NeAv York, Avere in the main of the commercial class. There Avere, hoAvever, many skilled mechanics among them. The main body of the workmen came from Europe, including Ger mans, Austrians, English, Irish, Scotch, Bohemian and Dutch. The greater number of the skilled men came from Germany. The Polish, Italian, Hun garians, Slavonians and Croatians came at a later period. These mechanics kneAv how to fashion useful things for themselves and their felloAA'men. At first they Avorked singly and alone, then they were joined by an apprentice and a journeyman. With the passing of time these groups enlarged themselves and the backyard shed grew into a factory plant. Fur nace and engine, chimney and smokestack, engine and machinery came upon 222 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE the scene. Organization Avas introduced. The area of distribution was Avidened. The era of quantity production arrived. Great industries became a reality. Thus, the modest men in overalls, AA'ho stood at the Avorkbench themselves, AA'ho conceived and constructed their oavii enterprises, became the founders of mighty industrial enterprises AA'hose products now go to, the four ends of the world. They fashioned useful things — things that Avere classed among the necessities rather than the luxuries of life. The one factor which lent both stimulus and stability to these industrial enterprises was the pride and sense of honor Avhich characterized these work ers. They breathed their character into their products. Every article was honestly made. The names that were behind them became synonyms for in tegrity and honesty. Secret of Industrial Success. — The younger generation that joined and succeeded them availed itself of the precepts and policies that had been estab lished. The sons of the founders went into the factories and worked through the various branches of manufacture from the crudest labor to the most skilled arts. Thoroughness became the goal of the recruits. "Start at the bottom and work your way up," became the watchword of their elders. But, the example set by the early founders was repeated again and again through the years that folloAA'ed. Alen who began life as mechanics in Avorkshops and mills ultimately founded new industries, making small begin- ings and rising to eminence and power as producers. A new idea, an im- proA'ement or an invention usually became the basis for a new industry. Frequently, too, articles hitherto manufactured in the East could, it was found, be manufactured more advantageously at home. In this connection it is interesting to note many industries, specially those dealing in textiles, Avhich found their origin in the fact that wholesalers and jobbers, who were buying and selling goods made elsewhere, themselves be came manufacturers. Usually the goods were made in the industrial centers of the New England states which adhered to fixed designs and styles. The Avesteru jobber who sold in a competitive market sought a greater variety of goods and the introduction of innovation and changes. The traveling man, for instance, who sold goods in the lumber and log ging districts of Wisconsin, Michigan and Alinnesota, came home with practi cal suggestions as to the making of a glove, a shoe, or a garment that would meet the need of climatic and industrial conditions more adequately. Jobber Becomes a Producer. — The enterprising jobber in the Midwest made his recommendations to a conservative manufacturer in the East. The latter Avas sIoav in recognizing innovations, with the result that the former began to produce at home and found a ready sale for the improved article. In many instances the Milwaukee manufacturers, who aimed to make their product more attractive and at the same time more utilitarian, met with remarkable success. These strokes of enterprise, together AA'ith the constant addition of new lines of production, gave diversity to' the industrial activities of the com munity. The element of diversity also tended towards greater stability in the INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEMENT 223 economic progress of the community, steadying the general output, and keeping the workmen more uniformly employed. If the demand for one product plant laid off men another added them. The result was that there greAv up in time a remarkable industrial con stituency. The number and quality of skilled mechanics became a factor that lent momentum and efSciency to production and made the expansion of manufacture a possibility. The manufacturers were enabled to compete successfully, in many lines of production, Aviththe manufacturers of other sec tions of the country. Middle of the Last Century. — The status of the manufacturing interests in 1856 is well told in a report made by the Board of Trade during the year following. It reads as follows : ' ' We have found more difficulty in arriving at a just estimate of the value and extent of this branch of business than any other. A large class of manu facturers are unwilling to give the amount of their business or other essential particulars concerning it. "But we have been able to gather sufficient accurate information to show that there has been a large increase in manufactures over the year 1855, both in value and variety. Steam Engines, Boilers, Machinery, etc.: — "Under this heading, we find in the city some eighteen shops, employing from 12 to 100 men each, and turning out an aggregate amount of $800,000 of work per annum. Fully one-half the present capital was added the past year, and no less than six of the establishments were neAv during the year 1856. Extensions and enlarge ments are contemplated for the present year to the amount of $300,000, besides one or two entire new establishments. Ale, Beer, Etc. — "There were in operation during the year 1856, in the city, twenty-six breweries, manufacturing 75,000 barrels of ale and beer, the larger portion of which was Lager beer. Of this amount, probably 30,000 barrels Avere sent from the city. The entire capital employed in this business is little short of $1,000,000. Enlargements and extensions were made during the year to the amount of $25,000. The number of men employed is about five hundred, at average wage of $8 per week. The increase over the pro duction of 1855 was nearly 50 per cent. Brick Making. — "Notwithstanding the demand from abroad for the beautiful Alilwaukee brick has been unabated, still the consumption ,at home has been so great that but few have been exported. While we manufactured 20 per cent more— or 35,000,000 in 1856— we exported only about 1,000,000. There are eight brick-yards in operation employing about 300 men. It is con templated to increase the manufacture the coming year to 40,000,000. The pressed brick of Milwaukee is not exceeded in beauty and durability by any made in any other part of the Avorld. Flouring Mills. — "During the past year large outlays have been made upon the mills of the city, causing them to remain idle a considerable portion of the time. The aggregate amount expended upon them is $50,000, one- third of Avhich consisted in the construction of an immense steam engine and THE OLD NEAVHALL HOUSE Destroyed by fire January 10, 1883. Seventy-five lives lost. Albany Hall, for many a model meeting place, to the left. THE REPUBLICAN HOUSE Corner Third and Cedar streets INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 225 machinery for the Empire Alills. The total amount of flour manufactured by the the mills, aside from custom work, was 116,000 barrels. Miscellaneous Industries. — "During the past year the first cattle market eA'er opened in the city Avas started by Layton & Plankinton. It Avas com menced in August, and they sold, to the close of the year about $60,000. They anticipate a large increase another season. "The beef packing season is noAv over, and amounts to about the same as 1855, or about 10,000 bbls. The pork packing is not yet closed, but Avill eA-idently fall considerably beloAv the amount packed in 1855. About 100 men men are employed in this business at $1.50 per day for the season. "There has been a material increase in the manufacture of boots and shoes. The whole amount manufactured the past year was $350,000, against $185,000 for the year before. There are 500 men employed at average Avages of $7 per Aveek. "The manufacture of clothing for the year 1856 was nearly double the amount of 1855, and foots up at $600,000. The number of hands employed by the wholesale house is over 450, at average wages of $7.50 per week. "A want spoken of in the last Annual Report has been supplied by the establishment of a Lard Oil Alanufactory, which has been in operation for several months. "In the ship-building branch of industry the present Avinter has not witnessed so much advancement. During the first months of 1856 the amount of tonnage launched was 1,600 — one propeller and five schooners. About the same tonnage will be launched during the coming season. "There are many branches of industry that could be spoken of with interest, Avould the limits of this report permit. It is a satisfaction to notice that our manufacturers are so prosperous and successful. The advancement has been beyond all expectation, and the future bids fair to outrival the past history of our industrial city. Table. — ShoAving the principal articles and their value manufactured in Alilwaukee, for the year 1856: Articles Ale and Beer $ 750,000 Brick 350,000 Barrels 120,000 Boots and Shoes 350,000 Burr Alill Stones 30,000 Book Binding 25,000 Bread and Crackers 175,000 Brooms 10,000 Billiard Tables 45,000 Clothing ' 600,000 Cabinet Furniture 225,000 Confectionery 35,000 Carriages 30,000 Camphene and Fluid 30,000 Cigars and Tobacco 75,000 Vol. I— 1 B THE ASTOR HOTEL INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 227 Cow Bells 1,000 Daguerrean and Photographs 50,000 Engraving and Lithography 20,000 Flour 696,000 Guns and Pistols 7,500 Glue 12,000 Gloves and Alits 8,500 Harness and Carriage Trimmings 150,000 Horse Shoeing and Smithing 55,000 Iron Alanufactures of all kinds 1,500,000 Jewelry and Silver Ware .' 20,000 Job Printing 75,000 Lumber Planing 250,000 Millinery 75,000 Maps, Charts, &c 6,000 Piano Fortes 9,500 Paper : 31,000 Patent Alachines 200,000 Pipes 9,000 Pork and Beef Packing 400,000 Rope 20,000 Root Beer 6,000 Railroad Cars 20,000 Rectified Whisky and Spirits 500,000 Stone and Earthen Ware 26,000 Sheet Iron, Tin & Copper Manufactures 250,000 Soap and Candles 150,000 Ship Building 140,000 Safes 35,000 Stoves and HoIIoav Ware 35,000 Saleratus 30,000 Sleighs 90,000 Tanning and Wool Pulling 280,000 Turning, Wood and Brass 50,000 Vinegar 8,000 Umbrellas 3,000 Window Shades 3,000 AYool and Yarn 35,000 Wire Screening 15,000 • Total 1856 $8,057,000 Total 1855 5,590,000 Total 1854 4,633,000 Then and Now. — In noting the production ability of the city for 1856 it may be well to observe by contrast the figures presented a half century later. They demonstrate the vitality which the city had assumed as an industrial center. In naming the ten leading manufacturing cities of the United States 228 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE the United States Census Bureau in 1910 named Alihvaukee as the first for that year. The five leading industries and the value of their production for 1910 Avas as follows : Iron, steel and heaA'y machinery $34,112,555 Leather and tannery products 24,940,000 Beer and malted tonics 23,510,344 Packed Aleats 21,650,000 Railroad equipment and supplies 12,931,000 Some idea of the volume the manufacturing interests had then assumed may be formed from the following figures : Number of manufacturing concerns 4,126 Number of factory employes 109,216 Amount of wages paid $ 65,853,152 Amount of capital invested 236,558,011 ATalue of total year's production 329,526,667 A summary of Alilwaukee industry and commerce during the year 1918 Avas as follows : Total of all manufactures $741,188,557 Total Capital 392,644,414 Total Wages Paid 141,455,203 Total Number of Employes 146,109 Ten leading manufactures in 1918 : Iron, Steel, Heavy Aiachinery 155,696,044 Packed Meat 68,200,000 Leather 45,000,000 Auto Accessories, Commercial Trucks 31,000,000 Boots and Shoes 30,100,000 Coal and AVood Products 30,100,000 Electric and Phone Supplies 29,233,000 Malt 21,000,000 Hosiery, Knit Goods 12,300,000 Soap 11,475,000 Agricultural Implements 10,800,000 Obsolete and New Industries. — A study of the manufacturing activities of the past half century reveals some interesting changes. Some of the indus tries which led in an earlier day have been reduced to minor importance while others have disappeared entirely. For instance, brick making Avas a thriving industry in the '50s of the last century. The cream colored brick made during that period attained great popularity and led to the city 's nickname of ' ' Cream City. ' ' It was used as a face brick for some of the best structures, and many of the older build ings of a substantial character, seen in Alilwaukee today, Avere made of the famous cream colored brick. But the industry declined gradually until the kilns Avere reduced both in size and number. The cream color faded par tially with time and exposure into a dusty gray and the brick lost its popu larity. Only common brick is noAv being made. The face brick employed in INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 229 modern buildings and construction work usually comes from other sections of the country. Willow basket Aveaving, Avhich Avas at one time a flourishing industry, has practically gone out of existence. The brewing of beer and ale Avas one of the earliest and remained for many years one of the most important industries, ranking third and fourth in the A'alue of annual output. In 1856 the city already boasted of having tAventy-six breweries and a capital inA'estment in them of over one million dollars. Gradually the number of breweries was reduced but those remain ing in the business increased their capacity from year to year until some of them were classed among the largest in the United States. The rapid deA-elopment of this industry may be accounted for in the fact that while the brewers in most American cities produced for local consump tion only the Alilwaukee breAvers built up a national and even international trade. Through ingenious advertising and efficient sales organizations the output grew into enormous demands. The slogan "The Beer that Alade Alilwaukee Famous" became a national by- word and gaA'e the city extensive publicity as a beer producing center. It created the impression in many sections of the country that beer making was Alihvaukee 's leading industry, whereas its steel and iron indus tries, its machinery and engines, meat packing and leather products were always in the lead. Those who chafed under the erroneous impressions which had been gained throughout the country frequently boasted that the water pumping machinery produced by Alilwaukee factories pumped more water throughout the United States in a single day than the beer produced by all the breweries in a year. Decline of the Breweries. — This by no means argued that the industry or its OAvners were unpopular. Their product was locally sold in 2,200 saloons. The breAvers Avere regarded as public spirited men, who were concerned in the progress of the community and who gave liberally to civic, educational and charitable projects. They had large property holdings in the business section of the city and manifested at all times enterprise in building up and beautifying the city. The annual production of beer had run into many millions of dollars in value Avhen the dry wave struck it and practically rendered the industry obsolete. Buildings and machinery, constituting enormous investments, Avere rendered idle and thousands of men were thrown out of employment. Some of the breweries were dismantled, others engaged in the manufacture of near beer and non-alcoholic beverages, still others were thrown open to other industries. Those who were formerly engaged in the brewing industry are gradually directing their energy and capital into other fields of production. In an article discussing industries that are no longer pursued in Mihvaukee, and at the same time describing some of the newer and somewhat unique articles produced, a Avriter in the Sunday Milwaukee Telegram of February 12, 1922, says the f olloAving : "Now that beer is out of the Avay and the spread of Mihvaukee's fame in that direction has ceased to be a jarring note to the ears of a certain part of its citizenry, there arises a question as to just what has taken or is taking, THE MEDFORD HOTEL Third and SA'camore streets INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 231 or even will take the place of the foaming beverage, as a rallying product of this tremendously industrious city. "Some hard headed individuals point to the fact that Alilwaukee is char acterized by its production of iron fabrication, leather, packinghouse spe cialties and textile goods. It is a fact that these products lead in Alihvaukee industries. Alore than that, the first three have led the brewing industry, in value of product, for many years. Still, eA'en Avhen these industries stopped brewing, there was no life to the cry: 'Alilwaukee leads in iron goods,' or 'Leather is making Alihvaukee famous,' or 'The packinghouse product that made Alilwaukee made the world sit up ! ' "Things like iron, leather or meat do not lend themselves readily to tuneful slogans. The beer epigram Avas an inspiration. And, incidentally, it cost seAeral millions to tell the world about it. "There must haA-e been a little romantic flavor to the word 'beer,' to make it the basis of so popular a cry. Perhaps some people thought the word just a little naughty, and used it with a tinge of mischievous pleasure. At any rate, the reaction of the epigram on many Milwaukeeans Avas quite similar to that caused by flying a crimson scarf before a maddened bull. But still it prevailed until A7olsteadean days sheared it off, as a Avaste page in a ledger is remoA-ed. "Upon what subject is Alihvaukee now gaining fame? What do they manufacture here that characterizes the toAvn in such a Avay that the popular mind will take to it. Is prestige and the A'alue of free advertising to go, just because beer is not? "Things to Be Proud of. — Well, there are a number of things that appear susceptible to segregated fame in connection with the city — things that might be picked up and singled out and parted from the hum of industry, and placed upon a pedestal before Avhich America would stand in admiration. "For instance there are tacks; there are birdcages; there are runless silk stockings which the girls wear ; there are amazing fabrications in flowers ; there is tempting mayonnaise ; there are beautiful mannequins ; there are — Avell, there are rye bread and there are sausages. And the greatest of these is sausages ! ' ' Sausages ! Spicy, savory, tasteful sausages ! Sausages for every race, creed and personal preference ! Sausages given a zip by round black peppers ; sausages Avhich are given a flavor of garlic. "Is it possible that this, to the average mind, humble and prosaic tid-bit will mount upon a commercial steed and ride gloriously tilting through the AA-orld AA'ith flaunting banners, emblazoned with its emblems, heralding the fame of Alihvaukee as the supreme master of the art of sausage-making? ' ' Will the flavor of romance achieve ascendency over the flavor of garlic ? It looks as if it would, and as a matter of fact Milwaukee today is recognized from coast to coast and from Canada to Alexico (and even into the interior of those countries) as the monarch of the sausage kingdom. "Amid the blare and confusion of hundreds of Coney Island resorts, the shouts of Avaiters for 'Alihvaukee sausages' burst above the clang and clamor of orchestrion and 'leedle German band.' At Revere beach, in staid Bos- AVISCONSIN STREET, LOOKING WEST Showing the postoffice, Pabst Building, Wells Building, Hotel Pfister, Northwestern National Fire Insurance Company Building and the Milwaukee Gas Light Company's office. INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 233 ton, the 'hot dog' purA'eyor who gets the cream of the business is able to bark 'Alilwaukee frankfurts!' "The Cliff House in San Francisco echoes the fame of Alihvaukee as sausage producer par excellence. Forest Park Highland at St. Louis is a big consumer of this Alilwaukee product. And along the beaches at Venice and Santa Alonica, at the Alinnesota State Fair in the TAvin Cities, on Belle Isle at Detroit, and at Atlantic City, the prestige of the Mihvaukee sausage has become a watchword with vendors, in season, and the one-time fame of Alihvaukee on the playgrounds of the big cities is being superseded by a more substantial, if more pungent and less 'heady,' reputation for excellence. It is extremely unlikely that an anti-'hot dog' amendment Avill ever be placed upon the federal constitution. "Both Chicago and NeAv York City are large consumers of Alihvaukee sausages and in thousands of markets and delicatessens in those cities preference of the trade for the Alilwaukee product is manifested by proud placards denoting its presence in stock. "And in this connection — literally — the fame of Milwaukee rye bread is not to be sneezed at. Alihvaukee rye bread is a standard preference in hundreds of cities. How many people here know that big shipments of 'Alilwaukee rye' are made every day in the year to Ncav York, Washington, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Chicago, St. Louis, Los Angeles, Seattle and intermediate points? "It is a fact, nevertheless. Rye bread and frankfurt sausages make a particularly appetizing combination, especially Avith mustard added. It ap peals to the masses, and the masses are responsible for slogans and epigrams becoming a part of ordinary speech. "It all comes to conclusion of fact that Milwaukee excels in industrial effort. If the government suppresses the manufacture of an excelling beer AA'hich the populace acclaim by giving credit to the city, the spirit of supremacy manifests itself in another direction — the preparation of excel ling sausages and rye bread. "Alilwaukee is bound to be noted for something. Away back in the early days Alilwaukee was known nationally as the 'Cream City.' This was not on account of the creamy frothiness of the beer made here, as some have believed in later years. It Avas on account of a certain type and color of building brick made here. And the name continued until the certain kind of clay with which the bricks were made ran out and Alihvaukee 's brick industry shrank to an unimportant place. "Alilwaukee used to produce great quantities of pottery — the clay was brought here from Ohio. But many years ago the potters went to the clay banks and Milwaukee subsided as a pottery center. "Right after the Civil war Alilwaukee was quite a center for the manufac ture of coffee essence. This article, besides being a popular substitute for coffee, which was scarce then, made a great hit with the 'kids' as a means of fooling parents, teachers or friends with the fiction that tobacco was being 'chawed.' The public preference for coffee, however, wrecked the business and several essence factories in Alihvaukee were closed. One of 234 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE the last ones was operated by the grandfather of AYalter Hummel, the North Side real estate man. "Milwaukee has produced and still is producing many oddities of manu facture which are somewhat interesting for her citizens to know, and many achievements of invention are marked to the credit of the city in the far reaches of the commercial world. "Leads in 'Hobbies.' — It requires something to eat or drink, perhaps, to inspire a general recognition of a certain production, in a line or a sentence. Commercial oddities, however, crop out here and there in an interesting man ner. The product may not be as unusual as some feature of its production, but the feature emphasizes notices. "Who would think to inquire, for instance, if Mihvaukee Avas the leading producing city of America for toy horses? If such inquiry were made, never theless, it Avould be found that Milwaukee, for nearly 50 years, has been manufacturing and selling more toy horses than any other city in the United States, and perhaps the world as well. "Who Avould imagine that from every quarter in the United States and from Europe come orders for a certain make of artificial flowers, used for shoAA'-AvindoAV adornment and clothing display, and — even as Avindow dis plays for the most fashionable florists in the large cities. ? "The fame of the art flowers of Milwaukee is abroad throughout the country and a large portion of the outside Avorld. They are the product of the artistic efforts of a Avoman Avho started making a feAv at a time some years ago, but Avho enlarged the scope of her Avork as the demand for perfect imitations of posies grew. These flowers are made with a secret waxing process and are said to be so exact in reproduction that frequently mistakes are made AA'hich lead to much amusement. "The story is told of a Avoman AA'ho went into one of Chicago's fashionable stores for a nosegay and ordered a selection from a salesman. The grouping Avas laid down momentarily beside a cluster of imitations of a similar floAver. AYhen the salesman picked them up again the customer objected. " 'No, not those,' she said. 'These are the ones I selected,' pointing to the imitations. After some indignation had arisen by the salesman's persist ence that the bouquet he held was the right one, she was asked to feel the imitations, and did so. Her surprise was equaled by her astonishment. "Bird houses! A lot of wooden cages and houses for domestic and wild birds, does not sound very important. But it is important in Milwaukee, for there is one manufacturing plant which turns out nothing else. "In the bird store world Milwaukee is of the highest standing. The maker of Milwaukee bird houses started in business while a youngster at school. He made a little Avooden cage one day and showed it to some of his chums. 'Aav, that's punk,' said one of the boy spectators. 'Better chop it up for kindling.' "Apparently this AA'as Avhat the young manufacturer needed, for instead of becoming discouraged, he persevered in his efforts to make a perfect cage and eventually became a specialist in that line. Today there come to him orders from all parts of the country and his trade is a large one. Incidentally, INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 235 and having nothing to do with the story, this bird house builder related recently that he had been informed that the boy Avho jeered at his first effort Avas eonA'icted of a forgery in an Eastern city and noAv serving time. "Though the bird houses are diminutive as a workman's task, compared to a real house, the volume of output from the bird house factory is greater than many a milhvork concern Avhich manufactures for the construction of human habitations. ' ' In fineness and skill in the manufacture of delicate instruments for gaug ing, Milwaukee is at the fore, also. A number of concerns manufacture gauges of miscroscopic measurement capability, and during the Avar the government found that Milwaukee Avas a valuable possession, indeed, in the production of this class of instruments. "A pair of specialities, whose coupling seems somewhat incongruous, is mayonnaise and mannequins. There are several large makers of mayonnaise and other dressings, one specializing in 'Thousand Island dressing' a product that is distributed all over the United States. The volume of business that this line of industry develops is so large as to be astonishing, running into several hundreds of thousands of dollars a year. ' ' The making of mannequins is an industry of comparatively recent origin, out it is rapidly increasing, largely because of the superior production attained, Avhich, in turn, is due to a high quality of workmen procurable in Mihvaukee. "In a modest way Mihvaukee aspires to be a silk hat center, and one large hat manufacturer distributes this (in the West) infrequent article of apparel to many parts of the country. In fact, it is probable that much of this product is used to dislodge French or English importations. "People AA'ho light their gas stoves by pressing a button connected Avith a flash lighter, probably do not knoAV that the device was born and bred in Mihvaukee and is, even now, largely manufactured here. Yet it is perfectly true. Another common device that is ' Milwaukee ' is the automatic lubricator, in a variety of forms for various uses. This device was developed here and is still a large factor in manufactured products. "Refrigerating machinery, electrical appliances, AA'heelbarrows, iron 'washers,' boat propellers, locomotives, cigar boxes ('cedared'), heavy dig ging, hoisting and conveying machinery, magnetic separators, herringbone gears and battleship fire control devices are some of the oddities of Mihvaukee manufacture. "Growth of Enterprises. — 'There is a great romance in Milwaukee in dustry, ' said William George Bruce, long secretary of Milwaukee 's merchants ' and manufacturers' organizations. 'It has its inception in the lowly condition AA'hich existed when many of our present industries were founded. It lies in the transformation of back yard shacks into great factories — from the tumble down huts where some gritty man with real vision, started fashioning Avith his OAA'n hands some article which would be useful to mankind. Those were the days when the apprentice was the boss' chum. Then came the step to quantity production, scientific organization and distribution on a systematic scale. MILLER HOTEL AND THEATRE AND THIRD STREET, LOOKING NORTH INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 237 " 'Today those little enterprises have forged ahead and into huge in dustrial units of the city. Romance? I'll tell the Avorld it is. " 'Then there is the interesting phase showing Iioav Mihvaukee came to lean toAvard manufacture. In early clays the AA'holesale district, east of the river and south of AYisconsin Street, Avas a large, important factor of the city. These houses handled Eastern manufactures. There came a time when the trade in the Aliddle West demanded special attention in adaptations of manu factures to meet local needs. The Eastern makers did not respond. One by one, the wholesalers turned to producing the goods wanted here, and grad ually the wholesale business quarter shrunk to what it is now. " 'Alilwaukee is a wonder city. It has grown and thriven as no other city in the Avorld, in the usually destructive shadoAv of a huge metropolis — Chicago. Every commercial advantage exists in Chicago, and nature itself conspires to defeat large cities in the shadows of a metropolis. Yet Alil waukee has increased, though Chicago's roots reached out to deprive it of nourishment. " 'The vision of the pioneers of industry who settled here has proved correct. The initiative of a later generation has made it a great center. The cause is something besides geography, and I have concluded that it is what I may describe as "production ability" of the population. For Milwaukee is a great factory toAvn, and commercial interests are secondary. " 'We manufacture so much here that we do not know all that Ave make. I recall a worsted maker here, who tried to sell his cloth directly to tailors. He was unsuccessful. But one day a tailor sent a rush order to his cloth dealer in New York for an additional piece from a certain bolt. The tailor was surprised a week later to receive his cloth from the worsted maker. He had supposed his purchases were imports. " 'We have been selling that "import house" for years,' the manufacturer said to the tailor. 'And I tried to get you to buy direct. But you wouldn't. And it cost you a great deal more the way you got it.' " 'It did, but it won't any more,' replied the tailor. " 'And I knoAv that it didn't.' " Paper making also was an industry fostered many years ago, and while it never gained any considerable proportion and in fact led a somewhat pre-' carious existence, it had to give way to the more favorably situated paper mills in northern and central Wisconsin. The same may be said of some of the woodAvorking industries. AYhile the manufacture of sash, doors, and blinds and the designing and building of interior wood work grew to magnificent proportions other Avoodworking industries declined. Boxes and barrels, and particularly the former, how ever, are still produced on a large scale, but the manufacture of such things as ax handles and household utensils is no longer carried on. One of the old time industries somewhat unique in character, consisted of pottery making. The kilns were located in the very heart of the city, and the product consisted of jugs, mugs and jars which went into the econo mies of the household. The raw materials, namely the clays, came in ves sels from Ohio ports. The competition of Ohio potters who had ready access 238 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE to clays, it is said, eventually caused the decline of the industry here. Today the plant is still a jobbing house for pottery made in other states. Individual Enterprise and Location. — In noting the industries that once flourished here and then declined it would be difficult in every instance to assign the causes for such decline. It is commonly assumed that industrial enterprises secure a better footing in certain localities than in others because of definite advantages, such as ready access to raw materials, proximity to markets and favorable labor conditions. This claim might be urged here, but the Avriter fears that it does not hold good entirely. The iron industries may flourish best near the supply of ore and the fuel beds, coupled with a favorable center of distribution, but this does not apply too all other industries. The cotton for instance, which is groAvn in the South is largely manufactured at the New England mills. Alany other industries might be enumerated where individual enterprise and energy rather than location and environment have led to success. Thus, in noting some of the industries in Alilwaukee which have become obsolete through unfavorable conditions, it may be well to point to the fact that many new industries have since come into existence through the sheer force of individual foresight and industry. The stability of an industry is also aided by the momentum it has acquired and the prestige that has been achieved. Certain centers in Ohio that created pottery industries be cause of their proximity to clay beds noAv draw their raw materials from other states and even from foreign countries. Their plants and organiza tions have become highly developed, and their trade connections and reputa tion firmly established. Proximity to the supply of raw materials is no longer an essential factor. Thus, there are today large and flourishing industrial enterprises in Mil waukee Avhose success is largely if not wholly due to the enterprise and in genuity of their projectors. AYhen the knitting industry, for instance, Avas projected some years ago there Avere sceptics AA'ho held that the East enjoyed advantages in the Avay of access to materials, skilled labor and distribution facilities not at command in the midAvest territory. But, today the knitting industry in Alilwaukee has assumed enormous 'proportions and its products have found a market in all parts of the coun try. Individual enterprise, ingenious production, successful advertising and marketing overcame the advantages usually credited to location. The in herent ability of Alilwaukee to produce wisely and market successfully is Avell demonstrated in the many neAv industries which have sprung up during the past quarter of a century. While the older industries have steadily grown in proportion and stability they haA'e also amplified themselves in point of variety and in the newer things evolved with the progress made in the mechanic arts and the science of production. With the advent of electricity, and its application to the uses of man, there also sprung into "existence a number of plants making a great variety of electrical apparatus and devices. Inventive genius also made its con tribution and evolved improvements AA'hich found universal recognition. "Alihvaukee uoav ranks as the fourth largest candy manufacturing center INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 239 in the United States, while from the standpoint of per capita output it is the largest. There are noAv more than tAventy candy manufacturing plants in the city, including two chocolate manufacturing concerns," says Alva H. Cook, an authority on the subject. "During the year 1920, Alihvaukee 's confectionery output amounted to $18,659,115, but the 1921 output is valued at a lower figure because of the fact that candj' prices declined during the year, Avhile the volume of production Avas smaller. The candy factories here employed during the last year between 3,000 and 4,000 people, representing a wage expenditure of nearly $3,000,000. The capital stock of the manufacturing confectionery houses totals more than $8,000,000. "Despite the fact that Alilwaukee candy factories employ more than 3,000 people, there never has been even a hint of labor trouble here, largely because of the fairness shown by the manufacturers, who strongly believe in a spirit of cooperation between employer and employes." The evolution of the automobile, too, found expression in many new plants producing accessories and parts. The efficiency manifested here has made Alilwaukee one of the largest producers in this field of industry. While the production of pleasure cars has never gained great importance it has at least a good start. In the meantime the building of trucks has made consid erable progress. Whether or not the city will eA'er become an automobile center it remains that it has received sufficient momentum in the production of accessories to promise even greater activities in this field in the future. But, a long array of industries, which did not exist twenty-five years ago, have risen to importance and have attained a demand for their product cov ering a wide area. Inventors and Inventions. — C. Latham Sholes was the inventor of the typewriter. He germinated the idea which was developed into the modern typewriter and which has become an indispensable instrument in the field .of intercommunication and record keeping. Air. Sholes' device was crude in construction and incomplete in operation, but it embodied the principles AA-hich later on led to the deA'elopment of the finished machine. Arthur L. Alorsell, a leading Alilwaukee patent attorney, tells the story of this remarkable invention as f oIIoavs : ' ' While the Sholeses, father and son, were not the first inventors of the broad idea, they developed the same into a really practical and commercial machine. The first patent taken out for a typewriter in Avhich the Sholes family figured was one issued to Sholes, Glidden and Soule on June 23, 1868. Another patent Avas issued July 14, 1868, to Sholes, Glidden and Soule. On August 29, 1871, C. Latham Sholes obtained another patent covering an improvement on the machines patented to Sholes, Glidden and Soule in June and July, 1868. Subsequently, in 1876, Sholes and Schwalbach, and in 1878, Sholes, Sholes and Glidden obtained other patents for improvements in typewriting machines. "These patents of Sholes, Glidden and Soule (Sholes, Sholes and Schwal bach having come into the control of Remington & Sons of Ilion, New York), formed the basis that, in connection with excellent mechanical workmanship and extensive and persistent advertising, has placed machines of the gen- T|iiii mi m nil hi? 'IlHf ? mil go llf: MILAVAUKEE MANUFACTURERS' HOME BUILDING Foot of Mason Street A- . i ''¦¦•" ; ' ."• -r^ '. * bssmsspI ' -^*i — "u*""" J ' JH^JSSff S5 MENOMINEE A' ALLEY— MANUFACTURING CENTER INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 241 eral class covered by these patents in extensive use. The typewriter is one of the important inventions of modern times. As a substitute for handwrit- ing it is a great labor saver, not only for the individual who would himself write, but enables him to divide the Avork with another. In giving oppor tunity for Avider business transactions Avith more accurate results and in proAdding employment for young women, it is the chiefest instrument of the age, and Mihvaukee, as will be seen, has contributed largely to the develop ment of this Avonderful invention, and has had, and is entitled to, an important and honorable part." The invention of a system of temperature regulation by Prof. Warren S. Johnson has proven a beneficent contribution to the welfare of mankind. The thermostatic control of temperature enables the saving of fuel Avher- ever artificial heat is employed. The system is installed in thousands of schoolhouses, hotels, office buildings, hospitals, horticultural hothouses, re frigeration plants, etc., in this country. It has not only proven a fuel saver, but also a conserver of health. The system has gone into general use through out the United States. It may also be found in many foreign countries. Some of the most sumptuous palaces of Europe, including those of many royal families, as well as hospitals, schools and hotels, are equipped with it. During the earlier part of this century a body of scientists of Germany sub jected the invention to the severest test and declared it a permanent con tribution to the well-being of the human race. Among the noted buildings equipped with the Johnson thermostat and temperature regulation in Europe is the Peace Palace, located at the Hague, Holland, erected by the late Andrew Carnegie. On the whole, Professor Johnson Avas a remarkably prolific inven tor having invented several electric, pneumatic, horologic and thermatic de vices of the greatest utility. The old Allis AYorks have used to advantage hundreds of. patented de vices, beginning Avith Edwin Reynold's improvement on the Corliss engine. The late W. D. Gray's inventions in the line of milling machinery also con tributed A'ery greatly to the success of the original Allis Company. Other manufacturing plants in the same line in this city are likewise to a great extent dependent upon patented devices, so it is unquestionably true that Alilwaukee 's success in the line of iron, steel and heavy machinery is due, in a considerable measure, to patented devices. The leather industry, judging from the many patents taken out in this field, has also been greatly benefited. The endless raihvay rail was the product of the inventive thought of a former Milwaukeean, A. von Hoffmann, noAv a resident of St. Louis. The air brakes which are noAv used generally on railroad cars throughout the Avorld are the invention of Niels A. Christensen. A standard concrete mixer, which amassed a fortune for its inventor is the invention of the late Thomas L. Smith of Alilwaukee. Stephen F. Aloore, now deceased, a poor man, Avas without sufficient funds to pay for his application for patent, and the fees were advanced for him. He invented a machine for carving wood, particu larly adapted for use in carving furniture. He made a fortune out of his United States patent, and obtained $15,000 cash for his English patent. Henry H. Cutler, one of the original organizers of the Cutler-Hammer 242 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Company of this city, a stupendously successful companj', has taken out patents on various types of electric controllers which perhaps have a larger sale than any device of a similar character now on the market. Thus a whole manufacturing directory might be catalogued. The boat motor invented by Ole EA'inrude and known as the Evinrude motor has met with great success. It consists of a portable motor which can be attached to small boats providing ready propelling power. The motors have found recognition in all parts of the Avorld. Other inventions Avhich have proven their utility and value are the uni versal bolter by J. F. Harrison, saw mill set works by AY. H. Trout, single roll crushers-convex by R. C. NeAvhouse, hydrocone by W. AI. AVhite, high speed, low head hydraulic turbine by F. Nagler, brazed steam turbine blading by C. E. Search, electrical machinery by B. A. Behrend, retarded relay electrical machinery bj' H. AY. Cheney, governor by J. F. Max Patitz, a so-called island light by AVilliam W. Rumsen, and a carburetor by E. G. Hodge. Diversified Production. — One of the elements of strength Avhich attaches to the industrial activities of the city is found in the diversification of its pro duction. Serious conditions have arisen in manufacturing centers Avhere pro duction has been confined to a feAv lines only. In time of a depression in these lines unemployment leads to migration of labor and the dissolution of plant organization. It has been a peculiarity of Mihvaukee's industrial field that while many of the plants have groAvn to enormous size and output, many smaller industries covering a large variety of output have come into existence. Nor, are the larger plants confined in the production to a limited number of articles. The advantage AA'hich has accrued here is that AA'hile certain articles may for the time being command a limited sale other articles of production may command a fair market. Labor that may be rendered idle in one branch of industry may find employment in another, and while labor is not readily shifted from one to the other, it nevertheless follows that a part of the labor forces is constantly employed. Another phase of industrial stability is found in the fact that Mihvaukee factory plants deal in the main AA'ith the useful and the necessary things of life. Few industries are engaged in the production of luxuries. Hence, a greater steadiness of output. It will not be altogether out of place to mention here the progressive and humane attitude of the employer towards his employes. The manufacturers have been able to maintain efficient working organizations because they have paid good Avages and accorded fair treatment. In times of depression they have managed to distribute the days of labor among those most deserving and in greatest need. Notwithstanding the changed relations from the old time employer and his feAv journeymen to the monster plants, many employers have succeeded in remaining in personal touch with their men and in demonstrating a practical and helpful interest in their material and moral welfare. Exceeded the Billion Dollar Mark. — In the year 1920 the maximum figures in the value of production Avas reached. The increased cost of material and INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEATEAIENT 243 labor, together with an intensified production, no doubt, tended to sAvell the figures over those of previous years. At the same time these figures included the normal increase as well, and it must be assumed that if the Avar had not come the groAvth for that period would have continued at the rate of former years. The figures are stupendous. The billion dollar mark was exceeded by a handsome margin. The statistics compiled by the Commercial Service Depart ment of the First Wisconsin National Bank for the year 1921 shoAv a return to normal figures. (See statistics beginning with page 247.) Where Industrial Milwaukee Excels. — As already stated, the industries of the city enjoy both stability and momentum in that they deal AA'ith a diversified list of articles which go in useful channels of life and must be regarded as necessities rather than luxuries. It is equally interesting to point out Avhere- in, or in what branches, the production is notable or excels. The following provides instructive reading in this direction : Iron and Steel — Alilwaukee is one of the largest steel casting centers and has turned out some of the largest steel and grey iron castings made in the United States. Alachinery — Has some of the largest machinery construction shops in the AYorld. Is a large producer of Avater pumping, ice-making and refrigeration machinery. Has exported more excavating machinery than any other city in the country. Engines — Has turned' out large Diesel engines, the largest gas engines, UnifloAV engine and a majority of the gas engines built in the United States. Traveling Cranes — Has the largest and best equipped plant for the manu facture of electric traveling cranes and hoists in the United States. Aline Hoists — Constructed the largest mine hoist units in the world, now building one still larger. Car Works — The third largest locomotive and car works in the United States, the largest owned by a railroad corporation. Gears and Controls — Alihvaukee leads the country in the manufacture of herring-bone gears for poAver transmission and gasoline locomotives for min ing and plantation use. Furnished the electric firing controls for many battleships in the United States Navy and most of the automobile electric controls used in the country. Refrigeration Machinery — Is an important center for the construction of ice-making and refrigeration machinery. Enameling — It is one of the largest tinAvare and enameling producers in the world. Saw Mills — Alanufactures 75 per cent of the heavy saAv mills machinery made in the United States. Boat Alotors — Makes more outboard, detachable roAvboat motors than any other city in the Avorld. Motorcycles — Mihvaukee leads the Avorld in the manufacture of highest quality motorcycles. Automobile Accessories — One of the largest general automobile accessory manufacturing centers in the United States. THE HOTEL AVISCONSIN INDUSTRIAL BEGINNINGS AND ACHIEVEAIENT 245 Leather and Shoes — Mihvaukee manufacturers a more varied line of leathers than any other city in the United States. Is one of the leading shoe manufacturing cities in America. Its tanneries are among the greatest in the world. Temperature Regulation — AYas the pioneer in temperature regulating de vices and leads the Avorld in the manufacture of this line. Rubber Tires — Maintains one of the leading rubber tire manufacturing plants in the United States. Dyes — Has since the Avar built up the second largest dye industry in the United States. Trunks and Grips — Is one of the three largest trunk and grip manufac turing centers in the United States. Clothing — Stands as the eleventh city in the production of clothing. Candies and Chocolates — According to population, makes more candy and chocolates than any city in the United States. Delicatessen — Sends fresh rye bread daily to nearly all sections of the United States. This applies also to a large variety of fine prepared meats. Dairy Capital — Is the metropolis of the greatest dairy producing state in the Union. In bringing to a close this chapter, AA'hich must be regarded as the most important in noting material progress, the reader is brought to the inevitable conclusion that Milwaukee is primarily a monster factory town. Moreover, its future must be found in industrial production. It cannot in the nature of things become a successful rival to the world metropolis to the south, either as a great financial or commercial center. Its operations in commerce and finance will always be important and will continue to grow, but Mihvaukee's future clearly lies in the industrial field. As a producing center it has acquired stability and prestige. Its products have demonstrated their utility and value, its markets are established, and its reputation is fixed. The industries are capable of producing efficiently and marketing advantageously. Their future is assured. Just as they have in the past made an ever groAving contribution to the material progress and economic stability of the nation so they will continue to grow, and expand and prosper and thus promote the advancement, the well-being and prestige of the City of Milwaukee. THE TOY THEATRE AND CHINESE RESTAURANT INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS SUMMARY FOR 1920-1921 No. of Fiims No. of Employes 1920 1921 1920 1921 Metal Trades Industry 377 437 62,125 39,888 Food Industry IK! 104 11,271 9,457 Textile Industry 109 125 13,750 14,611 Leather Industry 61 66 12,181 11,144 Chemical, Drug and Allied Industries... 51 61 5,712 4,054 Wood Products and Allied Industries .. . 102 107 8,938 7,331 Various Industries 130 156 6,917 5,625 Building Trades Industry 107 181 4,661 4,659 Total Manufacturing 1,053 1,237 125,555 98,769 Jobbing and Wholesale Business 132 152 5,893 5,687 Grand Total 1,185 1,389 131,448 102,456 Capital Employed Value of Product 1920 1921 1920 . 1921 Metal Trades Industry $221,640,613 $207,194,620 $ 330,515,889 $171,051,650 Food Industry 67,983,848 42,675,396 163,640,564 113,936,824 Textile Industry 26,215,985 30,169,491 76,899,927 61,332,796 Leather Industry 63,463,728 53,974,398 93,452,791 54,694,068 Chemical, Drug and Allied Industries... 33,345,058 31,088,209 62,269,223 48,251,765 Wood Products and Allied Industries... 29,098,237 24,489,405 57,663,390 29,786,186 Various Industries 24,546,006 20,282,757 46,746,222 29.430,666 Building Trades Industry 5,032,485 7,519,197 22,481,828 21,313,171 Total Manufacturing $471,325,960 $417,393,473 $ 853,669,834 $529,797,126 Jobbing and Wholesale Business 49,134,250 51,212,795- 247,568,416 200,357,324 Grand Total $520,460,210 $468,606,268 $1,101,238,250 $730,154,450 Wages Paid 1920 $ 96,404,86515,412,064 14,459,767 16,247,85310,044,876 11,924,625 11,728,696 7,405,267 $183,628,013 11,379,132 1921 $ 51,043,591 12,372,948 15,444,474 11,901,955 6,718,1608,942,9839,083,7595,897,338 $121,405,208 9,607,115 $195,007,045 $131,012,323 Export Business 1920 $18,656,878 22,439,015 1,710,0004,723,533 1,074,769 201,074 610,730 8,000 $49,423,999 6,989,117 1921 $ 9,700,491 14,108,474 1,089,449 2,718,551 508,869 60,200 274,786 7,000 $28,467,820 24,878,171 $56,413,116 $53,345,991 2U d CO i-3Wi— i \> W ho h-H >-* CO> o ftft ft to toM- INDUSTRIAL GROUP STATISTICS AIETAL TRADES INDUSTRY No. of Firms No. of Employes Wages Paid 1920 1921 1920 1921 1920 1921 Iron, Steel and Heavy Machinery.. 217 230 34,947 22,911 $56,769,834 $27,279,619 W Agricultural Implements and Farm t^ Equipment 9 9 4,417 2,330 6,671,537 4,913,048 % Electrical Supplies 21 24 6,294 3,413 7,975,461 4,294,009 2 Electroplating 7 7 81 78 129,780 90,755 «| "Purnaces and Stoves 6 7 2,199 1,459 2,619,140 1,748,542 c Hardware 9 16 119 105 126,023 154,921 *) — Household Utilities 2 . . 46 63 466 t> Motor Vehicles, Parts and Accessories 32 48 8,172 4,510 13,358'oi3 6,493 898 £ 1 lumbmg and Steamfittmg Supplies 16 17 1,094 1,138 1,697,353 1 563'353 5 Stamped and Enameled Goods 7 8 2,675 1,703 3,443,010 2!325094 t •Structural Iron and Wire Goods.... 16 18 1,443 1,232 2,636,534 1,905,220 G Sheet Metal Goods 32 49 525 859 757,534 1,103 532 W ^ ire Goods 3 4 113 150 157,180 nifiOO | Total 377 437 62,125 39,888 $96,404,865 $51,043,591 *As no reports were received in 1920 from furnace and stove manufacturers, the 1919 figures are shown here for comparison ¦••No report in 1921. r METAL TRADES INDUSTRY 1920 Iron, Steel and Heavy Alachinery. . .$138,711,656 Agricultural Implements and Farm Equipment 14,822,748 Electrical Supplies 16,099,947 Electroplating '105,373 *Furnaces and Stoves 6,407 J36 Hardware 260,303 "Household Utilities 157,000 Motor AMiicles, Parts and Accessories 25,030,423 Plumbing and Steamfitting Supplies 2,918,070 Stamped and Enameled Goods. . .. 11,408,926 Structural Iron and Wire Goods 4,592,011 Sheet Aletal Goods 811,420 Wire Goods 315,000 Capital Employed 1921 $128,726,706 11,168,512 15,868,144 169,749 3,953,005 524,338 Value of Product 1920 1921 $177,951,390 $ 73,588,919 20,913,705 14,900,090 Export Business 1920 1921 $12,065,378 $5,236,986 24,482,921 3,742,158 9,276,250 5,200,975 3,691,934 389,922 20,766,694 280,098 8,247,170 512,538 248,822 60\557,673 5,269,489 1 5,907,539 10,954,524 2,120,247 786,000 13,270,294 208,126 4,742,098 463,832 33,000 851,500 4,000 2,003,500 H 421,000 37,288,219 5,140,5308,000,984 6,950,893 5,657,811 839,854 ,569,000 10,000 24,000 100,000 50,000 300 1,845,552 8,000 14,000 121,153 Total $221,640,613 $207,194,620 $330,515,889 $171,051,650 $18,656,878 $9,700,491 *As no reports Avere received in 1920 from furnace and stove manufacturers, the 1919 figures are sIioavu here for comparison. **No report in 1921. FOOD INDUSTRY No. of Firms Bakery Goods BeA'erages Candy and Confectionery Dairy Products Milk Dealers Ice Cream Packed Meats Sausages Flour and Cereals Unclassified Total 1920 3013 26 9 76 8 10 7 116 1921 27 8 24 (i4 78 11 6 3 104 No. of Emploves 1920 1,7561,422 3,147 148944264 2,719 258 613 Wages Paid 1921 1,128 483 2,949 62 966 284 2,777 292 471 45 1920 2,317,497 1,855,675 2,825,178 238,352 1,567,382 414,285 4,798,202 354,259 1,041,234 1921 $ 1,587,379 944,814 2,470,067 117,975 1,714,579 464,992 3,965,794 361,096 698,558 47,694 11,271 9,457 $15,412,064 $12,372,948 o d CO i-3WI— I ¦P ttf ftI — I -i-1 COa!> ft 431 348 525,782 432,878 6 11,000 u 12,181 11,144 $16,247,853 $11,901,955 q Value of Product 1920 $44,028,565 586,300 47,022,646 1,815,280 1921 $27,613,760 500,000 25,406,611 1,073,697 100,000 Export Business << 1920- 1921 g $ 568,533 $ 142,051 g ^ 4,155,000 2,576,500 ^ $93,452,791 $54,694,068 $4,723,533 $2,718,551 to IO 10 CHEMICAL, DRUG & ALLIED INDUSTRIES Chemicals, Drugs, etc Dyeing Gasoline, Oils, etc Paints and Varnish Soap and Toilet Preparations. Glass Total No. of Firms No. of Employes Wages Paid 1920 1921 1920 1921 1920 1921 17 23 1,671 611 $ 4,044,830 $ 938,806 6 6 365 305 391,625 440,896 13 13 1,312 928 2,052,145 1,683,175 M ' 8 6 751 526 1,030,591 599,848 CO 5 11 1,430 1,616 2,271,489 2,943,185 >-3 2 2 61 183 68 254,196 112,250 51 5,712 4,054 $10,044,876 $6,718,160 o ft CHEMICAL, DRUG & ALLIED INDUSTRIES Capital Employed etc. Chemicals, Drugs, Dyeing Gasoline, Oils, etc Paints and Varnish 5,578,814 Soap and Toilet Preparations 5,946,888 Glass 1,010,000 1920 $10,538,151 520,922 9,750,283 1921 $10,144,079 320,518 7,070,786 4,615,771 7,912,0551,025,000 A'alue of Product 1920 $11,986,113 950,114 23,451,239 7,812,340 17,360,713 708,704 1921 $ 3,725,237 848,447 21,424,769 4,330,000 17,613,312 310,000 Total $33,345,058 $31,088,209 $62,269,223 $48,251,765 Export Business -^ 1920 1921 £ $ 109,042 $ 83,869 ft W 14,000 225,000 S 451 377 500,'350 200,666 $1,074,769 $508,869 WOOD PRODUCTS & ALLIED INDUSTRIES No. of Firms 1920 1921 Boxes and Containers 28 28 Caskets 2 2 Furniture 19 18 Millwork IS 21 Musical Instruments 10 12 Paper and Pulp Articles 9 10 Wagons, Automobile Bodies and Wooden Boats 16 16 Total 102 107 WOOD PRODUCTS & ALLIED INDUSTRIES Capital Employed 1920 1921 Boxes and Containers $13,207,540 $8,832,822 Caskets 558,000 525,000 Furniture 3,803,585 3,594,756 Alilhvork 4,285,037 5,032,597 Musical Instruments 2,173,630 2,100,056 Paper and Pulp Articles 1,350,212 1,132,994 Wagons, Automobile Bodies and Wooden Boats 4,092,647 3,271,180 Total $29,098,237 $24,489,405 No. of Emp loA'CS Wages I 'aid H 1920 1921 1920 1921 3,529 3,010 $ 4,313,483 $3,142,468 ft 113 96 178,000 1 58,800 UX >-3 1,486 1,009 1 ,902,860 1,252,481 ft 1,268 1,386 1,935,894 2,089,926 h- 1 691 485 1 ,021 ,825 610,351 691 555 710,394 621,337 ftQ r— I 1,167 790 1,862,16!) 1,067,620 8,938 7,331 $11,924,625 $8,942,983 1 — 1 Q Value of Product 1920 $28,378,326 690,000 6,834,479 7,119,646 4,629,810 4,060,000 5,951,129 1921 $11,562,658 585,000 3,557,276 6,236,544 2,198,661 2,462,986 3,183,061 $57,663,390 $29,786,186 Export Business C 1920 1921 g $ $3,500 ^ a 69,500 W 8,085 36,000 g 78,489 1920 1921 1920 1921 $12,869,589 $ 8,369,568 $ . . . . $.... U 5,574,026 4,888,837 >i 1,803,264 2,179,000 o 754,530 1,691,489 8,000 ffi 434,700 1,310,000 ft 1,045,719 2,581 ,277 223,000 -1 ft 70,000 7,000 1 — 1 ft i-3 $22,481,828 $21,313,171 $8,000 $7,000 toOlOl to Cl JOBBING AND AVIIOLESALE BUSINESS Coke. Coal and Drygoods Groceries and Produce Grain, Flour, Feed, Seeds Hardware and Machinists' Supplies- Lumber Paper Unclassified Total No, . of Firms 1920 1921 10 13 8 8 47 54 36 38 3 5 1!) 19 9 10 5 132 152 JOBBING & AYHOLESALE BUSINESS Capital Employed 1920 Coal and Coke $16,657,362 Drygoods 2,228,246 Groceries and Produce 7,602,053 Grain, Flour, Feed, Seeds 11,252,831 Hardware and Machinists' Supplier 5,555,000 Lumber 4,193,982 Paper 1,644,776 Unclassified 1921 $18,203,092 2,399,6007,999,442 10,415,500 8,162,6002,160,0001.597,561 275,000 No. 1920 1,897 281 1,368 864 633639 211 of EmploA'es 1921 1,642 344 1,400 804871 340254 32 Wages Paid 5,893 Value of Product 1920 ts 49,074,645 9,068,469 47,132,291 115,027,617 13,855,200 7,974,559 5,435,635 1921 38,190,065 8,005,000 45,393,99084,728,63115,250,000 4,716,4663,500,172 573,000 1920 $ 3,614,314 597,914 2,840,963 1,858,049 1,105,000 972,072 390,820 1921 $2,880,738 586,250 2,277,5471,252,496 1,547,080 452,830 558,990 51,184 5,687 $11,379,132 $9,607,115 KI— I COi-ao w oft Total $49,134,250 $51,212,795 $247,568,416 $200,357,324 Export Business d 1920 1921 ^ $ $ > d 120,713 W 6,868,404 24,878,171 ft $6,989,117 $24,878,171 CHAPTER XIX COMMERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION The earlier records dealing with the activities of Mihvaukee do not ahvays clearly distinguish betAveen trade, commerce and industry. The figures relat ing to production and distribution are not only imperfect, as might' be expected, but frequently too interwoven to afford accurate deductions. Then, too, the business man of the last century AA'as less inclined to submit figures regarding his operations than is the modern business man AA'ho, through tax laAA's and governmental regulations, has been taught to lay all his cards on the table. Besides the old-time merchant was less thorough in the keeping of his business accounts. Those AA'ho Avere inclined to occasionally summarize the trade activities of the community, in order to demonstrate economic progress, preferred to speak in terms of imports and exports. The figures here employed Avere designed to demonstrate commercial importance without any attempt at shoAA'ing what the trade balance in favor of or against the community might be. It is an economic law in international trade that nations cannot buy more than they can sell. This applies to communities as Avell. Yet some of the old time records Avould go to shoAV that Milwaukee usually imported much more than she exported. This, of course, cannot be true. The constant growth and development of the city would prove that the products of its labor Avere advantageously marketed and that it bought wisely, and kept expenditures Avell within its means. The commerce of Alihvaukee had its earliest beginning in the fur trading engaged in betAveen the Indians and the Avhite men. The latter Avere the French who came from Canada to gather the trophies of the savage man and carry them back to the marts of civilization. The consideration usually con sisted of trinkets and articles that appealed to the fancy and appetites of the Indian until money became a medium of value and enabled him to purchase AA'hat he pleased. AYhen civilization brought its general commercial parapher nalia, giving the Indian his choice of purchase, he began to appreciate the value of money and exacted it. The young Yankees who came from the New England States and the young Knickerbocker coming from New York State were decidedly commercial in their inclinations. They soon outnumbered the few French Canadians avIio had arrived before them. They were not only traders but builders as Avell. In the course of time they constructed mills and warehouses, ships and road ways and railroads. They also became the founders of banks and insurance 257 EAST WATER STREET NORTH OF WISCONSIN STREET COMMERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION 259 enterprises. They became the land speculators as Avell as the constructors of their time. Imports and Exports. — A report made by Secretary AndreAv J. Aikens of the local Board of Trade in 1856 is interesting not only in that it reveals the character of the imports and exports of that period but also because it deals Avith the comparative value of the two factors. Articles Imported at the Port of Milwaukee, for the year 1858 Lumber, joists, etc., feet. . .84,000,000 Lath, pieces 18,382,000 Shingles 21,000,000 Shingle bolts, cords 7,249 AYood, cords 2,000 Bark, cords 3,628 Square timber, feet 339,000 Railroad iron, tons Coal, tons Horses, number . . . Salt, barrels . 19,846 20,000 5,000 94,277 Salt, sacks 180,000 Plaster, barrels 8,800 Oats, bushels 150,000 Corn, bushels 250,000 10,00020,000 9,072 38,508 18,243 7,107 28,440 4,266 Barley, bushels Potatoes, bushels Sugar, hhds Sugar, barrels Alolasses and syrup, barrels Codfish, boxes Coffee, bags Alackerel, barrels Dried apples, bushels 105,675 Dried peaches, bushels.... 14,582 Apples, barrels 33,790 Tea, chests 21,519 Raisins, boxes 16,317 Candles, boxes 22,503 Glass, boxes 46,720 Nails, kegs 117,720 Axes, boxes 7,120 Candy, boxes 16,572 Starch, boxes 14,000 Rice, tierces 2,000 Tobacco, pounds 2,952,000 Soap, boxes 33,473 Oil, barrels 9,000 Saleratus, boxes 13,153 White lead, kegs 48,000 Cheese, pounds 1,347,000 Steel, tons 210 Bar iron, tons 6,539 Cider and vinegar, barrels. 5,201 Alcohol, barrels 10,000 Oranges, boxes 14,790 Lemons, boxes 27,300 Prunes, pounds 200,000 Spices, pounds 240,000 Nuts, pounds 600,000 Pipes, boxes 10,000 Wooden Ware, doz 25,000 Comparative Value of Imports Total, 1854 $11,124,000 Total, 1855 18,649,832 Total, 1856 27,974,748 Articles Exported from the Port of Milwaukee During the Year 1856 Wheat, bushels ,._, 3,097,000 Oats, bushels '."•. .... 14,000 Barley, bushels 20,400 Beer, barrels White fish, barrels Hams 12,000 500580 THE OLD PLANKINTON HOUSE, Grand Avenue between West Water and Second streets, which was razed to give place to the Plankinton Arcade. THE NEAV PLANKINTON HOTEL Corner AA'est AA'ater and Sycamore streets COAIALERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION 261 Malt, bushels 32,250 Grass seed, bushels .... 10,300 Cranberries, bushels 1,464 Flour, barrels 213,451 Pork, barrels Beef, barrels Vinegar, barrels . Lime, barrels Lard, barrels Beans, barrels AVhiskey, barrels . Peas, barrels TalloAv, barrels Provisions, barrels Corn meal, barrels 12,000 5,200 546 5,900 2,800 220 8,000 40 50 2,000 500 Bacon, boxes 990 Soap, boxes 3,100 Fish, boxes 1,700 Packing barrels 12,700 Ashes, casks 260 Hides 25,550 Pelts 26,305 AYool, pounds 850,000 Brick 560,000 Broom corn, bales 1,500 Hops, bales 500 Pig iron, tons 200 Ship knees 300 Staves 800,000 Comparative Value of Exports 1854 $ 7,709,571 1855 17,329,531 1856 20,274,300 "By the above it Avill be seen that the ratio of increase on imports has been about 50 per cent on the year 1855, while the increased exportation is somewhat less. The same circumstances that explain the deficiency of east ward bound produce on the railroads, will explain this want of a larger increase. Besides the rates of freights for the last three months of navigation were unpreeedentedly high — ranging from fifteen to thirty cents per bushel for wheat from Mihvaukee to Buffalo. "The tables of imports and exports will be defective until Congress makes some requirement of inland ship masters and ship owners in regard to reports made at the Custom houses. Every steamer, propeller and vessel should be compelled to give a duplicate copy of the bill of lading to the collector of each port. The board should take some action in the matter, and see if such a law could not be passed. "The Lake Commerce now amounts to $700,000,000, and seems to us is of sufficient importance to attract the attention of Congress. The imports and exports for the year 1856 amount, as given above, for the Port of Milwaukee, to the sum of $48,000,000. This does not represent the entire traffic of the city by many millions of dollars. We estimate that the entire imports and exports by lake and railroad, amount to $75,000,000 or about one-fifth of the entire commerce of Lake Michigan. "As soon as our railroads are all in operation from the lake to the Missis sippi River, the traffic Avill at once double or treble its present extent. Not only shall we drain a vast and new region of its products, but we shall receive their supplies of eastern merchandise at our docks and forAvard it over our various and diverging lines of raihvay. GRAND AVENUE EAST FROM SIXTH STREET COAIALERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION 263 "Speculations upon the future prospects, hoAvever Avell founded, are not the purpose of this report, and Ave leave them for a simple record of Avhat Alilwaukee has done in the- past. " Jobbing and Wholesaling. — The early trader Avas folloAved by the local small merchant. He bought from the producers in the East and sold direct to the consumer. The local producer usually sold direct but frequently also to the retailer. But, the commerce of the community soon demanded an additional agency of distribution and the AA'holesaler came into being. He bought from pro ducers everywhere and sold to the retailer, both at home and elseAA-here. He either bought his goods outright or received them on consignment. It may here be stated as a remarkable fact that the wholesale trade greAv rapidly in volume and in the Avidening of its zone of operation. This fact, too, verified the prediction made by some of the pioneers that Mihvaukee Avas Avell situated to become a great distributing center. The ships that entered the harbor increasing in numbers came from all parts on the Great Lakes and brought a great variety of commodities. With the constant development of the rich agricultural territory to the west of the city there came also increased trade possibilities. This Avas clearly foreseen by those concerned in securing a substantial commercial footing. The farmers travelled long distances to sell their products in Milwaukee and to make their purchases. The horse and wagon method of transportation was sIoav and the volume thus transported was meagre. They could supply their own needs only in the ratio that they were able to dispose of their own products. Upon his prosperity depended the prosperity of the merchant. The problem became clear. Transportation facilities must be provided. Just as the ox-cart gave way to the horse and wagon so the horse and Avagon must be superseded by the steam railway in reaching the larger distributing centers of the state. The zone of trade must be widened. Thus, Avith the advent of the railroads the wholesale trade began to take definite form. While there were those who engaged in the export of grain, hides, wool, fish, flour, meats, etc., there came upon the scene the wholesalers of groceries, dry goods, hardware, drugs, clothing and boots and shoes. Status in 1858 of Wholesale Trade.— The status of the AA'holesale trade in 1856 is Avell stated in a report made by the Board of Trade, as follows : "The penetration of the interior of the state by railroads, and the tapping of the great Mississippi Valley in the early part of the year, have given a new impetus to the wholesale business of Mihvaukee ; and though the trade for the last year has been such as to astonish even those engaged in it, there is abundant reason to believe that it has but just begun, and that the future Avill see it increase in still greater ratio. "During the present year, the Milwaukee and Mississippi Railroad Avill be opened to Dubuque and Galena, and also to Prairie du Chien. By either of these routes merchandise can be delivered from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River with less railroad transit than any routes now in existence from the lake to that river. I i 1 r? •FT-': THE PFISTER HOTEL COAIALERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION 265 "By the lines of propellers uoav running betAveen this and the lower lake ports, the merchants of this city procure transportation at the least possible tariff of freight of any port on the lake, so that the Avholesaler here is able to sell to the more western houses at rates of advance on NeAv York, Boston and Philadelphia prices, little more than cost, insurance and transportation. "We have made diligent inquiry for the amount of wholesale trade done in the city for the past year, in the principal branches of business. The increase upon former years has been limited only by increased capital. AYe find that our merchants have had more good orders than they could fill, and that double the capital invested would double the sales for the present year. "A number of heaA-y houses have been opened in different kinds of trade the past year, and we learn of several to be opened this year by merchants from eastern cities. "There are engaged in the various wholesale branches of trade, 150 mer chants, besides a larger number AA'ho do a heavy retail trade AA'ith the country lying on the railroad lines. "Below we give the result of a careful collection of figures, shoAving the amount of sales for the year 1856 : Groceries (twenty houses) $ 3,401,000 Dry Goods (eight houses) 1,830,000 Furniture 450,000 Crockery 280,000 Drugs and Dye Stuffs 750,000 AVines and Liquors 856,000 Clothing 500,000 Boots and Shoes 625,000 Iron, Hardware and Stoves 2,200,000 Salt and Coal 550,000 Lumber (sixteen yards) 2,505,000 Not enumerated 3,000,000 Total Avholesale trade $16,942,000 "Among the houses included in the above table are eighteen AA'hose sales are over two hundred thousand dollars each; eight that sell over three hundred thousand dollars each; three that sell over four hundred thousand dollars each ; and two that sell over five hundred thousand dollars each. "During the present year our railway connections will open up a region of country to our AA'holesale merchants, populated by 500,000 inhabitants or nearly as many as were supplied by this city during the year 1856. AYe may then safely estimate that the AA'holesale trade of the city Avill double in the course of the next two years." For a number of years the Mihvaukee AA'holesale trade area Avas free from outside competition, except such competition as came from the eastern markets. But, Chicago began to extend her trade territory and became a strong rival. Later St. Paul, Minneapolis and Duluth merchants not only A'lEAV OF MILWAUKEE, LOOKING WEST FROM THE NOKTHAVESTERN MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY BUILD ING, SHOWING THE AVELLS, MA.TESTIC AND FIRST WISCONSIN NATIONAL BANK BUILDINGS AND CITY HALL COMMERCIAL RISE AND EXPANSION 267 secured trade Avithin a certain radius of these cities but invaded the Alilwaukee territory as Avell. Even cities like Green Bay, Eau Claire, and LaCrosse en tered the Avholesale field in certain commodities. But, be it said to the credit of the Milwaukee merchants that they met competition on all sides. They continued to multiply their numbers and to extend their trade area far beyond the borders of the state. AVhile certain AA'holesale lines are restricted in their trade area by freight rates, others have entered every state in the niidAvest and haA-e even extended their business relations to the Pacific Coast. Thus, monster grocery, hardware, dry goods and drug Avholesale institu tions have become established Avhose annual trade volume runs into large figures. AIoreoA-er, the jobbing trade has amplified itself in many other lines, including clothing, furniture, machinery, coal, building materials, crockery, household utensils, etc., forming on the whole a large factor in the commer cial activities of the metropolis. The enterprise and energy of the jobbers and wholesalers may be noted in the annual trade extension journeys Avhich were planned and carried out under the auspices of Merchants and Manufacturers Association and its suc cessor the Mihvaukee Association of Commerce. They Avere inaugurated about the earlier part of this century and were organized upon a well planned basis. They are dealt with elsewhere in this volume. The Retail Trade Interests. — The retail trade interests of Milwaukee present one peculiarity seldom found in American cities, or at least not empha sized in the same degree, namely a decentralization in store location. What is here meant is this : Every city has its doAvntown retail trade center AA'here the larger department stores are located and where the various trade interests are grouped. They meet every human want in food, raiment and household paraphernalia, and thus concentrate the retail trade activi ties within a given radius, or in a central section of the city. In Alihvaukee this tendency is not true in the same degree that it is true in the average American city. Large department stores and a great variety of trade interests may be found at a distance of one and two miles from the heart of the city. AVhile the downtoAvn retail district is large and important it has its rivals in the centers that have grown up in both the northern and southern sections of the city. The merchants in these several sections manifest the same enterprise and energy that is manifested by the doAvntown merchants. Through local busi ness men's organizations they promote all the conditions that tend to hold and increase trade. They maintain Avell stocked shelves and advertise liberally. For the downtown merchants it may be said that a more keen, progressive and public spirited body of men cannot be found anywhere. They realize to the fullest the opportunities at their command, aim to serve the public efficiently and concern themselves in all that makes for the welfare of the community. Many of the more important merchants give liberally of their time and means in fostering civic, educational or charitable projects. It is sometimes remarked by strangers, who sojourn in the city, that its 268 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE doAvntoAvn streets do not, during all hours of the day, manifest the same croAvding and bustle that is observed in other American cities. This state ment is unciuestionably true, and is in part accounted for in the somcAvhat decentralized character of its retail trade activities. Again, it must be remem bered that Alihvaukee is an industrial rather than a commercial or financial center. In this connection the question, Avhether the retail interests draAv an ade quate share of trade from outside of the city, may be asked. The ansAver must be in the affirmative. The merchants have from time to time advanced their individual trade interests as far as this may be done consistent Avith the interests of the city as a Avhole. This statement requires an explanation. Alodern retail trade promotion, as exemplified in many American cities, contemplates various devices, methods and agencies, fostered individually and collectively, to attract customers from the outside. They include excur sion trains from interior points, special bargain days, rebating of railroad fares, free lunches, etc. When some of these promotional efforts Avere engaged in by the Mihvaukee merchants it Avas found that the socalled country merchants, namely the re tailers in the cities and villages affected, raised serious objections. They were not inclined to see their trade diverted to the metropolis Avithout a struggle. The retaliatory Aveapon Avas in their own hands, and they threatened to use it if organized trade extension- efforts were not discontinued. They bought their stocks from the jobber and manufacturer of the metropolis 'and could readily shift their patronage to Chicago or other markets. Here it became clear to the Mihvaukee merchant that the producing in terests of the metropolis Avere primary. Their output must not be lessened. The payroll supported the community and gave vitality to its retail trade. The manufacturer believed that it Avas more important to the community as a Avhole to hold the patronage and good Avill of an entire state for Milwaukee made products than to secure added trade for the retailer. The latter readily shared in this vieAv and desisted in all trade methods likely to incur the ill Avill of the upstate merchants. The policy adopted by the Milwaukee Association of Commerce in dealing Avith the subject, may be summed up in the folloAving : Loyalty to community interests implies support for the local merchants. The latter is a citizen, an employer and a taxpayer Avho is entitled to the patronage of the community. If the customer requires anything AA'hich the local merchant cannot supply then such customer is Avarranted in going to the larger center for his purchases. All things equal, the local merchant is entitled to the preference. Thus, the customer in the inland city is advised to support his local mer chant, and to extend his patronage to the merchant of the metropolis only AA'hen the former is unable to supply his needs. Price, quality and personal preference, of course, guide all purchases, but consistent with these factors the integrity and Avelfare of the home toAvn should receive first consideration. CHAPTER XX HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS The Indians, who, in a primitive day, came down the three streams later known as the Alilwaukee, Alenomonee and Kinnickinnic rivers, found these converging into a waterway Avhich emptied in a beautiful inland ocean. They Avere lured into the blue waters of the bay. Their canoes were rocked by the waves and their bronze visages Avere cooled by the breezes that traveled OA'er the broad expanse of the sea. They Avere fascinated by that mysterious horizon to the East which separated water and sky. The land which skirted the lake with its high bluffs, receding into a valley to the AVest Avhich was traversed by the main river, rose again beyond that river to a magnificent eminence. The spot that commanded a view of this valley and at the same time afforded a view of the blue Avaters of the lake, Avith its distant horizon, Avas indeed desirable for human habitation. The savage instinct yielded to its allurements. An Indian village was reared. The earlier explorers noted the spot in their chronicles, and the traders who came after them landed here to carry on their negotiations Avith the Indians of that day. As navigators they found that nature had here pro vided a harbor AA'hich Avas readily accessible, and upon AA'hose shores a peaceful tribe of Indians had taken up their habitation. AVhile the Indian Avas draAA-n to this spot by instinct the AA'hite man came by design. He sought the treasures of the savage for the comforts of the civilized man. He continued to come AA'ith each season in increased numbers. He saAv the commercial advantages of a natural landlocked harbor. Com munication with the outer Avorld Avas confined to the vast waters which stretched out to the north and the east. The harbor had attracted the aborigine, it had brought the Caucasian. The harbor had prompted an Indian abode, it gave impetus to a Avhite man's village. The harbor afforded commercial relations Avith the eastern centers of population, and became the great incentive for the rearing of a city. Until 1850 the only communication AA'hich Mihvaukee had AA'ith an outer Avorld Avas via the Great Lakes. It brought supplies to the city through the means of water transportation and sent the products of the state on to the East in the same way. The small wooden vessels that came to its shores not only brought those earlier pioneers Avho founded the village but also the immigrants Avho later formed the bulk of the population and enabled it to pass from the rural to the urban stage. 269 OLD TIME SCHOONER ENTERING THE MILAA'AUKEE BAY THE CARFERRY GRAND HAA'EN OF THE GRAND TRUNK LINE ENTERING THE HARBOR HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 271 The First Vessel Arrivals. — Solomon Juneau, Alihvaukee 's first permanent AA'hite settler, chartered tAvo vessels to bring stores for the trading post and to carry aAvay the furs he had accumulated. The first of these made its appearance in 1823 and anchored in the bay. It Avas a small schooner Avith a carrying capacity of thirty tons, bore the name of " Chicago ¦. Packet" and Avas commanded by Captain Brittain. During the same year came the "A7ir- ginia" Avith a capacity of 130 tons, folloAved by the "Aurora," sailed by Capt. David Graham avIio brought a cargo of supplies form Green Bay. The land ings were usually made on the lake front in the vicinity between AYisconsin Street and the present harbor entrance. The second vessel that arrived, how- eA'er, entered the rh-er. The men of that day soon realized that an inner harbor must be provided. A petition for a survey of the river Avas sent to the AVar Department at AYashington. The authority to proceed AA'ith the survey AA'as granted in 1835 but owing to the sIoav means of communication the work could not be imme diately undertaken. Besides, the Government had made no provisions for employing and compensating the engineers. The support of the National Government had to be sought. Byron Kil bourn communicated on January 29, 1836, with Senator Louis F. Linn of Missouri, then a member of the Committee on Commerce, of the United States Senate. In his letter Kilbourn describes the rivers and their outlet into the bay. "This bay," says Kilbourn, "Avill form a safe and easy entrance into the harbor Avhen constructed. The bar at the mouth of the river is narrow; indeed it is peculiar in this respect and different from most of the rivers on the lakes." Here it should be explained that the "bar" referred to consisted of a narrow strip of land later known as Jones Island. This strip of land AA'hich is noAv a peninsula Avas then virtually an island. The natural outlet spoken of Avas located at a point east of what is noAv knoAvn as Greenfield Avenue. What constitutes the present harbor entrance Avas then a submerged sand bar. But, the survey which Avas conducted by Lieutenants Center and Rose of the United States Topographical Engineer Corps was accompanied AA'ith the recommendation that a "straight cut" be made 3,000 feet north of the "natural outlet." That meant that the old natural harbor was abandoned and that the present harbor entrance was determined upon. In 1837 the Government engineers decided upon the construction of two piers at a cost of $92,183:54. Era of Waterborne Commerce.— The encouragement given by the National Government in enabling the entrance of vessels to the inner harbor aroused considerable interest. Newspapers in the East began to discuss the great possibilities of the Milwaukee harbor and gave glowing accounts of the commerce likely to result Avith this improvement. The ships, too, that trav eled betAveen the several ports, including Detroit, Buffalo, Cleveland, Mil waukee and Chicago came in for liberal praise. "The majestic steamer Alichigan sailed westward," etc., Avere some of the phrases employed. The local people soon caught the spirit of enterprise. They saAv a future 272 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE in their proximity to the lakes and in their ability to bring ships into the several rivers. Solomon Juneau built a AA'harf on the river bank adjacent to his first house which stood near AA'hat is iioav knoAA'n as the corner of East AVater and AVisconsin streets. Private enterprise as well as Government aid Avere Avell Avarranted for the open navigation season of 1836, from April 14th to November 14th, saw 314 vessel arrivals. That year, too, in the AA'inter saAv the construction of the first vessel in Alihvaukee. It Avas built on the Alilwaukee River near Division Street, noAv knoAvn as Juneau Avenue, by Capt. George Barber. Her capacity Avas ninety tons and her name Solomon Juneau. The timbers for this vessel Avere secured in the immediate vicinity Avhich prompted the citizens to make an effort in securing some of the eastern builders to locate a shipyard on Alil- Avaukee River. The Solomon Juneau met Avith a mishap in 1839 by run ning on the beach south of the old harbor. She Avas, hoAvever, safely released but AA'as years later lost on Lake Ontario. While the Solomon Juneau Avas the first vessel to be planned and placed under construction, the AYenona AA-as the first to be completed. She had a tonnage capacity of only thirty tons and Avas used as a lighter. Yet, she deserves the distinction of being the first craft built in Mihvaukee. Further enterprise in the direction of ship building Avas manifested AA'hen the sum of $45,000 AA-as subscribed for the purpose of constructing a steamboat to ply betAveen Alihvaukee and Chicago. In the spring of 1837 the James Madison then knoAvn as the largest steamer on the Great Lakes arrived. She brought 1,000 passengers and 4,000 barrels of freight. In June of the same year there arrived also the first steamboat OAvned by Alihvaukee men. She Avas knoAvn as the Detroit and Avas in com mand of Capt. John CraAvford. During her short five months' career she ahvays landed at the foot of AVisconsin Street. She Avas lost off Kenosha in November, 1838. Byron Kilbourn, in 1837, caused the construction of a river steamboat Avith a tonnage of fifty tons. This boat Avas largely built in a competitive spirit against the east side. The fact that she Avas a steamboat Avas an achievement for the Avest side and designed to overshadoAV the schooner Solomon Juneau, a sailing vessel. The east siclers, hoAvever, said that "she Avas an old scoav Avith an engine that Avas about seven mule poAver and her course about as gyratory as a hen that has eaten salt, and that her commander Avas squint- eyed, and neA'er kneAv Avhich Avay he AA-as steering." Another steamer Avas built by Kilbourn during the folloAving year and records sIioav that the trustees of the west side village passed resolutions urging him to refuse to land passengers on the rival bank. While these small • river steamers stimulated rivalry between Juneau Town and Kilbourn ToAvn, it is not recorded that any gross discrimination Avas entered into. More river steamers folloAved to become business competitors to each other. They prac tically Avent out of use Avhen the harbor Avas fully opened. A more pretentious venture Avas a steamboat named Mihvaukee built at Buffalo for Solomon Juneau and George LI. Walker. They sacrificed some valuable land in order to raise the money for this the first real steamboat to HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 273 be owned by Alilwaukeeans. On July 9, 1841, this proud craft steamed into the Alihvaukee River but struck a sand bar and was held fast. The old chron icles stated that she "mocked her owners" by her inability to float. During the following year she was sold to Detroit parties and the same chronicles state that all that Juneau realized from his venture was "a quantity of the ship's bedding and furniture." The first warehouse was built in 1838 by G. D. Dousman at the foot of East Water Street. Three years later there was shipped from this Avare- house Alilwaukee 's first export cargo of wheat consisting of 5,000 tons. In the same year the first lighthouse was built by the Federal GoA'ernment and placed at the foot of Wisconsin Street. Government Aid Is Sought.— While the lake navigation of that day had its discouragements in delays and losses caused by storms, the "navigators remained courageous and ambitious of success. The citizens, too, were zealous in encouraging lake commerce and to that end sought the improvement of the harbor at the hands of the Federal Government. A meeting of citizens Avas held at the Alihvaukee House on Alarch 6, 1840, to formulate plans for petitioning Congress to improve the harbor. The men who figured prominently at this meeting Avere George A. Tiffany, H. N. AVells, George D. Dousman and William A. Prentiss. The eA'ent of the meeting was an address by Col. Hans Crocker in AA'hich he enumerated facts and figures regarding the A'illage of Milwaukee designed to impress Congress Avith its commercial progress. Colonel Crocker stated that Alihvaukee had a population of 1,600, that it maintained twenty-two dry goods and grocery stores, an iron foundry and a machine shop ; also that tAvo stage lines penetrated the agricultural districts to the south and the Avest. The river AA'hich Avas navigable the entire length AA-as not readily accessible to all the craft that sought entrance, but that, notAvithstanding that fact, in a feAv years the Avaterborne commerce of the village had experienced an enor mous increase. In 1835 two steamboats entered the bay and in 1839 there AA'as a total of 179 vessel arrivals. A petition Avas sent to Congress asking for a liberal appropriation for harbor improvement. Various tOAvns joined in the petition and Avhen Con gress manifested dilatory tactics there Avas much indignation on the part of the lake towns. This indignation Avas intensified on the part of the Alihvaukee people through an accident which occurred in the bay due, it Avas alleged, to the neglect of the Government. A boat Avas upset by getting caught in a buoy line and two men Avere droAA'ned. The Courier remarked : ' ' Tavo more citizens have found premature graves in consequence of the cruel injustice of Congress in not making appropriations for our harbor. ' ' The catastrophe was followed by an indignation meeting in AA'hich a com mittee consisting of AY. A. Prentiss, L. J. Farwell, Hans Crocker, L. P. Gary and A. Finch, Jr., drafted resolutions "favoring the raising of funds by private subscription for the construction of a harbor." Subsequently plans Avere submitted by I. A. Lapham, L. H. Carlton and B. H. Edgerton. Public projects of this character, however, are someAvhat slow of realization. The THE KINNICKINNIC BASIN LOOKING SOUTH A portion of the Jones Island area seen to the left THE STEAMER CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS PASSING THROUGH BROADAVAY BRIDGE HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 275 citizenship had evidently come to the conclusion that the improvement of the harbor was a matter of Government concern and not a private undertaking. In the summer of 1842 the Sentinel and Farmer, the enterprising neAvspaper of that day, offered to loan the Government $20,000 whereAvith to begin the improvement. It was assured that the Government Avould ultimately raise the sum out of the sale of public lands. In the spring of 1843 Congress appropriated the sum of $30,000 Avhich caused much rejoicing. The struggle in Congress had been an intense one OAA-ing to the fact that the southern statesmen were hostile to expenditures for public improvements in the western territory. When the news of favor able action arrived the town Avent Avild with delight. About this time the commercial importance of the village Avas again demonstrated in facts and figures. It Avas shown that the imports had in creased from $588,950 in 1835 to $1,805,277 in 1841. The exports proved even more illuminating. In 1835 there Avere shipped 125,000 pounds of furs, 25,000 pounds of "merchandise and sundry articles," 5,000 pounds of hides and 3,500 cords of Avood at a total value of $26,145. In 1839 there were exported 100 barrels of flour, 25 barrels of pork and 5,000 pounds of shot and lead. The latter Avas brought over land from Fever River, later known as Galena. The total value of these shipments aggregated the sum of $43,568. Alihvaukee 's subsequent importance as a AA'heat shipping center had its beginning in 1841. It Avas then that 5,000 bushels of wheat Avere shipped by Holton and Goodall to the East via the Great Lakes. During the same year there Avere shipped 30,000 pounds of copper and 1,738,175 pounds of lead. The latter Avas valued at $75,546. The total exports for the year were estimated at $286,777. On Alay 22d an industrial parade under the leadership of Marshal L. H. Cotton, was held. This festive event included a float picturing a shipyard at work and a blacksmith's forge in action. The speech of the occasion Avas delivered by Hon. Jonathan E. Arnold in front of the Alilwaukee House. The parade and the speech dreAv "enthusiastic cheers from the throngs of spectators." Public dinners were engaged at the Cottage Inn and other taverns. The German-American residents conducted a separate parade and demon stration led by Dr. Francis Huebschmann and Rev. Father Kundig. The records also sIioav that a Reverend Schmidt and Alessrs. Loth, Luther, AViesner and AVinter served on the committee on arrangements. "The body moved from the AVisconsin House to the Catholic Church Avhere it was joined by French and Irish citizens, and thence proceeded to the Milwaukee House AA'here all united in a general body." The congressional action which caused this jubilant expression AA'as ap proved Alarch 3, 1843, and read as folloAvs: "For the construction of a harbor at the most suitable situation at or near Milwaukee, in the Territory of AYisconsin, to be made under the survey of an officer to be appointed by the Secretary of War, for the said half of the calendar year (ending December 31, 1843) $15,000, and for the said fiscal year (ending June 30, 1844) $15,000." The joy expressed, however, proved to be someAA'hat premature. In the judgment of the leading citizens the "straight cut" where the harbor en- 276 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE trance is noAv located Avas the more direct and practical. The Government engineer was reticent and not over friendly to Mihvaukee. He led the citi zens to believe that he would ignore their judgment altogether. Indignation meetings folloAved, protests were sent to Washington, and for a time great turmoil prevailed. AVith the passing of another year the project was com pleted to the satisfaction of the citizens. Then opened the period AA'hen the municipality spent money for the im provement of its harbor. The enterprise of the individual citizens began to assert itself in the construction of docks and warehouses, and the National Government, recognizing the groAving commerce of the port, gradually granted appropriations for harbor protection. The local Chamber of Commerce later asserted its influence in maintaining the harbor upon a high plane of efficiency. Government support came, from time to time, with increased liberality, and competent engineers were assigned to carry out the needed improvements. Milwaukee's Grain Trade. — Mihvaukee made her debut as a grain ship ping port in the spring of 1841, AA'hen the late E. D. Holton, then a member of the firm of Holton & Goodell, shipped a cargo of 4,000 bushels of wheat to a Canadian port on the schooner Illinois. No doubt small driblets of grain Avent to Chicago by lake previous to that time, but the cargo above noted marked the beginning of the grain trade to the lower lakes and thence to tide- Avater ports, a trade which eventually won for Milwaukee the proud distinc tion of being the greatest primary Avheat market in the Avorld. This flattering title was achieved in 1862, Avhen the total receipts of wheat reached the aggregate of 15,613,995 bushels and the shipments 14,915,680 bushels. The total receipts of all kinds of grain during the same year amounted to 16,451,789 bushels and the shipments to 15,174,794 bushels. Chi cago, AA'hich AA'as Milwaukee's only rival as a wheat market, received 13,978,116 bushels in 1862 and shipped 13,809,898 bushels. Mihvaukee's AA-heat trade reached high tide in 1873 when the total re ceipts of that grain aggregated 28,457,937 bushels and the shipments 24,991,266 bushels. The total receipts of all kinds of grain in 1873 amounted to 32,567,565 bushels and the shipments to 27,124,194 bushels. Beginning with 1875, owing to various causes, but mainly to the develop ments of markets at St. Paul, Minneapolis and the head of the lakes, Mil- Avaukee's Avheat receipts began to fall away steadily. On the other hand, the receipts of other grains began to increase, but it Avas not until 1892 that the total receipts of all kinds of grain exceeded the record of 1875. Since that time, AA'ith the exception of two or three years, the combined receipts of all grains increased annually. The record of the year 1914 of 76,654,300 bushels represents the largest amount of grain received during any one year in the history of the city. In 1920 Avheat represented only 12.9 per cent of the volume of all kinds of grain received at Alihvaukee, Avhereas, in 1873, Avhen Avheat receipts Avere at high tide, it made up 87.4 per cent of the volume of all kinds of grain. In 1862, AA-hen Alihvaukee became famous as a Avheat market, 90.6 per cent of the total grain receipts consisted of that product. HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 277 Naturally the total shipments of grain from this market have kept pace with the receipts, minus, of course, the amount consumed by local millers and others. The course of grain shipments has undergone a great change, however. In the early days of Milwaukee's prominence as a grain market, the bulk of the outgoing surplus Avent forward by way of the lower lakes ; but rail routes gradually made inroads on the sum total of grain shipments, until in late years shipments by way of the lower lakes, except on raihvay line steamers, have been nominal in character. The change was largely the result of rail rate manipulation, the ex-lake, or the rate between the lakes and the seaboard, being maintained at a point which, coupled with other insinuating advantages, made it more profitable for shippers to consign grain products by way of all-rail routes. Since 1880 ship ments of grain from upper lake ports by. way of the Great Lakes, and Erie Canal have declined over 85 per cent. Shipments from Milwaukee by way of the lower lakes during 1914 Avere larger than during any year since 1900. Report of Milwaukee's First Harbor Commission. — Rendered February 17, 1842, by Messrs. I. A. Lapham and F. Randall, who were appointed by the trustees of the Town of Milwaukee to make a survey relative to the commerce of the Town of Milwaukee and the commerce of Lake Michigan. To the President and Trustees of the Town of Milwaukee : In compliance Avith the requirements of the resolution of your board, appointing the under signed to collect information in relation to the Imports and Exports of this town since its first settlement in 1835, and such other facts, as may be im portant with reference to the application for an appropriation from Congress for the construction of a harbor at Alihvaukee, Ave have attended to that duty, and now beg leave to submit for your consideration the result of our in quiries : As a more ready means of obtaining the desired information, a printed circular, giving an appropriate form, and requesting that it might be filled up, AA-as sent to the principal business men (amounting to eighty-six in number), and from most of them, full and satisfactory returns were received ; a state ment of the amount of these returns, Avith a suitable addition for those aa-Iio neglected, from sickness or other cause, to make return of their business, is herewith communicated, marked A. A copy of this statement was sent on the 12th inst. to Col. J. J. Abert of the Topographical Bureau, in answer to his letter directed to the collector of the Port of Milwaukee, accompanied by a letter calling his attention to the subject; a copy of which is herewith communicated, marked B. This letter and statement, in order to secure their being brought properly before the Bureau, were inclosed Avith a letter (marked C) to our delegate in Congress. The whole amount of business each year, in the shape of Imports and Exports, is shown in the table marked D. The grand total being nearly six millions and a half of dollars. We have also received the statements of the business done at one of the towns in this county ( Prairie ville), and a table of the result for the past year is inclosed, marked E. The commerce of this toAvn is of course done through the Port of Milwaukee. The Register of the Land Office has obligingly furnished at our request, a MAP OITTLINE OF PROPOSED IMPROVEMENTS OF MILWAUKEE'S COMMERCIAL WATERFRONT It will be noted that these waterfronts are situated on both the north and south ends of the harbor entrance. The north section lies between Wisconsin Street and the harbor entrance while the south section embraces the Jones Island area down to Wilcox Street. The project provides docks and wharves on the lake side of the enlarged land areas thus ensuring ample shipping facilities for the citv's future waterborne commerce. HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 279 statement of the proceeds of the sales of public lands, in this district, AA'hich with the amount received at Green Bay, for land in this district before the establishment of the land office at this place, amounts to about one and a half millions of dollars. From this statement Ave can safely say that this portion of our country has paid at least its due proportion toward the support of the General Gov ernment, and is therefore as much entitled to consideration as any other part of the country. Five per cent on the amount we have paid for lands alone would be more than sufficient to construct the work we ask for, and this is no more than is now granted, as a permanent fund, to several of the states. From the general statement, marked A, a great many facts may be seen which show the groAving importance of our place from a commercial point of A'ieAv, and the high character of the surrounding country in agriculture. It will be seen that the amount of merchandise, lumber, shingles and salt im ported has been increasing with a gradually augmenting ratio — while the im portation of agricultural products AA'hich are uoav mostly supplied from our OAvn soil — as flour, pork, etc., has been gradually diminishing until they are noAv taking their places in the table of exports. The very great excess of 1841, over those of former years, occasioned by the introduction of several new articles of trade (especially lead, shot and copper), and by the rapid increase of the agricultural products, cannot fail to strike every one, and it goes far to prove, what is believed by us all, that our commerce is yet only beginning to be developed. We will not, hoAv- ever, stop to enumerate all the inferences that may be draAvn from the facts collected by us, as they Avill readily occur to intelligent persons, upon in specting the statement herewith presented. The experiment now made, in the transportation of the valuable mineral products of our western counties, has shoAvn that Alihvaukee may, and soon will, be made the outlet of most of that trade, even during the present unim proved state of the roads — and when greater facilities, AA'hich are noAv being made for transportation across our territory shall be completed, the amount of business of this kind Avhich will be done here, can hardly be calculated. Another subject has engaged our attention, Avhich in importance Ave be lieve to be inestimable. AYe allude to the information in the accompanying paper marked G, in AA'hich Ave have enumerated all the losses of life and prop erty, on Lake Alichigan, so far as Ave have been able to ascertain the facts, since 1834, AA'hich may be considered as the commencement of navigation upon this lake. AVe can say Avith truth that Ave are astonished at the result of our inquiries on this subject. AVe may state as the general result, that 118 lives haA'e been lost — or fifteen each year. That $1,052,450 Avorth of prop erty has been destroyed or lost — being $131,556 per annum. That eighty-nine vessels, including several steamboats, have been more or less injured or lost — being eleven each year. These are facts, not mere conjecture, and to shoAv that Ave have confined ourselves to facts, Ave give the name of each vessel injured, the nature of the injury, and the year in AA'hich it happened ; so that if Ave have exceeded the bounds of truth, the. means of detection and exposure are before you. AVe 280 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Avill not pretend to say that none of these accidents would have occurred, and all this loss of life and property been prevented, had there been harbors for shipping, but AA'hen it is remembered that the list is far from being complete, Ave may AA'ith safety suppose that a very considerable proportion might in that way have been saved. AYe might enlarge upon the various considerations suggested by our inquiries, but it is unnecessary. Enough has been elicited to shoAV the pressing necessity of harbors on Lake Michigan and the prominent importance of one at Milwaukee. D A statement of the aggregate amount of Imports and Exports, at the Port of Alihvaukee, for each year, from the first settlement of the town, up to January 1, 1842, made by I. A. Lapham and F. Randall, in pursuance of a resolution of the trustees of said town : Years Imports Exports Total 1835-36 $ 588,959 $26,145 $ 615,095 1837 641,235 47,745 688,980 1838 783,458 47,690 831,148 1839 866,740 43,568 910,308 1840 1,147,803 53,828 1,200,631 1841 1,805,277 286,777 2,092,054 $5,833,472 $505,753 $6,338,216 E Statement of the amount and value of the exports and imports, at the Town of Prairieville (AVaukesha), Mihvaukee County, AVis., for the year 1841: I. Exports Flour, 7,000 barrels $35,750 Pork, 250 barrels 2,250 Hides, 12,000 pounds 840 Total value of exports $38,840 II. Imports Alerchandise . $20,000 Lumber, 100,000 feet 1,400 Salt, 600 barrels 1,500 Irons, 35,000 pounds 2,800 Total A'alue of imports $25,700 Total amount of exports and imports $64,540 HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 281 A statement of the loss of life and property on Lake Alichigan, much or all of which might haA'e been avoided or prevented by the construction of suitable harbors at the most prominent points ; made by I. A. Lapham and F. Randall, in pursuance of a resolution of the trustees of the Town of Alilwaukee, AVisconsin Territory : 1834. — The navigation of Lake Alichigan may be considered as having been commenced in this year ; only three steamboats and a few sail vessels having landed at Chicago ; and the amount of life and property lost Avas probably not Aery great when compared with the next year. The ToAvn of Alilwaukee was not then in existence. Although there doubtless were many more, we have been able to ascertain, with certainty, only two accidents within this year : The schooner Prince Eugene was driven ashore near the mouth of Grand Rh'er, nearly opposite Alilwaukee. One man, the captain, lost. Ihe schooner Juliett, with a valuable cargo, was driven ashore near St. Joseph. The expense of getting her off was $1,500. 1835. — The brig Austerlitz, attempting to land passengers in a small boat, it was swamped (or filled Avith AA'ater by the waves), by which accident four men were droAvned. The brig Austerlitz was afterwards driven ashore, during a severe storm, having on board a full cargo of valuable merchandise, which, with the vessel, was entirely lost. Two lives lost by this accident. The schooner Bridget was sunk at sea — all hands and passengers lost. The number of persons on board not knoAvn, but supposed to be tAvelve. The schooner Chance was also sunk while at sea in this year, and the number of persons drowned Avas nine. The steamboat NeAvberryport was driven ashore at Chicago, and proved a total loss. The schooner SAvan (Captain Gilbert), was lost, Avith all on board, supposed to be tAventy. The schooner Hoe went ashore at four different times during the year. No lives lost. The steamboat Pioneer Avas driven ashore at the south end of the lake. Total loss. The schooner Alarengo Avent ashore opposite Chicago. Cargo and vessel lost. The schooner Erie Packet — driven ashore in a gale and totally lost. The schooner Post Boy was upset, AA'ith ten persons on board; of Avhom only two escaped. The schooner Adelade Avent ashore tAventy miles from Mihvaukee, and Avas Avholly lost. 1836. — Four men Avere drowned in the early part of the year, near the mouth of the Alihvaukee River. A gale occurred in October, in Avhich nine vessels Ave re more or less injured or destroyed.1. The schooner Alartin Van Buren sustained a hole stove in her stern and sunk. THE MENOMINEE RIVER COAL DOCK CENTER A'essel unloading coal A LAKE COAL CARRIER OF THE LARGER TYPE UNLOADING AT A MKNOM1NEE RIVER COAL DOCK HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 283 2. The schooner General Harrison, Avith a hole stove in her side, Avas driven ashore very much injured. 3. The schooner Celeste was drh-en ashore and filled Avith Avater ; her main mast "gone by the board," and otherAvise much damaged. 4. The schooner Erie Avas driven ashore, her fore and top-mast gone, and her hull not very much injured. 5. The barque Detroit broke from her fastenings, and dropping an anchor, which was dragged some one hundred and fifty rods, finally rode out the storm with but little damage. 6. The schooner Sea Serpent parted her cables and Avas driven ashore near Michigan City, and Avas entirely knocked to pieces. 7. The brig North Carolina Avent ashore thirty miles from Chicago, and was thrown upon the beach "high and dry." 8. The sloop Clarissa Harlow AA'as driven ashore near NeAv Buffalo, on the east side of the lake. 9. The schooner Chicago parted her cables, and Avas driven ashore Avith immense velocity. Several other vessels (one dismasted) were reported to have been seen passing Chicago, and if so they were undoubtedly all blown ashore. All the vessels lying at Chicago pier, were more or less injured — the harbor being then in an unfinished state. SeA-eral lives Avere lost during the gale, but the number not ascertained. The schooner Wave AA-as driven ashore at three different times during the year ; no material damage done, except loss of time of vessel and creAv and cost of getting her off. The cost of getting vessels off from the shore, varies from one hundred to fifteen hundred dollars, according to circumstances. The schooner Agnes Barton lost her main-mast AA-hile lying at anchor. The schooner Ocean AA'as driven ashore at Milwaukee, but little damaged. 1837. — The steamboat Detroit, which had been engaged in the trade betAveen Alihvaukee and St. Joseph, after having several times been much- endangered and once actually grounded at Michigan City, AA-as finally, in November, driven ashore and totally lost at Southport. The steamboat Champlain AA-as driven ashore at St. Joseph, and Avholly lost. The Harbor Steamboat at Milwaukee, used to convey passengers and freight between the toAvn and vessels lying in the bay (unable to enter the river), was driven ashore and lost at the mouth of the river. There is an annual loss to community at Mihvaukee, of 25 cents for all passengers, and 10 cents per barrel bulk, or $10 per ton, on all freight passing to or from lake vessels at that place ; occasioned directly by the Avant of a harbor. The schooner Sea Serpent having been re-built at Michigan City, AA-as driven ashore and lost, at the mouth of the Milwaukee Rh'er. The schooner OAvanungha Avas driven ashore at the south end of the lake. The schooner America, driven ashore near the mouth of the Muskegon River, in Alichigan, and Avith her cargo Avas totally lost. 284 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE The schooner Wenona Avent ashore near Milwaukee. The schooner J. S. King Avent ashore at the mouth of the St. Joseph. Such Avas the force of the storm, that she AA-as driven over a sand bar, which is entirely above AA'ater in calm Aveather ! 1838. — Captain Powell killed in the Mihvaukee Bay, on board of a vessel. The schooner Juliett was thrown upon a rock at the northern extremity of the lake, and much damaged. The cargo AA-as throAvn overboard, to save the vessel and the lives of the persons on board. The steamboat Taylor Avas driven ashore and totally lost at Michigan City. The schooner Illinois was ashore tAvice this year, but not materially injured. The schooner White Pigeon was driven ashore at Michigan City. The brig John Kenzie Avent ashore at Michigan City, and proved a total Avreck. The brig Queen Charlotte, one of the trophies of Perry's splendid achieve ment on Lake Erie, was driven ashore near Chicago this year and lost. The schooner Virginia AA-as driven ashore at the south end of the lake. 1839. — Four men were drowned at Mihvaukee, in attempting to land from the steamboat De AVitt Clinton, lying in the bay, in a gale ; and several others very narrowly escaped the same fate. The schooner Solomon Juneau AA-as driven ashore near the Milwaukee Rh-er. The schooner Van Buren Avas driven ashore at Mihvaukee. A gale occurred in November, in AA'hich five vessels (two of them steam boats) Avere injured or destroyed : 1. The schooner Thomas Jefferson driven against the pier at Chicago, and much injured. Two lives Avere lost by this accident, and many more would have been lost, but for the timely assistance of the citizens of Chicago. 2. The schooner ATictor Avas bloAvn by the Chicago pier, and AA'as only secured, Avith her creAv, from destruction, by the almost superhuman exertions of her captain. 3. The schooner Virginia, AA'hich had just been got off shore, Avas again beached near Michigan City. .4. The steamboat A^ermillion broke her shaft near the Manitou Islands, and AA-as driven, by the gale, to St. Joseph. One of her passengers became deranged, from fear, and jumped overboard. She was out of sight of land three days, Avithout AA'heels. 5. The steamboat Fairport Avas driven back to Chicago, by the gale, not haA'ing been able to reach Alilwaukee Bay. The brig Neptune Avas this year driven ashore on the uninhabited coast of Alichigan, north of Grand River, and proved a total loss. Out of tAventy-five persons on board, only three Avere able to reach the nearest settlement; the others having perished on the Avay, from cold, fatigue, and hunger. Of the three persons saved, one lost both his legs, the others, each one leg, from freezing. HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 285 The ship Alilwaukee was driven ashore, having on board a cargo of wheat, AA'hich Avas much damaged. The schooner (belonging to Leavenworth) went ashore, a total Avreck. A man was drowned in the Mihvaukee Bay, AA'hile engaged in supplying wood to steamboats. Two wood scows were driven ashore, at Alihvaukee ; one of them, and a considerable quantity of wood, totally lost. 1840. — Mr. L. Robbins was killed by accident, on board the Harbor Steam boat, at Alilwaukee, while engaged in unloading vessels lying in the bay. The schooner Marsh went ashore at the mouth of the Alilwaukee River. Total loss, vessel and cargo. The schooner Alilwaukee, and the sloop Clarissa, driven ashore at Mil waukee. 1841. — Four persons droAA-ned near Mihvaukee by the sAvamping of a boat, A-iz. : R. Young, A. BroAvn, Pinney, and I. S. Skinner. The schooner Post Boy again upset, and sunk, and Avith crew, passengers and cargo — all lost — twenty persons thus found a watery grave. The steamboat Milwaukee, in attempting to enter the Alilwaukee River, got fast on the bar, and laid there until driven in by the gale in October — thus materially interrupting the business connected Avith the navigation of the lake. Two wood-scows, and a large amount of wood lost at Alihvaukee. The schooner Horner was driven ashore near Racine, (tAventy-five miles from Alihvaukee) and was totally lost. In November a gale occurred Avhich did much damage to the shipping viz. : 1. The schooner Jefferson was driven ashore at Chicago. 2. The schooner Drift was driven ashore at Chicago.. 3. The schooner Wave was driven ashore at Chicago. 4. The schooner Dolphin Avas driven ashore at Racine. 5. The schooner McFarlane Avas driven ashore at Racine. 6. The schooner ManitOAvoc was driven ashore at Southport. 7. The schooner Memee was driven ashore at Milwaukee. 8. The schooner AVenona Avas driven ashore at Mihvaukee. 9. The sloop Black Hawk was driven ashore at Mihvaukee. 10. The schooner Henry Norton was driven ashore at Mihvaukee. 11. The brig Francis Mills, and 12. The brig Osceola, were driven about at the mercy of the AA'ind but not materially damaged. 13. The brig WmsloAv AA'hich AA'as heavily laden Avith merchandise, AA'hile discharging her cargo at Alihvaukee, Avas obliged to put to sea, and Avas driven ashore seventeen miles north from Chicago, and Avas AA'ith her cargo Avholly lost. This occurrence, by Avhich about $50,000 worth of property Avas lost, is directly chargeable to the want of a harbor at Mihvaukee, which could be constructed with the amount lost by this one accident ! It is supposed that several other vessels Avere driven ashore on the East side of the lake, of AA'hich Ave can obtain no definite information. 286 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE- The steamboat Illinois entered the Milwaukee Bay in September in a gale, and having no Avood, Avas compelled to lie at anchor three days until the storm abated — although she dragged her anchor some distance, she came off finally AA'ith but little damage. The detention of vessels in this Avay, is a very great draAvback upon the navigation of Lake Michigan. A large steamboat may have on board some five hundred to eight hundred passengers, and their time and expenses, and the expenses of the officers and creAv, forms a pretty considerable item to be charged against the traveling and trading community. — Prudent navigators, knoAving that if they leave the port there is no safety for them, are compelled to lie by two or three days Avaiting for fair Aveather ; Avhile, if there Avere safe harbors at convenient distances, AA'hich could be made in a storm, they Avould not hesitate to pursue their voyage. The schooners Dolphin, McFarlane, ManitOAvoc, Avere got off shore after the November gale, and Avere each driven ashore a second time and lost. The schooner Drift was also got off and upset ; one man being lost. Vessel and cargo also lost. The schooner Mihvaukee also got off, and Avhile on a voyage to the Manitou Islands, Avith provisions from Milwaukee for the men there engaged in supplying Avood to steamboats, Avas driven across the lake and beached on the Michigan shore, late in fall. In consequence of this loss, serious apprehensions are entertained for the fate of the unfortunate islanders, Avho depended upon this cargo for their Avinter 's supply of provisions. The steamboats Madison, Chesapeake and Missouri, three of the largest and most powerful steamboats in the Avorld, Avere ashore on the Avest side of the lake during this year. They Avere not hoAvever materially damaged. Recapitulation. — From the foregoing statement, it appears that the number of lives lost on Lake Michigan Avas : In 1834 1 In 1835 53 In 1836 1 In 1838 1 In 1839 33 In 1840 1 In 1841 25 Total 118 Making a total of 118 lives lost, or about fifteen each year, since the commencement of the navigation of Lake Michigan, in 1834. We have, Avith the assistance of several persons Avell acquainted Avith the history of the different vessels lost or damaged, and of the amount of freight, &c, injured or destroyed on each, formed an approximate estimate of the amount of property destroyed on Lake Michigan during each year, the result of Avhich is as folloAvs : HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 287 In the year 1834 amount of loss $ 37,500 In the year 1835 amount of loss 178,500 In the year 1836 amount of loss 298,750 In the year 1837 amount of loss 171,400 In the year 1838 amount of loss 78,000 In the year 1839 amount of loss 111,800 In the year 1840 amount of loss 31,000 In the year 1841 amount of loss -145,500 Total $1,052,450 ShoAving a grand total of more than a million of dollars, being over $131,000 yearly, and enough each year to construct tAvo harbors. From the foregoing statement it appears further, that the number of vessels lost or injured has been: In 1834 2 In 1835 11 In 1836 15 In 1837 : 9 In 1838 8 In 1839 13 In 1840 3 In 1841 28 Total 89 ShoAving a yearly average of eleven. In these statements, it Avill be perceived that Ave have included only those cases about Avhich Ave have obtained definite information, and Ave do not hesitate to say that Avere all the facts ascertained, this list would be very materially enlarged. Besides the actual loss and damage, there have been many hair breadth escapes of AA'hich we have no account. If from the superior skill of the captain and creAv or from the greater strength of the vessel, she is able to endure the storm, we seldom hear anything of the circumstance, although the actual danger might have been as great as in other cases Avhere accidents did really happen. The enumeration of these would fill a small volume. Major Judson and the Randolph Report. — The movement AA'hich led to the first study of the ultimate possibilities of Mihvaukee's harbor had its inception Avith the creation of a special harbor committee by the City Council. This committee Avas headed by Alderman Frederick C. Bogk who displayed unusual zeal and energy in bringing expert engmeering service into play and in providing the municipality Avith a comprehenisve harbor plan. Alaj. AY. Y. Judson, then the resident LTnited States engineer, manifested a deep interest in the harbor and made the statement that "Jones Island is the key to Alihvaukee 's future harbor development." He discussed the subject as folloAvs : "Ports of the composite class to AA'hich Milwaukee belongs need harbors which are adapted to perform two functions. In the first place, being ports A VIEAV TAKEN IN THE SUMMER OF 1921 SHOWING PROGRESS OF IMPROVEMENTS MADE ON JONES ISLAND FOR HARBOR PURPOSES To the left may be seen the Kinnickinnic Basin which is being deepened and widened as a water area. On the right huge revetments are observed. The Avater area inside of the revetments is being filled with dredgings taken out of the basin thus Aviden- ing the land area lakeAvard. HARBOR AND ALARINE INTERESTS 289 of general importance, such as Chicago, Duluth, Superior and Alanitowoc, they must compete among themselves for tonnage to be transhipped from lake to rail and vice versa. As to such tonnage it is of the greatest impor tance that A-essels coming to the AA'harves shall experience the least possible delay. A very feAv cents, or even a fraction of a cent per ton imposed upon this tonnage through avoidable delays Avill by at least that much increase the cost to the consumer or producer in the region tributary to the port. This certainly means that a portion of such ports must be comparatively free from bridges and tortuous channels and be prepared to do through business at a minimum of expense. If any economies are neglected, as at Chicago, for example, the through business of the port declines. "Jones Island the Key. — To perform the second function, to-Avit, to serve the needs of local commerce and local industries, ports of this class must possess great extension of dock frontage, along which factories and Avare- houses may be built. The manufacturing establishments, jobbing houses, etc., will not, of course, use their docks to the same extent as will those en gaged exclusively in the transportation of business. The dock is a mere auxiliary to the manufacturer or jobber. It is not so important in this case that the vessel shall secure great dispatch as that commercial or industrial plants shall be conveniently near their consumers, labor supply, etc. Further more, the dockage for local trading A'essels should be located near the center of the toAvn. Tortuous channels and bridges may be endured by these in terests. In fact, it is absolutely necessary to use the interior channels for "local industries by reason of the great extent of clock frontage required. "Jones Island is the key to the future greatness of Mihvaukee as a port to serve through commerce. It is complementary to the inner harbor, which is, or can be made, so Avell adapted to the use of local commerce and local industries. If there were an outer harbor at Jones Island there Avould be less congestion in the inner harbor, as the latter Avould be relieved of the vessels engaged in through commerce. And if the Avharves for through com merce were on Jones Island, there would remain a greater extension of dock frontage on the interior rivers to serve local needs. That the development of Jones Island Avould be of the greatest benefit to the region lying Avest of Alihvaukee itself, and to nearly every one resident thereat, cannot for a moment be doubted." The Bogk committee in making its report to the Common Council pre faced the same AA'ith the f olloAving paragraph : ' ' The proposition of con verting Jones Island into a useful municipal dock and wharf- and thereby adding to the city's transportation facilities, both Avater and rail, has had the serious attention of your special committee. AYe find, upon a thorough investigation, that the project bears many phases AA'hich deserve the most careful consideration. Aside from the advantage to be derived to the city as a commercial and shipping proposition, AA'hich is generally admitted, Ave find that the physical, legal and financial consideration involved must be set forth before an intelligent judgment can be formed. In fact, the final determination to proceed with the project must rest primarily and solely upon the feasibility and the utilitarian advantages to be derived from such 290 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE project. Both factors, Ave believe, have been established in this report. Every phase is discussed with candor and with such thoroughness as was Avithin the grasp of your committee." The committee AA'hich in addition to Alderman Frederick C. Bogk con sisted of Alderman Oscar Alpeter, Max Grass, P. H. Connelly and L. H. Tarrant, submitted an exhaustive report to the council, summarizing its arguments and recommendations in the following twenty points : 1. Increased transportation facilities are absolutely necessary to groAvth. 2. No prospect of more railroads unless we build them ourselves, and not much prospect of improved conditions on the part of present railroads. 3. Lake transportation necessary to maintain parity as betAveen Chicago and the East. 4. Inner harbor, though great, cannot be extended so as to care for our growing needs. 5. Jones Island has natural advantages. "The key to our future great ness." Who shall hold the key? 6. AVill provide directly more and needed facilities for water and ulti mately for railroad transportation. 7. We need more harbor room, docks, warehouses, storage houses, ele vators, carferry slips, team tracks, storage tracks. 8. Good investment. 9. Docks now monopolized by railroads. 10. Systematic, efficient building, and the Avorking out of a great plan, cannot be done by individuals, but only by the city. 11. The Government Avill assist, if we begin, spending large amounts in Milwaukee. 12. Jones Island the only suitable location and area. 13. Our responsibility for the future and its needs, Ave must provide for. 14. Opportunity is passing; we are not getting our share. 15. No legal obstacles. 16. No engineering or physical obstacles. 17. Finances can be provided. 18. When private capital cannot or Avill not act for public good, then it becomes the duty of the municipality to act. 19. Property is cheapest noAv. 20. It is a good thing, grab it, and do it noAv. Thereupon the council appropriated the sum of $5,000 for a survey and report on the harbor and Isham Randolph, a Avell knoAvn engineer, Avas employed. This report laid the basis for the development of Jones Island and the utilization of the Kinnickinnic basin. The realization of this plan involved considerations which Avere not readily overcome. Delays were en countered in the acquirement of Jones Island and in complying AA'ith the legal and financial requirements connected Avith such acquirement. With the advent of the Mihvaukee Harbor Commission the subject was approached from a neAv and broader angle and the H. McL. Harding report followed in 1920. This study dealt with the entire harbor problem in the HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 291 light of changed conditions and was that year adopted unanimously by the common council. Concentrating the Harbor Traffic. — With the passing of the small wooden schooner and the adA-ent of the large steel vessel there also came about changes in the character of the harbor traffic. The larger ships could not be afforded the extreme depth in all parts of the three rivers. Again, they were obliged to seek the Avell-equipped terminals for their cargoes. The constant groAvth of the traffic on the streets paralleling the river in the business section of the city, and the location of manufacturing plants in increasing numbers on dock property, rendered, in many instances, the location of terminals impracticable. On the one hand some dock property had become obsolete, owing to changed conditions, while on the other their use for commercial or industrial purposes had rendered them too costly for terminal purposes. With the introduction of more bridges and the regulations governing the opening and closing hours, the movement of large craft about the channel has become more cumbersome and at the same time more hazardous. All this has led to the thought that some day the inner harbor traffic must be concentrated to the more readily accessible points and that the undeveloped areas near the mouth of the harbor must be developed. The time which elapsed betAveen the earlier conception of the plan and its final formulation also developed the difficulties which would eventually have to be encountered. The island was privately OAvned and had to be acquired by the municipality if the contemplated improvements were to be made. It Avas in part owned by fishermen Avho lived on the island and in part by the Illinois Steel Corporation. About this time the municipality was confronted with the problem of locating its seAvage disposal plant. The various sites which had been under consideration had been objected to by the citizenship. The location of the plant in the northern end of Jones Island was deemed most practical, and consequently an area having 1,000 feet of lake frontage was chosen. The city administration then conceived the idea of creating a so called harbor commission consisting of nine members, citizens who were familiar with the physical and commercial conditions attending the harbor. This body served in an advisory capacity to the common council. The harbor possibilities Avere then subjected to close study and the formu lation of plans which utilized all the natural advantages afforded in the land and Avater areas involved, Avere worked but. The acquisition of the island and the control of the basin was determined upon. Every successive recommendation to that end Avas adopted by the common council, and the citizens loyally supported the bond issues that were submitted. Members of the common council, especially President Cornelius Corcoran, became strong champions of a comprehensive harbor plan and the steady and un hindered development of the same. Through the efforts of President Corcoran and Mayor G. A. Bading the municipality secured the riparian rights of the lake frontage from Wisconsin Street south to the mouth of the harbor. 292 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Subsequently the city condemned the north half of Jones Island to a point opposite Greenfield Avenue, and also took steps to condemn that part of the island lying south doAA'n to AVilcox Street. Harbor Needs Winter Mooring Facilities. — Alilwaukee harbor found itself greatly in need of a place AA'here a fair-sized fleet of vessels could be moored for the winter Avithout the possibility of being disturbed during the closed period. This shortcoming of the port had never been more apparent than at the close of the season of 1919, AA'hen the Harbor Alaster Avas called upon to find berths for forty-three of the larger class of coal and ore carriers. The task AA'as a difficult one, but the fleet Avas finally proA'ided for. HoAveA'er, some of the steamers had to be shifted about during the Avinter. This iiiA'oh'ed considerable expense. Vessel-OAA'ners seek to avoid trouble of this nature AA'hen they assign craft to Avinter quarters, and this explains Avhy Alihvaukee 's Avinter fleets haA'e been so insignificant in recent years. The assignments of cargoes to Alihvaukee by the coal administration at the close of last season left many OAvners no choice but to lay up their vessels at this port. There is seemingly miles of AA'ater frontage in the harbor Avhere A'essels could be moored for the Avinter AA'ith reasonable surety of not being forced to moA'e, but some property-OAvners are averse to alloAving large craft to lie alongside their docks for so long a period. Other points lack mooring piles. Care Avas also taken to keep channels clear so that fire tugs Avould be able to navigate freely in times of stress. This latter necessity prevents A-essels from lying abreast AA'here channels are narroAv. Aside from the advantage to navigation interests, a Avinter mooring basin Avould be profitable from a business point of vieAV, because of the large amount of money required to fit out vessels in the spring. Kinnickinnic Bay, Avhen properly deepened AA'ill provide winter berths for fifty or more large vessels. The Harbor Commission had this in mind Avhen it planned for the enlargement of the inner basin behind Jones Island. Jones Island Condemnation. — The Common Council, on Alonday, July 7, 1913, passed a resolution requesting the Harbor Commission to make imme diate recommendation as to AA'hat lands on Jones Island should, in its judg ment, first be taken in prosecuting the proposed inner harbor improvement, the cost of such lands not to exceed the sum of $50,000.00, the amount of a bond issue ordered by the Common Council for that purpose. The matter Avas taken up by the Harbor Commission on Friday, August 15, 1913, Avhen the secretary presented a draft of a communication recommending the condemnation of certain blocks, as platted, on the southern extremity of the island. Action AA'as deferred, hoAvever, until the members of the Commis sion and Committee on Harbor had made personal inspection of the premises involved. This Avas accomplished on August 19, 1913. At a meeting of the Harbor Commission on Friday afternoon, September 4, 1913, it Avas decided that a conference be had Avith representatives of the Illinois Steel Company, AA'hich corporation is the OAvner of most of the land on Jones Island, and the secretary Avas ordered to make arrangements for the same. HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 293 A conference Avas had on Friday afternoon, October 3, 1913, tAvo repre sentatives of the legal department of the Illinois Steel Compaii3r appearing for that corporation. The Jones Island situation Avas discussed in its every phase, with a A'ieAv to opening the AA'ay to the acquirement of the island in Avhole or in part. The representatives of the steel company gave the city officials to understand that their company would not stand in the way of the proposed improvement, but that it Avished to retain sufficient land in the outer or inner harbor area to admit of the enlargement of the present Avorks, should the com pany so desire at some future time. In response to a groAving sentiment in faA-or of acquiring the AA'hole of Jones Island in one proceeding, the Harbor Commission submitted a request to the Common Council on Alonday, October 13, 1913, that it direct the Board of Estimates to provide the sum of $250,000.00 in the budget for 1914, for the further acquirement of Jones Island property. At the same time the commis sion submitted a recommendation in accordance AA'ith the resolution passed by the Common Council July 7, 1913, that blocks 185, 186, 187 and 188 of Jones Island, as platted, be condemned. The former communication Avas referred to the Committee on Finance and the latter to the Committee on Harbor. The Board of Estimates having meanwhile included the sum of $250,000.00 in the budget for 1914 to be applied to the acquirement of Jones Island prop erty and making other harbor improA'ements, a resolution AA'as introduced in the Common Council on Alonday, January 5, 1914, to the effect that the whole of Jones Island be acquired by the city. The resolution Avas referred to the Committee on Harbor and also the Board of Public Land Commissioners, AA'ho rendered a favorable report at a meeting of the Common Council on Alonday. February 2, 1914, AA'hereupon the resolution was adopted unanimously. At the same meeting the first formal step in the condemnation proceedings Avas taken by the introduction of a resolution formally authorizing the con demnation of the property. Fishermen Plead for Consideration.— One of the problems involved in the transformation of Jones Island into a shipping center is the disposition of the fishermen Avho noAv occupy the land and maintain sheds and small mooring piers for tugs and launches along the river frontage. The Harbor Commission has given the matter serious thought, for the reason that the fishing business occupies an exclusive field and is one of the pioneer industries of the 'city. It is also the main support of a small colony of people AA'ho Avill be compelled to remoA'e elsewhere if another base of operations cannot be established in Mil waukee harbor. The further fact that the fishing business has a favorable bearing on the food supply of the city also counts in favor of its retention, although it must be admitted that in this respect it Avould render more efficient service if it was conducted in a less isolated location than it is at present. The magnitude of the industry can best be understood by a study of the following figures showing the total catch of fish and the valuation of the same during the past eight years., The figures Avere obtained from the records of the State Conservation Commission at Aladison, W!s. No record of the Jones Island catch was kept prior to 1909 : A SCENE IN THE COAL RECEIVING CENTER OE THE MENOMINEE RIVER AREA MOUNTAINS OF COAL IN THE MENOMINEE VALLEY A vessel in process of unloading HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 295 Year. Pounds of Fish. Value. 1909 1,614,990 $ 96,571.00 1910 1,693,838 68,708.70 1911 1,535,524 100,619.25 1912 1,658,544 91,161.75 1913 2,328,340 125,527.40 1914 2,003,670 106,629.40 1915 1,913,865 102,006.90 1916 1,370,460 101,554.40 Total 14,119,231 $792,778.80 Average yearly catch, 1,764,904 pounds. Average yearly return, $99,097.35. A delegation of Jones Island fishermen appeared before the Harbor Com mission on Thursday afternoon, September 10, 1917, and presented their claims for consideration in connection with the development of the island. The peti tioners represented the owners of fifteen tugs and nine gasoline launches, which constitute the fishing fleet operating out of Alilwaukee Harbor at the present time. The object of the petitioners was to secure from the commission some assurance that they would be permitted to continue their business on the island under reasonable regulation and rental. Mr. Cornelius Tamms, spokesman of the delegation, stated that there are about 175 men directly engaged in the fishing business and that about an equal number make a livelihood in selling fish. He said if the fishermen were forced to leave the island most of these people would have to move away from the city. He promised that during the progress of preliminary operations on the island the fishermen would shift about and double up so as not to interfere with the work of the contractors. Air. Tamms favored the construction of a slip 600 feet in length with two-story sheds or warehouses on each side, the lower stories to be used- for drying nets and the upper floors for storing extra nets and supplies. For such facilities Mr. Tamms said the fishermen would be willing to pay a reasonable rental. Chairman Bruce informed the delegation that in formulating its plans for the future use of Jones Island the Harbor Commission would take the needs of the fishermen into serious consideration, and that meanwhile they would not be disturbed any more than was actually necessary. On the day following, Friday, September 11, 1917, the same delegation of fishermen attended the meeting of the Common Council Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, where the assessment of benefits and damages in the Jones Island condemnation was being considered. Members of the Harbor Commission who were present, repeated the assurances given the fishermen at the commission meeting the day previous, whereupon the fishermen withdrew the objections they had intended to present and the assessment was favorably reported upon. The Harbor Commission of 1911. — In response to agitation on the part of public officials, and manufacturing and shipping interests of the city, in favor 296 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE of outer harbor development on the lake side of AA'hat is known as Jones Island, the Common Council, on Alonday, September 25, 1911, adopted a resolution authorizing the mayor to appoint a commission of nine members, to be knoAvn as the Harbor Commission, AA'hose duty it should be to make a careful survey of the present and future needs of the city in the line of harbor facilities, and to investigate all proposed plans and suggestions, and report its findings to the mayor at as early a date as possible. In pursuance of the resolution, the mayor, on Alonday, October 23, 1911, appointed as members of the commission, AI. A. Beck, W. P. Bishop, William George Bruce, R. G. Butler, Robert Clarke, Edward Cornillie, Capt. J. J. AIc- SAveeney, Frank J. AVeber, and A. L. Worden. R. G. Butler, Robert Clarke and A. L. AYorden declining to serve, the mayor, on Alonday, November 20, 1911, appointed Carl C. Joys, Win. Schlosser and Capt. 0. N. Anderson to the vacancies. The commission Avas formally organized on AYednesday, November 22, 1911, but did not begin active Avork until Tuesday, February 13, 1912, the Common Council having meanwhile made financial provision for the prosecu tion of the investigation. The first act of the commission Avas to elect Herman Bleyer as secretary. On Alay 27, 1912, the commission rendered a preliminary report to the Common Council recommending the early acquirement of Jones Island and the deepening and docking of Kinnickinnic Bay for inner harbor purposes, the outer harbor plan being rejected. It also recommended that conditions in the Alenomonee and Kinnickinnic rivers be improved in accordance with the recommendations of United States engineers. At this stage of the investigation the legality of the Harbor Commission Avas challenged on the ground that the appointment to its membership had not been confirmed by the Common Council, in obedience to the rules of that body. The commission thereupon ceased its activities. The secretary, Iioav- ever, continued the Avork inaugurated by it up to that time. The Harbor Commission created by act of the Common Council of the City of Alihvaukee, August 19, 1912, Avas simply advisory in capacity and had no authority to carry out AA'hat it planned. Its function Avas to study the shipping needs of the city and make recommendations to the Common Council looking to improved harbor facilities. The definite purpose of the Harbor Commis sion AA-as to promote harbor deA-elopment along progressh'e lines, Avith an eye to the betterment of present adverse conditions and to the probable needs of the city in the ultimate future. The folloAving Avere the members of the Committee on Harbor of the Common Council in 1912, AA'hen the Harbor Commission AA-as created: Alder man Edward A. Wittig, chairman, Frederick C. Bogk, George T. Grede, Harry Dempsey, Arthur Urbanek. AVhile the members of the committee were named ex-officio members of the Harbor Commission by the resolution creating the latter body, the com mittee as a Avhole or in part met AA'ith the Harbor Commission on only one or tAvo occasions. In April, 1914, the Common Council committees Avere reorganized, and the HARBOR AND ALARINE INTERESTS 297 old Harbor Committee abolished, its duties being transferred to the Commit tee on Public Buildings and Grounds. From that time on committee connec tion with the Harbor Commission Avas disregarded. The following citizens served on the original commission up to the time of its disqualification : Alessrs. AYilliam George Bruce, W. P. Dishop, AI. A. Beck, J. J. AIcSAveeney, Edward Cornillie, Carl C. Joys, 0. N. Anderson, Win. Schlosser. The Harbor Commission Avas reorganized in pursuance of a resolution adopted by the Common Council on Alonday, August 19, 1912, authorizing the mayor to appoint nine citizens of the City of Alihvaukee to act in an ach'isory capacity to the regular Harbor Committee of the Common Council regarding the development of shipping facilities and the best means of pro viding for future requirements of a like nature. The terms of the first ap pointees to the commission Avere fixed as folloAvs: Three for one year, three for tAvo years, and three for three years, the mayor being empoAvered to appoint three members of the commission annually thereafter. The com missioner of public works and members of the Harbor Committee of the Common Council were constituted ex officio members of the commission. The commission was required to report its findings to the Common Council once each year, or as often as the urgency and importance of the proposed Avork dictated. The initial appointments to the commission Avere made by the mayor, and duly confirmed by the Common Council, on Alonday, October 14, 1912. They were as f oIIoavs : William George Bruce, Walter P. Bishop and Carl C. Joys for three years; Fred J. Schroeder, Fred C. Reynolds and Conrad Trimborn for tAvo years, and Jesse B. Whitnall, William C. Starke and Capt. Henry Leisk for one year. In order to provide the commission AA'ith a secretary, it having no author ity to create a salaried position, the Common Council, on Monday, September 30, 1912, passed an ordinance creating the position of secretary of harbor sur vey work AA'ithin the Department of Public Works, and in conformity Avith the ordinance the commissioner of public works, on Tuesday, October 15, 1912, appointed Herman Bleyer, secretary of the first Harbor Commission, to the position. The first report of the reorganized commission AA'as rendered May 12, 1913. It urged the early acquirement of Jones Island by the city, on the ground that it afforded the only remaining opportunity for the municipality to acquire water frontage capable of comprehensive terminal development. Acting upon this recommendation the Common Council provided for a bond issue of $250,000 in the budget for 1914 for the purpose of securing the island. The following citizens served on the reorganized Harbor Commission for various periods, from its inception up to July 1, 1920, when it was superseded by the Board of Harbor Commissioners : William George Bruce, AY. P.- Bishop, Carl C. Joys, Fred J. Schroeder, Fred C. Reynolds, Conrad Trimborn, Jesse B. Whitnall, AYilliam C. Starke, Henry Leisk, John C. Davis, D. W. Chipman, John S. Stover, Frank Tilley, AYilliam F. Quick, R, H. Pinkley, Harry M. Stratton, L. J. Klug, Bennett Larson, John F. Jackson. MILWAUKEE RIVER— GRAIN ELEVATORS MENOMINEE RIA'ER— COAL SHIPPING CENTKR HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS Personnel of the Harbor Commission 299 1912 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. Carl C. Joys. AI. A. Beck. Win Schlosser John J. Ale Sweeney. E. A. Cornillie. 0. N. Anderson. Frank J. Weber. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1913 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. John C. Davis. Carl C. Joys. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. Jesse B. Whitnall. William C. Starke. Conrad Trimborn. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1914 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. John C. Davis. Carl C. Joys. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. Jesse B. Whitnall. William C. Starke. Conrad Trimborn. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1915 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. John C. Davis. Carl C. Joys. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. Jesse B. Whitnall. William C. Starke. D. W. Chipman. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1916 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. John C. Davis. Carl C. Joys. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. Jesse B. Whitnall. William C. Starke. D. W. Chipman. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1917 William George Bruce, chairman. W. P. Bishop. Carl C. Joys. John C. Davis. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. D. W. Chipman. John S. Stover. Frank Tilley. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1918 William George Bruce, chairman. Carl C. Joys. Fred C. Reynolds. Henry Leisk. John S. Stover. R. H. Pinkley. Harry AI. Stratton. William F. Quick. Frank Tilley. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 1919 William George Bruce, chairman. Henry Leisk. Fred C. Reynolds. R. H. Pinkley. Harry M. Stratton. L. J. Klug. Bennett Larson. William F. Quick. Frank Tilley. Herman Bleyer, secretary. 300 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE 1920 1921-22 William George Bruce, chairman. AYilliam George Bruce, president. Henry Leisk. Fred C. Reynolds. Fred C. Reynolds. R. IT. Pinkley. R. H. Pinkley. Bennett Larson. Harry AI. Stratton. G. J. DeGelleke (succeeded by Bennett Larson. 0. F. Ringer). L. J. Klug. Herman Bleyer, secretary. William F. Quick. Changed from commission to Board John F. Jackson. of Harbor Commissioners. Herman Bleyer, secretary. Board of Harbor Commissioners. — The Board of Harbor Cimniissioners AA'as created by the Common Council on Alonday, June 1, 1920, under author ity granted by Chapter 289, LaAvs of Wisconsin, 1919. The membership of the Board is confined to five qualified electors of the City of Alihvaukee AA'ith terms of office extending over three years. The resolution creating the board fixed July 1, 1920, as the date of the beginning of the terms of its members, and provided that the initial appointments to the board should be for one, tAvo and three years, all suceessh'e appointments to be for three years. Agreeable to the action of the Common Council, the mayor, on Alonday, June 14, 1920, made the folloAving appointments, AA'hich appointments Avere confirmed by the Common Council on the same day: Term Expires G. J. DeGelleke July 1, 1921 Henry Leisk July 1, 1922 R. II. Pinkley July 1, 1922 Bennett Larson July 1, 1923 William George Bruce July 1, 1923 The board formally organized on Thursday, July 15, 1920. AYilliam George Bruce Avas elected president for a term of one year, and R. II. Pinkley, vice president, for a similar term. Herman Bleyer Avas chosen secretary. On January 18, 1921, Fred O. Reynolds AA'as appointed a member of the board in place of Capt. Henry Leisk, it having been determined that the latter AA-as disqualified under the laAv for service on the board, being a resident of WauAvatosa. C. F. Ringer Avas chosen in 1921 to succeed Air. DeGelleke. The Board of Harbor Commissioners, under the laAv authorizing its crea tion, is empoAvered to make plans for the improvement of all AvaterAvays of the harbor, to provide for and supervise the construction and equipment of docks, Avharves, Avarehouses, etc., and railway connections to the same, sub ject to approval by the Common Council, and is given jurisdiction over all publicly-OAvned docks and public lands abutting on public AvaterAvays, and the dock lines of the various channels in the harbor. The Milwaukee River Problem. — The Alihvaukee Harbor Commission en tertains the belief that some day the city will have to determine upon the final disposition of the Alihvaukee RiA-er. Will this part of Alihvaukee 's inner harbor become obsolete, or Avill it be Avise, even Avith a declining commerce. to maintain the navigation efficiency of the channel? The commission pro- HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 301 poses to soh-e the problem before it assumes acute form and before the econ omies of the situation force the solution. On the one hand the navigation serA'ice of the river must be dealt with, and on the other the cost of dredging, the building of draw or bascule bridges, and their maintenance and operation. Hence the question, does the commercial utility of the river Avarrant the con tinued expense of maintaining the same as a navigable stream? A study Avas made by a local engineer's society seA'eral years ago Avhich answered this question in the negath-e. Landscape artists have deA'ised elab orate plans for converting the rh-er surface into a great boulevard, or to narrow the stream into a canal and to bouleA'ard both banks. The municipal ity is harassed OA'er the problem of introducing stationary bridges and thus obviating the great cost of building bascule bridges and operating them. The United States Government is in absolute control of all the naA'igable waters Avithin its domain and jealously guards eA'ery inch of water surface and combats all encroachments upon the same. The Alihvaukee River is a navigable stream of no mean importance. The annual tonnage carried north of Grand Avenue exceeds 700,000 tons. This is a large tonnage Avhen con sidered in the light of the fact that the United States has spent millions of dollars in river and harbor improvements folloAved by a smaller tonnage or by absolute failure. The tonnage which goes up the Alilwaukee River north of Grand AA'enue consists in the main of coarse bulk such as coal, sand and stone. Whether this tonnage will diminish, as time goes on, remains to be seen. With the concentration of the port activities nearer the harbor entrance, namely, on and about Jones Island, the Kinnickinnic Basin and the Alenomonee River, one thing becomes clear, namely, that the Alihvaukee River has seen its best days as a navigable stream and that its service Avill lessen rather than in crease in the future. If, on the one hand, the municipality finds that the cost of river main tenance is too high compared AA'ith the commercial utility that is secured and on the other hand Uncle Sam -will not surrender the river, then one practical solution AA'hich Avill meet both exigencies may be open. The introduction of a type of lighters or barges that may navigate up and doAA-n the river AA'ithout compelling the opening and closing of bridges is in order. Such barges, if successfully devised Avould, it is believed, obviate the maintenance of draw and bascule bridges and at the same time permit the introduction of the stationary type of bridges at a greatly reduced cost of construction. North of Grand Avenue there are now six bridges — Oneida, State, Chest nut, Cherry, Walnut and Holton. Five of these would have to be raised from an average of eight feet of vertical clearance over water levels to at last twelve feet if they are to be rendered stationary. The Harbor Commission inaugurated a careful study of the whole subject with a view of reaching a solution of the navigation problem as applied to the Milwaukee River north of Grand Avenue. Railroads Own Steamboat Wharfage. — Practically all of the wharfage in Alilwaukee Harbor suitable for warehouse and transhipping purposes is OAvned 302 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE by railway companies. The exceptions are the docks of the Goodrich Transit Company, those of the Chicago, Racine & Milwaukee Line, and some ware houses belonging to the E. H. Abbot estate on the north side of Milwaukee River, near the harbor entrance. In the case of the two steamboat lines just named, however, the wharves are devoid of railway connection. The Good rich warehouses are on ground leased from private parties, and the Chicago, Racine & Milwaukee Line occupies modern fire-proof warehouses on the Alil waukee River east and west of Broadway Bridge. The Abbot warehouses are managed by an agent for the estate and are not under lease to any rail road or steamship line. Freight intended for reshipment or local delivery is discharged at these warehouses by steamers of various lines, subject to a charge for storage. The warehouses have connection Avith the Chicago & Northwestern line only. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company is the largest single owner of Milwaukee dock property. Virtually all of the desirable frontage in the Menomonee Valley suitable for the warehouse transhipping trade, or 27 per cent of the entire rh'er frontage in that zone of the harbor, is OAvned by this road. Its holdings on the Menomonee River and Kneeland Canal represents 32.2 per cent of the dock facilities on these channels. On the South Menomonee and Burnham canals the same company's holdings amount to 22.1 per cent of the entire frontage. Some of the railway's river property in the Menomonee Aralley is under lease to parties engaged in the coal and salt trade, and to others requiring yard room for handling coarse freight, such as lumber, wood, ties, etc. One grain elevator, Avith a capacity of 1,650,000 bushels, situated on the South Menomonee Canal, is also owned by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Raihvay Company. In fact, no other railroad has access to this immense manufacturing and grain and coal receiving district. The Chicago, Alilwaukee & St. Paul Railway Company owns the only piece of warehouse frontage in the upper shipping zone of the Milwaukee River. This property was used by lower lake steamboat lines in the early history of' the city. It is noAv under lease to the Pabst Brewing Company which devoted Lavo large warehouses to its bottled beer shipping industry, which made use of railway transportation exclusively and there was no provision for handling freight on the river side of the Avarehouses. The same road oAvns the best warehouse property in the harbor zone of the Alilwaukee River — on the Avest front of the river, north and south of the entrance to the Menomonee. The Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company owns two elevators and a warehouse in the lower harbor zone. One elevator with a capacity of 1,500,- 000 bushels is situated on the MhVaukee River just east of Broadway Bridge. The other elevator faces Kinnickinnic Bay, opposite Jones Island, and has a capacity of 1,350,000 bushels. The F. & P. AI. Raihvay Company OAvns 180 feet of warehouse property in the mercantile section of the Alihvaukee River. It lies just north of Buffalo Street bridge, on the west bank of the river, and is the landing place of the Pere Alarquette Line steamers. The Alihvaukee Electric Light & Railway Company is the OAvner of 800 feet of dock property on the Alihvaukee River. HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 303 It represents the sites of power houses on the west bank of the river, north of Chestnut Street bridge, and some vacant frontage on the east bank of the river between Alartin and Oneida streets. The railway oAvnership of property on the Alilwaukee River, between Racine Street and the harbor entrance, is divided as follows: Chicago, Mil waukee & St. Paul, 6.12 per cent ; Chicago & Northwestern, 5.04 per cent ; F. & P. AI. Railway, 0.64 per cent; Alilwaukee Electric Light & Railway Com pany, 2.88 per cent. Total, 14.68 per cent. The Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company owns considerable water frontage in the Kinnickinnic zone of the harbor, but none of it is, as yet, available for shipping purposes. The F. & P. AI. line owns 425 feet just west of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway bridge, on the north bank of the Kinnickinnic River, which it uses as a carferry terminal. The Milwaukee Electric Light & Railway Company owns 300 feet adjoin ing the F. & P. AI. property, which is used for storing coal and transferring the same from rail to barge. The holdings of the Chicago & Northwestern Company represent 11 per cent of the entire developed and undeveloped water frontage on the west shore of Kinnickinnic Bay and in the Kinnickinnic River. The Blinois Steel Company has an ore dock and trestle 1,400 feet in length reaching from the point of the old harbor entrance south along the inner front of the neck of land leading to Jones Island proper. This com pany claims the greater portion of Jones Island and the submerged land known as Kinnickinnic Bay. The Alilwaukee Gas Light Company owns 2,270 feet of valuable dock prop erty, the greater portion of which lies on the Alenomonee Rh'er. The Alenomo- nee River frontage is leased in part to the Y. & O. Coal Company. The Alilwaukee River frontage of this company is situated just west of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway bridge, near the harbor. It is used as a drying yard for material used in filtering gas and also as a site for gas purifying tanks. Amount Expended for Bridge Repairs and Maintenance. — The following table shows the amount expended by the City of Mihvaukee during the years named, for bridge repairs and maintenance: 1853 $ 8,878.15 1868 45,991.46 1854 13,053.70 1869 50,625.58 1855 9,243.66 1870 92,494.72 1856 26,217.04 1871 79,059.54 1857 40,270.87 1872 77,404.63 1858 7,744.09 1873 83,543.30 1859 1874 29,641.86 I860 7,436.75 1875 43,698.91 1861 . 9,860.34 1876 12,265.54 1862 9,539.83 1877 33,995.52 1863 15,960.06 1878 50,616.85 1864 13,118.55 1879 39,143.41 1865 8,998.73 1880 51,909.47 1866 71,396.25 1881 57,922.52 1867 53,542.67 1882 138,829.90 THE OLD JOHN A. DIN SIDEAVHEEL STEAMER A'lEAV OF THE OLD GOODRICH DOCK ON THE MILAVAUKEE RWER, BETAVEEN SYCAMORE AND CLYBOURN STREETS HARBOR AND AIABINE INTERESTS 305 1883 82,258.08 1903 215,546.26 1884 156,307.31 1904 341,685.80 1885 57,065.74 1905 124,934.13 1886 149,315.94 1906 94,179.30 1887 55,946.71 1907 389,742.40 1888 $ 44,780.83 1908 645,796.20 1889 46,277.48 1909 377,013.70 1890 58,261.28 1910 415,518.49 1891 112,767.49 1911 190,581.50 1892 '. 109,349.21 1912 175,628.74 1893 117,077.73 1913 130,750.06 1894 387,378.25 1914 136,368.17 1895 206,448.16 1915 123,172.54 1896 93,230.64 1916 124,207.19 1897 79,709.25 1917 153,665.25 1898 60,228.69 1918 135,658.58 1899 60,864.84 1919 246,075.37 1900 60,921.66 1920 279,728.77 1901 130,880.62 1902 181,645.86 Total $9,309,373.12 These figures include not only river bridges, but all stationary bridges and viaducts over streets, valleys and railway subways. Amount Expended for Dredging and Docking. — FolloAving is a record of the amount expended by the City of Alilwaukee for dredging and docking, during the years named. The sum includes the cost of the original "Straight Cut." 1853 1854 $ 3,050.00 1874 1875 40,935.34 20,522.07 1855 1,521.63 1876 17,063.10 1856 736.81 *72,763.57 1877 14,846.35 1857 1878 21,923.06 1858 1879 25,665.96 1859 1880 31,243.32 1860 7,186.86 1881 14,216.15 1861 981.60 1882 22,171.62 1862 1,722.91 1883 18,645.18 1863 5,416.44 1884 15,111.89 1864 12,316.91 1885 24,217.08 1865 9,960.43 1886 23,977.26 1866 9,073.95 1887 14,576.28 1867 21,165.67 1888 $ 31,010.75 1868 8,227.97 1889 23,694.94 1869 *44,489.83 1890 ........ 27,081.88 1870 *85,855.83 1891 23,829.33 1871 *56,026.50 1892 25,400.83 1872 *68,974.36 1893 37,194.63 1873 21,501.09 1894 35,590.88 A'ol. 1—2 0 306 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE 1895 21,560.82 1909 48,946.44 1896 30,721.77 1910 37,921.43 1897 31,989.53 1911 25,699.64 1898 19,598.67 1912 30,000.00 1899 16,145.17 1913 66,189.74 1900 14,473.58 1914 53,527.10 1901 19,971.86 1915 40,956.78 1902 21,538.21 1916 42,067.46 1903 18,626.23 1917 19,020.64 1904 19,058.02 1918 .'.. 27,216.46 1905 17,921.69 1919 25,960.00 1906 31,237.27 1920 32,395.66 1907 *181,137.39 ¦ 1908 9,493.86 Total $1,843,265.68 There are six years in which extraordinary expenses are shown — (*) 1857, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, and 1907. The figures for 1857 include Milwaukee's first investment of $50,000 in the "Straight Cut." The expense in the next four years enumerated was augmented by payments in liquidation of the Hasbrouck claim growing out of the construction of the "Straight Cut," and in 1907 the expense included the sum of $142,724.30 which was awarded to owners for land taken for a turning basin in the Kinnickinnic River and for widening the river. There is no record of dredging and docking expense in 1853 and 1858, and possibly no river work was done in those years. There are no records of 1859 extant. The expenditures enumerated above do not take into account the amounts spent on the greater harbor project during the past few years. Milwaukee's Lake Freight Tonnage for the Past Thirty-One Years Year Inbound Tons Outbound Tons Total Tons 1890 1,706,973 655,149 2,362,052 1891 2,155,311 761,167 2,916,478 1892 2,181,730 838,741 3,020,471 1893 1,926,604 735,233 2,661,827 1894 2,160,706 718,889 2,879,605 1895 2,238,404 826,651 3,065,055 1896 2,328,196 1,118,301 3,446,497 1897 2,656,889 1,093,457 3,750,346 1898 2,753,243 1,357,443 4,110,686 1899 2,720,097 1,226,423 3,946,520 1900 2,630,348 1,072,892 3,703,240 1901 3,031,163 1,006,434 4,037,597 1902 2,579,157 1,014,965 3,594,122 1903 3,935,816 1,135,952 5,071,768 1904 3,895,255 1,032,912 4,928,167 1905 4,197,533 1,256,874 5,454,407 HARBOR AND ALARINE INTERESTS 307 1906 5,013,304 1,190,720 6,204,024 1907 6,091,333 1,604,669 7,696,002 1908 5,027,416 1,314,529 6,341,945 1909 5,619,155 1,395,350 7,014,505 1910 6,563,345 1,500,739 8,064,084 1911 ....- 6,061,164 1,445,329 7,506,493 1912 6,456,160 1,316,804 7,772,965 1913 7,225,887 1,649,344 8,875,231 1914 6,546,478 1,942,487 8,488,965 1915 6,444,367 1,683,334 8,127,698 1916 6,616,116 1,308,783 7,924,899 1917 5,744,662 1,075,230 6,819,892 1918 5,475,340 1,611,210 7,086,550 1919 5,591,434 1,411,557 7,002,991 1920 4,792,868 1,068,638 5,861,506 Milwaukee's Lake and Rail Freight Tonnage for the Past Twenty Years Year Lake Rail Total 1901 4,037,597 6,034,869 10,072,466 1902 3,594,122 7,187,595 10,781,717 1903 5,071,768 6,947,511 12,019,279 1904 : 4,928,167 6,767,972 11,696,139 1905 5,454,407 7,899,817 13,354,224 1906 6,204,024 8,414,620 14,618,644 1907 7,696,002 9,155,717 16,851,709 1908 6,341,945 8,356,774 14,698,719 1909 7,014,505 9,389,223 16,403,728 1910 8,064,084 10,326,515 18,390,599 1911 7,506,493 9,924,538 17,431,031 1912 7,772,965 9,545,420 17,318,385 1913 8,875,231 13,347,806 22,223,037 1914 8,488,965 14,274,251 22,763,216 1915 '. .... 8,127,698 13,097,561 21,225,259 1916 7,924,899 15,452,251 23,377,150 1917 6,819,892 14,279,726 21,099,618 1918 7,086,550 14,262,459 21,349,009 1919 7,002,991 11,753,968 18,756,959 1920 5,861,506 13,407,299 19,268,805 Status of Proposed Harbor Development. — A rather long and complicated legal procedure put the island into the city's hands in 1917 at a cost of about $500,000. The condemnation was made in conformity with the bound ary limitations established by the original plat, which represented a total acreage of 49.34 acres, 36.1 acres of which were condemned. The remainder the city already possessed. In the official appraisal two prices were fixed, $5,227.20 per acre for submerged land, and $8,712.00 per acre for dry land. 308 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE There were at the time of condemnation 339 buildings of all kinds and con ditions on 311- acres of this land. "The island could not be used Avithout first changing its irregular shape and increasing its area," said F. A. Kaiser, senior engineer of the Harbor Commission. "Steps were then taken to remedy these conditions and as a starter an ordinance AA'as passed by the Common Council on September 22, 1919, establishing a neAv inner harbor line on Jones Island, reaching from the south pier of the harbor entrance to Greenfield Avenue extended. On November 18 of the same year a contract Avas let for the construction of 1,375 feet of pile and timber revetment along this neAvly established dock line. The south end of this revetment Avas placed on the south limit of the city 's property, AA'hich is the old harbor entrance, and thence it extends northward. "The revetment consists of a single i*oav of round piles spaced three feet apart with sheet piling driven behind it, and secured by Avales, binders and tie-rods to anchor piles, driven about 30 feet back from the face of the dock. The dock is so designed that it can readily be coiiA'erted into a permanent concrete structure by the addition of extra piles and a concrete cap. It is impervious to the passage of dredged material and provides for AA'ater 30 feet in depth. The cost AA'as $99,487. "Along the outer frontage of Jones Island, about 700 feet from shore, it was planned to build a bulkhead or revetment to retain the fill for the en largement of the island and on February 24, 1920, the Common Council pro vided for the construction of 2,250 feet of bulkhead, at a cost of $215,863. "This bulkhead is of heavier type than the inner revetment; it consists of two parallel i-oavs of closely driven round piles of A'ariable distances apart, depending upon the depth of Avater in AA'hich it is constructed. As a general rule the Avidth equals the depth of AA'ater. These i'oavs of piling are bound together by Avales, binders and tie-rods, and the space between is filled with stone, carried above the tops of the piles to a height of about 7 feet above the water. The lakeside of the bulkhead is rip-rapped to three feet below AA'ater level. "The lake frontage north of the harbor entrance as far as Wisconsin Street, about 5,000 feet in length, Avas not included in the Randolph plan, because the city, at that time, had in mind to use this area for park purposes. Later, hoAvever, the GoA-emment refused to permit this to be used for park purposes, and set it aside as a proper field for outer terminal development. To complete the riparian rights for the entire area, the city had to condemn a number of lots in the Third Ward. "A story is connected Avith the condemnation of these lots, the motto of which is: 'Look before you fill, especially AA'hen condemnation is in vieAV.' The city, in this case, had to pay for property Avhich had been made at its own expense and Avithout cost to the beneficiaries. The city received these lots at a cost of $17,650. "To protect the filling Avhich was being deposited north of the harbor entrance, a rubble-mound bulkhead Avas built, made up of quarry run stone as a core, and large stone for covering. Work Avas begun on this bulkhead in HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 309 Alay, 1917, and it Avas built at an expenditure of $319,304. It is proposed to develop this frontage for piers and Avarehouses to be devoted to the passenger and freight business of the port. "In January, 1919, an appropriation of $5,000 Avas made to engage en gineering service for the purpose of drafting plans for harbor improvement. Important changes from the situation Avhich existed in 1909 Avhen the Ran dolph plan was submitted, caused the Harbor Commission to seek new plans, or a modification of the old plan. As, for instance, the large lake frontage north of the harbor entrance Avas not utilized in the plan of 1909 and the selection of the north 1,000 feet of Jones Island for the Sewerage plant was exceedingly disadvantageous to the general harbor plan. "H. AIcL. Harding, a leading terminal engineer of New York City, who had executed plans for a number of important harbors of the country, was engaged to prepare plans for the future development of the port. The en gagement was authorized by the Common Council on Alay 5, 1919. ' ' The plan is not intended to construct at once the entire system of wharves, piers and slips outlined in the plan. This is to be a project of progressive deA-elopment, the most important units will be built and equipped as neces sity requires. "The plan shows that the lands in the old harbor entrance and those south thereof as far as Wilcox Street are necessary for harbor development under this plan. The ore and stone docks of the Illinois Steel Company, are located on the west side of this peninsula and these facilities are reached by tracks crossing the lands Avhich are necessary for the harbor project as laid out. Provision, however, has been made in this plan for the extension of the steel works, eastward, on lands to be filled in, AA'hich Avill add about 100 acres to the steel plant, as compared to 43 acres required to be taken by plan. At present, condemnation proceedings are pending with reference to this land. "The dredging in the Kinnickinnic River along the west side of Jones Island and filling in behind the bulkhead on the outer side of the island, to an elevation of 6 feet above lake level, amounted to 430,000 cubic yards. "So far there have been 19 old hulks and wrecks of vessels removed from the bottom of the water area to be dredged, west of Jones Island. These wrecks, including schooners 100 feet long, tugs, dredges, scows, floating dry docks, launches, and skiffs, Avere deposited there at various times between: 1872 and 1911. These AA'recks Avere removed by the contractor who is doing the dredging, and Avere broken up by the use of dynamite and loaded onto a Avrecking barge and then deposited at the foot of Greenfield Avenue, where the general public scrambled for the wood. Trucks loaded with this wreck age could be seen there daily. "After having acquired the lands south of the old harbor entrance, which is Greenfield Avenue extended eastward, it will be possible to develop the great inner Kinnickinnic Basin and also acquire, by filling, a large tract of valuable land. The material from the basin, which is about 1,500,000 cubie yards, considering dredging to 25 feet, would be removed by hydraulic dredge and deposited behind a bulkhead in the lake, which would be built in the extension of the present lake bulkhead. It will require 3,800 feet of bulk- MILWAUKEE RIA'ER AND COMMERCIAL CENTER HARBOR AND AIARINE INTERESTS 311 head to reach the south street line of Wilcox Street and 600 feet more to close in to the shore along the south street line, or a total of 4,400 feet. "With the Kinnickinnic Basin developed, many large vessels could moor there for the winter and relieve this situation which has been a serious one so far. This basin could be filled every fall with these large coal-laden ves sels, which could afterwards be taken to the river docks and unloaded as needed, thereby lessening the possibility of a coal shortage in the winter season. It is estimated that 40 or 50 vessels could find room in this basin. The revenue from these vessels could be applied against the expense of dock age maintenance, etc. "The fill from the basin and the remainder of material at the north end of the island in the Kinnickinnic River will be sufficient material to level up the entire area between the basin and the lake bulkhead and give about 113 acres of land in addition to the 37 acres now being filled in, or a total of 150 acres. "As soon as the Government builds the outer breakwater which will pro tect the harbor, the piers shown on the east side of the peninsula can be built successively as needed, and in accordance with the best practice. The slips as shown south of the harbor entrance are 1,000 feet in length. Those north are 700 feet with widths of 250 feet. This width of slip permits free move ment of the vessels in docking and gives ample room for lighters or barges to tie alongside of the vessels, to load or unload, without disturbing the vessel docked on the opposite side of the slip." The Future Harbor Project. — When the Milwaukee Board of Harbor Com missioners urged the acceptance of its plans by the common council in 1920 and again when it urged the condemnation of Jones Island south to Wilcox Street in August, 1921, it outlined its future plans and policies in a brief from which the following extracts are taken : A comprehensive study of Milwaukee's harbor possibilities leads to the inevitable conclusion that the peninsula known as Jones Island affords the primary basis for practical development and the ultimate key to a ultilitarian port. In connection with the Kinnickinnic Basin it affords a complete land locked harbor, and at the same time such outer harbor facilities as the future may demand. The island area, with its contemplated enlargements, will en able the establishment of such terminal facilities as will be required by the constantly increasing and exacting demands of a modern lake commerce. The question as to whether the entire island will be required to realize the city's best opportunities and possibilities in providing for a future lake com merce has been raised. The answer must be in the affirmative. It is the pur pose here to demonstrate that the entire island area, as outlined by the plans laid down by both Mr. Isham Randolph and Mr. H. McL. Harding, two eminent terminal engineers, will be required to ensure Milwaukee's future as a serviceable lake port, and enable the construction of such facilities as will render the harbor efficient for the handling of a future lake commerce. In support of the Harbor Commission's contention that the Jones Island area, to be utilized for harbor and terminal purposes, must extend south to Wilcox Street, the following facts and arguments are here set forth : 312 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Water Frontage and Land Areas. — Jones Island has a lake frontage from the mouth of the harbor to Wilcox Street of 6,900 feet, and a frontage on the inner or river side of 5,750 feet. On the north end of the island 1,000 feet has been reserved for the seAverage plant, thus reducing the AA'ater frontage on the outer side to 5,900 feet, and on the inner side to 4,480 feet. After straightening the inner dock line and filling in the lake to a bulkhead line approximating 700 feet from the present shore, the total island area will be 166 acres. The total inner harbor area employed at present for shipping purposes approximates 217 acres. Here it should be added that the tracts of proper size and suitable for Avater and rail transshipping purposes are no longer avail able. The industrial and commercial enterprises which have located about the river fronts cannot be displaced to accommodate water shipping interests. Thus, all the dock property having rail facilities is being utilized and more cannot be obtained. Furthermore, the future of Alihvaukee 's present harbor facilities is not definitely assured. Practically all river frontage is privately owned and there is nothing to prevent the OAvner of the best water frontage now in existence from building upon it and using it for factory or like purposes. Milwaukee's Future Water-borne Commerce. — When it is remembered that Alilwaukee s water-borne commerce increased about 260 per cent dur ing the twenty-five years preceding the Avar, and applying this ratio of increase to the future, it will become clear that the present dockage will have to be materially increased. No doubt, with increased commerce, the pres ent facilities will be subjected to more intense use. In the case of coal business, this is bound to lead to serious congestion of some of the channels. It is not a good advertisement for a port to haA'e an ordinance on the statute books forcing vessels to anchor behind the breakwater and aAvait their turn at the docks. Here it should also be remembered that the Alilwaukee River is destined ultimately to go into disuse, except for barge traffic. The time will arrive AA'hen the Municipality will no longer submit to costly bridge maintenance in the face of a diminishing commerce north of Grand Avenue. In part this Avill apply to the more remote sections of other harbor channels. On the other hand the large vessels Avill seek docks most conveniently accessible, and AA'hich can be reached Avithout navigating through bridge openings and around river turns, — docks where cargoes can be discharged or received AA'ith a minimum loss of time, labor and expense. What applies to ordinary channels of trade applies also to lake commerce. The lake port that affords the most economical conditions for the handling of freight will draw the lake business. The element of time is an important one in the movement of vessel property Avhich represents large investments and heavy operating expenses. Expeditious arrivals and departures constitute important factors in the conduct of water-borne commerce. Increased Facilities Not Unreasonable. — For the reasons outlined, and as years progress, much of Milwaukee's inner harbor facilities will have become inefficient or obsolete ; therefore it would be fallacious to entertain HARBOR AND ALARINE INTERESTS 313 anything like comparisons betAveen present shipping frontage and acreage Avith the frontage or acreage proposed to be added by the neAv harbor plan ; nor can it be denied that in the main the proposed new harbor area, under modern utilization, has a potentiality for service far beyond that of a like area in the present harbor. Exception in this respect must be made in the matter of coal dockage, hoAveA-er, as Alihvaukee 's present coal handling fa cilities are of the very best. The Harding plan adds about 280 acres to the shipping area of the harbor. Of this area about sixty acres will be taken up by raihvay tracks and road ways. The plan adds fifty-five acres to the coal facilities of the port, or an increase of about thirty-seven per cent over the acreage at present employed in the trade. The neAA' coal acreage av!U haA'e to be worked intensively in order to keep pace with the groAvth of the coal trade, which, it is figured, Avill be more than doubled in the next twcnty-fh'e years. The prospect is that Jones Island will eA-entually be devoted to coal handling exclusively. Thus, with a prospective increase of 260 per cent in Alihvaukee 's lake commerce in the next twenty-five years, it must be admitted that the increased facilities provided by the Harding plan are in no wise unreasonable. Public vs. Private Interests. — In estimating the interests of the city as a whole in the creation and maintenance of an efficient system against the interests of a private corporation there can be but one line of reasoning : Which of the two is of greater importance to the material welfare of a Avhole community? The harbor interests on the other hand, howeA'er, affect the welfare of a larger constituency. While the Avater shipping interests distribute a payroll of over $2,000,000 annually and $250,000 in the purchase of supplies, they affect the entire industrial life of the city and to some extent the state. The 'item of fuel alone is so vital as to overshadoAv the interests of any one private institution. Wisconsin does not produce an ounce of coal. All coal must be shipped in from a long distance and the element of economical water transportation becomes a vital factor in keeping the factory furnaces ablaze and in warming the homes of the people. Here it becomes highly essential that the port be kept upon a basis of the highest efficiency. The import of 5,000,000 tons of coal Avill in a comparatively feAv years be increased to 10,000,000 tons. To bring this quantity of fuel in at the most advantageous transportation cost involves an economy that will readily mean millions in actual saving, and which concerns the workingman's home as Avell as the manufacturing plants. Why More Dock Room is Absolutely Necessary. — Alihvaukee is a great coal distributing center, and ample provision must be made for the growth of this important trade. It is impossible to move coal out by rail as fast as it can be received by water, hence reasonable storage space is absolutely essential to the coal business. In normal times Milwaukee receives approx imately five million tons of coal during the season of navigation. About half of this coal moves out by rail to interior points or to suburban industries. To ensure the needs of this trade during the closed winter season it is necessary to have close to three million tons of coal on the dock when MILAVAUKEE RIVER NORTH FROM BUFFALO STREET HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 315 navigation closes. In the same ratio, when Milwaukee's coal receipts ag gregate 10,000,000 tons, AA'hich they eventually will, the stock required to tide over the winter season must aggregate 6,000,000 tons. The area necessary to handle this large additional amount of coal can be found only on Jones Island peninsula. All water frontage on the several channels of the inner harbor suitable for receiving and shipping coal is now occupied. Business is conducted at a disadvantage in some instances. In the Menomonee Valley district some yards are compelled to dock vessels in narrow slips extending from the main channels. This confines such yards to the use of the smaller-sized vessels carrying from 5,000 to 6,000 tons. Small-sized vessels are growing fewer in number on the Great Lakes every season and the time will come when this class of carriers will be able to com mand a premium freight on coal delivered to docks located in slips. When terminals are provided nearer the harbor mouth, large vessels will no doubt also discriminate against coal delivered to docks remote from the lake, be cause of the heavy tow bills in navigating the narrow river channels. Tow Bills in the Inner Harbor Burdensome. — The tax imposed on the earn ings of coal and grain carriers by tow bills is necessarily reflected in freight rates demanded to and from the port. Large craft require two tugs to assist them in moving up and down river channels, as the danger of damaging bridges or docks is very great. It has been estimated that tow bills and loss of time in going to and from receiving docks mean a loss of 5 cents per ton to the coal carrier. This is a serious handicap to the business of a port and must event ually result in a loss of business, as a differential of this amount runs up into big figures when millions of tons of freight are involved. With ample outer and inner terminals on the Jones Island peninsula Mil waukee will be able to overcome to a great extent the burden at present imposed on the carrying trade by tow bills and loss of time in port. For this reason the surrender of any of the Avater frontage embraced in the Harbor Commission's plan would mean the sacrificing of a valuable economic ad vantage. Milwaukee to Marseilles. — Someone has picturesquely said that an Amer ican Mediterranean will wash the shores of Wisconsin. This is practically true now and will, with the passing of time, become absolutely true. A water- borne commerce from Milwaukee to Marseilles, from Chicago to Liverpool, from Sheboygan to Stockholm, sending the products of the great Mid- West directly to the markets of Europe promises to become an assured fact within a comparatively few years. It involves the construction of a deep waterway from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, via the Welland Canal and the St. Lawrence River — a project that is at once feasible, practical and desirable. During the World war substantial vessel cargoes were carried directly from the ports of Chicago, Milwaukee, Cleveland and Toledo to ports of Europe. The thoughtful man will here ask why we do not constantly send cargoes abroad during the open season of navigation. If you can send one ship from Lake Michigan to Europe why not send many ships? On this question hinges the answer to the inquiry. The immediate answer is that the ships which the ports of the Great Lakes 316 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE have been able to send to Europe Avere not large enough to prove profitable in normal times. Again, it is easier for a vessel to go down stream on the St. Lawrence River than to plow its way back up stream. The size of ships and their cargoes, together with the depth of the water ways constitute the controlling factors. A ship carrying a cargo of 4,000 tons will have a draft or AA'ater displacement of 13% feet depth. The present Welland Canal and the locks and canals paralleling the St. Lawrence River have a depth of fourteen feet, just deep enough to carry a vessel of the size named. But, a 4,000-ton cargo is a small cargo. During the World Avar, when shipping facilities on the Atlantic Ocean were taxed to the utmost and freight rates ran sky-high, it paid to send even the smaller ships to Europe. But, in normal times the unit must be larger. Ships must carry from 8,000 to 15,000 tons in order to render the trips profitable. Thus, a deeper Avater- Avay must be provided, and the most direct, natural and utilitarian route is by Avay of the Welland Canal and the St. LaAA'rence River. The peninsula of land which separates the lakes Erie and Ontario con sists entirely of Canadian territory. Just ten miles west of Niagara Falls the old AVelland Canal was dug many years ago and has rendered excellent service in permitting certain types of ships to pass from one lake to the other. The present Welland Canal cuts across twenty-five miles of land, is equipped Avith seven locks, and loAvers and raises ships 325 feet which is the water level difference between lakes Erie and Ontario. The Canadian Government began the construction of the new so-called Welland Ship Canal some five years ago which in part utilizes the old canal and in part takes a new course. This neAv canal, together with the locks will be considerably wider, longer and deeper than the old. Note the difference. The present Welland locks are 14 feet deep, 30 feet Avide, and 240 feet long. The New Welland locks will be 30 feet deep, 80 feet Avide, and 800 feet long. These several locks will have a lifting capacity of 46% feet each, rivalling the great locks of the Panama Canal. Locks Avith similar dimensions will be built in connection AA'ith the St. Lawrence River, thus enabling the larger sized ocean freighters as well as the larger lake vessels to pass through them. Why the Saint Lawrence Route? — By consulting a globe instead of a flat map, it Avill be found that the route from Alilwaukee to Liverpool via the St. LaAvrence River is more direct than the route via New York City. In fact, it is over four hundred miles nearer. When it is considered that Mil waukee lies within the latitude of Rome, Italy, it is found that the British Isles and Central Europe are considerably to the northward. The route A'ia the Great Lakes, the Welland Canal and the St. LaAvrence River runs in a northeasterly direction and is, therefore, the most direct route that could be chosen, betAveen Wisconsin and the leading ports of Europe. But the Mihvaukeeans adhere to another and more cogent argument in favor of the direct all-water route. The freight now shipped from the west ern lake ports destined for Europe is transferred at Buffalo to the rail lines or to barges. From there it is carried to New York City, Avhere it is HARBOR AND MARINE INTERESTS 317 subjected to another handling. Here it is finally loaded into the ocean freighters and carried to Europe. The extra handling of grain irn'olves an enormous expense. It is esti mated that by eliminating this extra handling fully $200,000,000 annually will be saA'ecl to the producers of the AVest on grain alone. The country raises 1,000,000,000 bushels of Avheat. TAvo-thirds is raised in the lake region. One-half is sent via the lakes to Buffalo AA'here it is transferred to the rail lines or into toAV barges for destination to the port of NeAv A'ork. When the Avorld's production Avill have caught up Avith the Avorld's de mands there -will be a trade rivalry of the most strenuous character. The countries that can bring their products expeditiously and economically to the coast cities will enjoy an adA'antage over those that cannot. If Alihvaukee transforms her lake port into an ocean port she can ship from her A-ery door to the markets of Europe. AYhen the Rh'ers and Harbors Bill Avas passed in 1919, Senator Lenroot of AYisconsin secured the insertion of a clause AA'hich provided that the United States and Canada get together, establish the engineering problems involved, ascertain the cost to be met and the commercial utility to be attained. Thereupon the several states bordering on the Great Lakes, Avith the ex ception of NeAv York, organized private and public bodies to make propa ganda for the project. The states of AYisconsin, Michigan, Alinnesota and Hlinois created public deep AvaterAvay commissions while the states of Indiana, Ohio and several of the Avestern states, including the Dakofas, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming and Idaho formed organizations of business men under the leadership of the governors and commercial bodies. How Will Milwaukee Benefit? — It will make Alilwaukee an ocean port. With the deA-elopment of Jones Island and the lake frontage between Wis consin Street to the harbor Alihvaukee Avill be amply equipped to receive ocean ships. The harbor entrance is deep enough and Avith terminals noAv planned it AA'ill be able to receive the water-borne commerce from all parts of the world. This port Avill enable AlihA-aukee to make her imports direct instead of making them through the Port of NeAv York. It Avill enable immigrants to land on the Wisconsin shores and be near the farm sections of the Alid-West instead of becoming lost in the congested cities of the East. On the other hand, AYiseonsin 's products, both farm and factory, may be shipped directly to the various ports of Europe, to the east coast of South and Central America and to Africa. This will prove a tremendous advantage in a competitive sense as it Avill eliminate the costly rail haul to the East and the trans-shipment expense. AVisconsin normally has an export trade of thirty millions in factory prod ucts and as much more in farm products. By securing a direct market and eliminating unnecessary freight charges the volume of trade can, no doubt, be doubled. When the Avorld gets back to normal production, the products of the Alid- AVest will face a stronger competition which will only be met by the advantages involved in reaching the high seas expeditiously and econ- 318 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE omically. The Port of Alihvaukee will then prove the most accessible and serviceable on Lake Michigan. But, after summing up the concrete arguments AA'hy the city should possess itself of the entire water frontage embraced in the comprehensive harbor plan evolved by the Harbor Commission, there still remains the broad con tention that it is the imperative duty of the municipality to protect its future by availing itself of every advantage presented by a most wonderful natural situation. Water fronts such as Milwaukee is favored with are a priceless heritage which should he safe-guarded in the interest of the people. Let it not be said, fifty years hence, that those of this period of commercial enlightenment were so blind to the needs of the future as to permit one of the finest natural harbor situations in the world to be encroached upon by selfish interests and thus rendered useless to posterity. W. G. B. CHAPTER XXI THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS Along in the thirties the people had begun to long for the appearance of the "iron horse" of which they had heard remarkable tales from the East. As early as 1825 the first railroad had been opened in England. In that year George Stephenson, the famous engineer, had run a train of a dozen or more cars, some loaded with coal and others with passengers, from Stockton to Darlington, in England. Descriptions of this event filled the newspapers of the day, and the news of its success was the inspiration of railroad building in this country. The people everywhere saw in the railroad the promise of better conditions in transportation, and became possessed with the desire to see them built throughout the land. In Illinois, a v-ast system of railroad construction was undertaken in 1836, a period since known in the histories as the "Era of Internal Improvements." The disastrous results which followed is of more interest to the people of that state than it is to those of the neighboring communities. Among the old settlers of the Western states the coming of the railroad was long antici pated as the fulfillment of their fondest hopes for the future prosperity of the region in which they dwelt. People had heard of the railroads building in the East and a few had actually seen and traveled upon them. In 1852, the Michigan Central railroad had been extended from its former western terminus at New Buffalo, in Alichigan, to Chicago, soon to be followed by other lines from the East. Milwaukee was connected with Chicago by the Chicago and Milwaukee railroad in 1856, and its influence on lake navigation soon began to be felt. It was said by Lord Bacon that "there are three things which make a nation great and prosperous, a fertile soil, busy workshops, and easy trans portation for men and goods from place to place." This saying was placed as an inscription on one of the great World's Fair buildings erected in Chi cago in 1893. Without a doubt the greatest advantage that any city can enjoy is its transportation facilities, and by this is meant freight transporta tion as well as passenger traffic. Without industries a city is without life; without railroads and canals industries are strangled in embryo. "Com merce is one of the most beneficent among the activities which have engaged, or can engage, the abilities and energies of man," wrote George F. Stone, formerly secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. "The demands of com merce for constantly increasing facilities for rapid and economical exchange of commodities, are imperious and resistless. There is no alertness so sensi- 319 FIRST RAILAVAY DEPOT IN MILAVAUKEE— 1851 Milwaukee and Mississippi Railroad, corner Fowler and Second Streets OLD LAKE SHORE DEPOT Chicago and NortliAvestern RailwaA' — About 1865 THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 321 tive and swift as that of commerce ; there is no vigilance equal in intensity and constancy to commercial vigilance." When railroads were first talked of in the thirties and forties, people and communities were ready to "go broke" to assist neAv railroad enterprises, and it actually happened that towns, counties and cities voted for the pur chase of stock and bonds to assist them far beyond Avhat seemed to be their power of ultimate payment. In these days the statement seems hardly cred ible when we consider the state of public sentiment in regard to them, when railroads, their projectors, financiers and officers are subjected to disparage ment and every form of hostile criticism. Changed Attitude of the People. — ¦' ' Immediately after the Civil war, ' ' says Legler, in his history of Wisconsin, "railroad extension was carried on in the state at a remarkable rate. The attitude of the railroad magnates toward the people grew so arrogant that in a message to the Legislature Governor Cadwallader C. Washburn declared Avith emphasis that 'many vast and overshadowing corporations in the United States are justly a source of alarm, and the Legislature cannot scan too closely every measure that comes before it which proposes to give additional rights and privileges to the railways of the state.' He further recommended that the granting of passes to the class of state officials who, through their public office, have poAver to confer or withhold benefits to a railroad company, be prohibited." "The farmers considered themselves aggrieved by discriminations in rail road charges," continues Legler in his volume. "The hard times of 1873-4 were popularly accredited to the dominant party. William R. Taylor, a democrat, was elected governor. The pendulum of politics made the SAveep to the other end of the arc, and the passage of the famous 'Potter law' fol lowed at the next legislative session. This was a drastic measure, limiting transportation charges and regulating prices for freight, creating a railroad commission and making stringent provision for general regulation of railroad traffic. The railroad officials openly defied the provisions of the law, and the presidents of the two leading railroad corporations of the state served formal notice on the governor that they Avould disobey them." Governor Taylor responded in a proclamation that "the law of the land must be respected and obeyed." Long litigation followed which attracted attention all over the country on account of the important principles involved, namely, the power of the state to control corporations of its own creation. "The railroads were beaten in the state and federal courts, and were compelled to acknowledge submission. ' ' Early Railroad History. — A passage of the early railroad history of Alil waukee has come to light recently through an interview with Edwin II. Abbot, printed in the Milwaukee Journal in its issue of January 16, 1921. This interview is transcribed here in full because of its interest to the student of our history. The recent sale of the Abbot dock property, near the harbor entrance to the Hansen Storage Company, and the visit to Alilwaukee of EdAvin H. Abbot on that and other business, recalls a chapter of great interest in Mil- Avaukee's railroad history. Vol. 1—21 OLD LACROSSE DEPOT, THIRD STREET, CORNER OF CHESTNUT STREET, IN 1860 Drawn from memory by John A. SchoAvalter THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 323 Mr. Abbot, who is now a resident of Cambridge, Mass., although for nearly thirty years a Milwaukeean and largely interested in the growth and de velopment of Wisconsin, through his large financial interest in the Wisconsin Central railroad, is still a holder of Milwaukee real estate ; among other items the Colby-Abbot Building. In speaking of the manner in which the dock property, just transferred, came into his possession, Mr. Abbot said : "The docks were known in the old days as the Shea & George docks, and, if I remember rightly, were built somewhere about 1886 or 1887. I purchased the property, some 840 feet of waterfront, in 1889, for the Wis consin Central for $325,000. Project Joint Terminal. — ' ' The Northern Pacific had leased the Wisconsin Central, in which Charles Colby and I were heavily interested, with the inten tion of using it as an entrance to Chicago. Villard and Oakes wanted to bring the Central into Alilwaukee. Its nearest approach to the city was Waukesha. Having leased it, and having purchased terminals in Chicago, on which the Grand Central station now stands, they wanted to swing the entire Wisconsin Central and Northern Pacific business down through this city. It would have been a tremendous thing for the development of Mil waukee. "As a part of the plan, I was authorized to spend $1,000,000 in picking up, property, at the then market price, which would be needed later. We took an option on the Milwaukee Northern road and the stock of Angus Smith, and there was an understanding arranged with Air. Rhinelander, of the Alil waukee, Lake Shore and Western, by which both of those roads, now parts of the Alilwaukee and Northwestern systems, respectively, were to use the new terminal which we were planning. "The idea was to enter the city from the north, striking the end of Jack son Street . and tunneling under the property along the east side of that street until we came out on the slope across from the present post office build ing and there our passenger station was to be located. The four roads were all to use this tunnel entrance to Milwaukee. "The plan was of course kept secret. I bought certain parcels of land in advance, which would have been difficult to acquire later, this dock prop erty among others. It was an important link in the scheme, as we planned to cross to Jones Island at that point and then, turning to the natural land, cross the Northwestern tracks into the Chase Creek district, where I bought twenty-three or twenty -four acres for yard purposes ; then run south to the main line of the Wisconsin Central and into Chicago. There they had bought something like four hundred acres of land, covering the only available entry- way. "That was our plan, and it was a great one, but Villard and Oakes went under in the crash of '93 and the Northern Pacific went into the hands of a receiver. That killed it. "When the Northern Pacific failed, I determined to break the lease and regain control of the Wisconsin Central. I petitioned the United States circuit court to intervene in the Northern Pacific foreclosure proceedings Tfie First Rate Table of the Milwaukee & Mississippi Mil-Road, (Now the Chi. Mil. & St. Paul Ry.) RATE TABLE. Resolutions adopted by the Board of Directors of the Mil waukee and Mississippi Rail-Road Company, Deo. 1850. Resolved, That the following Rules be adopted relative to passengers — to be conspicuously posted in each Pas senger Car: There is to be no free list:, no persons whomsoever snail he entitled to a free passage on any train, except by order of the Board, or by a free pass, singed by the President of the Company, or Superintendent- of --thereati; and ex cept also in cases of persons on Company business — which exceptions will be specially communicated to each Conductor, The following low rates shall be established for Passen ger Fare, until otherwise ofdered, viz : Milwaukee, -. - .Spring Street Road 10 Chase's Mill, . - 15 Wawxtosa, 20 Blanchard's, 25 Underwood's, — - - 30 Elm Grove, - - 35 Dixon's Road, - - 45 Power's Mill, - 50 Tew's Road, - 55 Plank Road, - - 60 Pox River Cottage'65 Waukesha, - -.. --r\7$ co;o 5 10 5 15H0 20:1525 20 55 50 6560 > c a ,o K O S Z ' ,_; 30'35 20 25 20 55 SO 25 35 30 40 35 45|40 55J50 15 10 5 .5 10 o; 2015IL0 45:5035 40J45 -„,30 35t40 „. 15f2aS0^.5!40 2025 10 2025 30,35 4050 „3.162Q;25'30354fi . mJic: onwsnun 10 65 555045 40 75 6560 5550 20,2530*40 101520J80 5H020 3025 2015 -.5 10 ¦s^Sfe.- Kol'E. Id cases of Pa>sengs£s being .Jaker) -up between anj? of tfie aforesaid points, the fare will be the" aa roe as if taken at the point back of th*.t at wliidh such passengers roaj be received. Children under ten years of age, at half the above rate&v DAILY FREE DEMOCRAT PRINT— MILWAUKEE. AN OLD-TIME SCHEDULE OF RAILROAD RATES THE COMING OP THE RAILROADS 325 and succeeded in having the lease canceled for nonpayment of rent, bringing young Mr. Brandeis, now on the United States supreme bench, here from Boston as my attorney. "The land which I had picked up, in furtherance of our plan for a joint entry into Milwaukee, was disposed of from time to time. At the request of the company I took this dock property off its hands and have held it ever since. With its sale to the Hansen Company about the last trace of the Northern Pacific-Wisconsin Central plans for a Milwaukee entrance vanishes. "We had figured on this water frontage as a most available site for a carferry terminal, as it is the first dock property after entering the Mil waukee harbor, with no bridges to pass and with 375 feet of open water in front of it, because of the junction of the Milwaukee and Kinnickinnic rivers. I still expect some day to see it put to such a use." Two warehouses, one brick and the other frame, stand on this property, which adjoins the city's incinerator plant on the west. One of these houses is used by the Milwaukee, Chicago & Michigan City line of steamers, re cently organized by Milwaukee interests, and the other is used by the Hansen Company for the storage of automobiles, for manufacturers and dealers, and other wares. First Locomotive Built in Milwaukee. — The pamphlet published at the time of the "Diamond Jubilee" in June, 1921, contains an account of the first locomotive built in Milwaukee in October, 1852. This account was com piled by George Richardson, the librarian of the Old Settlers' Club in Mil waukee. This locomotive was called the Menomonee for in that day all locomotive engines bore names just as ships always do. The Menomonee was built at the shops of W. B. Walton & Company, -and when it was completed and ready to be moved to the tracks where it was to operate, Mr. Richardson had an important part in the task which was indeed a formidable one. He was at that time an employee of John Miller, colloquially known as "Long John." He relates as follows: "Much has been recently said and written in a local controversy as to the identity of that particular locomotive, to which should attach the credit of being the first one built in the State of Wisconsin. The Locomotive Leaves the Shop. — "My interest in this matter," con tinues Mr. Richardson, "attaches not only from a motive of fact, but from a motive of personal pride, and the latter condition arises from the fact that I am — so far I know — the only person now living who had anything to do with Milwaukee's first locomotive before it was put into active service. It is true that my connection with Milwaukee's first locomotive was not over important, as I now consider it, but was such as to give me the right to claim connection with it, and to vouch for the absolute truth of all I may say relative thereto, from a personal standpoint. "During the years 1852, 1853 and 1854, I was employed by John Miller ('Long John' he was called by reason of his great size, six feet nine inches in height). Mr. Miller was at that time Milwaukee's heavy moving con tractor, and he it was who moved Milwaukee's first locomotive from the OFFICERS AND EMPLOYES OF THE MILWAITKEE & ST. PAUL RAILWAY From an aid lithograph by Louis Kunz — probably made in the later '50s o r earlier '60s. Names of persons found on original in possession of Old Settlers' Club. THE COMING OP THE RAILROADS 327 shop where it was built and placed it on the tracks of what was then the Milwaukee & Mississippi Railroad, now the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad. "The locomotive was built at the works of W. B. Walton & Company, known as the Menomonee foundry, and located at the southwest corner of Reed and South Water streets. The first locomotive differed from all alleged drawings of it recently published in some of the Milwaukee papers, and also from the alleged drawing of it in the possession of the Milwaukee Old Set tlers' Club, inasmuch as it was what is known as 'inside connected,' that is, the machinery, cylinder, etc., was all underneath the boiler, except the parallel rods connecting the two pair of driving wheels. Recently published drawings claiming to represent the first engine show the cylinders and machinery as being located on the outside, as locomotives of today are built. This is a mistake. If such, however, is in existence, this controversy may be the means of bringing it to light. I recollect this engine as plainly as though I had seen it but yesterday, and I remember that on its dome or sand box on top of the boiler was the following: MENOMONEE LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, No. 1 JAMES WATERS, Engineer; W. B. WALTON & CO., PROPRIETORS. On the side of the boiler was this word : ' MENOMONEE ' Locomotive Crosses the River. — "On October 15, 1852, 'Long John,' with his crew of a dozen men and several yoke of oxen, began laying temporary tracks from a point at the foundry near which is now located the scales of Seeboth Brothers, and thence to Reed Street, on Reed to the bridge over the Menomonee River — then a float bridge. No trouble was experienced until the bridge was reached. At that time Reed Street was just about wide enough for ordinary wagons to meet and pass, and the locomotive and its tracks occupied the whole street. At the bridge all the power of men, block and tackle, as well as oxen, was needed to enable us to get the locomotive up the incline. The engine's weight was about twenty-six tons, and under it the bridge barely escaped sinking, but it was safely landed on the north side of the river and placed on the track, located about seventy-five feet away from the bridge, and here my connection with it ceased." Prom the Milwaukee Sentinel of October 14, 1852, is quoted the following comment: "The Menomonee is the name of the splendid locomotive just built by the Menomonee foundry for the M. and M. R. R. company. The Menomonee leaves the foundry for the track today. It was designed and built under the superintendence of James Waters, to whose skill it bears ample testimony. The next engine, now nearing completion, is to be called White water. ' ' Again, the Sentinel of October 16, 1852, says: "The new locomotive, the Menomonee, now fairly launched from the Walton & Company's foundry yesterday, commenced its march toward the railroad track." 328 HISTORY OP MILWAUKEE This "march" of the Menomonee is described above. Also, the follow ing from the Sentinel on October 25, 1852 : "The locomotive Menomonee, built by Walton & Company, at the Me nomonee foundry, the first one manufactured there, was put in motion on the track on Saturday (October 23), and performed to the complete satis faction of all concerned. We note the fact with no little pride that here in Milwaukee has been built the first locomotive west of Cleveland." The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railroad. — As early as 1836 a meeting was held in Milwaukee, of which Samuel Brown was chairman and Byron Kilbourn, secretary, to consider the feasibility of building a railroad from Milwaukee to the Mississippi River. A resolution was adopted to petition the Legislature to pass an act incorporating a company for such a purpose. In the year 1836 there was great activity in every branch of business through out the country but the following year the panic of 1837 prevented the further consideration of any such enterprise. Some influential citizens favored the construction of canals rather than railroads, having the example before them of the great Erie Canal which had been completed in 1825. But the fact that canals could not be operated throughout the ent;re year gave the advantage to the railroads as the proposed means of transportation. However, all plans either for railroads or canals had to be abandoned until the times became more propitious in which to launch new projects, and it was not until 1847 that a bill passed the Territorial Legislature au thorizing the construction of a railroad from Milwaukee to Waukesha though in the following year its provisions were extended to allow of its construction to the Mississippi River. At the same time its capital which at first was limited to $100,000 was increased to an amount necessary for the extension of the road beyond Waukesha. The sum of $100,000 of the stock having been subscribed as required by the act, an election of directors and officers was held May 10, 1849, thus com pleting the organization of the Milwaukee & Mississippi R. R. Company. Byron Kilbourn was chosen for president, Benjamin H. Edgerton, secretary, and Walter P. Flanders, treasurer ; the directors were as follows : Lemuel W. Weeks, Edward D. Holton, Alexander Mitchell, Erastus B. Wolcott, Anson Eldred, James Kneeland, John IT. Tweedy, E. D. Clinton. In his report to the stockholders in 1850, Mr. Kilbourn gave a history of the company from the beginning, including the vicissitudes through which it passed in its efforts to secure a charter. In the course of his report he said: "It is of the first importance that this undertaking be in the hands exclusively of the people of Wisconsin, and as generally diffused through the body of the community as possible, so that every citizen may feel that in its success his individual interest is to be promoted. In the hands of such owners its success is far more certain than if held as a monopoly in the hands of foreign capitalists for their benefit alone, and to whom the people of Wisconsin would be required forever to pay tribute." A suitable corps of engineers was appointed of which the president, Mr. Kilbourn, was designated as the chief. His qualifications for this task were no doubt suggested by his early experience as a young man in canal building THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 329 when he was a resident of Ohio. It should be remembered also that Mr. Kil bourn was at that time serving as mayor of Milwaukee then a rapidly growing town of 15,000 inhabitants. The surveys for the new railroad were begun under the immediate super intendence of Jasper Yliet, B. LI. Edgerton, and, at a later period, Richard P. Morgan. "About four-fifths of the whole number of stockholders," says Mr. Kilbourn in his report, "were farmers and mechanics in towns and villages of the interior, and the remainder consisted of laborers, mechanics and busi ness men in the City of Milwaukee." After the charter of 1S47 had been secured and the organization of the road completed, there came a pause, owing to the cessation of interest on the part of the public. "It was a great undertaking for that day," said E. D. Holton in a historical address made in 1858 before the Chamber of Com merce in Milwaukee; "we were without money as a people either in the city or -country. Every man had come to the country with limited means, and each had his house, his store, his shop, his barn to build; his land to clear and fence, and how could he spare anything from his own individual neces sities?- Some wise men looked on and shook their heads, and there were many croakers. "But in the minds of those who had assumed the undertaking there was a sober, earnest purpose to do what they could for its accomplishment." And so for an entire year after the work had commenced in 1849 the grading was carried on and paid for by orders drawn on the merchants, "payable in goods, — by carts from the wagon-makers, harnesses from harness-makers, by cattle, horses, beef, pork, oats, corn, potatoes and flour from the farmers, all received on account of stock subscriptions, and turned over to the con tractors in payment of work done upon the road. A large part of the work done from here to Waukesha was performed in this way." But the payments for iron rails and rolling stock could not be made on any system of barter and a large amount of cash must be provided. At a meeting of stockholders at Waukesha in the spring of 1850, most of whom were farmers, the question before the meeting was how to secure the sum of $250,000 for the purchase of iron to reach from Milwaukee to Whitewater? It was during this meeting that Maj. Joseph Goodrich of Milton arose and said: "See here; I can mortgage my farm for $3,000 and go to the East where I came from, and get the money for it. Now, are there not 100 men between Milwaukee and Rock River that can do the same? If so, here is your money, I will be one of them." The 100 men were found who put up the required amount ofvmortgages. These, however, at first could not be sold, but the bonds of the City of Milwaukee could be negotiated, and the city came forward promptly and issued $234,000 in aid of the road. The iron was at once purchased, and the success of the Milwaukee & Mississippi rail road was thereby assured. The road was completed to Prairie du Chien, April 15, 1857, seven and one- half years from the time that ground was first broken for its construction. Meantime a number of other railroads were incorporated which, through various mergers, eventually became a part of the original Milwaukee & Missis- CHICAGO & NORTHWESTERN DEPOT Be i; jeut DEPOT OF THE CHICAGO, MILWAUIvEE & ST. PAUL RAILWAY THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 331 sippi railroad. By 1863 the road had become known as the Milwaukee & St. Paul railroad. "The present Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Com pany," says a writer in the "History of Milwaukee" of 18'8l, "grew out of the organization formed May 5, 1863, for the purpose of purchasing all the roads which had thus far been formed," though it was not until February, 1875, that the present name of the system was adopted. Mileage Owned and Operated in 1921. — Owned, 10,158.6 miles; owned jointly with other lines, 54.36 miles; lines operated under trackage rights, 400.14. Total, 10,613.10. Capital Stock.— Authorized, $350,000,000 consisting of $233,725,100 com mon and $116,274,900 non-cumulative preferred; issued December 31, 1920, $233,686,200, consisting of $117,411,300 common and $116,274,900 preferred. Shares, 100. Officers. — H. E. Byram, president; B. B. Greer, vice president in charge of operation ; R. M. Calkins, vice president in charge of traffic, Chicago ; R. J. Marony, vice president, assistant treasurer and assistant secretary, New York ; II. B. Earling, vice president, Seattle ; E. D. Sewall, vice president, Chicago ; E.. W. Adams, secretary, Milwaukee ; A. G. Loomis, treasurer, Chicago ; A. C, Hagensick, assistant secretary, Milwaukee; F. B. Simpson, assistant treasurer, assistant secretary and transfer agent, New York; Walter V. Wilson, comp troller ; J. Welch, assistant comptroller ; C. F. Loweth, chief engineer ; Burton Hanson, general counsel; H. H. Field, general solicitor; J. T. Gillick, general manager, lines east, Chicago ; Macy Littleton, general manager, lines west, Seattle. Executive Committee. — John A. Stewart, William Rockefeller, Samuel H. Fisher, H. E. Byram, P. A. Rockefeller, Edward S. Harkness. Directors. — J. Odgen Armour, Stanley Field, Burton Hanson, Chicago ; Samuel McRoberts, New York; A. J. Earling, W. E. Griswold, Edward S. Harkness, George G. Mason, New York ; H. E. Byram, Chicago ; M. N. Buckner, Donald G. Geddes, Samuel L. Fisher, William Rockefeller, New York. Prin cipal office and address, Chicago. Financial and executive office, 42 Broadway, New York. The Chicago and North Western Railway. — The great forward movement in railroad construction occurred during the fifties. The year 1855 especially was an epoch-making period in the history of Milwaukee, for it was in the early months of that year that the Chicago and Milwaukee railroad was completed which connected Chicago with this city, and which afterwards became a part of the gr.eat Chicago and North Western railway system, the pioneer line of the Northwest. This railroad has played a most important part in the progress of Milwaukee, and has aided in a remarkable manner its great industrial and commercial growth, affording it at all times trans portation facilities second to none and contributing vitally to its develop ment into one of the greatest manufacturing centers and shipping marts in the West. "The Chicago and North Western line," says. a writer in the Milwaukee Sentinel, in its issue of January 1, 1921, "opened the way for this city to be come the gateway to the productive and great manufacturing field covered by 332 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE the Fox River Valley, the famously rich iron and copper country in Northern Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan, the vast lumber resources, agricultural and dairy products of the Badger State, and the grain belt of the Dakotas and Northwest, by providing terminal facilities in the city which have always kept a step ahead in the march of progress. This is strikingly illustrated especially by the great terminal facilities of the Chicago and North Western railway in the City of Milwaukee at the present time." Brief Description of Terminal Facilities. — "First and foremost," con tinues this writer, "is the Butler yard, which was completed in 1912, and which was a part of the terminal facilities of the new line built that year across Wisconsin from Milwaukee to Wyeville. This yard covers an area of 249 acres, has a capacity of 2,130 cars per day, and also has repair tracks for 240 additional cars. Butler Yard is located on what is known as the Mil waukee belt line of the Chicago and North Western railway, which provides interchange freight service at Milwaukee without the necessity of bringing the cars into the business district." Some of the great industries of Milwaukee may be mentioned, for ex ample : leather, cooperage, rubber, vinegar, lumber, machinery, electrical sup plies, glass, packing house products, cement, coal and grain. The Chicago and North Western railway has built connecting lines to the various plants, yards and premises of these various industries to facilitate the transportation of the raw materials as well as the finished products, to be shipped to numer ous destinations. Many of these plants now "rank among the largest of the'r kind in the world." The terminal facilities of the Chicago and North Western railway in Mil waukee are given as follows : Third Ward, South Side, Bay View, St. Francis, Cudahy, South Milwaukee, Becher Street, Russell Avenue, Layton Park, Lincoln-National Avenue, (West Allis) -North Greenfield, (North Avenue and Lake Shore Junction) -Lindwurm. "These facilities," says the writer above mentioned, "afford direct connection between the central terminal and prac tically all the great manufacturing plants and districts in the City of Mil waukee." Between Milwaukee and Chicago the Chicago and North Western railway is provided with a trunk line of four tracks, and at various points diverging lines to principal cities throughout the state and in the Northwest, as well as car ferry service across Lake Michigan to ports on the east coast where they connect with lines to eastern territory. "Ninety-eight passenger trains arrive at and depart daily from the Lake Front station located at the foot of AYisconsin Street," it is said. The heavy street traffic in Milwaukee caused by this movement of passenger traffic is plain to the observer. The present commodious passenger station of the North Western was completed during the year 1890. Thus frequent com munication is maintained with Chicago, Madison, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Green Bay, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, Superior, Sioux City, Omaha, Denver, Salt Lake City and the many important cities of the Pacific Coast. The present North Western system is able by its connecting lines to reach practically every point throughout the Great West. THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 333 Conditions in the Pioneer Period. — "In 1835," says th'.s writer, "there was neither a mile of railroad built nor a corporation chartered to build a line in Northern Illinois or Wisconsin. Milwaukee was then but a small vil lage, looking for its commercial prosperity to come by way of boats on Lake Michigan, and they were few and far between." One of the oldest of the constituent parts of the North Western system was the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, completed from Chicago as far as Elgin in 1850. This road had been chartered as far back as 1836, and had been fourteen years in ac complishing this short distance, — forty-two miles. The rails of the old Galena road were what were known as "strap rails," consisting of an iron plate 2% inches wide by % inch in thickness, laid on an oak ribbon, which in turn was laid flat-wise on timbers or ties about six inches square, and firmly secured by spikes. A better form of rail was about that time coming into use called the "edge-rail," one of the earlier forms in the development of the T-rail, but the company was not able to stand the greater cost of these rails. On that point the president of the company in his report regarding the plans of construction said that owing to the condi tion of the money market the company was prevented "from getting iron and engines in the East, or to purchase edge-rails for their road; and that hence it has been decided that strap-rails (flat or plate rails) would have to be used." Engines and Rolling Stock. — The first engine in the service of the Galena road was called the "Pioneer," and in fact this was the only engine in use for many years. In the early days of railroading all engines had names given to them just as all vessels bear names by which they are distinguished. When in the course of time the railroads acquired possession of large num bers of engines the names, as we find them in the older histories and the recollections of the pioneers, form an interesting and picturesque feature of early railroading. The old Pioneer has since become a famous curiosity and was exhibited at the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893, and at St. Louis in 1904. This engine was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Phila delphia; it had cylinders ten inches in diameter with an eighteen-inch stroke, it had but one pair of driving wheels of 41/2 feet diameter, and weighed ten tons. John Ebbert was appointed the engineer to take charge of and run this engine, and did so for many years. He had the satisfaction of exhibiting the engine at the Chicago World's Fair, and there told its story many thou sand times. Mr. Ebbert died in 1899 in his eighty-sixth year. There is a letter in the possession of the Evanston Historical Society, writ ten by A. Z. Blodgett who was an employee of the old Chicago and Milwau kee railroad in which is given an account of the first trip made from Chicago to Milwaukee, May 24, 1855. The train consisted of five flat cars fitted up with seats around the sides to accommodate the invited guests numbering some two hundred persons. "We stopped the train about where Zion City is now," he writes, "and cut pine trees and put them in the stake sockets for shade." This outfit he rather humorously called an "excursion train." The Milwaukee Sentinel, in its issue of Friday, May 25, 1855, prints a notice of the arrival of the train from Chicago, as follows: "The train THE STOCK YAEDS AT WEST MILWAUKEE— MENOMONIE VALLEY THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 335 from Chicago brought up a good load. This is to be a popular and paying route from the start. AVe are indebted to Conductor Hibbard for New York papers of Tuesday (22d), St. Louis papers of Wednesday (23d), and Chicago papers of yesterday morning, received at 2 o'clock yesterday afternoon." Operation of Trains. — The old wood-burning locomotives used on the rail roads of the fifties were objects to arrest the attention of the beholder as they arrived at the station, or dashed by on their "path of steel," leading their trains of coaches. The smokestacks on those old-time engines were fear some things to look upon while pouring forth volumes of smoke and sparks sent through them by the exhausts from the cylinders. The smokestacks were shaped like a balloon often having a breadth as great as the top of the boiler itself, and the puffing of the engine was such a terror to horses and cattle that a stampede usually took place in the adjoining fields and roads when the engine came in sight. The terror was greatly heightened by the clanging of the engine bell and the blast of the whistle. The passing or arrival of a train was an event calculated to try the nerves of any person but those long accustomed to its appearance. Up to the year 1856 wood alone was used for fuel, but in this year coal began to be used. However, the great smokstacks of the early type of engines continued in use for many years and it was only by degrees that coal displaced the use of wood as fuel. When coal burning engines came into general use, requiring smokestacks of reduced size, it seemed to those who had become familiar with the older type that there was a distinct loss of dignity in their appearance. The names bestowed upon the engines of the Chicago and North Western line after it came into existence were generally associated with some historic personage or event. For example, there were such names as Algonquin, Mohawk, Wood bine, Tiger, Moose, Blackhawk, Shabbona, etc. It is related that the old Indian chief, Shabbona or Shaubena, after whom one of the engines was named, was often to be seen in his old age in the Chi cago depot standing alongside of the engine while passengers were leaving the cars, and pointing to the engine in the view of the passing throng he would exclaim, "Shabbona, — me!" Growth of the Railroads. — In the early days of railroading it was not cus tomary for the employes of the railroad to wear uniforms as is now the universal practice. Every conductor, brakeman, and others at the stations, wore such clothes as pleased him best. If we should suddenly return to the conditions in this respect then prevailing the sight of "plain clothes men" on duty would astonish the beholders. It is related that on the eastern roads, the New York Central for example, it was usual to. see the conductor in a silk hat and frock coat passing through the train taking fares or collecting tickets and at the stations giving the signal to start by waving a red silk handkerchief. In fact the conductor of a train was the personage who in the eyes of the public represented the glory and power of the entire railway system, and to whom due homage was rendered by travelers and the resi dents along the line. Trains were known to the regular patrons of the rail road by the name of the conductor, and passengers exchanged greetings with 336 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE him and his associates on the most intimate terms of respect and neighborly familiarity. Last Days of the Galena and Chicago Union Railroad. — When the Galena and Chicago Union was chartered in 1836 the initial name of the corporation was taken from the larger and at that t'me the more important City of Galena. The charter provided for a railroad from Galena and Jo Daviess County to the town of Chicago, and fixed the capital at $100,000. It also provided that "if at any time, after the passage of this act, it shall be deemed advisable by the directors of the said corporation to make and construct a good and permanent turnpike road upon any portion of the route of the rail road, then the said directors are hereby authorized and empowered to con struct a turnpike." At the time of the "Great Consolidation," June 3, 1864, the Galena and Chicago Union railroad and the Chicago and North Western railway became united in one great corporation, under the name of the latter, though the Galena road was the older of the two. Other railroad corporations had al ready been merged with the North Western system, as well as in the Galena system. "The union of the Galena corporation with that of the North West ern," says Dr. W. H. Stennett, in his historical account of this event, "was much more than a seven days ' wonder. It was talked about from the Atlantic to the slopes of the Missouri River, and opinions were as varied about it as were the people that gave them. It is believed that this was the first really important railroad consolidation that had taken place in the United States." Thus the extinction of the old Galena road became an accomplished fact. It had become a highly prosperous system and it was the most important unit in the consolidation. It was then "the leading railroad of the West." Railroad Connection with Chicago. — The Chicago and Milwaukee railroad and the Milwuakee and Chicago railroad had already consolidated the year before the great consolidation, under the name of the former. After May 2, 1866, the corporation was leased to the young giant among the railroads of the West, the Chicago & North Western Railway. The Michigan Southern & Northern Indiana Railroad completed its line to Ch'cago, February 20, 1852, and on May 21st in the same year the Mich igan Central did likewise. Thus on the opening of these lines, and that be tween Chicago and Milwaukee, the latter city was placed in full communica tion with rail routes to the East. Telegraphic Communication. — On the evening of January 15, 1848, the first telegraphic message between Chicago and Milwaukee was sent and an answer received, the message and reply being as follows: "J. J. Speed's respects to the intelligent, liberal, hospitable people of Milwaukee. Long may their noble city be as now, the pride of the lakes, and the home of enterprise, prosperity and happiness." The answer came immediately: "The people of Milwaukee thank Col. Speed for his friendly salutation and for the manner in which he sends it. Milwaukee tenders to Chicago the right hand of friend ship; once united may they never be divided." This, it will be observed, was seven years before the two cities had been connected by rail. It was usual in those days to set the poles supporting the wires along THE COMING OF THE RAILROADS 337 country roads, as it is at present in many cases, rather than along the right of way of railroad lines which indeed did not exist as yet. A country road passing a few miles west of the north shore from Chicago to Milwaukee is known to this day as the "old Telegraph Road," owing to this usage. Chicago & North Western Railway. — Mileage by States : December 31, 1920, Illinois, 824.53 miles ; Wisconsin, 2,160.12; Michigan, 510.90; Minnesota, 650.30; Iowa, 1,632.55; North Dakota, 14.28; South Dakota, 1,230.45; Nebraska, 1,100.80 ; Wyoming, 27S.35 ; second track, 278.35— total, 8,402.28 miles. Capital Stock: Authorized $200,000,000 in $100 shares, of which $169,963,- 596 was issued up to December 31, 1920, as follows : Preferred stock and scrip, $22,398,955 ; common stock and scrip, $147,499,641 ; special stock outstanding, $65,000 — total capital stock and scrip (outstanding, $167,617,249; owned by company, $2,346,347), $169,963,596. Officers: Marvin Hughitt, chairman of board; WilLam H. Finley, president, Chicago: Samuel A. Lynde, vice president and assistant secretary, New York; Marvin Hughitt, Jr., vice president in charge of operation ; A. C. Johnson, vice president in charge of traffic : John D. Caldwell, secretary and assistant treas urer, Chicago ; Arthur S. Pierce, treasurer and assistant secretary, New York ; James B. Sheean, general counsel ; Lewis A. Robinson, comptroller ; Charles D. Brandriff, general auditor ; Frank Walters, general manager ; Walter J. Towne, chief engineer; G. B. ATilas, general superintendent; Frank J. Berk, general purchasing agent, Chicago. Executive Committee: Marvin Hughitt, Chauncey M. Depew, Oliver Ames, Edmund D. Hulbert, D. P. Kimball, W. K. A^anderbiit, Chauncey Keep, W. H. Finley. .Directors: C. M. Depew, S. A. Lynde, New York; D. P. Kimball, Gordon Abbott, Boston; Marshall Field, Chicago; Childs Frick, L. I. Roslyn, New York; Marvin Hughitt, E. D. Hulbert, Chicago; William K. Vanderbilt, New York ; H. C. McEldowney, Pittsburgh ; Oliver Ames, Boston ; F. AV. Aranderbilt, H. S. A7anderbilt, New York ; C. H. McCormick, Chauncey Keep, W. H. Finley, James B. Sheean, Chicago. Chicago office, 226 Jackson Boulevard; New York office, 111 Broadway, Manhattan. Vol. 1—2 2 EAST WATER STREET LOOKING NORTH FROM WISCONSIN STREET CHAPTER XXII BANKING AND FINANCE A banking institution is primarily an integral and essential part of the eco nomic life of the community. Its intimate relation to the industrial and com mercial activities, its function as a conservator of integrity and stability, and its services to the general public, render it at once an indispensable factor in the material progress and welfare of a modern day. Its assets, therefore, embrace more than the cash and securities in its vaults ; its function is greater than the service rendered to borrower and lender; its influence wider than an immediate touch with its clients. These assets include also the character and efficiency of its directorate and official heads. They must stand as guardians of the financial stability and material advancement of a whole community. The banker not only sets standards in business methods but he must up hold the ideals of business honor and rectitude. He must not only protect the solvency of his own institution, foster promptness and the orderly relations between himself and his customers, but in his capacity of financial adviser must hold his customers to wise and safe policies. He must, when the occasion arises, stand against the speculative tendencies of his client, protest against enterprise born of unwarranted confidence, and counsel a course of action that shall ensure security as well as steadiness of purpose in the path of development and growth. He must serve as a barrier against ruin as well as a guide to success. The community may be likened to the family. What makes for the wel fare of the smaller unit applies to the larger. The necessities of life precede comforts and pleasures. The farm must be productive, the factory must be busy, the mine must yield its treasures. Trade and transportation must be moving. Production and the exchange of products must continue. The collective community like the individual family must be afforded a livelihood. There must be wages and profit. Food, housing and clothing are primary; comforts and pleasures secondary. Education and morality must be fostered simultaneously with material advancement. One is dependent upon the other. The increment of profit and wage must be garnered. It forms the capital which must give vitality and zest to labor, to constructive enter prise, to commerce and trade. What may concern the material welfare and progress of the community as a whole must necessarily concern the bank. The interests of the community and the bank are mutual and reciprocal. It follows then that the banker must at all times manifest a lively and active interest in the movements making for community advancement. Wherever he can, by his presence, his 339 340 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE counsel, his assistance, promote the material and moral progress of his com munity, he should do so. Early Banking Days. — The Territory of Wisconsin was established by act of Congress, April 20, 1836, and at the first session of the new Legislature three banks were incorporated, as follows: the Miners' Bank of Dubuque (then under Wisconsin for governmental purposes), the Bank of Mineral Point, and the Bank of Alilwaukee. The charters of the three banks were alike but in this sketch the latter will be noticed especially. At that time Alilwaukee was a little more than an Indian trading post and local banking facilities did not exist. The capital stock of the bank of Alil waukee was to be $200,000 in shares of $100 each. The commissioners named to take subscriptions to the stock were as follows : Rufus Parks, Horace Chase, James Sanderson, Giles S. Brisbin, Sylvester W. Dunbar, George Bowman, Jesse Rhodes, Cyrus Hawley, and Solomon Juneau. These men were to be the first directors until a regular meeting of the stockholders should elect a board of directors (limited to seven) to manage its affairs. The first meeting of the commissioners was held at the office of Rufus Parks, January 5, 1837, and S. W. Dunbar was elected president. The sub scriptions were sIoav in coming in and in the course of the following year but sixteen shares had been subscribed for, with payments of $10 made on each share. By the end of the year the entire remainder of the unsold shares (1,984) were taken by Francis K. O'Farrell, who had been appointed fiscal agent. However, dissatisfaction arose because O'Farrell made no other payment than appeared in a bookkeeping entry. He was authorized to procure necessary blank books, stationery, an iron safe, etc. Mr. Juneau made the first deposit and his example was followed by others. O'Farrell did not long retain the confidence of the board. At a meeting held in February, 1838, he was required to lay before the board all books, papers and funds belonging to the bank which he failed to do. The public was warned not to pay him for stock or notes discounted. Thereupon O'Far rell retired and his purchase of stock was declared forfeited. In 1839 the charter of the bank was repealed by the Legislature and what residuary value remained was sold to Joseph and Lyndsey Ward and Alexan der Mitchell for a trifling sum. "Little mischief was done by the bank," says the writer of an article under this head in "The History of Alilwaukee," pub lished by the Western Historical Company, in 1SS1, "as it never got enough together to make a fair start. The times were unpropitious, the panic of 1837 left no money for the speculative purposes of wildcat banking. The history of this bank, however, shows what might have been done had times been flush, and what sort of machinery it was through which the 'red dog' banking of early times was done." Paper Money Issues. — A great deal of the paper money of the '30s, '40s and '50s was in the form of bills issued by banks which in a large number of cases failed and left their obligations unredeemed. This kind of currency acquired the epithet "wildcat," a term applied to all the issues of this char acter. It was said that John AVentworth, publisher of a paper in Chicago, first applied the name to the issues of the state banks, and in his paper he printed BANKING AND FINANCE 341 a picture of the ferocious animal. Wentworth, in season and out, denounced the evil system of irresponsible banking prevailing in those times. The bills of the wildcat banks were usually engraved in an inferior style and were often counterfeited. Judge Henry W. Blodgett of Waukegan is quoted as remarking that it was not difficult to detect the counterfeit bills "because they were so much better engraved than the genuine." On one occasion a certain storekeeper, having some wildcat money offered him in pay ment of a bill of goods, exclaimed, "Oh, see here, can't you give me something else? If you've got any good eastern counterfeits, I'd rather have them." The bills of the wildcat banks were generally at a discount among eastern banks at from ten to twenty per cent. But little coin was in circulation; occasionally would be seen silver pieces from the United States or Alexican mints, or a little gold and silver brought by immigrants from foreign coun tries. Very little American gold was in use. What gold coins there were con sisted of English sovereigns and half-sovereigns and the French "Louis d'or." The silver money was principally made up of Alexican coins which became much worn in use. "Thompson's Bank Note Reporter" was the authority as to the value and genuineness of all money in circulation, whether of metal or paper. Prior to 1835 practically the only subsidiary coinage in use was the silver coins just referred to supplemented by traders' scrip which was good for mer chandise. The towns issued scrip good for taxes, merchants issued scrip good for the kind of goods in which they dealt. Of all this paper some was good and the rest ranged downwards in all degrees of badness to utter worth- lessness. It was a saying in the "wildcat" times of banking, when every kind of financial heresy was rampant in. the land, that "illegal banking honestly con ducted was better than legal banking dishonestly conducted." Throughout the middle decades of the last century the business of the country was con tinually menaced by the widespread practice of "wildcat banking." The idea of regulating the banking business by law was a favorite one with legis lators, and there were laws in every state, all at variance with each other and all honestly intended to regulate the business of banking. The situation, however, was not much helped by these attempts to place a curb upon specu lative individuals who found in the conduct of banks a profitable channel for their operations. This state of things continued until the period of the Civil war, when the National Banking Act was substituted for the discordant state laws, and since that time the entire business of banking has been greatly improved and the tendency is constantly towards a higher standard of safety in ac cordance with the praetice of sound principles of finance. About this time the Michigan legislators conceived a "brilliant idea" which it was believed would remedy the evils caused by the specie and currency famine; and they passed what was known as the "Real Estate Banking Law." Real estate, it was contended, was plentiful, and what could be better than land on which to base an issue of currency? Alichigan bankers were author ized to make issues based on land mortgages, and the country soon became 342 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE flooded with this new variety of wildcat currency. The bubble soon burst, however, and the people looked to other schemes of financial relief which were promptly supplied. "Some of the speculators of Illinois," said John Wentworth, "thought they would try the Michigan system, with state bonds substituted for lands. Money was borrowed and state bonds purchased. The most inaccessible places in our state were sought out for the location of banks and bills were extensively issued. The consequences of this system were quite as disastrous as those of the real estate system of Michigan. The Panic of 1837. — We are now approaching the period of the severest panic ever experienced in this country, that of the year 1837. In tracing the causes of this famous panic we must momentarily take a wider view of con ditions as they existed in the years preceding. Andrew Jackson occupied the presidential chair from 1829 to 1837, and the country generally was in a highly prosperous condition. In 1836 the United States was out of debt and had a surplus of nearly forty millions of dollars, largely derived from the sales of public lands. These sales had been increasing at a tremendous rate for some years previously, and as payments were accepted by the Government in the currency of the time it began to be feared that the banks, which were the sources of issue of the paper money, would not be able to redeem their bills. The treasury surplus had been largely deposited with the banks throughout the country, and the banks had soon come to regard these deposits as sufficiently permanent to make use of the funds in an unwise expansion of loans. About this time a proposal was made in Congress to distribute the treasury surplus as "loans" among the states, and accordingly a bill was passed on June 23, 1836, to that effect. The spirit of speculation by this time had almost reached its climax, and President Jackson, "in his own inconsiderate and thoroughgoing manner," (as Aron Hoist expresses it), endeavored to check the speculative rage. On his own responsibility President Jackson issued his famous "Specie Circular," under date of July 11, 1836, in which he forbade the acceptance by the agents of the United States of anything but gold and silver in payment for public lands. After this circular had been issued it was but a question of time when the bubble would burst. "It was barely deferred," says Larned, "till Jackson went out of office, in the spring of 1837." The effects of the panic after the deluge broke were appalling. The banks began to suspend payments of their obligations in specie, failures among mercantile houses rapidly followed and the distress became wide spread. Trade relations were almost suspended, bankruptcies came in avalanches, and factories were closed throwing thousands out of employment. Almost the entire business community was engulfed by the financial storm. The wild speculative madness of the previous years now began to abate leav ing a waste of wreckage on every hand. Writing of conditions throughout the country the German, Professor Her mann von Hoist, in his valuable work, "Constitutional History of the United States," commented thus: "The farmer, the manufacturer and merchant, instead of paying their debts, bought lands. The country merchant bought BANKING AND FINANCE 343 lands and paid the city merchant, as well for his old debts as for his new purchases in this new currency, upon the strength of valuation which de ceived himself as well as his creditors." A writer in the North American Review gives the following description: "All property seemed for a while to have. lost its value. In some of the new states it was difficult even for the wealthy to obtain money for the daily uses of life. We have heard of farm ers, owning large and well stocked farms, who could hardly get money enough to pay the postage on a letter. They had scarcely any currency, and most of that which they had was bad. In the commercial states, matters were but little better. Failures were almost innumerable. Trade had fallen off, and, when prosecuted, was hazardous." Recovery from the Panic. — "The outlook at the opening of navigation in the spring of 1838 was much brighter than in 1837," writes J. S. Buck in his "Pioneer History of Alilwaukee." "The great financial cloud which had covered the country was broken, and the sun of prosperity began to shine once more upon the western shore of Lake Michigan. People began to take courage; the hard winter was past and 'a new lease of life seemed to have come to all. An unusual cheerfulness and vivacity of spirit was exhibited throughout the whole community^ Hope in the ultimate success of the young hamlet grew stronger, causing all to feel sure that the night of commercial disaster was past, and the dawn of the morning of prosperity had come. "Every one was at work; new buildings were commenced in all the differ ent parts of the city, immigrants began to flock in, new farms were opened here and there by the hardy sons of toil who quickly made the wilderness to blossom as the rose, all of which helped to make the country self-sustaining. Roads were opened south and west, new locations for town sites were selected, to the building up of which the owners put forth all their energies, each claiming for his particular location advantages superior to any possessed by the others, and all seemed bright and fair." Alexander Mitchell. — This gentleman, whose success in business has made the city famous, came to Alilwaukee from Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1839, as secretary for the Wisconsin Alarine and Fire Insurance Company's Bank, George Smith, president; and at once commenced to lay the foundation for a life business, the growth of which has been wonderful, says J. S. Buck in his "Pioneer History of Alilwaukee." Mr. Mitchell, who for executive and financial ability and business integrity, has had no superior west of New York if he has had there, at once took the lead of the banking business in the West, supplying the whole country with a currency equal to gold. And though often subjected to "runs," his bank never failed to pay or redeem its bills, throughout all the commercial panics under which our country has suffered for the last thirty years. "This famous bank," continues Mr. Buck, "was first opened in a small frame building standing upon Broadway, between Wisconsin and Mason streets, west side, about the center of the block, in May of that year, Air. Mitchell giving his personal attention to the business, acting not only as its secretary, but as cashier and teller also. Here he remained until the spring of 1840, when he was joined by Mr. David Ferguson, who became his able 344 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE cashier, and the office was removed to the north side of Wisconsin Street, near the alley, in a small one-story frame house built by Mr. Juneau. Llere it re mained until the spring of 1842, when his increasing business necessitated a second removal, which was made to the old Lowry mansion, northwest corner of Broadway and Wisconsin Street where the Insurance Building now stands. Here a new and commodious office was fitted up where he remained until 1846, when the still increasing business necessitated a third removal to the lot upon the southeast corner of East Water and Alichigan streets. Upon this site a suitable building was erected, into which the office was removed. At or about this time Air. Smith withdrew his interest, Air. Alitchell becoming sole proprietor. Here the business was conducted until August, 1853, when the Avhole square was burnt. So rapid was this fire that Air. Mitchell's clerks had barely time to place the money and effects of the bank in its securely built vaults, before the flames reached the building. This fire was scarcely extinguished before the ground was alive with men clearing away the debris, such was the energy of Mr. Alitchell; and, Phoenix-like, a new building quickly appeared, of vastly increased dimensions, in which the busi ness of this pioneer bank was thenceforth conducted until it was pulled down to make room for a new and costly structure. "Such, in brief, is the history of this famous bank and banker; but it is not as a banker alone that Air. Mitchell has been prominent. He was also one of the most successful railroad presidents in the country, never failing to accomplish whatever he undertook, as the success of the Chicago, Alilwaukee & St. Paul Railroad fully demonstrated, it having become under his manage ment one of the most powerful corporations in the country, extending its long arms into Iowa, Minnesota, and Illinois, clear through to the Pacific coast. "Air. Alitchell twice represented his district in Congress, with much ability; his knowledge of and experience in money matters being of great value in settling financial issues of the day. He was also a prominent member of the 'Old Settler's Club,' taking a deep interest in its affairs, and felt a just pride in belonging to that early band of old settlers who made the first marks, and performed pioneer work in this Queen City of the Lakes. "In person Air. Alitchell was of medium height, stoutly built, had a keen, expressive eye, a voice clear and musical; with the Scotch accent strong, very reticent with strangers, had few intimate friends, seeing at a glance all that was being enacted around him, decided quickly, read a man like a book, and was seldom or never deceived." Wisconsin Marine and Fire Insurance Company. — "It was near the first summer days of 1839 that Alexander Alitchell first saw Alilwaukee," said Dr. James D. Butler at the annual meeting of the Wisconsin State Historical Society, held January 5, 1S88, a condensed account of which is printed in the Collections of the Society, Volume XL, page 437; and from which the follow ing is substantially quoted. He came thither to serve as secretary of an insurance company, so called. The first proof discoverable of his presence in that village of perhaps twelve hundred people, and which contained no frame house more than five years BANKING AND FINANCE 345 old, is a ten-line advertisement in the Advertiser of June 15th. In this he notifies the insurance stockholders that a payment of $10 on each of their shares must be made on the first of August, at the company s office in Alil waukee. On the 13th of August the Sentinel printed the following notice: "Insur ance : The Wisconsin Alarine and Fire Insurance Company have commenced business in Alilwaukee, and are ready to enter into contracts of insurance at low rates of premium. The Company will also receive money on deposit, and transact other moneyed operations in which by their charter they are allowed to engage." Such, with an office outfit costing $280, Avas the birth of an institution that for more than a decade Avas the only bank in Wisconsin, Avhich for a generation held in its vaults a third of the Milwaukee deposits, and Avhich gaAre to Alexander Mitchell a colossal fortune as Avell as more than national fame as a financier. Accordingly, the rise and progress of this establishment will reveal to us where lay the strength of the financier whose career is here commemorated. Fundamental Principles Adopted. — The Wisconsin Alarine and Fire Insur ance Company Avas in fact a bank, with all Avhich that name implies, yet it shunned the name of "bank." It Avas a concern ingeniously devised by George Smith, a Scotch farmer who had reached Chicago in 1834, Avith the intention of purchasing farm lands. Friends of his in the banking business in the old country soon joined him, and turned his mind towards banking. But all parties in Illinois were crying, "Down Avith the banks!" The name "bank" Avas everywhere spoken against in those times of "wildcat" bank ing, and a banker Avas as hateful as a mad dog. Alany of the settlers had been driven WTest by the collapse of eastern banks, and all of them had in their pockets "rag money" of western institutions which was not worth the paper it was printed on. The necessity of the people for a circulating medium Avas Smith's oppor tunity. An insurance charter granted him in Illinois, while denying banking privileges in bulk, conferred some of them in detail. He procured certificates of deposit properly engraved Avith promise of payment on demand. These papers he put forth as banks do their notes, and never failed to redeem his issues the moment they were presented for payment. George Smith's Removal to Milwaukee. — His success in Illinois turned Smith's eyes toward new-born Wisconsin. In that territory the Legislature met at Aladison for the first time, in December, 1838. In the legislative coun cil there Avas then Daniel Wells, a Mihvaukee friend of Smith. To him Smith betook himself. "I know," he said, "the name of bank is as hateful in your region as that of a king in a republic. The name is a bugbear they detest, but the thing is a boon they need and will welcome. I Avill sugar the pill and it will prove sweet and of sovereign virtue to your body politic. Get me then a charter with franchises as like a bank as you can, but call it what you will. ' ' Wells drew up a bill modeled, as he informed the council, on one that had been enacted in New York for forming a corporation in Utica. The bill became a laAv. FIRST WISCONSIN NATIONAL BANK BUILDING, EAST AVATER AND MASON STREETS BANKING AND FINANCE 347 The act allowed the company, besides insuring on ship and shore, to re ceive money on deposit, give certificates, loan on the same terms as indiv. duals, and employ its surplus capital in the purchase of stock or in other moneyed operations, "provided nothing herein contained shall give banking privileges." Smith's charter was approved by the governor on the last of February, 1839. Early in Alay, subscriptions to its stock were invited in Milwaukee, and $101,- 300 was at once subscribed. It was Aroted that the salary of the secretary of the neAv-born nondescript should be $1,100. To fill the secretaryship Smith had a Scot ready in Chicago Avhom he had just imported, namely, Alexander Alitchell. Early Life of Alexander Mitchell. — This young Scotchman was born near Aberdeen in Scotland in 1817. He Avas the son of a farmer and never attended any school except that of his native parish. Some years later he was employed in a bank at Peterhead where he became familiar with banking practice. In these years of juvenile training some signs of his characteristics must have been manifest, for he had scarcely reached his majority when on the recom mendation of a law firm of Aberdeen he was invited to America by George Smith, with the promise of a position there. Thus in 1839, this young Scotchman, not yet twenty-two, and thanks to ruddy cheeks and a mild blue eye looking still younger, appeared to a Alilwau keeans too young and inexperienced to be trusted with the management of a bank ; but Smith had measured his man more justly. From first to last Smith left everything in the hands of his young lieutenant and he quickly proved his Avorth and ability. "This Caledonian stripling, AA'hose nationality was be trayed in every word of his tongue," said Doctor Butler in his address, "Avas as reticent and taciturn as if he Avished to hide his origin. His spruce but not costly attire, and particularly a very long-tailed dress-coat and pantaloons of Scotch plaid, Avere a theme of sportive remark. He lodged in his office, sAvept it himself, and was his own factotum. He went little into society and was seldom seen abroad." Among his callers he was always found at his post, and "Avhat is more," continues Doctor Butler, "with insight into the standing of every man as well as the value of all property, no less than if he had been to the manner born. One secret of his apparent 'omniscience' was the fact that he boarded at the house of Smith's friend Wells, whose knowledge extended over the whole region and back to its settlement, and whose judgment equaled his knowledge. ' ' To save appearances the Smith Insurance Company issued a few policies against accidents by fire and flood, but its principal dealings were of another nature. Multitudes of new arrivals in the country were then seeking farms west of Lake Michigan. Homesteads ought to have been free to such a yeomanry. Payment was required by the Government for every acre, and that in advance, for the homestead laws were not enacted until 1862. Such payments could not be made by settlers, but if they were once masters of their land their labor would soon double its value. In a biography of Galusha A. Grow, speaker of the House of Representatives in Lincoln's time, "true statesman, patriot in so large a sense that today Ave are reaping a harvest 348 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE which he helped to soav and largely cultivated," the Avriter says that "he did historical Avork AA'hich should make him proportionately honored." The Homestead ..Laws of 1862. — To the foresight and persistence of GroAV Ave owe, in great part, "the settlement of the Far West with genuine homes, the peopling of vast tracts Avith earnest homesteaders who could give that invaluable element, personal interest, to the task of breaking open the con tinent, and the retention to such people of a considerable part of the domain Avhich, in 1850, Avas in so large a measure not only hcav possession but entirely unassimilated," says his biographer. Much of the business of Mitchell's bank soon took the form of assistance extended to these prospective homeseekers. When the lands were selected by the incoming settler, Alitchell offered to purchase the land from the Gov ernment and give him a contract to deed the title at the end of four years at a moderate advance on the cost. Owing to this liberal arrangement on the part of the bank hundreds Avere enabled to make a start in life AA'hich Avould otherwise have been impossible. "Their debt to him in this regard," says Doctor Butler, "is still held in grateful remembrance at many a farmer's fireside." Another branch of the Alitchell business AA'hich soon became gigantic Avas issuing certificates of deposit." About six months after. he opened his office — that is, in Alarch, 1840, the amount in circulation was less than $5,000," says Doctor Butler in his address. "But Avithin ten years it had run up to a full million, and for years after it still grew. These certificates had the similitude of bank notes and bore on the left an Indian, and on the right a goddess pointing to a shield. They promised payment on demand, and they never failed to be paid on presentation." Alany of the competing banks AA'hich issued "promises to pay" claimed to be based on solid foundations because required by laAv to keep a certain large percentage of specie on hand for redemption purposes and Avere fre quently inspected. The specie so held often did duty in other banks than the one to AA'hich it belonged. The reserve of one bank Avas so manipulated that it often performed a similar function in ten banks. The inspector Avould see it one day in "Bank A" but it Avould be spirited aAvay to "Bank B" before the bank official could arrive there ; and so through all the bank alphabet it still outstripped the inspector. Those Avho took the first Alitchell certificates made many trials to get specie for paper. As early as 1841, some of the paper money issued by the bank turned up in Laporte, Ind., AA'here no coiiA'ertible paper Avas then in circulation. A hundred dollars Avorth of these issues were gathered up by incredulous holders and a messenger dispatched to Smith's Chicago redemp tion office. The prompt return of the messenger AA'ith the specie, dollar for dollar, seemed a "miracle" to the holders Avhich vastly increased the faith in Mihvaukee paper. Thus confidence Avas established and this paper Avas more and more sought for. Growth of the Banking Business. — BetAveen 1840 and 1850 the population of Wisconsin increased from 31,000 to 300,000. It Avas admitted as a state into the Union Alay 29, 1848, and most of this marvelous increase took place while BANKING AND FINANCE 349 it was yet in its territorial condition. An article in" the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, on this point, says: "At the census of 1840, with the exception of a few thousand French-Canadians, the population AA'as made up of American- born pioneers from the Eastern states, and in the southern portion of the terri tory of a sprinkling of men from Kentucky, Virginia and farther south. Be fore the next census was taken the revolutionary moA'ement of 1848 in Ger many, led to the emigration of thousands from that country to Wisconsin, and there was an increase of nearly 900 per cent in the population from 1840 to 1850. * * * The German element predominates markedly in Alihvaukee." Thus while in proportion to population the need of banking facilities in 1841 was double what it had been in the year before, each of the nine years fol lowing added an equal increment to that need. But the Alitchell business greAV faster. The hour had come and also the man. He saw his opportunity and made the most of it. His deposits Avhich in 1840 were but $6,000, within a dozen years had been augmented to a million and a half. Within fourteen years the institution in which he as clerk.had been paid less than a hundred dollars a month Avas all his own. Smith was bought out, all the shares and prestige of the establishment, all had become Alitchell 's. Vicissitudes of a Banker's Life. — "Let it not be supposed," says the writer of the article in the AVisconsin Historical Society's Collection, "that our banker, though 'monarch of all he surA'eyed,' had been walking a primrose path. There were many so-called 'runs' which rushed upon him like torrents or cataracts. Panics, fomented by distant rivals or neighbors who hoped to rise by his ruin, would seize depositors. Then steamers would suddenly land crowds, all calling for coin. Still larger swarms from the country Avould throng in. In 1849, Chicago and Detroit combined to crush the only for midable opposition their bankers encountered in the Northwest. "Whatever Alitchell certificates the conspirators could accumulate were concentrated for payment in Alihvaukee on the day after Thanksgiving of that year, simultaneously with the announcement that Smith's bank, the Chicago fountain of all the Mitchell monetary streams, had shut up. The report appalled Wisconsin depositors like thunder from a clear sky. But Alitchell denied its truth, hurried swift riders to Chicago, so that Smith expressed specie by both land and lake, Avhile Alitchell paid up all comers till banking hours Avere over, and then had his cashier, David Ferguson, keep on paying till bed-time. "Even at this crisis money came in as Avell as went out. People laughed at their own fright when they learned that Smith's bank had been closed on no Aveek day but Thanksgiving. The raid blew over leaving nine-tenths of the certificates outstanding. Nothing heightened his prestige more than these cyclones, Avhich proved him to be invincible." Milwaukee Banks. — Although the First Wisconsin National Bank is now only a little more than two years old, in tracing its history Ave must go back to the. Farmers' and Alillers' Bank, which was chartered in 1853 with a capital of $50,000. E. D. Holton was the president and H. H. Camp was the cashier. In 1863 when the National Bank Law went into effect, the First National Bank was.formed. It was a reorganization of the Farmers' and Alillers' Bank. THE MARSHALL & ILSLEY BANK BANKING AND FINANCE 351 On April 4, 1870, the Home Savings Bank was opened for business. This remained in existence for only a few months, for on October 27, 1870, it merged with the private banking firm of Moritz von Baumbach & Company, thus forming the German Exchange Bank. In August, 1879, the German Exchange Bank merged with the Bank of Commerce Avhich had been organized in June, 1870. The new bank took the name of Merchants' Exchange Bank. This bank was absorbed by the First National on January 1, 1894. In the '60s, the Houghton Brothers and Samuel McCord organized the private bank of Houghton, AlcCord & Company. In 1875 the name was changed to Houghton Brothers & Company, while in 1893 the Houghton Bank was reorganized as the Central National, with George G. Houghton as president and Herman F. Wolf as cashier. The Central National was consolidated with the Wisconsin National in 1898. The latter had been organized Avith $1,000,000 capital in 1892. Fred erick Pabst was the first president. In 1908 when L. J. Petit was president, the capital was doubled. Mr. Petit remained as president until July, 1919, when the Wisconsin National merged with the First National. Fred Vogel, Jr., the president of the First National, resigned at the time of the merger. Oliver C. Fuller, the president of the Wisconsin Trust Company, was chosen president of the First Wisconsin National Bank. Mr. Fuller heads the First Wisconsin National Bank, First Wisconsin Trust Company and First Wiscon sin Company, the three financial institutions which comprise the First Wiscon sin group. The vice presidents of the bank are Walter Kasten, H. O. Seymour, Edgar J. Hughes, Herman F. Wolf, Robert W. Baird, Henry Kloes, J. AI. Hays and August W. Bogk. The First Wisconsin National Bank occupies the spot on which Milwau kee 's first white boy was born in 1836. On the same block but on the site of the Trust Company Building, there is a tablet erected to Solomon Juneau, who began trading with the Indians here in the early days. The oldest bank in Wisconsin is that of Marshall & Ilsley. It began in 1847, when Samuel Marshall opened a brokerage business here. In 1849 he went into the hanking business with Charles F. Ilsley. This bank was incor- ported and has been in existence ever since. John H. Puelieher is the pres ident. The Second Ward Bank was established in 1855 with a capital of $25,000. This became the Second Ward Savings Bank in 1865. It is frequently re ferred to as the Uihlein Bank because it is owned largely by the Uihlein family. Following the passage of the State Banking Law in 1853 a good many institutions Avere organized in Milwaukee. The Bank of Milwaukee which later was made the National Exchange Bank was established in 1855. J. W. P. Lombard is the president and William AI. Post the cashier. The Marine Na tional Bank which is still in existence was established in 1856, with a capital of $50,000. Washington Becker is the president. The Plankington Bank, which was organized in 1877, failed during the panic of 1893. The Marshall & Ilsley Bank is the oldest bank in continuous existence in 352 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE the Nortlrwest. Seventy-five years ago, on April 21, 1847, Samuel Marshall opened a banking office in a small store on East Water Street under the name of Samuel Alarshall & Company. Seventy-five years — a long time Avhen measured by the life of a business firm or of an individual — a short time Avhen measured by the extent of ch-ilization. Hoav feAv there are left' to tell of, those days Avhen Alihvaukee AA'as an infant city of one year, when Wisconsin AA'as still a territory. 'Those Avere days of young men and of small beginnings. Air. Alarshall Avas twenty-seven years old, a Quaker of sound judgment and high principles, a man of integrity. The first advertisement of his firm as it appeared in the Daily Sentinel and Gazette, Alay 3, 1847, is illustrative of the type of business Air. Marshall and Air. W. J. Bell, his partner at that time, Avere carrying on: SAAIUEL A1ARSHALL & CO. Exchange Brokers, Alihvaukee, Wis. Land Office Aloney, Uncurrent Bank Notes, and Certificates of Deposits, bought and sold on liberal terms. Sight Exchange on New York for sale in sums to suit purchasers. Collections on New York, Buffalo, Cleveland and Detroit, made on favorable terms. Deposit accounts kept. Office, 196 E. AVater Street. In 1849, Charles F. Ilsley became associated Avith Air. Marshall and shortly afterAvards, the firm name was changed to Marshall & Ilsley. Five years later, in 1854, the capital of Marshall & Ilsley had groAvn to $25,000. The bank had been prospering along with the city which uoav contained 25,000 inhabitants. Not only was Mihvaukee groAving rapidly, but people Avere pouring into the whole state and a pressing need for banking facilities became widespread. One of the first duties of the neAvly formed legislature, therefore, Avas to frame a general banking Liav. Doubtless, not many persons realize that in those days the referendum Avas already an integral part of democratic gOAr- ernment, for the people had incorporated in their state constitutions a clause AA'hich provided that no banking act could become a laAv until it had first been passed by the people themselves. A referendum on the question, "Bank or no Bank" Avas held in 1851, AA'hen a large majority Aroted for banks, and in 1852, after the Legislature adopted a carefully draAvn banking act, it also had to be submitted to the people before it could become a laAv. The laAv under Avhich all the banks of AVisconsin, except the national banks, are doing busi ness today is based on that act, AA'hich may be called "essentially, preeminently, and peculiarly a people's laAv." In 1888 the bank Avas incorporated under the Wisconsin State Banking LaAv as Alarshall & Ilsley Bank AA'ith a capital of $200,000. This AA-as increased in 1895 to $300,000, in 1905 to $500,000, and in 1917 to $1,000,000. The increase in deposits for the last thirty years sIioavs that the business of the bank has steadily groAvn. The deposits Avere : 1890 $2,545,516.00 1900 3,923,366.77 BANKING AND FINANCE 353 1910 8,617,488.47 1920 22,862,472.58 In 1901, Air. Alarshall retired as president to be succeeded by Air. Ilsley Avho held this office until his death in 1904. Succeeding presidents have been Gustav Reuss, 1904-1908; James K. Ilsley, 1908-1915; John Campbell, 1915- 1920 ; John H. Puelicher, 1920- The rapid growth of the bank from its inception, necessitated continual moA'ing into larger quarters. The various offices, each considerably larger than the one before, have been located on East AVater Street and on Broad way. In 1906, a branch bank was erected to care for the south side business. The present building of the bank was completed in 1913. It Avas designed not only to furnish a fitting and convenient home for the bank, but by its strength, dignity and architectural beauty, to be a fitting monument to its founders, Samuel Alarshall and Charles F. Ilsley. The bank is carrying out the ideals of its founders. Its aim is to serve Avell the community with which it has grown. Each succeeding group of officers has recognized that solidity and substantiality combined with character and integrity are the elements which make for the longest life and the greatest usefulness in business; and each group has steadfastly held to these basic considerations in planning for the growth and development of the business. The bank has grown as the community has grown — solidly and substantially — and today stands as an evidence of the spirit of those who gaA'e and those who are gh'ing their lhes to a community service of high character. The Marine National Bank of Alihvaukee dates its ancestry back to Alay 7, 1839, Avhen the Wisconsin Alarine and Fire Insurance Companj' Avas organ ized by George Smith and Alexander Alitchell. That company was empowered by its charter to receive deposits, issue certificates, lend money and do an insurance business. George Smith Avas president and Alexander Alitchell, secretary. Their certificates of deposit resembled bank notes and circulated throughout the country the same as currency, and while notes issued by other institutions frequently depreciated in value or became utterly Avorthless, those of the Wisconsin Alarine and Fire Insurance Company were ahvays redeemed on demand in gold coin. The total amount outstanding in 1840 was about $42,000 which increased gradu ally until in 1852 there was outstanding $1,470,235. It is a well known fact, and within the recollection of pioneer citizens still living, that the "Alitchell Bank" currency, as it Avas known, enjoyed the prestige throughout the entire Northwest of being the only currency in circulation during the period named that was considered safe to accept and hold over night without fear of depreciation. In 1853 a charter was taken out by Mr. Mitchell under the banking laws of Wisconsin and the word "Bank" was added to the name. Again in 1880 the charter was renewed for twenty years or until 1900. Air. Alitchell died in 1886 and being the sole owner of the bank bequeathed the capital stock in equal shares to his son John L. Alitchell, David Ferguson, and John Johnston, Avho became officers of the bank, remaining such until 1893. 354 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE At the time of Air. Mitchell's death the capital of the bank was $100,000, the surplus $2,158,000, AA'hich was a fund really representing a sum due to Mr. Mitchell carried outside of the deposits, while the general deposits amounted to $6,000,000. In 1887 the capital stock was increased to $500,000, and the deposits and general business of the bank grew steadily until the panic of 1893 fell on the country, Avhen the bank was found to have a substantial amount of slow and uncollectible loans, making it necessary to suspend payment and have a receiver appointed. Air. Washington Becker AA-as made receh'er and within six months, after overcoming what appeared almost insurmountable obstacles, fresh capital of $500,000 was raised and the bank resumed with Air. Becker as president, John L. Alitchell, vice president, and John Johnston, cashier. When the charter expired in 1900 the deposits, which aggregated $7,870,000 at the time of the suspension, had been fully liquidated with interest. In July, 1900, The Marine National Bank of Alihvaukee was organized under the national laws with a capital of $300,000 and began business, assum ing the deposit liabilities of the old bank. Washington Becker became president, John L. Alitchell and John Johnston, vice presidents, and Arthur H. Lindsay, cashier. The deposits were then $1,693,000. In 1906 the capital was increased to $500,000 which remained unchanged December 31, 1921. The earned surplus on that date amounted to $1,000,000, while the deposils were $8,756,000. The officers are : Washington Becker, president ; Arthur H. Lindsay, A'ice president; Edward H. Williams, cashier; George W. Moore, assistant cashier; George D. Prentice, assistant cashier; Thomas J. Durnin, secretary. Directors : Washington Becker, president ; Thomas Daly, vice president Old Commercial National Bank, Oshkosh, Wis. ; Francis E. Dewey, president Edward Dewey Company; Stephen H. Hoff, president Hackett, Hoff & Thier- mann, Inc. ; Alfred F. James, president Northwestern National Insurance Company; Arthur H. Lindsay, vice president; Edmond J. Lindsaj-, president Lindsay Brothers, Inc.; Samuel McCord, capitalist; Herbert A. Viets, presi dent Fuller-Warren Company. National Exchange Bank. — January 2, 1922, marks the sixty-seventh anni versary of the founding of the National Exchange Bank of Alilwaukee. Organized in December, 1854, as the Bank of Alihvaukee, by C. D. Nash, it began business the following month and continued until March, 1865, when it became the National Exchange Bank. During these sixty-five years, the bank has had but three presidents. Air. Nash served until 1892 Avhen he was succeeded by Charles Ray avIio retired in 1900. Air. Ray's place was taken by J. W. P. Lombard, now the active head of the institution. A glance at the list of officers and directors from the date of the bank's organization to the present time, — sixty-seven years filled with remarkable changes, — shows that men prominent in the business life of Mihvaukee have been connected with the National Exchange. The directorate included : C. D. Nash, 1865-1892; John Bradford, 1865-1878; John Plankinton, 1865-1888; S. S. Daggett, 1865-1868; J. H. Van Dyke, 1865-1909; R. W. Peake, 1868-1869; EdAvard P. Allis, 1869-1878 ; F. J. Blair, 1878-1890 ; W. G. Fitch, 1879-1891 ; BANKING AND FINANCE 355 Grant Fitch, 1888 to date ; G. D. ATan Dyke, 1890-1899 ; George R. Nash, 1890- 1893; Charles Ray, 1890 to date; J. W. P. Lombard, 1891 to date; Samuel M. Green, 1893-1901 ; J. E. Friend, 1893-1912 ; Charles Allis, 1900-1901 ; Henry F. Whitcomb, 1902 to date ; Frederick W. Sivyer, 1902-1903 ; W. D. Van Dyke, 1909-1910; F. L. Pierce, 1910-1919; Lawrence Fitch, 1910 to date; Harry J. Brown, 1912 to date, and Frank R. Bacon, 1919 to date. Vice presidents who have served the National Exchange Bank are : John Bradford, 1865-1879; John Plankinton, 1879-1888; W. G. Fitch, 1888-1891; Charles Ray, 1891-1892 ; J. W. P. Lombard, 1892-1900, and Grant Fitch, 1906 to date. Second vice president: Charles Ray, 1890-1891, and J. W. P. Lombard, 1891-1892. During the sixty-seven years of the life of the National Exchange Bank, the bank has had but three cashiers. They are: W. G. Fitch, 1865-1888; Grant Fitch, 1888-1906, and William AI. Post, 1906 to date. The list of. assistant cashiers includes : Abbott Lawrence, 1882-1886 ; Grant Fitch, 1886-1888 ; George R. Nash, 1888-1889 ; Frederick Kasten, 1889- 1892; William AI. Post, 1900-1906, and G. W. Augustyn, 1913 to date. The National Exchange Bank, then the Bank of Alilwaukee, opened for business in a three-story brick structure at Detroit and East Water streets. This was a most pretentious structure in the days before the Civil war. After several years in this location, the bank moved into a new five-story building at 86 Michigan Street, in the heart of Milwaukee's financial district. This banking house soon became too small and in 1887, the bank was moved to its present location at Michigan and Broadway, up to that time the site of the Newhall House, Milwaukee's famous hostelry which burned with the loss of scores of lives. The bank's capital has grown to $500,000, with surplus and undivided profits of over $700,000. Through the period of the Civil war and the troublesome reconstruction days that followed the end of the struggle between the North and South, and through financial panics which wrecked many larger banks and made paupers of millionaires, the National Exchange Bank has been of service to the community in precisely the fields which at present identify it — the fur thering not of speculation but of commerce, and the furnishing of assistance to the individual merchant, business man and country bank. Second Ward Savings Bank. — Three score and ten years ago the founda tion was laid for the Second Ward Savings Bank. From that day to this the corner stone policy has been to provide a sound and conservative bank ing service for the Alilwaukee and Wisconsin public, under the direction and management of men of wide business experience and conservative judicial minds. On December 26, 1855, by formal articles of partnership, the old firm of Wilmanns, Jacobs & Company was reorganized to conform with the new state banking statute of April 19, 1852, and took the chartered name of "Second Ward Bank. ' ' This name in those days was more significant than it is today as the Second Ward embraced all of Milwaukee west of the river fortifications. The partners were Messrs. Augustus A. Wilmanns and William H. Jacobs. THE SECOND AVARD SAVINGS BANK Located at the intersection of West AYater and Third streets BANKING AND FINANCE 357 In about 1866 a further reorganization was effected under the corporate name of "Second Ward Savings Bank" and the controlling interest fell to Messrs. Joseph Sehlitz, Valentine Blatz, William H. Jacobs and Phillip Best. Air. Jacobs was cashier and active manager until his death in 1882. He was succeeded as cashier by Mr. C. C. Schmidt, who was succeeded by W. L. Cheney in 1912. Mr. Cheney was cashier until his death in 1916. Air. G. L. Weigle was then made cashier and is still in that position. At the death of Air. Best in 1869 his interests were acquired by Capt. Fred Pabst and Emil Schandein. At the death of Air. Joseph Sehlitz, in 1875, his interest fell to Mr. August Uihlein. Mr. Blatz continued as president until his death in 1894, when Air. August Uihlein became president. After the death of Mr. Schandein and Captain Pabst in 1900, their stock interests were acquired by Mr. August Uihlein. At the death of Air. August Uihlein, in 1911, Mr. Joseph E. Uihlein, the present incumbent, became president. Except for a few years, under the early partnership arrangement when the headquarters were on Chestnut Street, near Third, the main office has been located from the beginning at Third, West Water and Cedar streets. The present banking building, constructed in 1912, is the third structure occupied by the bank on the same site. In 1873* a branch known as the Sixth Ward Branch was established at Third Street and Reservoir Avenue, and in 1874 another branch known as the Ninth Ward Branch was established at VLiet Street and Central Avrenue. Both of these branches were rebuilt in 1912 and are now known as the Ninth Ward Branch, Twelfth and Vliet streets, and the North Side Branch, Third and North Avenue. With the advent of the new structures in 1911-12 came an enlarged or ganization and the aggressive policy of developing a commercial as well as a savings banking business. At present the bank is on about a 50-50 basis. That is, about half of its deposits are savings and half commercial. In this policy of progress the securities business was also included, and a bond department was organized in 1911. In January, 1920, the business of this department was turned over to the Second Ward Securities Company, a cor poration organized for the express purpose of dealing in securities. It is controlled by the identical stockholders of the bank. The capital which was originally $25,000 has been consistently increased to meet the needs of an enlarged business. It was raised from $200,000 to $1,000,000 in 1909, and is backed up today with a surplus of $1,000,000 in addition to liberal undivided profit and contingent reserves. It took about thirty years (to 1880) for the deposits to reach a million and another thirty years (to 1910) to reach ten million. In 1920 the deposits passed the thirty-five million mark. The latter figure represents the bank balances of some fifty thousand (50,000) clients, of which about forty thou sand (40,000) are savings depositors. This makes the Second Ward Savings Bank the second commercial bank and the first savings bank in the State of Wisconsin. The bank has an unbroken dividend record of twenty-five years. It has withstood the shock of three United States wars. It has weathered the financial storm of four major panics. It is now emerging from the economic 358 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE crisis of the World war in the enviable position enjoyed by few banks — with a large surplus, and liberal reserves. Second in Commercial importance, first in Savings, unexcelled in personal serAdce, the Second Ward Savings Bank and the Second Ward Securities Company boast of their unmarred history, and look to the future with that assurance of continued success and usefulness to the community which such a record justly inspires. American Exchange Bank. — The American Exchange Bank had its incep tion in the fact that the southern section of the city AA-as Avithout an adequate financial institution to render immediate service to the business interests lo cated there. While the retail interests, which had in an earlier day grown up in the northeastern part of the south side had been drifting westward, the manufacturing and small jobbing interests continued to grow. The need, therefore, of an efficient banking institution to serA-e not only for the business interests that had grown up in this section of the city, but for the general public as well, became apparent. Thus, the German-American Bank, which later became the American Exchange Bank was founded by Emil Durr, AA'ho had for years been identified with the lumber business and later with the United States Gypsum Company, and who became its president. Charles F. P. Pullen, formerly 'a banker at EAransville, Wis., became the organizer, cashier and manager of the institution, associating Avith him F. F. Riedel, also an experienced banker. The charter was issued in 1892 and the bank was opened at the northeast corner of Reed Street and National Avenue, where a branch of the present bank is still maintained. Owing to the large German population in this sec tion of the city, business expediency suggested the name of the German- American Bank. The original capital stock was $100,000 and the opening deposits aggregated $160,000. In January, 1900, the capital stock was increased to $200,000. EdAvin Reynolds, who was then the general manager of the E. P. Allis Company, became the president of the bank. During the same year a branch bank was opened at the corner of Kinnickinnic and Lincoln avenues, with F. F. Riedel as manager. It was known as the Bay View Branch. A second branch, known as the Mitchell Street Branch, was opened in 1906 at the corner of Mitchell Street and Third Avenue. Air. Henry J. Mill- man, who was then connected with the Western Worsted Mills, became the active manager. The opening of this branch was followed by an increase in the capital stock to $250,000. During the following year Edwin Reynolds, owing to ill health, retired from the presidency, and was succeeded by Jesse B. Whitnall, who served until 1915. Edward A. Farmer was then chosen. During the years of 1917 and 1918 the bank engaged in an important de parture. The main bank was moved down toAvn and the old bank location became a branch. At the same time the capital stock was increased from $250,000 to $500,000. During this period, too, the old name Avas discarded and the name American Exchange Bank Avas chosen. New bank quarters were opened in the Plankinton Arcade on Second BANKING AND FINANCE 359 Street, d:gnified and modern in appointment, and in keeping with the demands of a first class financial institution. Safe deposit vaults for the use of the patrons of the bank were proA'ided and a bond department Avas established. Inasmuch as the banking laws no longer permitted the addition of neAv branch banks the Bay VieAV branch became an independent institution and is now known under the name of the Bay A'iew Commercial and Savings Bank. The National AAenue and the Alitchell Street .branches were retained and are noAv operated as branches of the American Exchange Bank. Early in the year 1921 the Alitchell Street branch Avas housed in a new and commodious home, constituting the most imposing bank structure in that section of the city. In December, 1919, Edward J. Kearney was made the president of the bank. He is of the firm of Kearney & Trecker Companj' of West Allis, and enjoyed a high standing among the industrial and commercial interests of the city. Thus, his active connection became a distinct asset to the bank. About this time the capital stock of the bank Avas increased to $1,000,000, made neces sary by its increase of 68 per cent in its deposits. Speaking prospectively of the American Exchange Bank it should be stated that it has secured a long term lease on the northeast corner of Grand Avenue and Second Street, upon which site it will erect a modern bank struc ture within the next year or two. The growth of the bank has been a steady and substantial one. While its capital stock was increased within a comparatively few years from $250,000 to $1,000,000, its deposits have grown Avith equal steadiness having now reached the $8,500,000 figure. National Bank of Commerce. — The Germania National Bank opened for business July 1, 1903, with a capital of $300,000. The first board was com posed of the following nine directors: William Berger, Louis W. Bunde, George Brumder, Herman Fehr, AYillibald Hoffmann, George P. Mayer, Alfred G. Schultz, Frederick AI. Wilmanns, Frank P. Ziegler. George Brumder was the first president and held this office until the time of his death, Alay 9, 1920. June 9, 1910, Wm. C. Brumder was elected president of the bank. In 1918 the old name was discontinued and the title' National Bank of Com merce was adopted. In July, 1919, the capital of the bank was raised from $300,000 to $1,000,000 and the number of stockholders increased from 65 to 400. In January, 1920, Air. Brumder severed all his active business connec tions. He retired from the presidency of the bank and was succeeded by Herman Fehr. At that time the number of directors was increased to thir teen and all of those who then constituted the board are still active. The first statement to the Comptroller of the Currency in 1903 showed total footings of $900,000. The quarters were very small and the entire official and working force consisted of five people. From this small be- ginning, the business has grown steadily and at the last statement call the footings amounted to about $10,000,000. Additional space has been taken on from time to time. The number of employes now exceeds sixty people. Building up of a bank is due to the confidence placed in it. Only by giv- ing good service and satisfaction can a bank retain and continue to enjoy 360 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE the confidence and patronage of its customers. The bank is thoroughly equipped to handle the business of its clients promptly and to extend every accommodation consistent with sound banking. Bond Department was added in 1912. The present Board of Directors consists of: Wm. Berger, Frank P. Blumenfeld, Geo. F. Brumder, Wm. C. Brumder, Louis W. Bunde, Herman Fehr, Albert T. Friedmann, Wm. J. Krauthoefer, Geo. P. Mayer, Arthur R. Alunkwitz, Alfred G. Schultz, Herman A. Wagner, Chas. H. Whiffen, and Frederick M. Wilmanns. The West Side Bank of Milwaukee. — A State Bank, AA-as organized in April, 1893, and opened for business on Alay 10, 1893, the premises occupied being then known as Doctor Senn's Block. This location is known as historic ground to the old settlers of Milwaukee. It was on this site that the first brick building in the City of Milwaukee was erected by John Hustis, and known to the old settlers as The Hustis Block, the pride of early Kilbourn- Town, this being the name of the settlement on the west side of the river, before its consolidation Avith the settlement on the east side of the river, then known as the original Milwaukee. The first Mihvaukee newspaper, the Milwaukee Advertiser, owned and published by Alonzo Richards, was printed on this same site that is now occupied by the West Side Bank Building. The West Side Bank was originally a branch of the Merchants Exchange Bank, of which the late Rudolph Nunnemacher was cashier and manager. When the Merchants Exchange Bank and the First National Bank were consolidated," early in 1894, the West Side Bank incorporated as a separate institution, with a charter from the State, as a State Bank, the National Banking Laws at that time not permitting branch banks. Due to conservative management, the West Side Bank is today one of the soundest and financially strongest institutions of the city, which is clearly demonstrated by a perusal of its annual statement. The first officers elected on July 1, 1894, were as follows : President, Adam Gettelman; A-ice president, Oscar J. Fiebing; cashier, George Koch; assistant cashier, Alfred G. Schultz. In 1903 Alfred G. Schultz, assistant cashier, resigned, to become cashier of the Germania National Bank, and Chas. J. Kuhnmuench, who had been connected Avith the West Side Bank, since its opening on May 10, 1893, be came assistant cashier. Oscar J. Fiebing resigned as vice president in October, 1910, owing to continued illness, and George Koch Avas elected vice president and Chas. J. Kuhnmuench, cashier. Herbert Feerick, connected with the bank since 1895, became assistant cashier. So that the officers today are: President, Adam Gettelman ; vice president, George Koch ; cashier, Charles J. Kuhnmuench ; assistant cashier, Herbert Feerick. The capital on July 1, 1894, Avas $100,000. This Avas increased to $200,000 on May 10, 1911, and to $400,000 on Alay 10, 1920. Today, the surplus is $200,000, and undivided profits approximately $175,000. Deposits are ap proximately $3,000,000. BANKING AND FINANCE 361 The original Board of Directors elected to serve on July 1, 1894, was as foUows: George Koch, A. C. Zinn, Adam Gettelman, Oscar J. Fiebing, Geo. P. Alayer, F. L. Schmitt, Chas. PittelkoAv, Fred W. Schroeder, and H. J. KilL ilea. The present board is as follows : George Koch, Adam Gettelman, Victor Sehlitz, V. J. Schoenecker, Otto J. Schoenleber, J. A. Schwalbach, and Walter A. Zinn. Consolidated Statement of Milwaukee Banks RESOURCES NATIONAL Loans First Wis. National $ 77,519,046.391 Marine National 6,234,886.37 Natl. Bank of Com 6,158,561.52t National Exchange 5,281,016.02t STATE American Exchange 8,863,227.49t Badger State 1,710,119.32 Bay View Coml. & Sav 1,442,642.17 City Bank l,252,595.88t Commonwealth Mut 508,241.33 East Side Bank 565,288.17 Holton Street 80,000.00 Home Savings 806,316.96 Italian Mutual 58,208.11 Kilbourn State 513,026.67 Layton Park State 271,707.37 Lincoln State 356,477.30 Marshall & Ilsley 19,579,877.96t Merch. & Farmers 1,411,186.80 Merch. & Mfrs 2,278,403.85f Milwaukee Coml 938,325.70 Milwaukee Sav 20,795.00 Mitchell Street 906,284.17 North Ave 1,623,594.88 Park Savings 1,378,712.72 Second Ward Sav 20,318,905.76 Security Bank 502,283.01 Teutonia Ave 675,660.90 Union Bank 473,342.57 ATiet Street 427,374.09 West Side Bank 2,903,983.22 Wisconsin State 1,355,026.841 Bonds and Securities Real Estate Fur. & Fix. Totals $ 6,282,790.79 2,341,948.78 2,273,384.42 1,610,936.30 $3,477,333.79 29,153.20 150,000.00 5I05,T8S,92Srt6- 11,340,728.87 9,775,032.479,239,568.61 1,103,661.511,563,323.39 50,173.30 10,035.96 81,920.00 221,512.93 10,000.00 317,086.96 45,538.61 537,930.71 187,484.58 106,339.80 2,975,762.41 591,484.22 189,841.40 61,844.15 10,897.93 2,111,424.99 753,438.10355,389.64 6,839,651.03 55,049.45 780,994.19 158,065.15128,624.11 254,588.32 1,248,050.43 216,350.57 22,793.9035,504.4532,853.12 " 16,289.49 6,982.56 28,894.72 5,641.69 2,000.00 11,363.97 43,000.00 555,620.14 41,303.91 150,000.00 25,000.84 ' '11,279.95 78,347.66 28,468.72 500,000.00 10,732.30 20,482.1423,787.69 6,293.24 10,417.8032,979.90 1,603,037.30 585,686.05 277,683.58 189.291.28 44,903.48 210,842.42 15,986.65 189,497.73 15,153.48 170,466.30 68,247.24 114,751.37 4,474,103.77 240,759.50477,245.14 101,119.05 1,799.39 312,221.51.245,891.77210,440.48 6,154,465.66 99,318.50 204,666.16 110,066.48 62,760.01 667,982.86203,675.80 11,789 3,881 1,806, 1,484. 635 1,013 112 1,341 124. 1,223 538.620. 27,585 2,284.3,095 1,126. 33, 3,341, 2,701, 1,973, 33,813, 667, 1,681, 765, 625, 3,836,2,839, 276.87 922.66003.50 ,776.24,064.81 ,933.01 ,969.21,796.37,541.89,423.68,803.16.568.47 .364.28734.43 .490.39 289.74 492.32 210.62272.41 011.56022.45383.26803.39 261.89051.45972.20 732.97 $166,415,118.54 $150,407,452.22 $33,259,173.56 $35,903,415.26 $5,572,875.75 $3,227,652.39 $41,836,858.49 $54,529,909.68 $247,084,026.34 $244,068,429.55 LIABILITIES . NATIONAL Capital Surplus and Profits First Wis. National $ 6,000,000.00 $ Marine National 500,000.00 Natl. Bank of Com 1,000,000.00 National Exchange 500,00000 STATE American Exchange 1,000.000.00 Badger State 200,000.00 Bay View Coml. & Sav 100,000.00 City Bank 300,000.00 Commonwealth Mut East Side Bank 50,000.00 Holton Street 100,000.00 Home Savings 50,000.00 Italian Mutual Kilbourn State 50,000.00 Layton Park State 50,000.00 Lincoln State 100,000.00 Marshall & Ilsley 1,000,000.00 Merch. & Farmers 130,000.00 Merch. & Mfrs 400,000.00 Milwaukee Coml 100,000.00 Milwaukee Sav Mitchell Street 50,000.00 North Ave 200,000.00 Park Savings 200,000.00 Second Ward Sav 1,000,000.00 Security Bank 100,000.00 Teutonia Ave 50,000.00 Union Bank 50,000.00 Vliet Street 100,000.00 West Side Bank 400,000.00 Wisconsin State 100,000.00 Circulation Reserves Deposits 3,488,158.29 $2,515,795.00 1,051,845.06 500,000.00 346,540.25 292,800.00 719,801.50 305,100.00 S23,622,483.07f* $ 70,159,086.80 762,349.57* 8,526.534.24 l,898,792.84*t 6,236,899.38 l,036,171.87t* 6,678,495.24 377,573.10 92,857.27 40,431.79 30,000.00 8,718.06 20,355.64 12,969.21 44,103.81 452.73 23,635.36 7,567.01 6,834.38 1,656,150.18 62,331.89 185,412.15 16,895.11 297.35 88,786.1452,301.23 107,523.45 1,500,853.37 17,574.83 54,048.62 15,091.72 20,000.00 372,726.18 114,860.67 1,792,795.431* 4,000.00 26,516.6568,519.61t 10,613.09s 8,932.76* '22,531.88* 3,800.00s5,296.04*8,866.50* 3,510.40 3,360,720.96f* 14,956.70 298,967.821* 800.66s 205,000.00* 38,726.45 2,500.00 576,815.64* " i, 600.66 66,179.09* 2,606,67 84,260.66 52,234.181 8,618,908.34 3,585,065.39 1,639,055.061,086,256.63 615,733.66 934,644.61 1,225 120 1,144. 472. 510, 21,568, 2,077, 2,211, 1,009 32 2,997,2,410, 1,662, 30,735, 549, 1,576, 633,502, 2,979,2,572, ,160.68,289.16.492.28 369.65223.69 .493.14.445.84.110.42,394.63.394.97 424.48244.73988.11353.44808.43 154.77 991.08 444.78 985.36 638.12 $ 13,880,000.00 $ 12,980,000.00 $10,536,696.35 $ 9,247,331.54 $3,613,695.00 $3,622,095.00 $33,980,547.88 $ 8,508,071.58 $185,073,087.11 $209,710,931.43 t Rediscounts. * Bills payable, bonds borrowed, other liabilities and unearned discounts included, s Guaranty Fund. 362 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Bank Officers and Directors, in banks located in the city and county of Milwaukee serving AA'ith the beginning of the year 1922: First Wisconsin National Bank.— Officers : Oliver C. Fuller, president; Walter Kasten, vice president; H. 0. Seymour, vice president; Edgar J. Hughes, vice president; Herman F. Wolf, vice president; Robert W. Baird, vice president; Henry Kibes, vice president; J. M. Hays, vice president; August W. Bogk, vice president; A. G. Casper, cashier; AVm. K. Adams, assistant vice president; F. K. McPherson, vice president; Fred R. Sidler, ass stant vice president; George C. Dreher, vice president; A. Y. D. Clark- son, assistant vice president; Oscar Kasten, assistant cashier; Frederick Wergin, assistant cashier; Franz Siemens, assistant cashier; Geo. E. Fleisch- mann, assistant vice president ; L. K. Houghton, assistant cashier ; H. G. Zahn, assistant cashier, E. R. Ormsby, assistant cashier; Wm. C. Haas, manager Foreign & Savings Department; Herman W. Eskuche, assistant manager Foreign & Savings Department; William Zimmer, assistant manager Foreign & Savings Department; R. E. Wright, manager Commercial Service Depart ment, S. R. Quaden, auditor. Directors : Isaac D. Adler, Dr. C. E. Albright, Robert W. Baird, John I. Beggs, Fred C. Best, L. G. Bournique, Robert Camp, Alichael F. Cudahy, Walter Davidson, Herman W. Falk, Otto H. Falk, Adolph Finkler, Oliver C. Fuller, Fred T. Goll, HoAvard Greene, Edgar J. Hughes, J. P. Hummel, Walter Kasten, Harry Landauer, George P. Aliller, H. J. Nun- nemacher, Gustave Pabst, Ludington Patton, L. J. Petit, Charles F. Pfister, Fred C. Pritzlaff, Louis Schriber, H. 0. Seymour, Frederick L. Sh'yer, Clement C. Smith, Henry M. Thompson, Edward A. Uhrig, George D. ATan Dyke, John C. Van Dyke, Fred Vogel, Jr., Herman F. Wolf. Marshall & Ilsley Bank.— (Founded 1847). Officers: J. H. Puelicher, president; John Campbell, vice president; G. A. Reuss, A-ice president and branch manager ; F. X. Bodden, vice president ; J. H. Daggett, vice president and manager Bond Department ; John E. Jones, cashier ; H. J. Paine, assistant cashier; Jos. C. Moser, assistant cashier, A. B. Nichols, Jr., assistant cashier; C. R. Jeske, assistant branch manager ; Chas. F. Ilsley, assistant cashier ; Albert S. Puelicher, assistant cashier. Directors : J. H. Puelicher, John Campbell, G. A. Reuss, J. K. Ilsley, William S. Marshall, J. H. Tweedy, Jr., Robert N. McAIynn, Julius 0. Frank, A. P. Woodson, Albert F. Gallun, Wm. W. Cole man, Wm. E. Black Second Ward Savings Bank. — Officers: J. E. Uihlein, president; Henry Bielfeld, vice president; Albert C. Elser, vice president; J. U. Lademan, vice president; Robert A. Uihlein, vice president; R. S. Peotter, A-ice president; G. L. Weigle, cashier; W. G. Whyte, assistant cashier; M. E. Baumberger, assistant cashier; Kurt Aleyer, assistant cashier; A. H. Horneffer, assistant cashier; F. T. Nicolai, assistant cashier; Russell Jackson, counsel. Directors: Jos. E. Uihlein, Henry Bielfeld, Albert C. Elser, Fred J. Schroeder, Robert A. Uihlein, Wm. B. Uihlein, Russell Jackson, Erwin C. Uihlein, J. U. Lade man, G. L. Weigle, R. S. Peotter, Fred Pabst, Willits Pollock. American Exchange Bank. — Officers: E. J. Kearney, president; R. L. Stone, vice president; Carl G. Engelke, vice president and cashier; C. D. Raney, vice president ; J. Edgar Robertson, assistant cashier ; Frank AI. Covert, BANKING AND FINANCE 363 assistant cashier; Jas. L. AVhite, assistant cashier; AV. A. Alanegold, assistant cashier; E. A. NoAvak, manager; Roman Czechorski, assistant manager; Mitchell Street office ; W. H. Correll, manager National Avenue office ; G. H. Babenroth, assistant manager National AA'enue office. Directors: Aug. C. Beck, John D. Bird, AA'm. George Bruce, Hugo Deuster, W. D. Johnson, E. J. Kearney, F. A. Lange, AI. S. Sheridan, R. L. Stone, Theodore Trecker, Frank L. Weyenberg, Edgar L. Wood. The National Bank of Commerce. — Officers: Herman Fehr, president; Geo. P. Alayer, A'ice president; Alfred G. Schultz, A-ice president; E. A. Redde- man, cashier ; Walter C. Georg, assistant cashier ; Harry AV. Zummach, assistant cashier. Directors: Wm. Berger, Geo. F. Brumder, L. W. Bunde, Wm. C. Brumder, Herman Fehr, Geo. P. Alayer, F. AI. Wilmanns, F. P. Blumenfeld, \V. J. Krauthoefer, Alf. G. Schultz, Chas. H. Whiffen, Arthur R. Alunkwitz, Albert T. Friedmann, Herman A. Wagner. The National Exchange Bank. — Officers: J. W. P. Lombard, president; Grant Fitch, vice president ; Wm. AI. Post, cashier ; G. W. Augustyn, assistant cashier. Directors: F. R. Bacon, LI. J. Brown, Grant Fitch, Lawrence Fitch, J. W. P. Lombard, Charles Ray, H. F. Whitcomb. The Marine National Bank. — Officers: Washington Becker, president; Arthur H. Lindsay, vice president; Edward H. Williams, cashier; Geo. AV. Aloore, assistant cashier ; Geo. D. Prentice, assistant cashier ; Thomas J. Durnin, secretary. Directors: Washington Becker, Thomas Daly, Francis E. Dewey; Stephen H. Hoff, Alfred F. James, Arthur H. Lindsay, Edmond J. Lindsay, William B. Strong, Herbert A. Viets. Merchants and Manufacturers Bank. — Officers: L. M. Alexander, chair man of the board of directors; W. F. Myers, president; H. P. Andrae, vice president; Benj. V. Dela Hunt, cashier; Frank Brand assistant cashier; James K. Edsall, assistant cashier. Directors : L. AI. Alexander, H. P. Andrae, Fred Doepke, Benj. V. Dela Hunt, W. F. Myers, E. C. Knoernchild, Judson G. Rosebush, George F. Ruez, T. H. Spence, Gustav J. A. Trostel, F. J. Wood, Haskell Noyes, W. H. Park, George Gibbs. Bay View Commercial and Savings Bank — Officers : E. J. Kearney, pres ident ; R. L. Stone, vice president ; Fred W. Niles, vice president and cashier ; Frank J. Amann, assistant cashier ; Paul A. Papke, assistant cashier. Directors : Aug. C. Beck, E. J. Kearney, Fred W. Niles, M. S. Sheridan, R. L. Stone, W. P. Westenberg, Edgar L. Wood. The City Bank. — Officers: Edw. A. Farmer, president; F. M. Weinhold, vice president; John H. Moss, vice president; W. F. Jackson, cashier; W. B. Frank, assistant cashier ; W. H. Sullivan, assistant cashier. Directors : H. H. Bloedel, Chas. L. Borst, Edw. A. Farmer, M. H. Grossman, W. F. Jackson, John H. Aloss, Benj. Poss, J. E. Sharp, L. R. Stollberg, F. AI. Weinhold, J. C. Zeman. Home Savings Bank — Officers and Directors: Faustin Prinz, president; Michael B. Wells, vice president ; Alfred Prinz, cashier ; Geo. E. Trupke, as sistant cashier; George Durner, Albert Froede, Julius J. Goetz, Chas. J. Poetsch, Hugo Zedler. Kilbourn State Bank of Milwaukee. — Officers: J. LI. Weber, president; 364 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Jos. Miller, vice president; F. E. Wallber, cashier; C. H. Elwing, assistant cashier; Edwin Schulz, assistant cashier. Directors: John E. Dirk, Val. Gerhardt, M. J. GrueschoAA^, Chas. Sommerfield, Frank Frentz, Gust. Kohl- hardt, Geo. Bauer. Layton Park State Bank. — Officers : AI. H. Traub, president ; H. J. Gram- lin, AI. D., vice president; E. AV. Behrens, cashier. Directors: W. H. Dick, H. J. Gramling, AI. D., H. Held, Frank Herda, A. M. Lohr, E. H. Alayer, Wm. Mitchell, M. Schneider, AI. H. Traub. Lincoln State Bank. — Officers: A. Szcerbinski, president; F. L. E. Dro- zniakieAvicz, vice president; Alartin J. Daly, cashier. Directors: Thomas Kuczynski, Anton HauerAvas, B. A. Dziennik, Anton Lukaszewicz. Milwaukee Commercial Bank. — Officers: Alfred Kay, president; Paul Hammersmith, vice president; Wm. C. Ahlhauser, vice president; C. A. Gun- derson, cashier ; E. AI. Kells, auditor. Directors : Alfred Kay, Paul Hammer smith, Wm. C. Ahlhauser, Theodore Ernst, M. J. Guenther. Mitchell Street State Bank.- — Officers: J. T. Johnston, president; S. J. Wabiszewski, vice president; F. J. Grutza, cashier. Directors: J. T. John ston, S. J. Wabiszewski, Frank J. Grutza, A. E. Martin, J. M. Schneider, J. T. Esser, A. P. Kunzelmann, Chas Miksch North Avenue Bank. — Officers : Wm. F. Coerper, president ; George L. Baldauf, vice president; A. J. Langholff, vice president; Joseph AI. Wolf, vice president; F. A. Lochner, cashier; J. A. Chivas, assistant cashier; E. 0. Perschbacher, assistant cashier. Directors : George L. Baldauf, J. H. Binney, J. C. Coerper, Wm. F. Coerper, John Diercksmeier, Wm. C. Garens, A. H. Hammetter, Wm. P. Hug, F. W. Kaufman, A. J. Langholff, F. A. Lochner, E. L. Mohr, Albert Schultz, John Stuesser, Joseph M. Wolf. Security Bank of Milwaukee. — Officers: Louis Scheich, president; Ernst Demin, vice president; Oscar E. Klug, vice president; Burne Pollock, cashier; Geo. A. Knauer, assistant cashier. Directors : Jos. H. Becker, Henry J. Bend- inger, Henry Cook, Ernst Demin, Oscar E. Klug, Chas. Knoerschild, John Alueller, Burne Pollock, Dr. Theo. H. Rolfs, Louis Scheich, John P. Schmitt, Henry Spielvogel. The Union Bank of Milwaukee. — Officers: John C. Karel, president; Jos. M. Crowley, vice president; J. M. Ettenheim, vice president; Geo. D. Luscher, vice president and cashier; C. A. Florey, assistant cashier; L. W. Williams, assistant cashier. Directors: John C. Karel, Jos. AI. Crowley, J. M. Etten heim, Geo. D. Luscher, John Reichert, W. A. Schroeder, D. T. Leisk, Herman Toepfer, Frank Roemer, Chas. Stolper, B. U. Davis. Vliet Street State Bank. — Officers: Chas. Knoernschild, president; Alax Schoetz, Jr., vice president; Wm. C. Heib, vice president; Arthur R. Emer son, cashier ; Gus. Fondrie, assistant cashier. Directors : Chas. Knoernschild, Wm. C. Heib, Alax Schoetz, Jr., Arthur R. Emerson, Thomas A. Clancy, Wm. R. McGovern, Wm. C. Blommer, Emil F. Henoch, Clifton Williams. Wisconsin State Bank. — Officers: Chris. Glaus, president; Harry S. Pig- gins, vice president; Wm. II. Hasse, cashier; C. A. Kambe, assistant cashier. Directors: John P. Bruemmcr, Chris. Glaus, Wm. Gutenkunst, AVm. II. Hasse, BANKING AND FINANCE 365 Oscar C. Mehl, John Aluckerheide, Herm. Noll, John H. Paul, Harry S. Piggins, Ed. E. Plaum, Aug. C. Sehrt. First National Bank (West Allis). — Officers: 0. L. Hollister, president; Henry Freeman, vice president ; I. L. Tipple, cashier, AI. W. Alarkert, assistant cashier. Directors: C. EdAvin Search, Henry Freeman, S. Breese, Jr., Theo. Trecker, 0. L. Hollister, L. H. Schmidt, Theo. Alueller, A. LeFeber, Orville Evans, I. L. Tipple. The Citizens Bank of North Milwaukee. — Officers: H. A. Wagner, pres ident ; E. D. Coddington, vice president ; Chas. H. Krohn, cashier ; J. F. Alies- bauer, assistant cashier; A. Polglase, assistant cashier. Directors: H. A. Wagner, J. H. Rohr, Ed. Butler, Wm. H. Alomsen, T. H. Spence, E. D. Cod dington, Wm. C. Neilson, C. H. Krohn. Wauwatosa State Bank. — Officers: Gilbert J. DaA'elaar, president; S. J. Brouwer, vice president ; H. A. Digman, cashier. Directors : Gilbert J. Dave- laar, S. J. Brouwer, H. A. Digman, Jos. AI. Guentner, Wm. Gettelman, L. L. Gridley, Michael Schmidt, Robt. Kuhnmuench, EdAv. Geske. First National Bank of Wauwatosa. — Officers: P. D. Gates, president; Wm. R. Nethercut, A-ice president ; F. N. Ferguson, cashier ; AI. J. Plautz, assistant cashier. Directors : Donald C. Barbee, W. H. Eastman, C. T. Fisher, P. D. Gates, E. H. Graber, Wm. R. Nethercut, E. A. SAvan, F. D. Underwood. West Allis State Bank.— Officers : J. T. Johnston, president; W. R. AIc- Kowen, vice president ; T. E. Lusk, cashier. Directors : J. T. Johnston, W. R. AleKowen, T. E. Lusk, P. J. Biwer, Chas. H. Hathaway, Aug. Rosenthal, G. C. Hinkley. West Side Bank of Milwaukee. — Officers: Adam Gettelman, president; George Koch, vice president ; Chas. J. Kuhnmuench, cashier ; Herbert Feerick, assistant cashier. Directors: Adam Gettelman, Otto J. Schoenleber, Y. J. Schoenecker, Jr., Walter A. Zinn, Victor Sehlitz, John Schwalbach, George Koch. Teutonia Avenue State Bank. — Officers: E. AV. Staadt, president; A. E. Schunk, vice president ; Chas. Elkert, second vice president ; John C. Stuesser, cashier ; J. P. Mueller, assistant cashier. Directors : C. C. Staadt, E. W. Staadt, A. E. Schunk, Frank Dau, Chas. Elkert, Fred W. Kaufman, Geo. Kaul, A. G. Netter, Ed. Radtke. Park Savings Bank. — Officers : Jesse Cappon, president ; Alex Ritter, vice president; F. G. Exner, cashier; P. H. Wendt, assistant cashier. Directors: Jesse Cappon, Alex Ritter, Peter KotA'is, Robert Reinhold, Fred W. Kemp, Stephen P. Croft, Wm. C. Feerick, Paul Hartung, F. G. Exner, Henry Hunholz, R. S. Witte. Holton Street State Bank. — Officers: Henry Vetter, president; A. R. Punke, vice president ; W. S. Clarkson, cashier. Directors : F. W. Fellenz, Theo. A. Trapp, E. H. Williams, Jos. Pozorski, Peter P. Glysz, August Zamka. Italian Mutual Savings Bank. — Officers: John Busalacchi, president; N. S. Maniaci, vice president; D. AI. Gluli, treasurer; J. AI. Giuli, secretary. Directors : John Busalacchi, N. S. Alaniaci, D. AI. Giuli, J. AI. Giuli, E. C. Baroni, T. Bellant, S. Busalacchi, A. C. Giuli, N. Romano, R. Coraggio, T. P.usalacehi, A. Arena. 366 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Liberty State Bank. — Officers: I. J. Rosenberg, president; Charles E. Tegge, Dr. IT. F. Jermain, vice presidents ; E. G. Schlieger, cashier ; P. H. Sosoff, assistant cashier. Directors: A. J. Bitker, George Born, H. D. Eder, H. R. King, Henry Kurtz, M. Miller, William M. Raasch, F. Stocklass, Dr. H. L. Tilsner, W. A. AVegner, H. 0. Wolfe. East Side Bank. — Officers : William I. Greene, president ; P. D. Dean, vice president ; W. F. Nolan, cashier. Directors : Dr. AV. T. Nichols, W. I. Greene, Richard Kiel, P. W. Dean, Otto Best. Commonwealth Mutual Savings Bank. — Officers : Emil Brodde, president ; John C. Kleist, first vice president; E. G. Rahr, second vice president; C. B. Whitnall, secretary-treasurer. Directors : Emil Brodde, John C. Kleist, E. G. Rahr, C. B. Whitnall, Louis A. Arnold, Gabriel Zophy, R. G. S chuff enhauer, Paul E. Schmidt, HoAvard Tuttle. Building and Loan Associations. — Milwaukee County: American Alutual Loan & Bldg. Assn. — Samuel S. Weil, secretary, 815 Railway Exch. Bldg., Brdw. 681. Atlas Mutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — John G. Reuteman, secretary, 4425 Lisbon Ave., Kilb. 216. Badger Savings, Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Louis E. Stanton, secretary, 902 Alajestic Bldg., Grand 16. Bahnfrei Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — John Stattner, Jr., secretary, 1120 North Ave., Line. 3184. Bay View Bldg. & Loan Assn. — J. C. Bullock, secretary, 1285 Kinnickinnic Ave., Han. 1831. Bohemian Mutual Loan & Bldg. Assn. — F. A. Ambroz, secretary, 661 Muskego Ave. Citizens Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Frank Armitage, secretary, Loan & Trust Bldg., Grand 1532. Community Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Nic. W. Heintskill, secretarv, 2411 Vliet St., Kilb. 3108. Employes' Mutual Savings, Bldg. & Loan Assn. — E. J. Evans, secretary, 215 Sycamore St., Grand 5100. Excelsior Mutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Charles P. Hermann, secretary, 640 First St., Line. 4473. Fidelity Bldg. & Loan Assn. — G. A. Karsten, secretary, 795 TAventv-first St., Kilb. 2613. First Slovak Nat'l. Bldg. & Loan Assn.— John Bzdusek, secretarv, Cudahy, Wis., Cudahy 95-M. Green Bay Ave. Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — William Meyer, secretary, 1456 Green Bay Ave., Line. 327. Integrity Savings, Bldg. & Loan Assn.— Fred W. Krueck, secretary, 507 Trust Co. Bldg., Brdw. 87. Keystone Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn., A. Kay, secretarv, 158 Fifth St., Grand 5167. Kinnickinnic Mut. Loan & Bldg. Assn.— Aug. F. Dunst, secretary, 1141 Lincoln Ave., Han. 598. BANKING AND FINANCE 367 Layton Park Bldg. & Loan Assn. — A. J. Aluth, secretary, 1141 Lincoln Ave., Orch. 895. Lincoln Ave. Loan & Bldg. Assn. — A. Szcerbinski, secretary, 556 Lincoln Ave., Orch. 1207. Alarquette Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — F. Muckerheide, secretary, 985 Greenfield Ave., Orch. 3551. Alilwaukee Alutual Loan & Bldg. Assn. — J. J. Alaher, secretary, Brumder Bldg., Grand 1020. Alitchell Street Bldg. & Loan Assn. — R. J. Talsky, secretary, 735 Mitchell St., Orch. 788. Alodern Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — H. R. Graham, secretary, 523 Grand Ave., Grand 4224. Northern Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — H. E. Ruggaber, secretary, 1092 Teutonia Ave., Line, 4643-R. Northwestern Alutual Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Nic. Hoyer, secretary, 3325 Lisbon Ave., Kilb. 1080. Polish Nat'l Loan & Bldg. Assn. — Louis A. Fons, secretary, 442 Mitchell St., Han. 1300. Polish-American Loan & Bldg. Assn. — August M. Fons, secretary, West Allis, Wis., W. Allis 64. Second Bohemian Loan & Bldg. Assn. — Frank Stocklasa, secretary, 1410 Fond du Lac Ave., Kilb. 3936. Security Loan & Bldg. Assn. — Theo. Mueller, secretary, 353 National Ave., Han. 364. Skarb Kosciuszko Loan & Bldg. Assn. — B. A. L. Czerwinski, secretary, 419 Lincoln Ave., Han. 470. Skarb Polski Loan & Bldg. Assn. — I. A. Przybyla, secretary, 442 Mitchell St., Han. 159. Skarb Pulaski Bldg. & Loan Assn. — S. J. Jazdzewski, secretary, 33 Locust St., Line. 825. Skarb Sobieski Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Aral. Jendrzejczak, secretary, 1090 Fifth Ave., Han. 3365-W. South Milw. Alutual Loan & Bldg. Assn., Viola AI. Scott, secretary, So. Alilwaukee, Wis. Standard Bldg. & Loan Assn. — A. R. Calhoun, secretary, Brumder Bldg., Grand 4083. South Side Mutual Loan & Bldg. Assn. — J. M. Schneider, secretary, 493 Alitchell St., Han. 627. Sterling Savings, Loan & Bldg. Assn. — August Rebhan, secretary, 405 Broadway, Brdw. 3687. United Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Paul F. Berndt, secretary, 1211 Walnut St., Grand 256. Washington Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Otto T. Salick, secretary, 3610 North Ave., Kilb. 3790. Wauwatosa Bldg. & Loan Assn. — Edw. F. Geske, secretary, Wauwatosa, Wis., Wau. 1062- W. 368 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE West Allis Bldg. & Loan Assn. — I. L. Tipple, secretary, West Allis, Wis., W. Allis 630. Wisconsin Alutual Loan & Bldg. Society — P. A. Schmidt, secretary, West Alilwaukee Shops, West 4570. Wisconsin Savings, Loan & Bldg. Assn. — Clem. P. Host, secretary, Brumder Bldg., Grand 6811. CHAPTER XXIII LIFE AND FIRE INSURANCE In the field of insurance, particularly life insurance, Milwaukee has fig ured in a prominent way. This is due to the fact that it founded and reared one of the largest life insurance institutions in the United States and which here deserves first place in the treatment of the subject of insurance. We can do no better than quote Henry F. Tyrell who says : "The Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company is sixty-four years old. It came to Alilwaukee when the city was thirteen years old and when the company could hardly stand alone. It was not a stalwart child and its prospects were poor, indeed. Its sponsors turned it over to its new guardians with less than $300 in assets and without enough genuine sustenance to last a day. Judge Henry L. Palmer and S. S. Daggett went to Janesvalle where it was born and literally carried the whole institution including 'books, pic tures and family wearing apparel' in their arms, to Milwaukee, where it was nurtured and cared for, and AA'here it has 'waxed exceeding strong.' "Gen. John C. Johnston was the founder of the institution. Down in old Vermont he had been teacher of the Hydes, one general agent of the Mutual Life Insurance Company at Boston and the other, president of the great Equitable of New York, and when the spirit of unrest moved him, he traveled down to New York City taking an agency for the Alutual Life. He served seven years, from 1847 to 1854, and resigned, coming west to Janesville, Wis., Avith $30,000 in his pockets, a real fortune for those days. "He purchased a tract of about one thousand acres of land 7% miles north west of Janesville, on the Madison road, built thereon a large brick house and stone 'milk factory' and cherished the hope that he might establish a successful dairy farm. He was poorly equipped for this plan and because of lack of experience, rapidly sunk his fortune in the project. Then his thoughts reverted to life insurance and he succeeded in getting a bill passed by the company incorporating the Mutual Life Insurance Company of the State of Wisconsin, the name being changed to the present one, January 20, 1865. "The company began business at Janesville, Wis., but moved its head quarters to Milwaukee, March 8, 1859. On coming to Milwaukee, The North western was first housed on the site of the present Railway Exchange Build ing. It now occupies an imposing structure at 210 Wisconsin Street, said to be the handsomest office building in the world. "Imagine for a moment the circumstances in which The Northwestern 369 Vol. 1—24 THE OLD INSURANCE BUILDING, MARBLE HALL, RAILWAY EXCHANGE BUILDING (The larger building was formerly occupied by the Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company.) LIFE AND FIRE INSURANCE 371 first saw the light of day. That was back in 1857 when the Badger state AA-as not yet ten years old and the City of Milwaukee, less than fifteen. Wiscon sin was sparsely settled, and it was struggling against the hardships of pio neering. The state had but one railroad, and that had just been completed. Alarkets were few and far between. Financial devastation stalked grimly abroad. Civil war, AA'ith all its prospective horrors and desolations, loomed up menacingly. Doubt and distrust took away the nerves of men. The pres- erA'ation of property appeared far more important than the insurance of lives and it Avas amid these handicaps that Gen. John C. Johnston, from out the eastland, came to Wisconsin. Tiring of his preconceived idea of settling doAvn on a stock farm near JanesA-ille, he began to interest men in the estab lishment of a life insurance company. "The material progress of The Northwestern starts with the day it entered Alilwaukee, Alarch 8, 1859. The story of that progress is written into the official records of nearly every state in the American union and it is a narra tive of accomplishment — of marvelous, but deserved, success. "It is the story of hundreds of thousands of persons happily insured; of A'ast sums of money saved from small surplus by thrifty farmers, work men, artisans and others; of millions of dollars furnished for the protection of homes and the maintenance and education of American families; of other millions which have merged into nation building accessories — railroad sys tems, turnpikes, drainage, canals, telegraph and telephone companies, com mercial and industrial institutions. "Indeed, the true story of the material progress of The Northwestern, if properly told, would make as fascinating a fiscal recital as a Midas could wish, but it would involve an array of figures which would not be particularly interesting to the casual reader. It is necessary — and it is eminently proper — to say, however, that from a weak, toddling infant which was brought to the doorsteps of Milwaukee in 1859, The Northwestern has developed into stalwart proportions in its sixty-two years of experience here. Some idea of its development may be had from the fact that the company now is composed of more than 730,000 American members whose homes are protected to an amount exceeding $2,250,000,000 ! "Figures are easily written and hastily forgotten. It means little to the casual reader, for example^ to note that during the year 1920 The Northwest ern paid out in death losses alone, the sum of $18,763,000 but the analyst with imagination catches the picture of the producer of the family gone and the money turned to the protection of home and to the happiness of survivors. "It requires but the dash of a pen and the click of a linotype to record that in the year 1920 The Northwestern paid out more than $50,000,000 to its policyholders and their beneficiaries, and the casual reader will pass on to the next paragraph without a thrill, but the thoughtful reader will instantly realize, with proper astonishment, that the state and nation were relieved of possible pauperism to just exactly that immense amount. "The casual reader misses much of the romance of life insurance. He does not appreciate the real service of the institution. He vaguely senses the fiscal, but misses the sentimental altogether. He looks upon the picture blankly. 372 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE But the man of imagination sees in life insurance an instrumentality of home protection, family support, business conservatism, thrift, solvency, nation- building and contentment. "It is well enough to show figures which evidence successful business administration, for they are a source of pride, naturally, but the real figures of life insurance are graven upon the hearts and minds of those who have received of its beneficence 'to keep the broken home from separation and from charity.' "In a history of this description, however, one would fail to do justice to the book, or to the company, if he neglected to point out one paramount feature of the development of The Northwestern. For many years — indeed so long as to entitle it to the distinction of being the pioneer — The North western has loaned a goodly percentage of its available funds to farmers for the purchase and improvement of their property. Millions upon millions of dollars have been thus loaned, particularly in the West and Middle West, and the largest portion of the investments of the company today is in real estate mortgage loans. Equally important and striking is the fact that for many years past farmers have been the leading insurers in The Nortlrwestern. "Why did The Northwestern succeed? Because it had men administering its affairs who knew how to do it and who never compromised a principle. It is not the way of the world to dwell upon the accomplishments of the dead, but any writer who undertook to account for the success of The Northwestern and who neglected to mention the sterling ability of Henry L. Palmer ; the great genius of Emory McClintock and the constructive facility of Willard Merrill, would fail of his undertaking. During the sixty-four years of its history The Northwestern has had but five chief executive officers : S. S. Dag gett, who served from 1859 to 1868; John H. Van Dyke, 1869-1874; Henry L. Palmer, 1874-1908; George C. Markham, 1908-1919 and W. D. Van Dyke elected January 29, 1919, and still serving. "The Northwestern has just come through the two greatest years in its history. The men who preside over its destinies today are building Avell upon the foundation eternally laid for them by master hands. To these later men belongs the credit for the astonishing records of recent years. The executive officers are: President, W. D. Van Dyke; Adce presidents, P. R. Sanborn and M. J. Cleary; secretary, A. S. Hathaway; general ccfunsel, Geo. Lines; actuary, Percy IT. Evans ; superintendent of agencies, George E. Copeland ; and medical director, Dr. J. W. Fisher." The Northwestern National Insurance Company. — This company, which has played a leading part in the insurance history of the city, was founded in 1869 by some of the foremost business men of that period. The articles of association Avere signed by Alexander Mitchell, Angus Smith, Lester Sexton, Levi H. Kellogg, John Plankinton, Greenleaf D. Norris, Sherburn S. Mer rill, David Ferguson, and John J. Tallmadge. Its first president was Alexander Alitchell who served in that capacity for eight years. The original purpose of the company Avas to engage mainly in marine insurance, but it soon took up fire insurance and gradually extended its operations to the entire Middle West. The company's first office was located LIFE AND FIRE INSURANCE 373 at 99 Alichigan Street. From there the company in 1878 moved into more commodious quarters in the Alitchell building at the corner of Michigan and East Water streets. Its present home on Wisconsin Street, which is monu mental in architectural design and a model in interior orientation, was con structed in 1906. The company not only brought to its service the most honorable and capable business men of Milwaukee in building for an important and useful enterprise, but also continued the many years of its existence to gain in stability and financial strength. This fact was amply demonstrated in the record the company has made. It braved the storms which have wrecked so many fire insurance companies, met the great losses caused by huge conflagrations throughout the country^ and stood like a rock against the financial waves that were lashed against it. There was the Chicago fire in 1871, the Milwaukee fire in 1892, the San Francisco fire in 1906, the Minnesota forest fires in 1918. In these and many other conflagrations the company suffered enormous losses which were promptly met. Its loss in the San Francisco fire reached the sum of over one-half million dollars. The company now does business through more than six thousand agents and fifteen branch offices. It carries on its payroll nearly three hundred employes. Its annual income exceeds the sum of $5,000,000. In 1887 Alfred James succeeded Alexander Mitchell as president of the company. Upon the death of Mr. James, Wilford AI. Patton was chosen and served until 1916. On April 8, 1916, the present incumbent of the office, Alfred F. James, was chosen. President James has maintained the high standards of business integrity and of institutional stability which the early founders have espoused. He has not only the distinction of succeeding a line of remarkable predecessors but also to succeed his own father who was one of the most important factors in the earlier history of the company. The assets of the Northwestern National Insurance Company on January 1, 1919, aggregated the sum of $8,576,596.13, including a net surplus of $1,- 905,731.07. ' The officers of the company are : President, Alfred F. James ; vice presi dent, William D. Reed ; second vice president, Joseph. Huebl ; secretary, Lubin M. Stuart; assistant secretary, Herman A. Schmidt; general adjuster, Arthur J. Wright ; manager automobile department, Roger G. Calton ; chief examiner, Albert L. Hentzen ; manager local department, Joseph E. Williams ; manager, Northwestern Underwriters Agency, John B. Faatz. Directors: Charles Ray, Hon. James G. Jenkins, Washington Becker, Grant Fitch, Howard Greene, Fred Vogel, Jr., J. Ogden Armour, H. A. J. Upham, J. H. Tweedy, Jr., Robert Camp, William D. Van Dyke, Alfred F. James, William D. Reed, Joseph Huebl. The Milwaukee Mechanics' Insurance Company was incorporated under a charter given by special act of the Legislature of Wisconsin, February 15, 1852, and, originally, was a mutual company, bearing the name of Milwaukee Mechanics' Mutual Insurance Company. In its infancy the company did not show much progress; in fact at times its very existence was endangered, but NORTHWESTERN MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY Home office building on Wisconsin Street 11 m§ NORTHWESTERN NATIONAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY LIFE AND FIRE INSURANCE 375 it weathered the many storms and soon won an enviable reputation among the citizens of Alilwaukee and vicinity. , After the close of the Civil war the company made astounding progress and its growth from that time was steady and largely exceeded all expecta tions of its founders. When the desire for greater expansion of the company was handicapped by the many failings of mutual companies, the doors of many states barring its entrance into new and profitable territory, the company was reorganized, the change haA'ing been resolved upon by a general ATote of the members, at the annual meeting in January, 18S4, under a special act of the Legislature and became a stock company Avith a capital stock of $200,000 paid into the treasury, and the company took a place among the millionaires. This reorganization vested the company with new power and it immedi ately branched out in eA-ery direction, adding to its territory from time to time until it now operates throughout the United Sates in practically every state. It is the oldest and one of the most reliable of the fire insurance com panies in the Northwest. The cash capital of the company is noAv $1,250,109, and the total assets including the reserves amount to $7,127,867.99, an in crease of about $3,000,000 over the assets of four years ago. Its first year closed with assets totaling $1,236.63, while the report of January 1, 1922, shows present assets of $7,828,586.13, testifying to the ex pansion of the company. The collapse of several foreign insurance companies in 1850 and 1851, and the many losses resulting, prompted a group of Alilwaukee business men to consider the organization of a home mutual fire insurance company, which was incorporated under a charter given by special act of the Legislature of Wisconsin on February 15, 1852. The eight charter members of the board of directors were Isaac Neustadtl, William Reinhart, Fred Sehloemilch, Val Schranck, Charles Rau, Francis Hoff man, Ernest Prieger and William Schroeder. At a meeting on March 6, 1852, they chose the folloAving officers: Isaac Neustadtl, president; E. Prieger, secretary, and FVed Sehloemilch, treasurer. The first policy — and present officials believe there was an omen in that name — was issued to Joachim F. Luck on April 1, 1852. Up to 1854 there was no startling progress in the company. But after that time, when Christian Preusser was elected president, development was rapid and steady. Familiarly known as " Preusser 's Insurance Company," it achieved an enviable reputation among the citizens of Mihvaukee and vi cinity. John C. Dick, who was appointed general agent in 1856 and later elected vice president, and Adolph J. Cramer, who became secretary in 1865, were two who contributed to the early success of the organization. The failures of many companies as a result of the Chicago fire prompted the management to cross the Wisconsin boundary line. When the company celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary it was operating successfully in nine states, and at present is operating in all but California, Delaware, Alississippi and Nevada. In January, 1884, under a special act of the Legislature, the company 376 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE AA'as reorganized as a stock company, a capital stock of $200,000 paid into the treasury, and the company placed among the millionaires. The company has occupied six offices during its career, first in the Martin block on the present site of the Mack block, and, in succession, Grenacher 's building, Wiesmann's block, the Preusser block and its own building adjoin ing the Preusser block. At the present time it occupies the entire sixteenth floor of the First Wis consin National Bank building. Charles H. Yunker is president of the company and other officers are : G. W. Grossenbach, first vice president; Robe Bird, second vice president; R. H. Wieben, secretary; Emil Teich, Charles Klenk, Rene Steckel, assistant secretaries, and Ernest G. Ebert, assistant treasurer. The board of directors includes Fred Vogel, Jr., Charles F. Pfister, Gustave Pabst, Otto H. Falk, W. C. Quarles, Carl G. Stern, Charles H. Yunker, Henry J. Nunnemacher, William E. Black, Dr. Joseph Schneider, A. C. Swallow, G. W. Grossenbach, Fred T. Goll, Armin W. Finger, Oliver C. Fuller, Arthur R. Munkwitz, Robe Bird, William H. Schuchardt. Old Line Life Insurance Company. — Commenced business in 1910; on De cember 31, 1919, its assets were $2,341,455.16 ; its surplus $202,453.26. The commissioner of insurance, Mr. Piatt Whitman, in the foreword of his annual report, says: "The progress of a company or society is usually more clearly indicated by the figures covering a period of years than by the figures for any particular year." This method is followed throughout the report, and detailed statistics of all insurance companies in the state : — life, fire, ma rine, hail and casualty insurance are shown in five-year periods in compara tive form. Milwaukee Stock Fire Insurance Companies (December 31, 1920) Alil waukee Alechanics, commenced business 1852, assets, $7,511,472.88. North western National, commenced business 1869, assets, $9,976,638.24. Concordia, commenced business 1870, assets, $4,640,812.52. Milwaukee Domestic Mutual Fire Insurance Companies (December 31, 1920). — American Mutual, commenced business 1905; risks in force $5,012,798. Badger Alutual, commenced business 1891 ; risks in force, $16,945,940. Cream City Mutual, commenced business 1889 ; risks in force, $6,893,266. Druggists Mutual, commenced business 1907 ; risks in force, $648,600. Furniture Dealers Alutual, Ltd., commenced business 1917 ; risks in force, $700,750. Jewelers Mutual, commenced business 1914 ; risks in force, $3,521,300. Limited Mutual Conditional Sales Insurance Company, commenced business 1919 ; risks in force, $243,049. Market Men's Ltd., Alutual, commenced business 1917 ; risks in force, $699,000. Alilwaukee Mutual, commenced business 1907 ; risks in force, $3,031,- 308. Mutual Church, commenced business 1891; risks in force, $4,845,274. Retail Lumbermen's Mutual, commenced business 1897; risks in force, $3,309,- 172. Security Mutual, commenced business 1919; risks in force, $1,782,019. Wisconsin Ltd., Mutual, commenced business 1905; risks in force, $328,094. Wisconsin Retailers Mutual Fire Insurance Company, Ltd., commenced business 1920, risks in force, $172,200. Stock Casualty Insurance Companies in Milwaukee. — Midland Casualty LIFE AND FIRE INSURANCE 377 Company, commenced business 1912. (December 31, 1919), assets, $178,512.67; capital and surplus, $133,265.84. Old Line Life, commenced business 1911. (See table under "Life Insurance.") Time Insurance Company, commenced business 1910. (December 31, 1919), assets, $129,741.38; capital and surplus, $76,383.59. Wisconsin Accident and Health Insurance Company, commenced business 1915. (December 31, 1919), assets, $44,810.27; capital and surplus, $32,504.81. CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AND MITCHELL BUILDING CHAPTER XXIV AIILWAUKEE CHAAIBER OF COAIAIERCE In the Alilwaukee Sentinel of January 1, 1922, Air. H. A. Plumb tells the story of the chamber 's earlier activities, as follows . "The Alilwaukee Chamber of Commerce, organized in 1858, is one of the oldest of the grain exchanges in the West — the oldest with the single excep tion of the Chicago Board of Trade. "The Chicago exchange came into existence at about the same time, in the same year, at least, but the other exchanges, some of which are noAv large and important bodies, were organized later — many years later, with the excep tion that the St. Louis Alerchants' exchange came onto the scene in 1862. "Before Civil War. — Away back in the years before the Civil war there was considerable trading in wheat in Alilwaukee on the old 'corn exchange,' and it was so far back that the word 'corn' had more particularly the mean ing of 'grain,' as we understand the use of those words today, for there was very little corn — or 'maize' — handled in this part of the country commercially in those days. It was nearly all wheat, but a corn exchange was a grain ex change, and such was Milwaukee's first trading organization, whose members were accustomed to gather in the railroad yards during the morning hours and buy and sell the wheat upon its arrival. The grain at that time was shipped in bags, the handling of bulk grain beginning about 1857. "The records kept in the secretary's office show the shipments of grain from Milwaukee to the East from 1845 to 1849 as consisting entirely of wheat, but do not show the receipts until the year 1858, the year of the organization of the chamber, when the total arrivals are given at 5,827,000 bushels of all kinds of grain, less than 1,000,000 bushels covering all the corn, oats, barley and rye, the balance being wheat. "Had Ninety-Nine Members. — In 1858, on October 21st, these early day grain merchants of what was by that time one of the most important ter minal markets in the United States organized 'The Chamber of Commerce of the City of Alilwaukee,' the association being housed at 1 Spring Street, the site of Gimbel's store today. There were ninety-nine of these men, of whom the late Robert Eliot, who died in 1917, was one, and so far as the writer knows, he was last of the charter members of the Chamber of Commerce. "The original organization of the chamber was effected under the general laws of the state, but after ten years the grain industry had grown to such importance and become so highly specialized that the need for the authority of law for special activities, such as inspection and weighing of the grain, and 379 380 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE arbitration of business differences and things of that nature was apparent, and so application was made to the Wisconsin Legislature for a charter grant ing certain rights and privileges and defining the powers of the association. The charter was granted, becoming effective on February 29, 1868, the date of its formal approval. "Meanwhile the chamber had been removed, in 1863, to a building on the site of the present one, which it occupied until Alexander Mitchell erected the building noAv housing the association. This was completed in 1880, the grain men being quartered in the interim at 415-417 Broadway. "A National Factor. — During this period the Milwaukee Chamber of Com merce became a factor in the grain trade of the United States, and Milwaukee was recognized as one of the principal markets of the country. "In 1873 the receipts of grain of the various kinds amounted to 32,567,565 bushels, 28,457,937 bushels of which was wheat. These were extraordinarily large receipts, and for a number of years,- in fact, all through the '70s, Mil waukee handled AA'hat for those times was an immense volume of grain yearly. Milwaukee's fame as a market spread all over the world, and 'Milwaukee No. 2 AA'heat' Avas quoted in Liverpool as a standard. "In the '80s the great markets, Alilwaukee and Chicago, began to feel the effects of the establishment of exchanges at other points. In 1881 the Minne apolis Chamber of Commerce and the Duluth Board of Trade were organized and opened up for business, as the development of the great Northwest progressed with the building of railroads and the extension of agriculture over its wide plains. "While the grain industry at Milwaukee did not exactly retrogress, it did not progress at the rate to which it had been accustomed, and a period of comparative depression ensued, culminating in the early 1900s. Since that time the growth has been steady and substantial, and Alilwaukee has main tained a position as one of the leading grain markets of the country. "Pioneer in Trade. — Being one of the oldest and most progressive ex changes of the middle western states, the Mihvaukee Chamber of Commerce has been in many respects a pioneer in grain exchange methods. The rules in effect in this organization have served as the patterns after which the structures of other and more recently created trading associations have been built. In fact, if one Avill turn to the rules of almost any of the numerous exchanges organized since 1860 he Avill find entire sections copied word for word from the rule book of the Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce. "A fact that is not generally known, even among the traders themselves, is that the pit — the octagonal trading platform, AA'ith steps on the inside and outside — which is used by the traders as a convenient device for their par ticular purpose, was first used in the Mihvaukee exchange. "The grain industry is today one of the most important commercial activ ities of Alilwaukee. Property valued at $75,000,000 to $100,000,000 is handled yearly by the grain and seed firms, AA'hich are members of the Chamber of Commerce, and this great business is carried on with so little fuss and feathers —due to the high degree of perfection to which the grain exchanges have attained in facilitating the distribution of grain — that the average citizen MILWAUKEE CHAMBER OF COAIAIERCE 381 does not realize its magniture nor the prestige it gives Alilwaukee Avith the outside world. "But this standing has not been maintained Avithout effort — the grain merchants here have not had things handed to them on a silver tray. It has meant hard and continuous labor, and the element of persistency and keeping eA'erlastingly at it has entered into the situation. Unremitting watchfulness was necessary to prevent the other markets from benefiting from discrimina tory railroad rates, and every so often a battle royal before the interstate commerce commission had to be waged to keep Alilwaukee on her feet, for her grain merchants are facing the keenest sort of competition. New markets and new exchanges are springing up at about the rate of one a year, each one having its effect, more or less serious, in draAving grain from Alilwaukee. The strength of Milwaukee, however, as a market for the sale of grain is the buying power exerted by her numerous manufacturing plants, which lends a steady and continuous demand and this makes for permanence and sta bility — a great advantage over a strictly merchandising or distributing mar ket." At the opening of the Alilwaukee Chamber of Commerce in 1858, the prin cipal address was made by Edward D. Holton, portions of which are quoted elsewhere in this volume. This was followed by an appropriate speech by J. B. D. Cogswell. In his references to the preceding address of Air. Holton, the speaker said: "We have listened to the addresses made, especially that of Mr. Holton, with much pleasure: That gentleman is himself an evidence of the thrift and prosperity of Alilwaukee. He is noAv in the prime of life, and the patriarchs' of this state are not yet whitened with age. "The day of small things for Alilwaukee is but as yesterday. The patri archs of this city less than a generation ago laid the cornerstone of the enter prise and prosperity which you are enjoying. So great has been your growth that the pioneers haA-e been almost buried up in the great crowd that has followed. You are to be congratulated upon the locality and elegant room which you have chosen for your use. It is a place where you will be proud to invite the stranger and friend. The organization of the Chamber of Com merce is indicative of the prosperity and wealth of the city. Review of the Previous Conditions. — ' ' It is well that such an institution is now organized. In small towns there is no need of such things; there Avas no commerce when Juneau came here and traded Avith the Indians, selling them blankets, powder and traps for their furs ; there was no commerce when farm ers drew their loads to town over heavy roads ; the place Avas small and every body knew where to find his neighbor. The common road has been succeeded by the plank road, the plank road by the railroad; the farmer Avent through the land and sowed the seed where the prairie floAver grew; the axeman and surveyor went forth, and then followed the construction of those arteries which now enter our city on every hand, and heavy trains come thundering along laden with the produce of the land, which but for these roads must have rotted in the fields and in the barnyards." The advantages derived from such an association are numerous, the mem bers will meet here every day, they will be near each other, they can speak 382 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE to each other from stall to stall, and can sell whole cargoes by mere samples. This is what such an organization is for. Here may be found the newspapers from all the large cities of the Union and here will be received the telegraph reports of the eastern and foreign markets. "There are other benefits besides," continued the speaker. "This institu tion will be of direct benefit in elevating the character of the business man ; it is good to come together, it is not good to be alone anywhere. Man isolated becomes selfish; if we mingle together we become philanthropic, take each other by the hand with more confidence and promote what the French call esprit de corps." Air. Cogswell concluded his address AA'ith an appeal for the strictest business morality among the members, a high integrity which should pervade the dealings and actions of the business men and merchants of this city. "To them," he said, "AA'as confided the future prosperity and reputation of our city. We have a noble start and the best and only elements out of which a large and prosperous city can arise — a fit population, an excel lent natural location and a superior country to back it up." The Chamber of Commerce has through its entire career been a trading body. It has not been a civic promotional organization as chambers are in many American cities. Aside from its strictly trading activities, however, it has concerned itself in the rail and Avater transportation facilities of the city. It was for many years the sole guardian of Mihvaukee's harbor interests, and always maintained a traffic bureau promoting expedition and efficiency in rail service. The Chamber of Commerce has participated from time to time in move ments designed to advance the civic and material progress of the community. It has never failed to respond to the call. Whenever the interests of the city were at stake its membership came forAvard readily, loyally and liberally in tendering their support. CHAPTER XXV THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMAIERCE The effort of American cities to gain in prestige, poAver and prosperity must primarily be credited to individual initiative. The complex character and scope of modern business life, howeArer, has evolved a tendency to go beyond individual effort and bring into play the concerted force and influence of the many. A body or an association of men rather than any one man becomes the instrument for promotion and for guidance. Thus every city, large and small, has its organization of business and professional men through Avhich is expressed the hope, ambition and aspiration of the community. The activities engaged in by the local commercial body, in a measure at least, is a suggestive index to the commercial, industrial and civic tendencies of the community. It supplements individual effort by collective effort, prompts a spirit of progress, stimulates enterprise and growth, brings the natural advantages of the city to their highest stage of development and advances the civic ideals and standards of the community. The Hon. James Bryce, a former British ambassador, during an address delivered in Alilwaukee some years ago said: "A new force has risen in American cities which must be dealt with, and which has a peculiar power for good. The commercial organization, properly constituted as to policy and personnel, wields an influence not only in the promotion of industrial and commercial development but becomes also a wholesome civic factor. And what could be a greater influence for good than a body of high-minded, progressive and aggressive men, organized on non-political and non-partisan lines? The official authorities do not always represent the highest ideals of the community. The non-political commercial and civic body may become the strongest factor in collecting, focusing and diffusing public opinion, in cultivating higher aims and purposes." The extent to which commercial bodies fulfill the mission assigned to them depends upon the financial support they receive and the intellectual strength of the executive officials and upon the spirit of progress with which the mem bership may be imbued. Much, of course, depends upon intelligent and ag gressive leadership, and where the local business men are not too hidebound in their conservatism, an active and useful organization can be brought into life. The nature and character of the work performed depends largely upon the natural surroundings and the possibilities of the locality. One locality has natural advantages which adapt it admirably for industrial growth, another 383 Wcvci n tli .Annual Jj) cinq net ¦I Lcrehanls -A; sociaaon VMONIWm. COVER DESIGN FOR DINNER PROGRAM PROVIDED AT THE PLANKINTON HOUSE, JUNE 5, 1884, BY THE MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION (NOW THE MILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE) THE MILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE 385 by virtue of peculiar location enjoys commercial advantages. But, Avhatever the local conditions may be, as to advantages and disadvantages, it neverthe less remains that the efforts of commercial organizations are directed along economic and civic lines. Outline of Association History. — -The Alihvaukee Association of Commerce is one of the oldest institutions of its kind in the United States. It was on Alarch 5, 1861, that twenty-three public-spirited business men, headed by John Nazro, then the hardware king of Alilwaukee, came together for the purpose of organizing a business association. They sought to stimulate local commercial activities, establish trade con nections with the outside world, bring current business usage and methods upon a higher plane, cultivate cordial relations among business men and spread the fame and prestige of Alilwaukee as a progressive and prosperous commercial center. Since the beginning of the association Alilwaukee has seen its little shops and stores grow in number and size, its business districts grow into important marts of trade and commerce, its few small factories multiply themselves into thousands of manufacturing plants many of which have grown into industries of world-wide reputation. It covers a period when Alihvaukee grew from a small struggling community into a great city occupying a proud place among the sister cities of the nation. While the original founder merely sought the extension of trade it took many years to develop correct ideas, as to the mission and purposes of a com mercial organization. Many obstacles and difficulties were encountered and overcome and only with patient application and loyalty to the cause in hand was an efficient working body finally brought into life. Milwaukee's best citizenship was identified in the development of the organization and took a' lively and active part in all its efforts to promote the growth and prosperity of the city. Among the association achievements of recent years are the erection of the Exposition building, the permanent location of the State Fair in Milwau kee, the establishment of the Milwaukee School of Trades and construction of the Auditorium Building and the preparation of the initial plans for the acquirement of Jones Island as a public wharf and shipping center. The Earlier Beginnings. — The suggestion for some form of organization of business men had been under consideration for several years before anyone took definite steps in that direction. The immediate cause for the organiza tion was an excursion trip to the City of Philadelphia undertaken in January, 1861, by a small group of Milwaukee merchants. Those who participated discussed the subject Avith some enthusiasm and upon their return a meeting was called. A local paper of that day described them as a "body of enterprising and wholesouled men" who saw a future for the city and believed in striving upon broad lines for its growth, development and prestige. On March 5, 1861, the following, then leading business men of the city met: Lester Sexton, Sexton Brothers & Company; W. P. Young, Young & French ; F. J. Bosworth, H. Bosworth & Sons ; W. S. Candee, Candee, Dibble Vol. 1—25 COA'ER DESIGX OF MENU FOR BANQUET GIA'EN AT THE PLANKINTON HOUSE. JUNE 5, 1884, UXDER THE AUSPICES OF THE MERCHAXTS' ASSOCIATION ? 1 ¦l ¦''¦''.¦ '¦¦ :¦¦'<.-, Re-opening IN hfo N 0 R 0 f T H L MERCHANTS ASSOCIATION \| 5* O mm^*\ / y MKNU EOT! THE SEVENTH ANNUAL BANQUET GIVEN' BY THE MERCHANTS' ASSOCIATION AT THE TLAXKIXTOX HOUSE IX 1884 THE MILAVAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 387 & Company; J. T. Bradford, Bradford Brothers; A. H. Atkins, Atkins, Steele & White; George J. Sivyer, J. A. Benedict & Company; E. Terry, Terry & Cleaver ; John De Boav, Hanley & De Bow ; Echvard 0 Neill, J. Dahlman & Company; E. H. Terry, Goodrich & Terry; T. A. Greene, Greene & Button; J. S. Ricker, JeAvell, Davis & Company; John Nazro, George Tracy, W. AI. Sinclair, Henry Fiss, Jr., EdAvard TrusloAv, George Bremer, George AVilliam- son, J. A. Dutcher, G. P. Hewitt and Clarence Shepard. The name chosen for the young organization Avas that of the Alerchants Association of Alihvaukee. The officers elected were the following: Presi dent, John Nazro ; A-ice president, G. P. Hewitt ; secretary, J. A. Dutcher ; treasurer, F. H. Terry ; directors : J. T. Bradford, George Bremer, Lester Sax- ton, F. J. Bosworth and AV. AI. Sinclair. The first promotional effort that was undertaken by the association con sisted of the employment of a man named Captain Mapes who visited the various sections of the state to make propaganda for Alihvaukee as a trading center. This was in 1862. During the same year the organization together with the Chamber of Commerce raised a company of soldiers for the Civil war. In 1865 George W. Allen made the charge that the fire insurance rates were exorbitant in that they were four times as high as those exacted in Chicago. The charge was substantiated in a subsequent committee report. The insurance companies responded with considerable sarcasm but the asso ciation eventually won out and the rates were reduced to an acceptable bash. At the same time the fire protection of the city AA-as improved so as to meet the requirements of the companies. During the folloAving year a unique report Avas made to the effect that "not one member had failed in business." An effort was made to hold high the credit of the business men of the city and to worry through the "storm and stress" period of the Civil Avar without bringing commercial calamity upon the city. In 1866 George H. Walker, one of the three original pioneers of the city, died. The association adopted a resolution AA'hich embodied the folloAving sentence : "Alay the fair white city, now so young and vigorous, become great among the cities of the world, and may the name or the virtues of one of its founders, George H. Walker, never be forgotten." During the same year Guido Pfister Avent to Madison to secure legislation in the interest of the city. The legislators of both Alinnesota and Wisconsin visited Alihvaukee in 1869 for the purpose of studying problems of city gov ernment. Under the laws then existing the association had the appointment of fish inspectors. The fish industry had been an important one for many years. The last to serve in the capacity of such inspectors Avere Echvard Fur long, J. W. Barnum and EdAvard Burke. In 1875 funds were collected to secure the state fair and all business houses and factories were closed for a day in order to enable the employes to attend the fair. Funds were also gathered to aid the fire sufferers of Oshkosh. The same year a committee consisting of Charles T. Bradley, E. H. Ball and Elias Friend was sent to New York to induce capital to seek investment in local enterprises. In 1890 funds were raised to help the NeAv Richmond 388 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE tornado sufferers and for the starving Porto Ricans. In 1900 the sum of $15,000 Avas raised to retain the state fair. Until 1893 the organization was known as the Merchants Association. A Manufacturers' Club had been organized a few years before and in 1894 a consolidation was effected and the neAv organization with a membership of 346 was named the Merchants and Manufacturers Association. That year Air. John E. Hansen was the president. He urged a campaign to increase the membership to 500. The headquarters were then located in the University Building. It would be difficult to croAvd into a single chapter the long list of labors performed during the period that noAv followed and the results obtained. There were, of course, years Avhen little or nothing was accomplished, but there also came periods when the actual services performed on behalf of the city's commercial and industrial interests were of immeasurable value. Efforts in Transportation. — The association members soon recognized the fact that efforts would have to be made against discrimination in railroad? rates and service. The protests were frequent and usually attended with success. Among the first moves made by the association was an agitation for a union depot. This movement failed as the railroads claimed financial inability to build. In 1863 the association aided in the sale of $75,000 of bonds of the Fox River Valley Railroad. Three years later a large delegation Avitnessed the opening of the McGregor and Western Railroad at Cresco, la. The Northern Railroad to Menasha was completed in 1872 Avhen a party of 200 merchants made an excursion trip over the line. Then followed the es tablishment of a traffic bureau. With an expert in charge, the association has been able to render a valuable service to the business public. Thousands of complaints were investigated, shipping routes prepared, oA-ercharges collected, rate legislation fostered, etc. While the association has always advocated more railroads for Alilwaukee it has not been inclined to disparage the facilities now existing. Its position is outlined in the following which is taken from the history of the association prepared in 1910 : Transportation Facilities. — "Much has been said in recent years about Alil waukee 's transportation facilities. It has been asserted again and again that the city needs more railroads and that our connections AA'ith the outside world should be materially strengthened. This cry still holds good. It will hold good in any growing community, more especially AA'hen it is recognized that shipping connections create trade and add to the prosperity of such community. "But, here it should also be remembered that the local commerce must grow to a magnitude that will employ all additional facilities. The mere passing through the city of trains means little. Freight that originates here as well as the freight that is destined for Mihvaukee really counts and means commercial activity and prosperity. "Again we must not underestimate what we have. The two railroad lines which enter here are among the greatest railway systems in the country. They THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE 389 tap the great Northwest and connect us directly with the Pacific coast. They carry our goods to the North and to the South. "The connections with the East are via the Great Lakes. The various boat lines and car ferries connect with the important railroad lines which run to the ocean ports and through them connect with European centers. Thus, it may be said that Alilwaukee is linked either by water or land routes with the four ends of the world. "But, while this is true it does not preclude .the desirability of more trans portation facilities. The cry for more roads still has efficacy when it is re membered that more direct connections will bring us in closer touch with the other markets and afford more extended opportunity to stimulate new trade relations. In 1879 active steps Avere taken to secure the construction of the Lodi branch of the Chicago & North Western Railway to Milwaukee. In 1883 the effort to induce the C, M. & St. P. Ry. to build a union station was renewed. "In 1887 a strong protest was made against freight rate discrimination. It was charged that the railroads favored Chicago and exacted unfair rates from the Milwaukee shippers. ' ' In the year 1894 the association secured the defeat of the plan of the rail roads to increase excess baggage charges, and also secured a reduction on freight rates and collected many claims for over charges. "The necessity of watching the question of shipping facilities and rates became more apparent from year to year. A permanent committee on trans portation was finally created and is maintained to this day." The Reconstruction Period. — In 1907 the association, then under the lead ership of William N. Fitzgerald, secured the services of William George Bruce as secretary-manager. The headquarters of the organization were then located in the University Building. The executive staff had up to this time consisted of a secretary and a stenographer. Under the new regime the dues were increased from $10 a year to $25 and the membership increased from 900 to 1,200. A few years later a general membership campaign AA-as undertaken and the list of members increased to 3,000. The organization, which still went under the name of Alerchants and Manufacturers moved its headquarters to the Germania Building, now known as the Brumder Building, located at the corner of Wells and Water streets. Later the headquarters were transferred to the First Wisconsin National Bank Building, then a few years ago the present home in the Milwaukee Athlete Club Building was occupied. The arrangement whereby the organization secured the second floor of the Milwaukee Athletic Club located at the corner of Broadway and Mason Street proved an advantageous one for both bodies. The members of the Association of Commerce had become the principal financial backers of the Athletic Club, but a merger of the two was not deemed expedient owing to their wide divergence in purpose. The association, however, sought certain facilities which the club was able to supply. On the other hand the club sought patronage. The jointure whereby the association became a tenant of the building and the club re- V»3k^ THE .MILWAUKEE ATHLETIC ( U'R BUILDING. ALSO HOME OF THE MILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE THE MILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE 391 mained the landlord, each retaining its oavu particular character and function, Avas carried into effect. The association located its offices on the second floor fronting on Alason Street, secured the. use of an assembly hall, and dining prh'ileges. The noon luncheon meetings are held in the assembly hall, AA'hile private dining rooms are reserA'ed for special committee luncheon meetings AA'heneA'er desired. This arrangement has been deemed practical and has been emulated in other cities between commercial .bodies and social clubs. The offices of the Association of Commerce are arranged to secure the highest efficiency in performing tfie business, of such a body. The various de partments are readily accessible by the business public. A large and com modious directors' room is proA'ided Avhich serves also advantageously for various kinds of conferences and gatherings. During the period beginning with 1907 the Merchants and Manufacturers Association absorbed the Retail Merchants Association Avhich had been in existence for several years. The Citizens Business League, which has con cerned itself mainly, with securing conventions and with city publicity AA'as also amalgamated with the association. The league had been originally brought into life by the hotel men and brought to a high stage of efficiency by Richard B. Watrous. A charities endorsement bureau AA'hich had been conducted by E. C. Mattison as a private enterprise Avas absorbed by the association. When the drive for the larger membership Avas completed the organiza tion changed its name from the Alerchants and Alanufacturers Association to Alilwaukee Association of Commerce. This change Avas largely due to the fact that the older name was somewhat restricted. There had now come into the organization many members who could not be classed either as merchants or manufacturers. Besides, the word "commerce" in its broader interpretation seemed better suited to the aims and purposes of the association. Here it should be added that the so-called commerce bodies throughout the United States haA'e Avidened their scope from purely business promotional purposes and included efforts in ch'ic advancement as Avell. The Association of Commerce had also broadened its scope and function Avhereby it concerned itself with both the economic and civic welfare of the community, on the established theory that the tAvo are intimately interAvoven and that primarily a city must be a good place to live in before it can become a good place in Avhich to prosper in a material sense. During the period mentioned the association established a traffic bureau, Avith a competent transportation man in charge AA'hich rendered a valuable service to the shippers. A convention bureau Avas also created and the effi ciency of that body AA-as demonstrated in the increased number of conven tions secured since then for the city each year. The establishment of a credit bureau Avas also deemed an achievement. This bureau provided thousands of credit ratings to the local retail merchants and has since become an ijidis- pensable agency in securing stability and regularity in retail credit trans actions. The endorsement bureau, too, rendered a A-aluable service not only in eliminating Avasteful and fraudulent charity solicitations but also in aiding GRAND AVENUE WEST FROM BRIDGE THE MILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 393 worthy charity institutions towards more adequate support. The scope of the bureau has in recent years been enlarged in that the subject of advertis ing solicitations receive attention. On the whole the bureau has saved the community thousands of dollars annually in protecting it against unworthy solicitations. In 1918 the association began to concern itself with foreign trade promo tion. While no regular bureau was created committees served each year in disseminating foreign trade information. The committee also issued a Spanish edition of Civics and Commerce, the association's house organ, in which a complete list of the manufacturers of the city producing exportable articles, is given. This publication was widely circulated in Spanish-speaking coun tries. The association has always given careful attention to legislative matters. A committee representative of the various industrial and commercial inter ests has during each session of the State Legislature examined the bills and joint resolutions that have come under consideration. The watchful care given here has also been extended to measures affecting the professional and educational interests. The position of the organization has frequently been misunderstood and misinterpreted. While the policy of its legislative committee has been to protect the business interests of the state against oppressive regulatory laws, it has also supported measures designed to promote the social, educational and civic welfare of the state. It has always supported the educational en deavors of the city and state in a loyal manner. In local school matters the association has always taken a progressive attitude. Among the things worthy of mention is its leadership in establish ing the trade schoool idea and securing the legislation therefor. It also secured the abolition of the vertical system of penmanship in the public schools a few years ago. The Annual Merchants' Trips. — The first trade excursion was taken in 1878, covering a week beginning with June 17th, when a body of 108 Alil waukeeans, mainly business men, visited a number of Wisconsin and Minne sota cities. The party also included Gen. E. W. Hincks, of the Soldiers Home, Judge James G. Jenkins, Mayor John Black, Postmaster Henry C. Payne, Judge J. A. Mallory, Gen. C. S. Hamilton and Rev. Dr. John Fulton. Among the prominent business men of that day who went on the trip to spread the city's fame were T. A. Chapman, S. S. Merrill, Edward P. Allis, Henry L. Palmer, Benj. M. Weil, Charles G. Starck, H. N. Hempstead, Edward Ascher- mann, Bernard Goldsmith, W. S. Candee, Henry Niedecken and many others. They were accompanied by Bach's band. Speeches, extolling the merits of Milwaukee as a trade center and as a promising American metropolis were made in every town visited. Doctor Fulton was the most popular orator of the first trip. Some years later the merchants' trips became an annual affair. Over five hundred cities, towns and villages have since been visited, thousands of peo ple have been told of the beauties and the natural advantages of Milwaukee, and of its manufacturing and commercial interests. Millions of souvenirs 394 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE and pieces of advertising matter have been distributed throughout the west ern and northern territory. For the period beginning with the year 1900 Franklin P. Blumenfeld served as the genius and guiding spirit of these trade extension journeys. Another business man Avho Avon distinction as a promoter of the jobbers' and AA-holesalers' interests AA-as John L. Klingler AA'hose energetic leadership AA-as generally recognized. The thorough manner in AA'hich these remarkable trade extension trips have been established, the plan of operation and their purpose may be noted by the folloAving study prepared by the association. The purpose and value of the annual trade trips and their management may be analyzed as folloAvs : The larger commercial centers of the Aliddle West have in recent years engaged to a considerable extent in so-called trade excursions or merchants' trips. The jobbers and wholesalers of AIihvaukej Avere among the first to engage in such trips and for a time no city sent out a larger number of trade promoters or managed such trips AA'ith greater success. Here it should also be said that these excursions Avere undertaken only by the class of cities to Avhich Alihvaukee belongs. The larger cities, such as Chicago, and the smaller cities such as Des Moines, Sioux City, Aberdeen, etc., did not engage in them until Avithin recent years. Thus, it may be sa^d that their value, or at least, their popularity, is estab lished. But, it may also be Avell to analyze more closely just AA'herein and to Avhat extent the trade excursions are beneficial to the business houses that engage in them and to the city that promotes them. The benefits or ad- A-antages derived from them may be summarized as f oIIoavs : First : They promote the spirit of friendship among those avIio participate in merchants' trips. Business men are afforded an opportunity to become more intimately acquainted AA'ith their competitors, learn to appreciate one another as man against man, AA'ith the tendency to substitute wholesome com petition for unfriendly rh-alry. Second: The members or managers of a business firm Avho participate in such trips have an opportunity. fa) To meet their customers in person, Avhich is usually appreciated and tends to strengthen the business relations existing betAveen the firms and their customers. (b) These trips are apt to prompt immediate orders or pave the Avay for future orders. Frequently a sufficient number of orders is secured by busi ness men, the profits upon Avhich cover the cost of several trips. (c) The visiting merchant is afforded an opportunity to see his customer in his home environments and under conditions Avhich furnish an aiiSAver to the questions : "Is this a careful business man? Has he a good store, centrally located? Does he keep his stock in good condition?" In the adjustment of credits it is important to knoAv something about the customer's methods of doing business and the reputation he has at home. Third: Affording an opportunity to those who have no trade in the region visited, to study its bus;ness possibilities. It has frequently developed that business houses have found it to their advantage to place salesmen in a field THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 395 after A'isiting the same, that had before such visit seemed unpromising. Thus. many neAv trade accounts have followed as the result of these merchants' trips. Fourth : A distinctive gain is made for the city that engages in these trade trips. If the firms and individuals engaging in them did not derive an immediate benefit there is still an advertising value which goes to the city. It adds a prestige to such city Avhich could be gained in no other Avay. From the Standpoint of the Cities Visited. — Experience has taught that the expressions of good Avill and friendship showered upon the Mihvaukeeans all along the routes traA'eled have been of the most sincere and cordial character The personal expressions as Avell as the numerous speeches made, taken in their entirety, have revealed the elements of genuine hospitality, geniality and good- fellowship. AVhile the attitude of the smaller centers of population is not entirely unselfish in character there is usually a reciprocal spirit AA'hich forms an important stimulus to strengthened business relations. The basis for the friendly attitude on the part of the smaller toAvn is usually found in the f olloAving : First: A local pride in the thought that an important merchants' excur sion train honors the toAvn Avith a visit. Such events are comparatively rare. Second : A satisfaction in being afforded an opportunity to point out the home toAA-n's achievements and possessions. Whether the local commercial or industrial or institutional interests are large or small the resident citizen is ahvays proud to dwell upon them. Third: The authorities usually recognize the fact that hospitality is a virtue which applies to communit'es as Avell as to individuals and that hos pitality manifested on occasions of this kind denotes also the enterprise and public spirit of a people. Fourth: That trade relations betAveen the larger and smaller cities are reciprocal; that the products of the farm Avhich maintain the small city must find their ultimate outlet for consumption in the larger centers of population : that the manufactured article of the large city is in turn essential to the life. activities and comforts of the farm and the small city. Fifth: That, in other states the element of fr endship is ahvays strength ened by the men AA'ho claim their birth place in Wisconsin ; and in this state by the men Avho have relatives and friends in Mihvaukee or who at some time in their lives res'ded in this city. Thus, the social element becomes a factor in the courtesies Avhich are extended to the visiting merchants. Attitude of the Visiting Merchants. — The responses usually made by th? executive officers and members of the Association of Commerce may be summed up in the folloAA'ing thoughts and expressions : First : That commerce knows no limitations ; that state lines are created for purposes of government only; that an interstate commerce is consistent Avith the American idea and conducive to the Avelfare and prosper'ty of the whole country ; that Ave are one people, under one flag, Avith one and the same destiny. Second : That the progressive merchant of the large city believes in the integrity, mission and purposes of the smaller units of population; that the j.BROWN, Photo- 33 WELLS OFFICE BUILDING Corner AVisconsin and Milwaukee streets THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COMMERCE 397 smallest village alike with the greatest metropol's performs a function in the economic, civic, educational and moral welfare of the nation. Third: That, while the price list, quality of goods, taste and personal preference are leading factors in trade, the element of personal contact and friendship cannot be ignored or oA-erlooked. Fourth: That honesty and integrity are a permanent and self -accruing asset in business and that the Alilwaukee merchants come Avith honorable motives, with clean hands and clean intentions. Fifth: That commercial and industrial Alilwaukee means to compete aggressively Avith other markets ; to apply enterprise, energy and industry in developing its possibilities. Sixth: To tell the world Avhat Alilwaukee is, what it has, and Avhat it stands for; to tell of its natural adA-antages, its geographical location; its commercial and industrial achieAements, its hopes, its aspirations and its future. Administration and Management. — The trade excursions heretofore under taken by the Alilwaukee Association of Commerce haA'e been uniformly suc cessful in the ends and purposes Avhich they have aimed to serve, namely to promote and strengthen the business relations between Alihvaukee and the outside world. They haA'e also been conducted upon a self-sustaining basis. The expense has been almost wholly borne by those who participated in them. In order, however, that the greatest degree of service be attained in point of participation, in the selection of an itinerary, in securing a reasonable rate of per capita cost, in securing an efficient train serAnce,, in prompting a cordial reception and in attaining favorable publicity in the towns to be visited, the merchants' trips are planned with discriminate care months in adA'ance and with a supervisory care on the part of the executive officers and the board of directors. Alore especially must this be done if the trips are to be made self-sustaining in point of eost. The committees entrusted with the immediate and detail arrangements are apt to become engrossed in certain phases of the trip and lose sight of the larger problems involved and the ultimate outcome of the financial end of the project. Thus, action AA'hich shall be timely enough so as to make the veto power of the board effective and practical both as to the itinerary and the cost involved, should be recommended. The following suggestions have been observed : First: That, all trips are planned with a view of making them self-sus taining in point of cost. Second: That the jobbers' committee plan its itinerary during the month of January of each year for the trade excursion to be undertaken during the month of June following, and that a list of probable participants be prepared and acceptances be secured as early as possible. Third: That the jobbers' committee present to the board of directors at their meeting held in February a report on the next merchants' trip, the itinerary and date for same, the number of prospective participants, the ar rangements for transportation, specifying cost for mileage, meals and sleep- VIEW OF MILWAUKEE, LOOKING SOUTHWEST FROM THE OLD COURTHOUSE THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 399 mg car service, accompanied by estimates as to the total receipts and expendi tures involved. Relation between Civics and Commerce. — In fixing the status of the modern commerce body in its relation to local government and to the economic progress of- the community, William George Bruce has defined its scope, AA'hich defini tion has been accepted throughout the United States. It embodies the folloAv- ing: ' ' 1. All conditions making for the health and comfort and the educational and moral progress of the people, in themselves wield a wholesome influence upon the material advancement of the community. Industry and commercs gain in effic.ency and in ethical standards. Community power, prestige and prosperity find their best impulse in a constituency that is morally and physi cally sound. "2. The commercial organization must assume an advisory and coopera tive attitude towards the local governmental factors. It must primarily recognize the powers, duties and prerogatives conferred by law upon those entrusted Avith the legislative and administrative branches of government. It must speak only from the standpoint of the private citizen who acts in a collective capacity, who is concerned in wise expenditure of publ.c funds, in the introduction of laudable innovation, and in the upholding of acceptable standards. "3. A commercial organization must confine its efforts to principles ami policies involved in local government rather than to persons and parties. It cannot consistently engage in any activity which can be construed into a partisanship between candidates and political parties. Here is the danger line. Political parties have their adherents; candidates have their friends. Both adherents and friends may be members of the commercial organization. To exert partisanship here means to invade the field of practical politics and the domain of opposing political parties and organizations. Among these, divi sion and contest are the order of the clay. Such invasion, therefore, leads to a sea of disruption and sends the commercial ships upon the rocks where it Avill surely be wrecked and destroyed. The member of a commercial organization may, in his individual capacity, support or oppose men and parties. That is his privilege and his duty as a citizen. But, the commercial organization, as such, cannot engage in political campaigns without exposing itself to the danger of disruption and extinction. Nor is it wise for the executive officers of an organization, the president or secretary, to publicly champion the cause of candidates or parties. "4. The line of demarkation between civic activities and political activ ities, drawn by commercial bodies, must lie someAvhere between ante-election campaigning and post-election cooperation, between selfish partisanship and unselfish non-partisanship, between party preferment and community progress and welfare. Where the partisan efforts of the political organization end, or ought to end, namely, on election day, the efforts of the non-partisan com mercial organization ought to begin. The local administration, in attempting to carry out laudable measures and in seeking to conduct public affairs with economy and efficiency, is entitled to the support of every loyal citizen. Per- 400 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE sonal and party preferences must yield where the Avelfare of an entire com munity is involved. What applies to the duties of the individual citizen applies, in a larger degree, to the collective citizen, as exemplified in the modern commercial organization. It must stand in a helpful attitude toAvards the public servant, and the government he represents, focus public attention in the direction of desirable ends and purposes, crystallize public opinion in their behalf, and support policies in municipal housekeeping that are sound and acceptable, and oppose those that are unsound and umvise. "5. Among the civic promotional labors coming legitimately within the proA'ince of commercial bodies, are those relating to the educational, sanitary, Avelfare and recreational conditions of the community. A commercial organ ization must not attempt, as is frequently done, to duplicate a service already Avell performed by the local government. Such activity is likely to prove meddlesome and a waste of time and energy. Local conditions must determine Avhere effort is most needed. In some communities the educational factors are lax, in others the sanitary conditions are weak, the traffic regulations are antiquated, etc., requiring a wholesome public sentiment towards correction and strengthening. "6. The line of demarkation between commercial and civic affairs places payroll and profit on one side, and physical and moral Avellbeing of the com munity on the other. On the assumption that all the nobler ends and pur poses of life are predicated upon material progress of a people, it logically follows that profit and payroll must lay the foundation for that civic and social progress Avhich is to folloAv. Or better still, economic and civic progress must go hand in hand. "7. The exact extent to which commercial success and progress is de pendent upon good government cannot be definitely fixed in dollar marks or in financial statements. Commerce must have a clear roadAvay in which to perform all its legitimate functions. Good government means to afford that freedom of action and that protection to life and property AA'hich enables the merchant, the manufacturer, the mechanic and the professional man to per form his part of the world's work. "8. A progressive government, be it national, state or local, invites the experience and judgment of a thoughtful and honorable constituency on pend ing measures, policies and departures. A modern commercial organization stands ready to serve as the medium through which the judgment and the conclusions of the citizenship are gathered, collated and submitted to the goA'ernment. "9. It is the duty of the commercial organization, that aims to serve the civic welfare of the community, to submit such facts, figures and arguments, as are not already at the command of the public authorities, for or against pending policies and measures. An attitude of open protest can be engaged in only Avhen palpable or gross misgovernment is in prospect, and as a last resort. "10. The modern commercial organization does not hesitate to express itself for or against local, state and national legislation, involving the eco nomic or civic progress of the several units mentioned. But, many con- THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 401 troversial questions, upon which the membership may be seriously divided, must be ignored. In some organizations, for instance, it Avould be uiiAvise to take a position on questions relating to woman's suffrage, prohibition, an eight-hour Avork day, etc., AA'hile in others it would be feasible to do so. Here an organization must, in a measure, be guided by a considerable fraction of that membership, if it is to maintain its identity and continued usefulness. "11. There is no purely commercial or selfish basis upon which a com mercial organization can consistently urge its members to civic activity. On the accepted basis that good citizenship implies an active interest in civic progress, and that good government does contribute to the material advance ment of the community, the commercial organization can foster an active interest in all that Avill make for better life and Irving. To foster such inter est purely from the standpoint of commercial gain, without striving also for the blessings which civic progress confers, would be umvorthy of the American business man." Competition versus Rivalry in Business. — In striving for higher business standards the Association of Commerce enunciated the folloAving: "One of the main purposes of organization for the promotion of trade and commerce should lie in the substitution of wholesome competition for ruinous rivalry, and thus ensure stability as well as security and honor in business enterprise. Those seeking mutual advancement for the seller must also recognize the interests of the buyer. The consumer has rights which the producer and dealer must respect. The adjustment must be found in honest competition, not in dishonest rivalry. The objects therefore which should guide organization for the mutual adA-ancement of those engaged in trade and commerce must include certain fundamental considerations. "Those identified with a calling or an interest should primarily seek to dignify the same. Every member should become inspired Avith the ambition to direct his activities upon standards that will stimulate pride and command the respect of his fellowmen; to strive for higher aims and purposes. Every man may contribute something, by word or deed, to the general advancement of society. The work of the blacksmith is no less honorable than that of the banker if he will but make it so ; the vocation of the mechanic as well as that of the merchant, be it salesman or savant, tailor or tutor — all, in their own spheres, may attain an honorable usefulness. "The abuses which from time to time creep into our commercial life must be corrected. A checking influence is Avholesome in every calling. In their contest for gain individuals are apt to lapse into errors and abuses which may be selfishly advantageous but extremely harmful to the many. These are best eliminated by pointing them out and thus making them unpopular. Discus sion av.11 tend to sift the desirable from the undesirable, the worthy from the unworthy. "The effort for mutual advancement is laudable. Here it is not meant the formulation of combinations designed to control prices or restrain trade. These are to be discountenanced. But, it is held that methods and means may be standardized so as to insure a higher degree of efficiency and business in tegrity. Vol. 1—2 6 THE MAJESTIC BUILDING Grand Avenne, near Third Street THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 403 "Cordial relations should be fostered. The cloven footed competitor is usually the man who is personally unknoAATi to us. A closer acquaintance Avith him frequently reveals a genial human being. The social contact betAveen competitor and competitor has the tendency to change hatred into friendship and transform bitter rivalry into fair competition." An Industrial Exposition. — The most comprehensive exposition of Alilwau- kee-made products ever presented in the city was made under the auspices of the Association of Commerce on September 2-12, 1911, in commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the organization. The association records contain the folloAA'ing interesting description of this remarkable demonstration of the production ability of the city. The inception of the exposition was prompted by a desire to emphasize in some dignified and at the same time useful manner, the fiftieth annh-ersary of the association. Inquiry as to the aA'erage life of commercial bodies had revealed the fact that the attainment of a half century mark in their ex'stence is indeed rare. FeAv of the commercial organizations of the leading cities of the country can point to a record that will compare in point of age and useful service with that of the Aler chants and Alanufacturers Association. But, if the service rendered had been nominal in character the longeA-ity of the association in itself must be considered unique as Avell as unusual. The fact, howeA-er, that the association has an honorable record, has had from time to time identified with its activities the best men which this community has produced, and has certain distincthe achievements to its credit, rendered the anniversary period more important and significant. Sentiment and Practicability. — It therefore remained for the organization to turn a matter of sentiment into a useful reality and to express in some tangible form the achievement of a given period in the history of the city. Upon approaching the subject of a celebration that should express in an appropriate manner the successful conclusion- of an important period in the flight of time, it soon developed that the projectors were not dealing merely with the anniversary of an association but the most important period in the history of the city. The thought soon grew that during the past half century the city had grown from a modest village into a great metropolis, an unimportant com munity to an important, thrifty and progressive population unit. Those in charge awakened to the realization that years of intelligent toil of enterpr se and energy had Avrought Avonders and that the community had achievements to its credit of AA'hich any American city might Avell be proud. The exposition idea assumed a new phase and met AA'ith the enthusiastic approval of both press and public. It Avas soon realized that Avhile the com mercial spirit may have been the primary incentive in the display of the home products, that the reneAved civic pride which they aroused in the community and the educational influences AA'hich they excited, had a specific value. It brought the c'tizenship to an appreciation of itself and its mission and excited an enthusiasm in, and ambition for the future. An Important Anniversary ; — That the anniversary period of the associa tion could not be passed over in silence and inactivity avms apparent, but that THE MILWAUKEE CLUB THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 405 there Avere several ways of giving emphasis to the event was equally clear. That the exposition was the best means, hoAvever, of giving useful expression to the event may now no longer be questioned. With a building like the Auditorium, the installation of an exposition of a certain scope was not only feasible but eminently practical. The building which was conceived and brought into realization by the association, con templated the housing of industrial exhibits as well as to serve other public functions. It remained, therefore, to plan a series of exhibits AA'hich should prove a fair index of Alilwaukee 's industrial importance and at the same time accom modate them to the facilities at command. The earlier plans AA'hich were under consideration contemplated a much larger exhibit, involved a heavy administration expense in the employment . of exposition experts and pro vided for an undertaking which increased the financial risk almost tenfold. Experience would now indicate that the larger scheme could not have been carried out without inviting failure and incurring a financial loss. The condi tions in the manufacturing field have not during the past year (1911) been so promising as to prompt general support among the manufacturers of the city. The exposition, therefore, Avas confined to the space now afforded by the Auditorium, and all plans for additional buildings were discarded. The estimate of expense was held, or aimed to be held, within the sum realized from the sale of exhibit space, thus guarding against a deficit and placing the pro ject upon a sound financial basis. Administration of the Exposition The experience gained by other cities in the planning and management of industrial expositions was applied and the services of the executive officers and members of the association Avere drawn into active service. In this manner the employment of expensive expert serv ices was avoided and the financial risk of the enterprise held to a minimum. The association employed no solicitops and paid no commissions. The addi tional help which was employed served in the administrative labors only. Air. A. G. Nicoud, the assistant manager of the Auditorium, who was em ployed as manager of the exposition, gave the greater part of his time to the work of soliciting of exhibit space and in directing the installation labors. Secretary Bruce assumed the general direction of the exposition and the pre paratory labors involved in the project. Thus the administration of the exposition Avas at all times kept upon a self-sustaining basis. At no time were the funds of the association drawn upon. The part payments made upon the exhibit space covered the current administration expenses, Avhile the final payments almost met the entire cost of installation. The receipts at the box office met the remainder of the expense and provided the surplus. The exposition attracted nearly eighty-five thou sand visitors and yielded a net return of over $11,000 into the treasury of the associat'on. Plan of Installation. — In approaching the subject of a plan for the installa tion of the exhibits it was proposed to provide a general classification of in dustries and then a special grouping of products. While the management 406 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE succeeded in preserving the general classificat'on, it failed in securing the grouping of exhibits in the manner desired. It Avas found that in some in stances certain manufacturers objected to becoming exhibit neighbors to their competitors. Here concessions and compromises had to be made in order to get the exhibits. The grand divisions Avere made Avith a due regard to the industries Avhich lead and AA'hich are characteristic of Mihvaukee. Thus Avas pro vided a Mechanics Arts section, a Leather and Garment section, a Brewing section and a Food Products section. While these enabled classification of all the exhibits it Avas impossible in all instances to avoid inconsistencies. But, as already stated, these inconsistencies were in a large measure unavoid able inasmuch as expediency and prompt action Avere just then more im portant than exacting rules. The Educational Exhibits. — Some weeks before the exposition opened, negotiations Avere begun Avith the school authorities regarding an educa tional exhibit. The School Board Avas notified that the policy of the management aimed to emphasize the educational phases of the Exposition, and that in this direction the cooperation of that body Avas sought. The board Avas not only requested to place classes in manual training and domestic science, but also to provide an arrangement by AA'hich the pupils of the upper grades and the high schools could visit the Exposition accompanied by their teachers during the regular school hours. The re quest was favorably received by the board and instructions gh'en to install classes from the elementary to the advanced, illustrating the work done by the schools in the branches named. To these classes Avere added de partments from the School of Trades covering carpentry and joinery as well as plumbing and some machinery Avork. Thus, nearly one hundred and fifty pupils Avere employed in class Avork each day. During the after noon pupils if accompanied by their teachers, Avere admitted regardless of age at an admission price of 10 cents. The regular price of admission for adults and for children over the age- of ten Avas 25 cents. The number of children avIio visited the exposition Avarrants the state ment that educational purposes of the enterprise Avere fully met. In this connection it should be added that Superintendent Pearse and the School Board readily appreciated the value of the exhibits as an educational factor, and lent their hearty cooperation toAvards utilizing the same. Engelmann Hall, in Avhich the several classes Avere located AA'as croAvded AA'ith visitors during the hours of 2 to 4 P. AI. and from 7 to 9 P. AI., indi cating that the public Avas interested in this phase of the exposition. The exhibitors Avere not only liberal in the distributing of souvenirs among the children avIio came but they also aimed to explain to them the opera tions of their machinery and the utility of their products. Advertising and Prizes.— The advertising for the exposition Avas placed in the hands of a committee of experts connected Avith prominent business concerns of the city and appointed by the Advertiser's Club of the city. The advertising in the main consisted of 10,000 hangers or posters, and display space in the dailies and Aveeklies throughout the state. THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 407 One of the features adopted by the committee for the purpose of stim ulating attendance Avas the aAvard of nearly four hundred prizes consisting of A-arious articles from a piano to a box of socks and from a residence furnace to a box of candy. These prizes Avere donated by the retail mer chants. The adA'ertising given the prizes AA-as the only remuneration re ceived by the merchants. This adA'ertising consisted of a display of the prizes in the most prominent show Avindows of the city. AVhile this promise Avas carried out it Avas expected also that suitable neAvspaper publicity be given in Avhich the prizes and their donors Avere to be named in the pub lication of the winning numbers. In th's effort the committee met Avith a decided disappointment ; the federal government notified the press that all mention of prizes Avould be contrary to the laws and must be omitted. The result was that many of the prizes draAvn were not called for because the AA'inner had no means of knowing the result except as announced at the Auditorium. A prize of $100 offered for the best poster design Avas awarded to Gus Klau of the firm of Klau and ATan Pietersom. The advertising com mittee also instituted a Slogan contest. For a Aveek each day five single dollar prizes Avere awarded for the best slogans and on the last day a $25 prize Avas awarded for the best slogan submitted during the entire Aveek. The slogan, "Name it, Alilwaukee makes it," submitted by S. A. Alinturn of West Allis was aAvarded the first prize. A Promotional Factor. — It may justly be said that, in providing for this exposition, the association added materially to its laurels as a promotional and useful influence in the community. Not only Avas the exposition the first in which Alihvaukee-macle products Avere exclusively sIioavii but in point of A'ariety of products, artistic and dignified installations, and a rep resentation characteristic of the city as a manufacturing center, the project was an unqualified success. At no time in the history of the city haA'e its products been shoAvn in a more complete or in a more auspicious manner. The fitness, too, of celebrating the association's fiftieth anniversary in an exposition has been demonstrated. If expositions possess any value, and experience has taught that they do, Alilwaukee has been benefited commercially as well as educationally. The demand for Alihvaukee-made products Avas stimuated and the youth of the community received a valuable and lasting lesson in the importance of Avell directed labor and its results and achievements. The civic pride of the community was stirred Avith a reneAved enthusiasm in the achieve ments of a brilliant past and an ambition for a prosperous future. Upholding Law and Order. — The association has on several occasions asserted its influence in the direction of preserving the tranquility and peace of the community. During a serious strike trouble it issued the fol- loAving pronunciamento to the mayor and the public: "Recent events in the community reA'eal a tendency AA'hich demands the earnest consideration of the great body of thoughtful citizens as Avell as the attention of the chief executive. The fact that expressions haA'e recently gained currency THE CALUMET CLUB THE" WISCONSIN CLUB (Formerly known as the Dentselier Club) THE AIILWAUKEE ASSOCIATION OF COAIAIERCE 409 which tend to disturb the peace and good order of the community and seriously impair its prosperity and stability, is to be deplored. "We are not unmindful of the fact that differences necessarily arise between employer and employe and that there are rights and equities on both sides. We believe that labor has rights AA'hich capital must respect and that organization is a legitimate Aveapon, both defensive and offensh'e, in compelling those rights. But, in reaching adjustments, sane judgment and peaceful methods should and must be employed. LaAv and order must be maintained and life and property must be protected. "Alilwaukee is a manufacturing center. Its material stability and prosperity must be derived through the product of the factory which is sold to the four quarters of the Avorld. The commercial, financial and shipping interests are largely dependent upon the industrial interests. The factory pay roll is the very life and soul of Alilwaukee 's material existence. The more employment can be given and the more money can be distributed in wages each week the more prosperity will come into the thousands of Alilwaukee homes. "It cannot be denied that a depression exists and has rested during the past year upon many of Alilwaukee 's important industries. In some of these the losses have been heavy. The number of unemployed is already distressingly large. Alanufacturers are straining every nerve to improve conditions, secure Avhat orders they can and keep their plants in full op eration and thus afford more employment. "The reports of public utterances of an inflammatory character which are heralded to the world tend to impair the credit and standing of the city. While they cause unrest at home they are also destructive of the confidence which prompts the sale of our municipal bonds and the bringing of out side capital into the city for investment. "The destruction of local property is infinitesimal as compared with the losses which the community sustains in being deprived of the patronage and good will of the country at large. And here it should not be forgotten that any losses so sustained Avill not only fall upon the manufacturers but upon the working people as well. A diminished demand for the prod ucts of our factories will reduce the demand for labor and thus the losses will have to be borne by both employer and employe. This statement needs no elaborate explanation. It speaks for itself. "In discussing thus frankly a condition as Avell as a groAVing tendency, which if permitted to continue unchecked will lead to catastrophe and ruin, Ave are not attempting to sound an alarm. We are merely in a rational manner directing the public mind to a dangerous tendency. "It is to the interest of all, irrespective of business or calling, that laAv and order be maintained and that those AA'ho menace life and property be dealt with accordingly. In vieAV of the sentiment above expressed, be it RESOLVED, That, we the Directors of the Merchants and Manu facturers Association strongly condemn all public expressions designed to incite class hatred and to destroy respect for laAv and order ; that we demand the punishment of those who threaten the safety of their fellow- &"¦¦•¦ ¦ ^^^^^-^m^ MAIN ARENA OF THE MILWAUKEE AUDITORIUM Seating capacity, 8,008. Exhibit space, 39,433 square feet THE AIILWAUKEE AUDITORIUM 429 Governmg Board of eleven members, fiA'e chosen by the corporation and six consisting of government officials. The Auditorium Company is represented in the GoA-erning Board by five directors, and the municipality by six representatives, namely, the mayor, city treasurer, city attorney, comptroller and the presidents of the library and museum boards. The five directors of the company are chosen by a vote of the stockholders, one being chosen each year to serve for a term of five years. The first so-called Auditorium Committee Avas appointed July 21, 1905, by President Fred W. Sivyer of the Alerchants and Manufacturers Association, consisting of the f olloAving gentlemen : E. A. AVadhams, chairman ; Wm. N. Fitzgerald, DaA'id S. Rose, John P. Murphy, Ah'in P. Kletzsch, Henry C. Schranck, Sherburn AI. Becker, EdAvard G. Pratt, B. G. EllsAvorth, Chas. L. Blanchard, Arthur Koenig, Chas. E. Sammond, Col. AV. J. Boyle, Fred AV. Rogers and Wm. Geo. Bruce. The effort to secure subscriptions AA'as undertaken at once and pursued for a time AA'ith considerable energy. The plan of operations Avas in the main confined to the leading merchants and manufacturers and those generally known as public-spirited citizens. Here it developed that the plan AA'as too limited in scope in that it confined itself largely to a class of men AA'ho are usually called upon for financial aid of a public character. The response from this source was as generous as could be expected, but it Avas far from the ends yet to be attained. When the sum of $72,250 was reached, it Avas found that the Avork of soliciting became more difficult from day to day and that in order to complete the fund of $250,000, future operations must assume a AA'ider scope. Chairman Wadham's business engagements called h;m from the city quite frequently and prevented his giving the required time to the Auditorium project, and for some months there was a complete cessation of the campaign labors. Early in the year of 1906, a reorganization of the committee Avas deemed expedient and Wm. N. Fitzgerald, then president of the Merchants and Manu facturers Association, appointed the folloAving citizens to constitute the neAv Auditorium Committee: Alvin P. Kletzsch, chairman; Oliver C. Fuller, Ed ward A. Uhrig, Frank K. Espenhain, B. G. Ellsworth, E. A. Conrad, Chas. E. Sammond, Albert J. Lindemann, Robert J. Miller, E. A. Wadhams, Mayor S. AI. Becker, Wm. Geo. Bruce, Frank N. Snell, Emil H. Ott, David C. OAven, August S. Lindemann, Chas. A. Paeschke, John H. Puelicher, Otto J. Sch oenleber, Fred C. Fass, and Hugo Loewenbach. On November 14, 1906, the following were elected members of the Board of Directors of the Auditorium Company : Alvin P. Kletzsch for five years ; Wm. Geo. Bruce for four years; Oliver C. Fuller for three years; Charles E. Sammond for two years ; F. A. W. Kieckhef er for 'one year. The Auditorium Governing Board organized on January 2, 1907, with the following officers: President, Alvin P. Kletzsch ; vice president, F. A. W. Kieckhefer ; secretary, Wm. Geo. Bruce ; treasurer, Oliver C. Fuller. The first meeting of the Auditorium Governing Board was held January 2, 1907, when an organization was effected. Representing the city: Alayor ' S. AI. Becker, City Attorney John T. Kelly, City Comptroller Paul Bechtner, THE MILWAUKEE INDUSTRIAL EXPOSITION BUILDING Destroyed by fire Sunday afternoon, June 4, 1905 THE AIILWAUKEE AUDITORIUAI 431 City Treasurer AV H. Graebner, President Library Board J. AI. Pereles, Pres ident Museum Board Edwin AV. Windfelder; representing the Auditorium Company: Alvin P. Kletzsch, Wm. Geo. Bruce, Oliver C. Fuller, Chas. E. Sammond, and F. A. AV. Kieckhefer. Since then the folloAving have served as president of the Governing Board : Wm. George Bruce, Charles E. Sammond, Otto J. Schoenleber and again Alvin P. Kletzsch. The Auditorium Governing Board. — The folloAving served as officers of the Auditorium Governing Board for the years named : 1907 : President, Alvin P. Kletzsch ; vice president, F. A. W. Kieckhefer ; secretary, William George Bruce ; treasurer, Oliver C. Fuller. 1908 : President and vice president, same ; secretary, A. AI. Gawin ; treas urer, Y. J. Schoenecker, Jr. 1909 : All officers same as previous year. 1910 : President, William George Bruce ; vice president, Alvin P. Kletzsch ; secretary, Carl P. Dietz ; treasurer, Charles B. Whitnall. 1911 : All officers same as previous year. 1912: President, same; vice president, Charles E. Sammond; secretary, Louis AI. Kotecki ; treasurer, Joseph P. Carney. 1913 : All officers same as previous year. 1914 : President, Charles E. Sammond ; vice president, 0. J. Schoenleber ; secretary, Louis AI. Kotecki ; treasurer, Joseph P. Carney. 1915 : President, Otto J. Schoenleber ; vice president, Alvin P. Kletzsch ; other officers same as in 1914. 1916: Officers same as previous year, excepting treasurer, John I. Drew. 1917 : All officers same as previous year. 1918 : President, Alvin P. Kletzsch ; vice president, William George Bruce ; treasurer and secretary, same as previous year. 1919-1920-1921-1922 : Ail officers same as in 1918. Directors of the Auditorium Company — As already stated the directors of the Auditorium Company elected in 1907 were: William George Bruce, Oliver C. Fuller, F. W. A. Kieckhefer, Alvin P. Kletzsch, Charles E. Sammond. The personnel has remained the same through the several years except with the fol lowing changes: In the year 1913 Otto J. Schoenleber succeeded F. A. W. Kieckhefer. In 1915 Edward A. Uhrig succeeded Charles E. Sammond. City's Representation. — With the changes in the city government there came also changes in the representation on the governing body, as follows : 1907 : S. M. Becker, mayor ; John T. Kelly, city attorney ; Paul Bechtner, city comptroller ; William H. Graebner, city treasurer ; J. AI. Pereles, president library board ; Edw. W. Windfelder, president museum board. 1908 : David S. Rose, mayor ; John T. Kelly, city attorney ; A. M. Gawin, city comptroller ; V. J. Schoenecker, Jr., city treasurer ; J. M. Pereles, president library board; George A. West, president museum board. 1909 : Same as previous year. 1910 : Emil Seidel, mayor ; Daniel W. Hoan, city attorney ; C. B. Whitnall, city treasurer ; Carl P. Dietz, city comptroller ; J. M. Pereles, president library board ; George A. West, president museum board. 432 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE 1911 : All officers same with the following exceptions : J. G. Flanders, library board ; Robert Nunnemacher, museum board. 1912: G. A. Bading, mayor; Daniel AV. Hoan, city attorney; Joseph P. Carney, city treasurer; Louis AI. Kotecki, city comptroller; E. AV. Windfelder, president museum board ; J. G. Flanders, president library board. 1913-1914 and 1915 : All officers the same as 1912. 1916: Daniel W. Hoan, mayor; Clifton Williams, city attorney; John I. DreAV, city treasurer; Louis AI. Kotecki, city comptroller; E. W. Windfelder, president museum board ; William I. Greene, president library board. 1917 : All officers the same as previous year. 1918 ; All officers same excepting R. P. Wheeler, museum board; George C. Nuesse, library board. 1919: All officers same excepting William J. Kaumheimer, library board. 1920 : All officers same excepting William L. PieploAV, library board. 1921 : All officers same as previous year. 1922 : All officers same except George IT. West, library board. Joseph C. Grieb, avIio served as secretary of the original campa:gn commit tee, Avas in 1909 chosen the manager of the Auditorium, AA'hich office he has filled Avith remarkable ability ever since. The Auditorium project has also been fortunate in that it has ahvays en joyed the loyal support and cooperation of the city council, and the successh-e administrations Avhich have been represented on the goA'erning board since the establishment of the same. Nor has the dual form of OAvnership and adminis tration ever led to friction. The directors of the stock company and the city's representatives have ahvays Avorked together in harmony and for the best interests of the institution. There is one other factor Avhich deserves mention here, namely, the stockholders of the Auditorium Company. There are nearly three thousand of these, avIio subscribed in sums ranging from $10 to $10,000, and AA'ho haA'e regarded their subscriptions in the nature of contributions to the public welfare. No stockholder has ever demanded a cash dh-idend. EA-ery man and woman that has invested a dollar in the Auditorium enterprise has re garded the service AA'hich this remarkable public utility renders as the best dividend that could be exacted. When the enterprise Avas concehed and carried into realization the liberal ity and local patriotism Avere put to a splendid test. There Avere men Avho readily recognized the need of such a public utility; there were those avIio took the initiative in securing it; there Avere also those Avho undertook the burden of carrying the project to a successful completion; and finally there Avere those AA'ho stood ready to give such financial encouragement as the project required. But, better still is the attitude of the general public — subscribers and tax payers — avIio take a just pride in this model structure and avIio Avant the earnings reinvested in such improvements as will maintain the integrity of the structure and enable it to render the highest measure of service to the community. W. G. B. PART III GOVERNMENT, CITY AND COUNTY PARTICIPATION IN CIVIL AND WORLD WARS THE ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF ROOSEVELT Vol. 1—2 8 CHAPTER XXVIII THE AIUXICTPAL GOATERNAIENT *'_' ¦. "Traders had come and gonie," says Professor Laurence AI. Larson, "but no one seems to haA-e taken up a 'permanent abode in the Alilwaukee country before 1818. In that year Solomon Juneau came to take, charge of the fur trade and for the next fifteen years the log cabin of the Juneau family was the only evidence about the bay of an approaching civilization." By the year 1834 the population of Alihvaukee numbered about thirty souls, and in the folloAving year the arrival of immigrants rapidly increased the number. In 1836, "some sixty buildings were erected, many of them of goodly dimen sions, streets were graded, ferries established, officers of the law appointed, medical and agricultural societies formed, a courthouse and jail erected, and all in five short months," as stated in J. S. Buck's history. Rapid Growth of the Settlement. — The early settlers of Milwaukee who came in the '30s belieA'ed that a large city would grow up here. "Many eA'en thought," says Professor Larson, "that most of the commerce of the region Avest and south of Lake Alichigan would eventually center at this point. For a number of years it was a matter of speculation as to whether Chicago Avould ever become a dangerous rival ; and had it not been for the influence of the railways the final outcome in the race for local supremacy might have been someAvhat d'fferent. "It was felt in those early days that Milwaukee had greater possibilities in the way of a harbor than any other city on the lake. No great importance Avas attached to the bay — it is hardly more than a westward curve in the shore line — but the rivers were full of promise. Of these the larger is Alil- Avaukee River, a small stream less than a hundred miles in length, AA'hich at that time emptied into the bay a short distance below the point AA'here the shore begins to curve southeastward. For several miles of its loAver course it flows almost parallel to the lake shore, in places approaching it very near. "Within the limits of the present city the stream is about tAvo hundred and fifty feet Avide and of considerable depth. McLeod, who AA-rote a history of Wisconsin in 1846, states that it was then from fifteen to eighteen feet deep and navigable for three miles for the largest vessels on the lake; hoAvever, the winds and the Avaves had built up a sand bar at the rh'er-mouth Avhich virtually closed the stream to all but the smaller craft. About a mile and a quarter from its mouth the Alihvaukee is joined by a stream from the west, the Menomonee. These two rivers divide the region into three distinct sec tions; a narrow strip lying between the Milwaukee River and Lake Alichigan 435 THE CITY HALL AND MARKET SQUARE THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 437 known as the East Side ; the territory lying to the west of this river and north of the Menomonee called the West Side; and the country lying south of the Alenomonee Valley, or the South Side. At that time this division into sections was further emphasized by broad belts of marsh land that edged the rivers for several miles along their lower courses." Incorporation of the Town of Milwaukee. — In 1836, the year in which the Territory of Wisconsin was organized, Alilwaukee was merely a group of three small villages rather than one community. On the east side of the Milwaukee River the settlement which clustered around Juneau's old trading post was commonly known as " Juneautown, " while across the river to the west was "Kilbourntown," so named in honor of Byron Kilbourn who had first begun a settlement there; and south of the Menomonee River where Col. George H. AValker was the principal resident the settlement was known as "Walker's Point." From the beginning a feeling of hostility between these three settlements had grown up which resulted in some violence. However, in 1838, Juneau and Kilbourn harmonized their differences so far as to jointly petition the Territorial Legislature for a consolidation of their two villages into the "Town of Milwaukee," to be divided into an East and a West Ward. This was granted and later, in 1845, the town was enlarged by the addition of Walker's Point as a South Ward. Financial Troubles of the Town. — With the organization of the town a host of demands arose requiring the expenditure of money. There were streets to improve, schools, fire and police protection to provide for, ferries to be established and bridges to be built. The act of incorporation empowered the trustees to levy a small tax, but little could be done with the meager pro ceeds. Still the board bravely passed ordinances for necessary purposes which were either slow or impossible of accomplishment. The trustees made a loan of $15,000 in 1838 at ten per cent, which afforded some relief. Property OAvners — Solomon Juneau, Alorgan L. Martin and others — spent their own money in making improvements of a public character. Some help was de rived from a poll tax. In 1840, Air. Kilbourn built a bridge over the Menomo nee River, ' ' the first one built in Milwaukee. ' ' At the beginning of the year 1846, the settlement on the Milwaukee River was twelve years old. During the years which had elapsed great progress had been made ; a town of 10,000 people had grown up where stood a solitary log cabin only a few years before. "The population was scattered over three separate areas," says Professor Larson, "each of which was practically self- governing. There was no police department and no organized effort had been made to protect and preserve the public health. The fire department was a crude affair, the wards had provided something in the way of apparatus for fighting fires, but the municipality seems to have owned nothing. The school facilities were miserable ; the streets were generally unimproved. Thus far the village had built no bridges. The Federal Government had done some thing to improve the harbor, but the sand bar was again forming at the river mouth. As far as municipal activities were concerned matters were at a standstill. 438 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE "The citizens of Alilwaukee cannot be wholly blamed for this situation, nor can they be wholly excused," continues Professor Larson. "As a rule pioneers are not wealthy ; in a new country revenues from taxation are bound to be small, the shrinkage in land values that came with the panic of 1837 caused, of course, a corresponding shrinkage in the available taxes. The tax of 1838 AA'as only about one-fifth of that of the preceding year. "Moreover, the location was one that demanded vast expenditures. Where the down-toAvn section is at present there Avas a marsh in those days. In such a locality small expenditures would make an exceedingly small impression. It is also true that the limitations of the village charter were such that the trustees could undertake no extensive improvements. But, after all, if the leading citizens had not been so utterly lacking in foresight, and if sectional feeling had not been allowed to grow so strong and so arrogant, Milwaukee could have accomplished much more in those days than she did." At this point Professor Larson adds in a footnote that "it was said that Byron Kil bourn, when he laid out the streets on his side of the river, took care that the streets should not meet those planned by Air. Juneau on the east side." Milwaukee Incorporated as a City. — While Alorgan L. Alartin was a resi dent of Green Bay he explored the harbor facilities of Milwaukee, and in 1833 made a map of the small settlements there AA'hich he called "Mihvaukie." He entered into an agreement later in the same year with Juneau and Michael Dousman for its development. A sawmill Avas built in 1834, and settlers began to arrive. In the article on Milwaukee, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, it is said that "the east side was platted in 1835, and very soon afterAvard the plat of a settlement on the west side was also recorded, Byron Kilbourn being the chief projector and proprietor of the latter. The rival settlements, officially knoAA'n as Milwaukee East Side and Milwaukee West Side, bore the popular designa tions of 'Juneautown' and 'KilbourntoAvn. ' A third settlement, begun on the south side by George H. AValker and knoAvn as 'AValker Point,' Avas subse quently platted independently. "The rivalry betAveen the east and Avest sides was intense, the plats were so surveyed that the streets did not meet at the river, and there Avere bitter quarrels over the building of bridges. Alihvaukee County AA'as set off from Brown County in 1834, and in 1836 the establishment, of toAvnships AA'as authorized. Under this act the east, and west sides Avere independently incor porated in February, 1837. A realization that the continuation of independent and rival corporations retarded groAvth eventually led to a compromise by which the two were united as two wards of the same village in 1839, the autonomy of each being still recognized by an odd arrangement whereby each maintained practically independent management of its OAvn affairs and finances. Walker's point, the south side, Avas annexed as a third Avard in 1845, and in 1846 the three wards Avere incorporated as the City of Alilwaukee, of Avhich Solomon Juneau was elected first mayor." A charter for the incorporation of Alihvaukee as a city Avas obtained from the Territorial Legislature, January 31, 1846, more than two years before the State of Wisconsin was admitted to the Union. The charter incorporated an THE AIUNICIPAL GOArERNMENT 439 area of nearly eight square miles, its boundaries corresponding to the fol lowing outlines: North Avenue and Walnut Street on the north; Twenty- seventh Street on the west ; Greenfield AA'enue on the south ; and the shore of Lake Michigan on the east. This area Avas divided into five Avards : the old East Ward made up the First and Third wards ; on the Avest side were the Second and Fourth wards ; and Walker's Point became the Fifth Ward. The old plan of Avard autonomy was continued under the new charter. Each ward was made responsible for such debts as existed December 31, 1845, and must provide for later indebtedness incurred on account of expenditures to be made within its OAvn limits. Loans for the general improvements of the city Avere to be paid by those wards only, a majority of whose aldermen voted for such loans. It is clear that such a system would eventually result in confusion as indeed it did. Amendments to the charter and special acts authorized the aldermen of the wards "to levy special taxes for improvement of the streets, building wharves, dredging rh-ers, and to levy a general harbor tax; also to borrow money and issue ward bonds for street Avork, for building market houses, and to provide in various ways for building sidewalks, sewers and the like," says Professor Larson. All such work was supervised by the alder men in their own wards. County and Township Government. — In describing the provisions of the charter under which the City of Milwaukee was incorporated in 1846, Pro fessor L. M. Larson, in his "Financial and Administrative History of Alil waukee," says of the powers and duties of the aldermen, that in addition to the clauses in the charter already enumerated, "the aldermen also had a hand in the county government. Each ward Avas also a township and as such was governed by its three aldermen acting as tOAvnship supervisors. One of the three was chosen chairman, and represented the ward in the county board." In a footnote it is added that at the time the history Avas written (1908), "Each ward is still a township, but a supervisor specially chosen represents it in the county board; the ward has no toAvn government." . Continuing our quotation from Larson's history the author says, "The charter also provided that each Avard should be a school district, the alder men acting as school commissioners. But the aldermen soon lost this distinc tion. By the law of February 3, 1846, a board of school commissioners Avas created, composed of three commissioners from each ward appointed for three years by the mayor and council. To this board the complete management of the school system was entrusted, though in the matter of finance it -Avas some what dependent on the council." Municipal Revenues. — The chief dependence of the city for revenue had to be upon some form of direct taxation, for in the absence of a well organized police department but little revenue could be collected from fines. "A wave of temperance sentiment," says Larson, "was just then sweeping over the state which threatened to deprive the city of all income from licenses issued to liquor dealers. In 1853 the state by referendum actually declared for pro- THE OLD COURTHOUSE AND JAIL IN THE EARLY '60s THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 441 hibition, but the vote was taken merely to determine public sentiment, and had no legal effect. Milwaukee opposed prohibition." Assessments made as the basis for general taxation were as a rule loose and unsystematic, and often did not bear much relation to actual values in those early years of the newly incorporated city. In 1846, the assessed valua tion was $1,428,370, or $142 per capita. Five years later the assessor reported $1,995,616, or $99 per capita. Five years later still (1856) the per capita valuation was only $80 ; but in 1870, after a determined effort had been made to enforce the assessment laws it rose to $650 per capita, showing the effect of more thoroughgoing methods of making assessments. Naturally the city finances benefited greatly by such reforms with the result that its credit stood higher and its ability to enter upon and carry out much needed improA'ements was much increased. In 1849, the "ward funds" were abolished and the accounts transferred to the general fund. Special assessments for street improvements were also resorted to as in all modern cities. "The general practice in making local improvements," says our author, "was to assess a large part of the cost on the property own ers most directly interested. There is nothing peculiar about this practice, but we must remember that in a city still rapidly developing both in popula tion and in settled area, the cost of necessary improvements would be great from the beginning. "In the earlier years of charter government such work seems to have been paid fdr, as follows : two-thirds by the property owners of the vicinity and one-third by the city. Ordinarily these assessments were for street purposes,1 but other forms of local improvement were sometimes paid for in the same way. In 1849, the aldermen of the Fifth Ward were empowered to build a wharf and to dredge the river in front of it, the cost to be assessed on the lots. fronting the wharf in proportion to the frontage. The next year Ave find similar legislation for the Fourth Ward, and in 1851 the Third Ward was authorized to proceed in a like manner. In all these instances the property owners seem to have been assessed for the entire cost of the wharves." Changes in Methods.— But it was found extremely difficult to collect the taxes under the special assessments, as the amounts were large and the prop erty owners were frequently unable to meet the payments. In 1849 and 1850, so large a part of such taxes remained unpaid at the close of the fiscal year that it was deemed unwise and impracticable to enforce collection. In 1851, the Legislature sanctioned a new method of payment, a method with which we are familiar at the present day, namely: "on completing the work under taken, the contractor might receive a certificate stating what amount was due and what parcels of real estate were responsible for its payment. These certificates drew interest at the rate of twelve per cent and were transferable. In case the owners of the lots specified neglected to pay what was due judg ment could be obtained in the circuit court." This method proved to be a satisfactory solution of the problem. The Charter of 1852. — In the early '50s it began to be realized that the old charter needed revision especially in respect to the finances and taxation. There was a great diversity of views among the people but eventually a charter For the Council. DANIEL WELLS, jr. For the House of Representatives. HENRY C. SKINNER, MORRIS S. BARNETT, WILLIAM SHEW, GORDON C. CONE, LUCIUS I. BARBER. For Commissioner. FREDERICK B. OTIS. For Treasurer. GEORGE D. DOUSMAN. For Assessor. JAMES ¥. WATSON. For Coroner. HENRY MILLER. Milwaurle, Aug. 30th 1838. To Daniel Weils, William A. Pbestiss, 1 Ik- bv C Skinned. Mobbis S. Bahnett, Ooiidon C. Conb, William Shew, and Lucius I Dabbed. Gentlemen : — We herein enclose to you the proceed ings of a convention held at Prairie Vil lage on the 28th inst., by which you are nominated as Candidates (or the Legisla tive Assembly, to be supported at the' next election. Jn these proceedings the. undersign ed weie appointed a Committee to notify -you of your nomination, and require of you pledges to resign your offices, if elected, es soon as one half of the term af service, now fixfdbylew has expired, and to use eveiy effort to procure from Congress an alteration of the organic act of our Terri tory, limiting the term of service of the members of the Legislative Assembly, to two years for members ofthe£!ouncil,and one "year for members of the House of Rep resentatives You are desired to notify us immediately by letter whether you will accept the nomination on the terms pro posed by said convention. Very Respectfully, Wm RfTown, Jno H Tweedy, \ Committee Philip Schuyler, Milwaukee. Aug 31st 1838 Gentlemen — We hereby acknowledge receipt of your letter of the 30th inst. an nouncing to us our nomination by (he Convention, held at Prairie Village orj Hie 28th; mat, as candidates for the Legis lative Assembly to be supported at the nest slection We gratefully accept the nomination on tbo terms proposed, and cheerfully pledge ourselves, if elected, to resign our offices as scon as ene halfof the term of service now fixed by law has ex- pired ; and to use every effort to procure from Congress an alteration of the organ ic act of our Territory, so as to limit the term of service of the members of the Legislative Assembly to two years for members of the Council and one year for members of the House of Representatives. Yours Respectfully, DANIEL WELLS, Jr. WILLIAM A. PRENTISS, HENRY C. SKINNER, MORRIS S. BARNETT, GORDON C. CONE, WILLIAM SHEW, LUCIUS I. BARBER. To Wm. Brown, Jno. II Tweedy, and Philip Schcyleh. To the Electors of Iffilwanteo and Washington Counties : The undersigned were nominated by a convention at Prairie Village on the 28th ult as Candidates for the Legislative As sernbly, to be sopported at the ensuing election. 'Believing it to be the right of the people to reqnire, and the duty of every Candidate tp avow his views upon every subject of future legislation, we here frankly declare the course \v° shall pursue, if elected, in relation to the canal and other subjects now agitatingthe public It will be our first object, if elected, to secure to the settlers on the Canal Lands, not merely their improvements, but the title to their lands, by the immediate sale thereof on a credit of ten years, or on sur ha credit as the settlers themselves may pre fer, with soch guards as will effectually preveDt the competition of the speculator Our noil object will bo to induce Con gress, if possible, to reduce the price of the even" sections on the Canal Route to 81,25 per acre, and to gives pre-emption ri'gsl thereto. Our third object will be tbe early sale of the residue of the canal lands &n terms the, most favorable to the settler, with a view to the rapid settlement of the country and th» early and vigorous prosecu tion of the work of the canal. As* it respects the location of the Uni. versity lands, we suppose that no mancan be elected, from aoy part of the Territory, who will not vote for restricting the Com missioners in the mest positive, terms, not to interfere with the rights of any pre-emp- tor or claimant if elected, we shall also do every thing incur power to check that hasty and crude legislation which has lumbered our stat ute books with laws of no service but to the printer, and to procure such a reform of our laws and present "county system" as is demanded by the wants and wishes of the people In short, fellow citizens, in our pubti<* course, upon these as well as upon every other subjec', of public in terest, we shall strive, if elected, to truly represent the interests and views of the great body of the people, without re gard to persons, parties or localities DANIEL WELLS.Jr. WILLIAM A, PRENTISS. LUCIUS I BARBER, WILLIAM SHEW Our fellow nominees, Messrs Skinner, Cone, and Barnett, residing in the coun try have had do opportunity to affix iheir names to this paper ; but knowing their o- pinions upon these subjects, we do not hes itate to say that they will assent to ibis pledge. AN OLD-TIME CAMPA1WN DOCUMENT Issued in 1S38 THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 443 was agreed upon which was approved by the Legislature and enacted into law February 2, 1852. The area of Milwaukee in 1852 was but slightly greater than it was six years before. The new charter continued the old divi sion into five wards. The form of government devised resembled very closely that of the old charter. The tax levies increased during the following years, as follows : In 1852, the total tax levy was $57,331, to pay the expenses of the city, the wards, and the schools ; and to meet the interest on the public debt. In 1853, the levy was $64,719 ; in 1854, it amounted to $86,203 ; in 1855, to $105,S00 ; and in 1856, it rose to $132,346. "Thus the city taxes had more than doubled in five years, the increase being in part due to the higher tax rate and in part to the rapid growth of the city, the population of which increased by about 80 per cent in the same period. The next year (1857) the assessed valuation was doubled and the total of the city's taxes (general fund, sinking fund, interest fund, ward funds and school funds) rose at once to the amazing figure of $325,560." In a review of the financial history of Milwaukee following the record as given above, Professor Larson notes that something of a revolution was pro duced in Milwaukee when these figures were published. "A reform ticket headed by "William A. Prentiss carried the day in the March election. A few days later the Legislature amended the charter by limiting the general city and ward taxes to $235,000 yearly." In the following year Mayor Prentiss was able to report that the tax levy for the year past (1858) had been $226,363 which was $77,725 less than that for 1857. Railway Stocks and Bonds. — When the railroads began to be built the people were in a perfect frenzy to hasten their completion, and the city author ized the use of its credit to assist in marketing their stocks and bonds. The city, in 1849 and 1851, subscribed to the stock of the Milwaukee & "Waukesha Railroad Company to the amount of $234,000. But later the city issued bonds directly to the railroads who were required to keep up the interest, and when the bonds were due to pay the principal. On these conditions the city issued bonds in 1853 to the amount of $800,000. The amounts were increased from year to year until in 1856 the aggregate had risen to $1,614,000. This in addition to its other indebtedness amounted to a municipal debt of nearly $2,500,000. It was evident, says Larson, that so large an amount of securities could not be thrown on the market without injuring the city's credit. Some of these bonds in 1854 sold in Wall Street at 70 cents. Before these issues had reached their maximum figure some opposition to further loans developed. Mayor Cross used his influence and even his veto against them when they were proposed, but all in vain. For a considerable time it seemed as if a large share of the bonds would fall to the city to pay notwithstanding the conditions agreed upon. During the years from 1857 to 1859 several of the roads failed to pay the interest as it fell due, but in the end all the bonds were paid by the corporations respon sible except two issues of $100,000 each which after prolonged litigation the city had to redeem, the principal and accrued interest at the time of redemp tion amounting to more than $400,000. Of course in a general history of the municipal finances covering so long i THE OLD CITY HALL AND THE HENRY BERGH FOUNTAIN THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 445 a period of years only the more important transactions can be mentioned in this review, though in Professor Larson's intensive study of the subject a multitude of details are given which may very well be omitted. The "Albany Hall Movement." — After the tax levy for 1857 had been made public a taxpayers' meeting was called at Albany Hall where resolutions were passed demanding a reduction of the tax just levied. The meeting also de manded the repeal of all laws authorizing bond issues and the reenactment of laws limiting the taxing power of the council. At a later date a meeting was again held at the same place at which a report was presented by a com mittee appointed at the previous meeting to investigate the finances of the city. In this report the alarming state of the situation was revealed. Resolutions were adopted at the meeting calling on the Legislature to make changes in the charter. As a result the Legislature amended the charter so as to provide for a two-chamber system in the council, and other important changes were made one of which limited the amount of revenue that could be raised each year for city purposes to $175,000. Also all laws permitting bond issues by the city were repealed. Efforts at Readjustment. — The two years following the publication of the Albany Hall report brought but slight alteration in the financial situation o' the city. At the beginning of the fiscal year for 1860, there were no funds in the city treasury and city orders were selling at a heavy discount. "It was finally determined to appoint a committee of prominent citizens and members of the council," says Professor Larson, "whose duty it should be to study the situation and formulate a plan by which the city's credit might be restored." This committee published its report August 1, 1860, in which it was declared that the city would have to provide $280,000 annually to meet its interest charges and maturing bonds ; that the municipal debt amounted to $2,825,850. The conclusion reached was that as matters then stood Milwaukee could not pay her debts. The only hope was that some of the railroads would pay the bond issues in their favor, but the prospect was not hopeful that they could or would do so. A plan of readjustment was arrived at by which a long time bond issue covering all the city's indebtedness at a lower rate of interest was recom mended. A bill to carry out these recommendations was accepted by the com mon council and became a law in the following March. This law provided for a new set of bonds, afterwards known as "readjustment bonds," to run for thirty years at the rate of 5 per cent, except for the first five years when the rate was 4 per cent. These were to be exchanged for the old bonds and other evidences of indebtedness. If the bonds offered and accepted were not an even exchange the commission was empowered to adjust the matter in an equitable manner. The whole matter of readjustment was entrusted to a board of three mem bers to be called the Public Debt Commission. June first (1861) was fixed upon as the date when the readjustment was to begin. Interest on the old debt would then cease. Holders who delayed in the matter of exchange for new bonds would lose their interest after that date. Looking ahead to the completion of these measures it may be added that by March, 1863, it was 446 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE reported that the readjustment had been successful. More than four-fifths of the old bonds had by that time been exchanged for the new issue. It will be remembered that in 1858 the loans to the railways had reached a total of $1,614,000; that in the years of 1858 and 1859 several roads failed to pay the interest on loans made in their favor, and that a fear had been expressed that the city would ultimately have to pay the larger part of the raihvay debt. But the large crops of 1860 brought a great increase in the transportation business, and the railroad corporations found themselves able to meet their obligations. It should also be remembered that in the years from 1861 to 1865, during which the armies of the Union were engaged in colossal military campaigns in the South the demands for railway transportation, both in conveying troops and supplies, rose to vast proportions resulting in greatly increased prosperity to producers and railway systems everywhere. During the decade ending with the year 1869, says Professor Larson, "the office of the mayor was steadily growing in importance. In 1861, it was enacted that the mayor's veto should stand unless overruled by a two-thirds vote in each house in the common council. As the older departments grew in importance and number of officials and as new boards were being organized, the mayor acquired great influence from the use of his nominating power. * * * At the same time power was as steadily passing away from the coun cil. By the creation of new executive departments, its authority was dimin ished on every side. After 1870, the members of the council were no longer street commissioners, that office having been abolished. The wards also by this time had lost their old significance, partly because of frequent subdivi sions, and in part also because the new generation was interested in the city as a unit rather than in some section that had by this time lost the marks of a distinctive region. After 1870, Milwaukee was a city." As in writing the history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire the historian Gibbon often paused to discuss the merits of his authorities, so we may here pause to express our appreciation of Professor Larson's valuable monograph. Here is a treasury in which may be found a store of informa tion that can be rearranged into tables of statistics or embodied in narrative, and no collection of source material for the history of Milwaukee would be complete without it. The Civil war ended by the surrender of Gen. Robert E. Lee on the 9th of April, 1865, which began almost four years before when Fort Sumter was fired upon, April 12, 1861. The national debt at that time had climbed to the unprecedented figure of nearly three thousand millions of dollars. An outstanding issue of "greenbacks" amounting to about three hundred and fifty-six million dollars seemed to many people to involve much uncertainty as to their ultimate redemption. Their value as measured by the gold standard was at one time only 46 cents on the dollar. But owing to the prosperity of the country in the years succeeding the war the value had increased to about 85 cents in 1870. As time elapsed, however, confidence grew especially as Congress passed the so-called "resumption act" setting the date of their final redemption at January 1, 1879. Resumption of "Specie Payments." — As we shall not have occasion to THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 447 refer to this subject again we may here describe the final scenes in the removal of this incubus which rested heavily upon the financial affairs of the country, and with its removal marking a new starting point where "specie payments" became the rule in every transaction. In anticipation of the time when resump tion was to take place the United States treasury accumulated a store of gold amounting to $135,000,000. Meantime the premium on gold had been gradually growing less until at the date that resumption was to become effective green backs stood at par. On the day set a salute of guns was ordered in honor of the event, and a special display of flags was made in the banking district in New York of which the Government treasury was the center. Specie was piled up in the form of gold and silver coins on the counters of the treasury in anticipation of the expected rush for the redemption of the paper currency. The banks cooperated with the treasury by making similar preparations for the expected demands. But as it turned out there was no excitement and nothing like a rush either at the treasury or at the banks. The demand for specie was so small that at the end of the day it was found that more specie had been received over the counters than had been paid out. The money market, instead of becoming "close" as had been predicted by many, grew easy, and the country whose sound financial system had been thus established, entered upon a period of unprecedented growth and prosperity. Upward Tendency of City Expenses. — While the Legislature had placed a limit on the amount of taxes that could be levied by the City of Milwaukee in any one year (for example, in 1857, the limit had been placed at $235,000), yet the Legislature was often appealed to for "amendments to the charter" for certain unavoidable outlays. Thus the total expense of running the city government often far exceeded the limit thus named. Bridge-building and repair's were imperative requirements. So also was the work on streets and sidewalks. The police and fire departments had to be maintained in a state of efficiency, the schools were constantly increasing their demands, and the new departments of public works and health had to be provided for. Special taxes under the authority of the Legislature were levied by which the in creased expenditures were met. Still the decade ending in 1870, considering the great heritage of debt and difficulties left to it by the preceding administrations, was a period of progress. The city debt was less than half that of ten years before (it now stood at $1,388,222), the bonds of the city in 1865 were "firmly held at 90 and 95 cents on the dollar" in spite of the low rate of interest they bore. The popula tion of Milwaukee in 1870 was 71,440, an increase of 58 per cent during the decade. Mayor Kirby 's Inaugural Address. — The message delivered by Mayor Abner Kirby on April 20, 1864, is interesting because it pictures the problems of government which confronted the city at that time and the intense partisan ship which found expression in a denunciation of Abraham Lincoln. The message is addressed to the common council and reads as follows : "In entering upon my duties as chief magistrate of our good city, it is expected of me, in accordance with custom, to ask you to consider in candor such suggestions and recommendations as in my judgment may seem proper THE OLD CITY HALL Photo taken January, 1892 THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 449 and just in the management of our municipal affairs. "With you I can do much; without you, nothing. The trust reposed in the members of the city government is one of a high order and of grave responsibility. We are pledged in the most solemn manner to discharge our duties honestly and to the best of our ability. I have the utmost confidence in the council. You will favor all measures necessary to the prosperity of the people, to the public convenience, and to the lasting good of our city. You will be bound down with iron chains to strict economy in all expenditures. In this, Councilmen, I shall act with you. Death and expenses, however, are unavoidable, but the latter may be restricted and in times like the present they should not exceed actual necessity. The most rigid economy must pre vail in the administration of our municipal affairs. This is your disposition and it is mine. So far as our influence and jurisdiction extends, our great and good country in its mournful state of blood and financial trial, also must and shall receive the support of our ever ready hearts and hands. "We must help and foster every effort to re-establish an honorable peace. Under present circumstances that can best be done by sending to the field our best men. "The City of Milwaukee differs from the administration now in power, as to its policy. We believe our rulers are not taking the right course to suppress this accursed rebellion. The present Constitutional Chief of our nation, is, in my humble opinion, not fitted for the place, the occasion, or the times. He is the weakest man on the whole list of presidents. His honesty I never question. A weak and vascillating president, is quite as fatal to our prosperity in these times, as a dishonest president. He is in dishonest hands. His predecessor ran away with the nigger, and Abraham runs the nigger away. Which of the two has shown the greater weakness, and brought the larger amount of trouble upon us? I leave you to judge. A few fanatics have dragged the country into this bloody and unholy strife. These fanatics do not all abide in the South ; neither do they all live in the North. ""While General Grant was working into Vicksburg last summer, the tele graph the same day announced that Vicksburg was in our hands, and Bill Yancy was dead. "When this news reached old Boston, one of our Badger boys standing by, remarked: 'God and Grant are at work now, and this makes us hope that rebellion and abolition will fill a common grave by No vember.' I have always mourned that the officials at "Washington sent back Alexander H. Stevens, when, under the flag of truce he implored us to receive him within our lines. He might have borne the olive branch, and opened the way to that glorious reunion, which all except the higher law abolitionists, so much desire. As for the abolitionists, there is no power in heaven to please them for they hate peace on earth. For our Government, the constitution and its laws, what would we not do that is honorable. It is the best government ever formed or lived under. All true men believe this. "Schools. — The public schools in our city are institutions of great merit, and every good citizen is, or ought to be proud of them. Great care should be exercised in selecting good teachers, for upon them, in a great measure, de pends the character and intelligence of those to come after us. "Fire Department. — Under present circumstances, our fire department Vol. 1—2 0 (5^7°^%^^ ArjLiT-.irs&iry off AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. p I iiI iiI1 ::EtEB3AT«SH AY MliWAUXli, JULY 4, 1844. OFFICERS OF TnE DAY. DVHON KILBOURN /¦¦,.,;-,¦ 0f a, Da* SOLOMON JUNEAU,..,. JOHN HUSTIS 7) GEORGE H WALKER../ HENRy WILLIAMS,. ...I ... B , JOHN WHITE >Ii«Prm^n GEORGE E GRAVES,. V ' DAVID GEORGE. 1 WILLIAM BROWN.Ja../ Colonel E B WOLCOTT filanUi - DAVID M HEELER.... Major JOHN II MEIGS,... Mti.ii GEOnCE W LOSS.... JOHN TIIOMSSEN , CARRET M FITZGERALD, ALEXANDER W STOW Ortler LEONARD P CIlARy,....R(fld(rB/ iKt JAMES KNEELAND ceo w losh John hustis doct huf.ds SILAS GRIFFITH, ALEX MATHIEfiON BYBON KILBOURN E D IIOLTO.N DAVID M KEELED. C L. MAC ARTHUR. P J GEORGE. ROOT S HUM WAY, LIM'S n CADV LLONARD f CRARr, "" II1 * AN DtREX llfHM\NN H KARTELL, t> A J ITHAM ¦ I INTV'N V, ALW.-BTH GEO H WALKER, ORDER OF THE DAY. 1 — One Gun ol da) -break, 2 — Federal Salute of 13 gun* at sunrise, accompanied by the rmg.nj of ihc belli. tf 3 A( (be firing of the signal gun at 10 o'clock, the Procession, (mill its right wing in line, extending down East Wiier Street,) vill form in front of the "Cottaoe -Km," in the following order. I -MARSHAL, 2— Music, 3 — President and Vice-r residents, A — 'Header and Orator, 6— The Clergy, S — Invited Guests, 7 — Field r-icec and Colors/ 8 — Committee of Arrangement*, tl — OlTiccrs oTMdwaukic County, 10 — Prcsuknt and Board of Trustcl ¦:'>[¦.>...- 11- -Masonic Society, 12 — Odd Fellows" Society, 13 — Young Mens Association, 1 1— Wisconsin Repeal Association, I Ti- — Engine Company, No. 1 10 — Hook and '.adder Companj , No. I.' IT — Sabbalh School Societies, IR — Citizen* generally, I — T«o men on horseback, al—Gcrman Brasj Band, 3— Colonel D UrMAwt, Chic/Officcr. wnh Adjutants. t — Captain JcHrLTE,ofIhe Rifle Company, witli Adjutant., 5 — Rillc Company, with banner, 0 — Head Officers of the Irain of citizens, Willi Adjutants. 7 — Citizens, mlh the Hermann's banner, B — Captain D.Gcorce, of the Lancers, with Adjutants, 0 — Escadron of Lancers, with standards. The PROCESSION will then proceed up1 East-Water lo W,s tlrcet; up Wisconsin to Jackson street; up Jackson lo Onoida at Oneida to Wells street, up Weill to Wcsl-Walcr street; up Wo 'Chcsnul slrocl, down West-Water to Si-cond street; down Sacoud lo tha Congregational Church, u hero iho following v. ill be the ORDER OF THE.E\ERCISE5 I— Music. j d-Music, ' 2 — Prayer, 5 — Oration, 3— Reading the Declaration. | 0— Music, 7 — Benediction Tho»FrO ¦¦¦¦ ¦¦"¦ will then rc-rorm and proceed down Spring lo Wisconsin street, up Wisconsin to Easl-Watcr tlrcel;up East Water to Maaon strccl, up Mason to Jefferson ilrcol; down Jefferson to Huron ilrcel, up II-.h-.ti to East-Water street, and up East Water to (ho "Cottage Inn," whero a sumptuous DINNER will bo served up by Messrs Taft & Sj-uaa, for all who may wish to partake. During iho march of the Procession to the Dinner Table, a National Snlvilo of 5" Bun't Bna nn additional oncfor each territory, will be fired on Iho Public Square. The inhabitants of Iho adjaeenl country and neighboring towns, aro rospcclfull) invited lo parlicipatc ini Iho festivities of llic day, Tho Marshal particularly requests the members of the Committee of Arrangements, ami all the Societies and Companies who intend to bo prescnl, lo rendezvous m nino o'clock— lo form in their distinctive bodies, and be in rcadincu t" march lo iho position assigned them in Iho lino of the Process ion, al the fmiig of ihr signal gun at 10 o'oclock. ]( is, perhaps, proper lo stale, that allhough n perfect understanding has not been effected with nil tho various Societies enumerated in this Order, llio Manh.il has conceded ithisduly to assign them n place in the Proces- non, wiili the carnril hope thai they may enrh and all be in attendance. Tlii- M«r-.h.il's Siiiil, and (he mounted Officers of the German Corps, aro required lo rendezvous, al half-past eight, for farther orders. Sriiiincl Prr«s MiUa ANNOUNCEMENT OF FOURTH OF JULY CELEBRATION IN 1844 THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 451 ought to be an efficient institution. IVe have three of the best steam fire engines now in use. Much good they have already accomplished. According to my own observation, they have already paid for themselves. In two in stances, more than ten times the cost of these machines was saved. Our chief engineer should use great care in the selection of men, in making proper ar rangements for getting to fires with dispatch, and for working the machines with rapidity and facility when there. He ought to be sure, if possible, that all his assistants are capable, honest, trustworthy, and of all things, sober men. I would suggest that the horses be exercised each day in the week, and when so exercised that they only be driven around the block where the engine is located, so that in case of fire the horses shall not be too far from the engine house. "Police. — Our police force is quite too small in numbers, but under our charter it cannot be increased. Therefore it is of the utmost importance to employ on that force, the best men only, in order to make it as efficient as possible. To this end I will recommend a man for the chief of police, subject to your confirmation, with whom I shall entrust the responsibility of employ ing the entire force under him, with the privilege of discharging all who do not please him; then, with your cooperation, I shall hold the chief solely re sponsible for the faithful performance of his whole duty under the law; any failure or negligence to cost him his official head. "Harbor and River. — It is well understood that we have the best harbor on this great chain of inland seas. Without such a harbor, Milwaukee, as a com mercial point, might be but little better than Port Washington. In order to retain our vast lake trade, the dredging of both Milwaukee and Menomonee rivers must engage our earliest attention. The completion of this all import ant work will save a large sum on our freight. The largest class of vessels are very ready to load at Milwaukee, rather than at Chicago, for one cent per bushel less. This difference of tariff on shipments in favor of Milwaukee in one single year amounts to over fifty thousand dollars. This sum saved goes into the pockets of our producers. It also makes Milwaukee a better market than Chicago, and thus we are compensated. The council, therefore, should exert every available means to render our rivers navigable for the largest vessels on the lakes. Parties are now contemplating the erection of large and exten sive iron works on one of our rivers this very season, and should they locate above where dredging has been done, I propose to give them a channel of sufficient depth of water so that the deepest laden vessel may load or dis charge at their docks." The City Hall. — In 1846, when Milwaukee was chartered the city had no place that could be called the city hall. "The council met in the basement of a church," says Professor Larson, "the various city officials had their offices wherever they found it convenient. ' ' In 1847, the council moved to the upper story of a stable and remained there three years when the building was de stroyed by fire. The city government then occupied the Martin Block until 1857 when rooms were rented in the Cross Block. This block was burned in 1860, soon after which the city moved to the old market building where it remained until 1872. After this time the city rented the east wing of the MILWAUKEE ENGINE COMPANY No. 1 Engine built by James Smith, New York, 1855. Lithograph by H. Seifert THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 453 courthouse for city purposes though some of the departments remained in the old city hall. In 1886, Mayor Emil Wallber declared that a city hall must be built, but it was not until 1893 that it was finally decided to erect such a building. At length, on January 1, 1896, a new city hall was completed and occupied. The cost of the building, including furniture and fixtures, was $1,016,935. The population of. Milwaukee in 1890 was 204,468, and ten years later, in 1900, it was 285,315. Milwaukee Has Had Thirty-three Mayors. — The mayors of Milwaukee, be ginning with Solomon Juneau, who was president of the Village of Milwaukee when it was chartered as a city, and who became the first mayor of the future metropolis of Wisconsin, have been as follows : 1846 — Solomon Juneau. 1873-74-76 — Harrison Ludington. 1847— II. N. Wells. 1876-78— A. A. R. Butler. 1848— Byron Kilbourn. 1878-80— John Black. 1849-50— Don A. J. Upham. 1880-82— Thomas H. Brown. 1851— George H. Walker. 1882-84— John M. Stowell. 1852— Hans Crocker. 1884-88— Emil Wallber. 1853— George H. Walker. 1888-90— Thomas H. Brown. 1854— Byron Kilbourn. 1890— George W. Peck. 1855-57-^James B. Cross. 1890, December 6 to June 5, 1893— P. 1858-59 — William L. Prentiss. J. Somers, Henry Hase, acting 1859 — Herman L. Page. mayor from June 5, 1893, to 1860— William Pitt Lynde. July 1, 1893. 1861-James S. Brown. 1893, July 1 to 1896— John C. Koch. 1862 — Horace Chase. 1896-98 — William G. Rauschenberger. 1863— Edward O'Neil. 1898-1906— David S. Rose. 1864— Abner Kirby. 1906-1908— Sherburn M. Becker. 1865-66-^Tohn J. Tallmadge. 1908-1910— David S. Rose. 1867-68-69-70— Edward O'Neil. 1910-1912— Emil Seidel. 1870-71— Joseph Phillips. 1912-1916— Gerhard A. Bading. 1871-72— Harrison Ludington. 1916-1924— Daniel W. Hoan. 1872-73— David G. Hooker. George W. Peck resigned as mayor, November 17, 1890, because of his election as governor of the state, while Peter J. Somers resigned June 5, 1893, to take the seat in Congress to which he had been elected. Mayor Hoan's term will not expire until April 1, 1924, because of the change to the four -year term for city officers. The Milwaukee Police Department. — In the early days of the city's settle ment the village marshal, assisted by the lowly constables, were in charge of the lives and property of the inhabitants. Joseph Chaunier was a marked figure among the early keepers of the peace and continued in the service of the city after it had been incorporated in 1846. He met his death in the line of duty in 1849 having been killed while endeavoring to stop a runaway horse. The police department of the city was established on September 3, 1855, and, on the following 5th of October, William Beck was appointed the first chief. He was an efficient officer and served some twenty-four years in the 454 HISTORY OP MILWAUKEE capacity of chief, though not continuously. The police force at first was composed of six men chosen "for their fighting qualities." Chief Beck once said that "it was always necessary to whip a man in fair fight before you could arrest him." One of the members of this first force, a man named James Rice, was lost on the Lady Elgin when she foundered September 8, 1860, while on a trip from Chicago to Milwaukee. The force was increased from time to time as the city grew in population and importance. In 1861, it numbered twenty-one men, by 1866 it consisted of thirty-seven men, continuing thus until 1874 when it was increased to forty-eight men. Since that time there have been frequent additions to the force. In the Manual of Municipal Government for the year 1920, the total number of officers and patrolmen in the police department of the city is given as 671. The names and terms of service of the Milwaukee chiefs of police since the organization of the department, are as follows : William Beck, appointed October 5, 1855. He served until 1862 when he was succeeded by H. A. Page, who continued as chief until 1863. In the year following, William Beck again became chief of police and served fifteen years. Daniel Kennedy became chief in 1878, and two years later William Beck was again appointed and continued in office until 1882. In this year, 1882, Robert Wasson was appointed and served until 1884, and was then succeeded by Lemuel Ellsworth, who served until 1885. He in turn was succeeded by Plorian J. Ries, who served until 1888. John T. Janssen entered upon his long term of service October 26, 1888, which ended by his resignation in April, 1921, a period of thirty-three years. A few months later he was succeeded by the present chief, Jacob L. Laubenheimer. The Milwaukee Fire Department. — In the chapter devoted to the fire depart ment in the Western Historical Company 's ' ' History of Milwaukee, " it is said that "the old volunteers were firemen, policemen, and if worse came to worst, they fell in with the militia, and preserved public peace." Like most of the fire departments of other cities in their early days, the Milwaukee fire department consisted of volunteers, "all the bright and plucky young men who have since built up the financial prosperity of the city, and protected it from the disorders of fire and panic." The fire department was then composed of the cream of the growing city, and in 1837 a hook and ladder company was formed and in the following year a house was built for its accommodation on what afterwards became the custom house site. Among the names of the volunteers were : Benjamin Edgerton, F. C. Pomeroy, L. J. Higby, William Brown, Jr., William Winslow, Joseph Green, Elisha Starr, Rufus Parks, A. 0. T. Breed, Nathaniel Prentiss, A. A. Bird, Wil liam Webber, John Pixley, Albert Fowler, A. W. Hatch, George Vail, William Gardiner, George D. Dousman, Alexander Mitchell, and Fred Otis. In the Manual of the Common Council and Municipal Government of the City of Milwaukee for the year 1920, the personnel of the fire department is given, as follows : One chief engineer, one first assistant chief engineer, six assistant chief engineers, and 584 assistant firemen. The names and terms of service of the chief engineers of the Milwaukee THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 455 Fire Department since the beginning are as follows: Jobst H. Buening, whose term of office was from 1858 to 1867; Patrick McLaughlin, from 1867 to 1871; Henry Lippert, from 1871 to 1878; Henry Claymier, 1878 to 1880; Henry Lippert, from 1880 to 1883; James Foley, from 1883 to 1903; Herman Meminger, from 1903 to 1905 ; Thomas A. Clancy, appointed July 11, 1905, present fire chief. The Budget System of Milwaukee. — The report of the city comptroller, Mr. Louis M. Kotecki, for the year 1921, explains briefly in the introductory chapter that "the city budget is the financial program of the city for the fiscal year." It is a system by which the members of the common council may examine in detail the activities of the various city departments. "Each item that appears in the budget," he says, "constitutes a separate and dis tinct appropriation, and department heads must plan their work for the year in accordance therewith. "It is necessary, however," he continues, "that some elasticity be provided for, because, however carefully a budget be prepared, due to the fact that it is based on estimates made months in advance of actual expenditures, some appropriations will prove to be too small while others will be larger than necessary. This is taken care of by a provision of the budget law which provides that, within a given department, the board of estimate may take from one appropriation and add to another in case the necessity for it arises. The board of estimate is a comparatively small body, and, as it is not circum scribed by an involved procedure, is able to act promptly and make adjust ments, when, in its opinion, they are advisable, and thus avoid delaying the legitimate activities of any department. The Contingent Fund. — "A safeguard for unforseen emergencies arising during the year is provided for by means of the common council contingent fund. The contingent fund is a fund out of which the common council can take care of all new purposes not anticipated in the making up of the budget, and cases where a department's appropriations, due to abnormal conditions or a change of program, prove to be inadequate and must be increased. All appropriations from the contingent fund require the affirmative vote of three-fourths of the members of the entire common council. With these safety valves provided, there can be no serious objection to the common council setting up appropriations for the departments in whatever detail they deem necessary or advisable in order to control the business of the city. Tax Levies Prepared in Advance. — "The Milwaukee budget, due to the peculiar conditions of our financial affairs," says the comptroller, "is adopted in two sections. Funds for the appropriations for some of the departments are provided for in the tax levy preceding the year in which the money is to be spent ; for other departments in the tax levy of the current year ; so that the tax levy for any one year covers collections to meet the expenses of parts of two separate budgets. Consequently, no one budget can be used in figuring the tax levy for any given year. t "To put it into concrete form, the taxes to meet the appropriations for the following departments, namely : Board of Examiners of Engineers, Board of Fire and Police Commissioners, Bureau of Building and Elevator Inspec- MEMBERS OF THE HOOK AND LADDER COMPANY No. 1 Taken October 16, 1865. (Names supplied in original in possession of Old Settlers' Club) THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 457 tion, Bureau of Smoke Suppression, City Attorney, Workmen's Compensa tion, City Clerk, City Treasurer, Common Council, Comptroller, Johnston Emergency Hospital, Mayor, Public Land Commission, Sealer of Weights and Measures, Tax Department, Art Commission, Board of Industrial Education, City Service Commission, Harbor Commission, Public Library Board, Public Museum Board, School Board, and Sewerage Commission for the year 1921 were included in the 1920 tax levy, while the taxes to cover the appropriations for all other departments for the year 1921 will be included in the 1921 tax levy, which will be collected in December, 1921, and January, 1922. By means of the Taxation Readjustment Law, drawn at the request of the comp troller and passed by the Legislature in 1913, the city will eventually come to the point whereby a single tax levy will cover a single budget. When that time comes the taxation and budget system in Milwaukee will be consider ably simplified." Procedure in Making Up the Budget. — The procedure in making up the city budget, in brief outline, as follows : ' ' The various city departments submit to the comptroller, on forms furnished by him, and in accordance with instructions given by him, requests for appropriations for the purpose of con ducting their departments during the ensuing fiscal year. These requests represent the recommendations of the department head to the board of esti mate, and, through them, to the common council, which is the policy deter mining branch of the city government, of the services which he believes his department should render. The comptroller tabulates the requests, checks them carefully as to classification and other essential details, and lays them before the board of estimate. "This body is composed of the mayor, president of the common council, comptroller, treasurer, city attorney, commissioner of public works, and the members of the finance committee of the common council. From the requests submitted to them they make up and submit to the common council a pro posed budget. To expedite the work the board of estimate appoints a com mittee of three to examine into the details of the requests and make recommen dations as to the amounts to be allowed. "Many weeks are spent by the committee in this work. The committee does not attempt to pass on requests involving questions of policy, such as proposed bond issues, the amount of the contingent fund, new activities, and items such as those set up as common council special funds. But the great mass of detail is cleared away and the board as a whole can devote its time more fully to the larger questions involved. All board of estimate sessions are by law open to the public, and in addition it is required that at least one public hearing be held before submitting the proposed budget to the common council. A summary of the proposed budget is printed by the comptroller each year prior to the public hearing so that those interested may have some knowledge of what it is proposed to allow for the various purposes. The Budget Submitted to the Council. — "The proposed budget is sub mitted to the common council and printed in detail in the proceedings, and thus the aldermen are given an opportunity to familiarize themselves with it before acting upon it. Under the law the council must also hold at least one 458 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE public hearing to afford an opportunity for citizens to express their views to them. After the council adopts it the budget goes to the mayor for his ap proval. The mayor has the power to veto any item appearing in the budget without affecting the rest of the items. The council may by a two-thirds vote pass such item over the mayor's veto, or in case the veto is sustained, may offer a substitute in place of it, which must go to the mayor for his ap proval. "In connection with the foregoing explanation of budget procedure," continues Mr. Kotecki in his comprehensive account of the city budget system, "it must be borne in mind that the so-called independent boards of the city make up their own budgets, and neither the board of estimate nor the common council has any authority to alter or amend the appropriations set up therein, except when requested by resolution of the various boards, prior to the formal adoption of the budget. It is mandatory upon the com mon council to observe such requests. Inasmuch as the budgets for these boards and commissions amount to approximately 40 per cent of the total, it will readily be seen how greatly the control of the financial affairs of the city has been taken out of the jurisdiction of the common council." EXPENDITURE OP CITY TAX REVENUES THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 459 Total tax levy for all city purposes $ 15,413,060.50 Assessed valuation of all taxable property: Real estate 207,717,875.00 Improvements 301,813,140.00 Personal property 171,667,145.00 Total of assessed valuation $681,198,160.00 City tax rate : Average $22.63 per $1,000.00 of assessed valuation. Park System of Milwaukee. — There are fifteen parks in Milwaukee, be sides a number of center. plots, squares, and triangles, maintained under the control of the board of park commissioners. The total area included in the parks, squares and triangles is 841% acres. The names of the larger and more important parks and squares are given below in the numerical order in which they occur in the park system records, according to the report of the commissioners for the year 1918. Juneau Park 13.7 acres Lake Park 125.2 acres Riverside Park 24.0 acres Gordon Park 13.5 acres Kern Park 25.0 acres Lincoln Park 180.6 acres Sherman Park 24.0 acres Washington Park 150.0 acres Highland Park 6.0 acres Mitchell Park 63.3 acres Jackson Park 80.0 acres Pulaski Park 14.4 acres Kosciuszko Park 36.9 acres Humboldt Park 45.7 acres South Shore Park 22.0 acres Clark Square 2.0 acres Walker Square 2.0 acres Fifth Ward Square (Vieau) 2.0 acres The total cost for the operation and maintenance of the parks in 1918, according to the report for that year, was $633,187. Shade Trees in Streets and Parks. — ' ' The forestry division, under the juris diction of the park commissioners, now entering upon the third year of its activities, have completed the taking of a census of the trees in highways of the City of Milwaukee," it is stated in an article by O. W. Spidel, city forester, printed in the New Year's number of the Milwaukee Sentinel, for January 1, 1921. The result of the census shows that there were 82,392 trees counting all the varieties thus enumerated. Elm trees predominated with 37,239 ; next to which were found 15,081 maples, and lesser numbers of box elders, bass- wood (linden), ash, poplar, catalpa, horse chestnut, willow, oak, sycamore, To the Electors OF THE CITY ArVD COUNTY OF Believing the office of Judge of the Circuit and Su preme Courts to be the most important in the gift of the People. And being desirous that a man ot competent abilities, of ample legal knowledge, of regular business habits, and of known sobriety and morality of character, should be selected by the People of the 2d Judicial District to fill such office. A Mass Meeting of the Electors of the city and county of Milwaukee is respectfully recommended to be held at the COURT HOUSE on Saturday Evening, July 22d, at 8 o'clock, for the pur pose of selecting an Independent Candidate, to be supported without distinc tion of Seel, or Parly, for the office of Judge of the 2d Judicial District. Milwaukee has honest and able men, such as Wells, Hubbell, Holliday, Finch, Randall, Collins, Arnold and many others from whom the people can select. A general and punctual attendance is requested. Milwaukee, July 20, 1848. CALL FOR A MASS MEETING IX 1848 THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 461 etc. Elm trees seem best adapted for shade trees in this climate, and are mainly chosen for such use by the commissioners. The commissioners have experienced the usual difficulties of park officials in other parts of the country in their fight against insect pests, and have succeeded in partially exterminating the tussock moth (the formidable enemy of elm trees in the New England states), and in checking the "scurvy scale" in the badly infected districts. The pruning of more than 3,000 trees is reckoned as a part of the year s work, besides the removal of dangerous and dead trees which have become a menace to the public and a hindrance to the growth of other trees. "In some tree borders where trees were too closely planted," says the city for ester, "alternate trees were removed so as to save those remaining. This too closely planted condition throughout the city will require action in the very near future to save many of Milwaukee's trees." Mr. Spidel reported on January 1, 1922, that: "Eleven thousand five hundred and thirty trees or sixty-five miles of trees of different sizes and varieties were pruned and brushed for moth egg masses ; 8,895 trees or fifty miles were sprayed for the extermination of the predominating, destructive insects and fungous diseases, such as the Tussock moth, cottony maple scale, scurvy scale, and aphides in general." Zoological Gardens. — An inventory of the animals, birds, etc., in the zoological gardens of the Milwaukee parks, taken in December, 1918, shows that there were at that time six African lions, six tigers, five leopards, thirty monkeys, four polar bears, two grizzly bears, and twelve black and brown bears. There were also an elephant, a hippopotamus, a herd of buffalo, a herd of deer and elk, kangaroos, zebras and many smaller animals. Of birds there were a great variety including a pair of ostriches and other rare winged creatures. The total value of the animals and birds in the "Zoo" is stated to be $38,449. A lecture hall, especially intended for the use of school teachers with their classes, is provided, and other improvements are proposed by the com missioners in their report of 1918. The average attendance at the Zoological gardens on Sundays was estimated to be 30,000. "Never before," continues the report, "were the parks used as freely as during the past year, not only for recreational activities, but also for mili tary drills, patriotic celebrations and other public demonstrations." The parks have been extensively used for band concerts, chorus singing, com munity singing, picnic parties; also for all kinds of outdoor games, — base ball, football, tennis, golf, ice skating, boating, swimming and athletic tourna ments. In the New Year's issue of the Milwaukee Sentinel for January 1, 1921, there is printed an article by Frank P. Schumacher, secretary of the park board, detailing some of the recent improvements which have been made dur ing the previous year. "A unique addition to the zoological garden in Wash ington Park," he writes, "and which it is certain will attract considerable attention, is the so-called 'Monkey Island.' The same consists of an artificial hill, the base of which is approximately 120 feet in length by 80 feet in width, and about 35 feet high. Caves which are to serve as shelter houses "The loves and friendships of individuals partake of the frail character of human life; are brief and uncertain. The experiences of human life may be shortly summed up: a little loving and a good deal of sorrowing; some bright hopes and many bitter disap pointments; some gorgeous Thursdays, when the skies are bright and the heavens blue, when Providence, bending over us in blessing, glads the heart almost to madness; many dismal Fridays, when the smoke of torment beclouds the mind, and undying sorrows gnaw upon the heart; some high ambitions and many Waterloo defeats, until the heart becomes like a charnel-house, filled with dead affections, embalmed in holy but sor rowful memories; and then the cord is loosened, the golden bowl is broken, the indi vidual life — a cloud, a vapor — passeth away." MATTHEW H. CARPENTER. A COPY OF MATTHEW H. CARPENTER'S FAMOUS "GORGEOUS THURSDAYS AND BLACK FRIDAYS," HUNG ON THE WALLS OF THE OLD SETTLERS' CLUB OF MILWAUKEE COUNTY THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 463 for the monkeys are built in the sides of the hill. An artificial water fall, fed by a two-inch water pipe, flows from the top of the hill to the base. Rustic stone ledges crop out in various parts of the hill which is sodded and planted with pines and shrubbery." Changes in Sherman Park. — -"Up to comparatively a few years ago Sher man park was in a rural district and was used principally for picnic pur poses. Within the last few years, however, the residence districts have been extended in a northwesterly direction towards the park and, at the present time, additional houses are being built on all sides of it. The entrances to the park were located at Sherman Boulevard and Chambers Street, at Forty- first and Chambers streets, and at Grant Boulevard and Locust Street. These entrances are connected by new roadways, the grading of which has been finished. One roadway running east and west along the line of Chambers Street connects Sherman Boulevard with Forty-first Street, the other road runs in a northerly direction from the Grant Boulevard entrance and the others towards the Forty-first Street entrance. "When Sherman Park was purchased, a tree screen was planted around its borders to shut out the adjoining country roads and tracts of farm lands. These trees were planted close together and with the growth of years were crowding one another. It was, therefore, necessary to move certain of the trees to give enough room for the proper development of others. Moreover, all of the trees along the west border of the park had to be moved when Sher man Boulevard was graded. Besides this a certain number of old trees in various parts of the park had to be cut down. Therefore, all the trees which had to be moved to make room for others in the border screens, and the trees which had to be moved on account of the grade of Sherman Boulevard, were planted in various parts of the park where there were openings." Park Lighting Equipment Installed. — Early in 1920 plans were adopted by the commissioners for the more adequate illumination of Washington Park. Eighteen thirty-five foot standards, each with two lamps of the street- lighting pattern, under these plans have been placed around the lake area; and 154 fifteen-foot standards with holophane refractors have also been placed in suitable positions. Lighting equipment of similar designs have been planned for Mitchell, Juneau, Gordon, Riverside, and Sherman parks; as also for Walker, Fourth Ward, and courthouse squares, and also Mickiewicz and Eighteenth Ward triangles. An electric lighting system has already been installed in Clark Square. The filling in of the Lake Shore Drive and park made good progress dur ing the year 1920, five acres having been added to the area of the park. "In all," says the secretary, "fifty-three acres have now been reclaimed." The Lake Shore Drive, from Russell Avenue to the southern city limits, was completed, and there is now constructed along the outer line of this drive and park 5,520 feet of breakwater built up to a height of four feet above the water line. "Considerable filling is also being done along the inner shore of the yacht harbor, just south of Russell Avenue. ' ' Sanitary Sewage Disposal Plant. — The method of sewage disposal which has prevailed in Milwaukee for many years, which still prevails at the time 464 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE of the writing of this chapter, was to divert the same into the three rivers and thence into the lake. The result has been that the river waters have become foul and stenchy during the summer months, and have tended to pollute the drinking water which is secured from the lake. It became clearly evident that other methods for the disposal of the sewage must be found. With the constant growth of the city the evil of foul rivers and impure drinking water would from year to year become more threatening. Thus, the municipality, through the aid of a commission, inaugurated a study of the situation with the result that a sewage disposal system, op erated on a scientific basis, was planned. By this system no sewage is diverted into the rivers but is carried directly to a central disposal plant iioav in course of construction on Jones Island. Here it is treated in a series of tanks and containers, reducing the sludge into solid matter usable as fer tilizing material, and rendering pure the liquid which goes into the lake. The project will involve an expenditure of $13,000,000, but will, it is believed, solve for many years to come, Milwaukee's sewage problem. The progress made in establishing the plant is reported upon, January, 1922, by the chief engineer of the sewage commission, T. Chalkley Hatton, as follows: "During 1921, the sewerage commission has expended $1,618,920.97 for all- purposes. These expenditures cover the cost of administration, engineer ing, testing station, extensions of intercepting sewers and the sewage dis posal plant. "The main work being done on sewer extensions has been the building of an intercepting sewer in tunnel in Second Avenue, from Becher Street to Scott Street ; Scott Street from Second Avenue to Sixth Avenue ; Sixth Avenue from Scott Street to National Avenue ; and in National Avenue from Sixth Avenue to Eighteenth Avenue. This sewer has been built entirely in tunnel, and much of it has been built under compressed air. "Contracts were let early in June of this year for furnishing and driving approximately 21,500 wooden piles, amounting to 750,000 lineal feet, to sup port the aeration and sedimentation tanks for the sewage disposal plant on Jones Island. These contracts have been completed in record breaking time, the drivers moving out before December 1. This is the greatest number of piles ever driven under one contract on the great lakes. "The steam turbine driven air compressors and the steam turbine driven generators for the power house have been completed and are ready to be installed as soon as the buildings for housing them are completed. "Each of the air compressors, of which there are four, has a capacity of compressing 30,000 cubic feet of free air per minute to ten pounds pres sure, this air being used to aerate the sewage. "Contracts were entered into this year for the steam equipment and the work is well under way. This consists of four 874 horsepower boilers de signed to develop a maximum of 6,272 boiler horsepower which will be used to operate all the machines connected with the disposal plant and to heat the plant. the Municipal government 465 "The coal and ash handling machinery has been contracted for and on January 13, 1922, the commission expects to receiAe proposals to build the aera tion and sedimentation tanks which form the largest portion of the disposal plant. These tanks are to be built of reinforced concrete and cover about 10y2 acres of ground. "The aboAre brief description of the seAvage disposal work under Avay will convey to those interested the information that work upon this project is rapidly going forAvard and it is expected that it will be far enough advanced by the last of 1923 to begin to treat the city's sewage. "The seAverage commission is active collecting the data necessary to design the main intercepting sewers which the metropolitan sewerage commission proposes to build, this latter commission having authorized the sewerage com mission to use its staff upon this preliminary work rather than to create a separate organization. "By early spring, the metropolitan sewerage commission will be in a po sition to award contracts for several main intercepting sewers which are A-ery necessary to connect the outlying communities up with the city's system. "Under Chapter 554 of the Laws of 1921 for the State of Wisconsin the metropolitan sewerage commission was created. One of the provisions of this statute was that the three members comprising the commission were to be appointed by the governor; one upon the recommendation of the sewer age commission of Milwaukee ; another upon the recommendation of the state board of health, and the third without recommendation, two of the members to reside outside of Milwaukee and AA-ithin the metropolitan district. "In compliance with this provision, Charles B. Perry of Wauwatosa Avas recommended by the state board of health; George P. Miller, by the seAv erage commission, and F. U. Ullius, ShoreAvood, Avas appointed as the third member. Upon the organization of this commission on October 20, 1921, Mr. Perry was elected chairman. A brief revieAv of the causes which led up to the creation of the metropolitan sewerage commission and the object to be obtained thereby is as follows : "First Law in 1913. — In 1913 the Legislature had passed a law creating a sewerage commission for cities of the first class, the duty of which was to build an intercepting sewerage system and a sewage disposal plant for the City of Milwaukee for the purpose of protecting the public water supply, the rivers and bathing beaches. "This law did not confer any authority upon the sewerage commission of Milwaukee to build intercepting sewers for the outlying districts in the county which contributed to the pollution of the ri\rers and lake Avaters. It was realized therefore, that even after Milwaukee expended millions of dol lars in collecting its sewage, carrying it to a sewage disposal plant and there treating it so as to discharge it into the lake without serious pollution, the Avaters of the rivers and lake would still be polluted from the sewage from the outlying districts within that portion of the county AA'hich drains into the rivers passing through the city, and therefore the object Mihvaukee Avas seeking would be largely nullified. "To collect the sewage from each individual community and treat it in- A'ol. 1—3 0 AROUSE! MILWAUKEE COUNTY For Volunteering More the Draft! " -~ ¦¦¦!¦ || 1|| -" ' The Central War Committee now understand distinctly that no more Volunteers will bo received EXCEPT FOR THE OLD REGIMENTS NOW IN THE FIELD, And with the view of filling them, all our efforts are to be directed We are informed by the Governor that tho nnmbet to be furnished by the State has been increased by 5,900, in order to fill the old Regiments , hence the namber lo be furnished by the County of Milwaukee has been increased by about 500, makiDg ' For Milwaukee City, .962 Town of Milwaukee, - 112 Town of Wauwatosa, 147 Town of Granville, . . 116 Town of Oak Creek, . 97 Town of Lake, - 92 Town of Franklin, - 77 Town of Greenfield, - 110 27l3 Some of the INDUCEMENTS FOB VOLUNTEERING for the old Regiments, are as follows let. The Volunteer gel* an Advance Bounty from the General government of $*25 3d. He pets the Government BONUS to the person presenting; a Recruit, if he presents himself, 4 3d. Be frets from the Central War Committee, , - 25 4th. He receives One Month's Advance Pay from the Government, . 13 Cash paid on Enlisting, ... . . $67 In addition to the above, the Volunteer will get, at the end of the War, Seventy-Fivk Dollars, making in alt for Bounties a,r><3. -A.d.va.xn.00 Pay, S142. IW The families of volunteers who enlist in the OLD REGIMENTS receive $5 per Month from the Stale Should the War be ended' by next Spring, [of which there is no reasonable doubt,] each Volunteer will receive in money, besides h'S food and clothiug, as follows : United States Bounty, SlOO United States Bonus, 4 Citizens' Bounty, ... 25 Say Nine Months' pay-at »13 a Month, 1 17 State pay to Families, Bay Nine Monthe, 45 Total for Nine Months, (and found,) S291 raft- Drafted men receive NOTHING in money beyond the monthly pay of the regular soldier 3T Tne volunteer who enlists in an old regiment can select his reouteut and the roup amy in that regiment, as ivi ollowmg extract from General Order No, 88 f Sec 3 Recruits for regiments now in tho field will be, permitted to select any company of the regiment they may prefer. Should the thus selected be full when thoyjoiu it, they wil> lle flowed to select another. I fully appear hy the Sfo 4 All men who desire, singly or by eqwida, to join any particular regiment or company in theiuelv.* to any recruitiug officer, Ac. By order ot th« Vaetary of War company field are hereby authorized to present L THOMAS, Adjutant General. The volunteer who noes into an old remment is aura to be with EXPERIENCED OFFICERS, and to be better Uken care of, and as it is a f„r.r flint nino out of ten soldiers who lose their Hvhs in nn army die by disease, instead of being killed in battle, it is therefore, vastly ,> .. , ^..i.iii.r ... ami into an old r. -rum nt 1 regiments, no niitter whether tho 'etermined to fill the old regiments more for the gaiety ol the soldier to no, into an old regiment. We understand that our State [and of course our city and county] must Idrnish the mon to fill the old State has furnished more or less than its quota- under all the calls for new regiments. The Government IS d immediatelv and if not Blled by volunteering, it will be done by draft. Tne voi„nleer who goes into nn old regiment does so only for the unexpired term of the regiment, which will materially lessen the time of M"wi now MOST URGENTLY call up. ~u EVERY citizen of the city and county of Milwaukee, to orv'E up, if necessary, all Rlnns o? d if we ALL MAK B THIS OUR ESPECIAL BUSINESS for the week tho CALL WILL BE FILLED for the purpose of recruiting, an, I et no one hesitate: This work uiunt be done by the lirst ol September. E. H. BRODHEAD, ALEX. MITCHELL, i War Committee. C. F. ILSLEY. Milwaukee, August 25 Daily ticuilpcl Vtinuam Uow COPY OF THE ARMY CALL ISSUED IN 1862 THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 467 dependency of its neighbor was impracticable because it would largely in crease the expense to each municipality, by building and operating inde pendent intercepting sewers and sewage disposal plants, and many of the communities were not able to finance such large expenditures, and yet each community1 was equally interested in securing a pure water supply from the lake, with the possible exception of Wauwatosa which maintains its own supply. ''One main sanitary intercepting sewer could be built for two or more outlying communities which would collect the sewage from these commu nities and which could be carried by gravity to the intercepting sewerage system of Milwaukee and through it be carried and disposed of at the dis posal plant being built by the city, large enough not only to take care of the population within the present city limits but considerable addition outside. By combining all of the territory within the county which lies in the same drainage district as the sewerage system of Milwaukee, the sewage from which could be treated at the city's disposal plant, into a metropolitan sew erage district, the waters of the rivers and lake could be kept free from pollution. It was necessary to have some central board authorized to finance and build the collecting intercepting sewers necessary to carry the sewage from this drainage district to the intercepting sewer system of the city. "Commission Makes Plans. — This metropolitan sewerage commission ia required to project, plan, construct, and maintain in the county outside of the city limits main sewers for the collection and transmission of sewage to and into the intercepting sewerage system of Milwaukee. It may require any town, city or village in the county, or any occupant of any premises outside of Milwaukee located in the county, engaged in the discharging of the sewage effluent from any sewage plant, sewage refuse, factory waste into any river or canal within the county which is within the same drainage area as Mil waukee to rebuild any outlet, drain or sewer so as to discharge the said sewage waste or trade waste into the sewers of the city or into such inter cepting sewer located in or near the town or village which the metropolitan sewerage commission may establish. "This does not mean that the metropolitan sewerage commission is to build the lateral sewers within the cities, towns, and villages outside of the city, but is to build the main intercepting sewers into which these lateral sewers are to connect. The cost of these intercepting sewers is to be met by bonds, issued by the county board. The interest on and sinking fund for these bonds are to be collected as a direct annual tax against the entire drainage district in the county lying within the same drainage district as the city. "The statute also provides that after the organization of the metropolitan sewerage commission, the sewerage commission of Milwaukee shall prepare maps and surveys showing that portion of the county which is within the same drainage area as the sewerage system of the city, the sewage from which may be cared for by the disposal plant located in the city and the metropolitan sewerage commission shall determine the boundaries thereof in each of the respective towns and villages outside of the city limits. 468 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "Will Spend $1,300,000. — In compliance with this statute the sewerage commission has presented plans and surveys to the metropolitan sewerage commission. It in turn has determined the boundaries and has filed plans of the same with the clerk of each of the communities outside of the city and within the commission's jurisdiction. "The work, which the metropolitan sewerage commission was created to do, has been started. It has adopted a budget for the coming year which comprises the expenditures of about $1,300,000 with which it contemplates the construction of a main intercepting sewer for Shorewood and White- fish Bay ; one in the town of Milwaukee and a portion of the town of Wau watosa for the purpose of collecting and carrying to the city's west side in tercepting sewer the sewage from the rapidly growing section north of the city and from North Milwaukee ; another intercepting sewer in the Water- town plank road from the western city limits to the sewage disposal plant now located in Wauwatosa and an intercepting sewer in National Avenue from the western city limits to the disposal plant located in West Allis. "These intercepting sewers appear to be the most urgent ones to be built at the present time and, as soon as the bonds are sold and money is provided, contracts will be entered into for their construction. "The county board has authorized the issuance of bonds for the metro politan sewerage commission in the amount of $1,300,000 for building these intercepting sewers." CHAPTER XXIX THE MILWAUKEE WATERWORKS The distribution of water has, since the establishment of a waterworks system, been under municipal control. The city owns the entire plant, in cluding the intakes, tunnels, reservoirs, street piping, and has managed the same strictly as a municipal enterprise. The cost to the public of the water supplied has always been reasonably low, and the utility has been deemed most successful. The manner in which the waterworks is operated is told by H. P. Boh- mann, superintendent of the waterworks and water purification department, as follows : Water Supply and Intake. — Lake Michigan is the source of Milwaukee's entire water supply. The new intake in service since December 23, 1918, is known as the Linwood Avenue Intake and consists of a concrete lined tunnel twelve feet internal diameter which extends from the lake shore, at the foot of Linwood Avenue out into the lake in a northeasterly direction, a distance of 6,565 feet in sixty-seven feet depth of water. At the shore end of the tunnel there is a circular shaft fifteen feet in diameter which connects with the lake tunnel, which at this point is eighty-one feet below lake level. At the outer end, the tunnel is 150 feet below the level of the lake and term inates in a submerged intake crib by means of a twelve-foot lake shaft car ried slightly above the bottom of the lake. The submerged intake crib sr^ts on the bottom of the lake immediately over the top of the lake shaft. This intake crib is octagon in shape, eighty feet in diameter and twelve feet in height, so that there is a clearance of fifty-five feet of water over the top of the submerged intake crib, which removes all possible danger of damage to the crib -by boats or troubles from the formation of ice. The submerged timber intake crib of the tunnel is located about five miles from the mouth of the harbor. The capacity of the intake is approximately 220,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours at a velocity of three feet per second and was designed to supply not only the present North Point pumping station, but also a future station which will be located on the Milwaukee River near Chambers Street (extended), and which will be known as the Riverside pumping station. A shore tunnel nine feet in diameter, twenty feet below lake level, ex tends from the shore shaft up to and in front of the North Point pumping station. Prom this tunnel in front of the pumping station branches lead into the pump wells located in the basement of the pumping station. These 469 WATER TOWER AND PARK— MILWAUKEE BATHING BEACH, McKINLEY PARK THE MILWAUKEE WATERWORKS 471 wells are of various dimensions, but all are fourteen feet in depth, the top of the wells being at lake level. Water Purification. — Lake Michigan in its unpolluted state is a most ideal potable water and for this reason was selected as the best source of water supply when the city had outgrown the proverbial "town pump." It is very unfortunate that topographical conditions compel the city to dispose of its sewage in the same body of water from which it draws its water supply, and it is quite remarkable that the continued practice of polluting our water supply year in and year out did not exact a heavier toll in typhoid deaths and kindred diseases, when we consider the amount of fecal matter and trade waste deposited daily into the lake by a population of nearly one- half million people. In the absence of a sewage disposal plant, or a water filtration plant to protect the water supply, and fully realizing the dangerous condition of the water, as confirmed by a continued high typhoid death rate, the use of chlorine as a method of water purification was first resorted to in June, 1910. Hypo chlorite of lime, or bleaching powder, was first used. Since March 31, 1915, liquid chlorine is being used. The amount of chlorine applied varies from sixteen ounces to forty-two ounces per million gallons of water, depending upon the condition of the raw lake water. In these amounts, liquid chlorine does not impart a taste to a treated water. The objectionable tastes which have appeared from time to time were due to certain trade wastes of a coal tar derivative nature getting into our water supply and combining with the chlorine used to purify our water, forming compounds which produced these obnoxious tastes. Chlorine, being a volatile gas, can be expelled from water by boiling, leaving no trace of taste. Whenever this obnoxious taste appeared in the water supply, boiling did not remove it ; in fact, it intensified the taste, which in itself is proof that chlorine was not the cause of the obnoxious taste. The use of chlorine as a sterilizing agency has very materially reduced the typhoid death rate, but this method of purification alone" must not be looked upon as a permanent safeguard. A sewage disposal plant and water filtration plant are the real solution for a safe public water supply. North Point Pumping Station. — The North Point pumping station at the lake shore is the main pumping station of the waterworks. There are eight pumping engines of the vertical triple expansion crank and flywheel type, whose total pumping capacity is 126,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. Four of the pumping engines are low service pumps, capable of pumping water to an elevation of 165 feet, and four are high service pumping engines capable of pumping water to an elevation of 275 feet. There are ten boilers, which provide the necessary steam to operate these pumps. The suction pipe of each pumping engine extends into and within two feet from the bottom of one of the pump wells previously mentioned. Since the bottom of the pump wells are fourteen feet lower than the level of the lake, it follows that water from the intake tunnel will flow by gravity into a pump well as fast as it is being pumped out by the pumps. If all of the pumping engines were shut down, the water in the pump wells would then 472 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE stand at lake level. After the water passes through the pumps, it is dis charged into one of the five large force mains from thirty to forty-two inches in diameter, leaving the pumping station on the west side of the building. These force mains are carried up the hill west of the pumping station to the stand pipe, with which they are cross connected, and then branch off in dif ferent directions. Only a fraction of the water pumped passes through the reservoir. The large feeder mains branch off in different directions at the stand pipe, and a thirty-inch main in North Avenue, which leads to the reservoir, is cross- connected with the mains in several cross streets before reaching the reservoir, so that the greater portion of water pumped never reaches the reservoir. The stand pipe at the North Point pumping station is four feet in dia meter and 125 feet high. It was originally built to relieve the water mains from the pulsation of the old type of beam engines. With the new type of triple expansion pumps the delivery of water from the pumps is so constant that a stand pipe is no longer an absolute necessity; however, as air collects in a pump when it stands idle, the stand pipe, which is open at the top, per mits any accumulated air to escape when the pump is started and in this man ner the stand pipe serves a very good purpose. The stone water tower which encloses the stand pipe is 175 feet in height and its artistic beauty is admired not only by the citizens of Milwaukee, but also by outside visitors to the city. Reservoir. — The reservoir, which is located in Kilbourn Park, is not a storage reservoir, but rather an "Equalizing reservoir," which equalizes the water pressure in the low service district and also serves as a source of supply for the high service pumping station located on North Avenue be tween Tenth and Eleventh streets. The reservoir is of irregular shape. Its average width is 310 feet, average length. 515 feet. The depth of the water in the reservoir when filled is 211/o feet and the elevation of the water at this height is 150 feet above city datum. While it is possible to operate a waterworks by direct pumpage only, a system having a reservoir connected with it is very desirable. It permits the operation of the pumping engines at their most efficient rate, regardless of the consumption, and experience has shown that higher efficiency is obtained when the speed of the pumping engines is maintained nearly uniform. If during the day hours the consumption is somewhat greater than the rate of pumpage, the water in the reservoir is slightly lowered. As the consumption decreases at night, the loss in the reservoir is again made up during the night. High Service Pumping Station. — (North Avenue between Tenth and Eleventh Streets). As the elevation of the City of Milwaukee varies con siderably, the distribution system is divided into two separate areas or zones. The low service pumping engines at the North Point pumping station pump water into the low service district and into the reservoir. The high service pumping engines at this station pump directly into the high service district, in which they are assisted by the pumps at the High Service pumping station, which is a " booster station ' ' ; that is to say, the pumps at the High Service pumping station pump water from the reservoir and elevate it in the stand pipe adjacent to the pumping station to a height of 258 feet above the lake. THE MILWAUKEE WATERWORKS 473 In this manner the districts which are located nearly as high as the reservoir, and some of them even higher, can be supplied with water, which could not be done if they were connected with the low service. There are four pumping engines installed in this station, having a combined pumping capacity of 25,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. Pipe Distribution System. — The general arrangement of the pipe distribu tion system is what is known as the "grid-iron" system, viz.: the water mains are cross-connected with the mains laid in cross streets. At intervals of a half mile, larger mains are laid usually from eight to sixteen inches in diameter, and between these mains pipes of six-inch diameter are laid, thus forming a grid-iron system. Large feeder mains from twenty to thirty-six inches in diameter are also extended along certain streets to the outskirts of the city and connected with the larger distributing mains for the purpose of reinforcing the pressure lost by friction in the smaller mains. These feeder mains are not tapped for service connections. The sizes of water mains laid in the city range from four to forty-two inches in diameter. Gate valves are set at nearly every street intersection, for the purpose of shutting off the water supply in case of leaks or repairs. At street intersections and in blocks over 300 feet in length, fire hydrants are placed. Water mains are laid on the north and east sides of the streets, the south and west sides of the streets being reserved for gas mains. Water mains are laid at a depth of six feet, which makes them secure from frost. Connected with the distribution mains there are service connections which connect with the various residences, stores and factories and supply them with water. Services from % to 1% inches in diameter are of lead, two inches and over are of cast iron. One foot inside the curb on the service pipe, leading to dwellings, there is a stop-cock enclosed in a cast iron box, where the water supply can be shut off in case of leaks or breaks inside of the building or property line. The stop-cock and shut-off box for large serv ices supplying stores and factories is located out in the street. A record of the location of every stop-cock box is kept by the water department. All services are controlled by meters, which measure the amount of water consumed for each premise. The small disc type of meter is for residential purposes, the velocity type of meter is for factories and hydraulic elevators, and the compound type of meter, which is a combination of a large and small meter, is used in stores and factories where the consumption at times is very small and again quite high. A repair shop is maintained by the water de partment in the basement of the city hall, where all defective meters are repaired. Water is furnished outside of the city to the villages of Shorewood, West Milwaukee, North Milwaukee, Whitefish Bay, the City of West Allis, county institutions in the town of Wauwatosa, and to a number of individual con sumers in the towns of Lake, Milwaukee, Greenfield, and AVauwatosa. Water Rates. — The charges made for water are based on the quantity used as indicated by the meter. Meters are read monthly for the purpose of dis covering, as quickly as possible, any leakage or unnecessary wastage, thereby 474 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE avoiding high water bills to the consumer. Bills for water are rendered quarterly, viz. : January 1st, April 1st, July 1st, and October 1st. The metered rate for water used inside of the city is 6 cents per one thousand gallons and for water used outside of the city 8 cents per one thous and gallons, regardless of the quantity used. There is no "minimum rate," the consumer paying only for water actually passing through the meter. City Datum. — In establishing street grades or when reference is made to depth of sewers or to pumping water to certain elevations, it is usually stated in terms of feet above or below city datum. City datum is the horizontal base line from which heights and depths are recokoned. The datum used in this city is supposed to have been low water in Milwaukee River as it was in the month of March, 1836. Permanent bench marks upon stone monu ments have been fixed and established by ordinance and are located as follows : East Side — Southeast corner of Court House Park 54.83 feet above city datum. West Side — Southeast corner of Eighth and Chestnut streets 52.83 feet above city datum. South Side — Southwest corner Greenbush and Park streets 24.95 feet above city datum. These are the original bench marks set in the early years of the city. Since then there are a great many distributed all over the city for greater convenience as a starting point in taking levels. General Statistics For the Year 1919. Date of original construction of waterworks 1872-1874 Estimated population supplied (including suburbs) 500,000 Total pumpage for the year (North Point Station) 22,590,435,210 gallons Total re-pumpage for the year (High Service Station) . . . 1,638,223,400 gallons Maximum pumpage any one day, September 8th 85,697,210 gallons Minimum pumpage any one day, April 20th 40,912,220 gallons Maximum rate of pumpage or "peak" 112,000,000 gallons Average daily consumption for the year 61,891,603 gallons Average daily consumption per capita 123 gallons Amount of coal consumed during year 19,783 tons Total water mains laid to date 544 miles Total number of fire hydrants 3.771 Total gate valves in distribution system 4,459 Total service connections with water mains 87,949 Total service connections in actual use 66,422 Total meters in service 65,769 Temperature of water From 32+ to 71 degrees Fah. Range of water pressure 20 pounds to 90 pounds Total cost of waterworks, less depreciation $ 9,395,122.14 Total bonded indebtedness, less sinking fund 195,000.00 Total revenues received for water for the year 1919 1,132,072.27 Total operating expenditures 458,972.78 THE MILWAUKEE WATERWORKS 475 Useful Information. — A gallon of Avater (U. S. Standard) contains 231 cubic inches and weighs 8% pounds. A cubic foot of water contains iy2 gallons or 1,728 cubic inches and weighs 621/2 pounds. The height of a column of Avater equal to a pressure of one pound per square inch is 2.31 feet. A column of water one foot high exerts a pressure of .433 pounds per square inch. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that Avith a perfect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches or a column of Avater 33.9 feet high at sea level. THE COLUMBIA HOSPITAL THE MILWAUKEE HOSPITAL CHAPTER XXX THE MILWAUKEE HEALTH DEPARTMENT The first board of health Avas created soon after the incorporation of the City of Mihvaukee by an ordinance passed in August, 1846, and was made up of the mayor and five physicians. The frequent visitations of cholera among the towns of the Mississippi River and places in communication with them operated as a warning to every city advancing in trade and popula tion to protect themselves by suitable regulations. It will be remembered that Chicago suffered severely from a visitation of cholera in 1832, during the progress of the Black Hawk Avar. In that year the cholera broke out among United States troops brought there by Gen. Winfield Scott, and re sulted in a mortality of eighty-eight soldiers. It was a wise provision of the new City of Milwaukee to create a board of health to prevent its possible lodgement among its inhabitants. In apprehension of an outbreak of Asiatic cholera the City of Milwaukee created a second board of health by an ordinance passed July 15, 1850. The people had been Avarned by a visitation of the dreaded epidemic at Chicago in the pre\dous year which in fact continued for several years thereafter in succession. Hearing of its prevalence in other cities the Chicago authorities made strenuous efforts to prevent its appearance, but a man arriving by way of the lately completed Illinois and Michigan canal from New Orleans brought the disease with him. His death was followed by a general epidemic through out the City of Chicago, then a city of 23,000 inhabitants, resulting in the deaths of 678 sufferers from that disease. The records show that in 1855 the mayor and common council of Mil waukee constituted the board of health at that time. In 1856, J. J. Luck was appointed health officer of the Second Ward, C. Mushmeiler of the Fifth Ward, Patrick McGrath of the Third Ward, and Nicholas Engel of the First Ward. From 1856 to 1857, the -mayor and common council apparently acted as a board of health. In 1867, the state Legislature authorized the appointment of a board of health for the City of Milwaukee. Dr. James Johnson was elected presi- ident of this board and thus became virtually Milwaukee's first commissioner of health. He resigned in 1877. In April, 1877, Dr. I. H. Stearns was ap pointed health officer for the term of one year, Gen. H. C. Hobart being made president of the board. In this year the office of health commissioner was created, having a term of two years. Subsequent Appointments. — April, 1878: Dr. 0. W. Wight, appointed health commissioner for term of two years. 477 478 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE April, 1880 : Dr. 0. W. Wight, reappointed for term of two years. Re signed October, 1881. October, 1881 : Dr. Robert Martin appointed health commissioner, the term of office having been extended to four years. This appointment was to fill the unexpired term of Doctor Wight. April, 1882 : Dr. Robert Martin reappointed health commissioner. April, 1886 : Dr. Robert Martin reappointed health commissioner. April, 1890 : Dr. U. 0. B. Wingate appointed health commissioner. April, 1894 : Dr. Walter Kempster appointed health commissioner. April, 1898 : Dr. F. M. Schulz appointed health commissioner. April, 1902 : Dr. F. M. Schulz reappointed health commissioner. April, 1906 : Dr. G. A. Bading appointed health commissioner. May, 1910 : Dr. W. C. Rucker appointed health commissioner. Resigned September, 1910. October, 1910 : Dr. F. A. Kraft appointed health commissioner to fill un expired term of Doctor Rucker. April, 1914 : Dr. Geo. C. Ruhland appointed health commissioner. Entered war service August 28, 1917. October 8, 1917 : Dr. Louis J. Daniels appointed health commissioner. Re signed December 31, 1917. January 1, 1918 : Dr. George C. Ruhland reappointed health commissioner. The population of Milwaukee during the years covered by this record is given here as a guide to the reader, with a comparison with the Chicago rec ord of population for the corresponding years. Milwaukee. Chicago. 1846 9,501 14,169 1848 16,521 20,023 1850 20,061 29,963 1860 45,246 109,206 1870 70,776 306,605 1880 115,587 491,516 1890 204,468 1,208,669 1900 285,315 1,698,575 1910 373,857 2,185,826 1920 464,639 2,701,212 1922 (estimated) 500,000 3,000,000 It Avill thus be seen that in the year 1848 the tAvo cities approached each other in population more closely than at any other period. "The year 1921 will mark a neAv record in the health history of the City of Milwaukee. The death rate, as estimated for the year 1921, stands at 10.3 per 1,000, which is by far the lowest in the history of the city," said Dr. George C. Ruhland, commissioner of public health in January, 1922. "This is better than, the previous best low rate, that of 1919, when the mortality of this city was estimated at 11.46 per 1,000. This figure means that there have actually been more than five hundred deaths less in Milwaukee during the last year than in the year preceding. THE MILWAUKEE HEALTH DEPARTMENT 479 "The result of what intelligent Avork can accomplish in preventing deaths is interestingly shown in the lowered infant mortality rate, which for the year 1920 again shows an improvement over the preceding year, bringing • the mortality rate for the age period under one year to seventy-five per 1,000 births. This result directly reflects the educational propaganda carried on by the department through its nursing division. "In the same way, the better control of the contagious diseases may be ascribed to the activities AA-hich the department carries on through its con tagious disease division in conjunction with the visiting nurses. Diphtheria has been held down to a lower mortality by the excellently conducted cam paign by the chief of the bureau of contagious diseases. By discovering the carriers, and promptly isolating them until no longer infectious, the spread of this disease not only has been checked, but the mortality from this cause has been lowered over that of the preceding year. "Although these are gratifying results, it should be understood that it is entirely possible to eradicate diphtheria by the application of the newer methods under .which the susceptible child not only can definitely be dis covered, but more important, by means of which the susceptible child can be immunized so that it will not develop this disease. Since diphtheria finds its greatest period of susceptibility between the ages of one and six, or what may be called the preschool age period, this becomes a problem essentially for the private practitioner. "Through the division of school medical inspection, over 58,000 physical examinations of children were made up to December 1. Out of this number over 21,000 were found in need of medical attention and over 16,000 were referred to their family physician for such medical attention. Much of the disease of adult life, and many a premature death finds its beginning in the minor defects that are discovered at school medical inspection. The fact that almost half of the cases examined showed conditions in need of medical attention, proves the need for school medical inspection. It is safe to say that the actual need for the service is greater than the facts brought to light. With the limited number of doctors and nurses, obviously the situation can not be as thoroughly and as fully covered as would be desirable. "In spite of its handicaps, the sanitation division has been doing splendid work in keeping streets in a remarkably clean condition. This becomes especially noticeable as one compares Milwaukee streets with those of other cities. The sanitation of restaurants, the supervision of tenement houses and public buildings, of barber shops and beauty parlors, and of sweat shops, all of which fall under the supervision of the sanitary division, show that in spite of a rather small force of inspectors, an acceptable control is main tained over these places. "Similarly good work has been maintained by the division of food inspec tion. The addition of one inspector, authorized last year, has enabled this department to increase the total number of its inspections by more than 5,000 over those of the year preceding. Under the present ordinances, all meats not inspected and supervised by government agents must be inspected and tagged by officers of the Milwaukee Health Department. There can be 480 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE no question that under this ordinance the supervision of the meat supply offered to the Milwaukee public has been improved. This service is much •in need of additional help, and it is to be hoped that as soon as the city is able to increase its revenues, it will utilize some of the moneys available for strengthening this service. "The compulsory pasteurization law, together with the requirement of thermo regulating devices, and the farm inspection service of the department, have combined to give Milwaukee one of the best milk supplies in the country, yet one that is offered at a cheaper price than is obtainable in most other cities of this size. "In conjunction with the work done by the food division must be men tioned the splendid work as carried on by the chemical laboratory, which fur nishes the technical data on which the food division is able to take its cases into court. During the first eleven months of the year over fifteen thousand samples of foodstuffs were examined in the laboratory. This is an increase of 7.3 per cent over the same period last year. "The chemical laboratory has rendered a most valuable service in work ing out the technical detail in connection with the department's ordinance regulating the sale of inflammable stove polishes. "Through it was carried on an investigation of the accuracy of clinical thermometers. It assisted the state prohibition officer, the district attorney's office, and the police department in prohibition enforcement. It played the major part in a sanitary survey of the bathing beaches; studied the causes and devised a recommendation for the elimination of sediment formation in soft drinks; developed a treatment of insanitary milk for the purpose of pre venting its resale without destruction, and in many other ways added to the efficiency of the department in dealing with the problem of food sanitation. "The future needs of the department have been in part recognized by the council's formal approval of the department plan for reorganization. Un der this plan, departmental activities will be grouped under six bureaus. Through this arrangement many of the related activities of the department will be more closely organized under the direction of a single supervising bureau chief. This undoubtedly will tend not only to strengthen the serv ice, but also to develop it to better advantage by proper coordination. Though the completion of the department's personnel on the basis of the accepted reorganization plan will be a matter of years, nevertheless the adoption of the plan means a step in the right direction and will enable the department to develop along definitely recognized lines." Milwaukee's Healthy Climate. — In an article on Milwaukee in the Encyclo paedia Britannica, it is said: "Milwaukee is one of the most healthful of the larger cities of the United States. Its average annual death-rate for 1900- 1904 was 13.6. (For the year 1917 it is shown to be 12.3.) The proximity of Lake Michigan cools the atmosphere in summer and tempers the cold in the winter. As a result, the extremes of heat and cold are not as great as in most inland cities. The mean monthly temperatures vary between twenty degrees in January and seventy degrees in July, with extremes of one hundred degrees and minus twenty-five degrees. The mean annual precipitation is 31.4 inches." CHAPTER XXXI PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING The foregoing chapters have aimed to deal adequately Avith the city's event ful past and the present status of achieA-ement. Its aspirations for the futur? also deserve attention. ATisions of a city that shall be more beautiful, more healthful, and more habitable are entertained by its people. While much has been planned and pictured in the way of marvelous land.- scape art and wonderful architectural creations, the cynic will hold that only a fractional part of all, that has been dreamed and speculated about a city beautiful, can or will come true. Nevertheless it follows that some one must dream the dreams of the ideal, the splendid, the magnificent, in order that some one else may realize them. Thus, the opportunities afforded by the natural situation, topography and environs, for beautifying the city; the possibilities of realizing dreams and schemes, and the rearing of art and architecture, have not been over looked. There have been those in the community Avho have been possessed of a vision of things attractive from an urban point of view, who have sought to crystallize public opinion and enlist the aid of local government towards their realization. The aspirations of the community in the direction of greater physical attractiveness has found eloquent expression through the medium of a public land commission. This body has made an exhaustive study of the possibili ties of the natural situation, of bringing order out of sporadic city building, which has hitherto been controlled by individual expediency, provide thorough fares and highways in harmony with modern conceptions and ideas, provide a stately grouping of public buildings, and zoning into districts the location of industrial, commercial and residential buildings. Its plans and purposes are both picturesque and practical. The Clas Studies. — The distinction of being the most ardent dreamer of a city beautiful, who has for a quarter of a century studied the possibilities of making Milwaukee an attractive urban center, and AATho has proposed more schemes in the direction of municipal art, unquestionably goes to Alfred C. Clas. He has unselfishly prepared numerous studies covering a variety of sub jects dealing with parks and boulevards, lake fronts and civic centers. Some have been accepted and brought into realities, others may find acceptance in the future. His ideals and aspirations are embodied in the following which he ad vanced at a public gathering : 481 Vol. 1—31 MOONLIGHT SCENE ON THE LAKE AT WASHINGTON PARK . PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 483 "Civic Art, narrowly defined, is art applied to town, and art is the final expression of culture and taste. "This municipal art, which has so firmly taken root, is the germ that is to regenerate the American city. It foreshadoAvs a broadening public mind; it appeals to the finer and truer sensibilities of man, and it makes possible an object lesson to the masses, which cannot be over-estimated. Many of our people have no appreciation of the desirability of beauty in a city ; Avith them the highest consideration is the convenience of the city life. In the erection of our buildings today, we find that utility is not alone to be considered, but that beauty is fully as necessary and important. If our cities are to be made attractive, and made to appeal to the pleasure and comfort of their citizens, the beautiful must be considered. With all the resources of art and science now at hand, there is no reason why we should allow ugliness, meanness, and squalor to exist, and to deaden the external aspects of our cities to the extent we do. Civic art has beautified, stimulated, and inspired the world for 3,000 years or more. It made Athens and Rome beautiful cities in the past; it is making Paris the most beautiful city of the present. "Architecture and civic art leave the most enduring influence. Painting and sculpture are usually the possessions of the rich and favored, but archi tecture and civic art concern all men, and most men have something to do with them some time in the course of their lives. "A good picture is admired by a few, but a magnificent edifice, a grand boulevard, or a beautiful park is the pride of thousands. A picture cultivates the taste of a family circle ; a grand boulevard educates the minds of millions. Of the thousands who stand before the Tuileries or the Madeleine, not one in a hundred visits the gallery of the Louvre. "Civic art never wearies us, for its wonders are inexhaustible. They appeal to the common eye. The love of beauty is in the hearts of all men ; it is one of the controlling motives of men; it finds expression in the almost universal desire for harmonious conditions in their environments. "Aristotle defined a city as 'a place where men live a common life for a noble end.' That was true in Aristotle's times, and it would be true now if we made our city so attractive and so beautiful that it would spread a benefi cent influence over our homes and our lives, as it should." The Clas River Scheme. — In advancing his ideas on the ultimate disposi tion of the Milwaukee River which flows through the commercial center of the city Alfred C. Clas says : "My proposition is to narrow the river until it becomes a canal sufficiently large only to carry away the water that comes down from above. On either side I would have a street wide enough to accommodate any amount of traffic, and at every cross street I would have a permanent ornamental concrete bridge. It requires little imagination to see what a magnificent thoroughfare could be created with building fronts on either side, all of harmonious designs, with two streets in one, approximately 200 feet wide, with a winding canal separating them and with ornamental bridges, balustrades, etc., giving artistic touches to the whole design. Go a little further and think of such a thorough fare lighted at night with profuse and ornamental lamps harmoniously ar- BUST OF CHRISTIAN WAHL, FOUNDER OF MILWAUKEE'S PARK SYSTEM SUNKEN GARDENS, MIT PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 485 ranged. The effect can easier be imagined than described. In every way it could be made a model street, such a street as does not now exist in any city of the United States. "I firmly believe that the growth of the community demands this im provement and I also believe that if it is started in the proper way, it is within our financial ability to make it. Prudence holds up a warning finger when contemplating a plan of this magnitude, but we must not forget what our city has become in the last fifty years, and what it is destined to become in the next half century. Population and wealth are rapidly increasing and in contemplation of a scheme like this, we must not think of what the city is today, but of what it will be in the future. In my opinion it is a scheme that would yield large results in the immediate future and still more for generations to come.'" The City Planning Commission. — In November, 1911, the City Planning Commission of Milwaukee issued a pamphlet in which was printed a number of preliminary reports on the general subject. The plans there outlined have been much modified in detail during the intervening years, but as these plans have furnished the bas's of the more recent proposals the substance of the pamphlet is given in the following pages. "City planning on a broad, comprehensive and scientific basis," says the writer of the introduction to the pamphlet, "is a comparatively new art in America. Up to recent years this great country had been too busy developing its wonderful resources and accumulating vast wealth to give heed to the very important subject of beautifying its cities and making them better places to live in. The idea that mere beauty might have more than an aesthetic value did not occur to the busy American until within the last decade. * * * It never occurred to him that by a better arrangement of its streets and boulevards could business be expedited, or that by providing ample breathing space the health and energy of its citizens could be enhanced." He seemed blind to the fact that it would pay in dollars and cents as well as in added usefulness "to create beauty and convenience where it did not exist." Beginning of the Movement. — ' ' Something like ten years ago it had begun to dawn upon the American mind that the then general plan of building cities on a 'hit or miss' basis, was all wrong. A number of the more progres sive cities took up the matter in a broad-minded, businesslike way, and ap pointed commissions, whose business it was to study existing conditions and to outline a plan, not only for improving them, but for taking care of future developments on correct lines. In the pursuance of that broader and better idea a number of the eastern and western cities have made most remarkable progress. "Milwaukee, always conservative, was slow to adopt the new idea. The honor of awakening this city to the need of something better rightfully be longs to Mr. A. C. Clas, who was then a member of both the city planning commission and the regular park board. Mr. Clas, who both by instinct and training, was deeply interested in city development, kept abreast of the times and was thoroughly conversant, not only with the wonderful work done in Europe, but with all the efforts that have been put forth in the same direc- GRAND TERRACE, LAKE PARK PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 487 tion in this country. In public addresses, newspaper articles and letters he began, many years ago, advocating the appointment of a commission whose business it should be to plan a comprehensive, artistic and well coordinated plan of parks and boulevards. As a result 6f his activities, Mayor Rose, in his annual message for 1905, suggested to the common council that it appoint a board whose business it should be 'to prepare a permanent plan of park improvements, parked ways, boulevards and drives, to be followed by the board of park commissioners in their administration of our parks.' In October of the same year Mayor Rose sent to the common council a special communica tion again urging the appointment of such a board, and calling attention to the work that had been done on similar lines in other American cities. Metropolitan Park Commission. — "At the same meeting Alderman Becker introduced a resolution authorizing the mayor to appoint such a commission, to consist of eleven members, and to be known as the 'Park Improvement Com: mission.' Nearly a year later that resolution was reported by the finance committee for indefinite postponement, and nothing more came of the matter until December, 1906, Avhen the late Alderman Stiglbauer introduced another resolution authorizing the mayor to appoint a board, to be known as the 'Metropolitan Park Commission,' to consist of eleven members: one to be a member of the common council, one to be a member of the park board, the city engineer, and eight citizens not holding official positions, and eventually on April 1, 1907, that resolution Avas passed and the following gentlemen Avere named as members on July 22, 1907 : Capt. I. M. Bean, Joseph McC. Bell, Peter Brust, Alfred C. Clas, William Lindsay, Adam Meisenhe'mer, Charles Niss, Jr., Charles J. Poetsch, John Reichert, Charles Quarles, and C. B. Whitnall. Changes occurred in the personnel of the board so that at the time the report was written it consisted of the folloAving persons: Peter Brust, A. C. Clas, Albert F. Giese, Henry S. Klein, Adam Meisenhehner, Joseph A. Mesiroff, Charles Niss, Jr., John Reichert, August Richter, Dan B. Starkey, C. B. Whitnall, with A. C. Clas as president and Frank P. Schu macher as secretary." The name of the commission was now changed to "The City Planning Commission," and in order that the public might have a better idea of the work it was set forth, as follows : "1st. To make an investigation into existing physical conditions in Mil- Avaukee. "2d. To determine and report upon what should be done to improve those conditions. "3d. To prepare a comprehensive city plan for the future improvement and growth of the city, including recommendations for : "a. Improvement of the river and lake fronts. "b. Extension of streets and opening of neAV subdivisions. "c. Improvement of entrances to the city from the several railway sta tions, looking to future development. "d. A rapid transit system, including terminal projects. "e. Extension of car lines into outlying districts. "f. A playground, park, and boulevard system. 488 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "g. Location of public buildings, and other public Avork as in the opinion of the commission, Avill tend to make Mihvaukee a more convenient and at tractive city. "4th. To prepare a plat for the extension of the city for at least two miles beyond the city limits, that will harmonize with the projected improve ments within the present limits, such plat to carefully conserve the topography of the land as may be requisite for sanitary influences; to make ample pro visions for factory and other commercial territory with efficient railway service ; and to provide residence areas apart from the commercial and factory zones. "5th. To suggest to the common council, and to the State Legisla-ture, such legislation as may be necessary to facilitate the carrying out of the com mission's recommendations. "From time to time the commission has reported to the common council on the Avork it has completed. These reports have been published separately in pamphlet form, and in order that the public may secure it in more con venient form it has been deemed advisable by the commission to gather the several reports and print them together in the pamphlet which is herewith presented for the public's consideration. The commission earnestly urges every citizen into whose hands this pamphlet may fall to give it careful perusal and to consider without prejudice and in a broad-minded Avay the suggestions herein presented." Work of the Plan Commission. — The plans for beautifying the city have naturally involved consideration of park improvements. Thus the commis sion at once arrived at the conclusion that trees were the leading factors in creating a proper environment for the people seeking the benefits of "the great outdoors," — fresh air, scenery and exercise. To reach these spots, shady and cool in summer, bracing and refreshing at all seasons, the streets leading to the parks must be clean, wide and as nearly dustless as possible. Noav a general plan is proposed by the commission, the central point to be a "Civic Center," from which a radiating system of streets and avenues Avill lead to the parks with their rural scenery. The plan which meets with much favor is that in which the civic center is to be placed in such a position as to include a wide street running from the City Hall to Ninth Street, and encompassing the City Hall, the Auditorium, and the Public Library and Museum. Other public buildings will there find a proper location, and eventually the radiating streets Avill extend to the surrounding country be yond the parks. It Avill be the aim to widen many such streets, provide a parkway along the center, upon Avhich roAvs of shade trees may be planted and lines of street cars placed betAveen them. At either side of this sheltered center is to be a thirty-foot strip of pavement for general traffic. Between the street paving and the sidewalk are to be shade trees in proper order. The "Civic Center" is an institution as old as the history of civilized man. Around the "Agora" Avere held the public assemblies of ancient Greece. The "Forum" was the great meeting ground of the old Romans and after their day, in the middle ages and in the days of the Renaissance, it was the place Avhere were celebrated public fetes, where public and official ceremonies took PROSPECTIVE MILAVAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 489 place and AA'here laws were enacted. Around these open spaces Avere placed the principal public buildings. Being the stage for the expression of common interests, they Avere ornamented Avith founta.ns, monuments, and other types of civic art to emphasize the dignity and strength of the community. Expense of the Undertaking. — The expense of such an undertaking need not be great, for the city Avould purchase the land necessary to secure the required width of parkAvays, and could sell the frontage thus acquired at an advance sufficient to cover the cost. Those Avho have seen Commonwealth AA'enue in Boston, or NeAv York Avenue in AYashington, can readily imagine what these parkways would look like. The commission also mention a mu nicipal pier Avhere steamboat landings and raihvay terminals might be placed for the conA-enience of people seeking more distant scenes. Professional Advice Submitted. — An examination of the plans for a civic center for Milwaukee was made by the well knoAvn landscape architect, Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted of Boston, and his associate, Mr. John Nolen. The report of these experts approves of the location of the civic center as out lined above, its advantages being its "proximity to the business center of the city, combined Avith the economy of purchase, a visual relationship with the City Hall, and an arrangement of grades favorable to a fine, artistic composition. As to the general proposition, therefore," they say, "of group ing the principal future public buildings about an open space or spaces ar ranged on the axis of Cedar Street, between the crest of the hill at Ninth Street and the City Hall, we can only congratulate the community upon the existence of such an opportunity, and urgently advise that it be not lost by delay." The Location of the County Building. — These gentlemen then heartily ap proved of a plan to place the County Building at the west end of the com position on the axis of Cedar Street, as proposed. This, they say, "seems to us admirable ; the termination of the civic center axis at one end in the City Hall, and at the other end in the County Building, not only brings the two principal buildings into direct visual relation Avith each other, but emphasizes their predominance in the group. The fact that the intersection of Ninth and Cedar streets, although approachable from Grand Avenue and State Street on nearly level grades, is forty-five feet above the general level of the land to the east, offers the possibility of a commanding site, which, if skilfully treated, will have a notable distinction and impressiveness. " Suggestions and Recommendations. — "Our chief criticism, indeed, of the plan as drawn, so far as concerns the proposed site of the County Building, is that it fails to suggest the full possibilities of the situation. In many respects, the site may be said to resemble that of the United States Capitol. There, as here, in approaching from the city by street cars or other vehicles, people ascend the hill to the right or the left of the main axis and enter the building from the upper level, Avhile the direct access by people on foot is by means of the steps and terraces on the opposite side, terraces Avhich add enor mously to the architectural effect of the building as seen from the lower ground and which in turn command a most important outlook over the space below them. The elevation of the building upon such a system of terraces will not tatHjVkfc-. ¦j-^.^fc^kg m i ,.„„.* !^^$st*'TTE| SKYLINE OF MILWAUKEE FROM THE BAY Photo taken from the breakwater Mb' - ^ IK?L'-ir M? MM JM ti Jv"^fe ^ Bf* ^4 -"^?F" InjdSBFL.'' J ss ~ ^#**hI R_£«L * ""^y ..rj^ "* « BnDnflPr jJ-MJ igMiiMS f^Si w %^l BLj. -— *y Ht -' 'V ' K> c^p » .J31 * ' ¦ jr Hp/* 1 <,;*»aa* **''#&' ¦» Cm***-- -''- «JK, ^S ENTRANCE TO LAKE DRIVE NORTH POINT LIGHTHOUSE AND BRIDGE ENTRANCE TO LAKE PARK PROSPECTIVE MILAVAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 491 only contribute greatly to its effect as seen from the rest of the civic center, but is very important in respect to its appearance as seen from the Avest. To place it so that it might appear 'down in a hole' as approached along its main axis on Cedar Street from the growing western part of the city, Avould be a serious misfortune. Indeed it is probable that the large majority of people will approach it by Ninth Street from the Grand Avenue or the State Street cars, so that a suitable relation of the level of the building to the high ground on the west side is of vital importance. "We feel, therefore, that the treatment of the Avhole space from Wells to State Street at this end of the proposed civic center should be carefully studied with a vieAV to obtaining every possible adA'antage of the differences in level ; further, Ave believe that this study should accompany and, in a meas ure, control the preliminary studies for the design of the County Building, itself, and that it should include provision for probable future increase in the accommodations offered by the building now to be erected, either in the form of additional flanking buildings, or in the form of large AA'ings. AYhen it is considered that the population of Alilwaukee is doubling about every tAventy- five years, which means an increase of 400 per cent in about fifty years, and that a fine public building or a fine civic center may be expected to endure for centuries so far as the physical permanence of the im'estment is con cerned, it would seem extremely short-sighted not to plan the treatment of the County Building and the space around it with a deliberate expectation of proA'iding in the future, Avithout having to tear and rebuild, an accommoda tion many times larger than is noAv needed by the county. This means that ultimately the county buildings Avould occupy practically the whole of the space from Wells to State Street at the end of the scheme, that the terraces and open spaces ought now to be designed with a vieAV to such extension, and that a more liberal purchase of land by the county is justifiable than Avould be required merely to give a decent setting to the large courthouse iioav under consideration. "All the above points, but especially a regard for the importance of the approach to the building by Ninth Street and the great desirability of bring ing it into vieAV from Grand Avenue, incline us to believe that the best results would be secured by placing the building fairly and squarely on the plateau at the intersection of Ninth and Cedar streets and purchasing for county purposes the four blocks bounded by State, Wells, Eighth and Tenth streets. The only serious objection to this as a matter of design apart from the ques tion of cost, appears to be the obstruction of Ninth Street, Avhich is the first street Avest of Fourth Street that offers a connection north from Grand Avenue on a nearly level grade. It is to be considered, however, that Ninth Street does not extend south of Grand Avenue, and is interrupted on the north at Winnebago Street. Unless this interruption of Ninth Street is found to be out of the question or the increased cost of land purchase is prohibitive Ave recom mend the modifications of the plan above outlined placing the County Build ing on the intersection of Ninth Street and Cedar Street. Street Arrangements and Details.— "Assuming the location of the County Building at Ninth and Cedar streets and, of course, the City Hall at the east PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 493 end of the Cedar Street axis, the problem remains of how best to place the other buildings, and AA'hat size and shape to give to the open spaces, for the latter need to be as carefully designed as the former. The two most serious limitations upon the development of the most thoroughly satisfactory design consist in the monotonous division of the area into city blocks and in the size and locating of the new auditorium," thus continues the report of F. L. Olm sted and John Nolen. "If all streets are carried unbroken across the composition, they Avill not only divide it monotonously but Avill make it impossible to so place any of the features of the design as to be seen from Grand Avenue by looking down the connecting streets. Sixth, Fifth and Fourth streets — on account of their connections and relathely easy grades have too much traffic importance to allow of interruption. Eighth Street has a steep gradient and it would be desirable to place some feature in connection with the terraces rising west of Eighth Street, such as an outstanding basin and fountain, for example,, so as to project into tne line of Eighth Street. The roadway would be merely deflected around that feature in crossing the Cedar Street axis. Of still more importance, as regards the beauty of the composition, if it can possibly be ac complished, would be the closing of Seventh Street from Wells to State. This, together with the substitution of a broad parking with a roadway on either side in place of the single axial roadAvay of Cedar Street between Sixth and Eighth, would afford an impressive and unbroken open space of suitable shape and scale in front of the County Building and would permit the ultimate construction of public buildings of agreeable proportions to flank this open space on the north and south. The fact that the arrangement would make the buildings visible from Grand Avenue is an additional gain. Treatment of Wells and State Streets. — "Seventh Street has been sug gested as a route for an additional street car line, but it would seem as though Fifth or Sixth Street, or at most, both of them would suffice. The needless multiplication of trolley lines across the design ought to be avoided at all hazards. Moreover, a car line on the main axis, such as now exists between Fifth and Sixth streets, is very undesirable and it would seem as though the east and west connections could be made wholly on Wells and State streets ; both of which can and should be widened in connection with the formation of the civic center. Wells and State streets should not only be widened throughout the blocks acquired by the public so as to leave sidewalks adequate for the maintenance of trees, as well as ample roadways, but the necessary steps should be taken to insure the rebuilding of the opposite frontage in a manner that will harmonize with the character of the civic center. The most effective means of securing these ends Avould be for the public to acquire these frontages. "The Auditorium makes impossible a continuation of the broad treatment of the main open space east of Sixth Street. We therefore recommend for the blocks from Sixth to Fourth streets an arrangement substantially like the one proposed by the Metropolitan Park Commission, but with these changes: (1) the inclusion of the land fronting on Fourth Street from Wells to State, without which a dignified and satisfactory enclosure of the civic PROSPECT AVENUE fj* 'wCj J3B .£BmT\5, -.AjaUs *v"i .^Htfnfii i absrHlP Miii .,..,>¦ '¦¦* ^ &3£33MM ! - ¦¦'•¦¦..'¦ : ¦'.,,/ . b^ 'QESEjI p *i%ti',%* ".|j-#wj|Mj^j|mw - '^Mmmmmmmm , . ' . ""'v ' .mWeSmhl "•'^ .** LAYTON BOULKYARD, LOOKING SOCTH FROM NATIONAL AVENUE PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 495 center is hardly possible; (2) the reduction of the size of the circular paved space betAveen Fifth and Fourth streets. "East of Fourth Street, upon the reasonable assumption that Cedar Street cannot be Avidened, it would seem desirable to Aviden the sideAvalks at the expense of the needlessly broad roadAvay and to introduce sidewalk trees as slioAvn on the plan ; but it is essential that those trees should not be of large groAA'ing species, or the A'ista through to the City Hall would in time be blocked by them. East of the river again the space betAveen the Cedar Street axis and the existing large buildings of the power house and the theater ought to be kept open as gardens rather than left to be built up as suggested by the plan. "In conclusion, our judgment is that the general situation proposed by the Metropolitan Park Commission Avould permit of an orderly, advantageous and economical grouping of public and semi-public buildings; that the plan of development proposed is, in its essentials, admirable ; and yet that the project is of such complexity that the best results are to be secured only by means of the most thorough and skilful study applied to the revision and development of the plan as a working project — a revision and development that can best be accomplished by the cooperation of a group of designers working out the various parts of the problem, one in harmony with the other." River and Lake Shore Parks. — In one part of the 1911 report of the city planning commissioners the subject of river parks is dealt with in an exhaus tive manner. The lands lying along the Milwaukee River are thoroughly con sidered ; also the Menomonee and Kinnickinnic rivers, and suggestions and recommendations freely made throughout. These may be studied in the light of the later developments proposed by the subsequent boards which have considered the various problems that have arisen. In one of the reports at tention is called to the advantages possessed by Lake Michigan in planning parks and driveways along its picturesque shores. In fact it may be said that the people of Milwaukee, like the people of Chicago, have only in late years really "discovered" Lake Michigan with its wonderful possibilities of beautiful views and the thousand diversities of amusement it affords to those who would explore its far-extended shores, or embark on its waters. Final Word of the Public Land Commissioners. — "It seems that the site designated as the 'Revised Metropolitan Park Board Scheme' offers the most attractive solution of the entire problem. Your board of public land commis sioners concurs in the opinion held by two recognized leaders in city planning, Mr. Olmsted and Air. Nolen, in that the placing of the courthouse on the hill at the intersection of Cedar and Ninth streets would mean the seizing of an unusual opportunity. There would be no duplicate of Milwaukee's Ch'ic Center. It would be unique and give an added distinction to this city and in comparison with the splendid undertakings of a similar nature in Cleveland, Denver, Minneapolis, San Francisco, and other American cities, it would easily hold its own. "If the project seems large, let us not forget that, as the city approaches the million mark, there will be a concurrent growth in its financial capacity. JUNEAU PARK— SOLOMON JUNEAU MONUMENT PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 497 Let us also appreciate that it is not proposed to carry out the entire scheme at once, but that sufficient ground be now reserved and enough building be now undertaken to confirm the plan. In preparing for the inevitable greater Alil waukee so that she may be great in character as well as in numbers, let us not fail to heed the prophecy and advice of that Avell knoAvn architect and city planner, the late Daniel H. Burnhani: " 'Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood and prob ably themselves will not be realized. Make big plans ; aim high in hope and work, remembering that a noble logical diagram once recorded will never die, but long after we are gone, will be a living thing, asserting itself with ever increasing insistency. Remember that our sons and grandsons are going to do things that would stagger us. Let your Avatchword be Order, and your beacon Beauty.' " Zoning for Milwaukee. — The Board of Public Land Commissioners issued a tentative report in June, 1920, in which is described the plans that haA-e been adopted to impro\Te the conditions existing in a rapidly growing city like Milwaukee. "Zoning," says Mr. Edward AI. Bassett of New York City, an authority on the subject, "is the creation by law of districts in which regulations, differing in different districts, prohibit injurious or unsuitable structures and uses of structures and land." The board of public land commissioners, as appears in this report, con sists of the following persons: C. B. Whitnall, chairman; George F. Staal, secretary; William H. Schuchardt, Percy Braman, Edw. Grieb. The board employed R. E. Stoelting as city planning engineer and Arthur C. Comey as consultant. Definition of the Term. — The term "Zoning" is further defined in the language of Mr. Lawson Purdy, formerly tax commissioner of the City of New York, and vice chairman of the New York City commission on building districts and restrictions. The term "has come to be used," he says, "to mean the regulation of buildings in a city. It signifies such regulation of the height, area, and use of buildings as will protect each landowner from the impair ment of his share of light and access as will protect him from unseemly noises, unpleasant smells and offensive sights. "Proper protection of the OAvner in these respects enhances the value of his land and conserves the value of his buildings. Owners cannot have such protection for themselves without conceding the like protection for their neighbors. Appropriate regulation demands such rules that no parcel of land in the city can be used in such fashion that all similar land could not be improved with buildings of like kind without disadvantage to each and all of them. This is only common fairness, corporate equality. * * * Zoning must proceed on the basis of existing conditions. Even the worst sections can be improved somewhat ; some sections may be saved, some sections may be protected at the beginning of their development." A Zoning System. — The commissioners' report then considers the zoning system as it applies to Alilwaukee: "Zoning constitutes a fundamental part of Milwaukee's city plan. From studies made in connection with the prepara tion of a general plan, it is apparent hoAv closely zoning is bound up with other Vol. 1—3 2 498 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE elements in the city's development folloAving such a city plan. It is generally admitted that the past hap-hazard development of our city was ruinous. The larger Milwaukee grows the more essential becomes a plan whereby the vari ous sections of our city will be used for a specific purpose. During the course of the next ten years, millions of dollars will be spent for public improve ments and property owners during this period will spend several billions. Since private property comprises about two-thirds of the city's area, a general plan to regulate the use of such property must be conceded to be of even more importance than a plan to regulate public improvements. Streets laid out for the convenient movement of traffic of all kinds are of the most im portance to the city, yet they cannot be properly planned unless it is first decided whether the adjacent territory is to be developed as a district of two- story buildings or one comprising buildings six or more stories high. Streets laid out for residence purposes are entirely unsuitable in a commercial or manufacturing district. Without a zoning plan to control the construction of buildings and to segregate the residential from the commercial and in dustrial districts, a street system cannot be properly laid out. Sewerage Systems and Zoning. — "As the city increases in population, the attendant congestion makes it more difficult to preA'ent disease. Zoning minimizes the congestion and makes the task of controlling disease less diffi cult. "The sewerage system of the city cannot be designed properly Avithout the adoption of a plan for segregating the use of property and limiting the height of buildings and the area of lots Avhich may be built upon. The lack of such a plan has already made it necessary to duplicate parts of our seAverage sys tem at considerable expense, AA'hich might have been avoided had a zoning plan been in operation years ago. By segregating the use of property, the problem of sewage treatment can be more readily solved. "People living in well-lighted homes have a physical resistance AA'hich is superior to that of people who live in dark rooms. It is common knoAvledge that you cannot raise babies without light and air any more than you can raise plants, that disease is most prevalent in congested localities and that people living in congested districts most ahvays sIioav diminished poAver of resistance to disease. Zoning makes for an orderly city and it can be shown that this will have a marked effect on the physical fitness of the city's in habitants. Fire and Accident Prevention. — "Fire protection Avill be less difficult under a zoning scheme Avhich -will provide for the segregation of buildings of different uses. Zoning will thus increase the safety and security of the homes of the people. Street congestion will be materially reduced under a proper zoning plan. By reducing congestion, it is a knoAvn fact that the number of accidents on streets is materially reduced. The records of NeAv York City show that of the persons killed by vehicles over half are children. The zoning ordi nance will prevent the indiscriminate use of property and prevent factories and commercial establishments from going into residence districts, thus keep ing the greater amount of traffic on the principal arteries of travel rather PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 499 than on residence streets. It is undisputed that this will reduce the number of accidents to children. "The zoning plan Avill do for the individual OAvners Avhat they cannot do for themseh-es — set up uniform restrictions, that will protect each from mis guided operations or exploitation by his neighbor and be of mutual benefit. We see everyAvhere the invasion of many residence or business districts by harmful or inappropriate buildings or uses. If a district has been thus in vaded, rents and property values decline, loans are called and it is difficult ever to reclaim the district to its more appropriate use. "Industries of a heavier type have naturally segregated themselves along the water fronts and railroads. Light industries are found mostly near the wholesale, retail and terminal centers of the city, but there are many kinds of light industries that are free from any segregating force and locate indis criminately throughout the city. They are found scattered throughout the business and residential sections, especially the residential sections from Avhich their labor or supplies are recruited. The factory is usually a blight Avithin the residential section. It destroys the comfort, quiet and convenience of home life. The exclusion of trades and industries from the residential streets is essential to wholesome and comfortable housing. Stores, garages and other business buildings scattered among the residences are a constant menace to residence property. The concentration of all the neighborhood business buildings on the business streets make the transaction of business more con- A'enient. Segregation of dAvellings on the exclusively residential streets adds to the convenience and quiet of home life and thus tends to increase property A-alues on such streets. "Zoning the city will make it less difficult to find a proper location for a new industrial establishment by setting aside a certain district for that specific purpose. Up to the present time many locations most suitable for industrial purposes have been subdivided into lots and blocks and improved Avith a small number of dwellings. Alany such developments adjacent to railroad tracks have made the use of this property for factory purposes impossible because the land was divided into narroAV strips by streets and alleys. Zoning should make it possible for industrial property to be developed unhampered. ' ' Examples from Other Cities. — The need of regulations required under any well considered zoning ordinance is as great in our city as in the cities AA'hose examples are cited in the following paragraphs : "Since New York City in 1916 adopted a zoning ordinance, many of the larger cities of the country have adopted such an ordinance or are engaged in the preparation of one. Newark, Philadelphia, Fresno, Omaha, Portland and Berkeley are some of the cities which have recently adopted a zoning ordi nance, while such cities as San Francisco, Rochester, Buffalo, Cleveland and Detroit are now preparing such an ordinance. "The success of the zoning ordinance in such cities as New York and St. Louis has made the advantages of such an ordinance seem essential to every city. These ordinances are accompanied by a comprehensive zoning plan of the entire city, providing for the protection of the existing improvements and the most desirable development of unimproved property. The ordinances A STUDY FOR CIVIC CENTER GROUP FOR MILAVAUKEE Designed by Alfred C. Clas, ardiiteot PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 501 provide for the control of building operations by regulating the use, height and bulk of buildings by means of certain general restrictions which are equally applicable to like districts in all parts of the city. This type of zoning ordinance provides a reasonable amount of flexibility so as to permit future modification of the plans to take care of the growth and expansion of cities. "The experiences of NeAv York and St. Louis are interesting to show the success these cities are having in the application of the zoning ordinance. From investigations made by Herbert S. SAvan, zoning consultant of New York, and Harland BartholomeAv, engineer of City Plan Commission of St. Louis, Mo., it is possible to compare the first sixteen months of operation of- the zoning ordinance in those cities. "In New York fifty- three changes were requested in the regulations estab lished by the zoning ordinance. Of these forty-seven effect use regulations and six the area regulations. Of the forty-seven requests for changes in the use regulations twenty-seven were granted; of this twenty-seven there were twenty-three for relaxation of which one was a change to an unrestricted dis trict at the expense of residence ; eight were for the extension of a commercial district at the expense of residence ; seventeen were for the extension of an unrestricted district at the expense of a commercial district. These changes were all small and many of them were because of mistakes or errors in the maps or the classification under the original plan. The area of the city affected by such changes was insignificant. "One of the most satisfactory provisions of the New York ordinance was the creation of a board of appeals. From July, 1916, to November, 1917, 483 appeals were made to this board, of which 216 were granted ; 114 denied ; 96 dismissed and 57 withdrawn. One of the most difficult problems in the adoption of a zoning ordinance is that of the public garage which is usually accompanied by a repair shop. Criticism of the original New York ordinance was made because of the difficulty in locating garages and in 1917 two amend ments were adopted, one of which permitted the erection of a garage on either side of a street between intersecting streets where one garage already existed before the adoption of the zone ordinance. The other amendment permitted the establishment of a garage in a commercial or residential dis trict upon petition signed by 80 per cent of the frontage deemed affected by the board of appeals. Benefits Derived from Zoning in New York. — ' ' The New York zoning ordi nance has prevented vast depreciation in numerous districts, while it has effected great savings in values amounting to many millions of dollars in established districts. Even in the former old residence sections of Murray Hill and Washington Square, which have practically been abandoned for several years for good residential purposes, a rehabilitation resulted from the enactment of the zoning ordinance. Another interesting and significant result of the adoption of the zoning ordinance in New York has been the production of a new and what is believed to be a better type of high buildings. "In general, it may be said that the New York ordinance has city-wide approval. During the three and a half years since its adoption there has been surprisingly little attempt to change it, while no actually significant changes PLAN OF PROPOSED PRINCIPAL EAST AND WEST ARTERIES AND THEIR RELATION TO OTHER ARTERIES BEING CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH AUDITORIUM SITE AND CITY HALL SITE Proposed by the Board of Public Land Commissioners PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 503 have been made in the ordinance itself. The ordinance has been vigorously supported upon all occasions Avhere its maintenance or existence has been threatened. General Effects of Zoning. — "Zoning is simply an extension of the funda mental principles underlying the building code, regulation of individual rights in the common interest. Its purpose is to bring an orderly city out of the present increasingly chaotic development with buildings of all types of use and of all sizes mingled together to their mutual injury. This is accomplished by establishing districts Avithin which buildings must conform to certain re quirements designed to produce a much more homogeneous development than has heretofore been the practice. "Certain sections are recognized as best adapted, either through their location or on account of existing improvements, for industrial purposes, others for light manufacturing and commercial buildings, or for local busi ness; finally the residential districts of the city need protection from all inappropriate uses. From another standpoint districts are needed, grouping buildings according to height so that those vast areas of the city in Avhich practically all the buildings would be Ioav, law or no law, will be pro tected against the intrusion of an occasional building overtowering its neighbors. Finally, the less intensively used sections, away from the heart of the city, should be protected from buildings occupying too much of the lot, especially so that the present admirable open type of residential deA-elopment may continue, free from exploitation by those who might destroy its character by congested building. "In putting zoning into effect it is not proposed to stop any existing use or require any building to be reduced in size, but as changes are made from time to time constant pressure Avill be exerted towards conformity with the zoning plan. Uses of Certain Districts. — "The districts in which the uses of a certain type of buildings are indicated are placed in four classes, each designed to meet the requirements of a particular type of use either predominating now or anticipated as the logical development of the district in the near future. This predominating use is indicated in a general way by the names of these four classes of districts as adopted in the ordinance. "In residence districts no use" is permitted except., such uses customarily associated -with residences as are recognized not .to be . detrimental to the residential character of the neighborhood. Besides places of abode, churches, educational and similar institutions are recognized as clearly within this group. rRural or suburban activities not carried on in factories, stores and similar buildings, such as farming and horticulture, both in the open and under glass are also included in the residence classification, since they normally precede the extension of residential development into the outlying sections. "These principal uses appropriate to residence districts may be accom panied by such accessory uses as are customarily incident to them, includ ing such activities within the building as may be carried on without being in any way objectionable or a detriment to the primary purpose of the neighbor hood, and including garages for private use only. • 'Jm* *% gfe hi r ,;/l '^',i id $% - M ffli ¦ <,'„*¦ - «f ¦¦•... \ ¦; <• s 1 - 15 SKETCH OF SUGGESTED GROUPING OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS By the Metropolitan Park Board PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 505 "Local business districts are provided along thoroughfares close to the residence districts to serve them with retail stores, public garages, the mak ing of such products to be sold at retail as Avill not create a nuisance to the neighborhood, and similar community needs. Residence uses are permitted in these districts. Manufacturing and Industrial Districts. — "The commercial and light man ufacturing districts include the present principal business sections and a reasonable extension thereof, as Avell as strips of territory between industrial and residence districts. Such industries as are apt to constitute nuisances if located in the center of the city or close to residential neighborhoods are prohibited, comprising slaughtering, chemical, .heavy metal and stone indus tries, and others that are offensive on account of odor, dust, smoke, gas, or noise that ordinarily attends their operation. Light manufacturing is thus encouraged to locate immediately outside the business section with its pro hibitive land values, and to utilize that very considerable area which is be coming less and less attractive for residence purposes but which has for the most part, owing to its very size, but little hope of a business future. "The industrial districts are designed to include all classes of industries that have hitherto been alloAved within the city limits, residences only being excluded, both because such districts are apt to produce very bad conditions for homes, and because the latter may interfere seriously with the successful development of an industrial area. These industrial districts comprise broad belts of land through the Menomonee Valley and south along the lake, now largely occupied by factories ; narrow strips along the Milwaukee River south of Riverside Park, and along the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway on the west side of the city; these being confined practically to existing plants. And a third type of districts which in most cases constitutes the beginning of a long industrial belt following the railroads out into the country, for example, north of Keefe Avenue and south along the Kinnickinnic, these pro viding sites appropriate for the modern type of industries covering areas of relatively cheap land reasonably close to large residential communities. In applying the use of restrictions an exception is made in the case of existing buildings and uses, which do not conform to the requirements of the district in which they are placed." Heights of Buildings.— "In each of the four classes," continues the re port, "buildings are limited to heights appropriate to the type of buildings now prevailing or to be expected to prevail in the future in the particular district. * * * In the 125-foot district the 'tower building,' so-called, in which a portion of the structure rises several stories above the main body, is permitted, with the tower occupying one-quarter of the lot to the height hitherto in effect for all buildings, namely 225 feet. This district includes the central business section, the wholesale section, and the great industrial areas of the Menomonee Valley and lake front. Although few such high buildings are anticipated in the industrial districts, occasional high indus trial buildings will hardly be likely to be injurious in these. In the downtown section it is expected that many of the future buildings will be able to reach the height set, so that eventually the business section will be dignified and A BRIDGE AND RIVER AREA STUDY FOR THE COMMERCIAL CENTER OF MILAVAUKEE Designed bv Alfred C. Clas, architect PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 507 harmoniously developed, with eA-ery property used to its full capacity con sistent with similar uses by its neighbors, instead of the present haphazard situation of four or five very high buildings interspersed with about tAventy- five other buildings of a height suitable for the Alihvaukee of the future, and hundreds of small buildings scarcely more than 'taxpayers' for the valuable land they occupy. Further Details of the Plan. — "'In a belt outside this district of maximum building height lie most of the 85-foot districts, adapted to the hoped-for light manufacturing development of the central district and a part of the south side, and to the larger apartment houses up to six stories high Avithin this district, along Grand AA-enue and on the east side, where they are already being built in numbers. Another group of 85-foot districts comprise the narrower indus trial belts and the outlying industrial districts, in Avhich buildings as high as this will not be unsuitable though it is believed that most of the indus tries will be housed in very Ioav buildings occupying large tracts. "The 60-foot districts provide for an extension of moderate sized build ings along a few of the principal thoroughfares and a similar extension of moderate sized four-story apartment houses through much of the Avest side and a portion of the east side, as well as narroAv strips along certain 85-foot industrial districts where such buildings would not be injurious and would in effect produce a desirable barrier shutting off the industries. "The 40-foot districts include all that part of the city where single and two-family dwellings are the standard. Business streets in these districts are included, since their buildings in most cases back upon residence property and the tendency of other cities to create three- or four-story slum tenements over stores is not developed in Alilwaukee. Since all residences for more than one family are limited to two and a half stories with no independent apartment in the one-half-story, all apartment houses, so generally a nuisance in home districts, are excluded. Area Districts. — "The regulations for the four classes of area districts are designed to establish and perpetuate conditions of adequate light and air, avoid congestion wherever possible, and to prevent an undue decrease in light and air and an increase in congestion in those section's where intensive build ing has already become general. These results are brought about by an exten sion of the principles established by building codes of the city and of the state industrial commission. WindoAvs required by the city building code, equaling in area one-tenth of the floor space of the room, must receive light and air from yards and courts AA'hose sizes are governed by progressive regu lations. These open spaces extend from the ground for residential buildings, elsewhere from the top of the first story. Similar restrictions fix the per centage of the lot to be occupied and, except in the inner districts, the num ber of families per acre. "The A districts include practically all heaA-y industry sections and the central portion of the city. Yards and courts are optional, depending on the design of the building and position of AA-indoAvs, but on interior lots buildings requiring light and ventilation from outside may not occupy more than 90 LAKE SHORE DRIVE AND PARKWAY EXTENDING FROM THE NORTH TO THE SOUTH LIMITS OF THE CITY Designed by Alfred C. Clas, architect ^—~ FTT- BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF MILWAUKEE'S PROPOSED PARKWAY Thirty miles of parked driveways, encircling the city and for the most part outside its present limits, are provided for in the plan of which the accompanying bird's-eye view is a reproduction and which has been submitted to the county board with the approval of the county park commission. These drives follow the courses of the Milwaukee, Menomonee and Kinnickinnic rivers and their tributaries, and connect the proposed Lake Drive, the civic center and Milwaukee parks, touching all of the city's suburbs. It is proposed to acquire the banks of the rivers and creeks where needed, plant them with trees and shrubbery and restore them as near as possible to their natural condition. Two large tracts, one northwest and one southwest of the city, will be reforested and made natural parks. Swamps along the line of the driveway are to be converted into lakes, which will serve as reservoirs to equalize the flow of water in the creeks and rivers. This will form Milwaukee's future park system. It is proposed to begin by buying the north bank of the Menominee Valley south of the Avestern end of Vliet Street. PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 509 per cent of the lot above the first story. The few neAv residential buildings that are likely to be built in this area are treated as though in the next class. The B, C and D Districts. — "The B districts include the large commercial and light manufacturing areas, and certain adjacent apartment house areas Avhere conditions of intenshe building permitted by the present building code have already become general. Rear yards of 15 feet are required and Avider for high buildings, side yards and courts if provided must be sufficient in size to insure a rather meager supply of light and air. Not OA'er 70 per cent of an interior lot may be occupied nor more than 85 per cent of a corner lot. "The C districts, bounded roughly by Cleveland Street on the south, Twenty-second AA'enue and Thirty-fifth Street on the west and Keefe Avenue and Park Place on the north, are laid out to include the great areas residential for the most part, already built up so as to occupy from 30 per cent to 50 per cent of the blocks, largely on lots about 30 feet Avide. Rear yards must be 20 feet wide or more, and other open spaces are to be so regulated as to insure fair light and A'entilation. To perpetuate the open character of the streets and front yards in those blocks in which a set-back is generally adhered to, it thereafter becomes the rule to which all must conform. "Not over 50 per cent of an interior lot may be occupied nor more than 60 per cent of a corner lot, and not more than fifty families may be housed per acre, thus preventing serious congestion. "Within the city limits the D districts occupy a relatiA-ely small belt on its edge, but it is contemplated that such districts will be almost universal for residential neighborhoods outside the present city line. "Rear yards must be at least 25 feet Avide ; and side j'ards 6 feet wide; there must be at least one side yard on every lot, and required windows must open on yards — not on courts. Not over 30 per cent of interior lots may be occupied nor more than 40 per cent of corner lots; and there shall not be more than twenty families per acre. These provisions are designed to fit closely the prevailing tendency towards lots 40 by 120 feet, with a single or two-family house thereon and will protect all such neighborhoods against the intrusion of any more congested type of development, thus insuring ade quate light and air in practically all suburban neighborhoods. When com bined with modern ideas in the arrangements of streets and open spaces these will be in effect garden suburbs, in Avhich it will be a lasting satisfaction to own a home or own an interest in a cooperative group, an ideal generally acknowledged as fundamental to the highest type of citizenship." This concludes that portion of the report of the public land commissioners prepared by Arthur C. Comey, consultant. Mr. Comey's report has not been followed literally but it is believed that the report furnished by him has been substantially given in the previous pages. It will be observed that we have not attempted in this presentation to keep the zoning and city planning reports separate. The two subjects of city planning and zoning are practically identical in their ultimate objects, and if considered as a single chapter the matter is more readily comprehended by the reader. Wise Counsels by Mr. Bassett. — In an address by Air. EdAvard AI. Bassett of THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 511 New York on the subject of "zoning," given at Alihvaukee, June 22, 1920, lie gave an interesting history of the movement in NeAv York, AA'hich Ave add here as an important contribution to the literature of the subject. "I come here from a great city of our country to another great sister city, Alihvaukee," he began, "to tell you someAA-hat of the mistakes, the Avay problems have been solved, and the great expenses caused by mistake in New York ; for Ave all have it in mind that one great sister city can learn from the mistakes and ex perience of the other great cities. Noav, I am going to tell you a story in a simple Avay, in chronological order, of one of the great problems of Greater New York, and that is the problem of chaotic building. "New York has in latter years had four great problems. The first has been its water supply. We are on salt water ; fresh Avater has to be brought many miles from the mountains, and the expense has run into hundreds of millions of dollars. That problem may be said to be well solved today and will probably remain so for a great many years to come. Let us pass on quickly to the next problem. New York City has been a congested and crowded city, with inadequate transportation. In that respect its problems have been enormous, those of a long, narroAv city, bound in by waterways on both sides, population increasing and yet having to spread out along the narrow island ; because as long as New York remained a long, narrow city, it could not be an economic city nor anything but a congested city. A round city is the most economical because it has the largest area with the shortest distances to the center. * * * "You here in Mihvaukee have one of the most admirable cities of the Avorld, with its wonderful layout of diagonal streets, so located that you can gradually build out those avenues; and for each mile you go out you tap a larger and larger area of the enormously large and Avell located territory surrounding you. New York City's Problems. — "The problem of the port of New York is the farthest from solution, largely due to our being in tAvo states, the State of New Jersey and the State of New York; but the problem AA'hich I shall par ticularly speak upon is the problem of chaotic building conditions, the harm that comes to a great city from those conditions, and what can be done to get out of it in time. "About nine years ago the great rapid transit plan was decided upon and contracts were let for subAvays and tunnels going to all parts of the city to spread out the population and bring better living conditions to both Avork- ing people and business men, because distance from one's business and from one's work is measured by time and not by geographical distance, and a city is an unsound city economically if its Avorkingmen have to travel two, two and one-half and three hours a day. "New York was getting tightly bound and had to expand its area. This rapid transit plan was the only solution. But after that was contracted for, a group of citizens, of whom I was one, considered that to let building condi tions continue as they were, so that a building of any kind could go up in any part of the city, to any height, of any form, and to be used for any purpose, was not helping the rapid transit lay-out to solve the problem of distribution v \ - - - \ PLAN OF PROPOSED PRINCIPAL EAST AND WEST ARTERIES AND THEIR RELA TION TO OTHER ARTKR1ES BEING CONSIDERED IN CONNECTION WITH REVISED PARK BOARD SITE Proposed by the Board of Public Land Commissioners PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 513 of population. We, therefore decided to cast about to see whether anything could be done in Greater New York as a follow-up of the rapid transit plan, to see that skyscrapers were avoided and to see that congested tenement houses should not pile into those places where the plan was working best, to the end that better business conditions and better living conditions and better condi tions all around could be brought to all parts of our great city. The Problem of Tall Buildings. — "We thought in the beginning that sky- scrappers were the real problem, and the only one that might perhaps haA'e some solution. Consequently, as a start, for we had to start somewhere, the board of estimate, which corresponds to your common council here, appointed a commission of citizens, eighteen in number, of various callings — builders, real estate owners, manufacturers, fire insurance men, bankers, architects, — to tackle that subject of skyscrapers, because the lower part of our city, and elsewhere, too, had buildings going up to unprecedented height. Some of them were monuments that wealthy men would cause to be built to commemorate their business success, and for various other reasons. They were not commercial successes, because they were so exceedingly tall. In the lower part of the city especially there were canyons for streets, and the lower floors of these skyscrapers were so dark that they were actually used for storage purposes, and only the upper stories were used- for offices. "Sewers were overburdened, rapid transit lines were overcrowded. If the lower part of our city were built up entirely with buildings as high as some of them were, it would be absolutely impossible to make enough rapid transit lines to carry the occupants of those buildings back and forth. One great building held so many people that the entire original subway would need to be operated to its full capacity for twenty minutes in order to carry the occupants of that building away from there. "And so this commission I have mentioned tackled that problem, Avorking at such questions as building costs and operating expenses, to determine whether high buildings were sound as a business proposition; and they ac tually found that a large proportion of the buildings of New York City would pay much better if they had been lower in height. "After two years of work the commission came to the conclusion that the skyscraper problem in New York City Avas only a part of the problem. It found that only about one-half of one per cent of the area of Greater New York was affected by the skyscraper problem. It speedily found from its investigations that building heights throughout the whole city were part of the problem, and that if regulation could be brought about which would help the AA'hole city, this would be far more advantageous. R:ght down in the lower part of our city where many people think there isn't room for all the skyscrapers that want to go up there, it is not in fact built up with high buildings to one-quarter of the available area. They also found that not only was it a question of heights of buildings, but the use they Avere put to. Therefore this commission proposed a statute applying to the City of New York whereby a comprehensive remedy of chaotic building conditions could be found. Now what were those problems? I will survey a few of them. Vol. 1—3 3 .!'»¦ as Ji« n J« * < ; , p-«r • n, Hi *^ ' !--**" ' - ! 'M * T^f^w^nwii, wl1.* Pi? 0 M- ^criAt ^tcrff. A SCHEME FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MILWAUKEE RIA'ER. THIS DESIGN SHOWS THE POSSIBILITIES OF NARROAVING THE MILAVAUKEE RIA'ER AND PARALLELING THE BANKS AVITH BOULEVARDS Designed by Alfred C. Clas, architect PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 515 Review of New York City's Problems. — "A private house such as may be found among the many beautiful homes in Milwaukee was purely a speculative enterprise in NeAv York City, because five years after it was built there was nothing to prevent a garage from going up on the next lot. In the outlying parts a factory would come in a certain district and soon one's home was in the center of a blighted district. Garages were placed directly on the prop erty line in private residential districts and built out to the street line, forth with casting ruin about them. A single garage, costing in a certain instance $40,000, caused a loss of $200,000 in adjacent property values. Private house districts Avere invaded by tenement houses, tenement houses were invaded by factories, bright retail streets Avere invaded by factories, and in one way and another these hivasions Avere affecting every part of the city, some times people in whole localities would pick up their business and move away. The millions of dollars that were lost in New York City by the creation of these blighted districts can never be repaid, and in many cases families have been ruined because business left their properties and went to some other place, causing untold hardship. "Fifth Avenue, the brightest business street in NeAv York City, was on the way to ruin because of the invasion of sweatshops, garment makers, and so on. The way that came about was this : Fifth Avenue being a broad street, with high land values, was built up with high buildings, but it was found that there was not sufficient demand for offices above the retail stores, so that rents were low enough to attract the garment maker, especially since he could thereby have a Fifth Avenue address. So gradually these garment makers and others wedged themselves into this bright business street. What was the result? Crowds and crowds of garment workers went up and down Fifth Avenue, five and six abreast, daily, morning, noon and evening, croAvd- ing out the shopper, and very soon the shoppers deserted that part of Fifth Avenue. "These chaotic conditions were causing such harm in our city that it became absolutely necessary to bring about some remedy, and the law which allowed the board of estimate to appoint a zoning commission, or as it was called then, a districting commission, Avas the attempted solution. I had the honor to be chairman of both the Heights of Buildings Commission and also the Zoning Commission. Altogether we worked seA-en years to solve these problems. Remedies for the Chaotic Conditions. — "In NeAv York we had to bring on some solution quickly. It was not the question of doing it for our future city; it was a question of doing it to save our city. You have the future still ahead of you and can prevent the dreadful mistakes and the dreadful losses Avhich New York City was the victim of. "This new commission proposed to utilize the 'police power,' so-called, of the City of New York in relation to the height, area and use of buildings. They did not apply condemnation because condemnation implies that you find out how much it is worth to take away part of a man's absolute control of his own property and then assess that cost on somebody else. That could never have been carried out. Nor would private restrictions do it. 516 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "Consequently, the city had to look to that community power, or police power, which is resorted to for the sake of health, safety, for fire protection, and which is nothing more than requiring one man or one owner to give up somewhat Of the absolute control of his own property for the benefit of all the community, while he is recompensed by being protected along with all others against common calamities. So Ave decided to apply the police power in our effort to make order out of chaos. "We did not have many precedents to go by, because precedents Avere mostly in Europe, where governments are Avithout written constitutions, where the courts cannot set aside any act of a legislative body. But in our country, with our written constitutions and so on, it is possible for the courts to set aside any regulations, unless they are strictly within the recognized scope of the police power. "Now the police power can be invoked only for the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the community. It cannot be invoked for aesthetics alone. If invoked at all it must be done without discrimination, with fair ness, and without confiscation. Along those lines we gradually perfected a law which is now called the zoning law. The word zone was applied orig inally in those European cities that had walls around them such as Vienna. When they took down those walls they would replace them with a boulevard and build outside of it a residential district, calling it the residential zone. That term has gradually been adapted in this country, and though it is not strictly applicable, it seems to suit the popular fancy better than the word districting, which is confused with various political districts; so that now in the great cities of our country, by the act of the people themselves, the word zoning has come to be used. "The way zoning was accomplished in NeAv York City was by the making of three maps, one controlling heights, one controlling areas, and one con trolling use, whether industrial, business or residential. The requirements of those districts differ in different parts of the city, the power to do that being delegated by the state. "The zoning resolution was passed by the board of estimate four years ago, and has been in operation since then, working admirably and smoothly, and the people of the City of New York Avould no more get along without their zoning law than they would Avithout their fire protection, health de partment or school system. There was no confiscation of existing property, a man that had his factory in a residential district Avas protected in his in vestment. But new buildings have to conform to these reasonable and orderly requirements. Formerly people as soon as they got an income of $15,000 would move out of the city somewhere where they could have a home which they felt was reasonably protected. "But today, with these private residential districts established, a man is more secure in his home and is so protected that he can leave it to his son and to his son's son. Today home localities have a greater land value, be cause they are set apart for private homes; and corner lots that were held undeveloped with the intention of putting up corner apartments after private restrictions ran out are now being built up Avith better private homes than PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 517 those surrounding them, and miles and miles of the streets of Greater New York are being filled with these fine, protected private homes. Furthermore, land value on the business streets are greater than they used to be, because business also is protected. Fifth Avenue has been saved because manufac turing is prevented from going further up Fifth AA'enue, and by the "Save New York" movement it has actually been pressed back into the lower part of NeAv York City. Alanufacturers find their appropriate place among the railroads, waterways and water fronts Avhere they too are protected. "So that all classes of people in NeAv York, without any exception what ever, are protected by the zoning laAv. Advantages Possessed by Milwaukee. — "Now, here in this city you have begun with the advantage of the precedents of New York and other cities that have ploAved the neAv ground and with the benefit of their mistakes. With your admirable lay-out you ought to have a better zoning plan than New York has; and you have got it. Your public servants have adopted a plan which takes in the best features of the New York plan, of that of St. Louis, and other cities. All of the great cities in this country are working on zoning plans : none of them are in as good a position as you are here. Your proposed ordinance and the maps that have been prepared by your able commission are most admirable and I sincerely hope that they will be adopted by your officials. "As a student of this subject who has kept track of what has gone on in this country and in European cities, I want to submit a word of highest commendation for the common sense that has been applied in this city. It has been done after prolonged study of underlying data, and any one here would profit by going to the city hall and seeing that admirable system of maps and statistics that has been prepared there by Mr. Stoelting under the Board of Public Land Commissioners, of which Air. Whitnall is the chair man. Air. Comey from Boston has brought the experience of the United States to Alilwaukee, and with his knowledge, which is the most exact and sound, I think, of any of the practitioners in this science in the United States, your city has the benefit of a very, very able man, as well as the experience of every other great city in the country. "You are on the threshold of an improvement which will be as important to you as new streets or rapid transit railroads. When you think that in my city the zoning plan cost $67,000 and the subway plan cost $400,000,000, and the zoning plan is doing as much for my city as the rapid transit plan is doing, then it brings to you some appreciation of the helpfulness of discrim inating and far seeing zoning work as applied to a city like Milwaukee. If you are going to grow to be a city of two, three, four and five million peo ple — and you are — now is the time to put some of these sensible, sound regu latory ordinances into effect because in New York City today the only fault that is found with the zoning plan is that the city did not adopt it forty years ago." Heights of Buildings Considered. — History is written not only to record the past with its mistakes and failures for the instruction of posterity, and to point the way so far as it is within the ability of the historian to do so, THE A'ON STEUBEN MONUMENT Located near the entrance to Washington Park PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 519 toAvards a better and safer course in the future ; but also to place a proper valuation upon the grand achievements of the self-sacrificing men engaged in their promotion. The most efficient means of realizing the aims and pur poses of those Avho labor for the improvement of our laws and customs, for the welfare of our community and the betterment of methods, is the duty and within the scope of the Historian for the guidance of those who may here after be clothed Avith authority. We therefore willingly dwell upon the accounts of the various movements and far-seeing proposals of our boards and commissions which have striven for the ends held in view. Some repetition is inevitable in the historical dis cussion of the great movements which in recent years have arisen and which are practically new in this generation. Thus, for example, we shall present the subject of the heights of buildings in Milwaukee in the following pages, though as we have seen in Edward M. Bassett 's address he has had much to say on the subject. The views embodied in the 1920 report of the Board of Public Land Commissioners in the pamphlet, "Restricted Heights of Build ings," demand appropriate attention. "Four years ago," the report says, "the City of New York broke aAvay from the old established principle that a man may do with his property Avhat ever he wishes to, and accepted the more . democratic principle that the gen eral welfare of the public precedes the rights of individuals. Great property losses, excessive congestion and a serious menace to the health of the com munity resulted to such an extent from haphazard development of real estate and particularly because of the increase in so-called 'skyscrapers' that a proper coordination of many of the factors in city organization became im perative. It became distressingly evident that certain facilities, such as tranS' portation, street accommodation, etc., no longer functioned properly, and that the desperate situation required an immediate remedy. "To many good citizens in almost all American cities skyscrapers were tangible evidence of material wealth and prosperity, and civic pride or a conviction that high buildings were desirable, prompted their erection in large numbers. But the plight in which New York noAv finds itself began to appear in incipient form in all coast and inland cities of considerable size, and the necessity of checking its growth became a recognized civic duty. Zoning ordinances are therefore under consideration in a majority of our larger cities and in Alilwaukee the Board of Public Land Commissioners has for upwards of a year gathered necessary data and has prepared an ordinance which is now ready for adoption. Outline of the Proposed Zoning Ordinance. — "By virtue of this ordinance the city is divided into districts or zones under three headings : The first is the 'use' districting designed to prevent the encroachment of undesirable types of buildings or uses to which such buildings may be put in certain districts, thus affording a protection to property values and the general Avel fare of the public. The second is the 'area' districting which is designed to provide sufficient light and air in all types of buildings or districts. The third is the 'height' districting designed to provide sufficient light and air and to prevent congestion and other conditions inimical to the general welfare. t*J.^4fciJt. • *¦• *-*r»-*-«s '*£&&*. ji ji__ Hi j : — 1. Mi PLAN PROPOSED BY THE METROPOLITAN PARK BOARD IN 1909 PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 521 "In the public hearings conducted by the Board of Public Land Commis sioners, little opposition was expressed regarding the 'use' and 'area' pro visions of the proposed ordinance. But to the limitation of building heights considerable objection was taken. The reasons which led the Board of Public Land Commissioners to propose certain height restrictions were not known or understood and unsupported charges of impracticability were frequently made. Because the restrictions are eminently practical and most highly de sirable and because a thorough understanding of the underlying reasons for such restrictions is thought to remove many if not all objections, this pres entation of facts is offered. Various Heights of Buildings Considered. — "It has been charged that the comparatively low limits provided for in the proposed ordinance were adopted mainly because of aesthetic considerations. Were this true the height limits obtaining in European cities Avould have been preferred. London, whose volume of business is equal to or exceeds that of New York, limits its build ings to a height of eighty feet. Paris has set a limit of sixty-six feet, Berlin a limit of seventy-two feet, Edinburgh sixty feet, Hamburg seventy-eight feet, and in spite of the fact that American cities have erected skyscrapers for thirty odd years, no European city has chosen to emulate us in that respect. "That concentration of workers is not without value is conceded. But it is only within certain limits, a happy medium as it were, that the value so achieved is not offset by serious disadvantages and it is the problem of a eity planning board to determine where the disadvantages become serious. "To those who are familiar with New York and Philadelphia, or for that matter, with the business center of any large American city, it must be evident that there exists a definite relation between street capacity and the capacity of buildings erected on those streets. And it must be evident also that this relation has been so little regarded that few downtown streets in America are now adequate for the proper distribution of pedestrians. In New York, during peak hours, many streets have become quite useless to retail dealers because of excessive crowding and in many other cities the progress of pe destrians is so retarded as to cause serious difficulties in the event of fire or panic. There is not a street in lower New York which will hold 100 per cent of the occupants of the buildings fronting on it and the same holds true of most of the business streets in other large cities. "During the peak hours there are to be found on Grand Avenue between West Water Street and Second Street and on the south side of the street an average of four to six hundred pedestrians. Were this block to hold a six teen-story office building, having a frontage of the entire block, an addition of some four thousand persons would use this block during these peak times. And were all the blocks, from the river to Sixth Street, likewise covered with sixteen-story office buildings, a congestion would result which it would be difficult to cope with; for the sidewalk capacity in any one of these blocks is only about nine hundred persons. Milwaukee will one day be a city of a million or more inhabitants, and such a development of skyscrapers on each side of the street is not an impossibility if restrictions are withheld. The Problem of Transportation. — "The problem of rapid transportation A LAKE FRONT STUDY The above shows a bridge which will span the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad tracks at the head of Mason Street. In the background will be noted a Memorial Peristile. This plan has been accepted by the Milwaukee Park Board. Designed by Alfred C. Clas, architect A STUDY FOR MILWAUKEE'S FUTURE BRIDGE AND RIVER DOCK AREA IN THE CENTER OF THE CITY Designed by Alfred C. Clas, architect PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 523 of passengers from highly congested areas to outlying districts is always a difficult and most costly one to solve. It is one of the very undesirable by products of unrestricted building heights, and seems never possible of a satis factory solution. It has been stated by a prominent city planning expert that had New York restricted its office buildings to a reasonable height the street and transportation facilities Avould have been adequate for several hun dred years to come. To-day, in the words of Lawson Purdy, the former tax commissioner of the great metropolis, the situation in New York is desperate and the future hopeless. Similar conditions, though perhaps not so aggra vated, confront Milwaukee if skyscrapers are permitted to be erected in great numbers. "Isolated skyscrapers afford as a rule air and light to its occupants in sufficient amount, but often at the expense of adjoining properties. When many skyscrapers are erected in close proximity to one another, they destroy many of the advantages enjoyed by the first of their number. In some in stances it has become necessary to abondon for office purposes lower floors because of lack of light and ventilation and by reducing rentals induce small manufacturers or storage concerns to occupy the premises. But where such changes in the type of tenants have been effected increasing deterioration in the health of persons employed in these buildings has been noted. * * * Dr. Gustav F. Boehme, Jr., neurologist, testified to the rapid increase in nervous disorders and troubles, and to the very direct relation between such increase and the present high buildings and hap-hazard development and the congestion, noise and confusion incident thereto. The necessity 'for re ducing the stress and strain of city life is becoming more and more apparent. Public health and vitality must be conserved rather than abused and ex hausted. The Danger Prom Fires. — "That fireproof buildings are proof against danger in a general conflagration has been amply disproved in the catastrophes which visited Baltimore and San Francisco many years ago. While their destruction may not be complete they and their contents are sufficiently sub ject to fire damage to cause panic and thereby may cause congestion in the streets sufficient to seriously hamper the work of the fire department. Streets densely packed with crowds of people that quickly form in the event of fire, render the movement of fire apparatus difficult and the outpouring of large numbers of people from nearby buildings is more than likely to result in tragic consequences. .It is more than foolhardy to ignore such possibilities by piling story on story and further extending the danger zone. "The fire department cannot fight a fire from the outside more than 85 feet to 100 feet above the ground. Above that they must rely on stand pipes in the building. If the stand pipe does not work or if the fire is so near the stand pipe as to render its use impracticable the fire department becomes helpless. No fatal fire in a modern high building has yet occurred but it is not an impossibility. Though fires in tall buildings may be controlled, panics cannot be. "Edward S. Devlin, superintendent of the New York Life Insurance Com pany, testified before the New York Commission that insurance companies >•' l- -~1_Jj i l Hj ?* *; Kit ' "S- .. ~t~* %\ &£ v'r. L_~ AUDITORIUM SITE Suggested plan for grouping of public buildings. By the Board of Public Land Commissioners PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 525 recognized the additional hazard attending so-called skyscrapers by increas ing their rates with progressive stories. "Edmund Dwight, president of the Casualty Insurance Company, in pleading for lower buildings, testified as follows: 'I desire to put myself on record as believing that the time has come in New York when there should be a most rigid limitation to the height of buildings and that very high build ings constitute a greatly added menace and peril to the community.' "William Guerin, acting chief, Bureau of Fire Prevention, (1913) testified that for New York a height limits of 150 feet could be supported as a reason able regulation under the police powers of the state and Edward Hardy, rep resenting the New York Fire Insurance Exchange, held a limit of 125 feet to be satisfactory. "Sewage and water supply problems are also greatly complicated by the presence of very tall buildings through the over taxing of their capacities. Land Valuations. — "It has been held that skyscrapers are necessitated by the high valuation placed on downtown property by tax assessors. This con tention is not borne out by the records of the local tax commissioner's office. The increase in assessed valuations of downtown properties is on a par with increases in other parts of the city where skyscrapers are little likely to be erected. The effect of skyscrapers on adjoining properties seems to be detri mental rather than otherwise because of the curtailment of light and air, as the attached letter from E. H. Bodden, Milwaukee's tax commissioner, illus trates. It is a condition common to all large cities. In New York many hun dred thousands of dollars are lost to the city because of the lowered assessed valuation of costly skyscrapers due to loss of air and light when such build ings were crowded one next to the other. In taking to themselves a majority of office tenants, skyscrapers further retard a general development of prop erty for many years, giving the city a ragged, wild and provincial appearance. "As the architects of Milwaukee have asked that a limit of 185 feet be considered for downtown properties, it is but just to them to state why a limit of 125 feet is preferable. "Any height limit exceeding the street width is a concession to American precedent and what are thought to be business requirements. From the stand point of public health, congestion and fire dangers, the height limitations set by European cities would be preferable by far. But in the opinion of lead ing architects and others who testified before the New York Heights of Build ings Commission, a skyscraper is not a source of great profit at best. These architects also testified that a ten or twelve-story building has reached the logical limit because the cost per cubic foot increases arithmetically with the increase of stories beyond such heights. "A limitation of 125 feet is therefore not a hardship on property own ers, and though a concession as above stated, it will tend to keep in hand the dangers incident to groups of skyscrapers. For such reasons Boston set a limit of 125 feet in 1911, Washington a limit of 110 feet, and New York a limit of 125 feet for Fifth Avenue. A similar limit for Milwaukee seems to be well within reason." The letter of E. H. Bodden, Milwaukee's tax commissioner, referred to in DR. E. B. AVOLCOTT MONUMENT, LAKE PARK PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 527 a previous paragraph, is appended : ' ' Answering your questionnaire of October 6, 1920, 'Does the height, area and use of buildings erected in any locality affect the assessable value of adjoining property?' will say that my annual instructions to the assessors of this department recognizes the fact that it does and the assessment rolls show numerous instances where allow ances have been made upon adjoining property due to the detrimental effect of such buildings. One of the late cases in point is the Abbot building, sit uated on the northwest corner of Milwaukee and Mason streets, just east of the Milwaukee Athletic Club. Air. Abbot appeared before the board and pointed out the fact that, due to the extreme height of the club building, the five lower floors on the Avest side of the Abbot building have been greatly affected, making it necessary to use artificial light throughout the day and thereby materially reducing the revenue derived from said building. The committee appointed to investigate the situation reported back to the board that an allowance of $25,000 should be made, and the same was ratified by the board. Numerous allowances have been made in residence districts due to apartment houses, public garages and other objectionable buildings being placed therein. "My personal views on zoning is that it is a step in the right direction which should have been taken years ago. I heartily agree with Lawson Purdy, former tax commissioner of New York City, in his conclusion on zoning, 'Zoning, properly conceived and carried out, constitutes not only a definite recognition of equality in ownership, but an important protection of taxable values.' " Examples of Various Cities. — In the introduction to the 1920 report of the Board of Public Land Commissioners, the examples of certain foreign and American cities are considered. "Hundreds of Milwaukeeans have visited or lived in the great and beauti ful cities of the world, and, through the moving pictures and other sources, thousands have become familiar with the renowned streets and public squares of Europe and of this country. And it is safe to assume that in the minds of all but those to whom imagination and public spirit have been denied, there has often arisen a wish that our city might also boast of such evidences of civic pride and prosperity as they have learned to admire. "Milwaukee County has been richly blessed with natural beauties which a far-seeing and courageous Park Board is now striving to conserve for the benefit of future generations. * * * That the 'Cream City' would ever count a half million souls within its confines was not thought likely in the early days, and adequate provision for the business and social activities of such multitudes was not considered a pressing problem. And so the city greAV, heedless of its future possibilities, developing a half dozen business districts, none of them more interesting than a ledger page, ignoring for years the beauty of its bay, indifferent to the appearance of its river front, entirely unconscious of the relation between business prosperity and a well-planned system of highways and secondary streets. Be it said that to the credit of the founders that the old Courthouse Park and City Hall Square do indicate an early appreciation of the desirablity of civic beauty. HoAvever, after the 528 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE City of Milwaukee had joined to itself Kilbourn Town and Walker's Point, the mere multiplication of streets and blocks, one like the other, gives ample proof that foresight and courageous leadership were not conspicuous ele ments in the city's physical growth. Milwaukee's Relation to Chicago. — -"Milwaukee bears to Chicago much the same relation that Philadelphia bears to New York. Both cities are an equal distance from their larger neighbors. Both cities have become im portant manufacturing centers, providing homes for thousands of working people. New York and Chicago are by virtue of their geographical positions enormous trading points, dominating commercially all the cities, large and small, within a radius of hundreds of miles. Philadelphia has become a city of two millions of souls and Milwaukee, but seventy-five years old, has nearly reached the half million mark. It is, therefore, no idle speculation to assert that our city may also be classed among the cities of upward of a million in the not distant future. It is, indeed, a certainty that in growth of numbers we shall also resemble the Quaker City unless we deliberately thwart natural tendencies through lack of courage and foresight, or parsimony * * * "The Board of Public Land Commissioners is confident that the people of the County and City of Milwaukee, through their county board of supervisors and common council, accept the belief that we are at the threshold of a great future. It is also convinced that these two legislative bodies desire the prob lems of city planning to be approached in a spirit of courage and in the light of a great responsibility. For to do otherAvise is to invite two consequences which will not redound to the credit of the Milwaukee of the first decades of this century. Timidity and parsimony can only result in half measures, which in a comparatively short time, must prove inadequate and then Avill require of the citizens additional appropriations to meet the demands at a cost many times enhanced. Or if we lack courage, if we refuse to lay the foundation for what we are more than reasonably sure is bound to come, other cities, more alive to the situation, will attract to themselves those industries and wide awake citizens who demand advantages and not alone low taxes. "Fortunately the errors of commission and omission, with which we must deal are not insurmountable. In comparison Avith the problems of other cities, ours are not difficult of solution. Chicago, through the efforts of the Chicago Commercial Club, has prepared a plan for rearranging and recon structing a considerable part of that city, which, if carried out in its entirety, will require many years of time and scores of millions of dollars to complete. But our neighbor's motto is "I WILL," and the foundations for a city of four million people are well advanced. Philadelphia has completed a diagonal boulevard through the heart of the city at a cost of $16,000,000 and in 1916 appropriated $114,000,000 for other city planning projects. St. Paul, Min neapolis, St. Louis, Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Boston and New York, in fact all of the leading cities of America are contemplating or engaged in making corrections of past errors. Every European capital and many of the large commercial centers have for years paid constant attention to city planning problems and have rebuilt maiiy sections to meet modern condi tions and to aA'oid future waste. Such problems as transportation, harbor PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 529 and river improvements, arterial highway systems, industrial housing, parks, recreation grounds, civic centers, zoning, and a multitude of other needs classed under the head of 'City Planning' confront all large and growing cities, and Mihvaukee cannot, and will not, ignore them. "Paris in the days of Louis XIV; i. e., about 1700 A. D., Avas a rapidly growing and congested city. The architects selected by the king foresaw the development of the magnificent metropolis now existing. They, therefore, went outside the Avails of the compact city and laid out plans upon which Paris has been builded. The Madeleine, the Place de la Concorde, the great axial avenue from the gardens of the Tuileries to the Place de l'Etoile, all existed on paper decades before they Avere finally realized in the building of the city. "The lesson for Milwaukee in this is, that as Paris increased in size, it grew according to a well devised plan and that the greater portion of the conveniences, impressiveness and beauty of modern Paris was obtained at prac tically no money cost. Good sense, foresight and courage made up the only price paid. A similar opportunity lies within the grasp of Mihvaukee. Paris and London. — "Modern Paris is largely a creation from the mind of Baron Haussmann in the 'fifties.' His plans tended toAvard providing adequate circulation of traffic within the city, by cutting neAv streets and widening old ones, by sweeping away unwholesome rookeries and opening up great spaces so as to provide proper approaches and environments for monuments of beauty and historic interest. He grouped the raihvay stations in the center of the city and opened up fine avenues of approach to them. He cut neAv streets Avherever necessary, taking special care to create diagonal thoroughfares to shorten distance for all traffic. Haussmann is acclaimed by all the Avorld as the greatest city builder of all times. When he began Paris had a population of half a million people as Alilwaukee has now (1922). He left Paris Avorkir.g under a complete plan by Avhich the city may be ex tended for a century without losing any of its conveniences, healthfulness, or other great metropolitan qualities. Haussmann 's theory was that money thus spent made a better city, and that a better city is a great producer of wealth. Experience has proved that this theory was correct. Paris today is a city of 4,000,000 inhabitants, and is by all odds the most convenient, the most beautiful, the most impressive of all the cities of the world. "London, after the fire of 1666, had a greater opportunity to build a city of convenience, economy and wealth-producing and conservative capacity, than ever was presented in Paris. The occasion brought forth the man to best bestow the great boon of good order upon the British capital in the person of Sir Chr'stopher Wren, one of the Avorld's greatest architects. Sir Chris topher's plans contemplated a city Avith streets radiating from central points Avith locations for public buildings at the ends of long and pleasing vistas. But these plans were cast aside because of the self-interest of some of Lon don's citizens * * * . In 1855, under the spur of the Paris example, the Londoners began to repair the errors of their city's past. To secure a small part of that which Paris had secured for nothing but the exercise of fore sight, they have undertaken projects on a vast scale. Vol. 1—3 4 * -. - .J $ m \7^%f 1 » A jL . ^f SKETCH OF SUGGESTED GROUPING OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS ON AND ABOUT THE CITY HALL SITE. BY THE BOARD OF PUBLIC LAND COMMISSIONERS PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 531 Plans of the Public Land Commissioners. — "Your Board of Public Land Commissioners was organized but a few years ago to study the stupendous problems of city planning as they relate to Milwaukee. It is a task which should and will take years to accomplish. There must be gathered a be wildering amount of data, both as to general principles and details. Close study must be given to decisions made in other cities and the success or failure of actual accomplishments. The conclusions arrived at by your board must stand the test of public approval and much discussion, and quite possibly, many differences of opinion will retard final action. But the work is now well under Avay. As an initial step much information has already been gath ered and arranged, and based on that a comprehensive highway system is being gradually and carefully developed. If far from complete, the board's study has clearly demonstrated the needs for widened thoroughfares. This study has shown that former diagonals now obliterated by the checker board system of streets must be replaced and that both electric street railway and freight and passenger railway problems must be considered in relation to the street system. The board has also determined that if the placing of a group of public buildings, or as it has been termed, a "Civic Center" or "Administration Group," should bear a direct relation to the street system, then the choice of a desirable location for it is rather limited. That such a relation should obtain is an opinion held by all city planners. "The group of leading architects and prominent experts in city planning who developed the great plan of Chicago agreed that the Civic Center should be located in the very heart of the future business district of the city; i. e., at the intersection of Congress Street and Halsted Street. They have, fur thermore, planned on placing this future group at the meeting point of ten great arteries and diagonals which as much as any agency will cause this district to become the business hub of the city. The planners apparently did not contemplate or fear, the blocking of the natural development of the business district. "We in Milwaukee have arrived to-day at that crucial period where our decisions, one way or the other, will materially influence the development and physical character of our city for many, many years to come. It is an extremely serious proposition which^ confronts us and it merits the most careful study and broadest and best judgment conceived in a patriotic spirit entirely purged of even a suggestion of selfishness. Honest differences of opinion are bound to be held, but if the discussions are conducted in a friendly and frank spirit, having as a goal nothing but the ultimate good of Milwau kee, a logical conclusion will be arrived at which all will be willing to accept." Champions of the Zoning Ordinance. — President C. B. Whitnall of the Public Land Commission supports the position taken by the municipality in the following manner : Zoning of a city is based upon a recognition of environmental influences. It is these influences that determine where the violet shall perfume the atmosphere, where the whippoorwill shall sing his evening song, where the brook trout shall swim. We have come to realize that environmental influ ences determine largely what we shall be. We know that the inmates of CIVIC CENTER PLAN No. 1 Submitted by the Milwaukee Real Estate Board otj: CIVIC CENTER PLAN No. 2 Submitted bv the Milwaukee Real Estate Board PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 533 our penitentiaries, our hospitals and our slum tenements are victims mostly of environmental influences over which as individuals they have no control. The zoning ordinance was enacted to stabilize values and to protect one class of property from injury by others, but there are other vital factors. While the ordinance is a protective measure, it is manifest by amendments offered that some feel otherwise. People too often lay stress upon their inde pendence and freedom and are actuated by a selfish conception of their right to "do as they please." Meaning of Interdependence We are learning the greater value of under standing the true meaning of interdependence. Many citizens have yet to learn that this earth belongs to God and that we are but sojourners here ; that to live together in harmony with his (Nature's) law, which is essential to our welfare, we have by agreement adopted rules and regulations which we call law. Since we began to realize how we are suffering by waste of physical and mental vigor, caused by too many of us being in discord and not within reach of those essential natural influences, the zoning ordinance has evolved. Its importance is far greater than is indicated by economic measurements. Ordinance Looks Forward. — Milwaukee's zoning ordinance is not retro active, but should prevent us from growing worse. We have not yet provided the facilities for growing better — the means by which we may within a few years reach the goal indicated by the zoning ordinance. A stream may be dammed, but the engineer who constructed the dam without providing an other outlet would hardly be worth his hire. Three very important projects are being promoted to facilitate the ex pansion of industry and increase of population with such environmental in fluences as are conductive to efficiency for the industries and wholesome living conditions for residences. Arteries of Traffic. — The first in the arterial system of travelways, of which Cedar and Biddle streets form the trunk, from which broad, comfortable road ways are to connect all localities within the city and county, with the state trunk highways. These when completed will shorten the time and lessen the expense and danger of traffic within a radius of fifteen miles from our civic center more efficiently than is now experienced within the present city limits. The second is the parkway, which comes within the domain of the county and city park boards. This encompasses the natural water courses surround ing the city and connects Milwaukee with all its suburbs. This is to be a boulevard or rest»-ii-teJ drive more than thirty miles in extent, connecting all parks, inci'iding all the bluffs and romantic spots near the city, and con serving those environmental influences which park experts recognize as es sential to wholesome living conditions. Provides Industrial Areas. — This parkway, although well worth while as a place for assemblage and recreation, will have a far more important func tion. It will afford a basis for platting residential areas adjacent on each side and between the arteries mentioned. The third of these projects is the selection of areas to facilitate the estab- THE KOSCIUSZKO MONUMENT AT KOSCIUSZKO PARK -0,8189 9i.j 9,1- PROSPECTIVE AIILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 535 lishment and expansion of industry to an unlimited degree, but in those directions and in those areas best suited to the requirements of industries. These plans, if steadily developed, should within eight years remove all the objections now raised by the near-sighted to the restrictions of the zoning ordinance. Apartment houses will be emptied as our beer gardens were after the opening of Lake and Washington parks. Skyscrapers will become un profitable. In short, the attractive and economical alternathe will accompany every restrictive measure imposed. The money required is an investment not an expense.Personnel of the Land Commission. — The men who have given mo mentum to public sentiment in the direction of municipal art and who have provided comprehensive schemes for the grouping of public buildings, for an arterial system and for the creation of a connected boulevard and parkway about the whole city, are William H. Schuchardt, Charles B. Whitnall, and Edward Grieb. The latter has been succeeded as a member of the commission by Max Friedman. Mr. Schuchardt is an enthusiast who has made extensive studies in out door art both in the cities of Europe and the United States. Mr. Whitnall is a former florist and landscape artist who has for many years quietly but incessantly striven for the beautiful, combined with the practical, in city planning and outdoor art. Mr. Grieb has been a force in energetically over coming the legal and financial barriers which have from time to time ob structed progress. He now serves as the purchasing agent for the munici pality in securing the lands required in carrying out the commission's plans. Plans of the Milwaukee Real Estate Board. — This body has given expres sion to its ideas on a civic center in the submission of two plans which are presented in this volume. The board proceeds upon the thought : 1. To group the different buildings in such a way that they will be con veniently located and have an architectural setting which will be both artistic and practical. 2. To improve the traffic conditions in the downtown section so that con gestion will in the future be avoided as far as possible. The Real Estate Board believes that the traffic problem should not be sub ordinated to the architectural effect. It holds that in the proposed civic center scheme Cedar Street should become the main thoroughfare on the West Side. Its reasoning is that as Prospect Avenue, Warren Avenue, and Racine Street, are all to be opened up to lead into Biddle Street, this will result in bringing practically all of the East Side traffic down Biddle Street and across the new proposed Biddle-Cedar Street bridge, into Cedar Street. From a traffic standpoint it would seem imperative that Cedar Street should become the main thoroughfare on the West Side, as several million dollars will have to-be spent in these several street widening propositions. It, therefore, does not favor the scheme of extending the widening of Cedar Street to 180 feet only to Eighth Street, as now contemplated, and diverting from there the traffic north to State Street and south to Grand Avenue. It would seem, the board holds, that according to these plans there is great danger of very decided congestion, especially at the corner of Grand Avenue 536 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE and Eighth Street, as much of the greater portion of the west-bound traffic Avhich now is divided betAveen Grand Avenue and Cedar Street, will go up Grand Avenue and will have to turn at Eighth Street. This tarn will have to be made at the head of the rather steep grade between Wells and Grand Avenue, and for the traffic eastAvard, would be across street and left-hand turn. In Plan No. 1, the idea of placing the courthouse in a commanding loca tion across Cedar Street has been retained, but Cedar Street has been con tinued to Ninth Street with a "Plaza" in its center between Eighth and Ninth Streets providing space for a beautiful monument, or a grand column or light tower. From Ninth Street, Cedar Street is led into Wells Street to the south at a width of 120 feet and also into a street south of State Street at the same width, and from Eleventh Street, Cedar Street is continued to a 120-foot width up to Sixteenth Street. As Sixteenth Street is to be an arterial highway and is to be widened, traffic from there on can go south to Grand Avenue. If it should be found subsequently that traffic assumes such propor tions as to require the widening of Cedar Street beyond Sixteenth Street, this can always be done when necessity may require it. This plan is deemed advantageous for the following reasons: 1. The traffic going east and west over Cedar Street can flow without impediment except for the curves from Cedar Street to Wells and State streets. 2. The east and west-bound traffic at these curves will be separated. 3. The property on the east side of Eighth Street between Wells and Grand Avenue will not have to be purchased, and the Grand Avenue front age would have been the most expensive land to be purchased in the entire Civic Center area. 4. Considerable additional space will be gained for public buildings in at least three blocks, those between Wells, Cedar, Seventh and Eighth streets, and between Cedar, State, Seventh, and Eighth, and between Wells, Cedar, Eighth and Ninth streets. 5. The street approach to the courthouse will be infinitely better. Every architectural advantage of the Public Land Commission plan has been retained, but the width of the proposed courthouse of 750 feet has been cut down to 525 feet. There is ample room for further future extensions if such should ever be required, but the building as marked on the plan would be one of the largest public buildings in the country. Plan No. 2 shows Cedar Street open all the way except for a curve around a Plaza between Eighth and Ninth streets Avhich would be attractively beau tified. It provides for Cedar Street to be continued to Eleventh Street at 180 feet width with a "Court of Honor" in the center and the public build ings grouped on both sides of this boulevard. In this arrangement the courthouse could be built either to the south or north of Cedar Street between Ninth and Eleventh streets, and another public building, either a federal or state building, or an art gallery, should be placed on the opposite side facing the other, both buildings to be of the same size and s:milar in their general architectural design. This Avould give a splendid effect, similar to the museum and the art gallery in Vienna. In this PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 537 arrangement additional building space would also be obtained in several blocks of the Civic Center area. The Zoning Ordinance. — When the proposal of "regulating and restrict ing the location of trades and industries, the location of buildings designed for specified uses, regulating the height and bulk of buildings, and the area of yards, courts, and other open spaces surrounding buildings, and estab lishing boundary lines, ' ' was first made, it enlisted but small interest. Public sentiment was sloAvly Avon and after strenuous propaganda labors engaged in by the Public Land Commission and the friends of the zoning idea an ordi nance was passed by the city council. As a piece of local legislation affecting an urban community its import ance cannot be overestimated, and it may, therefore, prove interesting to record at least some of its leading provisions. It defines residence, com mercial and industrial districts as follows : Residence Districts. — In a residence district no building, structure or premises shall be used and no building or structure shall be erected which is arranged, intended or designed to be used except for one or more of the fol lowing specified uses: 1. Single family dwellings, two family dwellings, apartment or tenement houses. 2. Lodging or boarding houses, dormitories or convents.. 3. Hotels. 4. Clubs, excepting clubs the chief activity of which is a service customarily carried on as a business. 5. Churches. 6. Schools, colleges, libraries or public museum. 7. Philanthropic and eleemosynary uses or institutions, other than correctional institutions. 8. Hospitals or sanitaria. 9. Railroad passenger stations. 10. Farming, truck gardening, nurseries or greenhouses. 11. Accessory uses customarily incident to the above uses. The term acces sory use shall not include : a. A business outside the building to which it is accessory, or which oc cupies a total floor area in excess of twenty-five per cent of the floor area of one story of such building, or which by reason of the appearance of the build ing or premises, or the emission of odor, smoke, dust or noise or in any other way is objectionable or detrimental to the residential character of the neigh borhood, or which involves features in design not customary in buildings for the above uses or any structural alteration of the building, b. A garage other than a private garage on a lot occupied by not more than two families. c. A group of private garages for more than four automobiles, d. The stor age of not more than one commercial vehicle. 12. Telephone central offices. 13. In undeveloped sections of the city a temporary building or use incidental to the residential development erected and so used for a period of two years from the date of the permit. Uses Prohibited in Local Business Districts. — In a local business district no building or premises shall be used, and no building shall be erected which is arranged, intended or designed to be used for any of the following specified trades, industries or uses : 1. Any kind of manufacturing other than the manufacturing of prod ucts the major portion of which are to be sold at retail on the premises to the ultimate consumer. 2. A blacksmith shop or horseshoeing establishment. CITY HALL SITE A suggested grouping of public buildings. By the Board of Public Land Commissioners PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 539 3. A milk bottling or distributing station. 4. A carpet or rug cleaning es tablishment. 5. A coal yard or lumber yard. 6. Any trade, industry or use prohibited in a commercial and light manufacturing district. Uses Prohibited in Commercial and Light Manufacturing Districts. — In a commercial and light manufacturing district no building or premises shall be used, and no building shall be erected which is arranged, intended or designed to be used for any of the following specified trades, industries or uses: 1. Ammonia, bleaching powder or chlorine manufacture. 2. Asphalt man ufacture or refining. 3. Assaying (other than gold or silver). 4. Boiler Avorks. 5. Brass, copper, iron or steel works or foundry. 6. Brick, con crete products, terra cotta or tile manufacture. 7. Celluloid manufacture or treatment. 8. Cement, lime or plaster of paris manufacture. 9. Crematory other than a crematory located in a cemetery. 10. Creosote treatment or manufacture. 11. Dextrine, glucose or starch manufacture. 12. Disinfectant and insecticide manufacture. 13. Distillation of bones, coal or wood. 14. Dry cleaning or dyeing at wholesale. 15. Dye stuffs manufacture. 16. Elec tric central station power plant. 17. Fat rendering. 18. Fertilizer manu facture. 19. Gas manufacture or. storage in excess of 1,000 cubic feet. 20. Gelatine, glue or size manufacture. 21. Grease, lard or tallow manufacture or refining. 22. Hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric or sulphurous acid manufac ture. 23. Incineration or reduction of garbage, offal or refuse. 24. Junk or scrap iron storage. 25. Lamp black manufacture. 26. Linoleum or oil cloth manufacture. 27. Oil, paint, turpentine or varnish manufacture. 28. Pe troleum refining or storage in excess of 1,000 gallons. 29. Planing mill or saw mill. 30. Printing ink manufacture. 31. Pyroxyline plastic manufac ture or articles therefrom. 32. Rags and scrap paper — storage or baling. 33. Railroad yards or roundhouses. 34. Raw hides or skins — storage, curing or tanning. 35. Rolling mill. 36. Rubber manufacture from the crude mate rial. 37. Slaughtering of animals or fowls. 38. Smelting of iron. 39. Soap manufacture. 40. Stock yards. 41. Stone crushing. 42. Sugar refining. 43. Tar distillation or manufacture. 44. Tar roofing or tar waterproofing manufacture. 45. ' Any other trade, industry or use that is noxious or offen sive by reason of the emission of odor, dust, smoke, gas or noise, but car barns or places of amusement shall not be excluded. Uses Prohibited in Industrial Districts. — In an industrial district no build ing shall be used, and no building shall be erected which is arranged, intended or designed to be used in whole or in part as a dwelling or tenement for one or more families. This provision shall, however, not prohibit the erection and maintenance of dwelling quarters in connection with any industrial establish ment for watchmen employed upon the premises, nor of dwellings in unde veloped sections for a period of five years from the date of the permit. No other use permitted in a residence, local business or commercial and light manufacturing district shall be excluded from an industrial district. Exceptions as to Existing Buildings and Uses. — Any non-conforming use existing at the time of the passage of this chapter may be continued and any existing building designed, arranged, intended or devoted to a non-conforming iPfS^rfjp*^ ' xl. ^ '~ ~ k '- Vy r ¦.* ^v* ¦ - -?.--^%:^--^i-~- - ^*> '¦£ jTrTTffiTn*. '1* '^ ?-<\c' -\-« &*£*. s^i\ «& % ."- \ V X. \ AUDITORIUM SITE Sketch of suggested grouping of public buildings. By the Board of Public Land Commissioners PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 541 use may be reconstructed or structurally altered, and the non-conforming use therein changed subject to the following regulations : 1. The structural alterations made in such a building shall not during its life exceed 50 per cent of its assessed value, nor shall the building be enlarged, unless the use therein is changed to a conforming use. 2. No non-conforming use shall be extended by displacing a conforming use. 3. In a residence dis trict no building or premises devoted to a use permitted in a local business dis trict shall be changed into a use not permitted in a local business district. 4. In a residence or local business district no building or premises devoted to a use permitted in a commercial and light manufacturing district shall be changed into a use not permitted in a commercial and light manufacturing district. 5. In a residence, local business or commercial and light manufac turing district no building devoted to a use excluded from a commercial and light manufacturing district shall be structurally altered if its use shall have been changed since the time of the passage of this chapter to another use also excluded from a commercial and light manufacturing district. A change of use for the purpose of this subdivision shall be deemed to include any change from a use included in an enumerated subdivision to a use included in another enumerated subdivision. 6. In a residence, local business or commercial and light manufacturing district no building devoted to a use excluded from a commercial and light manufacturing district shall have its use changed to another use which is also excluded from a commercial and light manufacturing district if the building shall have been structurally altered since the time of the passage of this chapter. A change of use for the purpose of this subdivi sion shall be deemed to include any change from a use included in an enumer ated subdivision to a use included in another enumerated subdivision. Establishment of Height Districts. — For the purpose of regulating and lim iting the height and bulk of buildings hereafter erected, the City of Mihvaukee is hereby divided into four classes or districts : 125-foot districts ; 85-foot dis tricts; 60-foot districts; and 40-foot districts; as shown on the height district map Avhich accompanies this ordinance and is hereby declared to be part thereof. The height districts designated on said map are hereby established. The height district map designations which accompany said height district map are hereby declared to be part thereof. No building or part of a build ing shall be erected except in conformity with the regulations herein pre scribed for the height district in which such building is located. Height Limitations in 125-Foot Districts — In a 125-foot district no build ing shall be erected to a height in excess of 125 feet, and no buildings used in any part for residence purposes shall be in excess of eight stories ; but noth ing in this section shall prevent the erection on a business building of a tower, to a height of 225 feet, provided: (1) that the area of such toAver above the general height limit fixed for buildings by the preceding section shall not be in excess of 25 per cent of the area of the building; and (2) that an open space shall be left above the general height limit fixed for buildings by this section on each and every lot line which is not also a street line, such open space being at least of the minimum dimensions prescribed for a side yard in an A area 542 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE district for a building having a height equal to the maximum height of the tower above the curb level. Height Limitations in 85-Foot Districts. — In an 85-foot district no build ing shall be erected to a height in excess of eighty-five feet, and no building used in any part for residence purposes shall be in excess of six stories. Height Limitations in 60-Foot Districts. — In a 60-foot district no building shall be erected to a height in excess of sixty feet, and no building used in any part for residence purposes shall be in excess of four stories. Height Limitations in 40-Foot Districts. — In a 40-foot district no building, except as hereinafter provided for, shall be erected to a height in excess of forty feet, and no building used in any part for residence purposes by more than one family shall be in excess of 2y2 stories; provided, however, that in a local business district where a building is used for business purposes only, this height may be increased by not to exceed ten feet. A building used as a single family residence, erected on a lot providing a side yard of forty feet in width on each side of said building, may be erected to a height of forty-five feet. Exceptions to Height Limitations — The provisions of this article shall not apply to the erection of the following structures : 1. Chimneys, flues, grain elevators or gas holders. 2. Water towers or tanks other than those located on the roof of a building. 3. Bulkheads, ele vator inclosures, towers, monitors, penthouses, skylights or water tanks occupy ing in the aggregate less than 25 per cent of the area of the roof on which they are located. 4. Parapet walls or cornices extending above the height limit not more than five feet. 5. Alonuments, towers, spires, church roofs, domes, cupolas or belfries for ornamental purposes and not used for human occupancy. 6. Churches, convents, schools, dormitories, colleges, libraries, public museums, hospitals and sanitaria in a forty or sixty-foot height district; provided, how ever, that such buildings or portions thereof exceeding the height limit of the district be set back from lot lines a distance equal to y2 the height of such building or portion thereof and also be set back from the street or alley lines a distance equal to % the height of such building or portion thereof less ten feet. 7. Structures erected prior to the passage of this chapter, the founda tions of which have been completed and which were designed to carry struc tures above the height provided herein, shall not exceed the height provided for in the design of the foundation and in no event shall exceed the 185-foot height, provided, however, that such structures shall be completed within five (5) years from the date of the passage and publication of this chapter. Establishment of Area Districts. — For the purpose of regulating and de termining the area of yards, courts and other open spaces for buildings here after erected, the City of Milwaukee is hereby divided into four classes of area districts : A, B, C and D, as shown on the area district map Avhich accompanies this chapter and is hereby declared to be part hereof. The area districts desig nated on said map are hereby established. The area district map designations which accompany said area district map are hereby declared to be a part there of. No building or part of a building shall be erected and no existing building PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 543 shall be altered, enlarged or rebuilt except in conformity with the regulations herein prescribed for the area district in which such building is located. Required Yards and Courts. — Every room in which one or more persons live, sleep, work or congregate, except storage rooms or other rooms where the nature of the occupancy does not require direct light and air from the outside, shall have a window area equal to %n 0I the floor area of the room. Such windows and others which are required by the building code shall open directly either upon a street or alley or upon a rear yard, side yard, outer court or inner court located upon the same lot and conforming to the require ments prescribed by this article as to its minimum area and least dimensions. Yards and Courts, When Not Required. — The provisions of this article shall not be deemed to apply to courts or shafts for bathrooms, toilet compartments, hallways or stairways, nor shall they apply to yards and courts which may be provided in addition to those required by this article. No Reduction of Yards or Courts Allowed. — No lot area shall at any time be so reduced or diminished that the yards, courts or open spaces shall be smaller than prescribed by this article. Rear Yards. — The following regulations shall apply to A Districts : No rear yard shall be less than ten feet wide on an interior lot, nor less than five feet wide on a corner lot for a building two stories or less in height. At each additional story height the width of such rear yard shall be increased one foot. Side Yards. — No side yard shall be less than three feet wide for a building two stories or less in height and eighty feet or less in length. At each addi tional story height the width of such side yard shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such side yard shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in twenty feet. Outer Courts.— No outer lot-line court shall be less than three feet wide for a court two stories or less in height and forty feet or less in length. At each additional story height the width of such court shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in fifteen feet. No outer court not on a lot line shall be less than six feet wide for a court two stories or less in height and forty feet or less in length. At each additional story height the width of such court shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in ten feet. Inner Courts. — No inner lot-line court shall be less than six feet in width nor less than sixty square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height, except that an inner lot-line court one story high shall be not less than four • feet wide and not less than forty square feet in area. At each additional story height every such court shall be increased by at least one lineal foot in its length and one lineal foot in its width. No inner court not on a lot line shall be less than ten feet in width nor less than 150 square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height. At each additional story height every such court shall be increased by at least one lineal foot in its length and one lineal foot in its width. Exceptions. — Any building, erected or used in any part for residence pur- ROBERT BURNS MONUMENT GOETHK-SCIIIIXKR MONUJIKNT AT WASHINGTON PARK PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 545 poses shall be erected in conformity Avith the provisions prescribed for B Districts, and as provided for. Rear Yards. — The following regulations shall apply in B Districts: No real yard shall be less than fifteen feet wide on an interior lot nor less than ten feet AA'ide on a corner lot for a building two stories or less in height. At each additional story height the width of such rear yard shall be increased iy2 feet. Side Yards. — No side yards shall be less than four feet wide for a building tAvo stories or less in height and sixty feet or less in length. At each additional story height the width of such side yard shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such side yard shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in fifteen feet. On a lot improved with two side yards if the southerly or easterly of such yards exceeds the width required by this paragraph by one foot the other side yard may be reduced in width one foot. Outer Courts. — No outer lot-line court shall be less than five feet wide for a court two stories or less in height and thirty feet or less in length. At each additional story height the width of such court shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further in creased at the rate of one foot in ten feet. No outer court not on a lot line shall be less than eight feet wide for a court tAvo stories or less in height and thirty feet or less in length. At each additional story height the width of such court shall be increased one foot, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in eight feet. Inner Courts. — No inner lot-line court shall be less than six feet in width nor less than sixty square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height. At each additional story height every such court shall be increased by at least \y2 lineal feet in its length and one lineal foot in its width. No inner court not on a lot line shall be less than ten feet in Avidth nor less than 150 square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height. At each additional story height every such court shall be increased by at least two lineal feet in its length and 1% lineal feet in its width. Setbacks. — Setbacks are required and shall conform to the regulations pre scribed for setbacks in "C" Districts. Building Area. — No building shall occupy more than 70 per cent of the area of an interior lot, nor more than 85 per cent of a corner lot. Rear Yards. — The following regulations shall apply in C Districts : No rear yard shall be less than twenty feet wide on an interior lot nor less than ten feet wide on a corner lot for a building two stories or less in height. For each additional story in height the width of such rear yard shall be increased three feet. Side Yards. — No side yard shall be less than five feet wide for a building two stories or less in height and fifty feet or less in length. For each addi tional story in height the width of such side yard shall be increased \y2 feet, and for any additional length the width of such side yard shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in ten feet. On a lot improved with two side yards for each foot that the southerly or easterly of such side yards exceeds the width required by this paragraph the other side yard may be reduced one foot, but in no case shall such side yard be less than three feet wide. On a THE LIEF ERICKSON STATUE Located on the lake front, Juneau Park SEAL ENCLOSURE, WASHINGTON PARK PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 547 lot having a width of less than 33% feet at the time it is placed in a C Dis- tr ct and improved with two side yards the width of each of such yards may be reduced one foot. On a vacant lot or on two adjacent vacant lots having a Avidth of thirty feet or less, at the time they are plaeed in a C District and adjacent lots on both sides of such lots are thirty feet wide or less with build ings already erected upon them which buildings are so located on the respec- the lots as to leave a side yard on the north or west side of such buildings of at least eighteen inches and on the south or east side of such buildings of at least four feet, the improvements upon such vacant lots may be so placed so as to leave a side yard on the north or west side of not less than eighteen inches and on the south or east side of not less than four feet. Outer Courts. — No outer lot-line court shall be less than seven feet wide for a court two stories or less in height and thirty feet or less in length. For each additional story in height the width of such court shall be increased 1% feet, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in eight feet. No outer court not on a lot line shall be less than ten feet wide for a court two stories or less in height and thirty feet or less in length. For each additional story in height the width of such court shall be increased two feet, and for any additional length the width of such court shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in six feet. Inner Courts. — No inner lot-line court shall be less than eight feet in width nor less than 100 square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height. For each additional story in height every such court shall be increased by at least three lineal feet in its length and two lineal feet in its width. No inner court not on a lot line shall be less than fourteen feet in width nor less than 280 square feet in area for courts two stories or less in height. For each addi tional story in height every such court shall be increased by at least four lineal feet in its length and three lineal feet in its width. Setbacks. — Where in a residence district as designated on the use district map at least ^4 of the frontage on either side of a street between two inter secting streets is improved with buildings and at least y2 of the buildings so situated conform to a minimum setback line no new building shall be erected and no existing building shall be reconstructed or altered to project beyond such setback line unless an open space be left on each side of the building beyond such setback line. Each of these. open spaces shall have at every point a minimum width, in addition to the width of any prescribed yards or courts, equal to at least twice the number of feet that such point projects beyond such setback line, provided that on a lot between and adjoining two lots, each with a building projecting beyond such setback line, those portions of such open spaces that are back o*f the front line of the building with the lesser projec tion may be omitted. Building Area. — No building shall occupy more than 50 per cent of the area of an interior lot, nor more than 60 per cent of a corner lot, provided that Avhen a building is used for business purposes only, no building shall occupy more than 70 per cent of the area of an interior lot, nor more than 85 per cent of a corner lot. 548 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Number of Families Housed. — No dwelling or apartment house shall here after be erected or altered to accommodate or make provision for more than fifty families on any acre of land nor more than a proportional number of families on a fractional part of any acre of land, provided, however, in a local business district not more than twenty families per acre may be housed. The maximum number of families which may hereafter be housed on any plot of ground shall not exceed the integral number obtained by multiplying the acre age of such plot, exclusive of the area within street lines, by fifty, or in a local business district by twenty. Rear Yards. — The following regulations shall apply to D Districts: No rear yard shall be less than twenty-five feet Avide on an interior lot nor less than ten feet Avide on a corner lot for a building two stories or less in height. For each additional story in height the width of such rear yard shall be in creased six feet. Side Yards. — No side yard shall be less than six feet Avide for a building two stories or less in height and fifty feet or less in length. For each addi tional story in height the width of such side yard shall be increased three feet, and for any additional length the width of such side yard shall be further increased at the rate of one foot in eight feet. At least one side yard shall be provided on every lot located in a residence district as designated on the use district map. On a lot having a Avidth of less than thirty-seven feet at the time it is placed in a D District and improved Avith two side yards the AA'idth of each of such yards may be reduced one foot. On a lot having a Avidth of less than 33% feet at the time it is placed in a D District and improved Avith two side yards the width of each of such yards may be reduced tAvo feet. On a lot improved with two side yards for each foot that the southerly or east erly of such side yards exceeds the Avidth required by this paragraph the other side yard may be reduced one foot, but in no case shall the side yard be less than three feet wide. On a vacant lot or on tAvo adjacent vacant lots having a Avidth of thirty feet or less at the time they are placed in a D District and adjacent lots on both sides of such lots are thirty feet Avide or less with build ings already erected upon them, which buildings are so located on the respec tive lots as to leave a side yard on the north or Avest side of such buildings of at least eighteen inches and on the south or east side of such buildings of at least four feet, the improvements upon such vacant lots may be so placed as to leave a side yard on the north or west side of not less than eighteen inches and on the south or east side of not less than four feet. Courts and Setbacks. — All courts and setbacks shall conform to the regula tions prescribed by Section 26.63 for courts and setbacks in C Districts. In a residence district as designated on the use district map all windows required by the building code shall open directly either upon a* street or upon a rear yard or side yard, provided that on an interior lot having a width of less than thirty-five feet at the time it is placed in a D District such windows may open on an outer lot-line court. Building Area. — No building shall occupy more than 30 per cent of the area of an interior lot, nor more than 40 per cent of a corner lot, provided that on an interior lot containing at the time it is placed in a D District less PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 549 than y10 of an acre a building may be erected so as to occupy not more than 1,300 square feet nor more than 35 per cent of such lot. Number of Families Housed. — No dwelling or apartment house shall here after be erected or altered to accommodate or make provision for more than tAventy families on any acre of land nor more than a proportional number of families on a fractional part of any acre of land. The maximum number of families which may hereafter be housed on any plot of ground shall not exceed the integral number obtained by multiplying the acreage of such plot, exclu sive of the area within street lines, by twenty. The limitation imposed by this section shall, however, not prohibit the erection of a single family dwelling on any lot containing at the time it is placed in a D District an area of less than y2o of an acre, nor the erection of a two-family dwelling on any lot con taining at the time it is placed in a D District more than %5 of an acre. General Regulations in Area Districts. — The following regulations shall •apply to all area districts unless specifically excepted. Height of Buidings Interpreted in Stories. — In applying the requirements of this article the first story shall be considered as being not more than twenty feet high and for each additional thirteen feet or fraction thereof the build ing shall be considered to have at least one additional story. Building Area Limitation, Where Applied. — The limitation of building area in this article shall apply at the curb level in the case of a building located in a residence district as designated on the use district map and at the sill level of the second story windows, but not more than twenty-three feet above the curb level in the ease of a building located in a district other than a residence district as designated on the use district map. Rear Yard, When Required. — In B. C. and D Districts there shall be a rear yard on every lot, or portion thereof, the rear line of which is more than fifty feet back from the front street line. In A Districts there shall be a rear yard on every lot, the rear of which abuts on an alley. Rear Yard, When Not Required. — A corner lot or an interior lot running through the block from street to street or to within fifty feet of another street shall not be required to provide a rear yard. Rear Yard, Computation of Depth. — In computing the depth of a rear yard abutting on a street or alley the measurement may include one-half the Avidth of such street or alley, but in no case exceeding ten feet. Rear Yard, Reduction in Size. — On a lot less than 100 feet deep the Avidth of a rear yard required in preceding sections of this article for a building two stories or less in height may be reduced 1 per cent for each foot such lot is less than 100 feet in depth, provided that such reduction shall in no case ex ceed one-half the required width. For each additional story in height the Avidth of such yard shall be increased by the amounts required by preceding sections of this article. Rear Yard, Level of. — Where a lot is not within a residence district as designated on the use district map, the lowest level of a rear yard shall not be above the sill level of the second story windows nor in any case more than twenty-three feet above the curb level. Where a lot is Avithin a residence district as designated on the use district map the lowest level of a rear yard WINTER SCENE AT WASHINGTON PARK PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 551 shall not be above the curb level or the level of the ground back of the build ing whichever is the highest, and not above the sill level of the first story Avindows in any case. Accessory Buildings. — Accessory buildings in C and D Districts may oc cupy 10 per cent of the lot area in addition to the building area limitations up to a height of fifteen feet measured from the ground floor of such buildings to the roofplate thereof, provided that in a residence district not more than 40 per cent of required area of .a rear yard is occupied by such accessory buildings. On a lot in a D District as designated on the area district map and not occupied by more than one family, where a lot exceeds 12,000 square feet in area one additional automobile may be housed in addition to four automo biles for each 3,000 square feet such lot exceeds 12,000 square feet in area. Chimneys and Flues. — Chimneys or flues may be erected within a rear yard provided they do not exceed five square feet in area in the aggregate and do not obstruct ventilation. Fire Escapes. — Open or lattice enclosed iron fire escapes may project not more than eight feet and fire-proof outside stairways or solid-floored balconies to fire towers may project not more than four feet into a rear yard. Cut-Offs. — A corner of a yard or court may be cut off between walls of the same building provided that the length of the Avail of such cut-off does not exceed five feet. Extension to Yards or Courts. — Windows opening on a portion of a yard or court which is an extension to a yard or court conforming to the- minimum requirements of a yard or court shall be deemed to comply with the provi sions of this article. Such extension on which windoAvs open shall not be deeper in any part than it is wide on the open side nor shall such open side be less than six feet wide. The area contained in an extension to a yard or court shall in no case be included in computing the required area of a yard or court. Projections Allowed. — The area required in a yard or court at any given level shall be open from such level to the sky unobstructed, except for the ordinary projections of skylights and parapets above the bottom of such court or yard, and except for the ordinary projections of window sills, belt courses, gutters, cornices and other ornamental features to the extent of not more than six inches, provided that wider cornices on the street front may turn the cor ner and project their full width into a side yard or outer court within five feet of the street wall of the building. Bay Windows and Oriels. — In a side yard not less than six feet wide an oriel or bay window not more than fifteen feet wide and without a gable may be constructed to extend not nearer than 4% feet from the side lot line. District Boundaries, How Determined. — The boundaries between districts are, unless otherwise indicated, either the center lines of streets or imaginary lines drawn parallel to and 120 feet back from one or more of the street lines bounding the less restricted s'de or sides of a block. Where uncertainty ex ists or the street layout actually on the ground varies from the street layout as shown on the use, height, or area district map, the district boundary line shall be determined and recorded by the inspector of buildings in accordance with the intent of this chapter. 552 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Division of Lots by Boundary Lines. — Where a district boundary line di vides a lot in a single OAA'nership at the time of the passage of this chapter, the regulations for either portion of such lot may extend to the entire lot, but not more than twenty-five feet beyond the boundary line of the district for Avhich such regulations are established. Effect of Widening a Street. — Whenever a street other than a boulevard or parkAvay is so Avidened as to be Avithin 120 feet of a boundary line of a more restricted district, the less restricted district shall thereupon extend 120 feet back from the Avidened street and such change in the district boundary lines shall have the same force and effect as though separately ordained. Effect of This Chapter Upon Contracts and Agreements and Upon Other Laws and Regulations. — In their interpretation and application the provisions of this chapter shall be held to be the minimum requirements adopted for the promotion of the public safety, health, convenience and general Avelfare. It is not intended by this chapter to interfere Avith or abrogate or annul any easements, covenants or other agreements between parties; nor is it intended by this chapter to repeal, abrogate, annul or in any Avay to impair or interfere with any existing provision of laAv or ordinance or any rules, regulations or permits previously adopted or issued or which shall be adopted or issued pursuant to laAv relating to the use of buildings or premises ; provided, Iioav- ever, that where this chapter imposes a greater restriction upon the use of buildings or premises or upon the height of buildings or requires larger yards, courts or other open spaces than are imposed or required by such existing pro- A'ision of lavs' or ordinance or by such rules, regulations or permits, the pro visions of this chapter shall control. Enforcement by Building Inspector; Issuance of Building Permits. — This chapter shall be enforced by the inspector of buildings. He shall issue no permit for the construction or alteration of any building or structure or part thereof plans and specifications and intended use for Avhich are not in all respects in conformity Avith the provisions of this chapter. In case the intended use OAving to its nature or the A'agueness of its statement falls Avithin more than one of the classes of uses established by Article 2 of this chapter such building or structure shall not be permitted in any district in Avhich any such classes are prohibited. Certificates of Occupancy. — It shall be unlawful to use or permit the use of any building or premises or part thereof hereafter created, erected, altered, changed or converted wholly or partly in its use or structure until a certificate of occupancy to the effect that the building or premises or the part thereof so created, erected, altered, changed or converted and the proposed use thereof conform to the provisions of this chapter shall have been issued by the in spector of buildings. It shall be the duty of the inspector of buildings to issue a certificate of occupancy Avithin ten days after a request for the same is filed in his office by any oAvner of a building or premises affected by this chapter, provided said building or premises, or the part thereof so created, erected, altered, changed or converted, and the proposed use thereof, con forms with all the requirements of Article 4 of this chapter. Fees for Certificates of Occupancy. — There shall be charged for each cer- PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 553 tificate of occupancy for a single family dwelling and uses accessory thereto a fee of $1, and for all other uses a fee of $2. Such fees shall be paid into the city treasury and credited to the general city fund. Temporary Certificates of Occupancy. — Pending the issuance of a regular certificate, a temporary certificate may be issued for period not exceeding six months, during the completion of alterations or during partial occupancy of a building pending its completion. Such temporary certificates shall not be issued except under such restrictions and provisions as will adequately insure the safety of the occupants. No temporary certificate shall be issued if, prior to its completion, the building fails to conform to the provisions of the build ing ordinance or of this chapter to such a degree as to render it unsafe for the occupancy proposed. Changes Requiring Issuance of New Certificate of Occupancy. — If the con ditions of use or occupancy of any building or premises or part thereof are substantially changed, or so changed as not to be in conformity with the con ditions required by a certificate issued therefor, or if the dimensions or area of the lot upon which a building is located or its yards or courts are reduced, said certificate shall be Aroid and the owner shall notify the inspector avIio shall order an inspection of the building premises or lot. If the building conforms to all the requirements of this chapter and of Chapter TV a neAv certificate shall be issued as herein provided. Procedure in Case of Non-conformity. — If, on any inspection, the condi tions of a building or premises or its use or occupancy are found not to con form to the requirements of this chapter or of Chapter IV or the conditions of an existing certificate therefor, the inspector shall at once issue Avritten notice to the owner, specifying the manner in which the building or premises or its use or occupancy fails to so conform, and the owner shall at once take steps to make it so conform, as directed by the inspector ; and if it is neces sary for the proper protection of the occupants he shall order the use or the occupancy of the building or premises modified or the building or premises vacated until its condition is made satisfactory in conformity Avith the require ments of this chapter and of Chapter IA7, at Avhich time a certificate shall be issued as herein provided. Amendments and Changes in the Districts and Regulations Therefor by the Common Council. — The Common Council may, from time to time, on its oavii motion or on petition, after public notice and hearing, as provided by laAv, and after report by the Board of Public Land Commissioners, alter, supplement or change the boundaries or regulations herein or subsequently established. Whenever the owners of 50 per cent or more of the frontage in any district or part thereof present a petition duly signed and acknowledged to the Coun cil requesting an amendment, supplement or change in the regulations pre scribed for such district or part thereof, it shall be the duty of the Council to vote upon said petition within ninety days after the filing of the same by the petitioners with the city clerk. In case a protest against a proposed amend ment, supplement or change be presented, duly signed and acknowledged by the owners of 20 per cent or more of any frontage proposed to be altered, or by the owners of 20 per cent of the frontage immediately in the rear thereof, s^k^sr 4L 4>\ i ?• i I 4 SOUTH SHORE PARK BATHING BEACH PROSPECTIVE MILWAUKEE— CITY PLANNING AND ZONING 555 or by the owners of 20 per cent of the frontage directly opposite the frontage proposed to be altered, such amendment shall not be passed except by a three- fourths vote of the Council. If any area is hereafter transferred to another district by a change in district boundaries by an amendment, as above pro vided, the provisions of this ordinance in regard to buildings or premises ex isting at the time of the passage of this chapter shall apply to buildings or premises existing at the time of passage of such amendment in such transferred area. Completion and Restoration of Existing Buildings. — Nothing herein con tained shall require any change in the plans, construction or intended use of a building for which a building permit has been heretofore issued and the construction of which shall have been diligently prosecuted within six months of the date of such permit, and the ground story framework of which, includ ing the second tier of beams, shall have been completed within six months, and which entire building shall be completed according to such plans as filed within two years from the date of the passage of this chapter. Nothing in this chap ter shall prevent the restoration of a wall declared unsafe by the inspector of buildings. Penalties. — Any person, firm, company or corporation owning, controlling or managing any building or premises wherein or whereon there shall be placed or there exists anything in violation of any of the sections of this chapter; or any person, firm, company or corporation who shall assist in the commission of any violation of these sections; or who shall build contrary to the plans or specifications submitted to and approved by the building inspector ; or any person, firm, company or corporation who shall omit, neglect or refuse to do any act required in said sections shall, except where a special penalty is pro vided, be subject to a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $200, together with the costs of the action, and in default of payment thereof, to imprison ment in the house of correction for a period of not less than one day nor more than six months, or until such fine and costs shall be paid; and every such person, firm, company or corporation shall be deemed guilty of a separate offense for each day such violation, disobedience, omission, neglect or refusal shall continue; provided, however, that said accumulated penalties recover able in any one action shall not exceed the sum of $2,000. Validity of Ordinance. — If any article, section, paragraph, subdivision, clause or provision of this chapter shall be adjudged invalid, such adjudica tion shall apply only to the article, section, paragraph, subdivision, clause or provision so adjudged, and the rest of this chapter shall remain valid and effective. X •ao CHAPTER XXXII THE MILAVAUKEE COUNTY G0A7ERNMENT Alihvaukee County was the name of a political division in 1834, tAvo years before the erection of the Territory of Wisconsin, when what is now Wis consin was yet a part of the Territory of Alichigan. The Michigan Territorial Legislature had passed an act on September 6, 1834 "to establish the counties of BroAvn and IoAva, and to lay off the County of Mihvaukee." The seat of justice of BroAA'n County was established at the Village of Green Bay. Mil waukee County remained attached to Brown County for judicial purposes until August 25, 1835, when it Avas given an independent organization. The Territory of Wisconsin having been established April 20, 1836, the Territorial Legislature, Avhich convened October 25, of that year, then pro ceeded to subdivide all the territory south and east of the Wisconsin and Fox rivers into counties, the boundaries of which coincided in the main with those of the then existing counties Avith a few exceptions, among Avhich was that Alilwaukee County, as then formed, was coextensive with the present boundaries of Alilwaukee and Waukesha counties. In 1846, Waukesha County Avas created by taking from Milwaukee County all of the territory west of Range tAventy-one. This reduced Milwaukee County in size and left it with limits exactly the same as they are to-day. The account of the beginnings of the county has mainly been derived from Col. J. A. Watrous' "Alemoirs of Milwaukee County," published in 1909, though many of the details given in that excellent history have been omitted. The County in Territorial Days. — Mr. Otto Broecker, in an address delivered several years ago describes the earlier history as follows : Upon the admission of Illinois into the Union in 1818, all the territory of the United States lying west of Michigan Territory and north of the states of Indiana and Illinois, was attached to and made a part of Michigan Terri tory, by which act the whole of the present state of Wisconsin came under the jurisdiction of Michigan Territory and was set off as Brown County. Mil waukee remained under the jurisdiction of Brown County until August 25, 1835, when it was organized and took its place among the separate and dis tinct political divisions of the State of Wisconsin. The act was approved on August 25, 1835, and was entitled an act to organize the counties of Alegan and Milwaukee. At a special session of the Michigan Territorial Legislature held on Sep tember 6, 1834, an act was passed to establish the boundaries of the counties of BroAvn and Iowa and to lay off the County of Milwaukee. By this act all 557 558 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE that country bounded north by the line between townships eleven and twelve north, the line being just north of West Bend, east by Lake Michigan, south by the State of Illinois and west by the line which separates Green and Rock counties extending north until it intercepted the northern boundary between townships eleven and twelve, was included. On August 25, 1835, an act was approved by the Alichigan Territorial Legislature to organize the County of Mihvaukee which reads as follows : Section 9. That the County of Milwaukee shall be, and the same is hereby declared to be organized, and the inhabitants thereof entitled to the same rights and privileges in all respects whatever, with the inhabitants of other organized counties within the said territory. Section 10. There shall be a county court established in the said county, which court shall hold one term on the first Monday of May, and one term on the first Monday of October of each and every year, at the Village of Mil- Avaukee, which is hereby declared to be the county seat of said county. During this same session of the Michigan Legislature, and in fact on the same day upon which the act of organizing Milwaukee County was approved, Governor Stevens T. Mason, the boy governor of the Territory of Michigan, appointed and commissioned the following gentlemen as the first set of of ficials for the county : Chief Justice William Clark ; associates, Joel Sage and James Griffin ; county clerk, Albert Fowler ; sheriff, Benson W. Finch ; judge of probate, Gilbert Knapp. Land in Milwaukee County was sold by the Federal Government at the statutory price of $1.25 per acre. Fractional townships 7, 8, 9 and 10, range 22, embracing almost the entire City of Alilwaukee were offered for sale at Green Bay, August 31, 1835, at that price. In August, 1836, the first census was taken and the population of this large county Avas found to be 2,893. At the first session of the Legislative Council which convened at Belmont, by an act, which was approved on December 7, 1836, the County of Milwaukee was divided and the counties of Walworth, Racine, embracing the present county of Kenosha, Jefferson, Dane, Columbia, Portage, Dodge, Rock and Washington, embracing the present county of Ozaukee Avere created. Thus shorn of a great portion of its original territory, Milwaukee County was re duced in size to that noAv embraced in the counties of Alilwaukee and Wauke sha. This arrangement existed until 1846, when at a fourth annual session of the Fourth Legislative Assembly, which convened at Madison on January 5th, the County of Waukesha was formed. Thus Milwaukee County was finally reduced in extent of territory to its present limits. At the second session of the First Territorial Legislative Assembly con vened at Burlington (in the present state of Iowa), on November 6, 1837, the County of Alihvaukee was divided into two towns, the Town of Lake and Town of Milwaukee, for the purpose of local government. The Town of Lake com prising the present towns of Franklin, Greenfield, Lake and Oak Creek and the Town of Milwaukee comprising the present towns of Granville, Alilwaukee, Wauwatosa and the City of Milwaukee. At the adjourned session of the first session of the Second Territorial Leg islative Assembly, which was held at Aladison, an act was passed on March 8, THE AIILWAUKEE COUNTY GOVERNMENT 559 1839, dividing the Town of Lake and creating the Town of Kinnickinnic, com prising the present toAA'ns of Franklin and Greenfield. The next division was made December 20, 1939, dividing the Town of Kinnickinnic by creating the Town of Franklin. By an act approved January 13, 1840, the Town of Alil waukee was divided and the ToAvn of Granville created. By an act approved on April 30, 1840, the'ToAvn of Milwaukee Avas again divided and the Town of Wauwatosa created and by another act on August 13, 1840, the Town of Lake Avas again divided and the Town of Oak Creek created. This marked the last division of the county into towns and on February 19, 1841, the name of the Town of Kinnickinnic was changed to Greenfield. Alilwaukee County was now fully organized so far as township govern ment Avas concerned, the divisions and names being exactly as they are today. The population of these toAvns in 1840, according to United States census, was as f oIIoavs : Franklin, 248 ; Granville, 225 ; Greenfield, 404 ; Lake (which then included Oak Creek), 418; Mihvaukee (including the City of Milwaukee), 1,712; and WauAvatosa, 342, making a total of 3,349 as the population of the territory now included in the county, and out of this small beginning grew the great and flourishing county of Alilwaukee of today with about 500,000 inhabitants and an assessed valuation of $586,177,942 in 1915. Twenty Districts. — Among the laws enacted by the Legislature during the session of 1921, the County Board of Supervisors was hereafter to be com posed of the representathes of twenty districts, one from each district into which the county was divided. These districts also corresponded to the representation in the State Assembly. This law is to take effect after the spring elections of 1922. The twenty districts are described as follows : First District — First and Third wards of the City of Milwaukee. Second District — Second and Fourth wards of the same. Third District— Twenty-fifth Ward. Fourth District — Twenty-first Ward. Fifth District— Fifth and Twelfth wards. Sixth Districts— Sixth Ward. Seventh District — Seventh Ward. Eighth District — Eighth and Fourteenth Avards. Ninth District — Ninth and Tenth wards. Tenth District — Sixteenth and Twenty-third wards. Eleventh District — Eleventh and Twenty-fourth wards. Twelfth District — Twenty-second Ward. Thirteenth District — Thirteenth Ward. Fourteenth Distr.ct — Seventeenth Ward. Fifteenth District — Fifteenth and Nineteenth wards. Sixteenth District — Towns of Granville and Wauwatosa, and the cities of Wauwatosa and North Milwaukee. Seventeenth District — Towns of Lake and Oak Creek, and the cities of Cudahy and South Alilwaukee. Eighteenth District — Eighteenth Ward of the City of Milwaukee, the Town of Milwaukee, and the villages of Whitefish Bay and Shorewood. 560 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Nineteenth District — The Village of West Mihvaukee, the City of West Allis, and the towns of Greenfield and Franklin. TAventieth District — The Twentieth Ward of the City of Milwaukee. Highways and Roads. — In the early day the building of plank-roads Avas regarded as the solution of the problem of bad roads. "Plank-road meet ings" Avere held in many towns throughout the state in 'the '40s and the news papers of the day generally advocated their construction. The AIihA'aukee Sentinel, in its issue of February 19, 1848, had an editorial on road-making, and in a volume by W. M. Gillespie AA'hich, in 1855, had reached its eighth edition, it was said, "that plank-roads are the farmers' railroads; that the farmer profits most by their construction, though all classes of the community are benefited by such an improvement. * * * The peculiar merit of plank- roads Avas that the great diminution of friction upon them made them more akin to railroads than to common roads, Avith the advantage over railroads that every one could drive his Avagon upon them." A company Avas formed in 1846 to construct a road "of timber or plank" from Milwaukee to Watertown. Other roads of a similar character, as well as turnpike roads, were incorporated by the Territorial Legislature with au thority to collect tolls for their maintenance. Sixteen of these roads Avere on routes some part of Avhich Avere in Alihvaukee County. The groAvth of Alil- waukee County and the surrounding territory required the construction of improved roads, and the plank-roads Avere regarded as more practicable and better adapted to the wants of the community than any other form of public roads. The shares in these corporations proved for a time to be a remunerative investment. "The plank-roads leading into Alihvaukee," says J. S. Buck in his "Pioneer History of Mihvaukee," "had a very decided effect in adding to the pros perity of the towns through which they Avere constructed. They radiated from the city as a center towards the north, northAvest, Avest and southwest, thus affording facilities for the people of nearly all parts of the county to transport their surplus products and supplies by the use of their own teams. "Many of these roads Avere changed from plank to gravel roads; as the plank gradually decayed, graA'el Avas substituted, thus making a much more permanent and valuable road. Though plank-roads Avere thus of great value to farmers along their course, enabling them to do their marketing Avithin their own means and increasing the value of their lands, they Avere generally but poor property in the hands of the stockholders avIio built them," says Buck. Even the local poets became enthusiastic on the theme of plank-roads, one of them in the carrier's address of the Alilwaukee Sentinel for New Year's day, 1850, calls enraptured attention to the city's advantages; "Her Plank Roads, smooth as carpet floor, bring daily produce to our door." Where the plank-roads entered cities the planks eventually furnished a reliable foundation for street car tracks, and in Chicago, North Clark Street, having been previously planked, the rails Avere laid directly upon the planks to which they Avere spiked. A writer in the Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, for April, 1917, says of the plank-roads Avhich had been built from Chicago to various THE MILWAUKEE COUNTY GOVERNMENT 561 points tributary to that city that these plank-roads "proved to be good busi ness propositions to the corporations owning theni," thus differing with the Milwaukee historian cited above. "From no other improvement," says a writer in Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, "has Chicago derived more direct and manifest benefit in proportion to the capital invested than from plank- roads AA'hich connect it with the adjacent country." Good Roads in Wisconsin. — The past few years have witnessed great ac tivity in the construction of a vast network of improved highways through out Alihvaukee County and the state at large. In fact the country in general has aAvakened to the advantages of building good roads on an unprecedented scale, and the various states have expended immense sums in their construc tion. Naturally a variety of "slogans" have come into use inspired by the enthusiasm of their advocates and promoters. One of the leading banks of Milwaukee carries on its stationery the motto, "beautiful roads to beautiful places." Another favorite saying is, "see Wisconsin first," and an enterpris ing neAvspaper has issued a guide for the use of tourists, entitled, "The Call of the Open Road." This guide contains some two score maps with a great deal of condensed information accompanied by "rules and regulations" neces sary for the use of those who travel over these roads. An editorial in the Milwaukee Journal of October 5, 1921, takes a broad view of the whole subject of good roads and improved highways, and urges in addition to the good work already done that the planting of trees along these highways, — "the finest specimens of Wisconsin's native trees" — should be included in the great plans now being carried out. "Spots rarely beautiful and picturesque," says the Avriter, "must be dedicated to public use and made accessible from the main roads. Villages and cities can well afford to assist in this great work by establishing small public parks, even if they have to go beyond their corporate limits, a thing that Milwaukee has already done. Coun ties, moreoA-er, may well establish still larger parks, parks enclosing water falls, wooded hills and vales, banks of streams, part of the shores of some of Wisconsin's many hundreds of lakes or any other spot of scenic beauty." The Duty of the State. — This enthusiastic writer contends that there should be established at different points large state parks "thousands of acres in ex tent, regions of wild woods and of lakes and rivers," and the natural features with AA'hich the state is so abundantly provided. ' ' The public must have access to every lake in the state and, at convenient points, to rivers as well. These waters are public waters and private monopoly of them, through private ownership of the land around and along them, cannot be tolerated." The additional charm of trees planted along the shores of lakes and rivers must be« considered wherever they are lacking in this important feature. "Water with no tree line possesses little charm ; water fringed with trees, its natural setting, is alluring and compelling in its beauty." The state highway law went into effect in 1911. Milwaukee County began its work through the action of its Board of Supervisors. The Board called on the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey which handled high ways matters in Wisconsin, and asked for assistance in commencing operations in the county. Mr. W. 0. Hotchkiss, who was in charge of the road work, sug- A'ol. 1—36 562 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE gested the hiring of a man to take charge of the Avork for the county. The result was that Mr. H. J. Kuelling, then in the employ of the Survey, went to Mihvaukee County in April, 1911, having obtained leave of absence from the Survey for that purpose. The first year's work consisted mainly in in vestigations and surveys, and a study of the highway situation in the county. Mr. Kuelling was then regularly engaged by the County Board and re mained in its service until July, 1917, Avhen he returned to the Wisconsin Highway Commission. The first actual work done in the county was in 1912, and since that period the work done has been described in the annual reports of the highAvay commissioner. Milwaukee County, up to the close of the year 1921, had completed some 200 miles of excellent higliAvays within its limits continuous with the impor tant streets and boulevards of the City of Milwaukee, and including on their routes the extensive systems of parks for which that city is famous. These higlnvays lead directly to the still greater system of public roads throughout the state, Avhich in their turn connect Avith the "Lincoln HighAvay, " the "Dixie HighAvay," and the numerous great cities beyond. Thousands of miles of these beautiful roads have been thus rendered accessible to travelers riding in the-r own conveyances and opening to them the scenic wonders of the land which otherAvise they might never have had the satisfaction of looking upon. The financial statement included in the ninth annual report of the Alil- Avaukee County Highway Department, of AA'hich Mr. Charles C. Jacobus is the chairman and a leading good roads champion, shows that at the beginning of the year 1920 there was a balance in the Good Roads Fund amounting to $20,895.73 plus $1,390.53 cash in bank. In addition to this there Avere re ceived from various sources in the form of refunds and appropriations from towns and cities the sum of $45,680.30, making a total of $67,966.56. In 1919 the state allotted the sum of $150,505.48 for 1920 construction. To meet this amount the County Board appropriated the sum of $230,000.00, mak ing a total appropriation of $380,505.48, or a grand total of $448,472.04 avail able for 1920 construction. During the year 1920 there Avas expended the sum of $446,773.93, as slioAvn by the detailed cost statements hereAvith and $21,175.00 advanced for Federal Aid Maintenance, making the total expenditures $467,948.93. This leaA-es a deficit of $27,756.21, of which $8,161.53 is balance in bank, leaving a net deficit of $19,594.68. The County Board has appropriated the sum of $230,000.00 and the state the sum of $145,481.45, making a total of $375,481.45, less deficit of $19,594.68, leaving a grand total of $354,886.77 available for 1921 construction. The Metropolitan Sewerage Commission. — The laAv under Avhich this body is created, and the purpose of its creation, is told by Charles P. Perry, its chairman, as follows : "Organization October 2!), 1921, of the Metropolitan SeAverage comm ssion is regarded as one of the foremost steps ever taken in Milwaukee or the coun ty to bring about a better seAverage system. Although the commission has been in force only two months it already has made plans for an intercepting sewerage system connecting the city and county. THE MILWAUKEE COUNTY GOVERNMENT 563 "The commission was made possible by an act of the State Legislature. The law requ red that it consist of three members appointed by the governor, one on recommendation of the state board of health, another on recommenda tion of city sewerage commission and the third without recommendation. The commission consists of Charles P. Perry of Waivwatosa, George P. Miller and F. U. Ullius. "In 1913 the Legislature passed a law creating a sewerage commission, the duty of Avhich Avas to build an intercepting sewerage system and a sewage dis posal plant for the City of Alilwaukee to protect the public water supply, rivers and bathing beaches. "This law, hoAvever, did not confer any authority upon the sewerage com mission of the City of Milwaukee to build intercepting sewers for the outlying districts in the county which contributed to the pollution of the rivers and lake Avaters. It Avas realized that even after the City of Alilwaukee expended millions of dollars in collecting its seAvage, carrying it to a sewage disposal plant and treating it so as to discharge it into the lake without serious pollu tion, the Avaters would still be polluted from the sewage from the outlying districts which drain into the rivers passing through the city. "To collect the sewage from each individual community and treat it inde pendently of its neighbor was impract:cable because it would increase the expense to each municipality, by building and operating independent inter cepting sewers and sewage disposal plants, and many of the communities Avere not able to finance such large expenditures. "In several cases one main sanitary intercepting sewer could be built for two or more outlying communities which would collect the sewage from these communities and which could be carried by gravity to the intercepting sewer age system of the City of Milwaukee and through it be carried and disposed of at the d'sposal plant which was being built by the city. ' ' By combining all of the territory within the county which lies in the same drainage district as the seAverage system of the City of Milwaukee, the Avaters of the rivers and lake could be kept free from pollution providing there was some central board authorized to finance and build the large collect'ng inter cepting sewers -necessary to carry the sewage from this drainage district to the intercepting sewer system of the city. "This metropolitan sewerage commission is required to project, construct and maintain in the county outside of the city limits main sewers for the collection and transmission of house, industrial, and all other factory sewage to and into the intercepting sewerage system of the City of Milwaukee, and they may require any town, city, or village in the county, to rebuild any outlet, drain or sewer so as to discharge the said sewage waste or trade waste into the sewers of the city or into such intercepting sewer located in or near the town or village which the metropolitan sewerage commission may establish. "The statute provides that after. the organization of the metropolitan sew erage commission, the sewerage commission of the City of Milwaukee shall prepare maps and surveys showing that portion of said county which is Avithin the same drainage area as the sewerage system of the City of Mil- 564 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Avaukee, the sewage from which may be cared for by the disposal plant located in said city and the metropolitan seAverage commission shall determine the boundaries thereof in each of the respective towns and villages outside of the city limits. "The commission has adopted a budget for the coming year which com prises the expenditure of about $1,300,000 with AA'hich it contemplates the construction of a main intercepting sewer for Shorewood and Whitefish Bay, one in Milwaukee and a portion of Wauwatosa for the purpose of collecting and carrying to the city's West Side intercepting sewer the sewage from the rapidly growing section north of the city and from the city of North Mil- Avaukee. "The county board of supervisors has already authorized the issuance of bonds for the metropolitan sewerage commission in the amount of $1,300,000 for building these intercepting sewers." CHAPTER XXXIII WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE IN WISCONSIN On June 10, 1919, the Legislature of the State of Wisconsin passed a resolution ratifying an amendment to the Constitution of the United States which declared that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." This amendment had been proposed and passed by Congress, May 19, 1919, to become valid "when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states." Other states followed Wisconsin in ratifying the amendment until the necessary three-fourths of the number of ratifications was completed more than a year later by the action of the Tennessee Legisla ture, August 18, 1920. The United States Department of State then issued a proclamation, under date of August 26, 1920, certifying that the "amend ment aforesaid has become valid to all intents and purposes as a part of the Constitution of the United States." The Legislature of Illinois had also passed a resolution of ratification on the same day as that passed by the Wisconsin Legislature, namely, June 10, 1919. But owing to an error in the text of the resolution as passed by the Illinois Legislature it became necessary to pass it again a fortnight later. Had it not been for this delay the Illinois Legislature might have been entitled to first place in the list of states ratifying the amendment. "Whether the actual passage of the amendment, or the filing of that docu ment at Washington," writes Airs. Theodora W. Youmans in an historical article printed in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, for September, 1921, "should establish precedence, whether the error should or should not count against Illinois, — these are considerations Avhich bid fair to make the ques tion, 'is Wisconsin or Illinois entitled to first place in ratifying the suffrage amendment?' one of the great unsettled questions of the day. But there is no question that Wisconsin, either alone or with one companion, held the proud position of leader in that final great roll-call of democracy." Review of Woman's Suffrage Movement. — In the early days the people of Wisconsin gave earnest attention to the subject of woman's "right of suf frage," and in the proceedings of constitutional conventions, conventions of political parties, and in the Legislature the question was often brought up for discussion. "In the early days of statehood," says Mrs. Youmans. in her article previously referred to, "abolition of slavery, women's rights, 565 566 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE and the temperance cause were inextricably intertwined, and the advocate of one Avas apt to be the advocate of all." However, no appreciable progress was made in the cause of woman's rights up to the opening of the Civil war. "All efforts for woman suffrage," says Mrs. Youmans, "were abated during the Civil Avar, its advocates giving themselves Avholeheartedly to the cause of freedom as exemplified by the abolition of slavery. But when the war was over, its object achieved, it seemed desperately hard to these devoted, high-minded Avomen that uneducated colored men, just released from slavery, should be adjudged Avorthy of the ballot Avhich was still withheld from the educated and patriotic white women who had helped to save the nation and free the slaves. They were astounded to have the discriminatory Avord 'male,' Avhich had never before been used in the federal constitution, appear in the fourteenth amendment, and made vigorous effort to prevent it. Their failure in this effort, due partly to the influence of those who now joined in the rallying cry, 'This is the Negro's hour,' made them realize as never before the force and Aveight of the opposition."' But the advocates of woman's suffrage did not become faint-hearted under the Aveight of the discouraging indifference of former friends or the opposi tion of their adversaries. "The Civil war, hoAvever, had developed courage and self-reliance in women. Many of them had managed the farm, the shop, the office, as well as the family, while the man of the house was aAvay at the war. Women had achieved notable results in the organization and manage ment of the Sanitary Commission and other relief agencies. So added ability and determination Avere enlisted in the suffrage cause after the war." The Suffrage Movement in Milwaukee. — A state convention in the interests of woman's suffrage was organized and held in Mihvaukee in the old city hall, February 24 and 25, 1869. The program of the convention Avas arranged by Dr. Laura Ross, a physician of Alilwaukee, and Aliss Lila Peckham, a laAvyer, Avhose early death was a great loss to the suffrage cause. Dr. Laura Ross was later married to Dr. E. B. Wolcott, the distinguished surgeon. The national leaders in the movement Avere represented in force at the convention, among them Mary A. Livermore, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. At the conclusion of the coiiA-ention in Alihvaukee these lead ers Avent on to Aladison and gave addresses before the Legislature then in session, in favor of woman's suffrage. "The association effected by the Mihvaukee convention of 1869," con tinues Airs. Youmans' article, "began at once to organize local units and to draAV together into a single association those interested in this unpopular cause. Early suffrage organizations are known to have been formed at Fond .du Lac, Richland Center, Baraboo, Evansville, Boscobel, and Union Grove." Aleantiine, many suffrage lectures Avere given in various places through out the state by such speakers as Mrs. Livermore, Mrs. Stanton, M:ss Anthony, and Phoebe Cousins. When Airs. Stanton lectured in Milwaukee in 1877, she Avas entertained by the leaders in social affair in the city and gained many adherents for the cause. The movement was iioav reinforced by the active participation with it of Mrs. Olympia BroAvn of Racine. Airs. BroAvn was WOAIAN'S SUFFRAGE IN AVISCONSIN 567 pastor of the Universalist Chur.ch at Racine, and for many years thereafter was closely identified with the woman's suffrage movement. During the summer of 1880, the national leaders held a series of conven tions in the states of the Middle West. Wisconsin's promising condition attracted their attention, and a state convention was held on the 4th and 5th of June, in Milwaukee, at which Miss Anthony, Mrs. Stanton, Lillie Devereux Blake, and other national leaders were present. Twenty-five dele gates were present from the local associations throughout the state." "Mrs. Brown became the president of the Wisconsin Woman's Suffrage Association in 1885, and she was destined to serve as president for thirty years, never failing in devotion, energy or efficiency," says Mrs. Youmans in her article. "Many women who continued active in suffrage work until success crowned the cause first enlisted in the movement in the campaign of 1912." Later History of the Movement. — Diverse opinions as to the manner of conducting campaigns had resulted in the formation in 1912 of a new state organization known as the Political Equality League of which Miss Ada L. James was president and Crystal Eastman Benedict of New York was the campaign manager. But though the two organizations worked separately for a time, on the whole they worked harmoniously. Both had offices in Milkaukee and from here carried on a lively campaign for the several meas ures before the Legislature in which the suffragists were interested. "We rested a bit after that campaign," continues Mrs. Youmans in her interesting account. "We needed it, but the rest was short. In January, 1913, a joint convention of the two suffrage organizations was called. Their hostility had been more than half friendly; they easily forgot their differ ences and buried the hatchet; and they united as one body under the old historic name, the Wisconsin Woman's Suffrage Association. Mrs. Brown and Aliss James both retired and a new president, vastly surprised to find herself in that position, was chosen." The new president thus referred to was Mrs. Youmans, the writer of the article from which the above quota tions have been so liberally quoted. "We went into the publishing business occasionally, although the great bulk of the enormous amount of literature distributed we- purchased from the National American Woman Suffrage Association * * * . We sent an imposing contingent to the suffrage parade in Chicago in June, 1916, when the suffrage hosts marching down Michigan Avenue in a downpour of rain and gale of wind testified to their heartfelt desire for the ballot, in presence of the delegates to the National Republican Convention there looking on ; at least we ardently desired them to be looking on. Outside of Illinois, Wis consin had the largest delegation, each member wearing a yellow Wisconsin tunic, and the contingent being escorted by a Grand Army of the Republic drum corps." Many of the residents of Chicago well remember the tempestuous state of the weather on that day, and the noble efforts of the spectators to come to the relief of the devoted marchers as they passed. But the rain and the wind seemed only to add to their hilarity and enthusiasm, and their parade 568 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE AA'as regarded as a pronounced success, though .accompanied by some individual suffering and exposure. An important feature of the work for woman's suffrage, says Airs. You mans, "Avas at the state and county fairs, Avhere from booth or tent there emanated speeches, literature, and friendly argument with the hundreds who drifted in and out. Regular press service was continued, the writer (Mrs. Youmans) serving as press chairmaan, and sending out at regular intervals a letter to all those newspapers in the state, about one hundred in number, who were sufficiently hospitable to our cause to warrant the expenditure for paper and stamps. Special suffrage editions of daily or weekly news papers Avere occasionally issued, edited usually by members of our organiza tion. The Richland Democrat, the WatertoAvn Daily Times, the Alilwaukee Leader, and the Aladison State Journal, were among newspapers AA'hich paid us this pleasant attention." The Assistance Received from the Foreign Press. — One gifted woman, Mrs. B. C. Gudden, who has since passed from among us, assisted in this branch of the press work, "by sending suffrage letters to the German neAvspapers; and such Avas her ability and standing that she Avas able to secure their regu lar publication. Suffrage propaganda also appeared in at least one Polish paper. Our final victory was largely due, as most reforms are, to the help of the neAvspapers. Especially to promote congressional work in this state, Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt came here in 1916, and was the chief speaker in a state-Avide congressional conference held in Alihvaukee." It was slow work trying to convince our representatives in Congress of the importance of the movement and overcome the indifference and some times open hostility of many of them to the cause of woman's suffrage. "When the vote was taken in the House of Representatives in 1915, Wis consin gave tAvo votes in favor and nine votes against the federal amendment. By January, 1918, our delegation had taken an advanced stand and Ave had the remarkably favorable vote of eight for, and two against, the amendment * * * . That same vote Avas recorded at the final suffrage roll-call in the House in May, 1919. Both of the Wisconsin senators stood steadily for the amendment." Influence of the Great War. — "The World Avar undoubtedly hastened the enfranchisement of the women of this country," continues Mrs. Youmans. "Political parties indicated the splendid Avar Avork of women as reason for favoring political equality. Woman suffragists, being suffragists because of their interest in citizenship and good government, realized to the full the great issues at stake and supported the government Avith all their powers * * * . Almost immediately after Congress had declared the existence of a state of Avar the executive board of the AYisconsin Woman's Suffrage Association took action favoring vigorous effort in several specified lines of Avar activity, and proffering its allegiance and services to the state." The Wisconsin Woman's Suffrage Association, as well as many of the county associations, appointed committees on registration, food conservation, Americanization, fatherless children of France, Red Cross, Liberty Loan drives, and all sorts of war and relief organizations; and especially fine work WOAIAN'S SUFFRAGE IN WISCONSIN 569 was done in teaching American ideals to the foreign born element in our population. There are many other details connected with the movement which we should like to dAvell upon in this inadequate account of woman's suffrage in this state, but at least we shall strongly recommend such readers as take an interest in the subject to procure the number of the Wisconsin Magazine of History, for September, 1921, published by the State Historical SocietA' at Madison, and peruse Mrs. Youmans' article Avhich we have found so helpful in the preparation of this passage in our history. The writer of the article adds a note that she is indebted for information used to the Rev. Olympia BroAvn (whose portrait is found in the frontispiece of the magazine), Ada L. James, Louise P. Kellogg, and many others. Mrs. Youmans' Final Paragraph. — "In looking backAvard we are filled with gratitude and happiness at what Ave have accomplished * * * . The enfranchisement of women in face of the prejudice against it, prejudice Avoven into the very web of human nature, is a marvelous achievement. The careless Avorld will probably continue to think that woman suffrage just hap pened, that it was 'in the air'; but we know that the changes in the opinions of society which made it possible are the result of ceaseless, unremitting toil * # * . The political equality of women came because a little group of women had a profound conviction that the enfranchisement of women was so fundamentally right and so absolutely necessary that it must be brought about. Alany women and many men helped in the long woman suffrage struggle. But it was the burning flame in the souls of a feAv women Avhich lighted and led the way." THE SOLDIERS MONUMENT CHAPTER XXXIV PARTICIPATION IN WAR The Winnebago War of 1827. — While the events that constituted the "speck of war" known as the "Winnebago uprising" can scarcely be con sidered a part of the history of Milwaukee, still this episode must be men tioned because of the excitement caused among the few settlers then resident at this distant frontier trading post. The uprising took place in 1827 and AA'as the result of troubles between the white settlers, .then flocking into the territory, and the Winnebago tribe, who occupied this region of country be fore they were remoA'ed by the Government to their reservations in -the far west. The name most frequently met with in connection with the uprising is that of the AVinnebago chief, Red Bird, who boldly undertook to revenge certain wrongs and outrages suffered by the savages, in Indian fashion. Thus a number of whites Avere brutally massacred in retaliation and an alarm was spread that a general Indian attack was about to be made on the settlements. But the reports of outrages, though serious enough, proved to have been greatly exaggerated. Governor Lewis Cass, arrh'ing upon the scene from Detroit, soon gathered the Indians in council at Green Bay and gave a sympa thetic hearing to them. The governor, finding much discontent among the tribes, determined upon a tour along the frontier, and taking a canoe manned by a party of voyageurs, he rapidly passed up the Fox River and doAvn the Wisconsin into the Mississippi. As he passed he warned the chiefs of the results of a war which they seemed bent upon undertaking. Governor Cass reached Prairie du Chien where he organized the people for defense, collected volunteers at other places and finally reached St. Louis from which point he dispatched a force of United States troops under Gen eral Atkinson to the troubled regions. He started on his return journey to Green Bay by way of Chicago where he arrived thirteen days after leaving Green Bay. He remained in Chicago but a few -hours continuing his journey along the coast of Lake Alichigan to Green Bay. The Indians, finding that their designs had become fully known to the governor, abandoned their hostile purposes with ill-concealed chagrin. A treaty was soon completed, and a devastating war over the whole Northwestern frontier was thus averted through the promptness of the governor's action. "The incidents of his flying trip to St. Louis," says Prof. Andrew C. Mc Laughlin of the University of Michigan, "the light canoe flitting through the dark night down the Mississippi, the silence, the Avildness of the scenery, the intense excitement and anxiety lest his efforts should be too late, made the 571 572 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE deepest impression upon his oavii imagination and memory." In later years GoA-ernor Cass, who had been a general in the United States Army, governor of Alichigan Territory, a candidate for the presidency and the negotiator of a score of Indian treaties, was appointed U. S. minister to France ; and while at the palace of St. Cloud, Professor McLaughlin relates, the recollection of these scenes came back to him in all their vividness; and as he contemplated the quiet flow of the Seine, he compared it with "the mighty Mississippi, remember hoAv he was Avhirled along through the night on a race for peace and the lives of his people." The Black Hawk War of 1832. — The war against Black Hawk and his Indians, in 1S32, found the little settlement at Alilwaukee still in its frontier condition. It took no part in the campaign which ended in that chief's utter defeat and capture. The war Avhich lasted but a few months is also known in the histories as "the Sauk war," as the Indians of the Sac and Fox tribe were often called "Sauks." Brief mention may here be made of the leading incidents of that Avar. One of the early acts of overt hostility on the part of the Indians Avas the massacre of sixteen white settlers near Indian Creek, Illinois, which took place May 21, 1832. The details of the attack and the terrible scenes which folloAved, Avith the carrying aAvay as captives of the Hall girls, has been viA-idly narrated by Charles M. Scanlan, a lawyer of Alilwaukee, and pub lished some years since. Black Hawk AA'as a chief of the Sac and Fox tribe, and many volumes have been published concerning this remarkable Indian chief. "The four years following the conclusion of the Winnebago outbreak," writes Carrie J. Smith in her book, "The Alaking of Wisconsin," 'hvere years of groAvth and prosperity in Southern AVisconsin. Relieved from anxiety as to Indian attacks, the miners returned to the lead regions, and Avith them came many immigrants. "But the interval of peace was short, and the Avar that followed Avas the bloodiest in the history of the state. This time it was not the Winnebagoes avIio led the uprising, but the Sauks, Avho from the close of the French Avar against them and the Foxes, had occupied the east bank of the Mississippi River from the Wisconsin to the Missouri river, AA'hile the Foxes dwelt on the Avest bank." A few Avceks before the Indian Creek massacre, referred to above, Black HaAvk and about five hundred braves with their Avives and children crossed the Mississippi into Illinois, with hostile intent. Governor John Reynolds of Illinois (known as "the Old Ranger"), hearing of this movement at once called out the state militia consisting of 1,600 volunteers. This force followed the Indians up the Rock River. It Avas Avith this force of volunteers that Abraham Lincoln, then a young man of twenty-three, served as captain of a company. Soon after an attack on the Indians Avas made by Major Stillman, but his force avhs repulsed and took to flight. This happened on Alay 14, still a week before the Indian Creek massacre. United States Regulars from St. Louis, were quickly sent north under General Atkinson and Avhen they PARTICIPATION IN WAR 573 appeared on the scene the Indians found themselves confronted by an over- Avhelming force. They accordingly retreated into Southern Wisconsin until at length they reached the Wisconsin River on July 21st. Here the Indians finding they must make a stand placed their old men, Avomen and children on a raft, belieA-ing they could thus escape to the western shore of the Mississippi, Avhile the remaining warriors plunged into the wilder ness supposing that the safety of their helpless ones had been assured. The Indians having crossed the Wisconsin tried to reach the Mississippi and rejoin the occupants of the raft on the Avestern shore. These unfortunates, however, were fired upon by a force of Avhite troops on the eastern bank with needless cruelty and many of them were killed or drowned. But the pursuing force caught up with the fleeing warriors near the mouth of the Bad Axe River where the final action took place. Black HaAvk, per ceiving that the end Avas near, abandoned his followers and found means to cross the river where he found refuge among some friendly Winnebagoes. The Indians were now mercilessly attacked by their pursuers and great num bers of them perished while attempting to escape by swimming the river. The battle of Bad Axe was one of cruel and Avanton extermination, about three hundred of the Indians being either killed or drowned. There were still as many more who succeeded in crossing the river, but upon reaching the other shore they Avere attacked by a party of a hundred Sioux sent out by Atkinson, and one-half of those who had thus far escaped were now slaugh tered. Out of a thousand warriors who had crossed the Mississippi in April, only about a hundred and fifty survived the war. On September 21, 1832, a treaty of peace was signed, and thereafter Black HaAvk was held as a prisoner of war at Fortress Monroe until the following June, after which he Avas returned to his former home in the West. He died in 1838 at the age of seventy-one. There Avere about two hundred and fifty lives lost in the Black HaAvk Avar, and the cost to the Government Avas about $2,000,000. In accordance with the Treaty of Chicago in 1833 (the next year after the war), the Indians of Wisconsin were removed to reservations beyond the Mississippi. - The removal Avas made at the expense of the Government but was not completely accomplished until 1838. The contract for the removal of the Wisconsin Indians was given to Jacques Vieau, says J. S. Buck in his history. Vieau was obliged to press into the service "every aA'ailable team in the country in order to accomplish their removal." Thus the country was cleared of all the Pottawatomies and Menomonees with the exception of some bands who were shown special favors for one reason or another. The Indians "were collected at the old Indian fields," says Buck, "near the Layton House, until preparations could be made, teams procured, and supplies collected." Public interest throughout the country Avas strongly attracted towards the Wisconsin and Illinois region in consequence of the war. Numerous de scriptions of the war and of the territory upon which it had taken place ap peared in the public prints of the day. No doubt the Black Hawk war greatly promoted the development of the regions now occupied by a numerous popu lation, although then in many parts it was still in a primitive condition. 574 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Milwaukee in the Mexican War. — In 1846, there were two military com panies in Milwaukee, — the Washington Guards and the Milwaukee Rifles. The rank and file of these companies were chiefly Germans, and in view of the predominance of the foreign element in their membership it was thought advisable to form a companj' of Yankees, as all native-born Americans were called in those days. Most of the members of these companies, foreigners as well as natives, afterwards enlisted for service in the Mexican war which broke out in the spring of 1846. When the neAvs reached Milwaukee that a battle had been fought on the Texas border between the forces of Gen. Zaehary Taylor and the Mexicans under General Arista, these companies at once offered their services to the Government. In a paper read before the "Old Settlers' Club" of Milwaukee in recent years by Henry W. Bleyer, quite full particulars of the activities of these troops are given, which are here condensed for this history. The War Department, however, was slow in availing itself of the offer which was in a large measure due to the inadequate means of communication between the East and the West which then existed. "Communication by telegraph," says Bleyer, "could be carried only as far west as Buffalo, and the railway mail service did not extend beyond Kalamazoo. News from Washington, when not telegraphed to Buffalo and dispatched by steamer, was usually tAvo weeks on the way, while the mails from Mexico came to hand some four or five Aveeks after they had been posted. "Under these circumstances little Avas knoAvn of us in the East, and per haps less was expected of us, though our territory of 160,000 souls had been shown to have enough brain and s;new to form several regiments of stahvart men, such as those who Avere associated with the Sixth United States Infantry in driving Black Hawk and his savage hordes beyond the Alississippi River in 1832." The name of General Taylor inspired the enthusiasm of all Wis consin men, as he was well knoAvn from his early residence among them as a young army officer at Green Bay and other stations in the territory, and there Avas great eagerness to serve under him in the Mexican campaigns. Obstacles to Recruiting. — "The long period of waiting for an encouraging- word from Washington wearied us into a state of indifference about the war, and several Alilwaukeeans, tiring of this inactivity, went to Illinois to vol unteer their services. Others in their zeal to serA'e their country traveled to Detroit and more Eastern points to enlist. In the meantime our territory was called upon to furnish a company, and through the influence of Morgan L. Martin, our representative in Congress, Gustavus Quarles, a popular and brilliant young lawyer of Southport, now Kenosha, was commissioned captain of this company, and Abel AV Wright, lieutenant." After his arrival in Milwaukee Captain Quarles worked energetically to fill the ranks of his company. The Alihvaukee recruits, dressed in uniforms of light blue, presented a creditable appearance as they marched through the streets to the music of fife and drum. They drilled almost daily on Market Square, along Wisconsin Street east to Mihvaukee Street, and along the bluff near a powder house at the head of Martin Street. After Lieutenant Wright had completed his enlistments at AVatertown, Avhere he had gone on that PARTICIPATION IN WAR 575 serA'ice,.he brought his force of twenty-three men to Milwaukee in wagons. Just before his departure from Watertown a citizens' committee presented him with a handsome sword and an engrossed testimonial of their appreciation of his methods as a military officer. The company, having now been brought up to its full quota, prepared for their departure, and on May 2, 1847, three signal guns announced the approach of the steamer Louisiana that had been designated to transport the volunteers down the lakes. The recruits hurried to their quarters to gather up their belongings, and the citizens assembled along Wisconsin Street to witness their departure. The mayor and members of the common council headed the line of march, followed by the Washing ton Guards and the German Riflemen, through the principal streets of the town out on the pier as an escort to the volunteers who were about to take their departure. Here the mayor, Horatio N. Wells, addressed them and Captain Quarles responded in a brief and soldierly manner. The mayor's remarks were.. in part as follows: "Soldiers! The step you have taken is of no trifling importance. The positions you occupy are alike honorable and responsible. You have made no slight sacrifice; you leave home, families and friends to go to a distant land, there to exchange a life of comparative ease and domestic happiness for one of toil, of hardship and of danger * * * . Permit me, on behalf of the citizens of Milwaukee, to bid you and your patriotic officers an affectionate farewell. May the God of battles guide, protect and return you to us in safety and honor." Scenes similar to this in later times have often been repeated on the de parture of soldiers for the field of war, in the years from .1861 to 1865, in the Spanish-American war of 1898, and in the glorious response made by the men of Milwaukee in the great World war in 1917 and 1918. The return of those who survived the terrible ordeals of these wars of the republic has given occasion for many remarkable demonstrations in honor of our warriors, and memorials of their deeds and bravery have been erected in many places throughout the city and commonwealth. The Campaign in Mexico. — The route of the company was by Avay of Lake Erie and thence down to the Ohio River through the canal which Byron Kil bourn had built years before to Covington, Kentucky, and from there it was conveyed down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. After a brief stay at this point the company crossed the Gulf of Mexico arriving at their destination at Vera Cruz early in June, and was at once assigned to General Pillow's division of General Scott's army. It was designated as "Company F, Fifteenth United States Infantry." "On the first of July," continues Mr. Bleyer 's account, "we received the first news of our company under Captain Quarles. His volunteers were glad to land at Vera Cruz after their tedious trip by water. They had not long been ashore when they began to experience the assaults of an insidious foe. The dreadful coast fever had invaded their quarters, and two comrades had died and many others were in the hospital during their brief sojourn at that port. About the middle of June the regiment had been ordered to the front. "Later we received news that the company had had its first baptism of MEMBERS OF THE OLD MILWAUKEE LIGHT GUARD From a photo in possession of the Old Settlers' Club of Milwaukee County PARTICIPATION IN WAR 577 fire, and that it had fought valiantly from early dawn to late in the after noon. It was at Contreras that Captain Quarles had the gratification of lead ing his men into their first regular battle." Needless to say the American boys were victorious and after a short respite the gallant Fifteenth followed up their successful charge by opening the battle of Churubusco by storming the fortress. Here Captain Quarles was killed while leading his men, and beside him fell Privates John Herrick and Moses Whitney. Three weeks later Gen. Winfield Scott entered the City of Mexico at the head of the American army, and thus practically ended the war. Of the twenty-three men who were recruited at Watertown but six re turned. In all, forty members of Company F were destined never to return. The names of those who were killed at Churubusco or died during the cam paign are printed in the records of the Old Settlers' Club of Milwaukee. The body of Captain Quarles was brought from Mexico in the year fol lowing the close of the Mexican war, and received funeral honors at his home town of Southport (Kenosha). -The ceremonies on that occasion were attended by the Washington Guards, the Milwaukee Riflemen and the Milwaukee Dra goons, together with delegations from various civic bodies. The Brave and Daring Few. — About the same time there occurred a some what similar event in Kentucky where the bodies of those killed in the Mex ican war who had volunteered from that state had been brought home for burial in the homeland. The obsequies at Frankfort, Kentucky, were dis tinguished by the recital of that famous poem entitled, "The Bivouac of the Dead," by Theodore O'Hara, its author. Verses from this poem have since been placed as inscriptions in many of our national cemeteries as appropriate to the dead of our Civil war. The first stanza of this remarkable poem is here quoted, as follows : ' ' The muffled drum 's sad roll has beat The soldier's last tattoo ; No more on life's parade shall meet The brave and daring few. On Fame 's eternal camping ground Their silent tents are spread, And Glory guards with solemn round The bivouac of the dead. ' ' These lines and others in the same poem are likewise appropriate to the heroic dead, the men "who gave the last full measure of devotion" to their country's cause, in the Mexican war. The total losses in the war with Mexico, as given in Moses' "History of Illinois," were as follows: From January 1, 1846 to January 1, 1848, there were 1,557 killed in battle or died of wounds. The deaths from disease were 5,987. Thus the losses in human lives were 7,544. There Avere 5,432 dis charged for disability, in the course of the war. The cost of the war, including the amount paid to Mexico under the con cluding treaty was estimated at the time to be $166,500,000. Material Results of the War.— By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which Vol. 1—3 7 578 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE concluded the war with Alexico the Alexicans recognized the Rio Grande as the boundary betAveen Mexico and Texas. Mexico ceded to the United States the territory of Texas (for she had never recognized the independence of that republic which had been declared in 1836), and a large part of the present states of New Alexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The United States on her part agreed to pay the Republic of Alexico the sum of $15,000,000. "This payment," says a writer in the Encyclo paedia Britannica, "was doubtless intended to strengthen the United States' title to the conquered territory." The Mexicans celebrate the anniversaries of the battles of Chapultepec and Molino del Rey which preceded the capture of the capital as very great victories and they are recognized as national holidays. "Their authorities," says General Grant in his "Personal Memoirs" (written in 1885), "grow enthusiastic over their theme when telling of these victories, and speak with pride of the large sum of money they forced us to pay in the end." He ad-. mires their patriotism which he thinks it would be well if we should imitate in part, but with more regard for the truth." The Union Guards of Milwaukee. — In the account of the "Lady Elgin" disaster which forms a portion of this history, reference is made to "the Union Guards of Milwaukee," a large number of whom lost their lives in that dis aster, including the captain of the company. Recently Charles Al. Scanlan of Alilwaukee has written a historical account of the Union Guards and of Capt. Garret Barry, the commander. An abstract of Mr. Scanlan 's account is here given, thus adding materially to the melancholy details of that event in our history. Captain Barry Avas a graduate of West Point and had served in the United States army, at one time performing garrison duty at Fort Snelling, also at Fort CraAvf orcl ; and had seen service in the Florida Avar, in the Avar Avith Alex ico, and, in. 1847, had become a resident of Alihvaukee. Here he Avas elected county treasurer in 1859, and at the time of the disaster spoken of was sup erintendent of the custom house. OAving to his military training Captain Barry became prominent in the Union Guards Avhich was the later name of a former organization called the "Scarsfield Guards." The Union Guards company Avas the pride of the Third Ward in Milwaukee, and as its membership consisted chiefly, of Irishmen and democrats it was said that "no Irishman had any chance in love or politics unless he were a member of that company." Those were the days of the infamous "Fugitive slave laAv" AA'hich had been passed by the slaveholding element in Congress. Its operation Avas resisted in Alihvaukee whose citizens generally had no sympathy Avith slave catchers operating on the free soil of their state. Serious friction haA'ing arisen between the state authorities and the Union Guards the governor had ordered the arms used by the companj' to be returned to the state arsenal which order was promptly complied with. But Captain Barry at once pro ceeded to purchase a neAv outfit. It was to raise the money to pay for this outfit that the excursion on the "Lady Elgin" had been planned and carried out, and it was on the return trip from Chicago to Alihvaukee, early in the PARTICIPATION IN WAR 579 morning of September 8, 1860, that the steamer was sunk in a collision Avith a schooner off Highland Park, Illinois, and some three hundred lives lost. Captain Barry Avas among those who lost their lives in that disaster. His body Avas recovered and a great military funeral took place in Milwaukee. The remains were interred in Calvary cemetery. Negro Slavery in Wisconsin. — "What there was in Wisconsin of the actual holding of negroes as slaves," writes John Nelson Davidson, in pamphlet number 18 of the Parkman Club publications, "was merely an incidental rather than a purposed extension of a system that had its strength elsewhere." The writer then goes on to state that as "slavery had triumphed in Missouri, and as some of her citizens became emigrants northward, it was almost a mat ter of course that at least a few of them would take their negroes, and that the old relation of master and slave would continue for a time in practical though not legal existence." The story of the first negroes in Wisconsin is one of liberation rather than of continuance in bondage. The case in regard to William Horner and his negroes is described by a correspondent, a portion of whose letter is as fol- Ioavs: "Mr. Horner brought four grown-up persons and two children with him from Virginia, and when Mr. Horner left here to return to Virginia lie left those colored people in comfortable circumstances, and now some of them are well off. A Mr. Ross came from Missouri with several colored people that used to be his slaves. He settled them comfortably and now there is quite a colony of them near Lancaster well behaved and industrious, who at tend schools and churches." Other Instances of Emancipation. — John Lewis, also of Lancaster, gave the following account: "A man by the name of Woolfolk moved from Alis- souri to Potosi and brought a negro woman with his family who served him as sei'A'ant for many years. On his removal back to Missouri, he was going to take the Avoman back, but the opposition of the citizens prevented him from doing so." The blacks brought by Mr. Horner were the property of his wife. They Avere given homes on lands deeded to them. Mr. Ross, mentioned above, died in Wisconsin, but his wife died in Alissouri. She made a wish before her death that their blacks should be liberated, and her husband who sur vived her religiously carried out her wish. One "Ben Wood" took a slave with him to California in 1849 and report says brought him back from there to Alissouri and sold him, regarded by the public opinion of the time as an infamous proceeding. Influence of Emigration — "Wisconsin was settled by two currents of emi gration, distinct in origin and in course," says Mr. Davidson. "One was from the East, and came for the most part by way of the Great Lakes or on land lines parallel in a general way thereto." The other Avas from the states of the South where slavery had a legal existence, who followed the route already traced through the prairie regions of Indiana and Illinois. Thus the states where slavery was tolerated lost many of their best citizens who preferred to find homes for themselves and their children Avhere there Avas neither master nor slave. "With some of these emigrants dislike of slavery was due to their perception of the fact that it degraded labor, and that though 580 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE it was profitable to individuals of a favored class it was a loss to the com munity as a whole." But there were others who came to Wisconsin besides those who hated slavery. Many of those who came from slave states brought with them a rancorous spirit directed especially towards the Abolitionists, and thus developed that bitterness which characterized the political discus sions of that time. Immigrants from the East settled a larger portion of the state and exerted a wider influence than those from any other section. With these tides of im migration into Wisconsin came a flood of anti-slavery conviction that over spread the forming commonwealth. "Of these early settlers," says David son, "New York furnished a larger number than those from any other state. Many of these, to be sure, in coming hither had made a second removal from their New England home. Yet it was from New York more than from any other state that there came to Wisconsin so vital a union of abolitionism, with the evangelistic spirit that the church was the best friend to be found by either slave or sinner. For this we, as a state, owe to New York a greater debt than for shaping, as she undoubtedly did through her sons, our po litical institutions. ' ' Religion and Slavery. — "What people really believe," continues Davidson, "finds expression, commonly, in their religion before it does in their politics. Certainly the anti-slavery feeling in Wisconsin found utterance through some of her churches before it did through any political convention * * * . Whatever may be true of other parts of our country, most of the early churches of Wisconsin are free from the reproach of moral cowardice in deal ing with the subject of slavery." The powerful influence of Rev. Charles G. Finney, of Oberlin, was manifest in some of the early churches of Milwaukee established under his teachings. The sermons of this great "abolition evangelist" created a deep impression among the people. "It was one of the spiritual sons of the great movement in which Mr. Finney was a leader," says Davidson, "to whom the thought came to found a Congregational Church in that city." Among the reasons given for organizing a new church was the belief of some of its founders that the church previously established in Milwaukee by themselves and others of substantially the same religious views "was too conservative on the subject of slavery." In 1840 the Baptists assembled in convention at Waukesha passed the following resolution: "Resolved, that it is high time for Christians to arise and give their testimony against the soul-destroying sin of slavery, and to refuse fellowship with all slaveholders who have named the name of Christ, and those who abet their cause." The Presbytery of Milwaukee. — There Avas organized in Milwaukee in 1839, the "Presbytery of Wisconsin" which soon after became the Presbytery of Milwaukee, and in the next year it was merged into the Presbyterian and Con gregational Convention of Wisconsin. "At the formation of this convention," says Davidson, "the thought of union between the Congregational and Pres byterian churches and ministers seems to have excluded almost everything else. That accomplished, the fathers and founders of those churches in Wis consin expressed their anti-slavery convictions most remarkably. 'Resolved,' PARTICIPATION IN WAR 581 they said in their meeting at Beloit in October, 1841, 'that in the view of this convention American slavery is a sin, that it is a sin of such magnitude that all who practice it or knowingly promote it should be excluded from our pulpits and the fellowship of our churches; that while we deprecate all harsh language and rash measures in the destruction of this evil, we will neverthe less avail ourselves of all suitable measures to enlighten and correct the public mind in regard to the sin of slavery.' "The adoption of these resolutions probably followed an address on the subject by ReA'. Aloses Ordway who had been appointed to this service when the convention was in session the preceding June at Prairieville (Waukesha). Even at a meeting before that the subject had been brought forward, and thus the Avay made ready for some action of a significant character such as was most certainly the choosing of Mr. Ordway as the one to give the address. Think of this son of thunder with human slavery for a subject! For he was one who in rebuking iniquity, as well as in doing a number of other things, did not fear the face of man." Slave Hunting in Milwaukee. — Al. M. Quaife in the Milwaukee Journal of Alarch 26, 1922, tells of some of the incidents of slavery days as enacted in an earlier day in Alilwaukee : "So remote from the consciousness of the present day is the era of negro slavery in America, that only with difficulty can one realize the fact that less than seventy years ago terror-stricken negroes were hunted through the streets of Milwaukee by men intent on dragging them back to the slavery from which they had fled. The case of Joshua Glover in 1854 became notori ous throughout the land, and made of Milwaukee and Wisconsin one of the leading anti-slavery centers of the nation. But it is not so well known that many years before the Glover case, and while Milwaukee was hardly more than a village, southern slave holders pursued their peculiar ' property ' through its streets, and unsympathetic citizens strove zealously to balk the pursuer of his prey and send the poor fugitive on his way to Canada. "The story of Caroline Quarreles illustrates as well as any the lights and shadows of man-hunting in Milwaukee. Caroline was the first passenger on the first underground railroad in Wisconsin, which had its northern term inus at Milwaukee and Waukesha. Her history illustrates one of the most revolting aspects of the institution of slavery as practiced in America, for her father was a white man and her owner, Mrs. Hall, was her father's sister, and Caroline's own aunt. Loathed Her Bondage. — "In other respects, however, Caroline's lot was relatively fortunate. She was an intelligent girl, almost wholly white, and probably for these reasons was brought up as a house servant, being taught to sew and embroider and to wait upon her mistress. Her master, Charles F. Hall, was a St. Louis merchant, who had formerly lived in Kentucky. So far as known, the girl was not badly abused while in servitude, but she was in telligent enough to loathe her bondage and energetic enough to make an early attempt to end it. "The occasion came when her mistress in a fit of anger cut off the girl's hair. This led her to determine to run away as soon as possible. Having cfti #> m B 0 F THAI Ai j) special inecliag oi Uio MfLWAT'KT.E knurr CJcAim, boJtl Tbarsday Ki amble nJi'J Resolutions wen.' uuaiumou,sIy adopted; 'id,- J. --.v.i iIjc following ioaw \ tti! THE MILWAUKEE LIGHT GUARD CARD OF THANKS The original in possession of the Old Settlers' Club of Milwaukee County PARTICIPATION IN WAR 583 gained possession of $100, she asked permission of her mistress to A-isit a sick girl acquaintance. Instead of returning from the visit, she Avalked to the river and boarded a steam boat for Alton, 111. There was then a girls' sem inary at Alton and as Caroline both looked and conducted herself like a Avhite girl, her real status and mission remained quite unsuspected by passengers and creAv of the steamer. A Treacherous Confidant. — "Like all slaves, Caroline kneAv that the land of freedom lay to the northAvard, but other than this she had set out Avith no particular plan or destination in mind, and it AA'as pure chance that directed her course to AIihA'aukee. On leaving the stage at the Mihvaukee house, she saAv a negro barber, a man named Titball, and supposing he would be her friend, appealed to him for information and advice. It Avas an unfortunate move, for Titball although himself a former shave, proved to be a mercenary villain. At first, however, he proffered his Avarmest sympathy for the girl and took her at once to his home, where she remained for a week. "The fugitive's presence in Alihvaukee first became known to the public Avhen officers arrived from St. Louis in search of her. Coming upon Titball, they inquired if her knew anything of the girl and he readily ansAvered that she Avas at his home. At the same time he quickly contrived a plot to profit by the situation; before piloting the pursuers to the place, he managed to send a negro boy who was working Avith him Avith orders to take Caroline aAvay from his house to a certain place of concealment, expecting to extort a sum of money from the lawyers as a reward for leading them to her. But the boy, Avho had also been a slave, suspected and outwitted this design by conducting Caroline to a different place of concealment than Titball had directed. ' ' AleanAvhile Spencer, the St. Louis laAvyer, thinking the girl within his grasp, concluded to defer to northern prejudice by making the seizure strictly according to the statutes, instead of attempting to seize and return Car oline Avithout process. He therefore sought the aid of H. N. Wells, a local attorney. Wells scorned the case and declined to have anything to do Avith it; he did not omit, hoAvever, to repair to the office of Asahel Finch, and un der the guise of joking about the affair, apprize him of the situation. "Spencer, after leaving Wells' office, enlisted the aid of another attorney and together the two went Avith Titball to his house to make the seizure. As that Avorthy expected, they were disappointed ; for $100, he agreed to lead them to her. On going to the place, however, the barber Avas in turn dis appointed, and in addition to losing the anticipated blood money he nar- roAvly escaped a beating at the hands of the irate Avhite men, Avho concluded the darkey had been trifling Avith them. "At this point begins the history of the underground railroad in Wiscon sin, for Avhile Caroline had come to Alihvaukee as an ordinary stage pas senger without attempt at concealment, from the place Avhere the negro boy had left her she was spirited into the country and through weeks of Aveary traveling conducted south around Lake Michigan and on to distant Canada. "The first removal was in the night following the disappointment of Spen cer and his coadjutors, when Asahel Finch sought out the girl and conveyed 584 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE her across the river to the West Side, then known as Kilbourntown. There by the roadside, in front of a negro's house, stood a large sugar hogshead, and in this the girl lay concealed all the following day, being fed by the in mates of the house. That night Deacon Samuel Brown, a farmer living a mile or so out of to\vn, took Caroline to his home and kept her the following day. When night came again, he set out with her in a rickety wagon over difficult roads to Pewaukee, Avhere in the home of Samuel Daugherty, two or three miles north of the village, the fugitive lay concealed for several weeks. "During all the time the search was going on those abolitionists who were aAvare of Caroline's place of concealment quietly kept their counsel until the pursuit relaxed momentarily, they removed the girl to Spring Prairie, some thirty miles south of Waukesha. A few days later Lyman Goodnow of ATaukesha, one of the men who had aided in spiriting the girl away to Spring Prairie, went down and set out with her for Canada, where he left her safely at SandAvich, across the river from Detroit. "The story of Goodnow 's arduous and unselfish journey has been recorded, fortunately, by Air. Goodnow himself, but it is too long to tell here. Caroline Quarrelles, Mihvaukee "s first fugitive slave girl, married at SandAvich and lived a long time there. By some means she learned to write, and forty years after her escape from bondage she wrote a letter to Air. Goodnow expressing her gratitude for what he had done for her, and her wish that she might see him once more." Sherman M. Booth. — An episode of the fugitive slave haw period in Wis consin is closely associated with the name of Sherman M. Booth. It will be remembered by those familiar with the history of the "Underground Rail road" that certain persons throughout the state and other states adjoining it, north of Mason and Dixon's line, which marked the boundaries between the slave and free states, used every available means to assist runaway slaves from the South to reach Canada where slavery was never recognized as it was in the United States. Such persons Avere called "conductors" on the Under ground Railroad. Many instances of their activities are mentioned in the histories of the time. As the fugitive slave law of those days protected the slave-owners of the South by allowing them to pursue their runaways into the free states, and, if they were found, to take them back to the places they escaped from, the consequence was that there were many agents from the South among us for the purpose of capturing them. To help the fugitives along the way and pro vide for their safety and welfare was the self-appointed task of the conductors on this so-called "Underground Railroad." In Alihvaukee (which Avas one of the "stations" on the line), Sherman M. Booth, one of its citizens, aided in the work of assisting the poor fugitives. Some of these cases reached the courts, and in the famous "Glover case" Mr. Booth was convicted under the fugitive slave laAv and sentenced to a pay a fine of $1,000, besides imprisonment for a month in the county jail, although he was discharged from the jail by the State Supreme Court on the ground of irregularities in the warrant. The owner of the rescued slave (avIio had safely reached Canadian terri- PARTICIPATION IN WAR 585 tory) brought suit against Booth in the United States District Court for $1,000 representing the value of a negro slave as fixed by the act of Congress passed in 1850. "It is said," says Legler in his history, "that the litigation in which Booth became entangled as the result of the Glover episode ruined him financially." Public opinion in Mihvaukee strongly approved of Booth's course throughout the entire affair. Booth was the editor of a paper called the Wisconsin Free Democrat and Avas naturally prominent among the anti-slavery people of the time. He is remembered to this day as one of ' ' Plutarch 's men, ' ' worthy of a place on the honor roll of the city's Valhalla. Copperheadism. — Many of those who retain memories of the great Civil war in which we were engaged more than half a century ago can remember the intense feeling aroused in the loyal men and women of that time when ever they saw manifestations of sympathy shown towards the enemies of our country. There was a numerous element throughout the North in those trying four years of conflict composed of men who gave aid and comfort to the enemy, often in underhanded ways, sometimes by withholding support to the Government in its times of difficulty, sometimes by sneering criticisms of its military operations, or more openly by advocating a so-called "peace policy" toward those who would dismember the Union in the interests of the slaveholders. There were many such persons, usually found among the lower grades of society, who came to be called "copperheads," and who ridiculed or dis paraged every effort made by the Lincoln administration to suppress the rebellion instigated by the seceding states of the South. They tried to com bat the rising spirit of loyalty in whatever form it was shown; they attended Union meetings in order to cry down the speakers and, through such publica tions as the Chicago Times of that day, claimed the influence of the democratic party because it had been the party of opposition in the previous campaigns. The partisans of secession cultivated every means to bring influence to bear in northern communities in order to paralyze the constantly increasing union sentiment. John Wentworth 's Reply to Vallandigham. — Speakers, like Vallandigham of Ohio, held public meetings in many cities of the North pleading for peace. On one occasion this same peace advocate appeared in Chicago and spoke to a curious crowd from the steps of the courthouse. He was answered vigorously by "Long John" Wentworth, who, though he had been a democrat in the days before the war, now declared that he was for the Union and the republican party. "I am no party man," he said. "I am chained to the partisan car of no class, no interest, no organization; to my country, and my country alone, do I owe fealty and render homage. I love my country. It nurtured me in my youth, it honored me in my manhood, and now, when I have passed the meridian of life, I love to respond to any call to plead in her behalf." It is needless to say that the audience was heart and soul with "Long John" and he received the unstinted applause of the people. Copperhead Propaganda in the North. — The activities of the copperheads were not confined to promoting their influence by means of a detestable 586 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE propaganda. While in the South a strict censorship of the press and of public utterances Avas maintained, the press of the North was free up to the point of treason, and the citizen could entertain his views and express them. "The copperhead disreputable portion of the press," wrote General Grant in his Memoirs, "magnified rebel successes and belittled those of the Union army. It was, with a large folloAving, an auxiliary to the Confederate army. The North would have been much stronger Avith 100,000 of these men in the Confederate ranks and the rest of their kind thoroughly subdued, as the Union sentiment Avas in the South, than Ave Avere as the battle Avas fought." A story is told of Peter CartAvright the famous pioneer preacher of Illinois who, although himself a life-long democrat, Avas outspoken in his support of the Union cause. He Avas at one time during the Avar visiting the East and had been invited to a dinner by a feAv friends Avho Avere southern sympathizers and who had taken it for granted that the veteran preacher Avas of their way of thinking. But as he listened to their bitter criticism of the Lincoln administra tion he said he began to feel "like a cat in a strange garret." His blood Avas hot AAdth indignation and presently he arose to make a feAv remarks. "I am an old man," he said; "the sands in the hourglass of my life have nearly finished their flow. What I can say and Avhat I can do in this world, if accomplished at all, must be clone promptly. So I wish to speak very plainly to you tonight, the last words I may ever address to you. If I had known I Avould meet such a nest of tories and traitors here I would never have put my legs under your boards, nor sat down and broken bread with you at this table." One can imagine the consternation that these remarks brought to the guests surrounding the table. But his blood was up and he AA'as unsparing in his de nunciations. He said he could see the "huge hell of jealousy and discord" that would be opened up Avithin our country's boundaries if the secessionists succeeded in rending apart the union of our states. * "You; their sympathizers on this side of the Alason and Dixon line," he continued, "are accomplishing here today more for these secessionists against maintaining the Union by your criticisms and lack of sympathy for President Lincoln's noble labors than you could do Avere you doAvn South this hour and enrolled in the ranks of Jeff Davis' Confederacy." His last Avords as he left the table Avere, "There are iioav but Iavo parties — patriots and traitors!" In recalling these memories of the Civil Avar, dark and bitter as they may seem, Ave only make more distinct the triumph of -right and justice. Who can noAv look back and wish that the slaveholders had Avon their "lost cause"? Who would Avillingly have seen a divided nation, either of AA'hose parts Avould have at a later time made Avar upon each other, or had become a prey of some European power? Let us be profoundly thankful that the Union cause at last won the day and that Ave are now a united people. One prominent citizen of Wisconsin Avho Avore a copperhead badge for over a year lived to say that it was the one action of his life of AA'hich he was heartily ashamed. Milwaukee in the Civil War. — The breaking out of the Civil war is commonly dated from the firing on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861. Gov. Alex ander W. Randall was entering upon his second term Avhen that startling event PARTICIPATION IN WAR 587 occurred. Even Avhile the bombardment of Fort Sumter was still in progress the Legislature passed an act giving to the governor practically a free hand to take such measures as he considered necessary, "to provide for the defense of the state and to aid in enforcing the laAvs and maintaining the authority of the Federal government. ' ' On the 15th of April President Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 three months' volunteers, and Governor Randall folloAved this Avith a proclamation on the next day urging a prompt response on the part of the people of the state, especially by the uniformed militia companies ; and the Legislature reinforced this action by voting to double the amount of the first appropriation for use in the great emergency. The first response was from the "Madison Guard," a local militia company, AA'hich in the preA'ious January, Avhen the situation looked threatening, had tendered its services to the governor. As soon as the proclamation Avas signed the governor sent for the captain of this company, Capt. George E. Bryant, and accepted the tender. "Thus this organization," says Reuben Gold ThAvaites in the "American Commonwealth series, " " AA'as the first in Wisconsin to enlist ; and Avhile its members were being cheered at the meeting in the assembly chamber the telegraph brought similar offers from Milwaukee and other cities throughout the state." Ten companies were accepted, four from Milwaukee, two from Madison, and one each from Beloit, Fond du Lac, Horicon and Kenosha. The governor then organized the First Regiment of Wisconsin volunteers which was mustered in at Alihvaukee Alay 17th, and the war department Avas informed that the regiment awaited marching orders. Col. John C, Stark weather was placed in command of the regiment which on the 9th of June proceeded to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. In the following July the regiment, after taking part in the battle of Falling Waters, returned to Wisconsin Avhere it Avas reorganized into a three year regiment. In the action at Falling Waters a private from Milwaukee named George Drake was killed, being not only the first Wisconsin man to give up his life in the cause of the Union, but the first soldier to fall in the Shenandoah Valley, soon to become one of the bloodiest scenes in the great theater of Avar. The reorganized "First" made a glorious record in the numerous battles participated in by the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the Tennessee throughout the war. When the Twenty-fourth Wisconsin was organized it was known as "the Mihvaukee regiment." The tAvo regiments here mentioned took part in the sanguinary battle of Chicamauga Avhere there were in all five Wisconsin regiments and three batteries, and at the battle of Alissionary Ridge there were seven regiments of Wisconsin troops including those above men tioned. The complete history of the Wisconsin troops in the Civil Avar of 1861- 1865 may be found in numerous publications, especially in the reports of the state historical society at Madison. The "Iron Brigade," consisting at times of three regiments of AVisconsin troops Avith regiments from other states, took a glorious part in all the campaigns of the war. In one of the photographs taken in that remarkable series known as the "Brady War Photographs" is shown a number of dead bodies on the field of Gettysburg under which appears the inscription, "Alen of the Iron Brigade." 588 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE As the men of this brigade advanced through a wood on the first day of the battle they shouted to the retreating Confederates, "We have come to stay;" and another picture shows a group of their dead under which the historian has inscribed the words, "The men who came to stay." He also comments upon the losses suffered by the Iron Brigade, "the heaviest aggregate loss by bri gades in the entire war fell to this gallant command. ' ' We cannot dwell here on the numerous thrilling episodes of which Wisconsin men were the heroes, but the history of that great war is filled with the accounts of the deeds in the campaigns of Wisconsin's brave warriors. At the first onset of the Civil war the financial troubles of the community attracted the . serious attention of the public, for it was still suffering from the effects of the "wildcat" times of the previous decades. Much improve ment had taken place but there were still many elements of unsoundness in the general banking situation. In the opening days of the "tremendous drama of the Civil war," the bank circulation of all the banks of the state amounted to some $4,000,000, the security for over half of which consisted of the bonds of Southern states which began to shrink in value. It was the general opinion, however, that the war would be short and public confidence would be restored in a few months, but as every day deepened the seriousness of the situation the con servative element in the banking fraternity was aroused to the exercise of greater caution. Within two weeks after the outbreak of the war some twenty- two banks of the state had refused to redeem their bills, and the bankers at a state convention, held April 25th, discredited eighteen more week concerns. The public was reassured by this action and confidence was revived, "but dissensions arose among the banks," says Thwaites, "the strong declining to bolster up the weak any longer." The Milwaukee bankers, at a meeting on Friday, June 21, "as a measure of self-preservation," threw out ten banks from the list of seventy specified banks whose issues they had preA'iously agreed to receive. This action did not become known "until after banking hours of Saturday by which time the laborers of the city had generally been paid their week's wages. The workmen found that a considerable portion of the bills they had received were the issues of the ten discredited banks." Not understanding the cause of the action of the banks, which was un questionably a measure of safety, the men considered themselves defrauded. On the following Monday an excited mob stormed the banks hurling showers of bricks and paving stones, thus doing many thousands of dollars' worth of damage. "Business was suspended throughout the city during the entire week," says Thwaites, "and it was a month before the stream of commerce again flowed smoothly. The holders of the paper of the discredited banks were eventually reimbursed; and by the close of the year an arrangement was made between the Milwaukee financiers and the state government by which the worthless Southern bonds were sold and replaced by state bonds, and all bank bills not previously retired from circulation were once more received at par." When the people began to realize that an actual conflict of arms was "sweeping upon the country like an approaching solar eclipse," (to use an PARTICIPATION IN WAR 589 expression of the late Horace White) their enthusiasm knew no bounds, and Wisconsin's quota was far overrun by the volunteers who came forward in overwhelming numbers to enlist in their country's cause. But as the war pro gressed with the many defeats suffered by the Union armies volunteering languished and the repeated calls for troops sent out by President Lincoln found but a slack response. "Volunteering showed a marked decrease," says John W. Oliver Avriting on this subject in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, for March, 1919, "and those who had opposed the war or had been lukewarm in their support now bestirred themselves in making it unpopular." In the summer of 1862, two calls, each for 300,000 men, were issued, and it was readily perceived that the enthusiasm had waned since the first call had electrified the country. In this emergency Governor Salomon and his military advisers determined to adopt the system of conscription or draft in common use among the nations of the old world but never before resorted to in this country, to fill the quota required. The governor ordered the sheriffs in each county of the state to enroll all the able-bodied citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty-five and appointed a commission to supervise the draft. These measures produced great excitement among the people throughout the state and much opposition was threatened. And when in November the machinery of the draft was put in operation serious riots broke out at many points and considerable A'iolence ensued. In Ozaukee County a mob collected which destroyed the draft rolls and drove the officials away. The governor was obliged to order a military force to the scene which soon quelled the disturbance. "The following week," says Oliver, "the draft was to take place in Mil- waukee and Governor Salomon took a vigorous stand to prevent the recurrence of the Ozaukee County trouble. A proclamation was issued to the people of the county warning them against such disgraceful scenes as had been recently enacted by the Port Washington mob. Col. John C. Starkweather was ordered to take charge of the troops and guard the city. Soldiers were placed on picket duty on all the roads leading into the city, and one company kept guard at the courthouse where the draft was to be made. With these precautions the draw ing of numbers began at nine o'clock in the morning and continued throughout the day and late into the night." All the later drafts in the Civil war were made under Federal authority. "Half a century later," remarks Mr. Oliver, "when the country called for an army on the basis of a selective draft, Wisconsin was among the most enthusi astic states in the Union in filling her quota." The work of the women in the Civil war has been made the subject of a volume in the "Wisconsin History" series, published by the state in 1911. This volume was prepared by Miss Ethel Alice Hum. The series was issued under the editorship of that indefatigable worker, Reuben Gold Thwaites, the superintendent of the State Historical Society. Among the activities of women in the Civil war we shall only attempt to make a selection of a few that we have space for in this history. The work performed by the women in the Civil war was similar in most respects to that which we have been familiar with in the great war of recent years. NATIONAL SOLDIERS' HOME, LOCATED AVEST OF MILAVAUKEE PARTICIPATION IN WAR 591 ¦ Of course knitted things, — mittens, scarves, sweaters, and caps, — constituted the major portion of the Avork taken up by women. A national organization Avas formed, the United States Sanitary1 Commission, to Avhich thousands of neighborhood societies allied themselves, and thus the work became systema tized and the service to the men in the field Avas greatly increased in efficiency. "There was a perfect epidemic of knitting," relates one who recalls the scenes of that heroic time. It is somewhat perilous to mention the work of individuals in view of the extremely valuable services performed by the combined efforts of all, for fear that some may be overlooked. The name of Mrs. Joseph S. Colts, of Milwaukee, is one frequently met Avith in the accounts. Other names were "Mother" Biekerdyke, Airs. A. H. Hoge, Airs. Alary A. Livermore and Mrs. Cordelia Harvey, the Avidow of Gov. Louis P. Harvey who met his death by drowning while visiting the troops at the front. We have already made extensive men tion of woman's work in connection with the Sanitary fairs held in Milwaukee and elseAvhere. "The Wisconsin Soldiers' Home and the Mihvaukee Home Fair," says the author of the volume referred to, "were promoted and managed by women, and the remarkable energy and business ability of Airs. Lydia Hewitt and her assistants carried both of these projects to success. The whole episode was part of the uprising of the women of the North, and shows the native ability and tireless persistency of the American woman of 1865." In the "Photographic History of the Civil War," there is a chapter con tributed by Gen. Charles King, renowned as well for his literary accomplish ments as for his military record. In this chapter General King calls attention to the numerous instances of youthful soldiers who entered the service some of whom attained high rank. Boys of sixteen or less were often accepted by recruiting officers for service as musicians, buglers, drummer boys, and the like who later took their places in the ranks. There were three hundred boys of thirteen years of age or under who were mustered into the army serving as "markers" on battalion drills or parade, where they needed to carry only a light staff on which fluttered a "guidon" instead of a rifle. "There were little scamps of buglers in some of the old regular cavalry regiments and field batteries," says General King, "who sometimes had to be hoisted into the saddle, but could stick there like monkeys, and with reckless daring followed at the heels of the leader in many a wild sabre charge." Young Arthur Mac Arthur is mentioned in the chapter referred to. "Too young to enlist and crowded out of the chance of entering West Point in 1861," says the writer, "he receh-ed the appointment of adjutant of the Twenty-fourth Wisconsin (well known as the 'Milwaukee regiment'), when he was barely seventeen years of age, and was promoted to be major and lieuten ant-colonel while still eighteen; and commanded his regiment, though thrice wounded, in the bloody battles of Resaca and Franklin. "The 'gallant boy colonel,' as he was styled by General Stanley in his report, entered the regular army after the war, and in 1909, full of honors, reached the retiring age (sixty-four) as the last of its lieutenant-generals." An Episode of the Civil War. — In these days of almost unanimous praise 592 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE for Abraham Lincoln and his administration during the Civil war period it seems strange to find a mayor of Milwaukee, a city distinguished for its un swerving loyalty at that time and at1 all times since then, indulging in bitter criticism of the great Emancipator. Abner Kirby was the mayor of Milwaukee at one period during the war and he held A'iews which coincided with those held by the "Copperheads" of that time. In his inaugural address, made before the Common Council April 20, 1864, Mayor Kirby expressed himself candidly on both municipal and national affairs. • This address is preserved in manuscript form at the municipal ref erence library of Milwaukee, and a portion of the address is subjoined hereto, as follows: Mayor Kirby 's Inaugural Address. — "In entering upon my duties as Chief Alagistrate of our good city, it is expected of me, in accordance with custom, to ask you to consider in candor such suggestions and recommendations as in my judgment may seem proper and just in the management of our municipal affairs. With you I can do much ; Avithout you, nothing. The trust reposed in the members of the city government is one of a high order and of grave re sponsibility. We are pledged in the most solemn manner to discharge our duties honestly and to the best of our ability. I have the utmost confidence in the council. You will favor all measures necessary to the prosperity of the people, to the public convenience, and to the lasting good of our city. You will be bound down with iron chains to strict economy in all expenditures. In this, Councilmen, I shall act with you. Death and expenses, however, are unavoid able, but the latter may be restricted and in times like the present they should not exceed actual necessity. The most rigid economy must prevail in the ad ministration of our municipal affairs. This is your disposition and it is mine. So far as our influence and jurisdiction extends, our great and good country in its mournful state of bloody and financial trial, also must and shall receive the support of our ever ready hearts and hands. We must help and foster every effort to re-establish an honorable peace. Under present circumstances that can best be done by sending to the field our best men. "The city of Milwaukee differs from the administration now in power, as to its policy. We believe our rulers are not taking the right course to suppress this accursed rebellion. The present constitutional Chief of our nation, is, in my humble opinion, not fitted for the place, the occasion, or the times. He is the weakest man on the whole list of presidents. His honesty I never question. A weak and vacillating president, is quite as fatal to our pros perity in these times, as a dishonest president. He is in dishonest hands. His predecessor ran away with the nigger, and Abraham runs the nigger away. Which of the two has shown the greater weakness, and brought the larger amount of trouble upon us1? I leave you to judge. A few fanatics have dragged the country into this bloody and unholy strife. These fanatics do not all abide in the south; neither do they all live in the north. While General Grant was working into Vicksburg last summer, the telegraph the same day announced that Vicksburg was in our hands, and Bill. Yancey was dead. When this news reached old Boston, one of our Badger boys standing by, remarked: 'God and Grant are at work now,' and this makes us hope that rebellion and PARTICIPATION IN WAR 593 abolition will fill a common grave by November. I have always mourned that the officials at Washington sent back Alexander H. Stephens, when, under the flag of truce he implored us to receive him within our lines. He might have borne the olive branch, and opened the way to that glorious re-union, which all except the higher law abolitionists so much desire. As for the abolitionists, there is no power in heaven to please them for they hate peace on earth. For our government, the constitution and its laws, what would we not do that is honorable. It is the best government ever formed or lived under. All true men believe this." Lincoln in Wisconsin. — The story of Lincoln's visit to Milwaukee in the early day has been outlined in another part of this history, but as a sidelight to that story the following quotation from an undated newspaper clipping in the possession of the "Old Settlers' Club" of Mihvaukee may be included in that account: "Great destinies often turn upon apparently trivial decisions," says the writer of the newspaper article referred to. "This is illustrated in the folloAv- ing story concerning Abraham Lincoln which has just come to the notice of the Wisconsin State Historical society. During the later thirties the great Emancipator, then a struggling country lawyer, came to Milwaukee in search of a place to build up a practice. He was told that the 'Cream City' was over crowded with advocates, but that excellent opportunities were open in the growing villages to the north, particularly at Port Washington and She boygan. Acting upon this advice he made the fifty-mile journey to Sheboygan, traveling on foot, for it was in the days before the railroad was built. "He stopped for one night at Port Washington, completing his tour of investigation on the following day. Evidently what he found did not impress him favorably, for he forthwith returned to his Illinois home and settled down to practice there. "To-day," continues the writer, "the nation is thankful that pioneer Wis consin seemed unattractive to the future president. Had he made his abode at Port Washington or Sheboygan, he might indeed have risen to local prom inence, but he would never have met Douglas, he would never have been nom inated for the presidency, and he would not have had the opportunity to guide the imperiled Union through the bloody mazes of the Civil war." Whithersoever into the vast realms of the "might-have-beens" such specula tions might lead us it is interesting to contemplate the periods of crises in a great man's life, and learn in what way other channels opened towards the great future that was in store for him. "Old Abe," Wisconsin's War Eagle. — The Eighth Wisconsin Regiment of Volunteers was recruited during the summer of 1861. Regiments in the Civil war were nominally composed of 1,000 men each in ten companies of 100 men each. It was seldom, however, that the full number as thus indicated Avas reached before they were mustered into the service, and long before the expira tion of their terms of service they had usually shrunken to a small fraction of their nominal strength. A part of the equipment provided by the government was the regulation flag carried by a color sergeant and a guard. The colors were carried in the Vol. 1—3 8 594 HISTORY OF "MILWAUKEE center of the regiment as it stood in line on parade or in battle formation. In addition many regiments carried a presentation flag, a gift from .the. town where the unit was recruited or provided by . the men themselves. This special standard was usually made of silk, fringed with gold trimmings and bearing a device or inscription. Thus regiments as they marched away to war were usually seen bearing two standards, one in accordance Avith military regulations and another the gift of friends or chosen by themselves. The second standard, however, was not always a flag or banner. The Eighth Wisconsin which departed for the war in September, 1861, chose to carry a live eagle along Avith the regular colors, and for the ensuing three years the flag and the eagle Avere companions in numerous marches and battles. This par ticular bird Avas an American bald eagle which had scarcely reached its growth when it was brought in by a hunter who offered it for sale to the company then forming at Eau Claire. The eagle had been captured by an Indian on the Flambeau River, and the hunter demanded $2.50 for him. A patriotic citizen bought him and presented him to the company, whose members promptly named him "Old Abe," and under that name he won great renown as will presently appear. One of the men undertook the care of the eagle which was provided with a small platform in the shape of a shield attached to a short staff, to which it was fastened by a line fifteen or twenty feet in length. Such a perch with its burden was quite a heaA-y Aveight for one soldier to carry, as the eagle alone weighed about ten pounds, but the bearer had no other duty to perform than that of carrying this living emblem of war and military glory. When in line the eagle was always borne on the left of the color bearer in the center of the regiment Avhich from the beginning Avas known throughout the Avar as "The Eagle Regiment," and became famous in all the armies both on the Union and Confederate sides. Animals and Birds as Mascots. — It Avas a common practice for soldiers and marines to take Avith them pets of some kind on their campaigns and voyages. Several regiments from Wisconsin, the "Badger State," quite appropriately had badgers for their pets during the Civil Avar. A Alinnesota regiment had a half grown bear which was present at a number of engagements ; one regiment had a raccoon, while dogs, cats, squirrels and roosters Avere quite usual as mem bers of the regimental family. In the navy goats and even pigs are often taken along as "mascots," this term being employed in later days though the word was not in use'at the time of the Civil Avar. The Eagle Regiment Avas a great attraction to the crowds of spectators as it passed through the cities on its Avay to the seat of Avar, marching by platoons Avith the eagle proudly borne aloft at the left of the colors. He seemed to be perfectly aAvare of his importance on such occasions and shoAved unusual interest in the proceedings. He Avas well trained by his keeper and gave little" trouble, but while passing through St. Louis he became much excited at the shouting, and flapping his Avings, rose from his perch and alighted on the chimney of a residence at the full length of his tether. Here he gazed at the people calmly until he was recovered by his faithful keeper. Some of the spectators insisted he was a turkey buzzard, and some having southern sympa thies, shouted derisively "a ci-oav," "a wild goose," "a Yankee buzzard." PARTICIPATION IN WAR 595 He recognized his friends among the soldiers, especially his keeper, and greeted them with a "plaintive cooing," but strangers could never approach him with safety as he was always ready to make an attack. One day while the regiment was resting in a small southern town a little boy with bare feet came near the eagle who was then on the ground. "Take care of your feet, boy," said one of the men by way of warning, "he will pounce on them if you don't stand back; the only reason he has not done so already is that he isn't very hungry just now, as we fed him a small boy a little ways back." The little chap placed himself at a respectful distance at once. "Old Abe" in Action. — During active military operations "Old Abe" showed himself to be a good soldier, and in the excitement of battle, and especially in a charge, his cries could be heard as if to encourage the men. On such occasions he would often rise from his perch uttering wild screams, the fiercer the storm of battle the louder his voice became. As one writer said, he seemed "conscious of his relationship with the emblem of the republic." At the battle of Corinth it was said that General Price, discovering the eagle, ordered his men "to be sure and take him, as he would rather get that bird than capture a whole brigade of men." However, they were unsuccessful. During the battle "Old Abe" sprang into the air with so much force that he broke the cord attached to his perch and soared high overhead while the enemy sent a fusillade of shots after him. He kept his comrades in view and returned to their position in safety though with some of his wing feathers shot away. He Avas often the target of rifle fire and on one occasion a battery of artillery opened on him but he always escaped injury. "Sometimes," said one who described his appearance in battle, "our eagle, furious and on fire, scanned friend and foe through the clouds of smoke, cheer ing his compatriots with the splendor of his example. It was but to look at that eagle, raised aloft with wings flapping, with eyes of lightning, with voice like ah Indian Avar -whoop, and know that the augury was hopeful and that our cause was just." Thus this remarkable eagle has become a permanent part of the history of the great Avar for the Union, and like some of the war-horses which carried great commanders in many battles, "Old Abe" will be remem bered by all succeeding generations. The Eagle 's Later Adventures. — Throughout the period of his army service the eagle was in charge of a succession of keepers. The eagle was present at thirty-six battles, and at the expiration of the regiment's term of service he accompanied the returning veterans to Eau Claire from where they had started three years before. The men, with "Old Abe" proudly borne aloft, were greeted with booming cannon, martial music, patriotic songs and an abundant feast, and when at the conclusion of a speech three cheers were given, the eagle, catching the enthusiasm, rose upon his perch, flapped his pinions and uttered shrill cries in unison with the cheers. - . When -the regiment was mustered out "Old Abe" was presented to the state, of Wisconsin, and accepted by the governor in an appropriate speech. Quarters were assigned the eagle in the basement of the capitol Avith a range in the adjoining grounds, and this splendid bird now entered upon the second phase 596 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE of his eventful life. But first we will give a brief account of the "Soldiers' Fairs" which presented a new field for the eagle's triumphant career. "Old Abe" at the Soldiers' Fairs. — The great Sanitary Fairs, — or "Sol diers' Fairs" — of the Civil war period Avere held under the auspices and direction of the United States Sanitary Commission, the driving force of which were patriotic women. Two of the leading spirits of the Commission, to men tion no others, were Mrs. A. H. Hoge and Airs. Alary A. Livermore. The first fair or "Pioneer Fair," as it was often called, was held in Chicago in October, 1863, the net receipts of which were $86,000. The purpose of the Commission was to afford relief to "soldiers in actual service, whether on the march, in camp or in hospitals." Many aid societies were formed tributary to the Com mission, such as the Sisters of Mercy and societies of the various churches carrying on a work similar to that of the American Red Cross of later years. A second fair was projected for the spring of 1865, but as the time ap proached for its opening, events of great magnitude occurred which practically ended the war, and it was thought by many that no further efforts were necessary. However, it was finally determined to go. on with the fair as there were urgent calls for relief and aid to the returning veterans. The second fair was accordingly opened May 30th, 1865, and continued until late in June, show ing net receipts of $240,000. Meantime the end of the war became an accom plished fact, and the work of disbanding the huge army of more than a million of men was in full operation. The people everywhere were rejoicing that the cruel war Avas over and there seemed no limit to their generosity in spite of the tremendous sacrifices that had already been made during the four years of conflict. It was at the second Sanitary fair that "Old Abe," Wisconsin's war eagle, appeared and made so striking a sensation and contributed so largely to the success of the fair. Through the efforts of Mr. Alfred L. Sewell, a Chicago publisher, pictures of "Old Abe" were printed and sold by the tens of thou sands for the benefit of the fair, the returns from this particular branch of the fair's activities amounting to over $16,000. Mr. Sewell began the publica tion of a juvenile magazine at this time called "The Little Corporal" which afterwards attained an enormous circulation. During the presence of the eagle at the fair, Mr. Barnum, the famous showman, offered $20,000 for him but of course the state of Wisconsin declined to consider the offer. In due course the eagle was safely returned to his quarters in the capitol at Aladison. "Old Abe" at the Soldiers' Home Fair. — "Everybody went to see this famous bird," says Mr. J. O. Barrett in his book, "Old Abe." "Prices for his quills and feathers rose as high as five dollars each, but the demand could seldom be supplied. Not a feather was allowed to be plucked from his beautiful plumage, — not for any price." The only feathers or quills that could be obtained were those that were dropped in the ordinary course of moulting. During the Milwaukee Soldiers' Home Fair a special tent Avas erected out side the main building on Huron Street as the tempoary home of "Old Abe," called "The Tangled Feature," and here visitors flocked to pay homage to the famous War Bird. In the center of the tent were large evergreen rings, rising one above another, and at the topmost was a circular platform on which the PARTICIPATION IN WAR 597 eagle sat "monarch of all he surveyed." The Home Fair Journal thus de scribed the hero of many battles : "Beneath a canopy of green sits the Veteran Eagle, 'Old Abe,' the bird that for three long years was the companion of the gallant boys of the Eighth Wisconsin regiment, marching and camping and going into battle with them ; and when the battle grew hot, threatening death to all, leaving his perch, and soaring aloft with a scream that rose above the roar of battle, cheering his companions on to victory. With an eye that seemed as if it would pierce you through, he calmly surveys the visitors, look ing down upon them 'with the greatest interest and curiosity.' " The Eagle Assists at Many Celebrations. — "Old Abe" was in great request at numerous celebrations and reunions at different places in the country. At the "Soldiers' and Sailors' convention," held at Pittsburgh in 1866, the war eagle gloriously represented his state. The hall where the convention was held was densely packed, and at the moment of the eagle's entrance, borne on his perch by Captain McDonald, Gen. Benjamin. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, was just beginning to speak. Gen. J. D. Cox, the chairman, requested* the speaker to pause a moment, and in a loud voice shouted: "Here comes the veteran war eagle of Wisconsin; please open the way, gentlemen, that he may come forward." Amid vociferous applause the eagle was given a place beside the chairman on the platform, lustily flapping his wings when he heard the cheers and the band music, as if he recognized the old music, the old cheers and the old flag. Col. J. 0. Barrett in his biography of "Old Abe," says, that "one of the practical methods to raise money at the Milwaukee Soldiers' Home Fair was by the sale of 'Old Abe's' pictures. In the years to come, after he has 'gone to glory,' these will be of peculiar interest to new generations that read and ponder over our late war of rival civilizations," and, we may add, they will be treasured as valuable souvenirs of the times. The sale of pictures, biog raphies, feathers and tickets of admission to his kingly presence produced the great sum of $105,000 at this fair, for the benefit of the ' "Branch home of the National Asylum for Volunteer Soldiers established at Milwaukee," which was later taken over by the United States Government, and by the state of Wisconsin. Perhaps the most important function at which "Old Abe" ever assisted after the close of the war was at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, where he was one of the most popular attractions of that great Fair. Afterwards he was returned to his home in Wisconsin and lived in comfort for the few remaining years of his life in his quarters at the state house. Death of "Old Abe," Wisconsin's War Eagle.— On March 26, 1881, a fire occurred in the state house at Madison, and although the flames did not reach the quarters occupied by the eagle, his cage was filled with smoke from the fire. His keeper rescued him from the place and brought him out into the open air, but the suffocating fumes had been inhaled and the eagle did not rally from their effects. He died in spite of all efforts to save his life, having attained the age of about twenty years. A taxidermist was employed who set up the body which was preserved among the war relics in the state house. Here it remained for nearly a quarter of a century, or until February, 1904, when 598 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE another fire broke out in the same building which consumed the remains of "Old Abe" utterly. This fire originated in the memorial room of the Grand Army of the Republic, and at this time the fire consumed many other precious relics of the war, among them the priceless battle flags and other cherished memorials gathered there. There is quite an abundant literature extant concerning the famous war eagle of Wisconsin, consisting of Colonel Barrett's biography, and numerous articles and poems written in his honor. His memory is a proud possession of the people of Wisconsin as well as of the nation, of AA'hich he was for so long the living emblem. Wisconsin in the World War. — The war record of Wisconsin may not go as far back into antiquity as that of the older states in the Union, but it is a glorious one. All the wars of the republic, Avith the exception of those occurring before the territory and state came into existence, have been partici pated in by the people of Wisconsin with credit to themselves and to the state from which they hailed. We have already written of previous wars and now it is our duty and privilege to dwell upon the share borne by Wisconsin and her people in the great World Avar which ended on Armistice Day, November 11, 1918. Like the people of the other states of the American republic the people of Wisconsin had no thought in the beginning of the World Avar in 1914 that there might be any interruption to their peaceful pursuits as a consequence of the tremendous crash of arms in Europe. But lawless and illegal warfare soon riveted the attention of our far away spectators of the awful scenes trans piring on those distant fields of carnage, which seemed to threaten the very foundations of all civilized institutions. The work, entitled "Wisconsin in the World War," remarks upon the stage of events when America was being sloAvly draAvn into the Avar. "The people of Wisconsin wanted peace, but the fighting blood of those pioneers Avho founded the commonwealth slowly became aroused." The sinking of the Lusitania sent a shudder of horror through the hearts of the people. The brutalities of the invasion of Belgium and of the northern provinces of France .by the Germans in their war-mad fury, the repeated outrages on the sea in the destruction of neutrals and non-combatants, the reckless sinking of the passenger ships of all'nations, at last compelled our President to send a warlike message to Congress Avhich was promptly folloAved by a declaration that a state of war existed between the United. States and Germany. Foreshadowing the World War. — The President's message to Congress which he delivered in person on April 2, 1917, is one of the mose eloquent documents ever issued by a chief magistrate of the nation. In it was con tained the case against Germany set forth in the most convincing language and also that memorable sentence, "the world must be made safe for democracy." The president asked Congress to declare "the recent course of the Imperial German government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and people of the United States," and that it "take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough state of defense, but to exert all its PARTICIPATION IN WAR 599 powers and employ all its resources to bring the government of the German empire to terms and end the war. ' ' The same evening both houses of Congress prepared a joint resolution de claring the existence of a state of war between the United States and Germany. The resolution was referred to appropriate committees in both houses. On the next day, the 3d, the senate resolution came up and efforts were made to pass it at once in accordance with the recommendation of its foreign affairs •committee, but Senator Robert M. La Follette, of Wisconsin, objected, and the resolution Avent over until the following day, the 4th, when it was again taken up. On this occasion Senator La Follette spoke for three hours against the resolution. The resolution was passed by both houses and approved by the President on April 6, 1917. This date marks the beginning of the Avar between this country and Germany. Response of the States. — How Wisconsin in common with her sister states responded to the appeal contained in this declaration will be told, all too briefly, in the folloAving pages. The story of the heroism of the men who marched away to the camps in preparation for the approaching conflict cannot be adequately told here, but some mention must be made of the glorious services, on land and sea, of those men, many of whom now sleep under the -blood-stained soil of foreign battlefields. So also of those patriotic men and women AA'ho threw themselves into the work at home and made possible the victories which at length caused the surrender of the aggressive hosts of the furious invaders. "Wisconsin gave its all for a righteous war," writes Mr. Pixley in his volume, "and when the final page is written this state, your state and mine, will be awarded its part in the glory, which will be apportioned, share, and -share alike, to the sisterhood of states." Marshaling the Forces. — In Mr. Pixley 's book may be found a very com plete enumeration of the forces which composed Wisconsin's contribution in men and material to the great armies that hastened to the battle zones in Europe. They did not all get there but they were ready for the call and iformed the potential reserves that had so great a part in eventually winning the victory. ¦ In the old wars a regiment of troops consisted of 1,000 men when .at full strength, but in this later war the French formations were adopted and a regiment was regarded nominally as somewhat under 2,000 men. In the selective service law passed by Congress this state began its work .by making use of the elective machinery already in existence, and thereby -gained a long start in the preparatory stages. The First regiment of infantry after having completed its organization was placed under the command of Col. John P. Joachim of Madison, the Second under Col; Wilbur Al. Lee of Oconto, the Third under Col. John Turner, of Alauston, the Fourth under Col. Robert R. McCoy of Sparta, the' Fifth under Col. Peter Piasecki of Milwaukee, and the Sixth under Col. Marshall Cousins of Eau Claire. Besides these there were organized many units of cavalry, artillery, engineers, signal corps, and other units necessary in the general formations. At the head of the military, organization of the state were .Adjutaiit-Geiieral Orlando Holway, Brigadier-General C. R. Boardman, and Brigadier-General 600 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE R. A. Richards, though changes occurred in the later periods of the war. Governor E. L. Philipp was the efficient head of the entire system both civil and military, and ranks in the historical record with the previous great war governors of the state. Four months after America entered the Avar, that is on August 1, 1917, General Holway was able to report that the National Guard had been recruited to its war strength of 15,266 men, consisting of the following organizations : six regiments of infantry, one regiment of cavalry, one of artillery, one bat talion of signal corps, one of engineers, two field hospital companies, and two ambulance companies. Alany of these organizations were afterward changed, some disbanded and some merged with others, thus increasing the efficiency of the entire army of Wisconsin soldiers. The historian of Wisconsin's war activities, Air. Pixley, pays a heartfelt tribute to Adjutant-General Holway. In the course of his remarks he says, "a born soldier, it is certain that he longed for the opportunity to accompany Wisconsin troops to the front. Instead he remained at his post. * '* * Other men were given the glory and returned to hear the applause which they so well earned on the field of battle, but those who understood what his duties were will applaud this quiet master of them all, who sent 20,000 men fully equipped into the field, men fit to represent the proudest sovereignty on earth: Men fought better because of him, men copied his quiet courage and faced death with less fear because of his example. He belongs in the roster of Wisconsin's heroes of 1917 and 1918, and history will place him there." War Aids at Home. — The State Council of Defense was created by an act of the Legislature soon after the United States became involved in the World war. This was followed by another act empowering the Council of Defense to meet certain emergencies, to take possession in the name of the state of all supplies "necessary for the common defense or for general public welfare," and to pay therefor "just compensation to be determined by said Council of Defense." This included taking over such buildings and Avarehouses as might be found necessary. On April 20, a bill was passed to protect soldiers and sailors in the service of the United States during the period of their service from civil process. Likewise a bill was passed to provide aid for dependents of men in the service. Adequate appropriations accompanied these measures. After the adjournment of the Legislature on July 16, it was considered expedient to call a special session. This was done by Governor Philipp and February 19, 1918, was designated as the date of its assemblage. Many im portant measures were mentioned in the program for the special session. Among these were: an act authorizing the state to borrow money "to repel invasion, suppress insurrection, and defend the state in time of war" (thus providing a means of replenishing the state treasury, if found necessary, for equipping the National Guard), "to amend the laws relative to voting by electors absent from the state on account of military service;" "to authorize increase of teachers' salaries during the war;" "to enact laws relating to sedition;" "to amend the banking laws to enable banks to qualify as depositories for government funds" (this was to aid the sale of Liberty bonds). PARTICIPATION IN WAR 601 The special session took up the war legislation recommended by the gover nor, and many measures were passed in aid of the war. One of the bills passed Avas as follows: "No person shall print, publish, edit, issue or know ingly circulate, sell, distribute or publicly display any paper, book, document, or written or printed matter in any form, which advocates, or attempts to advocate, or advises or teaches that citizens of this state of military age should not enlist in the military or naval forces of the United States or of this state. No person shall in any public place or at any meeting where more than five persons are assembled, advocate, teach or advise that citizens of this state should not enlist in the military or naval forces of the United States or of this state, and no person shall advocate, teach or advise, that citizens of this state should not aid or assist the United States in prosecuting or carrying on war with the public enemies of the United States. ' ' Suitable penalties were specified for the infraction of these laws. No call from the nation went unheeded and the necessary legislation was passed almost without opposition in every case. Several members entered actual war and others assisted in financial and other campaigns. Mr. Pixley gives the names of patriotic newspaper correspondents who gave efficient aid in shaping public sentiment in favor of the war measures. In a list given by that author of those connected with the press there were several who entered the army. Among them is the name of Fred C. Sheasby, of the Milwaukee Sentinel, who was killed in action only the day before the armistice was signed. Work of the Council of Defense. — The law passed by the Legislature creat ing the State Council of Defense, was designed by that body to "assist the governor in doing all things necessary to bring about the highest effectiveness within our state in the crisis now existing, and to coordinate all our efforts with the federal government and with those of other states." Mr. Pixley in his volume further observes, "throughout the act it was evident that it was the legislative intent to create a board which was to supervise the mobilization of the aggregate resources of the state — military, naval, financial, industrial and social." The council at its first meeting authorized committees on finance, agri culture, labor, manufactures, transportation, publicity, recruiting, women's organizations, Red Cross, sanitation, etc. Each county in the state was soon organized into efficient working bodies. Milwaukee County, the largest in the state, had as its first chairman Daniel W. Hoan, mayor of the City of Milwau kee, who served from May 8, 1917, to May 31, 1918 ; Charles Allis, chosen May 31, 1917, who served until his death July 22, 1918 ; and E. E. White who served until August 29, 1918, when he resigned. Cornelius Corcoran, president of the common council, served thereafter as acting chairman. The publication. of "Forward" (the state's motto), as the official bulletin of the council, was authorized, which before the end of the war attained a circulation of 15,000 copies. The multitudinous activities of the committees of the state council and of the various county organizations are recorded at length in Mr. Pixley 's book which it is unnecessary here to follow in detail. In every ward and precinct of Milwaukee, plans were announced for the formation of women's councils. Four 602 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE hundred representative women of the city cooperated to perfect these plans. Committees of the Milwaukee County council were formed to conduct patriotic work, campaigns of education and similar activities. There were forty .women's organizations and as many branches headed by men. The inspiring details connected with the Avork, as they were published from day to day, were incentives to further efforts in numerous ways in aid of the great cause. The Milwaukee Hotel Men's Association was cooperating Avith the county council in its food-saving campaign. Ninety per cent of the housewives had signed the food pledge cards, and Alihvaukee was showing signs of that splen did patriotism which marked it during the critical war months. At the Wiscon sin state fair, held in Milwaukee in September, thousands of citizens inspected the fine exhibitions of grain and other crops, and the best display of live stock ever previously shown. These great displays were ample evidence of the re sponse of the Wisconsin farmers to the appeal of the State Council of Defense for the increased production of all kinds of food. The parade in honor of the Milwaukee County selected men, on September 15th, was under the direction of the county council, and was participated in by more than 6,000 marchers and through crowded streets. The parade was followed in the evening by a huge banquet at the Auditorium, and as each group departed for the train it was escorted by numerous friends and well Avishers. These stirring scenes reminded the hoary-headed veterans of former wars, who were present in great numbers, of the days when they had marched away in response to the call of their country, and who were now cheering the younger heroes on their way to the distant scenes of heroic actions. Character of the War Work. — Let us pause to contemplate the wide range of the countless war activities carried on under the auspices of the State Coun cil of Defense. Some of these have already been mentioned. As the Avork progressed it grew in magnitude and these activities embraced a great Arariety of effort. We shall attempt to mention only a few, as the details as narrated in Mr. Pixley 's exhaustive account remain the great storehouse of informa tion concerning them. There were the food administration, taking under public control the numer- our branches of work included under that term; crop production; fuel conser vation; labor problems; fire prevention; the work of the medical fraternity; instruction of nurses; marketing of farm productions; cultivation of "war gardens"; campaigns of the "Four Alinute Men"; Christmas presents.. for' the men in the field ; encouragement of recruiting ; patriotic meetings ; and every variety of effort to "help Avin the Avar." Such a mighty outpouring of cooperative endeavor had not been seen since the days of the Civil Avar. Addresses of Avelcome, fareAvell addresses, parades of every description, participation of school children in patriotic demonstra tions, women engaging in every form of activity, the old men undertaking the lighter tasks of community life, were but a few of the activities engaged in by the State Council of Defense. Providing the Sinews of War. — At the conclusion of his account' of Wis consin 's war activities Air. Pixley briefly sketches a review of the Avork that had been accomplished. "This chapter," he says, "has been written to give, ' PARTICIPATION IN WAR 603 in part, a record of the State Council of Defense and its auxiliary organizations. It gives only a partial record. It cannot name the thousands who gave their time to the work. It mentions only the leaders. But to the unnamed thousands who made the success of the State Council of Defense possible, and who justified its creation by the Legislature, the state owes a debt which it can never repay. Their payment will be, as it will be for the members of the state council, the realization that when the state and nation were in peril they came -to the rescue, giving their services without stint, that Wisconsin's record might be placed high up in the roll of the nation when the war was won." "Of all the activities in AA'hich Wisconsin took part during the World war," says Mr. Pixley in his book, "perhaps the War Savings Stamp campaigns Avere the most important in their far-reaching effect upon the citizens in volved." When the government of the United States came directly to the .people to supply the "sinews of war" the response was tremendous. We need not enter into the details of the operation here, simple and direct though they were, but they were productive of results to an amazing degree. By the first of December, 1918, just after the armistice had been signed, the state of Wis consin shoAved a total of $29,100,000 derived from the great effort. Milwaukee's contribution to this result alone amounted to $6,247,000. The war savings stamp campaign was conducted under the able management of Mr. John H. Puelicher of Alilwaukee. In an address made by Mr. Frank A. Vanderlip before the Illinois Manu facturers' Association, in December, 1917, he said that the War Savings Stamps and the War Savings Certificates were the most important financial operation that this country had ever known. The details as worked out were, that for an investment of a fraction over $4.00 a certificate for $5.00 could be obtained, payable by the United States treasury, January 1, 1923, and the holder would get, under this plan, the return of his investment at four per cent compound interest. The habit of ' ' thrift ' ' thus inculcated was said by President Wilson to be one of the most valuable "by-products" of the war, and which alone would fully repay the efforts made in promoting the plan as it was worked out. There were four Liberty Loans made during the World war, and a fifth loan, known as the "Victory Liberty Loan," made nearly four months after the armistice was signed. The total amount of these five loans was upwards of $24,000,000,000. The state of Wisconsin subscribed $335,000,000 to the four Liberty Loans ; Milwaukee subscribed $108,382,200 of this amount. Milwaukee Oversubscribes all War Funds. — Mortimer I. Stevens, a member of the War Finance Central Committee, reported in the Year Book of the Milwaukee Association of Commerce the following : "Milwaukee has raised for war purposes since the entry of America into the world struggle more than $160^000,000, and in every instance where its citizens have been called upon for funds the quota asked for from Milwaukee has been heavily oversubscribed. Early in the war a permanent organization, known as the war finance central committee, was organized, which has carried on the drives for Liberty bonds, War Savings and Red Cross. "This organization has about 5,000 active volunteer workers, divided into 604 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE groups, and has maintained records and accumulated other data which has materially aided the speed and efficiency of their war work. "The campaigns for other war purposes all met with the same enthusiastic response and Milwaukee has demonstrated since early in the war that her citizens have formed the habit of giving liberally. "Milwaukee has always met its quota and further demonstrated its loyal support of the war by piling up a huge oversubscription in each loan. In every cause in which the city has been called upon to participate it has gone mag nificently 'over the top' in the same generous and enthusiastic spirit with which American troops have overcome gigantic obstacles on the battlefields. What has also been gratifying to the great body of patriotic Milwaukeeans, who have freely given their time, efforts and money to support all war move ments conducted here, has been the fact that each succeeding Liberty loan has shown a large increased number of individual subscriptions over the previous loans, demonstrating that Milwaukee rallied in stronger numbers to each succeeding campaign conducted in the interests of the country and the war. First Loan Success. — "In the first Liberty loan Milwaukee, with an allot ment of $13,700,000, subscribed $16,164,700, or $2,464,700 over its required amount. With this loan Alilwaukee set a pace for itself in war work, which the city has never- failed to maintain in any of the patriotic activities in which it has so wholeheartedly engaged. "Milwaukee's quota in the second Liberty loan was $24,948,000, which was quickly obtained in a whirlwind campaign, typical of Milwaukee's participa tion in all war work, and the city forged ahead with unrelaxed determination and enthusiasm for a huge oversubscription, which was realized in the total subscription of $32,701,950 to this loan. Although in this loan Alilwaukee 's quota had been the largest the city had given up to that time, its final returns showed it had gone over its mark with subscriptions of $7,753,950. "In the third Liberty loan Milwaukee piled up an oversubscription of $8,120,550. In this loan Milwaukee was asked to raise $14,880,000, but the patriotic Milwaukeeans refused to stop when they had obtained their quota and continued the work in whirlwind fashion, until the final figures on the last day of the campaign showed total subscriptions of $23,000,550. Since its allotment in this loan was smaller than that given the city in the second Liberty loan, Milwaukee demonstrated its eagerness by obtaining the largest oversubscription it had secured in any campaign up to that time. Way Over Top Again.— "With an allotment of $32,646,300 in the fourth Liberty loan drive, Milwaukee secured a total subscription to this loan of $36,214,350, or an oversubscription of $3,563,050. Although this was the largest quota Milwaukee had ever been given, the city's oversubscription showed practically the same proportion it had in the previous loans and the number of subscribers materially increased over that of all other Liberty loans. ' ' The fifth Liberty loan was oversubscribed by $13,799,300. The city went over the top in less than its allotted time, and with an enthusiastic and patriotic spirit as evident without the incentive of actual war as before the signing of the armistice. In the fifth loan Milwaukee raised a total of $38,741,750. "The same patriotic spirit that has characterized Milwaukee's work in PARTICIPATION IN WAR 605 going 'over the top' in all the Liberty loan campaigns has also been mani fested in the Red Cross and other drives of similar war relief organizations. In the first Red Cross war fund campaign Milwaukee was asked to raise $500,000 and obtained total contributions of $780,000, showing that Milwaukee has demonstrated itself to be fully as generous in making donations to worthy AA'ar funds as it has been in loaning its money to the Government for the purpose of successfully prosecuting the war. In the second Red Cross war fund Alil waukee had been requested to. obtain $750,000, but the great body of loyal Alilwaukeeans Avho have participated in the various money raising campaigns voluntarily increased Milwaukee's allotment and started out to obtain con tributions of $1,000,000, with the result that the final figures on the last day of the drive showed a total of $1,160,000, or more than 150 per cent of the amount it had been asked to raise. "When the Y. AI. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. asked Milwaukee to obtain for it in a joint campaign the sum of $165,000, the enthusiastic war Avorkers of the city took up the work and again did themselves credit by raising $185,000, or $20,000 more than they had been required to secure. ' ' In the Knights of Columbus drive for funds for war relief Avork, the city Avas scheduled to raise $100,000 and piled up again an oversubscription, report ing total contributions of $146,000, or $46,000 over its goal. Under the auspices of the Elks' lodge, the Salvation army conducted a campaign for funds here for the purpose of raising $25,000. In responding to this appeal Milwaukee contributed $50,000, or twice the amount it was allotted. Alihvaukee obtained $125,000 in the campaign for the Jewish war relief work." One Year of War to Five of Peace. — It may be interesting to notice in this connection an instructive compilation, which appeared in the Congressional Record in 1921, of the wars in which our country has been engaged since it became an independent nation, as published in the Chicago Evening Post in its issue of July 26, 1921, as folloAvs : "The Congressional Record recently printed the following table showing the actual duration of this country's warlike operations since we became a free people on July 4, 1776 : Years. Days Revolution : From the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, to the withdrawal of the British troops from New York, Nov. 25, 1783 7 144 War of 1812 : From the declaration of war by United States, June 18, 1812,- to the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 5, 1815.... 2 204 War with the Barbary pirates : Declared by Algiers in 1812. Ex cluding time concurrent with war of 1812, and calculating from conclusion of that war, Jan. 5, 1815, to final treaty with the Dey of Algiers, concluded on flagship of American navy, July 6, 1818 3 182 Mexican war : From the declaration of war by United States, April 24, 1846, to signing of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 1 284 606 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Civil war: From attack on Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861, to sur render by Gen. Kirby Smith of last confederate force in the field, May 26, 1865 , 4 44 Spanish war: From date declared by congress as date of com mencement of state of war, April 21, 1898, to signing of treaty of Paris, Dec. 10, 1898 0 211 Philippine insurrection: Feb. 1, 1899, to restoration of civil gov ernment, July 4, 1901 2 153 World war: From declaration of war by United States, April 6, 1917, to armistice, Nov. 11, 1918 1 219 Total duration of American wars 23 346 "Thus for practically twenty-four out of the 145 years which elapsed be tAveen the first Independence day and its anniversary of 1921, the United States has been involved in some sort of acth'e war. And the calculation does not include our Indian wars; nor yet the post-armistice period of iy2 months before President Wilson signed the treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919, nor the 'irreconcilables' war of twenty-four months between that date and July 2, 1921. Here are a few more years of technical warfare to be added. "Our war history, at lowest calculation, amounts to 16.5 per cent of our whole history, or one year of war to every five of peace. And yet we are the best protected, least grasping, most benignantly peaceful power on the globe. "Here is a practical lesson in pacifism. All of our wars, with the possible exception of the Spanish and Filipino 'involvements,' have been justified by history, although there was precious little immediate justification for our declaration of war on Mexico. No despotic poAver in our state has ever forced us into a war to Avhich the majority were opposed." CHAPTER XXXV ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT An event that overwhelmed Milwaukee with grief and stirred the hearts of the people throughout the nation, and of the whole world beyond its bor ders, occurred on October 14, 1912, in the attempted assassination in Mil waukee of Ex-President Theodore Roosevelt. Perhaps no city in the Union contained a larger proportion of the friends and admirers of the ex-president than might be found in the chief city of Wisconsin, and while conducting his campaign as the presidential candidate of the newly formed progressive party he had arranged for a great meeting in the Milwaukee Auditorium for the evening of the day mentioned. Description of the Auditorium. — Alilwaukee 's Auditorium, a semi-public building, covers an area of an entire city block, at the intersection of Cedar and Fifth streets. Its main hall will seat 10,000 persons, thus being adapted to use for public gatherings, including conventions or for general speaking purposes. It will accommodate the largest grand opera production, concerts and other great spectacles. One of the largest stages in the country, with every facility for -handling stage equipment, and with commodious dressing rooms, is a feature of this main hall. ¦ Colonel Roosevelt had dined at the Hotel Gilpatrick in Alilwaukee with the immediate members of the party which accompanied him on his speaking tour. He left the hotel and entered an" automobile which was to convey him and his party to the Auditorium. The car was instantly surrounded by an . enthusiastic crowd of people, extending in a dense mass for over a block in both directions, shouting a welcome to him. He had taken his seat in the car, but desiring to acknowledge the reception thus given he arose to a standing position, raising his hat in salute. At this moment an insane assassin in the crowd, whom no one had previously observed, rushed forward and at a distance of only four or five feet from the automobile, fired a shot from a- revolver directly at the person of Mr. Roosevelt, the bullet from which entered his body near the waist line of his clothing. The shot was fired at 8 :10 o'clock, P. AL, "the echo of which swept around the entire world in thirty minutes," as one of the witnesses of -the scene has written. Excitement of the "Crowd. — It was soon ascertained, however, that the shot was not immediately fatal in its effects, and the distinguished visitor main tained his usual self-possession, while the excitement of the crowd grew to tremendous proportions. "Instantly there was a wild panic and confusion," writes Henry F. Cochems in a book describing the event, entitled, ' ' The At- 607 608 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE tempted Assassination of Ex-President Theodore Roosevelt," prepared by Oliver E. Remy, Henry F. Cochems and Wheeler P. Bloodgood. The account is continued, as follows: "Elmer E. Martin, one of Colonel Roosevelt's stenog raphers, a powerful athlete and an ex-football player, leaped across the machine and bore the would-be assassin to the ground. "At the same moment Capt. A. 0. Girard, a former Rough Rider and body guard of the ex-president, and several policemen were upon him. Colonel Roosevelt's knees bent just a trifle, and his right hand reached forward to the door of the car tonneau. Then he straightened himself and reached back against the upholstered seat; but in the same instant, he again straightened himself, and again raised his hat to the crowd. A reassuring smile appeared upon his face, and he was, apparently, the coolest and least excited of any one in the frenzied mob who, crowding in upon the man who fired the shot, continued to call out, 'Kill him, kill him'! "I had stepped into the car beside Colonel Roosevelt," continues Mr. Cochems in his account, "about to take my seat when the shot was fired. Throwing my arm about the Colonel's waist, I asked him if he had been hit, and after Colonel Roosevelt saying in an aside, 'He pinked me, Harry,' he called out to those who were wildly -tearing at-the would-be assassin, 'Don't hurt him ; bring him to me here ! ' The sharp military tone of command was heard in the midst of the general uproar, and Martin, Girard and the policemen dragged Schrank (the miscreant who had fired the shot) toward where Mr. Roosevelt stood. The Struggle for the Revolver. — "Arriving at the side of the car, the re volver, grasped by three or four hands of men struggling for possession, Avas plainly visible, and I succeeded in grasping the barrel of the revolver, and finally in getting it from the possession of a detective. Mr. Martin says that Schrank still had his hands on the revolver at that time. The Colonel then said: 'Officers, take charge of him, and see that there is no violence done to him.' "The crowd had quickly cleared from in front of the automobile, and we drove through, Colonel Roosevelt waving his hand, to the crowd now half- hysterical AA'ith frenzied excitement. After rounding the corner I drew the revolver from my overcoat pocket and saw that it AA'as a 38-caliber weapon Avhich had been fired. "As the Colonel looked at the revolver he said: 'A 38-Colt has an ugly drive.' Mr. McGrath, one of the Colonel's secretaries riding at his right side, said: 'Why, Colonel, you have a hole in your overcoat. He has shot you.' The Colonel said: 'I know it,' and opened his overcoat which disclosed his AA'hite linen shirt, coat and vest saturated Avith blood. We all instantly im plored and pleaded with the Colonel to drive with the automobile to a hospital, but he turned to me with a characteristic smile, and said: 'I know I am good now, but I don't know how long it may be. This may be my last talk in this cause to our people, and while I am good I am going to drive to the hall and deliver my speech.' " Scenes at the Auditorium. — Among the many witnesses of these exciting events the brief account furnished by a young woman at the present time ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 609 (April, 1921), employed as an assistant in the library of the First Wisconsin National Bank, Aliss Virginia Hinners, who as a child was present on that historic occasion, is here inserted : "The audience was buzzing with curiosity, then murmuring with wonder at the prolonged delay. This delay Air. Cochems' introduction did not clearly explain. "Mr. Roosevelt's unsteadiness was excusable. He told the audience that the doctor had advised against his speaking. He opened his coat and vest and displayed his blood-stained shirt front. He explained how, as he was speaking to the croAvd outside the door of the Hotel Gilpatrick, a man had shot at him, a man Avhom Air. Roosevelt A'aguely compared to the traitor, Judas. "All of this furnished opportunity for the Bull Aloose enemies to reiterate on Roosevelt's loA'e for, or tendency toward, 'grand stand play.' ' "By the time we had arrived at the hall," says Air. Cochems, "the shock had brought a pallor to his face. On al'ghting he Avalked firmly to the large waiting room in the back of the Auditorium stage, and there Drs. Sayle, Ter rell and Stratton opened his shirt exposing his right breast. Just below the nipple of his right breast appeared a gaping hole. They insisted that under no consideration should he speak, but the Colonel asked : 'Has any one a clean handkerchief?' Some one extending one, he placed it over the wound, but toned up his clothes and said: 'Now, gentlemen, let's go in,' and advanced to the front of the platform. "I, having been asked to present him to the audience," continues Mr. Cochems' account, "after admonishing the crowd that there Avas no occasion for undue excitement, said that an attempt to assassinate Colonel Roosevelt had just taken place, that the bullet Avas still in his body, but that he would attempt to make his speech as promised. As the colonel stepped forward, some one in the audience said audibly, 'Fake'; Avhereupon the Colonel smil ingly said: 'No, it's no fake'; and opening his vest the blood-red stain upon his linen Avas clearly visible. "A half -stifled expression of horror swept through the audience. About the first remark uttered in the speech, as the Colonel smiled broadly at the audience, was, 'It takes more than one bullet to kill a Bull Moose. I'm all right, no occasion for any sympathy Avhatever, but I want to take this occasion, within five minutes after having been shot, to say some things to our people which I hope no one will question the profound sincerity of.' A Dramatic Scene. — "I have never witnessed a scene on any American stage more awe-inspiring and at the same, time more dramatic," said AYilliam George Bruce, who occupied one of the boxes at the Auditorium when Colonel Roosevelt arrived. "It was real— no play acting. There had been a half hour's delay in the appearance of the distinguished guest. When at last the Roosevelt party appeared upon the stage it Avas apparent that something unusual had happened. "Roosevelt was the central figure. There were those who led him, and the attending party crowded about him with an apparent desire to assist him. But, he walked boldly to the front of the stage and bared a blood-stained Vol. 1—3 9 610 „ HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE ' • shirt. The audience was at first expectant and amazed, and then horror stricken. Roosevelt had been shot by an assassin! His breast was bleeding. Where was the bullet? But, there he stood bravely, defiantly, erectly. Behind him sat men in the attitude of catching him in their arms should he fall. "He began to speak. His voice Avas faint, hoarse and high pitched. It gained in strength and volume as he continued. The suspense which held the audience made even a whisper audible in that great auditorium. Grad ually the truth dawned upon them. Roosevelt had been assassinated! Some political fanatic, some crank, some enemy had shot him ! The assassination of Garfield and McKinley came into mind. What a humiliation to the Republic ! What a humiliation to. Alilwaukee ! Tomorrow it would be heralded to the Avorld that a leading American statesman had been assassinated in one of the most peaceful, law-abiding cities on the continent. "And yet the victim stood before his fellowmen to tell the story, to con demn the assassin, and to espouse fearlessly and with complete self-possession the cause to which he had dedicated his life, his energies and his services. His own life was but a passing incident, the cause was holy, leading and im perative. Those who saAv Roosevelt that night will never erase him and the dramatic incident from their memory." Colonel Roosevelt Continues. His Speech. — ' ' Throughout his speech, which continued for an hour and twenty minutes, the doctors and his immediate staff of friends, sitting closely behind him, expected that he might at any moment collapse. I was so persuaded of this that I stepped over the front of the high platform to the reporters' section immediately beneath where he was speaking, so that I might catch him if he fell forward," continues Mr. Cochems in his account. "These precautions, however, Avere unnecessary, for, while his speech lacked in the characteristic fluency of other speeches, while the shock and pain caused his argument to be somewhat labored, yet it Avas with a soldierly firmness and iron determination, which more than all things in Roosevelt's career disclosed to the country the real Roosevelt, who at the close of his official service as president, left that high office the most beloved public figure in our history since Lincoln fell, and the most respected citizen of the world. "As was said in an editorial in the Chicago Evening Post: 'There is no false sentiment here ; there is no self-seeking. The guards are down. The; soul of the man stands forth as it is. In the ATalley of the Shadow his own simple declaration of his sincerity, his own revelation of the unselfish quality of his devotion to the greatest movement of his generation, will be the standard by which history will pass upon Theodore Roosevelt its final judg ment. This much they cannot take from him, no matter whether he is now to live or die.' Passages From His Speech. — "To the men of America, who either love or hate Roosevelt personally, these words from his speech must carry an im perishable lesson: 'The bullet is in me noAv, so that I cannot make a very long speech. But I Avill try my best.' " 'And now, friends, I want to take advantage of this incident to say as solemn a word of warning as I knoAv to my fellow Americans. ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 611 " 'First of all, I want to say this about myself; I have altogether too many important things to think of to pay any heed or feel any concern over my own death. " 'Noav I would not speak to you insincerely within five minutes of being shot. I am telling you the literal truth when I say that my concern is for many other things. It is not in the least for my own life. " 'I want you to understand that I am ahead of the game anyway. No man has had a happier life than I have had, a happier life in every way. " 'I have been able to do certain things that I greatly wished to do, and I am interested in doing other things. I can tell you with absolute truthful ness that I am very much uninterested in whether I am shot or not. " 'It Avas just as when I was colonel of my regiment. I always felt that a private was to be excused for feeling at times some pangs of anxiety about his personal safety, but I cannot understand a man fit to be a colonel who can pay any heed to his personal safety when he is occupied, as he ought to be occupied, Avith the absorbing desire to do his duty. " 'I am in this cause with my whole heart and soul, I believe in the Pro gressive movement — a movement for the betterment of mankind, a movement for making life a little easier for all our people, a movement to try to take the burdens off the man and especially the woman in this country who is most oppressed. " ' I am absorbed in the success of that movement. I feel uncommonly proud in belonging to that movement. " 'Friends, I ask you now this evening to accept what I am saying as absolute truth when I tell you I am not thinking of my own success, I am not thinking of my own life or of anything connected with me personally.' Effects of the Attempted Assassination. — "The disabling of Colonel Roose velt at this tragic moment," says Mr. Cochems in his account, "was a great strategic loss in his campaign. The mind of the country was in a pronounced state of indecision. He had started at Detroit, Mich., one week before and had planned to make a great series of sledge hammer speeches upon every vital issue in the campaign, which plan took it to the very close of the fight. He had planned to put his strongest opponent in a defensive position, the effect of which, now that all is over, no man can measure. Stricken down, an immeasurable loss was sustained. In the years that lie before, when mis- judgments and misstatements which are the petty things born of prejudice, and which die with the breath that gives them life, shall have passed away, this incident and the soldierly conduct of the brave man who was its victim will have a real chastening and wholesome historical significance." Colonel Roosevelt on the Platform. — The account of the scene just de scribed by Mr. Cochems, one of the chief actors in this drama of heroic actions, is amply confirmed in the stenographic report published in the Alil waukee Sentinel. In his account Mr. Cochems still further relates- "Stand ing with his coat and vest opened, holding before him the manuscript of the speech he had prepared to deliver, through which were two perforations by Schrank 's bullet, the ex-president was given an ovation which shook the mammoth Auditorium to its foundation. 612 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE "The audience seemed unable to realize the truth of the statement of Mr. Cochems, who had introduced Colonel Roosevelt, that the ex-president had been shot. Colonel Roosevelt had opened his vest to show blood from his Avound. Even then many in the audience did not comprehend that they were Avitnessing a scene destined to go down in history — an ex-president of the United States, blood still flowing from the bullet wound of a would-be assas sin, delivering a speech from manuscript perforated by the bullet of a mur derous assailant. Colonel Roosevelt continued his speech, as folloAvs : "Friends: I ask you uoav this evening, to accept what I am saying as absolutely true, AA'hen I tell you I am not thinking of my own success. I am not thinking of my life or of anything connected Avith me personally. I am thinking of the moA'e- ment. I say this by way of introduction because I Avant to say something very serious to our people and especially to the newspapers. "I don't know anything about who the man Avas Avho shot me to-night. He Avas seized at once by one of the stenographers in my party, Air. Alartin, and I suppose is iioav in the hands of the police. He shot to kill. He shot — the bullet went in here — I Avill show you" (opening his vest and shoAving the bloody stain in the right breast, — the stain covered the entire lower half of his shirt to the waist). "I am going to ask you to be as quiet as possible for I am not able to give the challenge of the bull moose quite as loudly. Now I do not knoAV AA'ho he was or what party he represented. He Avas a coward. He stood in the darkness in the croAvd around the automobile and Avhen they cheered me and I got up to bow he stepped forward and shot me in the dark ness. Denounces the Action of the Assassin. — "Noav, friends," continued Air. Roosevelt, "of course I do not knoAV, as I say, anything about him, but it is a very natural thing that Aveak and vicious minds should be inflamed to acts of violence by the kind of awful mendacity and abuse that have been heaped upon me for the last three months by the papers in the interest of my op ponents. "Friends, I Avill disoAvn and repudiate any man of my party Avho attacks Avith such foul slander and abuse any opponent of any other party, and iioav I Avish to say seriously to all the daily newspapers, to the republican, the democratic, and the socialist, parties, that they cannot, month in and month out, and year in and year out, make the kind of untruthful statements, or of bitter assaults that they have made, and not expect that brutal, violent natures, or brutal and violent characters, especially Avhen the brutality is accompanied by a not very strong mind ; — they cannot expect that such natures Avill be unaffected by it. "Noav friends, I am not speaking for myself at all. I give you my word I do not care a rap about being shot, not a rap. I have had a good many ex periences in my time and this is one of them. What I care for is my country. I wish I were able to impress upon my people, — our people, the duty to feel strongly but to speak the truth of their opponents. I say iioav I have never said one word against any opponent that I can not — on the stump — that I can not defend. I have said nothing that I could not substantiate and nothing ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 613 that I ought not to have said, nothing that looking back at I would not say again. "Now friends, it ought not to be too much to ask that our opponents — (speaking to some one on the stage, 'I am not sick at all, I am all right.') I cannot tell you of what infinitesimal importance I regard this incident as com pared with the great issues at stake in this campaign, and I ask it not for my sake, not the least in the world, but for the sake of our common country, that they make up their minds to speak only the truth, and not to use the kind of slander and mendacity which, if taken seriously, must incite weak and violent natures to crimes of violence. Don't you make any mistake. Don't you pity me, I am all right. I am all right and you cannot escape listen ing to my speech either." This part of the speech was responded to with laughter and applause. "And now, friends, this incident that has just occurred, this effort to as sassinate me, emphasizes to a peculiar degree the need of this Progressive movement. Friends, every good citizen ought to do everything in his or her poAver to prevent the coming of the day when we shall see the creed of the 'Havenots' arrayed against the creed of the 'Haves.' When that day comes then such incidents as this tonight will be commonplace in our history. When you make poor men — when you permit the conditions to grow such that the poor man as such will be swayed by his sense of injury against the men who try to hold what they improperly have won, — when that day comes, the most awful passions will be let loose and it will be an ill day for our country. Warnings and Admonitions.— "Now, friends, what we who are in this movement are endeavoring to do is to forestall any such movement by making this a movement for justice now, — a movement in which we ask all just men of generous hearts to join with the men who feel in their souls that upward lift which bids them refuse to be satisfied themselves while their fellow country men and countrywomen suffer from avoidable misery. Now, friends, what we Progressives are trying to do is to enroll rich and poor, whatever their social or industr.al position, to stand together for the most elementary rights of good citizenship, those elementary rights which are the foundation of good citizenship in this great republic of ours. "My friends are a little more nervous than I am. Don't you Avaste any sympathy on me. I have had an A-l time in my life and I am having it now. I never in my life had any movement in which I was able to serve with such whole-hearted devotion as in this, — in which I was able to feel as I do in this for the common weal. I have fought for the good of our common country. (The speech throughout was constantly responded to by enthusiastic applause and cheers). "And now, friends," continued Mr. Roosevelt in his speech, "I shall have to cut short much of my speech that I meant to give you, but I want to touch on just two or three of the points. In the first place, speaking to you here in Alilwaukee, I wish to say that the Progressive party is making its appeal to all our fellow citizens without any regard to their creed or to their birth place. We do not regard as essential the way in which a man worships his God or as being affected by where he was born. We regard it as a mat- 614 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE ter of spirit and purpose. In New York, while I Avas police commissioner, the two men from whom I got the most assistance were Jacob Riis who was born in Denmark, and Oliver Van Briesen who Avas born in Germany, both of them as fine examples of the best and highest American citizenship as you could find in any part of the country. Birthplace and Good Citizenship. — "I have just been introduced by one of your oAvn men here, Henry Cochems. His grandfather, his father and that father's seven brothers, all served in the United States army, and they en tered it four years after they had come to this country from Germany. Two of them left their lives, — spent their lives on the field of battle. I am all right — I am a little sore. Anybody has a right to be sore with a bullet in him. You Avould find that if I was in battle now I would be leading my men just the same. Just the same way I am going to make this speech. "At one time I promoted five men for gallantry on the field of battle. Afterwards, it happened to be found, in making some inquiries about them, that two of them were Protestants, two Catholics and one of them a Jew. One Protestant came from Germany and one was born in Ireland. I did not pro mote them because of their religion, it just happened that way. If all five of them had been Jews, I would have promoted them, or if all five had been Protestants, I would have promoted them; or if they had been Catholics it would have been the same. In that regiment I had a man born in Italy who distinguished himself by gallantry. There was a young felloAv, a son of Polish parents, and another who came here when he was a child from Bohemia, who likewise distinguished themselves; and friends, I assure you that I Avas in capable of considering any question whatever, but the worth of each indi vidual as a fighting man. If he was a good fighting man then I saAv that Uncle Sam got the benefit from it. "I make the same appeal in our citizenship. I ask in our ch'ic life that we in the same way pay heed only to the man's quality of citizenship, to re pudiate as the Avorst enemy that Ave can have whoever tries to get us to dis criminate for or against any man because of his creed or his birthplace. Now, friends, in the same way I want our people to stand by one another without regard to differences or class or occupation * * * . An Appeal for Organized Labor. — "It is essential that there should be organizations of labor. This is an era of organization. Capital organizes and therefore labor must organize. Aly appeal for organized labor is twofold, to the outsider and the capitalist I make my appeal to treat the laborers fairly, to recognize the fact that he must organize, that there must be such organization; that it is unfair and unjust that the laboring man must organize for his own protection but that it is the duty of the rest of us to help him and not hinder him in organizing. That is one-half of the appeal that I make. "Noav the other half is to the laboring man himself. Aly appeal to him is to remember that as he Avants justice, so he must do justice. I Avant every laboring man, every labor leader, every organized union man to take the lead in denouncing crime or violence. I want them to take the lead in denouncing disorder and inciting to riot, that in this country Ave shall proceed under the protection of our laws and Avith all respect to the laws, and I want the labor- ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 615 ing men to feel in their turn that exactly as justice must be done them so they must do justice; that they must bear their duty as citizens, their duty to this great country of ours, and that they must not rest content without, unless they do that duty to the fullest degree." Prolonging the Speech.— Mr. Roosevelt continued with scarcely unabated energy to discuss the issues and the attitude of the old parties. Much un easiness began to appear among the doctors and friends seated on the plat- 'form behind him as they feared he was over-exerting himself considering the condition he was laboring under. Noticing this anxiety he turned to friends on the stage, and inquired, "How long have I been speaking," to which one replied that he had been speaking three-quarters of an hour. "Well," he replied, "I will take a quarter- of an hour more," and proceeded with his ad dress. In the course of his speech he returned to the subject of the old parties, pointing out their faults and short-comings with characteristic in- cisiveness and force. "All through his talk, it was evident that his physicians feared his injury had been more serious than he was willing to admit," says Mr. Cochems in his account. "That a man with a bullet embedded in his body could stand up there and insist on giving the audience the speech which they had come to hear was almost incredible, and it was plain the physicians as well as the other friends of the Colonel on the stage were greatly alarmed. 'Sit down, sit down,' he said to those AA'ho, when he faltered once or twice, half rose to come towards him. : "Finally, a motherly-looking woman a few rows of seats back from the stage, rose and said, 'Mr. Roosevelt, we all wish you would be seated. To this the Colonel quickly replied, ' I thank you^ madam, but I don 't mind it a bit. ' The only time Colonel Roosevelt gave up and took a seat was when he came to a quotation from Da Follette 's AVeekly which paid him a tribute for his work as president. This was read by Assemblyman T. J. Mahon while the Colonel rested." Mr. Mahon then read the following editorial from La Follette 's Weekly in its issue of March 13, 1909: "Roosevelt steps from the stage gracefully. He has ruled his party to a large extent against its will. He has played a large part of the world's work for the past seven years. The activities of ¦his remarkably forceful personality have been so- manifold that it will be long before his true rating will be fixed in the opinion of the race. He is said to think that the three great things done by him. are the undertaking of the construction of the Panama canal and, its rapid and successful carrying for ward, the making of peace between Russia and Japan, and the sending around the world of the fleet. "These are important things but many will be slow to think them his greatest services. The Panama canal will surely serve mankind when in operation; and the manner of organizing this work seems. to be fine. But no one can yet say whether this project will be- a gigantic" success or a gigantic failure ; and the task is one which must in the nature' of things have been undertaken and" carried through some time soon, as historic periods go, any how. The peace of Portsmouth Avas a great thing to be responsible for, and 616 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Roosevelt's good offices undoubtedly saved a great and bloody battle in Alan- churia. But the war was fought out, and the parties ready to quit, and there is reason to think that it is only when this situation was arrived at that the good offices of the President of the United States were, more or less indirectly, invited. The fleet's cruise was a strong piece of diplomacy, by which Ave informed Japan that Ave Avill send our fleet wherever we please and whenever we please. It worked out well. "But none of these things, it will seem to many, can compare with some of Roosevelt's other achievements. Perhaps he is loath to take credit as a reformer, for he is prone to spell the word with question marks, and to speak disparagingly of 'reform.' But for all that, this contention of 'reformers' made reform respectable in the United States, and this rebuke of 'muck- rakers' has been the chief agent in making the history of 'muck-raking" in the United States a national one, conceded to be useful. He has preached from the White House many doctrines ; but among them he has left impressed on the American mind the one great truth of economic justice couched in the pithy and stinging phrase, 'the square deal.' The task of making reform respectable in a commercialized world, and of giving the nation a slogan in a phrase, is greater than the man who performed it is likely to think. "And then there is the great and statesmanlike movement for the con servation of our national resources, into Avhich Roosevelt so energetically threAv himself at a time when the nation as a whole knew not that we are ruining and bankrupting ourselves as fast as we can. This is probably the greatest thing Roosevelt did. This globe is the capital stock of the race. It is just so much coal and oil and gas. This may be economized or Avasted. This same thing is true of phosphates and other mineral resources. Our water resources are immense, and we are only just beginning to use them. Our for ests have been destroyed ; they must be restored. Our soils are being depleted ; they must be built up and conserved. "These questions are not of this day only, or of this generation. They belong all to the future. Their consideration requires that high moral tone which regards the earth as the home of a posterity to AA'hom Ave owe a sacred duty. This immense idea, Roosevelt, Avith high statesmanship, dinned into the «ars of the nation until the nation heeded. He held it so high that it attracted the attention of the neighboring nations of the continent, and it Avill so spread and intensify that we Avill soon see the Avorld's conferences devoted to it. "Nothing can be greater or finer than this. It is so great and so fine that when the historian of the future shall speak of Theodore Roosevelt, he is likely to say that he did many notable things, among them that of inaugurat ing the movement Avhich finally resulted in the square deal, but that his greatest work was inspiring and actually beginning a world movement for staying terrestrial Avaste and saving for the human race the things upon which, and upon which alone, a great and peaceful and progressive and happy race life can be founded. "What statesman in all history has done anything calling for so wide a view and for a purpose more lofty?" ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 617 Character and Achievements of Mr. Roosevelt. — Perhaps there is contained in no revieAV or utterance of the time a more forcible presentation of the salient points of Theodore Roosevelt's character and of the work he accomplished, or a statement in clearer and more vigorous language of the judgments of his fellow countrymen, than the summary quoted above from La Follette s Weekly, or is more Avorthy the attention and consideration of the readers of this history. One may thus arrive at a true estimate of the eminent statesman whose career, in one of its most exciting episodes, we have here before us. Colonel Roosevelt at the Hospital. — "After Colonel Roosevelt had finished speaking at the Auditorium," continues the account prepared by the editors of the volume previously mentioned, "the effect of the shock and loss of blood from the shot Avas quite manifest in his appearance. Despite this fact, how ever, he walked with a firm step to an automobile waiting at the rear of the big hall, and guarded by a group of friends was driven rapidly to the John ston Emergency hospital. Preparations had there been made for a careful examination and for, treatment by Dr. S. L. Terrell who attended Colonel Roosevelt during his entire trip, Dr. R. G. Sayle and Dr. T. A. Stratton, both of Alilwaukee. "At the hospital, Dr. Joseph Colt Bloodgood, a surgeon of the faculty of Johns Hopkins university, was hrvited into the consultation. The Colonel's first thought had been to reassure Mrs. Roosevelt and his family against any unnecessary fear, and before he received treatment he sent a long reassuring telegram, together with a telegram to Seth Bullock, whose telegram was one of the first of the stream of telegrams which began pouring in for news of the patient's condition. "During the preliminary examination of the wound by the doctors in the Johnston Emergency hospital, preparations were completed to secure X-ray pictures under the direction of Dr. J. S. Janssen, of Milwaukee. Doctor Janssen secured his vieAvs and left for his laboratory to develop the negatives. While these negatives were being secured, it was determined by the doctors that no great additional danger would be incurred if Colonel Roosevelt were moved by special train to Chicago, which plan he had proposed, so that he might be nearer the center of his fight. He was moved by ambulance to the train which left Milwaukee shortly after midnight. Description of the Wound. — "In the meantime, the completion of the X-ray picture disclosed the fact that the bullet lay between the fourth and fifth ribs, 3^2 inches from the surface of the chest on the right side, and later examinations disclosed that it had shattered the fourth rib someAvhat, and was separated by only a delicate tissue from the pleural cavity. By a miracle it had spent its force, for had it entered slightly farther it would al most to a certainty have ended Colonel Roosevelt's life. "Upon Doctor Janssen 's report of the location of the bullet, there was a period of indecision, during which the train waited, before the surgeons con cluded that the patient might be taken to Chicago, despite the nature of the wound, without seriously impairing his chances. Arriving at Chicago about 3:00 o'clock in the morning of October 15th, an ambulance was procured and 618 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE the Colonel taken to Mercy hospital, where he was attended by Dr. John B. Murphy, -Dr. Arthur Dean Bevan and Dr. S. L. Terrell. "A week later, during Avhich time the surgeons concluded that the wound was not mortal, and having recovered his strength somewhat, he was taken East to his home at Oyster Bay, Long Island. 'The bullet lies where. it em bedded itself,' says one of the reports. 'It has not been disturbed by probes, because the surgeons have concluded that such an operation would incur addi tional danger.' That the shot fired by Schrank didn't succeed in murdering Colonel Roosevelt was a miracle of good fortune. A 'thirty-eight, long, Colt's cartridge,' fired from a pistol frame of 'forty-four' caliber design, so built be cause it gave a heavier drive to the projectile ; and fired at close range, meant almost inevitable death. "The aim was taken at a lower portion of Colonel Roosevelt's body, but a by-stander struck Schrank 's arm at the moment of explosion and elevated the direction of the shot. After passing through the Colonel's heavy military overcoat and his other clothing, it would have certainly killed him had it not struck in its course practically everything AA'hich he carried on his person which could impede its force. In his coat pocket he had fifty sheets of manu script for the night's speech, Avhich had been doubled, and through which the bullet passed. "It had struck also his spectacle case on the outer concave surface of the gun-metal material of Avhich the case was constructed. It had passed through a double fold of his heaA'y suspenders before reaching his body; Had anyone of these objects been out of the range of the bullet, Schrank 's dastardly pur pose Avould have been accomplished beyond any conjecture." The Telegram to Mrs. Roosevelt. — Just before he went to the operating room in the Emergency hospital Colonel Roosevelt directed the following tele gram to be sent to Airs. Roosevelt: "Am in excellent shape, made an hour and half speech. The wound is a trivial one. I think they will find that it merely glanced on a rib and went somewhere into a cavity of the body; it certainly did not touch a lung and isn't a particle more serious than one of the injuries any of the boys used continually to be having. Am at the Emergency hospital at the moment, but anticipate going right on Avith my engagements. My A'oice seems to be in good shape." The surgeons issued a bulletin from the Emergency hospital, as follows : "The bleetding was insignificant and the Avound Avas immediately cleansed ex ternally and dressed AA'ith sterile gauze by Dr. R. G. Sayle, of Mihvaukee, consulting surgeon of the Emergency hospital. As the bullet passed through Colonel Roosevelt's clothes, the doubled manuscript and spectacle case, its force was much diminished. The appearance of ' the wound also presented evidence of a much bent bullet. The Colonel is not suffering from shock and is in no pain. His condition was so good that the surgeons did not object to his continuing his journey in his private car to Chicago Avhere he will be placed under surgical care." This bulletin Avas signed by Drs. S. L. Terrell, R. G. Sayle, Joseph Colt Bloodgood and T. A. Stratton. Another bulletin A\;as issued just before Colonel Roosevelt Avas taken to the special 'train AA'hich carried him to Chicago, as folloAvs: "Colonel Roose- ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 619 velt has a superficial flesh wound below the right breast with no evidence of injury to the lung. The bullet is probably lodged somewhere in the chest walls, because there is but one wound and no signs of any injury to the lung. His condition was so good that the surgeons did not try to locate the bullet, nor did they try to probe for it." This bulletin was signed by Drs. Terrell and Sayle. Characteristic Good Nature of Patient. — Miss Regina White, superintendent of the Emergency hospital in Milwaukee, declared afterwards that Colonel Roosevelt was "the most unusual patient who ever was ministered to in the Johnston Emergency hospital. He was absolutely calm and unperturbed, and he influenced every one about him to be so, although excitement and unrest were in the very atmosphere, and he was suffering much. "Colonel Roosevelt had not been in the hospital fifteen minutes before every one he came in contact with was willing to swear allegiance to the Bull Aloose party, and personal allegiance to the genial Bull Moose himself. He was so friendly and cordial, so natural and free, so happy and genial and so inclined to 'jolly' us all, that we felt on terms of intimate friendship with him almost immediately ; and yet, through all this freedom of manner, he main tained a dignity that never for an instant let us forget we Avere in the presence of a great man. It is almost unbelievable that he could have been so unruffled and apparently unconcerned as he was when he really was suffering, and when he did not know how serious the wound was." "I asked the Colonel how he felt about the prosecution of the man who shot him," said Miss White; "and he said, 'I've not decided yet, but God help the poor fool under any circumstances.' And the tone he used was one of kindly sympathy and sincerity, and without one trace of malice or sarcasm. He seemed kindly interested in everything that any one said to him. Miss Elvina Kucko, one of our nurses, shook hands with him when he was about to go and said she was sorry the shooting had happened in our city. The Colonel consoled her by saying it might have happened anywhere." At Mercy hospital in Chicago Colonel Roosevelt won the hearts of all. "He was the best patient I ever had," said Aliss Welter, "he was considera tion itself. He never had a word of complaint all the time he was at the hospital, and his chief worry seemed to be that we were not comfortable. We had expected to find him 'strenuous' and possibly disagreeable. On the con trary we found him most docile ; he chafed at being kept in bed, but he tried not to show it, and he never was ill-humored or peevish as many patients in a similar position are." On the Road to Recovery. — -Many unimportant details are included perhaps in this story of Colonel Roosevelt's exciting experience. But they are justified in the words of the preface to the valuable account which we have had the privilege of quoting from: "This little book presents an accurate story of the attempt upon the life of the ex-president." The aim of those who pre sented it was that, being an accurate narrative, it should be "a contribution to the history of the United States." That shall be the aim, likewise, of the writer of these pages. Nine years after the volume was. issued it shows its use fulness and value be recalling the details of the event which occurred in the pic- 620 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE turesque and varied career of "the foremost man in all the world." Seldom, if ever, has a man who was not a world conqueror achieved in one lifetime such a boundless fame, as Avide and extensive as the boundaries of all the na tions of the globe. No detail can be regarded as trivial or unimportant in such a connection as this. "Mrs. Roosevelt reached Chicago," continues the account, "with her son, Theodore, and her daughter, Ethel. She was driven directly to Mercy hospital and took charge of her husband as soon as she had greeted him. She was quite composed on her arrival and placidly directed affairs all through. As a result of her presence the Colonel's visiting list was materially cut down; he devoted less time to reading telegrams .and discussed the campaign very little. Part of the morning he spent in reading cablegrams of sympathy and congratulation on his escape, from Emperor William, King George, the presi dent of France, the king of Spain, the president of Portugal, and the Crown Prince and Princess of Germany. "Among his few callers were Col. Cecil Lyon, Medill AlcCormick, Dr. Alexander Lambert, his family physician, who had accompanied Mrs. Roose velt to Chicago, Doctor Evans of Chicago and Dr. Woods Hutchinson, a writer on medical topics and a warm personal friend. As soon as he saw Doctor Lambert the Colonel said, 'Lambert, you'd have let me finish that speech if you'd been there after I was shot, wouldn't you?' 'Perhaps so,' returned the doctor a little dubiously, 'but I should have made sure you Avere not seriously hurt first.' "Before Mrs. Roosevelt arrived the Colonel Avas insistent that he be al- loAved to go to Oyster Bay shortly. After a talk with Mrs. RooseA-elt he said he would leave that question to her. 'It will probably be ten days at least before we go,' she said. 'It is too far distant to attempt a prophecy.' A more careful examination of the X-ray prints taken of the patient disclosed the fact that his fourth rib was slightly splintered by the impact of the bullet lodged against it. This accounted for the discomfort that the Colonel suffered." Irrepressible Desire to Talk. — While receiving a number of the newspaper men in his party Doctor Terrell came in at the conclusion of the conversation, and expressed the fear that the ex-president Avas exerting himself beyond his strength. "You do too much," said Doctor Terrell. "The most uncomfort able hour I ever spent in my life was while I sat on the platform in Mil waukee wondering Avhere that bullet was and in Avhat imminent danger you were. Hoav could you be so incautious as to make a speech then? It was all very well for you to say the shot was not fatal but Iioav could you tell?" The Colonel raised his arm heavily, trying not to shoAv the pain that came with every movement. "I did not think the wound Avas dangerous," he said, "I was confident that it was not in a place Avhere much harm could follow, and therefore I wished to make the speech. AnyAvay, even if it Avent against me, — well, if I had to die, — I thought I'd rather die Avith my boots on." Just then the door opened to admit Elbert E. Alartin, the herculean stenog rapher Avho had grabbed Schrank before he could fire a second shot. "Here he is," cried the Colonel, Avaving his hand, "here is the man that did it." Martin had brought a lot of telegrams. The Colonel, lying propped up ad- ATTEA1PTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 621 justed the great tortoise shell glasses and proceeded to look them over. With one he seemed especially pleased. It came from Aladison, Wis., and was as folloAvs: "Permit me to express my profound regret that your life should have been in peril and to express my congratulations upon your fortunate escape from serious injury. I trust that you will speedily recover." This was signed by Robert At. La Follette. He then dictated a reply, as follows : "Senator Robert AI. La Follette, — Thanks sincerely for your kind expressions of sympathy." Half an hour the Colonel spent look.ng over and answering private telegrams, dictating ahvays in a clear, strong voice. When he had done he talked Avith the newspaper men of former experiences of the kind he had just gone through and of the cranks at Sagamore Hill and at the White House. "But I never had a bullet in me before," he said. Resumption of Campaign Activities. — By the 17th, having now become convinced that he Avas beyond all possible clanger, Colonel Roosevelt resumed the active campaign from his sick room in Mercy hospital, by dictating a statement in which he requested his political opponents to continue the fight as if nothing had happened to him. Quoting from a statement of Air. William J. Bryan that "the issues of this campaign should not be determined by the act of an assassin," he commented thus: "We emphatically demand that the discussion be carried on precisely as if I had not been shot." "I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact," he continued, "upon which we Progressives insist that the Avelfare of any one man in this fight is wholly immaterial com pared to the greatest fundamental issues involved in the triumph of the prin ciples for which our cause stands. If I had been killed the fight would haA'e gone on exactly the same." Then naming some of those Avho were most prom inent among his supporters he continued: "They would have continued the fight in exactly the same Avay if I had been killed, and they are continuing it in just the same way now that I am, for the moment, laid up." Homeward Bound. — The trip homeward Avas safely made by Colonel Roose velt and the portion of his family who had joined him at Alercy hospital. The party started on the morning of the 21st and reached Oyster Bay on the morning of the 22d. On the evening of the 30th the Colonel addressed a large audience at Madison Square Garden in New York estimated at 15,000 men and women. Another vast crowd waited all the evening outside the entrance of the Garden in the hope that they might catch a word or tAvo from the Colonel as he departed. They were disappointed, however, for his physicians, fearing it Avas too great a tax on his strength, Avould not permit him to make more than one address. Capture of the Assassin. — Let us now return to the scenes of the attempt made on the life of Mr. Roosevelt in Alilwaukee. Within five minutes after the shooting the miscreant Avho fired the shot was on his way to the police station in the patrol wagon. He was securely locked up though the croAvds assembled in the ne ghborhood clamored for his life. The men Avho had over powered Schrank in his murderous attempt were Elbert E. Martin, Capt. A. 0. Girard, Col. Cecil Lyon of Texas, Serg. Albert Murray of the Milwaukee police department, and Detectives Harry Ridenour, Louis Hartman, and Valentine 622 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE SkieraAvski of the Mihvaukee police department, and Frank BuskoAvsky as appears on a later page. When first questioned at the central station the prisoner would not give his name but afterward gave it as John Schrank. He had been roughly han dled after the shooting. He clung to the revolver until it was Avrenched from his grasp. On his person were found several written declarations of his inten tions to shoot the ex-president indicating by their tone and expressions that he was an insane man with homicidal purposes. On being taken before Judge N. B. Neelen he admitted that he had fired the shot which wounded Colonel Roosevelt. The district attorney, W. C. Zabel, said: "So far as I have been able to determine from several examinations, John Schrank is legally sane. He has a perfect knoAvledge of right and wrong and realizes that the act he committed was against the law. Medically, he may have a slight aberration, but only experts could determine that." Schrank then entered a plea of guilty. "I plead guilty and waive examination," he said. Further Proceedings in the Case. — On the 13th of November the prisoner was brought before Judge August C. Backus in the Alunicipal Court. The following physicians were appointed to make an examination of his mental condition: Drs. F. C. Studley, W. F. Becker, Richard Dewey, W F. Wegge, and D. W. Harrington, all of Alilwaukee. The court also appointed Attorney James G. Flanders to represent Schrank. Judge Backus ordered him to stand and listen to the charge made against him, and he was asked to plead guilty or not guilty. "I plead guilty to the shooting," he answered. "Did you intend to kill Theodore Roosevelt?" asked Mr. Zabel. To this he replied, "I did not intend to kill the citizen Roosevelt, I intended to kill Theodore Roosevelt, the third termer. I did not want to kill the candidate of the progressive party. I shot Roosevelt as a warning to other third termers." At the afternoon session of the court the physicians were present to be sworn and the sheriff was ordered to allow them to see the prisoner whenever they wished to do so. On November 22d Schrank was declared insane by the five alienists Avho had been appointed to examine him. The findings of the court were then read by Judge Backus, as f ollows : ' ' The court now finds that the defendant, John Schrank, is insane, and therefore incapacitated to act for himself. "It is therefore ordered and adjudged that the defendant, John Schrank, be committed to the Northern Hospital for the Insane, near Oshkosh, in the County of Winnebago, State of Wisconsin, until such time when he shall have recovered from such insanity, when he shall be returned to this court for further proceedings according to laAv. " The prisoner expressed disappointment at the result of the examination. "Why didn't they give me my medicine right away," he exclaimed. "I did it and I am willing to stand the consequences of my act. I want to say now that I am sane and know what I am doing all the time. I am not a lunatic and never was one." Schrank was taken to the Northern Hospital for the Insane at Oshkosh by Deputy Sheriff Richard Muldenhauer and Fred Becker, bookkeeper in the sheriff's office, on the morning of November 25th. Additional Details.. — Some further details of the thrilling event which nearly resulted in a tragedy are added in this place. Among those who wit- ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 623 nessed the shooting of Colonel Roosevelt was Thomas Taylor who was in the automobile at the time. Mr. Taylor said he was in the machine standing at the door of the Hotel Gilpatrick waiting for the distinguished guest to finish his meal in the dining room, and then convey him to the Auditorium so as to arrive there about 8 :00 o 'clock. When Mr. Roosevelt Avas seen coming doAvn the steps of the hotel, Taylor turned on the power, and opened the door of the automobile to admit him and his party. Alartin got in first and turning about started to assist the colonel. Captain Girard and Henry F. Cochems followed. Taylor then heard a "low report" which caused him to look at the crowd to see what caused it. He saw Schrank with a revolver in his hand and that Captain Girard and Martin we're both "on top of him." In the confusion that followed Taylor himself was knocked down but he saw that a dark man who looked like a laborer was holding Schrank by the arm in a firm grasp and seemed to be struggling with him. This man who had struck Schrank 's arm as he fired and who struggled with him immediately afterwards was ascer tained to be Frank Buskowsky, 1140 Seventh Avenue, Milwaukee. Buskowsky said in a later interview, "I was so excited when I realized that the man next to me had shot at Mr. Roosevelt that I felt like killing him, and I cried out at the top of my voice as I held him, 'Kill him, kill the d d scoundrel.' The police must have thought that I meant Roosevelt, for when one of them came up to me he yelled, 'What in h 11 is the matter with you?' and hustled me away. As I cannot speak good English I could not explain that I meant Schrank and not Roosevelt. I was so excited when the police took me away that way, that I went immediately home. If I could have explained myself that patrolman would have heard something from me for the way he clubbed me on my head. My hat was smashed in. I came home disgusted with the treatment I had received by the police. The next morning I read all about Martin capturing that man and it made me mad, for I was the first one to grab him and prevent him from shooting any more." Mr. Cochems, in his account, says that "Buskowsky is a Bohemian and has been in America seven years, during which period he has been an enthus iastic supporter of the Bull Moose leader." Reviews and Comments on the Schrank Case. — In the last chapter of Mr. Cochems' book he adds a review of the court proceedings in the Schrank case, together with press comments. He says that in this case a new form was established which has "met with favorable comment on the part of lawyers, alienists, court officials and editors all over the world." In his instructions to the five alienists whom he had appointed to examine Schrank as to his sanity, Judge August C. Backus said: "You have been appointed as an impartial commission to examine into the present mental condition of the defendant John Schrank, who is charged with the crime of assault with intent to kill and murder Theodore Roosevelt with a loaded revolver, on the 14th day of October, 1912, in the City and County of Milwaukee and State of Wisconsin. "The court in this proceeding will finally determine the issue. I have decided to take this method of procedure instead of a jury trial, because as a rule in trials by jury the case resolves itself into a battle of medical experts, 624 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE and in my experience I have never witnessed a case where the testimony of the experts on one side Avas not directly contradicted by the testimony of as many or more experts on the other side. Where men especially trained in mental and nervous diseases disagree, how can it be expected that a jury of twelve laymen should agree? Such testimony has been very unsatisfactory to the jury and the court, and generally very expensive to the community. "Bear in mind, gentlemen, that your appointment has not been suggested by either counsel for the state or for the defendant, or by any other party or source directly or indirectly interested in this inquisition. You are the court's commission, and you must enter upon your duties free from any bias or prejudice, if any there be. You should assume' your duties, and I know you will, with the highest motives in seeking the truth, and then pronounce your judgment without regard to the effect it may have upon the state or upon the defendant ; in other words, in your inquiry and deliberation you are placed on the same plane as the judge. "If any person seeks to influence you or talks to you as a commission, or to any member of the commission Avho is not duly requested to appear before you, report him to the court so that an order to shoAV cause why he should not be punished for contempt may issue. If there be any witnesses you desire the court will command their attendance. The court Avill grant you the serv ices of a stenographic reporter so that everything that is said and done may appear of record. The commission may uoav retire, select a moderator and proceed Avith the inquiry. "Now, gentlemen, perform your duties fairly and impartially, and ren der such findings to the court as your consciences and your judgments ap prove. The question for your determination is, 'Is the defendant, John Schrank. sane or insane at the present time?' " Summary of the Defendant's Views and Career — In the various examina tions of the defendant the following facts Avere brought out. John Schrank Avas a native of Bavaria where he Avas born in 1876. After the death of his parents, he came to America AA'hen he Avas tAvelve years of age, and lived with an uncle and aunt. The uncle kept a saloon in NeAv York in AA'hich the boy AA'as a bartender. For three or four years he attended night schools and ac quired a fair knowledge of the English language. On the death of his uncle and aunt in 1910 and 1911, he became the heir to considerable property of an estimated value of $25,000. He supports himself from the income of this property. He is unmarried. His tastes are literary and he is a diligent reader of the Ncav York papers. He also wrote freely on the political issues of the clay though his Avritings Avere not printed. These Avritings were pro duced for the information of the commission. He has also read widely in books concerning American and European history from Avhich he has drawn conclusions justifying deeds of violence toAvards leaders AA'ho by their acts have deserved death. "Trying to get perpetual power and dictatorship Avould justify killing," he Avrote in one of the documents AA'hich he submitted. These documents were quite voluminous and rambling in style and reasoning. On account of a dream he had several years ago he had become convinced that Air. Roosevelt in some Avay or another Avas the cause of Air. McKinley's ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT 625 death by means of which he was able to gratify his ambition to become presi dent. At the time that the Progressive party came into existence, and had nominated Mr. Roosevelt for its presidential candidate, he formed a strong conviction that in his action of accepting the nomination he had violated the "third term tradition" which he held to be a sacred doctrine, and then he determined to kill him whenever the opportunity offered. He sought to justify himself for coming to this determination in his answers to questions, and at no time did he express or exhibit remorse for his act. The Conclusions of the Alienists. — The result of the inquiry into the mental condition of the defendant, John Schrank, was submitted by the commission of alienists, appointed by Judge Backus, and was as follows : "Our conclusions are as follows — "First, John Schrank is suffering from insane delusions, grandiose in character, and of the systematized variety. ' ' Second, In our opinion he is insane at the present time. "Third, On account of the connection existing between his delusions and the act with which he stands charged, we are of the opinion that he is unable to confer intelligently with counsel, or to conduct his defense. "Dated at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, November 22, 1912. [Signed] Richard Dewey, M. D., Chairman. W. F. Becker, M. D. D. W. Harrington, AI. D. Frank Studley, M. D. William F. Wegge, M. D." Editorial Comment. — In an article printed in the Milwaukee Free Press it is said : ' ' The findings of the alienists appointed by Judge Backus to de termine the mental condition of Schrank were foreseen. There has been little doubt at any time of the derangement of that unfortunate man. This fact, however, does not detract from appreciation of the excellent and novel course pursued by Judge Backus in taking advantage of the statute that permitted him to submit the question of Schrank 's sanity to a body of alienists appointed by himself instead of leaving the question to a jury at the tender mercy of alienists employed alike by state and defense. "The judge justified his procedure in these Avords, when instructing the examining physicians :" (The remarks of the judge on this point have already been printed on a previous page and are included in his instructions to the commission.) The comments of the Free Press continue as follows: "It has been a scandal to the medical profession, a source of travesty to judicial procedure, and all too often a means of defeating the ends of justice. The very course pursued by Judge Backus was advocated by President Gregory of the Amer ican Bar Association not very long ago, and the outcome, in this instance at least, is such as to recommend its adoption by the bench wherever the statutes permit. ' ' Commenting upon the charge of Judge Backus to the commission, the Chicago Record-Herald said: "It is notorious that 'expert testimony' is too often confusing, and jurors and judges feel themselves bound to disregard it Vol. 1—4 0 626 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE in favor of mere 'horse sense.' The state's experts are matched or over matched by the experts for the defense, and the conflict of 'scientific' testi mony assumes in many cases the proportions of a public scandal. Hence, the 'Wisconsin idea,' as applied by Judge Backus of Milwaukee, Avho is presiding over the trial of John Schrank, is an admirable one. Under a statute of Wis consin a judge may summon a certain number of experts and make them officers of the court. They testify as such officers, and presumably the state pays them reasonable fees. Under such a plan as this there is no temptation to strain science in the interest of a long purse, and impartial opinion is likely to be the rule. "Statutes similar to that of Wisconsin are needed in all other states. 'Expert testimony' has' long been a by-Avord and reproach. Of course, under Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence no defendant can be deprived of the right to call Avitnesses of his oavii choosing, and after all a medical expert is only a witness Avho gh'es opinions instead of facts. Still, a laAv which authorizes the court to call truly impartial experts would not seem to be 'unconstitutional.' It is certainly not unfair or unreasonable from the lay point of view." Canadian opinion may also be quoted. The Saturday Night of Toronto had this to say : "In the stress attending on matters of greater moment AA'hich have been occupying the attention of the daily press of late, the judicial Avis- dom of Air. A. C. Backus, municipal judge of the City of Alilwaukee, charged with the task of trying John Schrank, the man who attempted to slay Colonel Roosevelt, has been overlooked. Nevertheless, he established a precedent with regard to the trial of prisoners where insanity is the only defense, that should be copied not only by every state hi the American Union, but by every province of Canada. "It was not generally known that the laws of the State of AYisconsin gave a presiding justice the plenary poAvers he has exercised, but every good judge Avho has presided over cases Avhere alienists have been employed to furnish testimony must have yearned for similar authority. In the Schrank case Judge Backus decided to eliminate all direct testimony by alienists, and to constitute such experts, into an auxiliary court AA'ho should cooperate with him in the final judgment of the case. His auxiliary, consisting of five physi cians, was directed to elect a moderator avIio would preside over their delibera tions and decide the issues of sanity or insanity in case of a deadlock. "It would be difficult to say AA'hat objection could be taken to this system in any case Avhere alienists are subpoenaed. It is even possible that by care fully protecting the rights of the prisoner the same system could be worked out in any case Avhere medical testimony, beyond the mere proving of the crime, is required. In many murder cases physicians have been heard SAvear- ing to contrary positions, until jurors, disgusted with the confusion of the testimony, have simply throAvn up their hands, neglected their duty to con sider the reasonable facts of the case, and allowed murderers to go free. "Judge Backus has taken a forAvard step in the administration of justice on this continent, and it is to be trusted that the effects of it will be far- reaching." PART IV EDUCATIONAL CULTURAL SOCIAL CHAPTER XXXVI ' THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS This chapter is founded in large part on the contribution of Mr. Patrick Donnelly, printed in' the "Columbian History of Education in Wisconsin," published in 1893. "The .first schools established in Milwaukee, in the year 1836," says the writer, "were 'pay schools,' that is, the patrons thereof em ployed the teachers and paid them for their services. The circumstances were such that free public schools, such as we now have, could not then have been established." No public money was then available for such a purpose. The first schools were quite primitive, the teachers, like most of the other inhabiants, had come West with the tide of emigration to better their for tunes. The pay received by the teachers was barely sufficient to purchase the necessaries of life. "Scanty fare and threadbare raiment were then the trade marks of the profession." The following account of the early schools is derived from memory pictures as related by the pioneers. Pioneer School Houses. — "A crude log hut or rickety frame shanty, thirty feet long by tAventy feet wide, with a door in one end, a fireplace and chimney on the opposite end, four small windows, two on each side, each about thirty inches square, was the schoolhouse of the early days. There Avas a wooden floor, long benches placed along the side of the walls for the smaller children, and two or three small tables with appropriate benches for the more advanced pupils AA-ho Avere able to write. The schoolmaster had a chair, a small pine table, a ruler, a pen-knife, a few old books, an ink bottle and sundry quill pens. The larger pupils were provided with copy-books, slates, arithmetics and readers of various kinds, and the younger pupils with such specimens of primers, first readers or alphabet cards as could then be found or extemporized. The variety of the book supply rendered it impossible to have classes. Blackboards were not then known as far west as Milwaukee. "The schoolmaster was obliged to be his own janitor in those days. Some times the patrons chopped the wood required, and sometimes the schoolmaster himself Avielded the axe in the early morning. He was obliged to be at school at least half an hour before the pupils began to assemble. The sweeping and fire-making must be attended to. Occasionally the schoolmaster succeeded in securing assistance from one or two of the larger boys in doing this work. Common Schools Established. — ' ' The territorial law of Michigan Territory, enacted in 1827, provided that as soon as twenty families were settled in a town, they should select three commissioners of common schools, who should hold their respective offices for three years, whose duties should be to lease 629 Ill THE FOURTEENTH DISTRICT SCHOOL THE TWENTY-THIRD DISTRICT SCHOOL THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 631 the school lands and apply the proceeds to the establishment and maintenance of said schools. Wisconsin was at that time a part of Michigan Territory. As the public lands were then so plentiful little of anything could be realized from the school lands. Hence, whatever schools were established must have been maintained by local, voluntary, self-imposed taxation or assessment. No wonder, then, that the schoolhouses Avere poor, the teachers ill-paid, and the school supplies limited in extent, and of the cheapest kind." The Milwaukee Sentinel, in its issue for October 13, 1837, gives an estimate of the educated thought of the day upon the question of common school educa tion, as follows: "There is probably no one subject of so much importance to this territory, and AA'hich will be more conducive to the future happiness and prosperity of the people, than the adoption of a wise and liberal system of common school education. A careful observer will perceive in the older- settled portions of the Union, that the general mass of the people are the most enlightened, and well-informed, where a liberal and judicious common school system has been adopted. The foundation is laid at the common school, and it is necessary that it be properly laid, of the right kind of material, under the care and superintendence of a master Avorkman, else the superstructure may fail in the end for the want of a right commencement. ' ' Upon this article Mr. Donnelly comments as follows: "The editor who penned the above wrote in full view of all the schools that then existed in the Village of Milwaukee and in the Territory of Wisconsin. His estimate of good schools is as good for the present time as it was in the period when he published his views. Notwithstanding this enlightened view of what was re quired, many years of deficiencies in the schools that the village was obliged to rely upon, had to be borne before much improvement came. True, there Avere good teachers, some probably much better than many of the teachers that we now have. Men and women were educated in those village schools who were well equipped for dealing with the ordinary affairs of life. The earliest set tlers of Alihvaukee embraced a very large proportion of quite well educated men and women. No one can name twenty of the oldest settlers without in cluding many names that have been and are well known representatives of educated intelligence. This was the factor that supplemented the work of the ill-paid, poorly supplied village schoolmasters of the '30s." Conditions in 1845. — Nearly ten years after the first public schools had been established in Milwaukee, and in the year preceding that in which the Milwaukee city charter was adopted, the Sentinel, in its issue of June 7, 1845, said: "The building used for school purposes in the first district is old, dilapi dated, unpainted and half unglazed, without playground or shade. In this school, out of a school population of 325 children between the ages of four and sixteen years, only about thirty are in the school, and these are of both sexes, pursuing their studies in text books whose name is legion. Three hundred and eighteen dollars is all that is appropriated for the entire maintenance of this school, not one dollar for each child entitled to receive a common school education." In the fall of the same year (1845), at a public meeting held for the purpose of taking some action looking towards the improvement of the schools, Mr. 632 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE L. W. Weeks was chosen chairman, I. A. Lapham and A. W. Hatch, secretaries. At this meeting Rufus King made a report in which he said: "The whole number of school children between the ages of five and sixteen years in the Town of Milwaukee is 1,781. There are thirteen schools in operation within the corporate limits, namely, four public and nine private schools. The actual attendance at the public schools is 228, at the private schools 356, or 584 in all. There is no public schoolhouse in the east ward, and there is only a small sized and inconvenient public schoolhouse in the west ward. In the south ward there is a good building. There are upward of one thousand children for whom no adequate provision of school accommodation is made." A committee consisting of Rufus King. F. Randall, E. D. Smith, Richard Murphy and Moritz Schoeffler, was appointed and instructed to report at the next meeting to be held a few days later on a general plan of revision. Recommendations of the Committee. — At the meeting held December 17, 1845, the committee recommended that all the common schools be placed under the control of a board of commissioners elected or appointed annually from the several school districts or wards, Avhich should have full control of the pub lic schools, employing the teachers, prescribing the text books and determining the rate-bills to which recourse might be had for defraying a portion of the expenses. Lastly, the committee recommended "that the school board shall have power to elect its president, who shall serve the board as its clerk, and who shall be required to make periodical examinations of the schools and report the results thereof to the board." This report was adopted and became in substance the outline of that part of the first city charter which related to the public schools, and was the first important step that had been taken to im prove the schools and was the first well-defined plan of improvement that had been presented. Beginning of the City Schools. — The city charter was adopted the next year, namely, April 7, 1846, the date of the first election under the charter. The city was divided into five wards, namely, the First and Third on the east side, the Second and Fourth on the west side, and the Fifth on the south side. The First Ward public school was first opened in the basement of the old St. Peter's Cathedral on Martin Street, which Avas kindly offered to the school board by Right Rev. John Martin Henni, archbishop of Milwaukee. "Evi dently," writes Mr. Donnelly, "the church authorities in those days had no prejudice against the public schools." In the Third and Fourth Ward schools the sessions were held in rented houses, and in the Second and Fifth wards the schools were held in the buildings that had been used before. These five schools were opened in June, 1846. At the date of the first annual report there were 648 pupils enrolled, with an average daily attendance of 355. Growth of the Public Schools. — "The city government had now come," Avrites Mr. Donnelly in his historical account, "a definite form had been adopted for the establishment and maintenance of the schools, but the means to supply even the most limited requirements were still utterly deficient. The population was rapidly increasing, the commercial necessities of the city were so urgent and the tax income so limited, that notwithstanding the popular appreciation of good schools, six whole years must elapse before anything THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 633 like adequate school room Avas provided. In 1852 five new brick school build ings, which were then considered quite large, were ready for use. Two of these were on the east side, namely, one on the northwest corner of Van Buren and Division streets, and one on the northeast corner of Detroit and Jackson streets ; two on the Avest, one on the northwest corner of Eighth and Sycamore streets, and one on Fourth Street near Galena. The Fifth Ward (south side) was supplied Avith one on or near the site of the Fifth District school building. Each of these new buildings was intended to accommodate about three hun dred and fifty pupils." As compared Avith the duties that now devolve upon the school board the board in those early days possessed considerably greater powers and responsi bilities. But there was one very serious defect in the system, namely, the lack of professional supervision. "Such supervision seemed to be rather an uncer tain element in the school organization of that time. A committee of the board was appointed to visit the schools and report impressions received. The visits Avere seldom made and they led to nothing particularly helpful in school work. It may truthfully be said that from 1852 till 1859, when General King was elected as first superintendent of the Milwaukee public schools, the lack of supervision was the most serious fault of the school administration." Review of the Early Period. — "From the early village school of the '30s the charter school of 1846 followed, and in 1852 the five large and well equipped schools above mentioned. Uniformity of text books, and classification into grammar, intermediate and primary departments were now established. Many of the best teachers that Milwaukee ever had were in the employ of the school board in the '50s. Among the latter we need but name F. C. Pomeroy, whose fame as principal of the Third Ward school was known not only in Mihvaukee but throughout the whole NorthAvest. Until the time of Superin tendent King whatever of good there was in the schools did not exist so much as a requirement by well-formulated regulations of the school board as by the excellent abilities of the teachers who then served the city. ' ' The election of a superintendent chosen on account of fitness to supervise the Avork of the schools was a great step in the development of our present splendid school system. Gen. Rufus King, the first superintendent, was a man eminently fitted to perform the duties of the office. He was a man of liberal education and had long been a member of the school board. There was a decided improvement in the schools from and after the date of his be coming superintendent." King's connection with the Sentinel obliged him to discontinue his Avork as superintendent, and in 1860 Jonathan Ford was elected as his successor. Ford had been a teacher in the Milwaukee schools and prob ably knew more of the details of the work than his predecessor, but in breadth and general powers of developing the system and of improving its faulty con ditions King was distinctly superior. Under Ford's superintendency the prac tice of giving prizes for the best standing in the respective branches was begun. Mr. E. D. Holton gave medals, Mr. R. C. Spencer scholarships in his commer cial college, and Mr. Alexander Mitchell cash or book prizes for the pupils who attained the highest standings. These contests served a good purpose, awakening a healthy emulation and establishing a higher standard of scholar- 634 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE ship. Unpleasant comments, however, were not unknown. Favoritism, preju dice, unfairness in making aAvards, were often heard as charges against the decisions of the examining committees. But it does not appear that any of these charges were proven or operated to hinder the general improvement in the schools. Consequences of the Panic in 1857. — The panic of 1857 left long-standing difficulties in the general management of school affairs in its wake. It was during Mr. Ford's term of office that the financial crisis in Milwaukee history finally culminated. "School orders," says Donnelly, 'Svere seeking pur chasers at a discount of from 20 to 25 per cent. Finally, the school board closed the schools for more than two months, Avhich brought the common council to a definite decision in making the provisions necessary to meet the financial requirements. To the credit of the teachers be it said, that none of them deserted their ill-paid positions in consequence of the loss sustained in having their pay stopped at a time when they could ill afford to suffer any loss. Sixteen teachers were dropped from the service, the two high schools Avere discontinued, as essential steps of retrenchment. "The work of the schools Avas resumed, and, in spite of the depressing financial difficulties, the Milwaukee schools did good Avork in those clays when the dark clouds of the Civil war ominously darkened the southern horizon, and the boys left the schools to blow the patriotic strains of the fife or tap the Avar drum to give the marching columns time ; or, still oftener, to join the ranks and march aAvay to the front. The stern demands of the Avar did thin the upper grades of the schools, but the work still Avent on. Those stirring, sad days of Avar lent an impetus to the rhetorical Avork of the schools. The speeches of John Adams, Patrick Henry and Daniel AVebster Avere rendered Avith adjuncts of feeling and passion befitting the times. "The war music aroused the spirit of patriotism. All the older teachers can Avell remember with what spirit the pupils sang 'Rally Round the Flag,' 'The Red, AVhite and Blue,' 'John BroAvn's Body,' and. "Lay Ale DoAvn and Save the Flag,' and hoAV those stirring lines on 'Sheridan's Ride' Avere spoken by the boys and girls almost as soon as taken from the press ! History teach ing received a new impulse ; it Avas no longer regarded as a study of secondary importance. The history of the times Avas told by the pupils in Avell Avritten compositions, and the schools received a mighty impulse from the great deeds that avci-c being performed on the bloody fields of the South." Later Superintendents. — In 1862, J. R. Sharpstein, one of the editors of the Mihvaukee Ncavs, Avas elected superintendent, but he resigned after a few months, on account of the pressing demands of his editorial work on his paper. One of the members of the school board, Air. De Wolf, was elected as superintendent, and served three years. During the last year of Mr. De Wolf's term of office, the folloAving Avere the principals in the employ of the school board : First Ward, F. ( ' Pomeroy ; Second Ward, Jacob Wernli ; Third Ward, Patrick Connolly, Jr.; Fourth Ward, C. K. Alartin; Fifth Ward, Galen B. Seaman; Sixth Ward, F. C. Lau ; Seventh Ward, II. B. Furness; Eighth Ward, 0. M. Baker; Ninth Ward, Louis Hillmantel. "May 15, 1865, Air. F. C. Pomeroy, Avho had been recognized and conceded THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 635 by all to be one of the ablest and best teachers that ever taught in the Mil waukee schools, was elected superintendent. Air. Pomeroy 's supervision was uniform, constant and painstaking. Trained in the work himself, he knew what was attainable, and by his careful examinations of all the classes in the city he was soon able to make intelligent and fair comparisons of the relative status attained by teachers engaged in the same grade of work. "Yearly examinations of teachers had been required up till the time of Mr. Pomeroy 's administration, and having himself been required to go through this humiliating annual test he soon induced the school board to abandon it. Since his time a teacher's certificate is required but once. The department system, namely, grammar, intermediate and primary departments constitute the three divisions of a school. * * * During Mr. Pomeroy 's administra tion mental arithmetic attained a very high standard of excellence in the Milwaukee schools. Pupils in the highest or first grade could with the great est rapidity analyze problems that usually required an algebraic solution. * * * The branches taught during Mr. Pomeroy 's term of service em braced reading, spelling, writing, grammar, arithmetic — mental and practical, geography, United States history, physical geography and music. German was optional." In January, 1868, the high school was opened in the Seventh district school as a part of the system. The whole number of pupils enrolled in the high school during the first year was 100, and the average daily attendance was sixty-eight. Mr. Pomeroy died August 25, 1870, and George H. Paul was shortly after ward elected to fill his unexpired term. Mr. Paul had been a member of the school board but had no practical experience as a teacher. He followed Mr. Pomeroy 's plan of superintending the schools. He examined teachers and pupils as Air. Pomeroy had done, but did not attempt any change either in the work as he found it or in the manner of doing it. F. C. Lau's Superintendency. — In May, 1871, Air. F. C. Lau, who had been principal of one of the schools, was elected as Mr. Paul's successor. "He at tempted more than any of his predecessors," writes Air. Donnelly. "He had mental arithmetic dropped as a separate branch of instruction; he undertook to revolutionize grammar teaching by eliminating most of Avhat is known as technical grammar and by substituting composition or language exercises instead; he tried to have 'Morals and Manners' made a part of the course of study; and he recommended the following textbooks to be used by the teach ers as a guide or basis of instruction: Willson's Manual, Hadley's Language Exercises, Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, 'Our World,' by Mrs. Hall, etc. "Mr. Lau's theories," continues Mr. Donnelly, "tended largely towards an entire change of the matter and methods followed prior to his time. There was so much change attempted that confusion and uncertainty followed as a consequence. Such extensive changes in school work never improve the existing order of things. School work is rarely so bad as to warrant an entire change in all that relates to it." During Mr. Lau's term of service a Normal department or division of in struction was added to the high school, and Miss Sarah L. Denton was ap- 636 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE pointed the teacher and Miss Sarah A. Stewart as assistant. "The establish ment of the Normal department," says Mr. Donnelly, "proved to be the wisest investment ever made by the school board. Prior to that time but few of the Milwaukee teachers had any professional training other than that acquired by experience. Year by year the City. Normal School graduated classes of teachers that were trained to enter upon the work of teaching with the experience that made their work successful from the very commencement. There is probably no other single factor in the history of the Milwaukee schools that has contributed so much to their high standing as did the City Normal School. Its founders hardly realized the extent of its future influence upon the Mihvaukee schools." James MacAlister's Superintendency. — In Alay, 1874, James MacAlister was elected to the office of superintendent. He had been a principal of the schools ten years or more before that time, and at the time of his election was president of the school board. He had unbounded faith in the Normal department, and one of his first important official acts was to recommend making the Normal department independent of the high school. Aliss Sarah Stewart Avas the principal and for many years she gave the very best proofs of her fitness to train the graduates of the high school to become teachers. "Before Mr. MacAlister's time, the highest classes of the district or ward schools Avere examined in their respective schools for promotion to the high school. Mr. MacAlister, in 1874, changed this plan and instituted therefor one general examination for all the first grades of the city." Preparation for the Centennial Exhibition. — "The Centennial Exhibition held at Philadelphia in 1876," continues the account we have draAA'n from, "afforded an opportunity of making an exhibit of school Avork. Mr. Alac- Alister, with the aid of some of the principals, laid out the plan of the exhibit contributed by the Alilwaukee schools. It embraced specimens of school work from all of the grades in which pupils Avere able to AA'rite. The time for doing the work Avas uniform throughout the schools, and as soon as finished the work was forwarded to the superintendent's office Avhere it was appropriately arranged and classified. It was then bound into 114 volumes. "Large photographs of the school buildings Avere taken and framed. A silk banner was prepared upon which was printed the number of schools, the school enrollment, attendance, number of teachers, total cost of schools, etc. These became a part of the Mihvaukee exhibit. The Avork, and particularly the plan of presenting it, received Avell-merited distinction. The president of the commission of education of the French republic, M. Buisson, was so im pressed with the work that he made a tAvo days' visit to Milwaukee for the purpose of seeing the schools and studying more closely the manner of doing the work." So great an impression was made by this exhibit that in 1878, upon receiv ing an invitation from the educational department of the Paris Universal Exposition, the same work exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition, with some additional work, was forwarded to Paris, and a silver medal was obtained in recognition of its merits. Eight volumes of the work exhibited were given to Japan, ten to Italy, and the remainder to the minister of public instruction THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 637 in France, to be placed in the pedagogical museum and library in Le Palais Bourbon. Redistricting and Changing Names of the Schools. — During the years 1875 and 1876, the school board redistricted the city and changed the names of the schools, as follows : First Ward, Juneau School to First District School. Second Ward, Webster School to Second District School. Second Ward (primary), Jefferson School to Second District Primary. Third Ward, Jackson School to Third District School. Fourth Ward, Plankinton School to Fourth District School. Fifth Ward, Mitchell School to Fifth District School. Sixth Ward, Humboldt School to Sixth District School. Sixth Ward (primary), Union School to Sixth District Primary. Seventh Ward, Hathaway School to Seventh District School. Eighth Ward, Douglas School to Eighth District School. Ninth Ward, Quentin School to Ninth District School. Tenth Ward, Washington School to Tenth District School. Eleventh Ward, Franklin School to Eleventh District School. Twelfth Ward, Lincoln School to Twelfth District School. As the district numbers of the schools corresponded with the numbers of the wards, there was less difficulty in locating the schools than there had been when they were known by the personal names, Juneau, Webster., etc. Changes Made in the Courses of Study. — "Several changes were made in the graded courses of study during Mr. MacAlister's term of service," con tinues Mr. Donnelly in his excellent history of the schools. "Algebra Avas dropped from the course in the district schools and elementary mensuration and bookkeeping were added. The use of a textbook in teaching spelling was discontinued. Several of what were designated as 'impractical rules' found in the textbooks of arithmetic were also discontinued. These changes were all intended to make the school work more practical than it had been hereto fore." In May, 1878, J. J. Somers was elected superintendent of schools and served until May, 1880, when James MacAlister was again elected. No change of moment occurred during Mr. Somers' administration. Warm dis cussions took place upon the textbook question, resulting in a better class of manuals. The readers were better printed, more clearly illustrated and better arranged with reference to the successive development of pupils. Geographies were greatly improved, better arranged and the maps showed the advance ments made in the engraving and printing arts. Evening schools were estab lished but the results were somewhat disappointing.. There Avas one evil con sequence that grew out of evening schools, namely, parents withdreAv their boys and girls from the day schools to engage in employment under the mis taken belief that the young people could get as much education as was need ful in the evening schools. Mr. MacAlister resigned April -3, 1883, to accept a similar position in the City of Philadelphia. William E. Anderson was elected superintendent in 1883 and served until March, 1892, a period of almost nine years. In 1885, a deaf-mute school was 638 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE established in the primary school building at the corner of Seventh and Prairie streets under the charge of Mr. Paul Binner. The Legislature pro vided for the support of this school by making an allowance of $100 per annum for each pupil. When Professor Binner took charge of the deaf-mute school he was the only teacher, but afterwards he was provided with several assist ants as the school greAv in numbers and popularity. Other changes occurred during Mr. Anderson's term resulting in the betterment of school work. Mr. George W Peckham was elected superintendent in March, 1892. Air. Peck- ham had been connected Avith the Mihvaukee High School for the previous twenty years. In 1881, during Air. AlacAlister 's second term of service, a single kinder garten school Avas opened. Kindergarten schools have rapidly increased in popularity until uoav (1919-1920) the enrollment of pupils is given in the school report as 6,851. The total enrollment including all grades in the schools is given in the same report as 55,822. Alore complete statistics folloAV in a later portion of this chapter. The German Language in the Schools. — The history of the Public Schools in Alihvaukee was written by Mr. Patrick Donnelly as a contribution to the "Columbian History of Education in Wisconsin," and Ave have used his Avell- written account largely in the preparation of this chapter. It must be remem bered that at the time he wrote the history no opposition had as yet mani fested itself .to the teaching of the German language in the schools as was witnessed during the progress of the great war of later years. Air. Donnelly Avrote previously to 1893, the year in which the "History of Education in Wisconsin" was published. His discussion of the subject, hoAvever, is of great interest in view of the bitterness engendered in the years of Avar. Public opin ion has become greatly ameliorated as those years are rapidly receding into the past. "The very large proportion of German-speaking patrons of the Alilwau kee public schools," Avrites Mr. Donnelly, "Avas the cause of making German a branch of the course of instruction. In the German speaking districts, such as the Second, Sixth and Ninth, German Avas spoken and incidentally taught even before the school board made it a part of the course of instruction in 1867. Teachers of German Avere at first appointed for those schools in Avhich the German-speaking children largely predominated. "Soon after, hoAvever, the argument Avas presented that there were some German-speaking children in all the schools, also that there Avere many others who desired to study German. The advantage of understanding a language which was spoken by more than half of the Avhole population could not be questioned. There was another reason advanced for the study of German in the public schools, and that Avas that it afforded the surest means of leading the German-speaking children into the public schools, and thereby to learn the English language. "After the adoption of German as a part of the course of instruction, there was a marked increase of enrollment in the public schools, and a cor responding decrease in the German private schools. In July, 1869, three of the Mitchell prizes were given for the best German translations. For the first THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 639 three years after the adoption of German, there were no formal reports as to the numbers studying that language. In fact, the records contain but little if any reference to it. "November 1, 1870, the school board adopted the following rules: First, applicants for the position of teacher of the German language should not be deemed qualified for such position until they have passed a 'satisfactory ex amination, showing their capability of writing and teaching both the English and German languages ; second, monthly reports to the superintendent should, after that time, include the number and percentage of those studying the German language in the respective grades; third, pupils studying the German language presented for promotion should be examined with reference to their proficiency in that language. "The Second, Ninth and Sixth Ward schools Avere the exemplars in Ger man teaching proficiency. Principals Lau, Hillmantel and Wahl took charge of the Avork, and German in their hands attained a high rank of proficiency. In the English speaking schools German made but slow progress, especially among English-speaking children. In a few instances individual pupils of the latter class mastered the power to speak and write the German language. During the AYorld Avar German was abolished as a study in the schools. The City Schools in the Nineties. — On March 1, 1892, George W. Peckham was elected superintendent of the schools to succeed Mr. Anderson. The new superintendent had been connected with the Milwaukee schools since 1873, and from 1885 to the time of his election to the superintendency had been principal of the high school. He brought to the office a familiarity of the city school system that he had gained during his years of experience as a teacher, as well as a high order of executive ability. In the preparations made by the school board for an exhibit at the Ch.- cago World's Fair the proper steps were taken only ninety days before the opening. In this short time the teachers Avere able to prepare 100 volumes of written work. Photographs of buildings and laboratories were taken, maps and drawings from the upper grades were got together and mounted, a col lection of kindergarten work, in which Milwaukee had always excelled, was assembled, and when the great exposition was opened, Milwaukee was, fairly well represented, considering the great haste in which the display had been arranged. Each department of the schools won an award of some kind; the high schools for excellence and improvement shown in literary and scientific work and mechanical drawing ; the elementary schools in clay modeling ; also English, geography, and kindergarten work; and the volumes of pupils' work for comprehensive presentation of systems, statistics, courses of study, build ings and practical manual training. A Change in the Superintendency.— In 1896, H. 0. R. Siefert was elected superintendent of schools to succeed Mr. Peckham. Mr. Siefert had begun his professional career as a teacher in the parochial schools, where he taught for a number of years before he was appointed principal of the Seventh Dis trict School in 1885. The Polish population of Alilwaukee requested the school board in 1896-7 increase the attendance and arguing that, as the German language had been 640 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE to have their language taught in the public schools, claiming that it would made a part of the regular course of study, it was not fair to discriminate in favor of one foreign language against another. The board agreed that if it could be shown that 250 Polish children were in attendance at any public school the language would be taught in that school, but the required number could not be mustered" and the matter was dropped for the time being. Mr. Carroll G. Pearse was elected superintendent in 1904 to succeed Mr. Siefert. In 1906, the school board appropriated $480,000 for new buildings, $250,000 of which was raised by an issue of bonds. The supervising force in 1907 AA'as composed of the superintendent, two assistants for general duty, one assistant for directing the study of German, one supervisor of music, one of manual training, and one director of physical education. In the Sixty-first annual report of the Board of School Directors of the City of Milwaukee, for the year ending June 30, 1920, the officers are given as follows : President, Theo. P. Esser ; secretary, Frank M. Harbach ; superin tendent, Alilton C. Potter; assistant superintendents, Albert E. Kagel, Frank Kroening, Harold O. Berg, and Margaret Canty. The names of the directors of the school board are as follows: G. W. Augustyn, Mrs. Victor L. Berger, Loyal Durand, Morris Stern, Elizabeth H. Thomas, George F. Luehring, James H. Derse, Theodore P. Esser, Wallace Reiss, Hugo W. Schnetzky, Edward Freschl, Gertrude Sherman, Joseph H. Zens, Richard B. Charlton, Ida L. Schell. In 1921 Hugo AY Schnetzky was made president of the board. Milton C. Potter Avas re-elected superintendent. Extension of School Playgrounds. — In view of the increasing value placed on space devoted to the physical activities of school children outside the school- houses, in these days, it is interesting to find in the president's report a refer ence to the subject. "Playground additions," he says, "are sorely needed to modernize Alilwaukee schools, and to guarantee happiness and natural activity to our school children. How far Alihvaukee fails of approaching the ideal of 'a block for every school,' with every school yard reaching to the curb line on every side, is well knoAvn to Milwaukee people." Dwelling further on this idea, the president continues: "School architects throughout the United States, Mothers' Clubs without number, the Milwaukee City Club, and many professional committees, have all of them, long ago, re peatedly recommended that no school grounds should be used as such for build ing purposes until the full block bounded by the curb line on all sides shall have been secured as the premises for the proposed building. This constitutes the basic fundamental for good light, good air, good exercise, freedom from interference, assurance of not interfering with the neighborhood life of adults, and the possibility of having sufficient space for the proper distribution of playing groups according to physical conditions, grades, ages, or according to sex." A ReAdew of Seventeen Years. — In the course of the Sixtieth annual report of the school directors, for the year ending June 30, 1919, the retiring presi dent, Mr. William L. Pieplow, revieAved the work of the school board for the previous seventeen years, in the f ollowing interesting passage : "It has been my privilege to serve Milwaukee for a little more than seven- THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 641 teen years as a school director, during which period there acted as superin tendents, H. 0. R. Siefert, Carroll G. Pearse, and Milton C. Potter; and as secretaries, Henry E. Legler and Frank AI. Harbach. With this evening I bring to a close my career in such official capacity. During recent weeks memories clustered thickly relative to the administration of the school system during those many years. "When I became a member of the school board there were twenty-three directors, who represented respectively as many wards. Among my asso ciates in those early years Avere some splendid men, among this number with pride I mention: A. G. Wright, Jeremiah Quin, H. H. Schwarting, Charles L. Kissling, C. S. Otjen, Charles L. Aarons, Stanley Czerwinski, August S. Linde mann. "The neAv school laAv of 1905 AA'rought a tremendous change. It brought into existence the city's famous 'twelve-membership school board,' appointed by the circuit judges. This board Avas chosen from the city at large, instead of from Avards or any division. The existence of this board, though short lived, marked a period of great progress. Its membership in the majority was composed of high-minded men, who, moreover, possessed the faculty of solv ing intricate problems quickly with understanding, thereby expediting busi ness. There served on this board worthy of mention: J. C. Crawford, Thomas J. Neacy, Glenway Alaxon, David Harlowe, William A. Arnold, Joseph Ewens, John J. Tadych, August S. Lindemann, C. S. Otjen. "The school law of 1907 increased the membership from tAvelve to fifteen, and since that time there has been no change in the constitution of the board. During these intervening twelve years, in addition to the board's present membership, I am pleased to mention as having faithfully served the public school system, the following: Mrs. C. W. Norris, J. M. J. Keogh, J. H. Pue licher, Duane Mowry, Emmet Richardson, Charles L. Aarons, Samuel Connell, George Luehring. Progressive Steps. — "During these years Ave may rightly count as steps f orAA-ard made by the past and present boards : — Introduction of Manual Train ing in the grades ; institution of instruction for the blind ; incorporation into the public school system of the trade schools for boys and girls; establish ment of open air schools for weak and sickly children; organization of un graded classes and of subnormal classes; special supervision of music, draAv- ing, physical training, industrial arts and primary instruction; definite solu tion of the foreign language question in the grades ; abolition of the organiza tions known as 'Fraternities' and 'Sororities' in our high schools. "The creation of the Extension department which has jurisdiction of elementary evening schools, evening high schools, summer high schools, sum mer elementary schools, social centers and playgrounds, as Avell as the licensing and supervision of all street traders of the city under sixteen years of age, deserves mention. The construction of school buildings under the direct con trol of the board; scientific methods adopted in the making of purchases; rules adopted giving to the superintendent of the schools initiative and re quiring bis recommendation in the matter of appointment and promotion of 642 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE teachers and principals and also in the matter of changing textbooks, were very important measures. Changes were made from time to time in the studies taught in the grades and in the. methods of teaching them. In the high schools new courses have been offered and various rearrangements and readjustments made. "The expansion of the school system has been remarkable and the improve ments in many respects noteworthy. 'Forward,' Wisconsin's motto, was the course followed by the directors, and that is why Milwaukee is favorably recognized educationally today. With the routine work of the system and in the meeting and solution of the many problems which arise in a school organ ization of the size of that of Milwaukee, the individual school director must necessarily devote much time and effort. I here attest the willing service that members of this board have rendered so freely to the community." Interesting Summaries. — In the sixty-first annual report of the school board some instructive totals are given, as follows: All expenditures for school purposes for the year ending June 30, 1920, were $3,060,745.63. The school buildings were as follows : Six high schools, a technical high school, a school of trades, a school for the deaf, and sixty-five district schools, making a total of seventy-four school buildings. The present inventory value of school property (according to the report) is as follows : Grounds $1,730,310.00 Buildings 6,943,730.00 Equipment 615,482.12 Books 93,074.95 Supplies (fuel, etc.) 263,815.40 Total $9,646,412.47 According to the Federal Census Bureau the population of Alilwaukee on December 31, 1920, was 464,639. (It had been announced on May 25th as 457,147.) The school board's report gives the school population of Milwaukee (four to twenty years) as 130,891, and the population subject to compulsory attendance under the law (seven to fourteen years) as 58,708. The enrollment in the day schools was as follows : In high schools 7;250 In technical high school 831 In school of trades for girls 667 In school for the deaf. . .' 160 In elementary schools and kindergartens 54,599 Total 63,507 THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 643 Average number belonging to day schools (daily membership) : In high schools 6,050 In boys' technical high school 576 In school of trades for girls 464 : In school for the deaf 134 In grammar and primary grades 42,912 In kindergartens 6,696 • i Total 56,832 Average daily attendance in day schools : In high schools 5,789 In boys' technical high school 536 In school of trades for girls 409 In school for the deaf .- 122 In grammar and primary grades 38,596 In kindergartens 4,993 Total 50,445 Teaching Force Principals ; one for each school - 73 , Teachers : In high schools 259 In school of trades for girls 32 In boys' technical high school 32 In regular grades 956 In kindergartens 166 '> In all other, such as manual training, cooking, home visiting, etc , 112 Total 1,630 The Distribution of Teachers In the high schools : 86 men, 163 women. In the district and other schools : 82 men, 1,218 women. Private Schools The teachers employed in the Catholic schools were : 22 men, 301 women. The attendance in these schools was 17,015. The teachers employed in the Lutheran schools were : 61 men, 30 women. The attendance in these schools was 3,500. The teachers employed in nonsectarian schools were : 90 men, 48 women. The attendance was 1,377. Schools of Milwaukee County. — "The history of the rural schools of Mil waukee County during the territorial period is veiled in obscurity," says Col. J. A. Watrous in his "Memoirs of Milwaukee County." "It is known that Rev. Enoch G. Underwood, a native of Virginia, settled on a farm in Wauwa- 644 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE tosa in 1835, and that he taught school there several winters during the early years of his residence, afterward becoming pastor of the Wauwatosa Baptist Church. It is also known that William W. Johnson, who was born in Frank lin County, Massachusetts, November 29, 1813, and received a good educa tion in his native state, came to Wisconsin in the spring of 1842; that he set tled in the town of Greenfield Avhere he taught for a number of years, and from 1842 to 1848 Avas a member of the town board of school commissioners. In every neighborhood, as soon as a sufficient number of settlers was located therein, a school was established, but anything like a complete history of these early institutions of learning seems to be unobtainable." Colonel Watrous further comments, as f ollows : "The constitution of 1848, under which Wisconsin Avas admitted as a state, provided for a superin tendent of public instruction. In 1849 that official made his first report, in Avhich he gave a statistical abstract concerning the schools in each county. In Alihvaukee County sixty-six districts reported, and from seventeen no report Avas received, hence, it seems, that at about the time the state Avas admitted there Avere eighty-three school districts in the county. Thirty-tAvo districts reported log schoolhouses, fourteen frame, and twenty made no report. The value of school buildings was estimated at $3,925, the best schoolhouse in the county being valued at $300, and the poorest at $10. In thirty-seven school- houses there were no blackboards, and in thirty-eight no maps of any descrip tion. The school population Avas 3,736, and the average length of the school term Avas a little less than five months. In 1850 there Avere seven brick school- houses reported, five new frame houses had been erected, and the average length of the term was nearly six months. Growth of Schools in County. — "In 1854 the state superintendent, for the first time," continues Watrous, "included in his report a detailed statement of the school population, to Avit : ToAA'n of Franklin, 570 ; Granville, 875 ; Greenfield, 747; Lake, 608; Milwaukee (town), 679; Alilwaukee (city), 7,808; Oak Creek, 608 ; Wauwatosa, 784 ; total, 12,679. The apportionment of the state .fund was 72 cents for each child of school age, giving to the ToAA'n of Franklin, $410; Granville, $630; Greenfield, $537; Lake, $437; Mihvaukee (town), $488; Milwaukee (city), $5,621; Oak Creek, $437; AYaiiAvatosa, $564. "Prior to 1861," proceeds the aboA'e account, "each toAvn had its oavu superintendent of schools. The Legislature of 1861 rjassed an act abolishing the office of town superintendent and creating that of county superintendent. * * * Under the laAv the counties Avere given the privilege of creating tAvo ' districts and electing a superintendent for each. Alihvaukee County did this, .the first district embracing the towns of Franklin, Greenfield, Lake, Oak Creek and WaiiAvatosa, and the second district composed of the toAvns of Granville and Mihvaukee (outside of the city)." Colonel Watrous in his "Alemoirs of Alihvaukee County," a most excel lent book of reference, gives a list of the superintendents of the county schools since the establishment of the office by laAv, with the year in which each was elected, which is quoted as f oIIoavs : "First District— William Lawler, 1861; James F. Devine, 1866; Thomas O'Herrin, 1874; James A. Ruan, 1880. THE MILWAUKEE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 645 "Second District— William SAvain, 1861; Edward Tobin, 1864; Anson W. Buttles, 1866; James L. Foley, 1870; Thomas F. Clarke, 1878; George H. Fowler, 1880." In 1881 the two districts were consolidated, and the superintendents were as follows: John Reilly, 1881; C. II. Lewis, 1884; Philip A. Lynch, 1886; M. D. Kelley, 1892; Herbert J. Piper, 1896; Emil L. Roethe, 1896; Lynn B. Stiles, 1898 ; Jesse F. Cory, 1902 ; Hugo A. Pauly, 1907 ; Paul W. Huth, 1913 ; E. T. Griffin, 1917. The information concerning the county superintendents of schools was revised and extended in May, 1921, by Mr. E. T. Griffin, the present county superintendent of schools. MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY ADMINISTRATION BUILDING AND THE GESU CHURCH THE TRINITY HOSPLTAL-MEDICAL COLLEGE, MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY CHAPTER XXXVII THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING Marquette University. — In 1906, under a neAv charter, Marquette College became a university. As long ago as 1864 a charter for Marquette College was obtained from the Legislature, granting powers "to confer such literary honors and degrees as the trustees may deem proper." Many years before, however, the initial step had been taken in the foundation of this institution during a visit to Europe by Rt. Rev. John Martin Henni, Catholic Bishop of Milwaukee, in the interests of his diocese. While on this visit Bishop Henni- was offered in trust the sum of $16,000 by Chevalier J. G. De Boeye, of Ant werp, Belgium, for the purpose of establishing in his diocese an institution of learning under the direction of the Jesuits. The trust was accepted. In 1853, two Jesuit fathers, Rev. J. L. Gleizal and Rev. I. J. Boudreaux, came to Milwaukee on which occasion Bishop Henni invited them to carry out the design to establish a college. Four years later St. Aloysius' Academy was opened in a small building which eventually was absorbed and superseded by the more pretentious St. Gall's Academy. The fund donated by Air. De Boeye was used by the bishop to purchase a site for the future college, and trans ferred to the Jesuits, and in 1863 they bought adjacent property sufficient to give them the ownership of the entire block bounded by State, Prairie, Tenth and Eleventh streets ; and in 1864 a charter was obtained as above mentioned. Laying of the Corner Stone. — On August 15, 1880, the corner stone of Marquette College was laid with appropriate ceremonies. On this occasion Hon. AYilliam J. Onahan, of Chicago, delivered an address. Mr. Onahan was often referred to as "the premier Catholic layman of the United States." He enjoyed the distinction of having been appointed by Pope Leo XIII "honorary private chamberlain," and in later years as the recipient of the "Laetere Medal" from the University of Notre Dame. One year later the first of the proposed college buildings was finished and opened for the reception of stu dents who attended to the number of about one hundred. The classes in creased in numbers so that by June, 1887, the college graduated its first class with the degree of bachelor of arts. In 1893, the yearly attendance had reached an average of about 275 students, "while its alumni and graduates," says the account printed in the "Columbian History of Education," "are already numerous in the city, working their way to prominence in business and the professions." The student in this, institution is taught systematically to "read that he may become a full man, to write that he may become an exact man, and to 647 648 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE talk that he may become a ready man," according to Lord Bacon's dictum. Alarquette University "has developed in a non-sectarian way until it is now an institution of and for all the people. In a recent campaign for funds to take care of its growing and war-time needs, Marquette has had the unstinted endorsement of Alilwaukeeans of all creeds in such a way that its future has become a rosy part of the city's outlook." Departments of the University. — Under its present organization Marquette University consists of the following departments: College of Arts and Science ; Applied Science and Engineering ; School of Dentistry ; R. A. John ston College of Economics; School of Journalism; School of Law; School of Aledicine ; Conservatory of Alusic ; School of Pharmacy ; Training School for Nurses; Alarquette Academy; University High School. It is also an accredited school of the United States Army, and during the late war it was a part of the great American war machine. The board of regents are working constantly with the interests of both the university and the city in view. The executive officers are : Rev. Herbert C. Noonan, S. J., president ; Rev. James D. Foley, S. J., secretary ; Rev. Eugene Rudge, S. J., treasurer. "When its foundation was first projected," says the Rt. Rev. Mgr. August Zeininger, in his sketch printed in Stearns' "Columbian History of Educa tion in Wisconsin," "the noble-souled Bishop Henni desired that the institu tion should be named after Pere Marquette, with the hope that his religious brethren, now two and a half centuries after he has gone to his reward, may make it a worthy monument to his great name." Milwaukee-Downer College. — The Milwaukee-Downer College is a standard college for women. It is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. It is accepted by the Association of Amer ican Universities. The college offers full four-year courses leading to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Sciences and various other branches. The college campus is located in the northern part of the City of Milwau kee, betAveen Lake Michigan and the Alilwaukee River, and includes about forty-three acres of land on Avhich are natural Avoods and open fields. The Milwaukee-Downer Seminary is an independent institution controlled by the president and trustees of the college, but is immediately directed by its oavii clean and separate staff of teachers. "While the seminary is a college preparatory school, and its regular courses of study are designed to lay a sound foundation for successful college Avork, it has the equally important function of providing adequately for those avIio do not wish to enter college. Pupils desiring to specialize in music or in some department of art, those pre paring for travel or study abroad, and those Avith a limited time to devote to forma] study, are offered instruction to meet their needs. The literary course furnishes a sound and systematic training for those pupils Avho do not desire a college education, but Avish a thorough training in a general education of high school scope." Buildings and EndoAvment. — The buildings of the Alilwaukee-Downer Col lege consist of Merrill Hall, Holton Hall, Johnston Hall, AIcLaren Hall, Greene Alemorial Library, Albert Alemorial Hall, Vogel Hall, Kimberly Hall, power house, infirmary and other structures. In all ther^e are sixteen buildings. THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 649 The total cost of grounds, buildings and equipment up to 1920 was $779,000. The endownment funds amounted to $666,000, in addition to which there are pledges due to be paid in 1922 AA'hich brings the total up to $1,511,000. In the commencement address of President Ellen C. Sabin, June, 1920, she says that it is the seventieth commencement "since the first class of two members was graduated by Milwaukee College. It is the fifty-seventh since the first class of five members was graduated by Downer College, and it closes twenty-five years of the reorganized institutions under the name of Milwau kee-Downer College." Higher Accomplishments Attained. — While the material condition of the institution may profitably be dwelt upon, it is the higher aims and accomplish ments that deserve especial emphasis. "The business of a college," continues the language of the address, "is to aid the young to secure knowledge, to develop their powers, and to establish right character. It should be judged by its aim and accomplishment in these directions. It is, therefore, a matter of satisfaction that this college with its very modest resources has its place as a member of the Association of American Colleges ; that it is accepted by the Association of American Universities ; that it is an institutional member of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae ; that it is an approved member of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Its graduates have from the first been welcomed by the graduate schools of universities. Those who wish to teach, find that their diplomas give privileges equal to those given by the diplomas of any other institutions. * * * "Like every self-respecting person or organization, this college has a policy of its own. The steadfast policy of this college has been to try to meet the needs of its locality and always to understand and. meet the essential requirements in the education of women. We are not indifferent to academic, traditions or to the experience of other colleges, but we have not simply adopted for ourselves the curricula of men's colleges as has been clone by many women's colleges or made some college of reputation our pattern and guide. * * * We have our own ideals and they are in several important respects different from those exemplified by the honorable institutions east of the Alleghanies. Every institution should be individual, without seeking to be odd or different, because its environment has peculiar claims, its condi tions dictate some particular line or lines of interest, its traditions have in stalled worthy and still reasonable purposes and methods. Traditions and Ideals. — "We have constantly protected and emphasized sound academic studies and we would allow nothing to impair the cultural disciplines of the languages and literature, the social sciences, pure science, and philosophy. We believe also that education must have motive and end, a point that has often been overlooked in education, thus leading to disap pointment in the lives of th.ose who have studied much and in the hopes of those who have pinned their faith to education. "We think the connection of the most abstruse subject with life may be demonstrated and should be recognized by the student. We further believe that woman's education should prepare a woman for women's chief vocation, and that the science and art of home making, which is a business most com- THE MILWAUKEE-DOWNEE COLLEGE BUILDINGS THE CONCORDIA COLLEGE THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 651 plex and most significant, should form a recognized part of her training for life. We believe that music furnishes an essential and unique element of cul ture and power. We believe that understanding of the principles of art, appreciation of beauty, and taste are essential to a well rounded education, and therefore we provide such fields of study and give them credit toward a degree. We have seen Avith interest the recent groAving tendency to recog nize these subjects even in the strongholds of conservatism. A Vision of the Future. — "The only purpose of such a review as this," continues Aliss Sabin in her memorable address, "is to take account of where Ave stand, gather up the useful experience of the past, and go forward to the remoter goal, even 'to the bound of the waste.' We have now a firm founda tion AA'hich the little school of 1850 and the little college of 1895 would have looked upon as quite substantial. The work before us should now be stimu lated to greater effort and encouraged to finer undertakings by the experience of the past. We are, if we are awake to our opportunities, at the beginning of much larger and still better things. Our needs are great, but they will be met abundantly if Ave courageously go forward with a sufficiently splendid plan and purpose. Our danger lies in inadequate vision rather than in ex travagant expectations. "We have had many great hearted friends in the past, we have them noAv, why shall we not have more in the future? The buildings we now sorely need must come soon ; the improvement of our grounds will be provided for ; the endowment we still require to enable us to meet in an adequate manner the needs of the students who seek us, will come soon, when people better know the importance of the work we do, and perceive clearly the greater work we seek to do. "The end of seventy years, the close of a quarter of a century, and the re A'ieAv that these landmarks suggest to us, constitute the urge toAvard new achievements, and supply the irrefutable argument for our courage in every reasonable ambition. Where' we have thus far garnered 'some thirty-fold,' let us noAv prepare for a harvest of 'some sixty-fold!' " For the year ending .at commencement, 1921, the number of the trustees was thirty-two. The number of members of the faculty was forty-two in the college, and fourteen in the seminary. These numbers include the entire teach ing staff, but do not duplicate in the seminary those members of the college faculty AA'ho teach seminary classes, as in music, art and home economics. The number of students enrolled in the college last year was 405, in the semi nary, 201 ; a total in both college and seminary of 606 students. Concordia College. — In 1881, Concordia College was established in Mil waukee. "This college is an institution of the chureh, " quoting from the in troduction to the catalogue for 1920-1921, "being conducted and supported by the 'Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States,' the largest branch of the Lutheran Church in America." It was opened in the same year in quarters provided by the Trinity German Lutheran Congrega tion, under the charge of C. Huth, a graduate of Concordia Seminary of St. Louis. "The special object of the education afforded in Concordia College," it is 652 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE said, "is to prepare Christian young men for a thorough course in theology. The college, therefore, may be considered a preparatory institution for such Lutheran divinity schools as require for admission a thorough acquaintance with Latin and Greek, a good working knowledge of Hebrew, and a mastery of English and German. At the same time it is the general aim of Concordia College to fit young men to pursue successfully the advanced courses of study offered by the best universities of the country, as well as to instruct and pre serve its charges in the true Christian faith as taught in the Evangelical Lutheran Church. "With this end in vieAV, Concordia College Avas modeled after the 'gym nasia' of Germany, where most time and energy are expended on the classics. But in order to give young men committed to the care of the institution a culture somewhat more suited to their wants as American citizens, certain branches of knowledge were added to the curriculum, not commonly included in the Latin schools of Europe. The course of studies, all of which are obliga tory, extends over a period of six years." In the courses of instruction, as they are outlined in the catalogue, the German department is naturally strong, most of the students being of Ger man parentage, and when they enter are already possessed of a living knowl edge of the language. "The course seeks to give the student a ready com mand of the vast resources of the German tongue, to teach him to use it, whether orally or with the pen, with ease and elegance, and to impart to him a knowledge of its history anad literature." "The work in English," it is further sa'd, "is similar to that in German. All the students of Concordia College are expected to speak and write both languages with equal readiness and facility. * * * The course is designed to furnish the student with the poAver of correct oral and literary expression, to stimulate a love of reading, and to acquaint him Avith the A'ast fields of English literature." The English language has in the last feAv years become the medium of instruction in most branches, writes Rev. M. J. F. Albrecht, the president of the college. "As yet we need a bi-lingual ministry," he says, of men who can preach in German as well as in English, "but the time is rapidly ap proaching Avhen German Avill be eliminated entirely." Concordia College is situated in the Avestern part of Alihvaukee, the grounds consisting of iy2 acres, affording a roomy campus and sites for the college buildings. These consist of a main building and two dormitories, and a number of residences for the use of members of the faculty. The Recitation Hall is used for purposes of instruction and Avorship and contains eight class rooms, the museum, library and chapel. The faculty is composed of ten members, and the number of students en rolled for the years 1920-1921 is 191. Continuation Schools. — At the annual meeting of the National Education Association, held at St. Paul, Minn., in July, 1914, a very interesting account of the "Continuation Schools" of Milwaukee was given by R. L. Cooley, prin cipal, a summary of Avhich is presented, as folloAvs: The first one to be opened entered upon its work November 1, 1912, with THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 653 an attendance of 200 girls under sixteen years of age, from the department stores of the city. These girls were working on "permits" issued by the State Industrial Commission through the office of the Factory Inspector of the city. In further explanation it may be said that all boys and girls under sixteen years of age and over fourteen may, under certain conditions, se cure a "permit" to Avork at a "gainful occupation." Under recent legisla tion one of the conditions to be fulfilled in order that the child may Avork is that he shall attend continuation school at least one half-day a week for eight months. Obligations of the Employer. — This attendance upon the part of the pupil is an obligation upon the employer, as well as upon the child, inasmuch as the employer is required to give such employee permission to attend school at the time requested by the school authorities. This school attendance must be counted as a part of the boy's or girl's regular work. The school has groAvn rapidly from its small beginning; the demand of both the compulsory and voluntary attendance has led to the acquisition of additional space and a considerable enlargement of the teaching force. There are noAv 1,600 girls and 2,000 boys attending these schools one-half day a week. Thirty-one classrooms are now occupied, and seventeen women and twenty-one men comprise the day teaching force. The school aims to teach the "permit" girls to cook, do housework and to select suitable goods for Avearing apparel. A definite effort is made to direct their reading that a taste for good books may be formed. Typewriting and stenography are taught. The boys are classified broadly and those who clearly intend to follow commercial pursuits are directed in their studies to that end. Those AA'ho manifest special ability in mechanical and free-hand draAving have occupations called to their attention in Avhich such ability would be most useful. Aid in the Selection of Vocations. — "The work with boys and girls is further intended to guide them in their selection of vocations, to preserve by means of reA'iews what academic knowledge they may possess upon leaving the elementary school and to advance them in those branches; to assist and advise them in securing work, to give them greater ability to do things with their hands, and to train them in the duties and obligations of good citizen ship." The results accomplished in these continuation schools have been wonder ful. "It has been demonstrated that in the brief half -day a week at the con tinuation schools much of the work done in the elementary schools can be clinched and made a permanent possession of the boy or girl. Likewise in tlrs time a valuable practical training can be given, which will be found im mediately useful. The function of these schools, however, is much broader in scope than merely to provide for the 'permit' pupils, of which there are approximately five thousand in the city. The task of meeting the needs of this particular feature of the work has been a large one and has occupied our attention during the first months." Grouping the Boys by Occupations. — Most of the pupils have rather vague ideas with regard to their future field of work or trades to be learned. Groups 654 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE are outlined to which they are assigned on entering until a better distribu tion can be made. A large number of occupations, such as may be found in an industrial community like Milwaukee, have thus been classified, but a certain degree of elasticity to allow for changes is necessary in practice. Many pupils have no idea at first of a definite career and have little conception of the various trades and occupations they wish to engage in. Their ideas are derived from chance discussions with their families at home or among their older Avorking friends. Their ideas shift with little reason from one to an other of the trades and occupations with which they become acquainted, and thus the teacher has to give them a diversified shop experience, — woodwork ing, metalworking, electrical connections and a great variety of manufactur ing, so that they may adapt themselves to that particular calling in which they will ultimately become engaged. A boy who thinks he wants to be a plumber or steam-fitter is taken seri ously at first and is given instruction in such trades. This will be useful to him no matter what calling he may later engage in. The girls will be taught home economics, and many useful services in the care of the sick and aged, and other helpless members of the family. Thus will be cultivated among all the pupils a feeling of confidence that will promote efficiency and better standards of work. "To evolve an institution," concludes Principal Cooley, "so varied in work offered and so adaptable in its organization as to meet these needs, and fit it into the intervals of leisure enjoyed by members of the community is a difficult task. Much of how to do it can be learned only in the doing." The Continuation School. — The continuation school movement for the United States originated in Madison through joint resolution No. 53 of the 1909 session of the Wisconsin State Legislature. This Legislature appointed a committee consisting of: State Superintendent C. P. Cary, chairman; pres ident University of Wisconsin, C. R. Van Hise; superintendent of public in struction City of Milwaukee, C. G. Pearse ; dean extension division University of Wisconsin, L. E. Reber; legislative librarian, Dr. Charles McCarthy, secre tary; with instructions that a study be made and a report drafted and sub mitted to the Legislature of 1911. No one could study or understand the beginnings of the movement in Wisconsin without acquaintance with the report of this committee, which report may be found at the public library under the title, "Report of the Commission upon the Plans for the Extension of Industrial and Agricultural Training." Acting in accordance with the recommendations of this report, the Leg islature of 1911 passed the first compulsory continuation school law enacted in any state in the Union. In March of 1912, the Board of Education of the City of Alilwaukee, in compliance Avith the state law, appointed tAvo employ ers, namely, A. T. Van Scoy and A. J. Lindemann, and two employees, J. D. Hickey and Jos. La Fleur, and these gentlemen, together with C. G. Pearse, superintendent of public instruction, became the first continuation school board for the City of Milwaukee. The superintendent of public instruction is ex-officio a member of the local board of industrial education. This board was appointed by the local board of education, but under the law, is THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 655 given full control over the schools which it establishes, without reference to the board of education further than has been mentioned. The first, meeting of this board was held Alay 20, 1912. A. T. Van Scoy was elected president, and J. D. Hickey secretary. It was not until Sep tember 11, 1912, that a director was appointed. At that meeting R. L. Cooley, then a grammar school principal in the City of Milwaukee, was elected the first director of vocational education for the city. Mr. Cooley had been a city superintendent of schools and principal of high school at Oconto, Wis., for eight years, and his experience had included service in all grades, from the ungraded country school on through the high school. Air. Van Scoy served as a member of the board but a few months and resigned, and on December 30, 1912, F. J. Alatchette was elected to take his place. Mr. Matchette served until 1916 when he resigned to take up perm anent residence in New York City. Mr. La Fleur served until January, 1916, Avhen he resigned because of a change of status from employee to employer. Air. Pearse, as ex-officio member of the board, upon his resignation was suc ceeded by Supt. M. C. Potter. J. D. Hickey and A. J. Lindemann were mem bers of the first local board of industrial education appointed in this city, and have continued until the present writing, January, 1922. During the period from November, 1912, to January, 1922, the develop ment has been very rapid. It seemed at first, a strange and heretical idea that young employees should be brought in from shops, stores, and factories for the brief period of one half-day each week at a central school, where an effort would be made to stimulate, guide, and direct the young people, and put some system and order into their efforts during the formative years of their lives. When this obligation fell upon the board of industrial education and the director whom they had appointed, there were no schoolhouses where these classes could be held. Every school building in the city was occupied. This was, perhaps, a fortunate incident, and led to the centralized school conducted in rented quarters. The first classes were held beginning in the fall of 1912 in the Manufacturers' Home Building, 62 Mason Street. As the work de veloped, the space that could be obtained in that building was soon outgrown, and additional space was taken in the Stroh Building, October 12, 1914. In spite of the newness of the idea of part-time education for young employed people in this country, the plan was evidently sound as shown by the increas ing popular support, which it obtained as reflected in the laws passed by suc ceeding legislatures. The original law required but one half-day each week upon the part of all employed people up to sixteen years of age, and gave the local board of industrial education control over its finances up to one-half mill on the assessed valuation of the city. The 1917 Legislature increased the financial control of the board to three-fourths of a mill on the assessed valuation in their cities, and increased the period of compulsory school attendance to seventeen years of age. Subsequent legislatures have increased the millage for the support of these schools from % to \y2 mills, and the compulsory school attendance, at the Legislature of 1921, has been raised to eight hours THE MILAVAUKEE UNIA'ERSITY SCHOOL . THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 657 a week up to eighteen years of age, and half-time between fourteen and sixteen years of age. Not only has there been th s compulsory part-time attendance require ment, but the development of our apprenticeship law, the industrial rehabil itation, and the obligation which the law imposes upon the community for the development of voluntary classes in vocational subjects has created great necessity for housing and equipment. This, the local board .of industrial edu cation is meeting. On January 19, 1916, the board of industrial education ac quired a site at Seventh and Prairie streets at a cost of $100,000. There has since that time been erected a six-story building, 80 by 265 feet, known as the First Unit of the Milwaukee Vocational School. This unit has been oc cupied since September, 1920. There is at the present time being erected a second unit to the east of the flrst unit, at an approximate cost of $1,200,000. The school, when completed, Avill occupy the entire block between Sixth and Seventh, Prairie and State, and will be 434 feet in length, by 220 feet in width, six stories high, and will cost $3,000,000. It is hoped within this building that there will be facilities, -which will enable the school organization therein contained to adequately meet the edu cational needs of the young people between fourteen and eighteen years of age, through the plan of supplementing the efforts of the young men and women as they endeavor to carve out their place in society. Alihvaukee does not believe it can afford to bring up thousands of young- men and women in such a manner that their adult earning capacity is un necessarily stunted, their adult purchasing capacity abridged, and the limits of possible business expansion needlessly limited. The fact that this simple economic cycle is pointed out does not mean that true A'alue is not placed upon the spiritual and social values of further education for the great num ber of young people, who early leave full-time school and go to work, but merely that since we must appeal for taxes to support the institution we are fortunate indeed in return to be able to prove conclusively that it will cost more money and be a bigger incubus upon business to NOT support these schools than to support them. This statement has a place in the history be cause of the fact that our city has adopted this view and has so unitedly supported the new movement. R. L. Cooley, director. The Milwaukee University School. — So late as 1845 the conditions of the schools in Milwaukee were still most deplorable. At a mass meeting of citizens which was held December 12, 1845, Rufus King declared that of the 1,781 children between fiA'e and sixteen years, only 584 were receiving an education, 228 in public and 356 in private schools. Neither kind of school met the requirements which an intelligent parent may justly expect of the constitution in which his children are to be instructed. Moved by the desire for better educational advantages for their children, the German portion of the settlers, after careful deliberation, founded the Milwaukee Educational Association, May 10, 1851. Its officers were chosen May 17, 1851, at the first regular meeting of the society. The board consisted of the following members: Doctor Aigner, president; C. E. Wendt, secretary; At. Stein, treasurer; Doctor Luening, E. Vol. i—4 2 658 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Prieger, H. Werdehoff and F. Fratney, executive committee. Immediately after the establishing of a private school Avas decided upon. Peter Engelmann, Avho at first had done private tutoring at the home of the parents of the late Gen. F. C. Winkler, and later had himself founded a school, Avas chosen principal of the hcav school AA'hich was given the name German and English Academy. From small beginnings the school grew rap idly. Air. Engelmann proved himself to be a teacher of unusual ability. He gained for his school an enviable reputation, and it AA'ill be admitted that in the educational development of our city, the German-English Academy be came an important factor, and many of its former pupils occupied positions in AA'hich they became instrumental in the civic development of the city. Peter Engelmann and his friends began to make collections of specimens of the flora and fauna of Wisconsin during the early part of 1852. With the help of men like Messrs. Adolph Aleinecke and Christian Preusser, he founded the Natural History Association of Wisconsin and established a museum in the school building. The museum grew to such size that the quarters the school could offer soon became inadequate. In consequence the collection was offered by the school to the City of Alil- Avaukee. It was accepted in 1882 and given the name : The Alihvaukee Public Aluseum, by which name it is knoAvn to the population of our city, though very few will remember its origin. The German-English Academy, or Engelmann School, as it Avas often called, Avas ahvays ready to accept new educational ideas and many reforms were introduced before they found entrance into other schools of the city. Of these there may be mentioned the founding of the first kindergarten in 1873, the emphasizing' of a systematic physical training, the introduction of manual arts such as modeling, woodwork, needle and fancy work, the intro duction of elementary instruction in foreign languages, science and history into the grades. The latter crystalized into a course of study for the seventh and eighth grades as it is now advocated for the junior high school. Tshe division of our grades into six elementary and six high-school grades was made at the time when the high-school department Avas added to the former eight grades of the school, in 1909. The year 1918 brought a change of the name of the school to Alilwaukee University School, to which is added, in due respect to its founder, "founded by Peter Engelmann, 1851." In 1878 the school became the training school of the National Teachers Seminary and the Normal School of Gymnastics of the North American Gymnastic Union and obtained through these connections a national reputa tion. The school buildings arc another proof of the groAvth of the institution. On July 1, 1851, the school Avas opened Avith two classes in a rented building on East Water Street 'preA'iously occupied by Mr.. Engelmann alone. In 1852 a modest little building Avas purchased on Grand Avenue. On October 31, 1853, a new building was dedicated, which had been erected on Broadway, and to Avhich in 1854 and 1864 respectively, a north wing and a south wing THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 659 were added. The most marked stride forAvard the school made was when it was presented with its present quarters donated by Mrs. Elizabeth Pfister and Mrs. Louise Vogel as a memorial of Mr., Guido Pfister, the deceased hus band and father of the two donors. When the scope of the school was broadened by the addition of the high-school grades a new building Avas erected facing Mihvaukee Street, but connected by a covered bridge Avith the building on Broadway. Peter Engelmann died Alay 18, 1874. He was succeeded by William N. Hailmann. Alany reforms took place under his administration. Air. Hail- mann ranked high as an educator, and his ability was recognized through out the United States. He held several important positions of which the super intendency of the Indians schools deserves special mention. For the intro duction pf the kindergarten into the American school Mr. Hailmann did more than any other single person in the country. Air. Hailmann Avas folloAved in 1878 by Isidor Keller. Air. Keller pos sessed great administrative qualifications AA'hich were especially useful when the National Teachers' Seminary was founded and connected with the Uni versity School. After an unsuccessful attempt, which was advocated by Doctor Keller, to remove the seminary to New York, Mr. Keller returned to the latter city, and Dr. Hermann Dorner, who had been the teacher of Natural Sciences in the schools was chosen as his successor, September, 1885. He served in the capacity of head of the institution until May, 1888, when Emil Dapprich was elected to the office. Mr. Dapprich came from Belleville, 111., where he had occupied the position as city and county superintendent. He held the position as director of the school until the time of his death. The years of his activity in the University School were rich in events and ideals realized. Mr. Dapprich was a man with extraordinary qualifications, who would have left his mark in Avhatever vocation he might have chosen. He was a speaker of great ability. As a scientist he gained fame all over the country. His collection of the American Flora which was on exhibition at the Paris Exposition in 1910, received a gold medal. He was, however, greatest as a teacher. As such he will live in the memory of all those who had the good fortune to sit at his feet at the Milwaukee University School. Mr. Dapprich died November 25, 1903. He was succeeded by Max Griebsch, who had been connected with the school since 1893 as teacher of history and psychology. A Tribute to Peter Engelmann. — One of the halls located in the Audi torium building has been named Engelmann. The old-time pupils of this pio neer schoolmaster also provided a memorial tablet to be placed in the hall. In accepting the same on February 8, 1912, William George Bruce, then pres ident of the Auditorium Governing Board, gave expression to the following: "Since the exercises have thus far been conducted in the German language and with all the tender and sweet inflections of which that tongue is capable, it may sound inharmonious at this time to utter an English word. There may, however, be a degree of fitness on this occasion in coupling the two langu ages which have been such an important part of our local enonomic and social life. 660 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE "In accepting, as the president of the Auditorium Board, this splendid memorial tablet, commemorating the life and labors of the late Peter Engel mann, I desire to express the sincere acknoAvledgements of that body. "This acknowledgement, however, should bear more than the mere thanks of the administrators for the addition of an embellishment. It should bear also the assurance that this hall which you have dedicated to the cause ol education Avill for all time be utilized in the interest of that cause. The tablet possesses a purpose and meaning which goes deeper than a mere embellish ment. In this cold bronze is treasured for all time the warm love and af fection of a thousand hearts. It is the tribute of human appreciation and gratitude. "It may on this occasion be of some interest to learn how the name Petei Engelmann was chosen for one of the halls of this building. While the plans for the same Avere still in the hands of the architects it became evident that the halls Avould have to receive some designation. "The thought at once suggested itself that the names of the public-spirited 2iioneers such as Solomon Juneau, Byron Kilbourn, George H. Walker and John Plankinton, should be honored. There was a suggestion that the Ger man-American element, which had contributed so much to the material and intellectual Avelfare of the community, should be remembered. This sugges tion met with objection, however, in that some one believed that honors should not be conferred upon nationality lines, but rather upon past services. "It had been urged that one of the primary purposes of the Auditorium Avas an educational one. I had fostered that idea in the campaign for sub scriptions for the erection of this building and found that it met Avith general acceptance. When, therefore, the name Engelmann Avas mentioned — and no one seems to remember who mentioned it first — several of the board members favored it. Tonight, I take pride in the thought that I vigorously championed the acceptance of the name Peter Engelmann for the designation of this hall. "This magnificent man not only represented much that is best in German- American life and thought and effort, but he had Avon for himself the distinc tion of an ideal educator and intellectual leader. It is, therefore, with more than ordinary sense of gratification that I accept this tribute at your hands. While it enshrines the Avealth of esteem and love which you bear for a great man, this beautiful tablet is also an expression of your own character and Avorth. In honoring him you honor yourselves. "I cannot refrain from pointing out to you the lesson to be draAvn from this brilliant affair. It should strengthen the Americans of German descent in a steadfast adherence to the traits of character, AA'hich have elevated and distinguished them upon the American continent; it should stimulate a renewed appreciation for the nobler traditions and customs of a great mother country; it should aAvaken a recognition for the great treasures of thought, AA'hich have come to us from an older world. And finally it should implant a determina tion to perpetuate in a hcav land, that Avhich is truest, that which is holiest, that which is best. "While this great structure, Avith its many utilitarian qualities has hon ored the pioneer, the trader and the builder, tonight it commemorates the life THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 661 and services of an educator. It tells the story of Peter Engelmann as a man, a citizen and an educator. These walls have thus been sanctified Avith the holier purposes of life in the memory of one whose very name will shine out as a brilliant example of the good, the true, the noble. This tablet will have a lasting home within these walls. It symbolizes the primary purpose of this great structure, perpetuates the name of a true man and serves as an inspira tion to succeeding generations." The State Historical Society. — Like some other progressive western states Wisconsin has ahvays been distinguished for its advanced ideas, and its peo ple have not hesitated to embody them in legislation. For example, we may especially make mention of an early movement for a historical society, which was organized in January, 1849, less than a year after the admission of the state into the Union. Little was done in the first four years of its existence, but in 1854, the society became an active department of the state government, and it has been well supported in its work continuously since that time. Lyman C. Draper became the guiding spirit of the society, and continued as such until 1886, when he resigned and Reuben Gold Thwaites succeeded him as the head of the society. Thwaites continued in this office up to the time of his death in the fall of 1913. He was succeeded in the office by Milo M. Quaife, elected December 19, 1913. An Illinois historian, writing in 1915, referred to some episodes of Wisconsin history in the following language : The brevity of this sketch, having so large a subject to deal with, renders it necessary to confine its scope to some important branch of the state's won derful development. Thus the historical society and the state university are chosen for such description so that at least these important phases of its history can be clearly placed before the reader. The subject is a timely one in view of the movement now on foot in our own state to provide a building at Springfield, 111., for its rapidly growing historical collections, though we must confess to our regret that we are still behind what our sister state of Wisconsin has already accomplished. The Historical Society Building. — Adding to what is said above it is inter esting to observe that in the years from 1895 to 1900, the State of Wisconsin entered upon the construction of a splendid building for the use of its his torical society, which had by that time become the most important institu tion of its kind west of the Alleghanies. Its collections had reached a total of nearly three hundred thousand books and pamphlets, besides a vast store of museum objects and miscellaneous historical data. The new building cost the state $610,000, at a time when prices were unusually low, and it is prob able that the building and equipment could not today be replaced for $1,000,000. Anyone who has ever seen this beautiful building, situated as it is on a site adjoining the grounds of the state university, will be impressed with its vast size and capacity. And yet, in 1910, and the two following years, it was found necessary to add a wing to the main building costing $250,000 which gives a total capacity of over six hundred thousand volumes. It is pre dicted in a later annual report that still another wing will be necessary within a few years to keep pace with its lusty groAvth. The appropriation by the ll'W'i" :¦ is»_ MILWAUKEE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL RIVERSIDE HIGH SCHOOL, EAST SIDE THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 663 state for the maintenance of the society for 1913 was $36,000, added to which the institution had the benefit of the income from $73,000 of invested funds. Importance of a Historical Society. — No community can afford to neglect its annals, any more than an individual or family can disregard its ancestry. Certain leading spirits in the early days of Wisconsin, realized the importance of preserving the materials of history and public sentiment in that state, has at all times supported this view. Especially in local . history is found the se curest home of freedom where the public interests of each individual is rec ognized in his relations with his neighbors, and this perhaps in greater degree than in the wider councils of the nation. For, as Emerson Avrites : "Of AA'hat aA'ail the plow and sail, Or lands, or life, if freedom fail?" "History," says Cervantes, "is the depository of great actions, the witness of what is past; the example and the instructor of the present, and the mon itor of the future." An eminent critic once wrote, "If we could expand the rivalry of individuals for wealth and power into a generous competition of cities and states in founding galleries of art, museums, libraries and institu tions of learning, we should soon see the dawn of the true golden age." We have a striking example of the realization of this vision in the story of Wis consin. The State University. — Not only in its great historical society, but in its other institutions has Wisconsin splendidly carried forward its work in the development of the community comprised within its limits. The State Uni versity was incorporated only a month or two after the state's admission into the Union in 1848. For various reasons, a state tax in support of the uni versity was not levied until 1872, since which time, however, it has regularly received generous aid from each recurring Legislature. A constitutional pro vision required that the university should be placed "at or near" the cap ital, that is, at Aladison. The main building is situated a mile from the capitol, occupying 600 acres on a beautiful and picturesque tract along the shores of Lake Mendota. The attendance of students in 1919 was 6,979, and its corps of professors and instructors numbered 682. Change of Capital Proposed. — "At various times within the history of the state," says Thwaites in his history, "there have been more or less serious proposals to remove the capital from Madison; for the most part those have emanated from Milwaukee." In the legislative session of 1858, a bill to pro vide for transplanting the seat of government to that city came very near being carried, and ten years later a bill for its removal actually passed but at the last moment it was recalled. Similar attempts were thereafter made, particularly following the destruction of a part of the statehouse by fire in 1904, the most persistent claimant at that time being Oshkosh. A quietus, however, was placed upon further proposals of that character when, in 1907, the Legislature made provisions for a new statehouse at Madison to cost $6,000,000. Since that time the new building has been in process of erection and at the present time it is practically completed. 664 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE It is rather amusing to find that although known as "the Badger State," the badger is not found in Wisconsin. A writer in the Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica, (quoting from ThAvaite's "Story of Wisconsin"), says that the name "badgers" probably originated as a nickname for those lead miners working in the southwestern part of the state, who came from the East, who lived in dug-outs like the hillside burrows of the badgers in the eastern states, and did not go home in the winter season, as did those working in the mines south of the Illinois line. The name of "suckers" was applied to the latter, bor rowed from the name of the migrating fish found in the rivers of Illinois; and thus the name came to be applied to the inhabitants of the entire State of Illinois. But, such as it is, the people of Wisconsin would not willingly part with the picturesque designation of "badgers." Young Men's Christian Association. — At the first meeting called to form the Young Men's Christian Association in Milwaukee, September 29, 1858, 116 young men became charter members of the association ; and at a meeting held a few clays later the names of 123 were added. During the year the total membership Avas increased to 358. J. H. Van Dyke Avas president the first year, John Rice the second. The membership fee of $2.00 a year, to gether with other receipts, gave the association an income of $1,008 for the first year. "It is pleasant to recognize," says Edward W. Frost, who contributed an account of these early beginnings of the association to Conard's "History of Alihvaukee," "that on looking over the list of early members of the associa tion, so many of the young men who came forward to inaugurate the Young Men's Christian Association movement, have during the intervening years become prominent and helpful in the religious life of Mihvaukee." Outbreak of the Civil War. — "The organization continued active and suc cessful until the outbreak of the Civil Avar," says the account Ave have re ferred to, "AA'hen it Avas practically discontinued for seA-eral years." The work of the association was resumed in 1870, when W. P. AIcLaren became president. Rooms Avere occupied and plans put into execution to raise money, one of which was by means of an entertainment, where flowers Avere sold at auction at large prices. Alexander Mitchell bought a bouquet for $100, and many others paid $25 and upward to help the cause. The assoc ation languished for a time, however, but the meetings and other activities Avere maintained even Avithout quarters. In 1876, the association AA'as reorganized Avith George J. Rogers as president, and rooms Avere opened at 132 Grand Avenue. After that t'me the association maintained an active life and carried on an earnest Avork. Several other removals took place, hoAvever, until in Jan uary, 1887, it found Avhat was hoped Avould be a permanent home in its new building. This building Avas destroyed by fire in 1895, but Avas at once rebuilt and refurnished. Among the generous citizens avIio have contributed ma terially to the success of the Young Alcn's Christian Assoc'ation, there should be due acknowledgment made for active and efficient aid received from such men as ( Iharles L. Colby, Echvard W. Frost, A. V. II. Carpenter, William Plankinton, George J. Rogers, George L. Graves, Charles W. Turner, and THE HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING 665 numerous other individuals, both men and women, whose names are often mentioned in the early history of the association. "Without forgetting the great services of others," says Mr. Frost in his chapter, "it is not too much to say that the beginning of the building and its successful completion is, perhaps, due more to Charles L. Colby than to any other one man." "Little has been said in this sketch," writes Mr. Frost, "of the religious side of our work. A large volume could easily be made up of descriptions of this work, of the thousands of young men who have fallen under the active influence of the association, and have dated the beginning of new lives from the time when they came into the association rooms. Many of them are with us today active and earnest, and trying to do for others the work that has been done for them." Many of them have become identified Avith the churches, but the majority of them find at the association pleasantly lighted and warmed rooms, pervaded by a spirit of good fellowship, which has done much to draw them under the influences that help Christian manhood. "Our association knows no difference of creed or race, no distinction between rich and poor. Within its Avails young men from all parts of the city, representing all condi tions of life, meet on common ground." The Young Women's Christian Association. — In 1892, petitions signed by over two hundred of the young women of the city were addressed to the women of Alihvaukee, for the organization of a Young Women's Christian Association. The result of these efforts was the formation of such an associa tion. Miss Pauline Saveland was made president and sixty-three members were enrolled at the start. Rooms were secured and a lunch room was opened under the charge of a permanent secretary. The work flourished amazingly. A great many young women found congenial society and opportunity for study and instruction in classes. Entertainments have since been frequently provided for the young women, and the promoters of this useful movement, which is in the hands of the women of the city, feel well rewarded Avith the success of their endeavors. The Woman's Club of Wisconsin. — The first step in the organization of the AYoman's Club was taken by Aliss Mary Mortimer, who was joined in the movement later by Mrs. Alexander Mitchell. A meeting called by the lead ers in the movement for October 9, 1876, was addressed by Mrs. Julia Ward Howe of Boston, the attendance including a large number of Mihvaukee's representative women. Airs. Howe gave an account of the women's clubs of her home state with the New England Women's Club as an object lesson. Great enthusiasm was aroused in favor of such an organization in Mil waukee and a temporary organization was formed with Mrs. William P. Lynde acting chairman, and Miss Mortimer as secretary. Later in the month a con stitution was adopted and officers chosen, as follows: President, Airs. Alex ander Mitchell ; vice presidents, Mrs. W. P. Lynde and Mrs. II. L. Page ; sec retary, Miss Alary Mortimer; treasurer, Mrs. J. H. Warner. Airs. Alitchell later resigned on account of absence from the city, Mrs. Page succeeding her. The name, Woman's Club of Wisconsin, was intended, as its name indi cates, to cover a prospective membership throughout the state. The object of the club was declared to be, primarily, for elevating and purifying our 666 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE civilization, and " as a means toAvard this end it shall seek to incite women to intellectual and moral culture, and also to a careful study of the practical arts of our common life." The club shall, in addition, seek to offer opportu nity for this culture and study, and also to give .encouragement to meritorious talent in these fields of activity. "The entire constitution," says the historian Watrous, "shows the wisdom, foresight and deliberation that Avas given to laying the foundation of the Woman's Club of Wisconsin." The club was not incorporated, but the names of the "charter members" (so-called) are given beloAA', meaning those who qualified for membership during the autumn. The list of the original members, that is of those who united with the club during the first season, is as f oIIoavs : Mrs. Alexander Mitchell, Mrs. H. L. Page, Mrs. J. H. AYarner, Mrs. William P. Lynde, Dr. Julia Ford, Mrs. Theo dore Yates, Mrs. Oliver C. Ely, Mrs. H. Al. Finch, Miss Sarah S. Chapman, Miss Alary Alortimer, Mrs. S. S. Merrill, Airs. Lydia Ely, Airs. H. M. Boyce, Mrs. G. E. Gordon, Airs. C. D. Adsit, Airs. 0. J. Hiles, Mrs. J. S. Ricker, Airs. William A. Collins, and Mrs. James S. Peck. In the following February the names of Mrs. J. H. Booth, Airs. T. A. Chapman, Airs. T. A. Greene, Airs. J. J. Hagerman, Airs. G. W. Hazelton, Airs. George C. SAvallow,. and Airs. H. H. Button were added to the membership. According to a late year book of the Woman's Club, the date of its found ing is given as occurring on the 9th of October, 1876, thus corresponding to the date of the first meeting called by the leaders of the movement for its formation as given above. The date of the incorporation was January 26, 1910. The present president (1921), is Mrs. Arthur AI. AIcGeogh. "The Woman's Club of Wisconsin," says Miss Margaret Reynolds, librarian of the First Wis consin National Bank, "was the first organization of women to build their own club house. This is called 'the Athenaeum,' and is located on the corner of Biddle and Cass streets, Alihvaukee." We may also mention in this place that Miss Reynolds has supplied many essential facts in the preparation of this history for AA'hich Ave make clue acknowledgement. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUAI In 1847 the library of the Young Men's Association was formed by a com mittee consisting of S. Osgood Putnam, Edward P. Allis, John II. Van Dyke, Edward D. Holton, H. W. Tenney, Garrett Vliet, and I. M. Mason. For many years the library established by this association was housed in rented rooms and in 1878, when by act of Legislature the public library was created, the association's collection of 9,958 books was turned over to the city as a free gift Librarians of the Young Men's Association Library. — Edward Hopkins 1847-1849 ; Thomas Hyslop, 1849-1853 ; Sidney Rood, 1853-1854 ; George Coggs well, 1854-1857; William Bilton, 1857-1859; E. C. Arnold, 1859-1871; S. F Peacock, 1871-1873; Edward Upson, 1873-1877; Miss Elizabeth M. Gifford 1877-1878. Librarians of the Milwaukee Public Library Henry Baetz, 1878-1880 K. A. Linderf elt, 1880-1892 ; Miss Theresa West, 1893-1896 ; George W. Peck ham, 1896-1910 ; Charles E. MeLenegan, 1910-1920 (Mr. McLenegan died March 17, 1920) ; Joseph V. Car gill, acting librarian, March 17, to August 15, 1920 Alatthew S. Dudgeon, 1920—. The annual reports of the public library for the years 1918, 1919 and 1920 were issued by the board of trustees under date of December 31, 1920, in a single volume. In 1918, George C. Nuesse was president of the board of trustees. In November of that year William L. Pieplow became president and so continued until May, 1919, when he was succeeded by William Kaumheimer. In May, 1920, Mr. Pieplow again became president. The latest report shows that the library contains 410,148 volumes. The total circulation for 1920 was 1,801,907 volumes through the main library and through the various branches of the institution. Financial Statement of the Public Library. SUMMARY FOR 1920. Receipts. . Fines 7,069.24 Balance previously un- Renting collection 551.91 available $34,782.36 Lost books 282.74 City tax levy 172,251.00 Public Museum for serv- Special appropriation for ices 1,405.03 Municipal Reference Waste paper 370.07 Library 5,000.00 Security deposits 213.00 Trust funds 7,069.24 Miscellaneous 421.73 Milwaukee County for library service 20,320.00 Total $243,410.48 667 MILWAUKEE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUM THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUM 669 Expenditures. Transportation 3,136.40 Books $ 33,577.42 Postage 828.40 Telephone 820.14 Fees for county service . . . 2,716.53 Repairs 12,398.88 Aliscellaneous 8,974.32 Periodicals 2,944.42 Binding — Maintenance and operation of bindery . . . 10,620.92 Salaries — library service . . 85,073.86 Salaries — janitorial service 15,931.04 Insurance branch libraries 163.SO Rent — branch libraries .... 3,135.15 Heat and fuel 7.325.27 Total maintenance and operation $206,703.06 Equipment 5,478.78 Lighting 11,220.73 Supplies 7,835.78 Grand Total $212,181.84 TRUST FUNDS. George H. D. Johnson Text-Book Fund. — On February 14, 1917, Airs. Geo. H. D. Johnson gave $1,000 to establish an endowment fund in memory of her husband, Geo. H. D. Johnson, the interest to be used for purchasing textbooks for special students. Principal: Gimbel first mortgage $1,000.00 Balance in bank January 1, 1918 31.25 Interest, 1918-1920 ' 150.00 Balance, December 31, 1920 $1,181.25 George H. D. Johnson Endowment Fund. — In April, 1917, in her will, Mrs. Geo. H. D. Johnson left $5,000, the income of which is to be used for the pur chase of standard editions of the English classics. Principal : U. S. Government Bonds $5,000.00 Interest, 1918-1920 377.05 Balance, December 31, 1920 $5,377.05 Matthew Keenan Fund. — The Matthew Keenan fund of $10,000 was the rift of Antoinette A. Keenan, April 30, 1901, for the purchase of books. Principal: City Bonds $ 9,000.00 Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Bonds 1,000.00 Balance in bank January 1, 1918 1,036.72 Interest, 1918-1920 1,263.32 $12,300.04 Expenditures, 1918 $1,132.75 1919 366.47 1920 168,78 1,668.00 Balance, December 31, 1920 $10,632.04 Julius Klauser Fund. — On June 29, 1908, the Julius Klauser fund Avas given by the pupils of Julius Klauser, the interest to be expended for the purchase of works on music and musical composition. 670 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Principal : Milwaukee Light, Heat and Traction Bond $ 1,000.00 Balance in bank January 1, 1918 187.61 Interest, 1918-1920 150.00 $ 1,337.61 Expenditures, 1919 262.61 Balance, December 31, 1920 $ 1,075.00 James Sidney Peck Fund. — The James Sidney Peck Fund of $1,000 was given July 18, 1909, by Ellen M. Hayes Peck, for the purpose of establishing a fund in the history department to be known as the James Sidney Peck Fund. Principal : Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Bonds $ 1,000.00 Balance in bank January 1, 1918 52.36 Interest, 1918-1920 150.00 $1,202.36 Expenditures, 1919 $ 105.00 1920 35.00 — 140.00 Balance, December 31, 1920 $ 1,062.36 Julius Wagner Fund. — Julius G. Wagner bequeathed to the Mihvaukee Public Library, $5,000, in December, 1909, for the purpose of purchasing mechanical, technical, and scientific books. Principal : Wiederwald Mortgage $ 4,000.00 City of Alilwaukee Bond 1,000.00 Balance in bank January 1, 1918 1,230.73 Interest, 1918-1920 713.89 $ 6,944.62 Expenditures, 1918 $ 65.72 1919 543.26 1920 539.62 1,148.60 Balance, December 31, 1920 $ 5,796.02 Field of Work. — The Public Library has a large number of distributing agencies in the city and county, including eleven city branches and 118 small libraries in schools, factories, social centers and telephone exchanges. The library also maintains a well-equipped Alunicipal Reference Library in the City Hall, the primary purpose of AA'hich is to collect and classify information on all sorts of municipal subjects and problems which members of the com mon council, city officials or others may be led in the course of their duties or interest to investigate. Supplementing the various agencies enumerated there are 450 sets of textbooks for special use in the class rooms of the public and parochial schools of the city and comity, the main library, of course, containing an ample equip- THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUM 671 ment of reference books in every department of instruction, information and learning. The Milwaukee Public Museum. — The beginning of the Milwaukee Public Museum occurred in 1882 Avhen the Legislature authorized the Wisconsin Natural History Society to present its collection to the city and empowered the city to accept the gift. A tax for the maintenance and increase of the museum was provided for. On the 20th of February, 1883, the museum took over the collections of the Wisconsin Natural History Society which con sisted approximately of 19,000 specimens and 270 books, maps and charts. Since that time the collections haA'e largely increased through the generous cooperation of the citizens of Alilwaukee in donating specimens and collections to the museum, by purchase and by expeditions sent out by the museum for the purpose of obtaining additional specimens, especially among the different tribes of Indians; until uoav the number of these has grown to be by far the largest and most important within the state. In September, 1906, by act of the common council of the city, under author- •ity of the Legislature previously granted, a historical museum was established as a department of the public museum. In this department have been collected such collections as exhibit the works of man, so that in their scope they cover, in a broad way, the history of the human race. Special emphasis has been placed on those departments having more immediately to do with the history of the nation, state and city. The museum and public library jointly occupy the same building which was completed in 1898, at the corner of Grand Avenue and Ninth Street. The new building with its valuable contents has made it necessary to ex tend the arrangement of the exhibits which are now made along more ambitious lines than before, and with the growth of the institution various means have been found to increase its usefulness to the community. "The collections of the museum are characterized," says Henry L. Ward, in his chapter describing the museum in Usher's "History of Wisconsin," "by the number and quality of their realistic groups, particularly of those of birds, mammals and peoples. These are among the finest in the United States." Cooperation with the Schools. — Besides the educational value of the exhibits to visitors the museum carries on courses of lectures for the benefit of the pupils in the schools, who frequently assemble in a convenient spot for the pur pose. The institution further cooperates with the scientific and educational associations, the State University at Madison affording facilities for their meet ings and classes. Weekly instruction is given to the teachers along various lines of natural history which are intended to be of direct use to them in their classroom work. Also classes designed for the grown-up members of the com munity in botanical and zoological studies are of frequent occurrence. In Usher's history, published in 1914, it is stated that the administration of the museum is under a board of nine trustees, four of whom are citizen members appointed by the mayor, each for a four years' term of office; three aldermanic members appointed each for a two years' term; the president of the school board and the superintendent of the schools, acting in an ex officio capacity. "The museum staff has greatly increased in numbers and improved W'; l ¦¦' ss ), l ¦ P. dmi-LlJii'li- THE OLD DAM AT NORTH AVENUE AND THE UPPER MILWAUKEE RIVER THE PUBLIC LIBRARY AND MUSEUM 673 in professional training, until now it consists of forty-nine employees, including those of the janitor and power departments, and among its members are four holding the degree of doctor of philosophy, two of whom are college pro fessors." Leading Place of the Museum. — In a contribution to Conard's "History of Milwaukee," Mr. Melville Cushing thus wrote of the museum: "The Public Museum of Milwaukee is entitled to a leading place among her splendid public institutions. Beginning in a small way as a private enterprise on the part of a public-spirited citizen and practical educator, it gradually outgrew the limits of its inception and took its proper place among the important public institu tions of the city. As early as the year 1851, Professor Peter Engelmann began to make collections with which to illustrate the lectures and teachings in the German-English Academy of which he was the founder, and for more than twenty years its director. He was an inspiring teacher, and with his pupils made frequent tours gathering his specimens, which at the first consisted prin cipally of herbaria, but which gradually extended into other branches of natural history, mineralogy, zoology, ethnology, etc. Professor Engelmann continued his work in a quiet way for several years ; but in 1857, with twenty- one other public-spirited citizens, he established what became popularly known as the Engelmann Museum of Natural History, with his private collections as a nucleus. The various officers and members of the society entered with en thusiasm upon the work of gathering specimens and collecting books for a library, which were placed on exhibition in a specially arranged hall in the' German-English Academy. • "In order to increase the usefulness of the museum and bring it into closer touch with the general public, those closely identified with it in 1881, inaugu rated a movement the purpose of which was to transfer it to the City of Mil waukee, to be held in trust and supported by a general tax, and placed in a central location where it could best serve as a means of education and enter tainment. Through the efficient work of Mr. August Stirn, then a member of the common council from the Second Ward, a unanimously-signed petition ask ing for the transfer was presented to the council, and a joint committee from that body and the Natural History Society, was appointed to take the matter in charge." The writer of the article in the pamphlet issued by the anniversary com mittee, in June, 1921, says: "Milwaukee has one of the most wonderful museums in the world. The Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee was founded in 1883. It is, therefore, thirty-seven years old and has made remark able progress in this relatively short time. Founded with an appropriation of only $6,000 per annum, its mill tax rate now gives it an appropriation of ap proximately $140,000 per annum. It occupies over three-quarters of the Mu seum and Library Building at Eighth Street and Grand Avenue and it is the largest strictly municipal museum in the United States. "Its collections number over a half million objects, covering all of the various branches of science, and are housed in glass cases and in other suit able manners on the three exhibition floors of the institution. Its series of life-size environmental groups of ethnology, history, mammalogy, ornithology Vol. 1—4 3 674 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE and invertebrate zoology are very extensive and comprise one of the most im portant features of the entire institution. "Its lecture work is very extensive, lectures being given to school children in large numbers and also special courses for adults, particularly the Sunday afternoon course of public lectures. All told, during the year 1920 about eighty thousand people attended lectures at the museum. The attendance at the museum numbers about six hundred thousand visitors per year." Promotion of the Milwaukee Public Museum. — The pamphlet issued by the Milwaukee Herold on its sixtieth anniversary in 1921, comments at length upon the need that existed in its earlier years for the use of the German language and of the cultural activities of the German element in giving its sympathy and support to movements designed to promote them. "The found ing of the Public Museum, as is well known, was due principally to the gen erosity and the efforts of citizens of German affiliations, some of whom long ago banded themselves together for the purpose of promoting an interest in the natural sciences, and finally concluded to make the collections they had brought together a nucleus of larger collections to be supported by public funds and to serve the educational interest of the entire public. In this move ment, the publicity and encouragement given by the Herold was an important factor. The collections of the AVisconsin Natural History Society, before they were turned over to the city, had been housed in the building of what was then known as ' Engelmann 's School,' later the German and English Academy, "and now the University School. This school, at present the sole survivor of a considerable number of private schools at one time flourishing in Milwaukee, was for a long time the center about which the affections as well as the edu cational interest of the so-called liberal element among Milwaukee German- Americans clustered. Many of them had received their early education in this institution. Later it rose to national importance through its connection with the National German- American Teachers' Seminary, and the training school for gymnasium instructors, maintained in connection with the latter by the 'Turner' societies of the country. At all times it was neither a commercial enterprise, nor endowed by the generosity of some rich benefactor. Its finances were managed by an association of citizens, and consequently the publicity given it by the German press and especially the Herold, was of the highest im portance to it. The Herold never hesitated to give to all its affairs very ample space, even giving the proceedings of the association in full, although that might detract considerably from the space left for matters AA'hich are generally considered of much greater news value by the ordinary editor. Similarly, any other movement, calculated to promote the best interests of any portion of the. German-American part of our population, could and can at all times count upon the support which it will derive from the ample publicity the Herold will afford it. All of which is in recognition of the principle, that a neAvspaper should not be considered exclusively, or even principally, a money-making busi ness enterprise, but as an instrument for promoting the welfare of the com munity from which it draws its readers." CHAPTER XXXIX MILWAUKEE'S MUSICAL HISTORY The story of Milwaukee presents no stirring battle scenes, no heroic figures or epoch making event in the affairs of man. It is a story of peaceful con quest, of tranquil evolution, of constructive achievement. It is here where man grappled with the elements of nature and subjected them to his uses, where mind triumphed over matter. Thus, a great city was reared. Marvelous industrial, commercial and civic undertakings were created, and on every hand we note the spirit of enterprise, of energy, of industry. Blazing factory chimneys and skyscrapers rising mountain high, public buildings and private habitations, fine churches and schools — all give evidence of growth, of progress, of civilization. But, behind these physical evidences of achievement we must seek the heart and soul of the city. We may well ask, have the cultural aspirations of the community kept pace with its material advancement? Has it fostered the higher and nobler impulses of man? Has it nurtured the great art of music ? The answer is in the affirmative. In the evolution from an Indian village to an important population center it also cultivated the higher arts. From the moment that the white man found relief from the hardships of a pioneer life he responded to the finer privileges of a modern civilization. The earliest settlers gave expression to their religious fervor through the medium of church songs. The immigrants who, beginning with the middle of the last century, flowed in such large numbers to our state, came with music in their souls. They all sang the folksongs of their native lands and many of them had an appreciation for classic compositions. The musical era of the community opened with the beginning of the Ger man immigration in 1839. Singing quartettes grew into singing societies. Gradually they developed the art of mass song until Milwaukee achieved a national reputation in the field of music. Some of the great national Saenger- fests were held in its midst. Milwaukee has always enjoyed a good reputation as a musical center. Her contribution to the great art is noted in the many musical societies which have flourished here during the past seventy-five years. The growth and development of music in Milwaukee assumed more definite form about three years before the future metropolis of Wisconsin was in corporated as a city, January 31, 1846, and here it is worthy of note to state that the musical activities were practically confined to the center of the 675 676 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE city's business district, and that leaders in musical activities of the present day are located in that territory. Most of the halls and meeting places of musical events of an earlier day were located on the east side in the district bounded by Biddle Street on the north and Michigan Street on the south. The more important halls were known as Gardner's Hall on the top floor of, the Martin Block, Young's Hall, Broadway and Wisconsin Street, the Academy of Music on Milwaukee Street, Albany Hall on the site of the present Chamber of Commerce and Boynton's Hall on Milwaukee Street north of Wisconsin. Pioneers in Music. — The first organization devoted to music of which there is any record was the Milwaukee Beethoven Society, formed in 1843, which, however, enjoyed a rather turbulent life, languished for a period and finally passed away to be succeeded by the Milwaukee Musical Society in 1850. To the large influx of Germans at about this time Alilwaukee owes the rank it holds in musical circles in this nation. Its early residents were fond of music as a recreation, and whenever they held social gatherings singing was their principal form of amusement, which culminated in the Milwaukee Musical Society in May, 1850. It was started as a quartet consisting of Charles Geis- burg, Henry Niedecken, Dr. Francis Huebschmann and Frederick Sehloe milch. The first director was Hans Balatka. These five men were the real pioneers of musical development in Milwau kee and to their untiring efforts is due whatever standing Milwaukee has acquired as a city of music loving residents. Following the organization of the Milwaukee Musical Society Mihvaukee has had many of a similar char acter, but few have survived. The Milwaukee Musical Society gave its first concert on May 25, 1850. From the beginning its aim was the diffusion of musical knowledge among the people. It would be difficult to overestimate the value of unselfish services performed by the early members. They not only Avorked Avith faithful en thusiasm to improve their own talents in the art of musical interpretations, but they were alert to find others possessed of voices or of skill to perform on instruments, and when they found them they used every inducement to obtain their cooperation for the society. Hans Balatka with his great love of music and his brilliant talent for organ ization had every encouragement to attempt great things. That he did not neglect the opportunity is proven by the fact that early in July, 1851, the first important musical work undertaken by the society, Haydn's "Creation," was given under his direction. The first real opera ever presented in Mil waukee was "The Czar and Shipmaster," in 1853. Adelina Patti, then styled the "wonder child," was traveling with the troupe at that time. The first singing festival was given June 19, 1856. It was followed by others all of which were largely attended, and from that time Mihvaukee 's musical develop ment can be traced. The Alilwaukee Musical Society, although its ranks were thinned by its members who served in the Civil Avar, continued its activities during the dark days of the Rebellion, and on October 22, 1864, achieved the distinction of laying the corner stone of the Academy of Music on Alihvaukee Street between Wisconsin and Michigan streets. The hall AA-as dedicated January 31, 1865, MILWAUKEE'S MUSICAL HISTORY 677 Avith the rendition of "Mendelssohn's Oratorio Paulus" by that society. The board of directors which made possible the Academy of Music consisted of Henry Niedecken, H. M. Alendel and Charles Kuepper. The building was erected at a cost of approximately $75,000, which at that time was regarded as a stupendous undertaking, but the undaunted spirit in which it was carried into effect indicates the strong love of music in its progenitors. To the great concert and opera companies traveling in the country at that time, Milwaukee AA'ith its splendid music hall took a leading place in musical circles of the nation. A round of musical pleasures followed greatly enjoyed and properly patronized. Not a season passed unmarked by the visit of some German, Italian or English opera troupe. The Milwaukee Liedertafel was organized July 23, 1857. The officers were John Marr, president; William Hensel, secretary; V. Bertsch, treasurer, and F. Regenfuss, director. The Civil war interfered with the activities of this organization, because many of its members were in service, and it was not until 1867 that the society showed its former activity which it maintained for many years. The Liedertafel society purchased the site of the present Liedertafel Hall at SeA'enth and Prairie streets in 1867. It was about that time that the Nordwestlicher Saengerbund was organized, consisting of sing ing societies from Wisconsin and surrounding states. Out of these activities occurred the great saengerfest which was held in Milwaukee in 1868. The next singing society to enter the Milwaukee field was the Deutschen Maenner Verein organized June 16, 1859. Its first president was the Rev. F. X. Krautbauer, later Bishop of Green Bay. Another potent factor in musical affairs of Milwaukee was the Freie Gemeinde, an anti-religious association and musical society founded April 7, 1867. The founders were A. Keyes, president ; Jacob Beanders, vice president ; Carl Ringer, secretary, and Gustav Eyssen, treasurer. The society erected a hall at 264 Fourth Street in 1870. Through the energy of Herman Nunnemacher the first grand opera was given under the auspices of the Philharmonic society, October 17, 1871. Flotow's "Martha" was presented. In 1874, Julius Klauser was instrumental in organizing the Euphonias. Its members were talented amateur musicians and frequently gave semi-public concerts. The Euphonias numbered as members some of Milwaukee's most prominent citizens of its day. In 1878 a number of members seceded from the Freie Gemeinde and started the Milwaukee Liederkranz. The first officers were Amandus Roebke, presi dent; B. E. Fink, secretary; Jacob E. Jenner, financial secretary; G. R. Voll- hard, treasurer; John G. Salsman, librarian, and A. C. Zinn, C. H. Angel and Jacob Knebel, trustees. Another long stride forward in Milwaukee's musical history began with the establishment of the Arion Musical Club in November, 1876. With the Milwaukee Musical Society the Arion Club shares the honor of having con tributed much of the high standard which Milwaukee enjoys as a music lov ing community. Its influences are recognized among all classes of music lovers. The membership of the Arion Club at the beginning was composed of 678 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE about fifty of the principal male singers of the city. A. W. Hall was the first president; Eltiuge Elmore, vice president; Francis Hinton, secretary; L. B. Benton, treasurer, and A. F. Faville, conductor. The Arion Club gave its first public concert in Boynton's Hall February 20, 1877. The club had a rapid growth from the start, apparently filling a popular need of the time. Fol lowing the resignation of Professor Faville, the first conductor, William L. Tomlins of Chicago was engaged as his successor. The coming of Professor Tomlins resulted in the formation of a ladies' choir as an auxiliary of the Arion Club, which was named the Cecilian Choir. This move greatly strengthened the Arion Club as a musical organization, and although both had separate officers they always appeared together in public concerts. The first officers of the Cecilian Choir were Mrs. Robertson James, president; Mrs. Winfield Smith, vice president; Miss Lizzie Eldred, treasurer, and Miss Lizzie Voss, librarian. Although at an early period in the history of the Milwaukee Musical Society classical chamber music was the vogue at its concerts, it was not until about the early '90s that an organization devoted solely to the cultivation of music of this high order was formed in Milwaukee. Erich Schmaal, a pianist of high note ; Herman Zeitz, an accomplished violinist, and A. Beyer, a cellist, formed the Milwaukee Trio, which for several seasons gave performances at regular intervals. Although band music, so-called, is not as a rule regarded among the factors which make for musical culture, Milwaukee acquired considerable fame as a result of this class of music. The first in the field was the Christopher Bach Orchestra, organized by him in 1855. The Zeitz 's Orchestra was organized by Charles Zeitz in 1857. It was a full string and brass band. The south side of the city which had a musical community practically of its own saw the formation of Hensler's Juvenile Band in 1875. This band quickly won a national reputation for itself and was invited to give concerts in many of the leading cities of the nation. Clauder's Orchestra was organized by Joseph Clauder, March 21, 1878. While the Bach and Clauder bands were in their day the most prominent, the city has always been well supplied with organizations of this character. Most of the fraternal orders as well as many shops and factories have bands composed of highly trained musicians, recruited among their members and employes. Even the police department boasts of a splendid band which has been in existence since 1919. Parks Stimulate Love for Music. — The development of music kept pace with the growth of the city and the establishment of Alihvaukee 's public parks resulted in another splendid expression of music in outdoor concerts. This feature of the city's life was started by the Mihvaukee Musical Society, which gave the first summer night concert in Washington Park, August 30, 1898. It was held under the auspices of the board of park commissioners. The program of select vocal and instrumental music was given in the music band stand. The extent to which the program was enjoyed is shown by the attendance of about ten thousand people. In 1899 public spirited citizens contributed $1000, which was used by the MILWAUKEE'S MUSICAL HISTORY 67? park board in providing for Sunday afternoon concerts in Lake and River side parks. The demand for these concerts by the public became so great that the following year Saturday afternoon concerts were added to the program. They continued to grow in popularity, which led the park board to appropriate a fixed amount annually, so that evening open air concerts could be given in all the principal parks — in at least one each night. This system of open air concerts during July and August was inaugurated in 1913 AA'hen Joseph Clauder and Christopher Bach, veteran band leaders, were placed in charge of this form of the city's musical entertainments. From an appropriation of about two thousand dollars a year, the amount has grown to more than fifteen thousand dollars annually. Until 1918 the open air concerts were given by bands, which were engaged for that purpose. In that year the Park Board Band was organized with Hugo Bach as director. This enabled the board to keep a closer check on programs selected, guaranteeing a high standard of concerts. With the organization of the Park Board Band the Russell-Meurer Quartet was engaged to sing operatic selections. The quartet included Clem entine Alalek, Elsa Bloedel, Harry Meu'rer and George F. Russell. Between 1880 and 1920 more than one hundred musical clubs were formed in the city. The most conspicuous among them are the A Capella Chorus, Lyric Glee Club, Milwaukee Maenner Chor, Catholic Choral Club, McDowell Club, Tuesday Musical Club, Knights of Columbus Glee Club and Civic Alusic Association. Standing as sponsors for some of these off-shoots of musical culture were Hugo Kaun, Daniel Protheroe, Theodore Kelbe and William Boeppler. The A Capella Chorus was organized in February, 1895, by a number of the most prominent Lutherans here, led by Gustav Wollaeger, Ferdinand Kieckhefer, John H. Frank, Dr. Louis Frank, William Upmeyer, Oscar Griebling, W. H. Graebner and William Boeppler. John H. Frank and William Upmeyer were identified with one of the most important features in the city's musical development, the conservatories of music, founded in 1899. The most important of these are the Wisconsin Con servatory of Alusic, Wisconsin College of Music, founded by Hans Bruening, and the Marquette School of Music. The Alilwaukee Maenner Chor of sixty voices, with Hugo Kaun at the head, was organized in 1898. Following the best European models the club grew to a flourishing condition and for three years the appearance of the Thomas Orchestra was a feature of their concerts, the first undertaking of the kind in the city. The first appearance of the Chicago Opera Association in Milwaukee was in the winter of 1912-1913. Its appearance here was made possible by guar antees of Milwaukee 's business men. The operas were given in the Alhambra Theater. Invited Musical Celebrities. — Milwaukee's greatest stride forward in musical activities occurred in 1914 when an ambitious effort was made to place Milwaukee on the musical map. The A Capella Chorus, with George H. Moeller as president and G. E. G. Kuechle as treasurer, undertook to bring to Milwau kee the leading lights of the musical world. The Boston Symphony was the 680 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE first great undertaking of its kind. Later the Chicago Opera Association came under its auspices and also such artists as Schumann-Heink, Nellie Melba, Geraldine Farrar, John McCormack and others. About three years later Mr. Aloeller and Mr. Kuechle left the A Capella Chorus and the Moeller-Andrews Concert Bureau AA'as formed. This organization continued to bring the world's greatest artists to Milwaukee. From this developed, after Mr. Moeller 's death, the Marion Andrews Concert Bureau with Marion Andrews as president and G. E. G. Kuechle as treasurer, which still sponsors the Chicago Opera Asso ciation's annual visits, the Scotti Opera Company from New York and has presented during the last few years such artists as Enrico Caruso, whose death occurred as this history was being written, John McCormack, Galli Curci, Heifetz, Schumann-LIeink, Fritz Kreisler, Louise Homer, Frieda Hempel and Rachmaninoff. As an indication of Milwaukee's musical growth it is in teresting to note that it requires the seating capacity of the Auditorium to accommodate the attendance of efforts of the Marion Andrews Concert Bureau. Another stimulating influence in the music life of Milwaukee was started by Miss Margaret Rice in 1917 by the inauguration of the Twilight Musicals, a series of Sunday afternoon concerts. The Twilight Musicals were first given in the Athenaeum, but have proven so popular that it was found necessary to seek larger quarters, and they are now given in the Pabst Theater. A phase which is due to the versatile musical development of Milwaukee is the annual concert season of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, which has been given here every winter for the last five years. This orchestra of which Miss Rice is the local manager is sponsored by Milwaukee business men. It is under the direction of Frederick Stock. Its support has been so enthusiastic during the last two years, that the guarantors were not asked to contribute to its financial success, showing that the Milwaukee music loving public has grown to such proportions that programs of the highest grade are generously upheld. While the World war was responsible for numerous innoA'ations in all walks of life, it is interesting to note that a neAv element of music was born in Milwaukee in 1918, when community singing was first tried by Frederick Carberry at the Alhambra Theater. The new musical spirit rapidly took hold and spread to all sections of the country. Since the organization of the first musical society in Milwaukee a large number of men and women were active in furthering and developing the cause of music. Those who stand out most prominently were Hans Balatka, Fred erick Abel, Julius Tenzler, Reinhardt Schmelz, William Mickler, Eugene Luening, Ernst Catenhusen, Herman Zeitz, A. G. Faville, W. L. Tomlins, Arthur Weld, Frederick Archer, William H. Pommer, Daniel Protheroe, Hugo Kaun, Albert S. Kramer, William Boeppler, Christopher Bach, Joseph Clauder, Otto von Gumbert, Charles W. Dodge, William Jaffe, Alexander McFadyen, Pearl Brice and Winogene Hewitt-Kirchner. Milwaukee with its musical training of the younger element in the public schools, its summer open air concerts in the parks and its popular priced winter concerts at the Auditorium together with the high class concerts, artists and symphony orchestras brought here through various agencies, is conceded to be a leader as a music loving community. MILWAUKEE'S AIUSICAL HISTORY 681 Musical History. — The German element of Milwaukee's population has greatly promoted the musical development of the community. In the pamphlet issued on the sixtieth anniversary of the Milwaukee Herold, in June, 1921, the early musical history of the city is referred to by the writer with pardon able pride in the share taken in the early days by that paper in promoting its development. The following passage is quoted from the pamphlet : "If Mihvaukee has a high standing in the musical world of the United States, it is due in no small degree to the interest awakened by the discrimi nating criticism, the full reports, and also the frequent and instructive articles on matters musical AA'hich appeared and continue to appear in the Herold. Among the contributors to this department of newspaper work, there stands out particularly the name of August Spanuth, who combined with high gifts as a musical critic, ability as a writer. For a number of years during that period, when Edgar W. Coleman managed the paper and the cultural life of the Milwaukeeans of German blood and affiliation was at its height, he had charge of the musical department of the Herold. After he left the city, he continued to correspond on musical and miscellaneous matters, at first from New York, and after he had returned to his native country, from Berlin, until his death. Many of the musicians of eminence who have from time to time made Milwaukee their home for a period, also furnished occasional articles in relation to their art, notable among them Hugo Kaun, who has, since his Milwaukee days, acquired international fame. It goes without saying, that the long list of men and women among musicians, who may be counted among the permanent citizens of Milwaukee, with their Nestor, Christopher Bach, at their head, could always count on the cooperation of the Herold in all their enterprises. "The musical life of the city could not have flourished the way it has, without the numerous associations of amateurs, who band themselves together to cultivate some branch of the art, and whose membership supplies most of the audience at concerts of visiting masters. These have always had the full support of the Herold, going far beyond the mere reporting of their public performances. The business affairs of these societies need for their healthy progress a certain amount of publicity, which keeps the interest alive among the general public from whom they must draw their new members and their financial support. It may be said that the management of the paper has known, during all these years, to discriminate on the whole very wisely be tween the publicity that helps, and the mere gossip about the internal affairs of the organization, which may hinder and disrupt rather than be of benefit. The oldest of these societies, and the organization with the most ambitious program, the ' Musikverein ' (Musical Society), existed more than a decade before the first number of the Herold saw the light. But ever since that time, the paper has lent intelligent aid to its work. During a life as long as that of the 'Musikverein' (over seventy years), occasional tempests requiring wise' and careful steering of the bark could hardly be avoided. Sometimes the temptation may have been great for the management to look at the matter merely from the standpoint of 'publishing the news' without regard to the 682 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE effect it would have on the fortunes of the organization, and therefore on the musical life of the city." Tribute to a Musician. — After having retired from a long career as Mil waukee's most prominent orchestral leader, Christian Bach appeared at the Auditorium on Sunday afternoon, March 24, 1912, to direct a concert when William George Bruce in an address extended the following tribute : "This audience has been honored today by the retired Nestor of the local musical world. Once more he has come out of his retirement to raise his baton, as he has thousands of times during the past half century, to again wrest the rich volumes of tone from these instruments and carry their charm into your souls. Once more he is with us. Once more his presence is an inspiration. "If we were to express here today our gratitude to those who have brought the message of the world's great composers to us, our first thought would be of the honored leader, Christopher Bach. No name would stand out in stronger relief. "No man has labored longer in the local field of music and produced more. No man has interpreted the great music-poets more eloquently and beautifully. None has poured more sunshine and happiness into the hearts of a multitude, than he. To none do we owe a greater debt of gratitude. Truly, he has given more than he has received ! "To honor him during this brief hour is but a feeble tribute to the man and his services. His real compensation must lie in the consciousness that he has rendered a valuable service to his fellowmen, that he has elevated a generation into a better understanding for the things that are refining and ennobling. "If all his audiences of a half century were arrayed before us today they would form a concourse of a million people. And if we admit the power as well as the charm of music then we must also admit that he wielded an in fluence whose extent cannot be measured. "He has awakened the imagination, aroused the soul, soothed the restless, comforted the weary, cheered the sad and added to the sum total of human happiness. As an apostle of music he has spoken in the language of the masters, dispensed the food of love, prompted the nobler impulses, and in spired the higher ideals of life. "To me has been entrusted the pleasant duty of presenting to you, Mr. Bach, this small token of an appreciath'e public. Alay these flowers — their beauty and their fragrance — convey to you our sense of gratitude, and express to you the love and esteem we hold for you. These roses also carry with them the well wishes of a thousand hearts, Avith the hope and prayer that you may be spared to us for many years to come and that the evening of your life may be blessed with all the comforts and Avith that happiness AA'hich you so richly deserve." The Genius of Music. — A masterful tribute to the art of music was written by Mr. William J. Desmond, a Alilwaukeean, in 1910, which may appropriately be reproduced here : "There are many kinds of talent and all are working toward expression. MILWAUKEE'S AIUSICAL HISTORY 683 One finds utterance in words and gives to the world the poet and the orator. Another expresses itself in great works. It gives us the artist and the sculptor, spans the continents with wonderful works of architecture, devises intricate moving machinery and controls great enterprises of industry and government. And still another — passing by words and works — draws from a concord of sweet sounds a power to sway the spirit in every mood. This is the genius of music. All the elusive ideals that art can never paint in color or shape from wood or stone — all the evanescent thought and tender emotion that no pen can put in words — the genius of music has enshrined in immortal strains. In the realm of emotion where words end, music begins and by its ineffable power expresses what had else remained unuttered and unutterable. "There is nothing more wonderful than music. It is everywhere in nature from the ripple of the brook to the music of the spheres, — 'Forever singing as they shine The hand that made us is divine. ' "Born of silence it but touches the ear to tremble away into ethereal space, or finding chords responsive, to abide with him 'who carries music in his heart through rambling lane and dusty mart.' Living only as sound it ministers to every mood. Where pleasure reigns and mirth is queen — there music guides the mazy dance. Where martial tread and clash of arms resound — the war song of the soldier, the bugle blast and beat of drums lead on to victory, and Avhere the worshiper devoutly kneels, the soulful organ and the solemn chant inspire to reverential awe. Drawn from the vibrating chord, the pulsing pipe, living in our very breath, it tells of things we never knew and speaks of that we never saw. In the song the mating robin sings, 'in the sighing summer breeze through the leaves of locust trees,' in the stirring tones of the Mar seillaise, the soft melody of Schubert's Serenade, the sad and simple sweet ness of Robin Adair, we hear it ever striving to reveal a meaning vague. Through all it thrills and throbs in varying moods, 'Touching us with mystic gleams, Like glimpses of forgotten dreams — Of something felt like something here, Of something seen we know not AA'here, Such as no language may declare.' "It distils into sound the perfume of the rose, the sunshine of perfect days and all the tenderness of love. It mingles the carol of the lark, the smiles and joy of youth and beauty and all the glimmering dreams of twilight hours and starlit dawn. It follows the subtlest windings of the soul to the edge of the infinite and wakes strange instincts of a higher life. Sister of love, handmaid of religion, it tunes the soul to longings ever vain for beauty infinite and innocence divine. Hear it and the sunshine and shadows of life pass over the soul. Hear it and it wakes to life all happiness that might have been and is not." LAYTON ART GALLERY CHAPTER XL THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE In its. early days, those succeeding the pioneer period and times of the first settlers, Mihvaukee had almost enough painters to form a genius belt. The father of the colony, as the younger artists called him, was Henry Vianden, who lived in the city for half a century, coming here eighty-two years ago, when Milwaukee was but a village, painting and instructing — gathering about him a host of young painters who wished to learn the elements of the craft, or seeking knowledge of that mysterious, spellbinding thing called art. Heinrich Vianden, forty-niner, old Diisseldorfer, gruff and hearty, lover of a garden and lover of a tree, taught many a Milwaukee boy and girl, some of whom have become famous. The memories of many a young student will go back tenderly to the old artist with his leonine head, which had something of the quality of the poet Longfellow; many a nature lover, many a picture lover, got his first enthusiasm in the little workshop-studio where a tall build ing now stands, or felt the lure of art out on those sketching trips with the painter. To belong to a sketch class in that age of innocence was a most thrilling affair. Carl Alarr, one of Milwaukee's most distinguished sons, got his first lessons from Vianden, as did Robert Koehler and Robert Schade, the three boys going later to study in Munich. Carl Marr's art has been honored in his native city, and one of the finest examples of his work was purchased and hung first in the Public Library and finally in the Auditorium. This is the famous "Flagel lants, ' ' a Arery beautiful picture, painted on a large scale and with consummate skill. It was a medal picture which had been awarded the grand prize in a Munich exhibition. Not so famous, but a teacher and painter of good renown, Robert Koehler, the other boy in Vianden 's studio, became an instructor and before his death director in the Alinneapolis School of Art ; his paintings have found their way into many collections, where he fairly represents the Munich influence in art, its good drawing and worthy craftsmanship. The third student, Robert Schade, became a still-life and portrait painter and had important commissions in portraiture. A loan exhibition seldom fails to bring out examples of his art and very good portraits they prove to be. Schade became in his time greatly sought as a teacher, carrying on the con tinuity of art-life from the early days of the father, Heinrich Vianden. Schade 's first study came in a lithographers' and engravers' school, Avhich was founded in the early '70s. Here Julius Gugler, the founder of a since widely known lithographic establishment, taught the essentials of lithography with others who were brought to Milwaukee for this purpose ; in connection Avith this school, which was on BroadAvay north of Mason Street, art exhibitions were held, the first of their kind in Alilwaukee, and in 1880 there was a group 685 686 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE of art lovers and picture buyers banded into a little society, which was vitally interested in art and procuring exhibitions. Among these Gen. Frederick C. Winkler and Julius Gugler were great enthusiasts. The minutes of that first art band were, in its very early days, written in German, and the press chairman was called "chairman of public agitation." One doubts not in those days when the general public interest did not lie along art lines, that "public agitation" was not less necessary than the widely exploited newspaper columns have become in our own day. Before Robert Schade was earning commissions in his chosen line, there were a number of early portrait painters. Clifford was among these, and later Conrad Heyd, who came to Milwaukee in 1868. One sees frequently unsigned portraits, known to be by local men, in Milwaukee homes, pictures which have something of distinction and historic interest. Perhaps in this connec tion where the artists are unknown, a list of names including Clifford, Alar- quis, Brooks, Lydston, VerBryck and Roese may serve to throw light on the authorship of family portraits. Marquis did exceptional work, strong in characterization, firm in modeling and drawing, and rich in color. In other phases than portraiture the early '80s had a number of strong men. Frank Enders, etcher and landscape painter, Arthur Dadd, an aquarel list, Culverhaus, a painter of nocturnes, and Charles Keller, were doing excellent work. John Conway, painter and sculptor, lived in Milwaukee at this time, receiving the commission for the soldiers' monument and decorating the Chamber of Commerce. Schade and Enders had, about 1886, finished their studies in Munich and returned to Milwaukee ; it was at this time with the great interest in panorama painting, that a group of painters from Ger many came to Milwaukee to work. An Era of Panorama Painters.— There were fifteen artists and in the four years in which they worked a number of panoramas Avere completed, com prising in duplicate the battles of Chattanooga and Atlanta, the crucifixion, and entry of Christ into Jerusalem. F. W. Heine was the head of the group and lived here until his death in the summer of 1921. In 1903 Mr. Heine went to the Holy Land to obtain material for painting church interiors, which were exhibited at the St. Louis World Fair. His paintings of Jerusalem and his rendition of oriental buildings and scenes have always attracted great attention for the accuracy of their detail and the charm of their color. But in 1886 Heine was at work on the pano ramas, having associated Avith him Lohr, Schneider, Rohrbeck and Michaelow- ski; pressure of work and enthusiasm for the undertaking brought ten other artists — Frosch, Schroeter, Wilhelm, Wendling, Dinger, Biberstein, Von Ernst, BreitAviescr, Peter and last, but not least, Lorenz. Seven out of the original group have remained in Alilwaukee ; this group attracted others to the city — the elder and younger Tredupps of Berlin, Thomas, Gehrts and Woltze came from Weimar, where Heine himself had studied under famous masters. These artists had their own studios, many of them gave lessons, as Avell as engaging in panorama work; one of them, von Ernst, received someAvhat later a commission to decorate the Pabst resi dence. Michaelowski painted many of his well known portraits, and George THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE 687 Peter was at work on his cattle pieces ; Biberstein also gained in recognition. Heine held art classes in his school, teaching for over thirty years. Those were flourishing days for Milwaukee as an art center, and it became the dream of these artists and their friends to make it one in actuality and permanency. The art society of that day received fresh impetus in interest and members and a great art festival was held in Sehlitz Park, with proceeds to be devoted to the building of an art school. The festival, however, did not net the expected returns, though the enthusiasm and stimulus given to the art movement were most rewarding. Mrs. Alexander Alitchell and Mrs. S. S. Frackleton were in, the vanguard of a movement to launch the Wisconsin Art Institute, which had rooms variously in the Colby & Abbott Building, in the Durbin Art Gallery, and in the New Insurance Building, where Robert Schade was instructor. An exhibition of the work of all the local artists was held in the Roebel & Reinhardt galleries on Grand Avenue, the first of its kind in Milwaukee, and no less a person than Mr. Frederick Layton presented the first prize, the sum of $100. This was won by Michaelowski, one of the panorama painters. Michaelowski, it will be recollected by those who have these art days of 1885 to 1890 in memory, painted the portrait of Vianden which hangs in the trustees' room of the Public Museum. The Middle Period. — Since 1907 many of the painters of the early days have died; Schneider's death came in 1907; Paul Kupper, the sculptor's in 1908 ; Conrad Heyd, who next to Vianden was the oldest living representative of the group of 1868, died in 1912 ; Robert Schade 's death occurred that same year and in 1915 Richard Lorenz, the most distinguished of the panorama group, was lost to Alilwaukee; in 1921 Frank Enders and Heine were called, so that the older representatives no longer are here to tell the tale of the early struggles, hopes and fears for art. There happily remain, however, a group of five artists who were young men and students at the time these art pioneers lived, and they bear witness of the days whose history might otherwise be lost. These are Louis Mayer, Alexander Mueller, George Raab, George Niedecken and Carl Reimann, all of whom grew up in the group and who were admitted to the fellowship. But before going on to the work and labors of this connecting group be tween the old and the new — representing directly the Munich, Weimar and Diisseldorf schools, the other, our modern — one must pause over the name of Richard Lorenz. His fame will be noted in the annals as the painter of the Indian, the cowboy, the trapper, and logger. He will be the interpreter for a latter day of a bygone and rapidly disappearing life, in the tent and cabin, in the lumber camp, on the trails and in the mountains of the West, a lover of horses which he rendered in unexampled draughtsmanship, showing the life of the plains as hardly another has done in the country. A pioneer he was in art and a revealer of pioneer life, rugged and virile in personality as in artistry. Lorenz was a teacher in the Wisconsin Art Institute, to which Captain Pabst lent his assistance after a period of failure. Here our connecting group, in a school on Second Street and Grand Avenue, before their period of study abroad, received their early training, and naturally they chose for study in 688 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE Europe those institutions who had nurtured their masters, von Ernst and Lorenz — going to Weimar and Munich — though Paris afterwards claimed both George Niedecken and George Raab. To Paris also went Jessie Schley, who was one of the students in this school. How good their gift was and how it developed may be seen in the positions they now occupy. Mr. Raab is a painter of distinction in both portraiture and landscape, and has latterly turned to bronze portraits in bas relief, he holds also his position as curator of the Layton Art Gallery. Louis Mayer, too," is painter and sculptor both, but has left Alilwaukee to reside in New York, where he is winning fresh laurels in his chosen medium, that plastic art which he feels suits his gift better. Louis Mayer has, hoAvever, left behind him many a choice painting, to remind of his varied talent. Alexander Mueller has not abandoned his painter's calling, but is the direc tor as well of the Wisconsin School of Fine and Applied Arts, better known as the State School of Art, a distinguished art educator who has attracted to his school talented, gifted members of widely varying artistic professions. George Niedecken is an interior decorator, well known for his choice and individual Avork both at home and elsewhere. Carl Reimann is also a deco rator, a designer of church windows of great beauty. This closes the early and middle period of the progress of art in Alilwaukee. The story is resumed with the founding of the Art Students League ; this, with the art activities of the men who sponsored it, their society of artists later to become the Wisconsin Society of Painters and Sculptors, brings the history to the point where the work was further carried on by an affiliated group of workers forming the Milwaukee Art Society, incorporating it and bringing into being its constitution and by-laws. This group, who brought new members and fresh enthusiasm, carried the work to a point where the present building of the Alilwaukee Art Society (since become the Milwaukee Art Institute) Avas acquired. In less than ten years' time a permanent collection, rapidly increasing, Avas acquired, a mem bership and a patrons' support was obtained, and finally a maintenance fund to aid in the work was granted by the common council of the city, which en abled the Milwaukee Art Institute to extend the scope of its work in every direction. The Art Students League. — In 1894 a young Mihvaukee artist who has become extremely famous, led a group of twelve young men employed in en graving and lithography to form the Milwaukee Art Students League; this young man AA'as Edward J. Steichen, and for five years he was the president of the league. Summer quarters for instruction Avere obtained through the interest of Mrs. C. B. Whitnall at Gordon Place, and in the winter the base ment of the Ethical Hall was used for evening classes. EdAvard Steichen, after his departure for Europe, was succeeded by Herman Pfeiffer as presi dent, who in his" turn, like Steichen, went abroad for study ; Alexander Aluel ler, in the fall of 1900, was made director and instructor of the league; the membership greatly increased and neAv quarters were sought in the University Building. It is interesting to note that the old site of Henry Vianden 's studio-Avork- THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE 689 shop was where the University Building now stands, thus forming one of those chance links between the past and the present. The league then became the Wisconsin School of Arts, occupying at first one room and finally taking an entire floor of the building. . Incorporation came and a patrons' association was formed ; scholarships were awarded and exhibitions arranged. Among the early foreign exhibitions brought were the decorations by Alphonse Mucha, French impressionist paintings, original contemporary European lithographs and etchings; the Tissot paintings. Work by local artists was shown. Alexander Mueller, George Raab, Richard Lorenz, Louis Mayer, George Niedecken, Helen ^astrow, Armand D. Koch, Richard Phillip, Udo Mueller, Grace Rieker, Henry Stoerzer, Albert Tiemann, Martha Kaross Mueller, Louis W. Wilson, Arthur Gunther, Clara Byron, Anna Reiter, Norma B. Kroes, Frank Enders, Elmer A. Forsberg, Charles Makowsky, Eleanor Hansen, Victor Mueller, Phillip Kauth, Albert Fink, Sophie Koop, Stan Christie, Lillian Zimmermann, W. H. Hinton, were teachers at various times in the school, and a devoted band they were, all of them contributing gener ously to make the school a success, and many of them giving their services with but nominal financial returns. It was an uphill struggle, and sometimes there was discouragement of spirit because of a lack of support on the part of the public; but the school nevertheless gained its recognition and has many successful artists to its credit, many who would otherwise have been unable to obtain an art educa tion. The support of the patrons, the sacrifice of the director and faculty, bore fruit. Arthur H. Gallun made many things possible through his liberal gifts, paying deficits, bearing costs of exhibitions; Frederick Layton, too, was one of the supporters who gave with characteristic generosity. Normal Art School. — The work was carried on for ten years, with hun dreds of students as members of the school, each acquiring the means of mak ing a livelihood, knowing good standards of taste and able to contribute to the life of the community, through the education and culture obtained. This service was finally fully recognized, and in 1911 the Board of Regents of Normal Schools decided to take over the school and make it a department of the Milwaukee Normal School; Alexander Mueller was retained as director and the school has now been housed in splendid quarters, with fine equip ment in the normal school. The scope of the school is broad and cultural, with an aim to develop skilled workers in the fine and applied arts, and to train teachers of drawing and handicraft. That this scope has been realized in larger measure may be seen from the singling out by educators of its normal arts course, the demand for its graduates in the professions, in fine and applied arts, and the place its students hold who go east and abroad for further study. The school year ending in June, 1922, should see 700 pupils enrolled ; there are seventeen members of the faculty, each an expert in his line. Recently a distinguished painter, Mr. George Oberteuffer, has come to be on the school staff. First Public Art Gallery. — Art progress further reached a high point in 1888 when an event of great importance occurred, which was the founding OLD ACADEMY OF MUSIC, NOAV SCHUBEET THEATEE, 1870 THE PROGRESS OF ART IN AIILWAUKEE 691 by Frederick Layton, early in the year, of the Layton Art Gallery. Its orig inal trustees were Messrs. Frederick Layton, George Dickens, John L. Mitchell, James Clinton Spencer, Francis B. Keene, B. K. Miller, William P. MacLaren, Edward Sanderson, William Plankinton and Jerome R. Brigham, all civic- spirited men and interested that their city should have an art gallery and that appreciation of art be created in the public taste as one of the finer things in life. The originator of the project, the man Avho gave his fortune to this great art enterprise, Frederick Layton, bought the land, erected the building, and gave originally thirty-eight paintings valued at $50,000, with further generous gifts as time went on, and an endowment fund of support to the sum of $100,000. April 5, 1888, saAv the formal presentation to the corporation and the opening to the public of the gallery in the new building. The galleries Avere from thence on open throughout the year, with three free days to the public and Sunday afternoons added after the first two years. For thirty-one years Mr. Layton continued his interest in the Layton Art Gallery, adding to the collection, obtaining many additional gifts from others by his enthusiasm and devotion ; the collection became so augmented that in 1916 a wing was added to house the additional paintings. The construction, extension and enlargement of the building, its endowment funds, now reach the mark of almost half a million dollars and are the creation of an enthusiastic spirit, who at the age of ninety, before his death, saw the rounding out of his dream and vision as few are given to realize. A few of the artists repre sented, should be noted — famous examples by Bouguereau, Bonheur, Mon- chablon, Cazin Jacque, Harpignies, Corot, Bastien LePage, von Marcke, De- fregger, Carl Marr, Clays, Scherrewitz, Israels, DeHoog, Mauve, Mesdag, Blommers, Alma Tadema, Leighton, Parsons, Inness, Eastman Johnson, Wyanfy Winslow Homer, Keith, Blakelock, Pushman, Carleton Wiggins and Bolton Jones. This list is necessarily much curtailed for space; the collection con tains many other gems and takes its place not only in the history of Alilwau kee but in the art history of the country. Edwin Eldridge was the first curator of the Layton Art Gallery, succeeded by George Raab who has held the position from 1902 to the present time. Milwaukee-Downer College. — Since 1852 there have been classes in art at Milwaukee-Downer College. Miss Emily Groom had charge of the depart ment of art from 1907 to 1914. In 1913 Aliss Elizabeth G. Upham started classes in jewelry and silver-smithing. Milwaukee-Downer College was one of the pioneer colleges to realize the importance of an organized art department which should give opportunity for thorough art and applied art study for college students. Before 1917 a few credits in history of art and studio work were allowed toward the Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees. In that year the degree of Bachelor of Science in Arts was instituted. This enabled a student to pre pare herself to teach art or enter the commercial art field, and at the same time to gain a broad cultural training. In September, 1918, Milwaukee-Downer College, at the instance and through the inspiration of Elizabeth G. Upham, instituted a course in occupational 692 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE therapy as an emergency war course. The need for occupational therapy, however, did not end with the war. At present there is a growing demand for well-trained workers in state and private institutions, and to quote a famous specialist, occupational therapy is a work especially adapted for re fined and intelligent young women. This course added to the art department Avell-equipped shops for weaving, basketry, bookbinding, and woodwork. At present writing (November, 1921), the art faculty includes four in structors besides Miss Charlotte Russell Partridge who has been director since 1917, and gives seven different crafts, twenty art courses, including batik and block printing (1919) and occupational therapy. The Layton School of Art.- — This is the youngest art school in Milwaukee, and was founded in the belief that art inspires industry. It trains young men and women in those branches of art which are directly related to industry. It aims to prepare persons in two years' time for efficient service as profes sional workers in industrial art, commercial art, interior decoration, costume designing, illustration, and normal art. In the first year all students take the prescribed subjects: Design, composition, flower analysis, still Lfe, sketch, nude life, constructive drawing and perspective, lettering, history of art, psychology and literary appreciation. This work lays a broad foundation for any one of the six courses offered for specialization in the second year when intensive study in the chosen course in cludes modern processes of manufacture and reproduction. Evening classes are held three times a week, and work is offered in general design, design for interior decoration, clay modeling and life. The total enrollment for 1920- 21 was 315. The enrollment for 1921-22 will exceed the first years' number considerably. The history of the Layton School of Art affords interesting eA-idence of the increased realization in this country of the need for industrial art schools. European countries have for years considered schools training artists for work in industrial and all applied art fields a necessity and asset. Such schools have been financed by the governments and promising students have been given tuition and living expenses while studying. The change in eco nomic conditions brought on by the war quickened the interest which had been growing for some time in this country in training American designers and in producing a national art. The Church School of Art, Chicago, which had been doing pioneer work in this field, closed in June, 1920. It seemed, therefore, a propitious time for the establishment in Alilwaukee, a great manufacturing center, of an industrial art school aAvake to the de mands of the times, seeing the need for art in industry, and intelligently training its young people to carry out to industry and education the best that it can teach in design, color, and thoroughly American ideas. The Layton School of Art, successor to the Church School of Art, Chicago, but in no way identical with that institution, opened in September, 1920. This school was organized and founded by Charlotte Russell Partridge who holds the position of director, and from the beginning has had the most loyal support and endorsement of a group of progressive and prominent Mil waukee citizens. The Milwaukee Art Institute signified its intention of THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE • 693 active cooperation with the Layton School; the Layton Art Gallery gave the ground floor of its beautiful building to be used as the school studios ; and a group of individuals from both institutions with others each gave $250 for equipment and remodeling. The school was incorporated under the laws of Wisconsin as a non profit-making institution. The board of trustees consists of James K. Ilsley, president; George P. Aliller, Miss Charlotte R. Partridge, Samuel 0. Buck- ner, Maj. Howard Greene, Aliss Alice G. Chapman, William H. Schuchardt, Dr. Ernest Copeland, Edwin E. White. Miss Partridge donated her serv ices as director and instructor for the first year, and Dudley Crafts Watson, director of the Milwaukee Institute, gave his services one night a week as instructor in the night school. Miss Miriam Frink was elected assistant director. There were in all six instructors the first year, the number in creasing to nine the second year. In addition to the tuition classes of the day school and evening school, free classes for children are held on Saturday mornings and are largely attended by school children of all ages from six to seventeen. In the carry ing on of these classes the Layton School has the help of the Milwaukee Art Institute. The school is making a significant departure this year along lines that are being tried in New York and Chicago. Several students are doing ad vanced work in industrial designing at the school and at the same time working as apprentices in industrial shops. To sum up, the Layton School of Art is a new school and as yet a com paratively small school but it is thoroughly awake to the possibilies of art in industry and is playing a vital part in Milwaukee's progress. Later Art Associations. — In 1900 Louis Mayer, Alexander Alueller, George Raab, and George Niedecken were leaders in organizing the so ciety of Milwaukee Artists, many of the Art Students League members joining, as well as the panorama painters who had made Milwaukee their home. This became the present day Society of Wisconsin Painters and Sculp tors. The Society of Milwaukee Artists was also the nucleus of the Milwaukee Art Institute, incorporated under its first name of the Milwaukee Art Society. As the Milwaukee Art Society it had originally about seventy-five mem bers, with laymen as well as artist members, and held its exhibitions in the history room of the public library and at the Moulton & Ricketts galleries. A footnote in the catalog of one of these latter exhibitions says, "Milwaukee is the only city of its size in the country without an art exhibition building." As early as October, 1912, a building was owned with over three hundred running feet of wall space for exhibition in four galleries, and in the five years 3,000 works had been displayed and 200 American artists had exhibited. The story of how this came about now forms another chapter in the art progress of Milwaukee. In 1910 the first meeting under the present consti tution and by-laws was held. The first president as the Milwaukee Art So ciety was Charles Allis, son of Edward P. Allis, both men noted collectors and connoisseurs. Its avowed purpose is "to encourage the fine and applied arts, to stimulate the love of beauty and to cultivate the public taste, and in 694 • HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE that behalf to establish and maintain art galleries, expositions, and any re quisite and useful instructions, — either alone, in connection with the state or municipality or otherwise — to obtain by purchase, gift or otherwise, paint ings and works of art and to acquire, own or lease and hold any real estate and building. ' ' A part of this ambitious program, as held in the vision of the first founders, and president, Charles Allis, was undertaken and carried through under the leadership of Samuel Owen Buckner, its second president. In 1912 the present building was acquired, in 1919 two new galleries were added, and at the present writing, in the fall of 1921, extensive alterations and additions are being made on the original building. The campaign for building funds was a vigorous one and entailed much labor ; many a day the workers were dis couraged and wished to abandon the undertaking of raising the necessary sum to buy the Land, Log & Lumber Company building which offered such unusual opportunities for making a home and exhibition room for the society. Mr. Buckner 's enthusiasm and faith never wavered, however, the drive was finally successful, and the building purchased. The list of the many public-spirited men and women who gave so generously would require too much space to print. There are, however, six Avhose gifts reached the propor tion to put their names in the Patron Alembership, and these are Charles Allis, Frederick Layton, Charles Pfister, Ferdinand Schlesinger, Joseph Uihlein, and Mrs. Charles W. Norris. In 1912 and 1913 a campaign for more members was pushed and the mem bership increased from the original seventy-five to over five hundred, with new life and contributing memberships added. This membership permitted more extended activities, and in December, 1913, a young instructor and lec turer in the faculty of the Chicago Art Institute, Dudley Crafts Watson, was engaged as director. Mr. Watson has noAv served eight years in this capacity, bringing unlimited zeal and enthusiasm to the work and unique qualities as an art educator. His joyous and communicable enthusiasm gained for the Milwaukee Art Society many adherents Avho felt the inspiration of his method of reaching children and his desire, also, to extend the love of art to a wide democracy. In 1916 the name of the Milwaukee Art Society was changed to the Alil waukee Art Institute, and a still more ambitious program of activities, in cluding additional classes, lectures and exhibitions became of absorbing in terest. Municipal Support. — In order to make a demonstration of what could be done with a more liberal allowance of money, a three-year fund was started, whose subscribers were B. F. Adler, Samuel 0. Buckner, Mrs. W. W. Bur roughs, Miss Alice Chapman, Ernest Copeland, Albert Elser, Adolph Finkler, Mrs. George P. Miller, Emil Ott, Mrs. Frederick Pabst, Charles Pfister, Mr. and Airs. W. H. Schuchardt, Ferdinand Schlesinger, Mrs. Alargaret Steinmeyer, Walter Stern, Albert 0. Trostel, Aliss Paula Uihlein and Fred Vogel, Jr. This subscription fund Avas the means of demonstrating to the city what could be done if a regular fund was at the command of the Milwaukee Art Institute. Success attended and city support was voted by the common council on THE PROGRESS OF ART IN AIILWAUKEE 695 the recommendation of the City Club, the Merchants and Alanufacturers _As- sociation and the Mayor's Advisory Council, and the various editorials in the Milwaukee daily papers, and in 1918 the board of estimates placed the sum of $5,000 in the year's budget, which was passed by the common council by a large majority vote. Mayor Daniel Hoan, Aldermen Cornelius Corcoran, Emil Seidel, F. C. Bogk, Charles W. O'Connor, and John Doerfler, Jr., have shown great interest in the upbuilding of the Alilwaukee Art Institute and through their enthusiasm and support have brought increased support by the city, until the amount in 1920 reached the sum of $15,000. Since April, 1917, the Art Institute medals of award have been in existence, with the purpose of fostering Wisconsin production in the fine arts ; prizes and honorable mentions in the applied arts have been established also for the yearly exhibitions held' in Avhich the Society of Wisconsin Painters and Sculptors have won many honors. In the allied arts, too, encouragement has been given in a yearly festival of Wisconsin art, with programs in music, poetry, drama, pantomime^ and dance, Avith greatly stimulated appreciation of these art forms in the community. Besides the encouragements given to artists in the city and state, coopera tion and affiliation has been established with numbers of associations which undertake making the life of the city finer and better. The constantly in creasing attendance at classes, gallery tours, lectures and exhibitions, show how much has been contributed to old and young through these channels. Generous Gifts. — In October, 1919, Mr. Buckner gave unconditionally from his private collection, twenty -five paintings to the permanent collection of the Milwaukee Art Institute. This unprecedented gift, added to his donations of preceding years, included Dutch, French, Spanish, and American masters, and its fine scope may be seen from the following artists who are represented in this collection: B. J. Blommers, Theodore DeBock, J. S. H. Kever, H>W. Mesdag, William Roloefs, F. P. TerMeulen and H. J. Van der Weiler, J.'"H. Weissenbruch, -Henri Harpignies, Joaquim Sorolla, Ralph Blakelock, George Elmer Browne, E. Irving Couse, Leon Dabo, Elliott Daingerfield, Warren Davis, Henry S. Eddy, Lillian M. Genth, Albert L. Groll, Charles P. Gruppe, Childe Hassam, Charles W. Hawthorne, Robert Henri, William Keith, Percival Ros- seau, Francisco Spicuzza, C. A. Slade, Vaclav Vytlacil, F. Ballard Williams, and Cullen Yates. In addition to the Samuel O. Buckner collection, the permanent collection has had accessions in gifts from Frederick Layton, William Schuchardt, Alice G. Chapman, Mrs. Samuel A. Field, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas W. Dunbar, Alfred F. James, Mrs. J. W. Skinner, Kuli Kahn, Mrs. Olive M. Simmons, Mrs. S. S. Merrill, Frida Gugler, Dr. Ernest Copeland, Thomas A. Buckner, and John F. Kraushaar, and the women of the Fourth District, State Federation of Women's Club; artist donors have been Evert Pieters, Edward Dufner, Philip Little, William Heintzelman, Earl H. Reed, Jean McLean Johansen, Ferdinand Koenig, Cartaino Scarpitta. Numerous other gifts including prints, litho graphs, pottery, textiles, and books have been made. The present library owes its very good start, its clipping file of fine biographical material and art data to Mrs. F. C. Reynolds and her committee. THE PABST THEATER Oneida Street. Devoted prineipally to the German drama THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE 697 In November, 1920, a memorial gift, to be known as the Gertrude N. Schu chardt Memorial Collection was made to the trustees of the Milwaukee Art Institute by William H. Schuchardt. The gift is one of etchings and includes many famous names — Diirer, Rembrandt, Whistler, Zorn, Seymour Haden, Rousseau, Corot, and Millet. It is Mr. Schuchardt 's intention to add yearly to this collection. The interest of a sum bequeathed by Mrs. Schuchardt it was resolved should be devoted to purchase for this collection, which thus becomes a fitting memorial to the memory of one of the Milwaukee Art Insti tute 's most lovely and devoted patrons. Future Plans. — The Milwaukee Art Institute begins in 1922 a new epoch of extended service. The building in 1920 and 1921 had been outgrown in eA-ery particular of its use and ecjuipment. The rapidly growing collection was in a position to receive further gifts if donors could be assured of perma nent and suitable exhibition. In the galleries for current exhibitions, in audience and class rooms, in office room, even in the minor matters of packing, storage, coatrooms, etc., the lack of space had been a great detriment. Extensive changes thus became imperative if the educational work with children, teachers, and the general adult public was to go on. An auditorium separate from the main gallery, which had hitherto served for the many pur poses of exhibit, audience, class, and packing, was most necessary. If col lections permanent and temporary were to be enjoyed rightly they must be in rooms freed from other use and devoted solely to exhibition purposes. It was felt that the new civic center art museum would not come within a period of from ten to fifteen years, and that in the intervening period an extension of the present quarters was an absolute necessity, if the larger opportunity in the new center was not to find the art institute unprepared and stagnant. When the deep conviction had been expressed on all sides that the extension Avork should not come to a standstill, the recommendation of the trustees was accepted by the corporation and a finance and building committee were ap pointed to proceed with architectural plans which, in a general way, had been shaped for some time. What will practically be a new building, within the shell of the old, is at present under process of construction, with all needed improvements. With its completion the trustees look forward to a greater art institute with larger opportunities for service and enjoyment, believing that a greater art institute means a greater Milwaukee. The Wisconsin Players. — In that greater Milwaukee the place for an art theatre is within the rightful scope of hopes for art. The Wisconsin Players have been organized with this as their chief aim. For about nine years they have been banded together, acquiring a home in 1915 in a charming old- fashioned house on Jefferson Street, opposite the Art Institute. It is designed to be the center of expression and development in the art of the theatre. The house itself, with its quaint old English basement tea room, an experimental theatre and audience room on the second floor and a ball room on the third offers every inducement for constructive work and play. Efforts are made to bring to Milwaukee representative groups of players from other theatres, experimenting in theatre art. 698 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Specifically, the aims of the Wisconsin Players are to establish in Milwau kee an experimental stage for the use of the artists, actors, writers, directors, painters, and musicians who wish to participate in developing the art of the theatre ; to promote the study of plays and the problems of the theatres ; to translate and compile plays ; to facilitate the writing, printing, and producing of original plays; to support good plays; to develop an audience. Laura Sherry has been the leading spirit in this organization devoting her whole life to the Avork. The realization of a larger theatre AA'here performances will not have to be given in the theatres hired for short periods with many difficulties of re hearsal and production, is among the definite plans. Aleantime the intimate plays produced by the student group in the Players known as the Workshop continue throughout the year, while once a season productions on a larger scale are made. AVar Camp Community Service occupied the group before the armistice was declared ; poetry courses, with the appearance of many noted lecturers and poets, have been successfully carried through year after year and the club and social life has been one of the most AA'holesome and stimulat ing influences in the city. The whole group of Players throughout their acthities in classes and productions have been a force for artistic expression. Milwaukee has also in recent years had an art club formed of Avorkers and patrons in all the arts. This is the Walrus Club Avith Catherine Pannill Mead as president ; it was formed originally from a group of newspaper writers but now includes musicians, painters, sculptors, critics, crafters, collectors, in fact anyone vitally interested or creative in the arts may become eligible. The club has a home next to the Wisconsin Players, gives delightful programs, entertains artists of note and contributes Avith much zest to the social inter course between workers. The Connoisseurs and the Dealers. — In the place art takes in any com munity, in addition to artistic production and public realization of it through the great institutional channels of fostered appreciation, other factors enter and these are, the collectors, the connoisseurs and the dealers. Art, like any other commodity has its production, its distribution, and consumption. In our review the artists as producers have already had their share of attention in the history of the early and middle group ; the story of the schools, produc ing centers too, has been noted as AA'ell as AA'hat has been done by various groups, by the Layton Gallery and Milwaukee Art Institute, cooperating vari ously with artists in many mediums, enabling them to get their message over. There now remains another side of the progress of art as illustrated by the collectors, connoisseurs, and dealers, all closely related. By connoisseur is meant the lover and critical appreciator of art as Avell as he who is able to oavu ; apart from the collectors of whom Mihvaukee had its full share are certain dominating personalities, artists sometimes, critics often, lovers ahvays who have influenced the taste of the day, though their names should not ap pear as great producers or consumers. Alilwaukee too, has had dealers who Avere real connoisseurs, working to develop the art taste in the city, and to substitute, in place of a vapid and insincere production, a real and vital art. The F. H. Durbin Galleries stood for this finer quality at a time when THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE 699 grandiose subjects were finding much favor. The etchings, the prints and en gravings which F. H. Durbin placed at his clients' disposal have stood the test of time. He was in the early days the first to preach simplicity and austerity in art, and many a buyer Avould not afterward have had to consign to a rubbish heap, purchases which had inanity written large on their face, if they had taken the advice of this man. The times have come around to Mr. Durbin 's way of thinking and he stands justified now in many eyes. His early Whistlers and Seymour Hadens have now the place of honor. A noted dealer and connoisseur Avas Henry Reinhardt of the Roebel and Reinhardt galleries. Air. Reinhardt was the prime mover for bringing great exhibitions here. Noted canvases by famous artists were always to be seen in the galleries at Grand Avenue and Fourth Street; not only there but at the Milwaukee Industrial Exposition was Mr. Reinhardt's fine connoisseurship to be seen. In 1885, and succeeding years, numerous exhibitions of art were held. Albert Trump was manager of the exposition and lent himself heartily to Mr. Reinhardt's plans for fine collections to be brought from abroad and from the East. Air. Reinhardt was head of the art department of the exposition for a num ber of years. Perhaps his greatest achievement was the fine collection of early Americans, which he assembled — Inness, Wyant, Homer Martin — these are among the names of the great artists he showed. The Reinhardt galleries did a flourishing art business here for fifty years. The Toledo Museum collection was formed on advice from Henry Reinhardt and paid him signal honors of appre ciation at his death. In 1915 the gallery located at 406 Milwaukee Street was bought by Cecilia Schieweck, who had grown up in the Reinhardt tradition and knowledge of the masters. Miss Schieweck is at the present time a most artistic and careful critic of style and authenticity, and has placed many a masterpiece in Milwaukee homes. Thomas Whipple Dunbar is another dealer making Milwaukee his home, selecting the choice American masters as his field and doing much for the ap preciation of American landscape. He has a trained and valued knowledge of art and brings a love and enthusiasm to it and a willingness to aid in its service apart from any sale or sales value. Loan collections at the Exposition showed how greatly Milwaukee con noisseurs had profited in their purchases. The list of collectors is a long one, though there are outstanding names such as Edward P. Allis, and Charles Allis, Arthur McGeoch, Alexander Mitchell, William H. Metcalf, Mrs. 0. P. Pillsbury, Mrs. Louise Schandein, Mrs. Frank Crosby, J. H. Van Dyke, Mrs. George Swallow, L. J. Petit, H. H. Camp, Mrs. D. M. Benjamin, Washington Becker, William Bigelow, the Uihlein Brothers — August, William, Henry, and Charles Pfister, Fred Vogel, Jr., H. August Luedke, Fred Pritzlaff, John C. Koch, Franz Wollaeger, Mr. and Mrs. Albert Conro, Capt. Fred Pabst and family, Patrick Cudahy, Emil A. Ott, Mrs. Samuel A. Field, T. A. Chap man, Miss Alice G. Chapman, Mrs. George P. Miller, William Allis, F. A. Walsh, Emanuel Phillip, Arthur H. Gallun, Airs. William Steinmeyer, Jacob Friend, Samuel 0. Buckner, Gen. F. C. Winkler, Dr. Ernest Copeland, William Hinrichs, B. F. Adler, Ferdinand Schlesinger, Airs. Emilie Nunnemacher, John 700 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE A. Butler, Miss Elizabeth Black, Mrs. Henry M. Thompson, Dr. Henry V. Ogden, William H. Schuchardt, Douglas Van Dyke, Ludington Patton, Mrs Charles L. Mcintosh, William C. Quarles, and George P. Seidel, who were all collectors, adding yearly choice examples to their collections. William H. Metcalf had a delightful private gallery to which visitors were cordialy welcomed; the glory of its beautiful Bouguereau, "The Lost Pleiad," was much appreciated. The great Allis collection comprised the most famous artists of that earlier day, and so well did Air. Allis choose that even to this modern decade the collection did not suffer diminution of value. Corot, Diaz, Rousseau, Bastien Lepage, Dupre, Schreyer, Jacque, Tryon, Daubigny, Mauve, Israel. Millet, William and Jacob Maris are names to conjure with and the examples he possessed of Fromentin, Gabriel .Max, Meissoneir, Vibert, Bon- heur, Meyer von Bremen, Knaux, could not be excelled in any European gallery. The Charles Allis collection will probably not be dispersed as were those of the elder Allis and Metcalf, but kept intact it is hoped. It was more varied in range than that of his father and contains the rarest objects d'art of all conditions, and countries. The etching collection is one of the greatest in the country; there are, besides the painters of note, antique potteries, porce lains, and bronzes, rare carvings of wood, jade, and ivory, all carefully ex- perfed and chosen with a royal taste. The McGeoch collection has great English masters of unique quality and beauty v Joseph Uihlein at one time collected European art, but his taste has latterly centered on magnificent tapestries. Mr. and Mrs. Albert Conro were collectors whose enthusiasm and discriminat:on made an impression on their time. They were interested in sharing and instrumental in bringing collec tions here, renting space in the Durbin gallery. They were supported by a sympathetic group of Avhom the Alexander Mitchells and W. W. Wight were spirited Avorkers. Their hope to found a Milwaukee Museum of Fine Arts was not realized, but they did much to keep the interest ablaze. Airs. C. D. Adsitt, an art lecturer, and writer, and true connoisseur, was one of the lumi naries of this period (1880). It was, if memories are correct, through her direction that the fine collection of Toschi etchings originally collected by the Milwaukee Museum of Fine Arts was placed in the Athenaeum. Mrs. Lydia Ely, who was an adept at crayon portraiture, must not be forgotten as she was as well known and greatly beloved as Mrs. Adsitt. One last and important name should be noted — F. H. Bresler, who has be come as national a figure as a dealer in art as Henry Reinhardt. Twenty or more years ago F. H. Bresler galleries succeeded the F. H. Durbin gallery (1881-1900). Air. Bresler is more than an art dealer — he is a connoisseur and art lover of ripe and mature judgment and the finest taste. Milwaukee can well be proud of him as a personality. His gallery, with its three beautiful floors, cannot be excelled by any New York firm. The architectural beauty and fitness of the galleries, the reserved and fine method of showing the price less objects make for an atmosphere of distinction and charm. Mr. Bresler is himself too modest to let it be known, but the great museums of the coun try depend on him to obtain the choice collections which it is his mission to seek and find. THE PROGRESS OF ART IN AIILWAUKEE 701 Our Modern Group of Artists. — Our present-day artists, what of them? There are a goodly number and Milwaukee can well be proud of them. Emily Groom, Susan Cressy, Frida Gugler, Mabel Key, Ruth Holberg, Ottilie Reinke, Martha Kaross Mueller are prominent among the women. Francesco Spicuzza, Gustav Moeller, Ferdinand Koenig, Raymond Stelzner, Royal Scheibe, Alexander Mueller, Dudley Crafts Watson, Richard Holberg, Gaetano Busalacchi, Armin Hansen, Carl Holty, Edward Kaminski, William H. Schuchardt, George Raab, George Niedecken, Paul Hammersmith, Fred Hilgendorf, T. Lindberg, and H. J. Stoltenberg are pressing to the front. There are a score of others, youngsters, who have it in them to do good things. The annual exhibitions show great improvement, and through the influ ence of the Wisconsin Painters and Sculptors there are yearly coming to be better standards. The crafts and industrial arts have come into their own and this is the most favorable of all things — that arts related to our daily life and the beautification of the objects of daily use are now receiving the atten tion of artists and good design becoming an integral part of our life. The idea is abroad in our city too that art is not a remote and high-brow affair, fit only for the so-called connoisseur, but an affair of much public concern, definite and near and as necessary to obtain as good roads, bridges or buildings. There is such glamour and mystery surrounding the life of an artist that we are apt to forget that art itself in a most near and familiar way is to be loved ; and this it is the mission of our younger generation of artists to fulfill, making a wanted and necessary product, vital in its relation to its time and needs. These then, are the many and various strands that make the art progress of the city. Here we find a bright thread of that older Germany whose blood nurtured our early artists ; there a weaving in of French and English threads ; now the Dutch, all making a warp and woof of that which is to be a clean cut American art, something Milwaukee stands for definitely. The rest is prophecy and belongs to tomorrow. — M. B. Mayhew. (This article is much indebted for material to Louis Mayer — Milwaukee Sentinel, April 5, 1903 — to George Raab and to Alexander Mueller.) The Layton Art Gallery. — The beautiful building of the Layton Art Gallery stands upon the site formerly occupied by St. Paul's church, at the corner of Jefferson and Mason streets. It is built of light-colored stone, smooth-faced, and designed by G. A. Audsley of London, England. It is a single story in height intended for the display of pictures and statuary; the floor plan is convenient and attractive, providing for a hall of statuary and three large galleries for pictures, all well lighted, besides private rooms for the curator and his assistants. The Layton Art Gallery was formally opened April 6, 1887, and presented to the City of Milwaukee by Frederick Layton. It was placed under the con trol of twelve trustees. The purposes of the corporation as organized are declared to be "maintaining, regulating, and managing a public art gallery in the City of Milwaukee, to be known as the Layton Art Gallery ; and taking and holding, managing and controlling, any real estate or other property which Frederick Layton, of Milwaukee, shall convey and give to such corporation, for the purpose of providing and maintaining a public art gallery in said city, W sd>>a \~^^5*afc. V^=E LMTTHlTTn klj/ini " |i!J.i ILUl/JLU ilXjf ILLJ MP"" THE PROGRESS OF ART IN AIILWAUKEE 703 and also any other property AA'hich may come to such corporation by gift or grant, devise or bequest, or otherAvise, for the benefit of said public art gallery." Provisions Made in the Articles. — The articles provided that the signers of the articles shall be the first board of trustees and to continue for life, except in the cases of resignation or removal, vacancies by death or otherwise, to be filled by the remaining trustees. The officers of the corporation provided by the articles Avere a president, a vice president, and a secretary. The signers of the articles were : Frederick Layton, Charles F. Ilsley, George Dickens, John L. Alitchell, James Clinton Spencer, William H. Metcalf, Francis B. Keene, B. K. Miller, William P. MacLaren, EdAvard Sanderson, William Plankinton, and Jerome R. Brigham. These twelve signers constituted the first board of trustees. The organization of the corporation was completed by the election, March 3, 1888, of Frederick Layton, president ; Charles F. Ilsley, vice president ; and Jerome R. Brigham, secretary. Mr. Layton's Address at the Presentation. — In the catalogue of the Layton Art Gallery now in use, an account of the presentation is given, and a report of Mr. Layton's address on that occasion, giving the facts of the origin of the gallery in his own words. Some extracts from the address follow this para graph. The personal character of Mr. Layton's address adds much to the interest and attractiveness of his remarks. "Just before leaving home to cross the Atlantic, in June, 1884," he began, "the late Alexander Mitchell and myself were invited by a few friends to a dinner party at the Milwaukee Club, and after dinner I was called upon to respond to a toast to my health and safe voyage. In replying I said, among other things, that I had thought at some future time to do something in regard to building an art gallery for the public in our city. Yet on that occasion I had no idea that it would be in the near future." The newspaper men, how ever, soon got wind of the proposal and the next day Mr. Layton was called upon by one of the fraternity to know "how soon I intended to build the art gallery." Mr. Layton told the reporter who called upon him "to say very little about it, since the whole matter was as yet but an intention." "Nevertheless," continued Mr. Layton in his address, "it was forthwith spread abroad that I was going to build an art gallery, and so I myself began to think about it as something soon attainable. On my voyage across the Atlantic, Mr. I. W. Audsley sat next to me at table. His brother, G. A. Audsley, in Liverpool, now of London, is an architect, and so it came about quite natu rally that I should meet him." On the occasion of this meeting the architect showed Air. Layton the designs of some very beautiful buildings and pre pared a plan for an art gallery which proved acceptable but which Mr. Layton stipulated that Messrs. E. Townsend Mix & Company should work jointly with him in carrying out the design, and that some parts of the building should be arranged as they thought best. Commenting upon the design, Mr. Layton said: "Our building is now about completed, and I think I may say we have one of the most beautiful art galleries of its size on this side of the Atlantic. No money or labor has been spared to make it as near fire-proof as possible ; the walls are twice the thickness of ordinary walls, and will stand for ages. The ground on which 704 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE it is built is a well-known landmark where our first Episcopal church, old St. Paul's stood for many years. The site (120 by 120 feet) was offered to me for the gallery and bought for $25,000. The ground and building with all appliances have cost in round figures about $115,000, which I have deeded to the trustees of the gallery for the public. Splendid Gifts to the Art Gallery — ' ' I also give to the gallery, ' ' continued Mr. Layton in his memorable address, "thirty-eight oil paintings, which are valued at $50,000, with $100,000 for an endowment fund, the interest to be used for the support and maintenance of the building, or, if any money remain after paying all expenses, it shall be applied to the purchase of such works of art for the gallery as the trustees may deem best, together with any other gifts of money donated by our citizens or friends of the gallery." The flame of Mr. Layton's enthusiasm fairly kindles when it comes to the recital of the other splendid gifts to the gallery. "Our first gift to the gallery," he goes on to say, "was from Mr. John Hargreaves, of Liverpool, a very old carved oak English clock, now in the Trustees' Room, and should be highly prized by us. Mr. Hargreaves paid all charges and delivered the clock free to us. P. D» Armour, of Chicago, a former fellow citizen, did not forget us. He was the first to send me a check for $5,000 for the gallery. This was three years ago last October. I attended the Seney sale of paintings in New York, three years ago this spring, and bought the Van Marcke picture, 'La Vanne, ' for $7,000 ; and I felt very proud to have secured it. On my return home I called on Mr. Armour and told him I had spent his $5,000 and $2,000 more with it. He very generously told his clerk to draw me a check for $2,000, and has since told me to buy another picture for about $2,000." The speaker then went on to review the interval of years that had elapsed since the first mention of the plan was made which afterward became a reality. "It is going on four years," he said, "since the inception of the plan, and I have done my very best, from the commencement, to build a beautiful structure, such as should stand for ages to come, and to open it with a good, though small, collection of paintings by well-known artists; and I trust the standard will not be lowered in the future, but rather be raised. My gift to the public will, I trust, be of benefit to our working people, as Avell as the more wealthy, since all may come and find pleasure and recreation in paying a visit to the gallery. It will be open to the public, free of charge, three days in the week, and only a small fee of admittance will be charged two days in the week to help pay, in a slight degree, the gallery's running expenses." The speaker added the pious wish that "It is God's.Avill, I trust, that the Avork which He has enabled me to do may prove a lasting benefit and pleasure to the public." The Language of the Gift. — At the conclusion of Air. Layton's remarks he said impressively: "I now wish to deliver to the Trustees of the Layton Art Gallery the deed of the property and building, my gift of oil paintings, and a check on Marshall & Ilsley 's bank for $100,000. The Rev. Dr. Keene, on behalf of the trustees, please accept my gift." The following passages are quotations from the deed of Mr. and Airs. Layton: "Whereas, in pursuance of a cherished plan to devote to the benefit of the City of Milwaukee, and the public, some of the property which he has acquired in business, carried THE PROGRESS OF ART IN MILWAUKEE 705 on in said city, the said Frederick Layton has recently erected a building intended for an art gallery, and has placed therein a number of paintings which he thinks will be valuable for the instruction and gratification of the public; and has also placed therein other paintings and works of art, pre sented by other persons to be placed in the gallery for the same purpose ; and that a corporation has been created for the purpose of maintaining, regulating and managing a public art gallery ; and that the said Frederick Layton believes that his object Avill be accomplished by creating and encouraging among the people of Alihvaukee a taste for the fine arts and affording high and improving gratification to all by the constant exhibition of choice works of art therein. Exempted from Taxation — Opened on Sundays. — At the session of the Leg islature in 1889, an act Avas passed "Exempting from taxation all real and personal property of any public art gallery, or of any corporation created Avith out capital stock, for the sole purpose of maintaining, regulating and manag ing a public art gallery ; provided the public shall have access to such art gal lery, free of charge, not less than three days in each week." This general act, so phrased as to apply to the Layton Art Gallery, was procured to be passed by the trustees, and under its provisions the corporation property has been exempt from taxation. Quoting from the foreAvord of the catalogue the following remarks occur on the subject of Sunday opening: "According to the by-laws as originally made, the gallery was opened to the public without charge three days in each Aveek, and on two clays an admission fee of 25 cents was charged. It AA'as not opened on Sunday. Later the usefulness and convenience of opening the gal lery at least part of the day on Sunday, was urged in the public press and otherwise, with such effect that at a special meeting of the trustees, held November 2, 1891, called by the president for the purpose of determining the question of opening the gallery on Sundays, after full consideration, a resolu tion Avas adopted that the gallery be opened to the public, without charge for admission, on the afternoons of Sunday, for the period of one year, the pur pose being to determine, by trial, the usefulness and convenience of the change. The result has been that the gallery has continued to be open on Sunday afternoons ever since." Air. Layton died August 16, 1919, at the age of ninety-two years. He came to Milwaukee in 1845. aidHax oinosvh aooAVNax aHX aadnax AaaaNVMPioo aoHNVAi hhx CHAPTER XLI NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS It goes without saying that the press is an indispensable factor in the social, civic and economic development of the community. Milwaukee has been fortunate ¦ in the charter of the men who have been behind its newspaper publishing enterprises. These men have not only produced newspapers as good as the town could afford to support, but they have in the main been actuated by honorable motives. They have always been loyal to community interests. Beyond local circulation possibilities the Milwaukee newspaper field has had its limitations. The Chicago newspapers circulate quite liberally in South ern Wisconsin while the St. Paul and Minneapolis papers enter the north western part of the state. The North is as yet sparsely settled and the lake, as newspaper men have put it, offers no subscribers. Thus, the Milwaukee newspapers have been obliged to operate in what has seemed a restricted field. For a time, too, the newspapers printed in the English language had to con tend against a large foreign population. Forty years ago there were more dailies printed in the German than there were in the English language. Today the number of German dailies has been reduced to one, the Herold, and the English dailies number four, the Sentinel, Journal, Wisconsin News, and the Leader. Besides, the first three mentioned publish large Sunday editions. The history of the Milwaukee newspapers from the time the first daily made its appearance, including those that have come and gone, or rather were absorbed by other publications, is largely embodied in the story of the Sentinel and the Wisconsin News. Their beginning dates back before the middle of the last century. The newspaper which embodies no consolidations, and is still conducted by the man who founded the same is the Milwaukee Journal. It was established at a later period, but its founder, Lucius W. Nieman, has reared the enterprise into a large and influential newspaper. The Leader, which is the Socialist organ, is the youngest among the dailies. With the increase in population, of both city and state, and the gradual change from a foreign to an English reading constituency, the aggregate cir culation of the leading dailies has grown quite large. The newspapers, too, in size and content, compare well with the great metropolitan dailies of the country. The public demand for prompt service in the several departments of news, foreign, national, and state, besides a complete daily record of local happen ings, with highly specialized columns on financial, sporting and social mat ters, coupled with a largely increased cost of production, has rendered news papers larger and somewhat more hazardous undertakings. The tendency has, 707 708 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE therefore, been in the direction of fewer newspaper enterprises, whose daily product is more bulky in size and enjoys a larger circulation. In placing an estimate upon the press of Alilwaukee an "editorial evening" was provided by the Merchants and Manufacturers Association, NoA'ember 30, 1915, Avhen William George Bruce advanced the folloAving thoughts: "I have been requested to say something on this occasion about the public press, pre sumably because I am frequently dubbed as an old newspaper man and be cause in my capacity as an association executive I am in daily touch AA'ith the newspaper representatives. "Having been on both sides of the fence — a representative of the press and a patron of the press — I may approach the subject of the evening Avith greater sympathy and interest, but certainly Avith some appreciation of its scope and importance. An Indispensable Medium of Intelligence. — "It is -well conceded that, in the development of the American city, the modern press is an all poAverful factor. As a medium of intelligence it is indispensable. It not only connects the city with an outside world but it also keeps it in touch AA'ith itself. It diagnoses the body politic daily and hourly. It keeps the community informed on its own physical and moral condition. But, it goes further. It becomes the daily recorder of the deeds of an entire civilized world. "The importance of the press grows Avith the enlargement of the com munity, Avith the development of its industrial and commercial activities and Avith the adA'ancement of its civic and social life. It records not only the cur rent achievements of civilization but it also records its failures and short comings. "Alany of the lessons which we haA'e taken to heart and which have guided us in our course in life have been unconsciously imbibed from the daily press. If we have evaded pitfalls and errors it is because Ave have been told of those who fell into them. If Ave have been stimulated into Avholesome action it is be cause we have learned through the examples set by others. In the newspaper we have before us that daily picture of a striving and struggling world, with its story of actual life, Avith all its lights and shadoAvs, its laughter and its tears, with soul stirring examples and its eternal lessons. Intimate Part of Ourselves. — "The press is so much an essential part of our daily diet and of our routine life as to become an intimate fraction of our very selves. But, because it is all this it becomes more difficult for us to dissociate ourselves for the time being and place an adequate estimate upon its value, its importance and its service. We note minor shortcomings and accept the larger service without comment. In going over the printed page Ave grunt more often than we applaud. "And yet, in subserving our economic, civic and social wellbeing we owe a greater debt to the modern neAvspaper than is absolved in the mere pay ment of a subscription bill. The press as a Avhole is ahvays several paces in advance of the community its serves. It always expresses the ambitions and aspirations of the collective citizenship in a voice that rings louder and clearer than all other voices. Press Supports the City. — "The press of Alihvaukee has supported loyally NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 709 every departure, project or enterprise looking toAvards the material, civic and moral welfare of the community. It has given unstintingly of its space, of its brains and of its efforts to keep the AA'heels of progress moving and to enhance the prestige, the power and the prosperity of the city. "Every movement of a public character affecting the material or moral progress of the city has had the support of the press not merely as a news making factor, but has also had its enthusiastic championship because of the laudable purpose involved. "One among many instances of a high minded and unselfish tendency on the part of the local press may be recorded here by recalling the recent con vention of the Wisconsin State Teachers Association. The newspapers were most laA'ish in the space they devoted to the cause of popular education. I am certain that the sale of extra copies would not pay for one-hundredth part of the extra expense invoh'ed in reporting the transactions of this convention. But, the publication of the addresses and speeches delivered at this great edu cational gathering proved a splendid stimulus to the educational activities of the city and the state. The press here made a magnificent contribution to the cause of popular education. "Some one 'may here say that the newspaper OAves its constituency just such service. I agree that the newspaper must print the news of the day and to the end that its prints that news fully and accurately it meets its obligations. But, haA'ing met that obligation its service in promoting a great cause, in launching a laudable movement or in fostering desirable ends and purposes, the press confers something which the public has not paid for. "The neAvspaper is essentially a community asset. It may make or mar that progress AA'hich depends upon a wholesome public sentiment and upon unity of purpose and action. It wields- an influence upon the industrial and commercial life of the city as it does upon the civic and moral life. As a fixed and indispensable institution, therefore, it deserves that popular support which may add to its efficiency, its usefulness and its prestige." The Reporter as a Public Servant. — In discussing the newspaper reporter Air. Bruce Avrote in November, 1915, in "Once a Year," published by the Press Club, as follows: "In discussing the subject indicated in the heading of this short article, I proceed primarily upon the thought that the modern neAvspaper reporter requires no defense. He is a fixed and recognized institu tion. But, there is not a man or Avoman who has not, at some one time, ven tured an opinion or formed a conclusion, as to his status, his character, his moth'es and his service. "Such conclusions are usually based upon some long range experience, upon sins of omission and commission as reflected by the printed page or upon some general, unconsciously imbibed, impressions gathered through news paper reading. The man AA'ho, once in a lifetime, comes in actual contact with a newspaper reporter is either charmed or alarmed by his presence or his mission because he is asked to establish either a pleasant or unpleasant truth. "And here is the beginning of divergent viewpoints. The neAvspaper is constantly engaged in printing things you do not want to see and in omitting 710 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE things you want to see. You differ radically on the question of inclusion and exclusion. The reporter must be to blame. He writes either too much or not enough about the things that concern us ; he is either too darned fresh in telling how we were fined for speeding or too indifferent about that public function in Avhich Ave figured so prominently. His sense of proportion is woefully lack ing. In the ratio that we are pleased or displeased with him or his newspaper he is either a brilliant genius or a confounded ignoramus. "As one who is interviewed by seven reporters seven days every week and routed out of bed by them every seventh night, subjected to all sorts of ques tions — some of which I answer, some of which I cannot answer, and some of AA'hich I Avill not answer — I am perhaps entitled to some expression of opinion upon them. "To discuss the status of the reporter means to discuss the status of the press. This status is so obvious, so palpable, so plain, that any discussion would seem superfluous. And yet confusing notions exist and manifest themselves constantly. The relation between the press and the public is frequently and grossly misinterpreted. "When you buy a newspaper you buy recorded neAvs matter. The pub lisher has sold it to you and is morally bound to give it to you — namely, all the news. If you demand news, you are also, impliedly at least, bound to give neAvs, if it is in your keeping. This obligation is multiplied into so many thou sand-fold that the entire public is bound up in the bargain. "Or, put it the other way. If the neAvspaper is under contract with the public to print the news then that same public cannot consistently withhold the news. As a constituent part of the public, you are bound to this unwritten agreement. Thus, the reporter is not only the representative of the publisher, but also becomes the agent of the public. "The reporter then must be accepted as the accredited representative of the public Avho has the right to extract from you the neAA's in your possession. His function is clear, his rights established. You may like him, you may loathe him ; he is there and will remain there at his post, day and night, to serve you and the whole public. "The man avIio is in a public or semi-public position must expect to be ex posed to that greatest of all interrogation marks, the neAvspaper reporter. He cannot consistently dodge him, nor ought he to dodge him. In fact, he ought to be absolutely frank with him to the end of being helpful to him. "Experience has taught that the neAvspaper man is honorable, that it is wise to be frank with him and that it is safe to confide in him. This has fre quently been said by public men. I can only repeat it. He will postpone the publication of matter or the editor may suppress it entirely if well grounded reasons for such course are presented. He Avill not betray a confidence. He aims to be accurate and truthful. "In forming an estimate of the modern neAvspaper man it should be remem bered first, that, primarily, he is human like yourself, and, therefore, subject to the failings of the average mankind, and, second, that he possesses the un disputed right to get every vestige of neAvs that is Avithin his reach. That is NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 711 his vocation, which rests upon legitimate motives and is designed to lead to proper ends. "This does not preclude your right or mine to hold to our own notions regarding what a newspaper ought to be, what ideals it ought to foster and what manner and method the reporter ought to adopt. But, let us remember that time and condition shape all things. The modern newspaper is the prod uct of human desire, the result of an evolution and the fruit of a wholesome tendency. It is an institution which is exactly what we, the collective indi vidual, have made it. It is a daily reflector of ourselves and our activities, of our failings and shortcomings as Avell as of our virtues, our strength and our achievements." The Milwaukee Sentinel. — The history of The Sentinel is well told by George Lounsbury, the present leading editorial AA'riter of that publication, Avho says : The Milwaukee Sentinel, the oldest daily newspaper except one, in the North Avest, was founded in 1837 by Solomon Juneau, first white settler, trader, post master and the first mayor of the incorporated City of Milwaukee. The first recorded history concerning The Sentinel is found in the Green Bay Intelligence of Alarch 3, 1837, in the form of an announcement, by John O'Rourke, a young printer chosen by Mr. Juneau to launch the new venture, of his intention to publish ' ' in the town of Milwaukie on the fifteenth of June next or as soon as materials can be procured from New York, a weekly news paper under the title of The Milwaukie Sentinel. ' ' In accordance with this advertisement, the first issue of The Sentinel was given to the public on June 27, 1837. It was, for those days, a publication of high quality, printed on excellent paper in new and handsome type and Avas a worthy beginning of a notable career. Mr. Juneau did not figure publicly as the owner or backer of the new paper. Mr. O'Rourke 's name appeared as the publisher and Philo White, who had obtained an interest in the new venture, was named as editor. White, however, does not appear to have been especially active, for shortly after the birth of the paper he went East remaining for several months, and leaving O'Rourke to discharge the duties of both positions. The young publisher, however, was not spared long to enjoy the success with which The Sentinel was greeted on its appearance. A victim of tuber culosis, he soon found his strength failing so that it was impossible to carry on the double task he had attempted. Harrison Reed was called in to act as editor and Air. O'Rourke confined himself to the business and mechanical de partments of the paper, continuing this labor even after he had become so ill that he was forced to direct the work from a cot in the composing room. On December 5, 1837, 0 'Rourke died, at the age of twenty-four years, and in February, 1838, Harrison Reed, who had continued to conduct The Sentinel after the death of the publisher, became the editor of the paper. During the two years that followed, Air. Juneau withdreAv his assistance from the paper and stormy relations developed between Reed and Philo White, culminating in the summer of 1840 in the purchase by Reed of White 's interest and his accession to full oAvnership of The Sentinel. From its inception The Sent;nel had been a democratic paper, but on No- 712 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE vember 30, 1840, Editor Reed announced that it would henceforth support the AA-hig party. The folloAving summer, in the midst of a congressional campaign, AA'hile Reed Avas absent from Alilwaukee, certain influential democrats, by the foreclosure of a mortgage, obtained control of the paper and transformed it into a democratic organ, bitterly attacking the congressional candidate which had been favored by it up to that time. This caused intense bitterness of feel ing and led to the establishment of a whig paper under the editorship of Elisha Starr, one of the vigorous and outstanding characters of early Alilwaukee, who was afterAvard identified with The Sentinel. Reed managed to regain control of The Sentinel in October, 1841, and turned it back again into the whig highway, but financial difficulties beset him and on Alay 7, 1842, he sold the paper to Air. Starr, who made many improvements and instituted neAv methods AA'hich added largely to the strength and popular ity of the paper. Starr, however, had his troubles, including keen competition and lack of money, and in November, 1843, he was forced to dispose of the paper to David AI. Keeler and John S. Fillmore, who really put The Sentinel on the map as an established institution of the community and of the NorthAvest. On December 9, 1844, Keeler and Fillmore, with extraordinary faith in the future of their little community, established The Sentinel as a daily neAvs paper, the first to be published in the entire Northwest, Avith the exception of the Chicago Journal, AA'hose first publication antedated the Daily Sentinel by a little more that eight months, and started it on its long career as one of the leading daily papers of the country, a career in which for four score years not an issue of the paper has failed to appear, despite Avars, financial troubles, political disturbances, fires and the other -casualties of neAvspaper life. On January 23, 1845, The Sentinel established a free reading room from which later developed the Young Alen's Library Association to which is due the present Milwaukee Public Library of AA'hich Alihvaukee is so justly proud. The establishment of this reading room Avas Air. Keeler 's final contribution to newspaper history in Milwaukee for shortly after he retired, leaving the paper in the hands of Air. Fillmore and Jason Downer, a distinguished laAvyer, avIio afterAvard became a justice of the Supreme Court. Air. Downer assumed edi torial charge, but soon found the Avork irksome. He absented himself from the city on business and professional trips and in those periods the paper was anonymously but brilliantly edited. While no historic record is aA'ailable, the citizens of that day credited this admirable Avork to Increase A. Lapham and there seems to be excellent ground for the opinion that he Avas responsible, not only for the editorials but for a sprightly feature column Avhich attracted Avide attention. Air. Fillmore Avas a man of energy and vision and he did much to build up The Scnutinel. It was he Avho introduced the street neAvsboy to Alihvaukee, the first of these youthful business men making his appearance on June 30, 1845. On April 30, 1845, the most important event in early Sentinel history is recorded Avhen Rufus King, a distinguished journalist, AA'ho had been filling the editorial chair of the Albany Journal, arrived in Alihvaukee to become the NEWSPAPERS, QLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 713 editor of The Sentinel, a position which he adorned until his retirement in 1861 to begin the career of national usefulness which gave luster to his name. General King's influence naturally tended to improve The Sentinel greatly and it was not long before the neAvspaper in the little frontier town had estab lished a national reputation. General King, early in 1846, became an owner of the paper in partnership with AY. D. Wilson, under the firm name of Wilson & King. Changes and improvements were rapid and constant under General King's administration. On October 28, 1846, the first power press in the NorthAvest was erected in The Sentinel press rooms, adding greatly to the appearance of the paper and to the mechanical efficiency of its equipment. A large exchange list became a feature of the paper and the neAvs service was greatly improved and extended. January 15, 1848, the first telegraphic dispatch received in Alilwaukee was ticked off in The Sentinel office, in the presence of most of the notables of the city. November 21, 1851, marked the date of the first professional dramatic performance in the city, an event which was duly heralded in The Sentinel the following morning. In 1S48 Wilson and King dissolved partnership, and the latter became sole owner of the paper, AA'hich for some time had been known as The Sentinel and Gazette. In October, 1848, General King took in W. J. A. Fuller as a partner, the partnership continuing until July 28, 1851, when its dissolution was an nounced. General King was again sole owner until October of that year when John S. Fillmore and William H. Watson became associated with him. At this time the name Gazette was dropped from the title of the paper. In 1854 The Sentinel embraced the faith of the new born republican party as did most of the whig papers of that day. December 11, 1856, The Sentinel observed its twelfth anniversary as a daily and in its review of the business of the paper published on that clay some inter esting figures are given. It began with a circulation of from 300 to 400 as a small five-column sheet. In twelve years it had attained a circulation of 1,600 and the population of Milwaukee had increased from 7,000 to 40,000. The value of The Sentinel when the daily was established was said to have been about $2,000. In 1856 it was valued at $25,000 or $30,000, employing forty persons, with a weekly payroll of about $300 and total expenses of about $700 a week. Mr. Fillmore sold his interest in The Sentinel to General King in 1856 and on July 8, 1857, Mr. Watson sold his share in the paper to T. D. Jermain and Horace Brightman, Avho became King's partners under the firm name of King, Jermain & Brightman. The following January King sold his interest to them, remaining, however, as editor. Jermain and Brightman were newspaper men of ability and energy. They increased the staff and introduced many innova tions. Soon after the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln, in 1861, came neAvs that General King had been appointed minister to Rome, and within a short time the distinguished editor who had been so long one of its most honored citizens, left Milwaukee. His departure was the occasion for a great public reception 714 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE at the Newhall House. As the world knoAvs, however, General King did not go to Rome, but instead became an officer in the army serving with a gallantry and distinction which reflected its glory on his old home city. General King was succeeded as editor of The Sentinel by C. Latham Sholes, now known to history as the inventor of the typewriter, who conducted the paper throughout the exciting period of the CiA'il Avar. This period was one of great prosperity for The Sentinel, which met the exigencies of the time with extra editions and special news facilities AA'hich greatly increased its circulation and influence. In 1863, it became clear that the rapidly groAving business of The Sentinel required new and larger quarters, and the property on Mason Street, where the present Sentinel Building stands, was purchased and a building of extraor dinary quality for those times Avas erected, AA'hich for years was one of the show places of the city. With the exception of the year 1893, when the present Sentinel Building was under construction, The Sentinel has been housed on the same site ever since. The first Sentinel office was in the upper story of a small frame building located at about the north end of the present Black Block on East Water Street, near Wisconsin. In 1838 the paper removed to a little frame building at the northeast corner of East Water and Wisconsin streets. In October, 1839, it moved again to rooms above the store of Harrison Reed's father at what is now about 390 East Water Street. In January, 1840, another move Avas made, this time to a new frame building erected at the southAvest corner of Wisconsin and East Water streets. Here The Sentinel remained until May 21, 1849, Avhen it was removed to the second, third and fourth stories of what was known as the Ludington Block, on ground now occupied by the north twenty feet of the Trust Company Building. So that during the eighty odd years of its life The Sentinel has ahvays been a feature of the immediate neighborhood in which it first saAv the light. In 1865 Mr. Sholes left the paper and Avas succeeded by Charles W. Willard, who after a brief period resigned and was succeeded by Hayden K. Smith and A. C. Botkin, avIio directed the editorial page from 1867 to 1870. In 1870, Mr. Jermain having retired shortly before, Air. Brightman sold The Sentinel to the Milwaukee Publishing Company, the first corporation to possess the paper, and returned to his old home in Alichigan. A. M. Thomson, W. C. Roberts and C. AY. Wilcox figure as the incorporators of the new company and Mr. Thomson became editor in chief. It Avas known, however, that several Avell known citizens were interested, among them Mat thew H. Carpenter, Wisconsin's brilliant senator. On March 3, 1873, Mr. Thomson put into execution a long cherished plan to establish a Sunday Sentinel. The first issues were Avell received but the publication languished and was suspended on October 5th of the same year. It Avas not until November 9, 1879, that The Sunday Sentinel Avas perman ently established. Political animosities and factional troubles forced Air. Thomson out of The Sentinel in 1874. Editorial authority Avas resumed by A. C. Botkin, with Dr. J. L. Kaine as associate editor. In 1877 Air. Botkin decided to go NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 715 west for the benefit of his health and Doctor Kaine succeeded to the editor's chair, serving until 1880. Then came a rapid succession of editors, namely, Amos Wright, W. C. Clark, T. W. Haight and Elijah W. Halford. The tenure of each of these gentlemen was brief and in 1882 The Sentinel was purchased by the owners of The Republican News. On May 22, 1882, the paper appeared under the hyphenated title of The Republican-Sentinel, which style was main tained until the following New Year day when it was changed back to The Milwaukee Sentinel. Horace W. Rublee, another of the distinguished citizens who figure in The Sentinel's history, was the editor of the paper under the new ownership and continued brilliantly and ably to guide its destinies until his death on October 18, 1896. On January 1, 1883, The Sentinel erected a new Scott perfecting press, the first machine of this kind to be installed in Wisconsin. The necessity for a new building became evident in the next few years, and in August, 1892, the old building was razed, The Sentinel temporarily removing to the Standard Paper Company Building on Broadway. Work was immediately begun on the present Sentinel Building, which was completed and occupied in December, 1893. On Air. Rublee 's death, editorial charge of the paper was assumed by Harry P. Myrick, who had long been identified with the paper as telegraph editor, news editor and managing editor, and Mr. Myrick continued to dis charge this duty until he left to become the editor of the Milwaukee Free Press, established in June, 1901. On February 18, 1901, The Sentinel again changed hands, passing into the possession of the present owner, Charles F. Pfister. Lansing Warren, a bril-- liant and able newspaper man from Chicago, was made publisher of the paper, George H. Clement, managing editor, and Edgar T. Wheelock headed a large and capable staff of editorial writers. Death cut short Mr. Warren's ambitious plans, however, for he succumbed to typhoid fever in the summer of 1901. On his death, Air. Clement became publisher, W. J. Kuecker was business manager and M. C. Douglas managing editor. Mr. Clement retired in 1903 and John L. Foley became the business manager of the paper soon afterward. On March 1, 1909, the All Day Sentinel was inaugurated, giving the paper afternoon as well as morning editions and adding largely to the influence and advertising patronage. In 1908 Mr. Douglas retired as managing editor and was succeeded by John Poppendieck, Jr., who had been a member of the editorial organization for many years and had served as city editor and assistant managing editor. Soon after Mr. Douglas' retirement, Edward G. Johnson, who had been associated with the paper as an editorial writer since June, 1901, became the editor of the paper, serving in that capacity until his retirement on August 15, 1921. He was succeeded by George Lounsbury. On the retirement of Air. Foley as business manager in 1911, Mr. Poppen dieck took over the responsibilities of that position and has held the dual position of managing editor and business manager ever since. In November, 1917, The Evening Sentinel was established, to take the place 716 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE of the afternoon editions of the All Day Sentinel, thus making an evening paper entirely separate and distinct from the morning issues, another development Avhich has added largely to the prestige and growth of the paper. William George Bruce, Avho was connected with the publication during the years from 1880 to 1891 on January 26, 1917, contributed a sidelight on a transi tion period in its history under the title of "A Page of Sentinel History," as follows : "The daily newspaper is a familiar guest, Avhom Ave respect as something that lives and breathes apart from man himself. And yet it is a composite of men Avhich comes to you daily, in the guise of sheets of printed paper, to tell you AA'hat the world has been thinking and doing. The reader sees only the finished product, the maker sees the process of production. "In the light of eleven years of active inside service with the Sentinel, the story of its beginnings, its gradual rise and its eminent success, comes to me Avith exceptional appeal. It Avas during the years of 1880 to 1891 AA'hen the Sentinel Avent through a transition period, that I held a responsible position Avith the same. "It Avas during this period of the Sentinel's history that it rose from a starvation to a self-sustaining basis, Avhen it scrapped its old-time printing paraphernalia and introduced typesetting machines, fast printing presses and modern methods in its mechanical equipment. The job printing department and the book bindery were sold, and the entire building was given over to the production of a neAvspaper on more modern lines. "This transition period also involved a disputed OAvnership. The Sentinel Company Avas then headed by NeAvton S. Alurphy as president and Samuel AleCord as secretary. Their control was questioned by a body of men con sisting of Charles Ray, Charles F. Ilsley, Jerome R. Brigham, Henry C. Payne and others. A legal contest ensued, AA'hich Avas never carried to its ultimate conclusion. By adjustment the control Avent to the latter body of men. "They had purchased the Alihvaukee Ncavs, a democratic morning paper, Avhich was as old as the Sentinel and had been its only competitor in the morning field, called it the Republican and Ncavs, and changed its political creed from democratic to republican. Ultimately, the paper Avas merged into the Sentinel. "When I first came to the Sentinel, W. G. Roberts Avas the business man ager, and Louis Durr the adA'ertising manager. Lucius W. Nieman, iioav OAvner of the Journal, Avas the managing editor, and Dr. J. L. Kaine, the principal editorial AA'riter. Mehin A. Hoyt, later OAvner of the Daily News, served as Waukesha correspondent. Henry Bleyer Avas the neAvs editor. With the change of OAA'nership, Horace Rublee became the editor-in-chief, Henry P. Myrick became the city editor. During that period, James D. Boyd Avas the business manager for a feAv years and Avas later succeeded by Chauncey W. Gates. "AYhen I speak of a starvation period I have in mind the hand to mouth existence of the paper. Alany a Saturday night the business manager, book keeper and cashier — I Avas the cashier — Avent home Avithout their payroll en velopes. The printers, pressmen, editors and reporters had to be paid first. NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 717 On Alonday morning we hurried about to collect our week's bills from the dry goods houses and theaters in order to cover our overdraft at the bank and pay our own salaries. "With a background of eleven years of experience on the inner side of a neAvspaper, I see something more than does the average reader in the finished product as it comes to the breakfast table. BetAveen the printed lines comes the A'ision of a body of men in shirt sleeves, AA-riting at desks, clicking type setting machines, feeding rolls of paper into presses, packing, addressing, shipping, carrying, etc. — all Avorking to one common end, namely, to serve the reader. "The Sentinel has seiwed its constituency long, faithfully and well. It is an essential part of the economic, civic and social life of the community — an institution that reflects the activities, the progress and the aspirations of an entire people. Alay it continue its great mission as a metropolitan neAvs paper, receh-e the support and cooperation it so Avell deserves and that Avill enable it to render at all times the highest measure of service, and thus con tinue to promote the city's power, prestige and progress." The Wisconsin News. — The history of the Daily Wisconsin Ncavs is a record of persistent journalistic effort sustained continuously throughout the course of Alilwaukee 's development from the status of an ambitious village to that of a great city. It begins with the first issue of the first newspaper of the budding metropolis, The Advertiser, a six-column Aveeklv, July 14, 1836. The publisher of The Advertiser was Daniel H. Richards, a native of Burlington, N. Y., who was then in his twenty-eighth year. He Avas a printer who after learning his trade in Canada had ventured westward to Peoria, 111., there to engage in merchandizing for short time, until opportunity at Alil waukee lured him back to his chosen vocation. Here he found at its height the boom Avhich Avas to be deflated by the panic of 1837 and carry down prices of realty from levels that in many instances were not regained for nearly half a century. There was intense rivalry between the residents of the east and Avest sides of Alilwaukee River, and Air. Richards settled on the west side and allied his interests with that section, then known as Kilbourntown. Naturally the east siders were discomfited, and would have Avelcomed opportunity to purchase The Advertiser and remove it across the river. Mr. Richards was assisted in editing The Advertiser by Hans Crocker, a man of legal training AA'ho Avas conspicuously active in the new community, and he was encouraged also with contributions from men of prominence, among them Byron Kilbourn, Increase A. Lapham, Dr. R. I. Barber and John H. Tweedy. The launching of a newspaper enterprise was a far more difficult under taking in those days than at present, because paper and supplies for almost a year had to be purchased and brought from the East by comparatively slow transit. Lean years followed the panic of 1837, and the experiences of Mr. Rich ards' newspaper were not such as to engender enthusiastic optimism; but he 718 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE persisted with The Advertiser, latterly Avith the aid of Solomon C. Enos, who Avas associated with him in 1840 as editor and printer. Tavo years previously Josiah A. Noonan, who had been employed on The Advertiser as a printer, and who also had been a contributor to its col umns, purchased printing materials and went to Aladison, where he began the publication of The Wisconsin Enquirer. He was a typesetter who had Avorked in NeAv York City as rack-mate with Horace Greeley and established a warm friendship Avith the future editor and publicist that endured for life. His venture at Aladison proved unremunerative, and became so unpromising that in 1841 he suspended publication of the Enquirer and shipped his outfit back to Milwaukee, Avhere his reappearance suggested possible competition; and as Air. Richards Avas in a mood for retirement rather than a struggle for supremacy in a scant field, he sold The Advertiser to Air. Noonan and retired to land holdings on the west side, there for the remainder of his career to devote himself to his private business and to the upbuilding of the city through active personal interest in civic affairs. Air. Richards announced his retirement March 20, 1841, and Air. Noonan in assuming control on March 27th changed the name of the paper to The Courier, making it a vigorous weekly publication. With the issue of The Courier for September 21, 1842, the name of George Hyer appeared in its columns as half-owner and associate editor, and The Courier was enlarged to a seven-column folio; but this partnership was of short duration, ending February 8, 1843. Meanwhile Mr. Noonan had been taking an active interest in politics, and had become a political figure of so much influence that in 1843 he Avas appointed postmaster by President Tyler, to succeed Solomon Juneau. This appointment foreshadowed Noonan 's retirement from journal ism, and at the first opportunity, May 14, 1S45, he withdrew from The Courier, turning the paper over to William H. Sullivan, who became publisher, Avith John A. BroAA'n, a man who had had newspaper experience at Rockford, 111., as editor. Recovering from the effects of the panic of 1837, Alihvaukee began to in crease in population to an extent that seemed to Avarrant a daily issue, and accordingly, on the 19th of March, 1846, The Courier was made a morning newspaper. But the venture Avas premature, and on the 9th of July, in the same year, The Courier receded to the estate of a weekly newspaper, where it remained until February 22, 1847, when it was made The Evening Courier, boasting in its first issue the patronage of 300 paid-up subscribers. This second venture as a daily neAvspaper again strained the tenuous financial hold of the ambitious OAvners, and they reluctantly resumed Aveekly issue. They then yielded to circumstances, and on June 2, 1847, for the sum of $2,000, transferred The Courier to William E. Cramer and Joseph Curtis, who had come from the State of New York for the purpose of founding a democratic newspaper. The new OAA'ners assumed control June 8th, and changed the name of the paper to The Daily Wisconsii. Mr. Cramer was a young man, a native of Waterford, N. Y., AA'ho had fitted himself for a career at the bar before he yielded to a liking for journalism and joined the staff of The Albany Argus, NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 719 then the leading democratic neAvspaper of the Empire State. He came to Alilwaukee Avith the prestige of this newspaper experience and correlative association with such political luminaries as Silas Wright, John A. Dix, Governor William L. Alarcy, Horatio Seymour, Samuel J. Tilden and ex- President Alartin Van Buren, and quickly achieved prominence. Air. Curtis was a newspaperman of Rochester, N. Y., Avell grounded upon practical ex perience that enabled him to conduct the business department with enterprise and economy; but notwithstanding success from the start he found his sur roundings uncongenial, and on September 17, 1850, sold his interest in The Daily Wisconsin to C. S. Hurley, AA'ho assumed the business management. The partnership of Cramer & Hurley continued only until November 1, 1852, Avhen Air. Cramer purchased Air. Hurley's interest and became sole proprietor, assuming control that he Avas destined to hold for a period of more than fifty years. Air. Cramer came Avest as a democrat, but later he gave support to the cause of the whigs, and then became a steadfast republican. He was a re markable man in his profession because for the greater portion of his life as a journalist his sight and hearing were badly impaired, and toward the end of his career he was virtually blind and deaf. Despite this physical handicap he was well informed and always in close touch with political and economic activities. In 1854 there appeared in Alihvaukee a young man who was to take a large part in the future of The Daily Wisconsin — Andrew J. Aikens, a native of Barnard, Vt., who had had newspaper experience in his native state and in Alassachusetts, and more recently in New York City, on the staff of The Evening Post, by which paper he was sent west as a correspondent. Mr. Aikens at once became enamored of Milwaukee and deeply impressed with the opportunities for adA-ancement in his chosen work, and severing his relations Avith The Evening Post he became the first secretary of the Chamber of Com merce and later a member of The Daily Wisconsin's staff, as city and com mercial editor. Air. Cramer noted Mr. Aikens' energy and business tact, and in 1857 made him business manager. In 1864 John F. Cramer joined his uncle in the publication of The Daily Wisconsin, and the firm became William E. & John F. Cramer. At this juncture Air. Aikens conceived an improvement on the English method of printing auxiliary newspapers, the reservation of space for advertising, the compensation for which at times was sufficient to pay for his patrons the en tire cost of the white paper. These sheets were called "patent insides." Mr. Aikens was admitted to partnership, and the firm of Cramer, Aikens & Cramer began publishing "patent insides" as the pioneer house in the business. Eventually as many as 8,000 newspapers in the United States were printed on this plan. Mr. Aikens founded for himself and his partners what were called "Newspaper Unions," in Chicago, New York, Cincinnati, Nashville, Atlanta and Memphis, for the printing of auxiliary sheets, and from these establishments under his management more than two thousand newspapers received their "ready print." It is proper that this adjunct of the business of the paper, which shortly 720 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE afterAvards Avas named The Evening Wisconsin, should be accorded a place in the newspaper's history, as the Avork on the "patent insides" issued from Alihvaukee Avas done in the neAvspaper 's plant, and the profits of this immense side enterprise served to sustain the neAvspaper during periods of business stringency. For many years semi-weekly and Aveekly issues AA'ere put forth by The Evening Wisconsin, which maintained them with success until improvement in neAA's and mail facilities made daily issues so popular in rural districts that Aveekly neAvspapers in the larger centers were compelled to enter the daily field or go out of existence. When William E. Cramer died in 1905 his AA'idoAv, Harriet L. Cramer, Avas elected president of The Evening Wisconsin Company, the corporate name that had been taken on by the old firm, and she continued the publication of the paper Avith Mr. Aikens and John F. Cramer in the business office, and John G. Gregory as editor. Air. Aikens survived the senior partner only four years, and after his death, in 1909, Mrs. Cramer Avas assisted in the manage ment by John F. Cramer and John W. Campsie. This arrangement continued for nine years, until June, 1918, AA'hen Airs. Cramer and her associates in the corporation disposed of The Evening AYis consin to William H. Park, who up to the previous year had been one of the owners and publishers of The Mihvaukee Daily News. Before the close of the year Mr. Park and those associated with him sold The Evening AYisconsin to Arthur Brisbane, editor of The New York Journal and other Hearst neAA'S- papers, AA'ho thereupon assumed editorial direction of the paper. During the fall of 1918 Mr. Brisbane bought also The Mihvaukee Daily NeAvs and The Alilwaukee Free Press Avith a view to simplify the neAvspaper situation in the city, and in December of that year the consolidation of these properties Avas effected. The Mihvaukee Daily News grew out of The Alihvaukee Labor ReA'ieAv, a small weekly edited by William H. Park, aa'Iio in March, 1887, began daily publication. Two years later Air. Park took A. Al. Hoyt into partnership, at the same time changing the name of the paper to The Milwaukee Daily News. At first independent in politics, but later espousing democratic, doc trines, The Daily News Avon a large patronage in labor circles, and Avas the first Milwaukee daily newspaper to sell for 1 cent. The Mihvaukee Free Press Company was incorporated in the spring of 1901, and the first issue of The Free Press appeared June 18th of that year. Isaac Stephenson, a wealthy lumberman AA'ho later became United States senator, was its chief financial backer, but several prominent Milwaukee financiers also were among its stockholders. It AA'as born of factional division in the republican party of Wisconsin, and its avoAved purpose was to proA'ide a mouthpiece for the progressive movement, and especially to further the political fortunes of its champion, Robert M. La Follette. Under the editorial direction of Harry P. Myrick, The Free Press Avas notably successful in pro moting its cause until differences betAA'een Senator La Follette and Senator Stephenson led to a change of policy. Shortly after the outbreak of the European war, Senator Stephenson de- NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 721 cided to sell the paper, and after extended negotiations it Avas purchased by a group of eighty prominent Mihvaukee business men. The neAv OAvners, knoAvn as The Free Press Corporation, took charge early in the year 1915, Avith E. H. Kronshage as editor. The paper Avas opposed to participation in the war and therefore it advocated the maintenance of strict neutrality on the part of the Government at Washington. During this particular period The Free Press had the largest circulation in its history. The Daily NeAvs and The Free Press Avere discontinued by Air. Brisbane, who issued from the plant of The EA-ening Wisconsin a paper entitled The Evening AYisconsin and Daily News, and later, after various minor changes, made the name The Daily Wisconsin NeAvs. Then, after somewhat more than a year of ownership, during AA'hich time the paper had nearly tripled its cir culation, Air. Brisbane disposed of his interest to William Randolph Hearst, who assumed ownership in November, 1919. Hector H. Elwell is the managing editor and J. H. Lederer the publisher of the The Wisconsin News. During all these various changes of ownership the name of the publishing corporation remained The Evening Wisconsin Company, and the Avord "AYis consin" has been part of the paper's title since William E. Cramer undertook its publication June 8, 1847. Alore than that, as this historical resume shows, The Wisconsin News can trace its lineage without break in publication to the first neAvspaper published in. Alilwaukee — The Advertiser, founded July 14, 1836. Since Air. Hearst acquired The Wisconsin News a Sunday edition, named The Sunday Alilwaukee Telegram, has been added. The Milwaukee Journal. — There is no criterion of a city AA'hich is applied more frequently than the standing and quality of its daily neAvspapers. The Alihvaukee Journal is everywhere recognized as the chief newspaper of its city and its state. In its country, eA'en beyond its country's limits, The Journal is recognized as one of the foremost of American newspapers. For forty years The Journal's fortunes and policies have been directed by the man Avho founded it. L. W. Nieman was its editor in chief and con trolling oAA-ner at its birth and is now. There are few instances like this in American journalism. It Avas in 1882 that Air. Nieman, who already had made his mark in Avest ern journalism, determined to start in Mihvaukee a newspaper independent of the many special interests AA'hich made the press of the time a thing to be doubted rather than believed. He chose Mihvaukee because he kneAv and liked the city. Here he had risen from the rank of reporter to that of man aging editor of The Sentinel. He is a native of Southern Wisconsin and this fact likeAvise influenced him. He chose the year 1882 because tAvo of the then existing dailies — The Sentinel and The Republican News — had just consoli dated. At the time he was editor of The St. Paul Dispatch, in which, to induce him to make his relationship permanent, he had been offered a third interest. He declined this tempting offer for what promised to be greater independence. He set out to interest James E. Scripps, the famous Detroit publisher, in his Alihvaukee undertaking. Negotiations had proceeded so far that offices had Vol. 1—4 6 722 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE actually been arranged for and then P. V. Deuster, a candidate for Congress, suddenly began the publication of a campaign sheet bearing the name, The Alihvaukee Journal. This caused Mr. Scripps to change his mind. Mr. Nie man, though disappointed, adhered to his plan. Within three weeks he be came major owner and editor in chief of The Journal and transformed it from a campaign sheet to a real newspaper. A few years later — in 1890 — The Journal Company was formed, with Air. Nieman as controlling stockholder. It has published The Journal ever since, Avith few changes in the list of stock holders. For a short time the paper Avas issued from the old Seebote Building at 97 Alason Street, the editor having a room about ten feet square. Scant space for the composing room was found in the Seebote 's mechanical department. Early in 1883 the paper Avas moved to 433 Broadway, where it occupied rooms in the south half of The Herold Building, the paper being printed on The Herold 's press. Tavo years later the growth of the paper made another move neces sary, this time to 92 Alason Street. In 1893 a third transfer was made — to the Alontgomery Building at' Milwaukee and Michigan streets. There The Journal Avas printed until 1907, when it moved into its own building on Fourth Street, AA'hich it still occupies, together AA'ith a three-story annex directly across the same street. The Journal's first serious undertaking was to expose the reprehensible system under AA'hich interest on state funds Avas treated as the personal per quisite of the state treasurer. This campaign, begun AA'hen the paper was scarcely a month old, continued for more than eight years. Finally, early in the administration of Governor Peek, a democrat, proceedings against the state treasurers to recover this interest Avere begun and in the end the Su preme Court of Wisconsin Avholly upheld The Journal's contention. As a result nearly $500,000 in accumulated interest Avas paid into the state treas ury and the aggregate saA'ing that has since resulted is figured in millions. This achievement had much to do Avith the groAving confidence in the paper. The fight begun in Wisconsin spread to other states, and now, in the various states, as Avell as in nearly all communities, the public enjoys the interest on its funds. The Journal has never savoiii allegiance to any political party, preferring freedom to espouse the measures and men it believed in, regardless of party. Thus, in the presidential campaign in 1884, it took up the cudgels for Grover Cleveland, democrat, because it has ahvays believed in a Ioav tariff — a belief Avhich has led many persons to consider it a democratic organ. In 1896, when the democrats nominated Bryan on a free silver platform, The Journal fought that party and espoused the cause of the gold standard. From that time on, it has supported candidates of this or that party, as public interests seemed to require, and never asking or accepting favors from any of them. In June, 1919, the highest honor in American journalism came to The Journal in the aAvard of the Pulitzer medal "for the most disinterested and meritorious public service rendered by any American neAvspaper" during the year, a period that tried men's souls. This medal had been aAvarded only once before, to The Ncav York Times. The resolution accompanying The NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 723 Journal's medal declared that the aAvard Avas made because of its "strong and courageous campaign for Americanism in a constituency Avhere foreign elements made such a policy hazardous from a business point of vieAV. " After the outbreak of the World war, when the menace of German propa ganda became apparent, The Journal began a thorough and systematic ex posure of this alien movement. From 1915 to the entrance of the United States into the war and up to the end of the war, it carried on this campaign. It never made a statement that necessitated retraction. It laid bare the facts relating to many dangerous movements. Its campaign commanded attention throughout the country and even among other peoples. It was widely cred ited with uncommon energy, ability and fearlessness. In connection AA'ith the award of the Pulitzer medal, The Journal received hundreds of messages of congratulation, prominent statesmen of this and other nations adding their words of recognition. Among these were William Howard Taft, Viscount Bryce, Alaurice CasenaA-e, French high commissioner, James W. Gerard, Cyrus H. K. Curtis, Brand Whitlock, Samuel Hopkins Adams, Albert Bushnell Hart and Baron Shaughnessy. During the war, The Journal's Avhole strength went to the aid of the GoA'ernment in its task of achieving victory. When peace finally came, The Journal supported earnestly the Treaty of Arersailles and the League of Na tions. It denounced the separate peace Avith Germany. In 1889 the State Legislature enacted a law, which became famous as the Bennett laAA', providing that not only public schools but private and parochial schools using English for instruction in reading, Avriting, arithmetic and United States history should be recognized as meeting the requirements of the school attendance law. The Journal, believing this law an interference with the rights of parents not justified by public policy and believing that instruction in English in private and parochial schools would in due time be adequately provided, urged the repeal of the law and this was effected as a result of the state election held in 1890. During the World war, however, it became known that language instruction in not a few parochial schools Avas detrimental both to the nation and to immigrant children and The Journal frankly admitted this Aveakness in its earlier campaign. It took a strong stand against instruction in any other language than English in graded schools, public, private or parochial. In state and national affairs The Journal has supported measures making for progress in accord with modern thought and conditions. It supported, for example, the movement for the direct election of United States senators and has urged provision for the election of presidents by direct, popular vote. It opposed the AYisconsin primary law, but when the electors had made their decision, it opposed subsequent efforts to repeal the law without their consent. The Journal has advocated simple, modern, efficient, democratic and repre sentative government. It took a leading part in the successful movement to eliminate national party labels from municipal election ballots and to ensure the election of city officials by majority vote. It has steadily supported the principle of municipal home rule. It has advanced and supported plans for social and eh'ic betterment. 724 HISTORY OF MILAVAUKEE The conservation and development of Wisconsin's natural resources has been one of The Journal 's outstanding policies. A quarter of a century ago- it began calling attention to the great possibilities of Northern Wisconsin. Each year it gives a silver cup to the county making the best exhibit at the state fair. It has sought to promote the settlement of agricultural lands in the northern region, but Avith insistence upon the protection of Avould-be set tlers against unscrupulous land speculators. It has stood for the most exten sive utilization of Wisconsin's great Avater poAver, but Avith safeguards to public interests. For ten years and longer it has unremittingly urged the need of a comprehensive system of state forestry, believing that only through forestry practice on a Avide scale can the impending danger of a timber "famine" be averted and pointing out that the application of this plan to the non-farming land in the state, some three million acres, Avill create natural wealth amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars, increase the state's Avood- nsing industries and give steady employment to thousands. Its program for Wisconsin includes community forests, several large state parks and more community parks, the planting of trees along the state's highways, the pro tection of the public s right of access to inland Avaters and measures to make excellent hunting and fishing permanent and to build up a huge tourist trade. EA-ery Aveek The Journal publishes a bulletin making suggestions and con taining information regarding the advancement of the general interests of AYisconsin and this it sends free to all neAvspapers and civic organizations in the state. The Journal Avas a pioneer in establishing a complete road and statistical de partment AA'hich in ten years has become accepted as a model by every like or ganization in the country. "The Call of the Open Road," a road book pub lished by The Journal, is the general guide not only of the thousands of Wis consin motorists, but of the great number of out-state A-isitors who tour AYis consin each season. Over one-hundred thousand requests for road information were filled during 1921 through The Journal Tour Department. Before the AYis consin system of highAvay markings was inaugurated. The Journal's marked routes Avere the only ones that could safely be followed. In all things per taining to the use of roads, The Journal has closely cooperated with the State HighAvay Commission. It offers yearly a cup to the state 's best patrolman and $1,000 in cash prizes to road patrolmen avIio make the best shoAving. The Journal receives the Associated Press service Aveek days and the United Press service Sundays. It maintains bureaus at NeAv York, Philadelphia, AYashington and Aladison. It operates its oavii leased Avire betAveen Alihvaukee and NeAv York, AA'here it is connected Avith The New ATork AYorld, and betAveen Mihvaukee and Philadelphia, Avhere it is connected with The Public Ledger, and in addition it receives national and foreign neAvs over a leased Avire from AYashington. Its neAvs and Avire facilities enable it to publish a market and financial page each afternoon that is as complete as any similar page printed the next morning. Alany noted men living in different parts of the Avorld contribute regularly to the columns of The Journal. In the list for 1921 appear the names of Wil liam Howard Taft, Col. E. AI. House, the late Count Okuma of Japan, Alax- NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 725 imilian Harden of Germany, Rene Viviani, former premier of France ;' Andre Tardieu of France and George II. Barnes, the noted labor leader of England. The Journal, in addition, has published the war narratives of James AY. Gerard, Hugh Gibson, Admiral Sims, General Ludendorff and Admiral von Tirpitz, SeA'eral noted Avriters are graduates of The Journal. Among them are Zona Gale and Edna Ferber. The confidence which Alihvaukee merchants have in The Journal is amply shoAvn by the fact that it enjoys as much advertising as its tAvo nearest com petitors combined. The number of classified advertisements from 1913 to 1920 grew from 233,659 to 648,068. The confidence of non-AIihvaukee adver tisers is attested by the fact that, in 1919, only one evening and Sunday neAvs paper in the United States carried a greater amount of such advertising. The growth in volume of total advertising is significant. It increased from 5,629,- 482 lines in 1913 to 16,242,943 in 1920. In terms of columns it increased from 11,035 in 1903 to 54,511 in 1921. In building up cooperative advertising in Alilwaukee The Journal has been very successful. Notable examples are those set by music dealers, jeAvelers and dealers in electrical deA'ices. An achievement that has attracted nation-Avide attention is the National Food and Household ShoAv held in Milwaukee three years in succession under The Journal's auspices. In 1921 the attendance reached 99,784, and there were 278 elaborate exhibits. The Goodfellow movement was started by The Journal ten years ago as a means of promoting, during the holiday season, the idea of doing charitable acts by deeds rather than by contributions. The Journal furnishes the Good- fellows with names of needy families and they deliver their contributions in person. From five hundred to one thousand families are annually remembered in this Avay. The Journal was the first Alilwaukee newspaper to use typeAvriters in its editorial department, the first to use linotypes, to use a motor fleet for de livering newspapers, to use homing pigeons as dispatch bearers, to use half tones, to establish its OAA'n engraving plant, and to cast its stereotype plates mechanically. It was the first to omit the useless dateline in neAvs dispatches. It was the first to organize a NeAvsboys' Band. It Avas the first to install leased Avires to bring the news of the World war. The Journal was the first paper in Wisconsin to deliver newspapers by aeroplanes, the first to print and deliver an aeroplane edition by aeroplane. It was the first to promote an air derby in the state, AA'hich was won by a Journal plane from a field of seven planes, and the first to present a flying circus, consisting of wireless telegraphic exhibitions, areoplane stunts, and an aeroplane race against an automobile. A Journal woman reporier Uolds the distinction of being the first Avoman ever to fly as a passenger in a race. The number of copies of The Journal printed in 1921 exceeded forty mil lion. The print paper used would extend 350,000 miles or fourteen t;mes around the earth. It amounts to a carload — twenty-five tons — each week day, two carloads Sunday; 400 carloads or 10,000 tons annually. The circulation of the daily increased from 33,504 in 1903 to 115,000 in 1921. The circulation of the Sunday edition increased from 45,259 in 1913 to 726 HISTORY OF AIILAVAUKEE 90,000- in 1921. The Journal is read in more than four out of five of Mihvau kee 's English-speaking homes. In uncommon measure the distribution of its circulation is in its oavii control. In Alihvaukee city and county it main tains thirty-six branches, Avith a district manager in charge of each. A thou sand boys are engaged in home delivery and street selling and 750 dealers sell the paper in Alihvaukee. Six hundred boys and as many dealers circulate it throughout the rest of the state. To ensure prompt delivery, The Journal operates presses of a total capacity of 144,000 16-page papers hourly. In Alihvaukee the task of distribution requires the use of thirty-five motor trucks. These, Avith five other cars, are housed in The Journal's oavu garage. An interesting fact is the amount of metal used any one day — if cast into one line of type it Avould cover a length of 5,808 feet, more than a mile. In all twenty-three linotypes and monotypes are operated. The Journal's yearly payroll approximates $1,000,000 distributed among 500 employes, exclusive of neAvsboys and carriers. The officers of The Journal are : President, L. AY. Nieman ; vice president and treasurer, TL J. Grant ; secretary, E. A. Belda. Air. Grant is publisher. Shortly after the signing of the armistice, The Journal decided that the interests of education in Wisconsin would be greatly furthered if a number of representative teachers of Wisconsin Ave re to tour the European battle fields, observe conditions growing out of the war and inform the public re garding them. Plans Avere perfected by AA'hich one teacher Avas to be chosen, by popular vote, from each congressional district. No condition looking to increase in circulation or other material advantage was imposed. In all 1.434,244 A'otes were cast and the eleven teachers thus chosen and a special representative of the paper constituted a touring party, AA'hose entire expenses Avere met by The Journal. The party sailed July 3, 1920, toured England, France, Belgium, Scotland and SAvitzerland and returned August 17th. They enjoyed exceptional opportunities for study and received official attention and courtesies. The Journal furnished each member of the party with a set of stereopticon slides, showing ninety of the most interesting views photographed during the tour. All of the teachers have delivered illustrated lectures on Avhat they saAv and learned, some of them having spoken in public as many as a hundred times. So far as is known it is the first enterprise of its kind con ducted by any American neAvspaper. It is probably safe to say that Lucius W. Nieman is one of the most re markable neAvspaper men AA'hich the Alid-AYest country has thus far pro duced. There are feAv men in the publication field AA'hose career is just like his. He conceived his oavii project, effected its foundation, and reared it into a formidable institution. The Journal Avas his oavii idea and he organized the forces that brought it into being. For forty years he has guided its editorial and publication policies,' brav- ing the vicissitudes that attend in a greater or lesser degree all newspaper undertakings, steadily rearing his project into the largest and most influential daily in Wisconsin. His clear vision, untiring energy and close application to his task, Avon for him the success he has obtained. He was a young man when he began the publication of The Journal, and has iioav the good fortune, Avhile NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 727 still in the prime of manhood, to Avitness the results of a life s Avork and the magnitude of an achievement. The Milwaukee Herold and the Daily German Language Press. — The his tory of the German-language press in Alihvaukee goes back to territorial days, Aloritz Schoeffler, a printer by trade, haA'ing established The Wisconsin Banner in 1844. In the struggle for the State Constitution, an important part Avas played by this paper, and it AA'as largely due to its efforts, that the first draft failed to find faAor among the German voters. The political persuasion of Schoeffler 's paper Avas democratic, and to offset this, repeated attempts Avere made by the AA-higs to reach the German element by setting up whig papers in that language. None of these were successful ; but when the slavery question became the most important political issue. there was a greatly increased actiA'ity in German newspaperdom. The so- called "Forty-eighters," Germans of high education and social standing AA'ho came to this country because their political activities during the revolutionary movements had made their stay at home uncomfortable, allied themselves AA'ith the newly organized republican party almost to a man, and founded A'arious publishing enterprises, most of Avhich had but a brief and checkered career. The anti-slavery democrats also found an organ in The Volksfreund, started by Doctor Fratny, which after the Civil Avar Avas combined Avith The Banner, while the German Catholics established an organ of their oavii, called The Seebote, of which P. V. Deuster, at a later time representative in Congress from this district for a number of terms, Avas the publisher. Seme of these papers survived until the last decade of the nineteenth cen tury, and other German-language papers were started from time to time, some as Aveeklies, others as dailies ; but by the end of the century, only tAvo dailies, of really metropolitan proportions, Avere still in existence. These were The Alilwaukee Herold and The Germania. In 1906, these also Avere combined, The Heroic! becoming merged in the other. For some years the paper Avas then known as The Germania-Herold, but later resumed the name of Alilwaukee Herold, by which it is knoAvn today. The weekly edition of the consolidated paper, Avhich for a AA'hile retained the title Germania, but a few years ago was renamed The Alihvaukee America, is by all odds the most widely read German-language paper in the country. It noAv appears twice a week, and has subscribers in every state of the Union, besides many foreign countries of this hemisphere and the German-speaking countries of Europe. It is read especially by the farming population of Ger man stock. Both publications, amalgamated in this great metropolitan newspaper, had an interesting history; and in each case it Avas the close cooperation of tAvo unusual men which made the paper a success. The first number of The Herold appeared on September 21, 1861. Its editor was Bernhard Domschcke, and its politics Avere republican. Domschcke had previously made a number of abortive attempts to found a paper, but it required the business ability and enterprise of W. W. Coleman, avIio had noAv become his associate, to overcome the difficulties in the Avay. Bernhard Domschcke Avas one of the German political exiles mentioned 728 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE above, while Coleman, a native of Bremen, had come to this country with his parents at the age of fifteen, entered business life at once by working for a number of local firms in various branches of business, and consequently was more familiar with American ways and business methods than Domschcke could possibly be. Domschcke 's journalistic abilities were recognized at once, both by the public and the leaders of the republican party. The Herold flourished and grew until August, 1862. On that day, Editor Domschcke, the entire force of compositors, the bookkeeper and the office boy, all enlisted in the Twenty-sixth Wisconsin Regiment, entirely composed of citizens of German extraction. The result Avas that The Herold temporarily suspended as a daily, but continued to appear as a Aveekly paper. ' This lasted until the spring of 1865, Avhen the editor and his comrades returned, among the cheers of a tremendous outpouring of citizens, avIio re ceived them at the station. Domschcke, in the meantime, had gone through many vicissitudes. Soon after his enlistment, he had been commissioned cap tain of Company H. At the battle of Gettysburg he was captured, with forty-six other soldiers of his regiment, and carried from one Confederate prison to the other, including the notorious Libby prison at Richmond. Ex posure and semi-starvation completely shattered his health. He resumed his editorial labors, however, and within a few months The Heroic! once more became a daily. Unfortunately, Domschcke never regained his health and died on May 5, 1869. It is claimed that his funeral procession was the longest ever seen in Alilwaukee up to that time. Emil Wallber, later mayor and judge, and still living among us, pronounced the funeral oration. Notwithstanding the death of its accomplished editor, The Heroic! con tinued to grow, largely through the enterprise of W. W. Coleman. It was his far-sightedness which forced it ahead of all competitors by the acquisition of an associated press franchise. Another impetus Avas given it, AA'hen on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian Avar, in 1870, Coleman arranged for special cable reports from Germany. By the year 1872, The Herold AA'as an estab lished business enterprise as well as a factor in the life of the state, and its principal OAvner Avas counted among the substantial men of the city. The clientage of The Herold was found especially among that portion of the German- American population rather vaguely known as the liberal element. The Catholic public generally preferred The Seebote. There Avas, however, then as now, a large number of people affiliated Avith the various Protestant churches, and especially with the Lutheran congregations. These Avere more or less out of sympathy Avith the atmosphere surrounding The Herold, and longed for an organ more distinctly representing their oavu views. Here was the opportunity for the second great German-language paper of Alihvaukee, The Germania. This paper Avas originally founded, both as a daily and a Aveekly, by a group of church people calling itself the Protestant Printing Association, AA'hich issued the first number of their organ in 1873. A certain number of readers were rapidly acquired, but then the enterprise stagnated, until it was taken over by George Brumder, at that time proprietor of a book store cater ing principally to the Lutheran element. Brumder had a peculiar knack of NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 729 seeing the reality of things and never alloAving himself to be misled into be lieving a thing because he desired it. Consequently, after a period of observation, he decided to give up the issuing of a daily and to confine himself entirely to the Aveekly field. For he conceived that the daih' might be desirable as far as sentiment Avent, but from a business point of view Avas but a drain on. the resources of the concern. Therefore, from 1879 until 1897, The Germania Avas a Aveekly only, but as such it became an immensely profitable enterprise. In the meantime the German-language dailies of the toAvn Avere engaged in the doubtful business" of cutting each others' throats by over-competition. In addition to the newspapers established before the Avar, Herold, Seebote, and Banner-A'olksfreund, cpiite a number of others were started under the in fluence of the greatly increased immigration from Germany, which set in shortly after the Franco-German Avar and lasted until the last decade of the century. At one time there Avere no less than six German dailies published in Alilwaukee, of which The Herold alone Avas on a secure financial footing. Presently, all enterprises of this kind, one after the other, became amalga mated, the financially stronger one SAvallowing the weaker, until but two were left : The Herold, a morning paper, and The Abendpost, appearing, as the name indicated, in the afternoon. Now came the chance for George Brumder. He purchased The Abendpost and once more issued a daily edition of The Germania, under the title of Germania-Abendpost, this time with a fair guar antee that there avouIc! be no further drain on the resources of the weekly publication. Finally, in 1906, the tAvo remaining German dailies Avere also consolidated under the name of Germania-Herold. W. W. Coleman had died unexpectedly in 1887, and the paper was carried on by his estate, under the business man agement of his eldest son, Edgar AY. Coleman. A feAv years later, it was reorganized as a corporation, but the members of the Coleman family remained the principal stockholders. The old competitor, Der Seebote, after a while gave up the struggle, and transferred its list of subscribers for the daily to The Herold, but it is still being published as a weekly. When at last the tvvo large dailies were combined, the consolidated paper appeared for a while both as a morning and evening edition. At present, however, the morning edition is sent only to out-of-town subscribers, while the city public is supplied with the evening paper. George Brumder, the real founder of The Germania, died in 1910, at the age of seventy-one years. This remarkable man was born in a small toAvn of Alsatia, as the son of a school teacher in a village with prevailingly Protestant inhabit ants. When eighteen years old, he came to America, spent a few years in vari ous employments, but at the earliest opportunity made himself independent and began laying the foundation for the large fortune he possessed when he died. In addition to the newspapers and printing establishment, he became president of the Concordia Fire Insurance Company, the Germania National Bank (now National Bank of Commerce) and the owner of valuable real prop- 730 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE erty, including the large building Avhich iioav houses the newspapers. Since his death, his sons have carried on his various enterprises. Men like Coleman and Brumder were necessary to make newspapers like The Alilwaukee Herold a success, but their eminent capacity for business would not have been sufficient, if they had not also possessed the knack of finding the right men for the editorial chairs. A remarkable list of men of real dis tinction have filled the leading position on the two papers, out of which the present Heroic! has grown. Easily the first of these is George Koeppen, avIio almost from the beginning to his death, in 1897, Avas editor-in-chief of The Germania. His real name was Von Haeseler, for he sprang from a Avell-known Prussian family which has gh'en to its country not a fcAV men of eminence. According to family tradi tion, he had been a cavalry officer in his youth, but found his true vocation when Brumder made him the editor of his paper. His ability Avas generally recognized, and as a result he AA'as selected for a number of offices of trust and honor, notable among them that of regent of the University of Wisconsin, and trustee of the Alilwaukee Public Library. In the political history of Wisconsin, Koeppen is memorable as one of the principal leaders in the fight against the so-called Bennett school law, AA'hich was passed by the Legislature, in 1889, Avithout realization by a majority of the members that it Avould in effect destroy the system of parochial schools, maintained by the Lutheran and Catholic denominations. It was due to the work of The Germania, to no small extent, that the obnoxious and ill-deA'iserl law was speedily repealed, but incidentally, the political domination of the state, for a number of years, Avas turned from the republicans to the demo crats, Avith the help of The Germania, which had ahvays been, and soon be came again, stanchly republican. Koeppen 's successor, after a brief interregnum, was another man of un usual ability, Emil von Schleinitz. He seiwed in this capacity AA'ith dis tinguished success until, in 1917, illness disabled him. Schleinitz was suc ceeded by Gustav Haas, avIio had since the reestablishment of the daily Germania been its managing editor, after haA'ing served on the old Herold in nearly every capacity from police reporter to editorial Avriter. He uoav combines both offices, AA'hile the business management is in the hands of the three younger sons of George Brumder, the oldest son, W. H, commonly known as "Col." Brumder, having recently retired from active business. The men who have had the editorial direction of the original Herold, since Domschcke 's time, may not all have been as distinguished as Koeppen, but they were mostly men of high ability. At first, there Avas Carl Palme, another "Forty-eightcr, " and an associate of Carl Schurz during the latter 's Water toAvn days. Palme played an important part in the so-called liberal-repub lican movement against President Grant. At the Cincinnati convention, which nominated Horace (Ireeley, he championed Charles Francis Adams. Another man of mark in the editorial chair of the old Herold Avas Doctor Wyl, who Avas already avcII known as a Avriter in the Fatherland, before he came to Alilwaukee. He served for a number of years during the '80s, when the immigration from Germany Avas at its height. The principal note of his NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 731 incumbency was the promotion of every sort of intellectual and cultural effort among Mihvaukeeans of German affiliation, especially the German- speaking stage, and the manyfold musical undertakings. The colony of Ger man painters, Avhich then made Alihvaukee its home, and of Avhich a few are still among our felloAv citizens, received much generous support from the paper under his guidance. The high intellectual standard, Avhich Avas specially emphasized by Doctor Wyl, has always characterized both the old Herold and The Germania, and the present consolidated newspaper. Being a general newspaper for the public, it is not, as a matter of course, a "high-broAv" publication. But it may safely be said that there are few newspapers in this countiy, Avhether published in English or in any foreign language, in Avhich there can be found so little merely trivial stuff, and so much that Avill satisfy the taste even of the exacting. In fact, that seems to be true of all the important German-language papers in this country. In this way they are all the better enabled to perform the peculiar function the foreign-language press has in the American common wealth : That of familiarizing, on the one hand, the citizens coming from for eign countries, Avith the affairs and customs of their adopted country; and on the other hand being the channel, by which their constituency, after having become properly Americanized, may render to their adopted country the serA'ice of bringing into the common treasury of American civilization Avhat ever there is best and most appropriate for us in the civilization of their homeland. The Kuryer Polski (Polish Courier). — The Kuryer Polski Avas founded in 1888 by Alichael Kruszka, a young immigrant from .German Poland, Avith a borroAved capital of $125, and in thirty-four years has grown to be the largest and oldest Polish daily and Sunday newspaper in America. In 1888 the Kuryer Polski had 360 subscribers, mostly in Alihvaukee. Now The Kuryer is read by a hundred thousand Poles, scattered throughout Alil- Avaukee and AYisconsin, and even in remote parts of this country, inhabited by Poles. The Kuryer also has a substantial number of subscribers in Can ada and European countries, especially Poland, Avhere it employs a staff of journalists, located in Warsaw, and other large cities. The Kuryer Polski made its appearance in Alihvaukee AA-hen Polish jour nalism was in its infancy, Avhen the largest and most widely read publication was a weekly newspaper published in Chicago by AY. Dyniewicz, veteran Polish pubLsher, avIio is still living. DynieAviez tried to discourage young Alichael Kruszka from entering the daily newspaper field. But the ambitious young immigrant, who had had previous experience along this line, having published The Krytyka in 1885 and later The Tygodnik AnonsoAvy, deter mined to go through AA'ith his plan. He was at once confronted Avith innumer able difficulties, mostly of a financial nature, but as Poles began settling here in ever increasing numbers, at first from German Poland, and later from Galicia and that part of the partitioned Polish state Avhich was then under Russian domination, the paper experienced a rapid growth. Air. Kruszka 's early political connections Avere of great aid to him in estab lishing himself firmly in Alihvaukee. His influence Avith the Polish people 732 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE became so great, that he Avas elected assemblyman in 1890, and tAvo years later was chosen to represent the Eighth District in the State Senate. The Kuryer Polski grew in popularity and influence, under the wise and resourceful management of Air. Kruszka, and under the able editorial direc tion of such brilliant Polish journalists as K. OAVocki, K. Neuman, Capt. Thaddeus Wild, S. Osada, F. II. Jablonski, J. J. Chrzanowski, S. Lempicki and others. The Kuryer Polski championed the people's cause and at times Avas forced to wage bitter struggles in their behalf. Several court actions resulted, creating Avidespread interest, and gaining for The Kuryer a high standing for fearlessness and courage. During the long struggle of. the Poles to regain their freedom as a nation, and during the terrible persecution Avaged by the German, Austrian and Rus sian oppressors to exterminate the Poles, The Kuryer Polski carried on a strong agitation, which no doubt Avas of great aid to the cause of a free Poland. When cruel German instructors, under government orders, tortured Polish children in German Poland for praying and speaking in their native tongue, The Kuryer protested vigorously and raised a fund to aid the A'oung victims of ruthless prussification. The Kuryer Polski at the outbreak of the World Avar at once aligned itself with the allies as against Germany, and when America entered the struggle The Kuryer placed itself at the command of the Government, and did every thing possible to "Win the War." Through its agitation a regiment of in fantry AA'as organized, consisting of Polish boys. It preached the gospel of loyalty to the Government, and Avholeheartedly supported all Liberty Loan campaigns and various patriotic drives. While a Polish neAA'spaper, The Kuryer is thoroughly American in its editorial policy and is conducted according to American journalistic stand ards. It encourages Poles to become citizens of this country and tries to in still in the minds of the younger generation a real understanding of American ism, that can reconcile love of Polish culture and tradition, Avith undivided loyalty and devotion to this country. The Kuryer Polski has been active in various civic movements, and has clone much to promote various improvements in Polish communities. The publisher and founder of The Kuryer Polski, Air. Alichael Kruszka, died in December, 1918. He Avas succeeded in the active management of the paper by his son-in-law, Professor S. J. ZoAvski, an engineer by profession, in structor of engineering at Michigan University. The present editorial department of The Kuryer Polski includes: Stan- islaAV Lempicki, managing editor; John L. CrmiAvald, city editor; AY. Poblocki, I'ditorial Avriter; Bernard Adamkiewicz, telegraph editor; Airs. Helen Stas, editor of women's page; Joseph IvAvasnieAvski, editor of farm page, and sev eral reporters. The Kuryer also publishes a special edition for Chicago, and has its own editorial office there, for handling Chicago neAvs. In politics, The Kuryer is republican, but maintains an independent atti tude on national questions, and locally is nonpartisan. In 1916 The Kuryer supported Wilson for President. Nowiny Polski (Polish News).— This publication had its inception in the NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 733 thought that the great majority of the residents of Alihvaukee of Polish birth and descent professed the Catholic religion, and politicalh', in the main, adhered to the principles of the democratic party. "AYhen The Dziennik Alihvaucki (Alihvaukee Daily), for several years a strong competitor of the older Kuryer Polski (Polish Courier), suspended its publication in 1903, the clamor for a Catholic daily, OAvned and controlled by those of the same political and religious faith, and an exponent of the Polish colony's conA'ictions and sentiments, became pronounced. "It prompted the Polish priests of Alihvaukee to take the initiative in founding a new paper. Accordingly, at a meeting held on December 17, 1906, the Rt. ReA-. Alonsignor B. E. Goral (noAv pastor of St. Hyacinth's Congrega tion), then professor of St. Francis Seminary and publisher of the literary monthly Oredownik JezykoAvy (Language Alessenger), Avas chosen unani mously editor and general manager of the neAv Aveekly Nowiny (News). The Nowiny Publishing Company, incorporated under the laws of Wisconsin, was organized for the purpose of publishing the neAv paper. The capital stock Avas $11,000. Each Polish priest and many prominent laymen in Alilwaukee and vicinity became stockholders. The subscription price of The NoAviny Avas set at $1 annually. A sample number appeared Avithin a week, on Christmas eve of 1906, and thereafter regularly in 1907. "As was to be expected, taking the divergent A-iews and aims into con sideration, there arose at once a spirited competition and doctrinal controversy between the new energetic and sprightly Aveekly and the older Avell estab lished daily. Though the popularity and influence of the new NoAviny AA'as growing rapidly, yet the competition was uneven; it could not counteract in one issue Aveekly what had been done in six issues by its opponent." For these and numerous other reasons, the Nowiny Publishing Company was reorganized at its first annual meeting of Januar3' 13, 1908, for the pur pose of publishing a daily paper. The capital stock was raised to $50,000, divided into 5,000 shares of $10 each, in order to encourage and enable even the less prosperous to become joint ovA'ners of the forthcoming daily. The subscription price was set at $3 per annum, the name was likewise changed to Nowiny Polski (Polish News). The first number of the new daily appeared March 31, 1908. Although its older competitor prophesied that the neAv ven ture would not last longer than six weeks, it nevertheless not only exists six teen years later, but prospers besides, having gained by its prestige and fear less policy a great folloAving. This rapid expansion caused the stockholders to raise, at their annual meeting of January 24, 1917, the capital stock to $75,000. The Nowiny Pub lishing Company owns a well equipped modern plant with a rotary newspaper press, several job printing presses, linotypes, etc. The plant and offices are located at the corner of Mitchell Street and Eighth Avenue. Competent critics have pronounced The Nowiny Polski one of the fore most Polish dailies. Its recent Overseas Edition, distributed broadcast in thousands of copies in Poland, has brought a veritable shower of most flatter ing comments. Though published in a foreign tongue, it is thoroughly Amer ican in spirit and in fact; ever loyal to the stars and stripes. It teaches and 734 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE inculcates into its readers loyalty and love for the country that has given the Polish emigrants not only bread, protection and boundless opportunities, but above all else — religious and political freedom. Its Americanization policy — in its' unadulterated and noblest meaning — comprises everything that is purest and best in our institutions of learning, our economic and social facilities. Albeit the Nowiny Polski has a strong democratic leaning in the political realm, still it does not slavishly adhere to that party and approve blindly everything done by it. Though Catholic in spirit, it is nevertheless tolerant and forbearing in judging men and their acts. Aloral Avorth, regardless of external religious or political affiliations, constitutes the criterion of its public policy. The founder of The Nowiny Polski, the Rt. Rev. Monsignor B. E. Goral, continues at the head of the publication, being its general manager and secre tary; hoAvever, the business management has been entrusted to Anthony J. LukaszeAvski. Dr. Joseph Alietus is president-treasurer of the Nowiny Pub lishing Company ; ReA'. R. Kielpinski vice president ; Rev. L. Jurasinski and Dr. R. Para'doAvski directors. The Living Church. — Alihvaukee has for many years been a center of pub lications on behalf of the Episcopal Church. In the sixties there was estab lished a magazine of national reputation, The Church Register, which, how ever, did not extend beyond a few years. Alore permanent Avas The Young Churchman, established in 1870 by Linden H. Alorehouse as a Sunday School paper for the children of the Episcopal Church. So successful was that venture that The Young Churchman continues to the present time and cir culates A-ery Avidely among such Sunday schools- and among detached chil dren in families of the Episcopal Church. A need for a similar paper of a more kindergarten character being felt, Air. Alorehouse also established The Shepherd's Arms in 1877, and that publication also has obtained national circulation on a large scale and still continues to be published. By 1884 these publications had become such a tax upon the time of their editor and publisher, Air. Alorehouse, that he abandoned other Avork and estab lished The Young Churchman Company for the purpose of continuing the two periodicals and of entering into general church book publishing and selling. This company began in a small Avay on Alilwaukee Street and has expanded to the large house hoav knoAvn as Alorehouse Publishing Company, situated at 1801-1811 Fond du Lac AA'enue, which is iioav the principal church pub lishing house of the Episcopal Church in the United States. The most important of the church periodicals is The Living Church. Founded in Chicago in 1878, it Avas purchased by The Young Churchman Company in 1900 and has since been issued from Alihvaukee. The editor from thai time has been Frederic C. Alorehouse, Avho also succeeded his father, Linden II. Alorehouse, in the presidency of the corporation. The Lh'ing Church Annual is the church almanac of the Episcopal Church and has been issued in Alilwaukee since 18S5, having previously, like the parent periodical, been made in Chicago. The Evening Prayer Leaflet is another of the regular pub lications of this house and is circulated on a national scale. The Catholic Citizen had its origin in a .publication named The Star of NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 735 Bethlehem, issued by the Saint Louis Brothers which subsequently passed into the hands of E. A. Bray and R. B. Johnson. A weekly, The Catholic Vindi cator, was founded November 3, 1870, by Rev. John Casey at Alonroe, Wis. These two publications Avere consolidated October 19, 1871, at Alilwaukee. Later (November, 1S7S), Rev. George L. Willard and E. A. Hray became proprietors and changed the name to The Catholic Citizen. Four years later Reverend Willard disposed of his interests to Air. Bray who remained proprietor until 1890 AA'hen the Catholic Citizen Companj', Avith Humphrey J. Desmond as its president, was formed. Air. Desmond, Avho is a scholarly writer and an eloquent public speaker, is still editor of the publication. The Seebote and The Columbia. — The first Catholic paper published in the State of Wisconsin was The Seebote (Alessenger of the Lake) founded in the year 1852 in Milwaukee by Rev. Joseph Salzmann, D. D., a renowned pioneer-priest, and issued by a stock company in the German language. At first it was published as a Aveekly, but religious tolerance being rampant in Alilwaukee at the time, and the tAvo German dailies, then issued in Alilwau kee, being affiliated with the opposition, it Avas changed to a daily in order to combat these elements more effectively. This, however, was too big an undertaking for the comparatively few German Catholics, and financial d'-f- ficulties soon compelled the publishers to transfer the paper to Doctor Salz mann and Andrew Greulich, Avho later sold it to Hon. P. V. Deuster under whose able management it gained great influence. In 1898 Mr. Deuster transferred the daily edition to The Milwaukee Herold, continuing the semi- weekly until his death, December 31, 1900, when it was sold to the Columbia Publishing Company, by whom it is still continued. When the Seebote passed into the hands of Air. Deuster, it entered the political field and although it did not change its policy, its energies through this change actually were divided. The radicals and atheists, continuing their attacks against the Catholic Church and religion, there Avas a growing sentiment in favor of establishing again a paper exclusively Catholic in tendency and policy. In 1871, there fore, A. Wibbert, with the approval of Bishop Henni and with the cooperation of Rev. Alartin Kundig, then Vicar-general of the Archdiocese of Alilwaukee, Revs. L. Conrad, W. Bonenkamp, P. A. Schleyer, J. St. Aluenich, AI. Wenker, F. Welter and prominent members of the Catholic laity, Nicholas Hoffmann, Val. Zimmermann, J. B. Kupfer, Val. Conrad and others, undertook the task of supplying this Avant. A. AYibbert succeeded in organizing a stock company, which on January 1, 1871, began publishing The Columbia as a distinctively Catholic weekly. Rev. John Gemeiner, professor at St. Francis Theological Seminary, was its first editor in chief and A. Wibbert city editor. The paper met with such great success that its management in 1874 decided to issue a daily, Dr. E. Knotser and Prof. J. B. Alueller being in charge of the editorial management. This venture, hoAvever, proved a costly mistake, and after only one year's trial the daily Avas abandoned and the weekly alone continued, gaining steadily in popularity and influence among the Catholics of the land. The Columbia has attained a high rank among the Catholic papers of this country as a valiant and able defender of the Catholic Church and its teach- 736 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE ings. Joseph C. Hoffman is editor and manager of The Columbia since 1897 and also of The Seebote, issued semi-Aveekly from the same office and under the same management, since 1901. Both have rendered signal service to their church and the community at large. The Excelsior. — One of the leading Catholic journals in the German langu age, in the United States, is The Excelsior, published since September S, 1883, at Alihvaukee, AYis., and Avidely circulated in Wisconsin and in adjoining states. It Avas founded by Joseph Britz, AA'ho Avas its publisher until 1886, Avhen it Avas taken over by the Excelsior Publishing Company, incorporated in that year, Avhich publishes it to the present clay. Air. Britz also edited the paper from 1883 to 1889. From 1889 to 1897 Alfred Steckel, a Avell-knoAvn journalist and a very active member of German Catholic societies, Avas the editor. J. AL A. Schultheis succeeded Air. Steckel as editor early in 1897, and directed its editorial policies in a fearless and an able manner for four teen years. As business manager Air. Joseph Springob has successfully de voted his time and energy since 1889 to the administration of the financial affairs of The Excelsior. Alihvaukee has the distinction of being the home of the only Catholic agricultural paper in the United States. Der Landmann, published by the Excelsior Publishing Company, Avas launched in September, 1902, to fill a long felt want among German speaking and reading American farmers. The paper is edited by J. At. SeA'enich, aat1io Avas born in Alichigan and ra;sed on a Wisconsin farm. As a farmer and neAvspaperman he has Avitnessed the growth and development of agriculture in all its phases. The paper is read in nearly every state of the Union, and finds its Avay to the Provinces of Canada and to European countries. Cooperating AA'ith the Department of Agriculture in AYashington, the A'arious state experiment stations, and agri cultural colleges, Der Landmann treats agriculture from a Christian stand point, in opposition to materialistic vieAvs often expressed in the agricultural press. Der Landmann has ahvays faA'ored and fearlessly defended organized farming and controlled marketing, consistently Avith Christian principles. The readers of the paper are Avell informed regarding the existing farm ers' organizations and their purposes and objects, but, in all political cam paigns, Der Landmann remains aloof from partisanship. Dairy Publications. — Alilwaukee is the home of the largest dairy trade journal publishing house in the country. The Olsen Publishing Company Avas established in January, 1910, and is maintained for printing and publishing three national magazines, The Butter, Cheese & Egg Journal, The Ice Cream RevieAV, and The Alilk Dealer. The Butter, Cheese & Egg Journal is iioav in its thirteenth year, and is the official organ of the Wisconsin Butter Alakers' Association, The Wisconsin Cheese Alakers Association, The Wisconsin Dairy Protective Association, and The Wisconsin Poultry, Butter and Egg Dealers Association. The Ice Cream RevieAV, devoted exclusively to the ice cream industry, is the official organ of twenty-tAvo different associations of ice cream manufacturers and ice cream supply salesmen. It enjoys a nation-Avide circulation. The Aljlk Dealer is also a monthly publication and is the official organ of the International Alilk NEWSPAPERS, CLASS AND TRADE PUBLICATIONS 737 Dealers Association. It also has a national circulation and is the dairy plant manager's and superintendent's textbook in solving their milk plant prob lems. Alilwaukee, as the metropolis of the greatest dairy state of the Union, is the logical place for such a business and the men back of this concern feel that the business is still in its infancy. Packages and Flour & Feed. — The Packages Publishing Company pub lishes tAvo trade journals, namely: Packages and Flour & Feed, the first be ing devoted to the Avooden package and allied industries and the latter to the great feeding stuffs industry. Packages was established in 1898 by AI. C. and E. P. Aloore and Avas under that ownership until 1905, at which time the present owner, Warren Anderson, assumed charge of the business and editorial departments and became sole OAvner. In 1910 Echvard H. Hickey joined the staff, becoming managing editor and secretary-treasurer of the company. Flour & Feed was established originally as Cereals and Feed in 1899 and in 1903 the name was changed to Flour & Feed. These two papers are considered the real exponents of the industries which they cover. The Northwestern Confectioner, a monthly trade publication, devoted to the interests of the confectionery, ice cream, soft drink and allied industries, is published in Alilwaukee. Its circulation covers the Aliddle West, North west and surrounding territory, besides reaching the manufacturing con fectionery trade throughout the East. Editorially, it maintains special departments of interest to the various branches of the industry covered and prints educational articles and news pertaining to the trade. Among its contributors are some of the leading trade magazine writers of the country. Its advertisers include the most prom inent confectionery, equipment, and supply houses in the United States. The Northwestern Confectioner Avas founded in April, 1916, by Alva H. Cook, the present OAvner and publisher, who felt that Milwaukee Avas the logical location for a publication of its kind, in view of the fact that the city is the fourth largest confectionery manufacturing center in the United States, Avhile its per capita output of confectionery is the highest. The publication was entered as second class matter, October 28, 1916, at the post office in Alilwaukee, under the act of Alarch 3, 1879. Adele E. Collins is editor of The Northwestern Confectioner. Gertrude B. Kluck is circulation manager. The average number of pages printed each month, in addition to colored inserts, is eighty-four. The Northwestern Publishing House, owned by the Lutheran Joint Synod of Wisconsin and other states, publishes the folloAving periodicals: Evangelical Lutheran Gemeindeblatt, bi-Aveekly, established 1865. Edi tors: H. Bergmann, W. Hoenecke, 0. Hagedorn, C. Gausewitz. The Northwestern Lutheran, bi-Aveekly, established 1913. Editors: J. Jenny, F. Graeber, J. Brenner, H. K. Aloussa. Theologische Quartalschrift, quarterly, established 1903. Editors: Fac ulty of the Theological Seminary of the Synod. Kinderfreude, monthly, established Editor : B. P. Nommensen. The Junior NortliAvestern, monthly, established 1919. Editors: O. Hage dorn, C. G. F. Brenner. Vol. 1—4 7 738 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Gemeindeblatt-Kalender, yearly, established . Editors of the Gemein deblatt. The circulation of these periodicals is mostly among the 500 congregations of the synod in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, Nebraska, the Dakotas and other states. Air. Julius Luening, manager of the Northwestern Publishing House, is in charge of the business management of all its publications. The Bruce Publications. — The Bruce Publishing Company which now is sues three monthly magazines of national circulation, and a list of some sixty odd textbooks serving the field of industrial education, had its beginning in 1891. In the month of Alarch of that year William George Bruce began the publication of an educational magazine under the title of the American School Board Journal. At the time of its appearance there were being published many teachers' magazines devoted to general educational topics and to class room problems. The School Board Journal, however, was the first in the United States devoted to the subject of school administration. In 1910 the enterprise passed from the individual ownership of Air. Bruce to the present corporation in which his two sons, William C. and Frank Bruce, became the managers. In 1914 the company began the publication of the Industrial Arts Magazine, devoted to industrial education. In 1920 the pub lication of the Hospital Progress, which is the official organ of the Catholic Hospital Association, was begun. In recent years the company has also built up a list of textbooks which are designed for use in trade and continuation schools as well as vocational and technical high schools. The officers of the company are : President, William George Bruce ; vice president, William C. Bruce ; secretary-treasurer, Frank Bruce. The editorial direction is in charge of William C. and the business management in charge of Frank Bruce. CHAPTER XLII THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF AIILWAUKEE The City of Alilwaukee gives close attention to its charities, and as a conse quence there is probably less suffering among the classes that are the usual objects of charitable endeavor, than in any other municipal center of the country. The County of Alilwaukee maintains a considerable number of institu tions, as mentioned below. These institutions are situated at WauAvatosa. According to the report of the last year, the amounts paid out on behalf of these various institutions reach a total of $2,703,508. Thus, it may be said there is very little visible poverty among the inhabitants of AIihA'aukee, and one may also say there are "no slums." In addition to the county institutions which are supported, of course, by taxation, there are a great number of charities organized into "budgets," and "affiliations." For example, in the annual report of "The Centralized Budget of Philanthropies," there are given the names of institutions which it would be interesting to enumerate but would require, together with the other agencies under the control of different organizations, a volume to describe properly. There are also a large number of agencies without any special affiliations, but operated by committees which derive their funds from voluntary contri butions. Some of these are under the control of religious denominations and others under secular control. Alany of these agencies and institutions are scarcely to be classed under the heading of charitable organizations, as they are more properly educa tional institutions specializing on some form of technical instruction. A directory of "Social Welfare Organizations" is published by the Central Coun cil of Social Agencies, comprising about fifty pages of description devoted to the various institutions Avithin its scope, each agency requiring on an average from six to ten lines of description. The Report of The Centralized Budget of Philanthropies is comprised in a pamphlet of fifty-eight pages, AA'ith quite full descriptions of the work carried on by each of those agencies comprised in the scope of their acthities. The Milwaukee County Institutions referred to above are grouped upon a 1,100-acre farm just Avest of the beautiful suburb of WauAvatosa, and in this group are comprised the following: The Milwaukee County Infirmary, County Hospital, Asylum for Mentally Diseased, Aluirdale and Blue Alound Sanatoriums, Home for Children, County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy, and Hospital for Mental Diseases. 739 ST. MARY'S HOSPITAL THE EMERGENCY HOSPITAL Opposite the Chicago, Mihvaukee & St. Paul Station PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF AIILWAUKEE 741 The administration of these institutions is intrusted to the Board of Ad ministration of Alilwaukee County. This board consists of five members, three appointed by the county board of supervisors and two by the governor of the State of Wisconsin, the county board of supervisors passes on all ap propriations, Aotes all moneys and has general supervisory powers. Appropriations for all purposes for the current year total $2,703,508. Alilwaukee County's investment in these institutions totals $5,000,000. An Illuminating Example. — Typical of the Avork of these various institu tions may be cited the details of the Alilwaukee County Home for Children, a branch of institutional work having a special interest for the mothers of the community whose sympathies are naturally stirred by any appeal for the welfare of children. This institution is under the superintendence of August Kringel, whose account has been prepared for this history and is included in this place. All the institutions mentioned in the account are equally inter esting and instructive to our readers, but can only be referred to by name. "There was a time when the purpose of the Alilwaukee County Home for Children," says Air. Kringel, "Avas greatly misunderstood by many people interested in charitable movements, and even to the present day the public in general knows but comparatively little of the inside work of the seven great institutions Alilwaukee County maintains at Wauwatosa, the infirmary, the hospital, the hospital for mental diseases, the asylum for mentally diseased, Muirdale Sanatorium, the agricultural school, and the home for children. The home for children has always impressed me as being the most important of the seven, as the future citizens of our community are educated and trained here, or at least are given a good start in such education and training. "The object of the Milwaukee County Home for Children is to give a temporary home to children under sixteen years of age whose parents are legal residents of the County of Alilwaukee and dependent on the public for support, and secondly to place children who are permanently committed to the care and custody of the Milwaukee County Home for Children into fam ilies for adoption or indenture. The institution was opened on February 25, 1898. Up to December 31, 1920, 6,449 children have received the aid of the county. At present there are 330 children in the home. Children are com mitted to this home by either the county superintendent of poor or the Juvenile Court of the County of Alilwaukee. "Two classes of children are admitted, first, children who are only tempo rarily committed and who are returned to their parents after conditions have changed in such Avay as to secure proper environment for the children; sec ond, children who are permanently committed to the care and custody of the home for the purpose of being placed with foster parents. "Only a small percentage of children are committed premanently, as it is the aim of the home to keep the family together if in any way possible ; and if commensurate with the demands for proper care and training of the chil dren, they are returned to their parents." The following table shows the later disposition of the children received into the home: GRAND AVENUE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH (The Soldiers' Monument in foreground) GRACE LUTHERAN CHURCH Broadway and Juneau Avenue PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF MILWAUKEE 743 Number of children Year. Number of children placed Avith received. foster parents. 1916 450 33 1917 441 32 1918 538 44 1919 592 32 1920 484 49 Children are as a rule committed to the home for six months, in order to give parents a chance to recover from their misfortunes and put themselves on their feet again. In some cases the time is extended, as it has been found that six months is at times too short a period to effectively aid the parents. Should parents neglect or refuse to provide for their children again these cases are taken before the juvenile court judge for permanent commitment, and are then placed out in families throughout the state. Buildings in Use for the Home. — The six buildings of the home have been placed on a piece of ground of twenty-one acres, of which eight acres is set aside for park purposes, more than a thousand shade trees were planted, playgrounds and baseball ground established, a lake built for swimming in the summer and skating during the winter season, a bowling alley provided; in fact, everything was done for the purpose to place children that are received at the home in pleasant, attractive surroundings, .thereby elevating their thoughts and to make them forget misery and unhappiness. Every child above six years of age must attend school. Children receive the same instruction as children do in the city schools. They must attend regularly five clays during each week. A large children's library has been established in the home for supplementary reading to aid in the children's education. Teachers AA'ho are employed at the home ninst be graduates of a normal school of the state, or the state university, and. must." be accredited Avith two years of experience, and hold a permanent state certificate. The institution has its own house physician,, who makes his daily visits and examines into conditions of health of the children. For the sick children afflicted with contagious or other diseases proper hospital facilities are pro vided in such way that all cases may be successfully treated. Every child entering the institution must go through a rigid medical examination and is placed in detention apartments for tAvo or three weeks to prevent bringing in contagion and spreading it among other inmates. The coVidition presenting itself for the placement of children in desirable families demands field officers of a high type in every respect. The selection of suitable homes for our children is an exacting task and requires the highest qualifications of an officer entrusted with such work. At present 1avo field officers are employed, AA'ho are doing very commendable Avork. The rules of the institution provide that children under ten years of age be fully adopted, those above ten years of age to be placed out under con tracts, requiring a common-school education and school attendance up to the age of sixteen years, also providing for proper remuneration for services rendered after the age of sixteen. Up to December 31, 1920, 712 children had THE RESCUE MISSION PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF MILWAUKEE 745 been placed in families throughout the state, out of which 189 had to be re placed. Rules for Adoption. — Out of the 712 children placed, 333 were fully adopted and 369 placed out on contracts. Under date of December 31, 1920, 314 children had become of age and self-supporting, Avhile 388 children still remained under the supervision of the institution. Of these 262 are adopted and 126 out on contracts. It is the aim of the institution to keep close supervision of children placed out, and if possible our field officers should visit these children at least twice a year, and properly record their findings at the office of the home. Children placed out under contract must be provided with all necessary clothing at the expense of the foster parents while of school age. After chil dren graduate from school or have arrived at the age of sixteen, clothing is paid for out of the earnings of the children. Every three months a settle ment must be made. A statement of expenses, signed by the child, must be sent to the institution, including spending money for the child, and balance must be sent by check. The foster parents receive a receipt for the amount sent, and the child receives a statement, showing its bank deposit and total account. Every year wages are increased. At the age of eighteen, children may retain half of their earnings and are not required to send in a statement of expenses, but must defray their expenses for clothing out of their half. The other half goes to the institution and is credited to their bank account. At the age of twenty-one, children receive their savings in full as per their last statement received from the institution. Some children have received as high as $500, $600, $700 and upwards to $1,000. Not very long ago we handed over to a boy a check for $1,000.18. Total earnings of the children placed out under contract amounted, up to December 31, 1920, to $52,028.82 for the last fifteen years, out of which $36,- 699.77 have been paid to children, and the balance of $15,329.05 is deposited to their credit at the bank. This system has many decided advantages over the old system. Under the old laAv, twenty years ago, a child was to receive at age $50 in cash, a Bible and two good suits of clothes. A wonderful consideration for the many previous years' services! It is a wonder they didn't all run away! Of course, twenty years ago the idea prevailed to place a child, no matter what age, in a "good home" and everything would be all right. The child should be very thankful. One fact, however, was lost sight of, that is, the "good homes" made good use of the muscles and bones of the children without due con sideration. It was cheap help under the guise of a "good home" in very many cases. Varying Degrees of Success. — Is the placing of children from public insti tutions a success ? Generally speaking, yes. Young children, who are adopted, as a rule readily adapt themselves to their environments as they grow up. They be come an absolute part of the family. With very few exceptions homes and children have been made happy, and the missing link in the family for future responsibility and ties secured. ST. PAUL'S CHURCH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF AIILWAUKEE 747 Not so with the children above the age of ten years AA'ho are placed in families. With boys there is comparatively little trouble. Our "amiable, affectionate girl" is the cause of a great deal of disappointment. The time of adolescence seems to aid and increase the difficulty of proper training at this time. On the other hand it must be admitted that the difficulty of proper guidance during these years is materially aggravated by the lack of under standing of the modern girl on the part of the foster parents. Some are too exacting, others too lenient. And on the other hand the many inducements of the modern city for continuous excitement and pleasure, are a menace to the peaceful development of a girl's habits and character. It is admittedly difficult for natural parents to guide their girls with success past the many temptations and precipices encountered in modern life, how much more difficult must it be, — yea, at times an insurmountable task for foster parents to guide a girl successfully past the many pitfalls of the day. Well, what do we do with such girls that during the years mentioned be come uncontrollable, unmanageable? We take them back to the institution and employ them as nurse maids with the same salary other employes receive. The money earned is saved for them in the same way as though they were out in a family. Later on we want them to attend the trade school for girls to take up cooking, sewing, dress making or millinery in order to properly equip them to meet the coming de mands with success. Some of these girls have been a complete success. One received a musical education at the Wisconsin Conservatory of Music, some graduated from high school, one is now taking training at the county hospital training school for nurses. Another highly talented girl will attend the University of Wis consin to equip herself as a magazine writer of the highest type. She is noAv in her last year at the West Side High School and stands high in her ac complishments. She has been made chairman of the literary society of the school. Others have been successfully placed in positions of responsibility at the institution. In order to relieve the monotony of their duties the girls are permitted to join churches, to attend good movies, etc. Sewing evenings are provided for them at the institution, a girls' chorus Avas organized to receh-e instruc tion in singing at sight and has on numerous occasions reaped many a compli ment at public entertainments at churches and elsewhere. Let us hope that some day some one will discover a panacea that Avill enable us to cope successfully at all times or nearly so with confronting condi tions. Until then, hoAvever, we must do the best Ave can. Family Welfare Association (Until December, 1921, the Associated Char ities). — On January 3, 1882, a number of citizens calling themselves the "Pro visional Council" met and adopted a constitution and by-laAvs, thereby form ing the Associated Charities of Milwaukee, based on the motto, "Not Alms but a Friend." Rev. G. E. Gordon was chairman of the meeting and the charter members Avere Philip Carpeles, Airs. D. E. Alarks, Charles S. Lester, E. L. Sercombe, Airs. A. B. Norris, Miss Julia Norris, R. D. Whitehead, Airs. ALTENHEIM (LUTHERAN OLD EOLKS' HOME) PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF MILWAUKEE 749 R. D. Whitehead, Mrs. Teetzel, A. M. Joys, Mrs. A. J. Aikens, Mrs. D. H. John son. The society was incorporated under the laAvs of Wisconsin, August 25, 1886. The constitution and the later articles of incorporation were formulated upon those of the London (England) Charity Organization Society and the Associ ated Charities of Boston. Only two cities, Boston and Buffalo, already had organizations Avhose objects were the prevention of pauperism, the promotion of thrift, and the securing of cooperation among the churches and relief-giving societies through a central council, although eight cities had formed earlier societies for strictly relief purposes. Rev. G. E. Gordon, pastor of the Unitarian Church, and Rev. Chas. Stanley Lester, rector of St. Paul's Episcipal Church, had come to Mihvaukee from Boston, had had experience Avith the associated charities there and were the ones primarily responsible for the formation of the Associated Charities of Milwaukee and for its spirit embodied in its motto and the following : "The sympathy of the association shall be as broad as humanity; to this end — "Nothing shall be done or published by the asosciation that would alienate the interest of any good person in its aims. "No visitor while engaged in its Avork shall discriminate against any one on account of creed, politics or nationality. "No officer of the association shall use the influence of his position for pur poses of proselytizing. " Three charitable societies already in existence, the Mission Band, the In dustrial Band, and the Charity Union joined the Associated Charities as auxili aries. Mr. Gustav A. Frellson, previously with the AVisconsin Humane Society, was engaged as superintendent. He served in that capacity until he resigned and left the associated charities, December 31, 1910. Purposes of the Associated Charities as Stated in Articles of Incorporation Adopted August 5, 1886. "ARTICLE I. "Section 1. To reduce and prevent vagrancy and pauperism, and ascer tain and remove their cause. "Section 2. To ascertain and prevent indiscriminate alms-giving. . "Section 3. To detect, suppress and punish imposters and tramps, and secure the community from frauds. "Section 4. To encourage and promote thrift and habits of independence, health, and economy. "Section 5. To secure cooperation among the different churches and charities of the City of Alilwaukee in charitable and relief work, and to estab lish a central bureau or clearing house for all such churches and charities. "Section 6. To investigate and see that all deserving cases of destitu tion are properly and promptly relieved. TRINITY LUTHERAN CHURCH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF MILWAUKEE 751 "Section 7. To establish and maintain, or to assist in establishing and maintaining, provident dispensaries and all other provident and worthy schemes. "Section 8. To establish and maintain, or to assist in establishing and maintaining, a creche or creches, AA'hich shall afford accommodations for the children of working parents during hours of labor, to provide a home or homes for indigent women or children, and to establish or assist in establishing tene ment houses or places for rent for the poorer classes. "Section 9. To acquire by gift, devise, bequest, purchase, lease or other wise, real and personal property, and to sell, rent, mortgage, convey or other wise dispose of the same for any of the purposes above specified. "Section 10. To do and perform any act or thing, and to exercise any and all powers necessary or incident to the purposes above specified -or either of them." The articles of incorporation were so far in advance of public sentiment and of the possibility of securing trained workers to put them into effect, that only Sections 3 and 6 were fully carried out for many years. With time, however, the development of a sentiment in the community for greater preventive and constructive service grew and in 1911 brought about a reorganization of the society for the modern type of work. The city was districted and Bernard Roloff was made superintendent of of South District, Miss Nell Alexander of the East, and Miss Emma 0. Lund- berg of the West District. Mrs. Katherine L. Van Wyck became the general secretary, also giving part time service to the Central Council of Phil anthropies as its general secretary until September, 1915. A central registration bureau was started and maintained until January, 1916, when it Avas transferred to the central council. The constructive side of the work has been steadily developed and trained workers added as was possible to make the work efficient. The rule was established that necessary food and fuel, where none is in the home, shall be put in at once to prevent suffering while the investigation of situation is pending; further relief and service to be given as shall be necessary. Realizing that undernourishment of children and the depleted vitality re sulting therefrom is one of the chief causes of insufficient earning power later in life, the society in 1911, adopted a scientific family budget as the basis for its material relief. The Associated Charities considers the need of material relief merely a symptom of some trouble, and when the relief is supplied it is only a means to the end of re-establishing the family in self-dependence. A modern family case history of each family known to the society is made that the work may be based on an intelligent understanding of the family and its members AA'hich is the first step. The second, a diagnosis of the real trouble to be followed with such form of service as shall return the family to normal citizenship in the shortest possible time. To accomplish this, economic, physicial, social, and moral problems sep arately or in combination, must be met and solved. THE GESU CHURCH PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES OF MILWAUKEE 753 In so many instances, the ignorance and lack of opportunity of the Avife and mother had been found to be the cause of poverty and marital troubles, that in 1911 visiting housekeepers Avere engaged to teach in the homes the essentials of family life. They Avere supported through the cooperation of the women's societies of AYestminster, Immanuel, Plymouth, and St. Paul's Churches as parts of their home missionary work. This service has noAv been made a department AA'ith its own director and fiA'e visiting housekeepers are doing this fundamental educational work with excellent results for the present and future. Nothing undertaken has been more far-reaching. Finding that the Avord "Charities" in the title keeps many aAvay Avho do not Avant "charity" but Avho do need adA'ice and a helping hand to escape dependency, and also to enable the society to broaden its usefulness to meet community needs as may be shoAvn to be advisable, the board of directors de cided to change the name of the society from "The Associated Charities" to "The Family Welfare Association of Milwaukee," thereby falling into line with the general trend through the United States. The society assumed its neAv name December 1, 1921. It always has been helpful in promoting social measures for the prevention of dependency in cooperation with other agencies working along health, juve nile protection and other lines of social service. The officers, the directors and the advisory board are active men and women closely in touch with the Avork and bearing with the staff the burden of its responsibility. They are : Board of Directors — Edwin E. White, president ; Wm. C. White, vice pres ident ; Fred W. Rogers, secretary ; G. W. Augustyn, treasurer ; Edward W. Frost, H. H. Jacobs, Nelson P. Hulst, Albert Friedmann, Henry P. Andrae, Sheldon J. Glass, Rev. Holmes Whitmore, Miss Mariette Tweedy, Mrs. Otto H. Falk, John Le Feber, Airs. Arthur Holbrook, S. M. McFedries, Frederick L. Pierce, Airs. C. J. Mcintosh, Louis Quarles, Herbert F. Lindsay, George Gibbs. Advisory Board — Airs. Arthur AlcGeoch, Mrs. George Lines, Mrs. E. J. Kearney, AYm. C. Frye, Airs. Walter Stern, Alax Babb, Rev. Chas. H. Beale, Fred D. Goldstone, Mrs. Alfred W. Gray, Mrs. Lawrence Fitch, Mrs. Arthur H. Gallun, J. Tracy Hale, Sam Gates, Mrs. Clement C. Smith. Vol. 1—4 8 ST. JOSAPHAT'S CHURCH (POLISH) First and Lincoln avenues ¦Jill ~§#i TEMPLE EMANU-EL CHAPTER XLIII THE TRANSITION, ALT-MILAVAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY The transition from foreignism to Americanism forms a chapter in the life of Alihvaukee Avhich has neA'er been discussed in all its essential angles. For many years the impression has prevailed throughout the country that the city was intensely German in its ideals, customs and habits. Its fame as a beer breAving center strengthened that impression to a considerable degree, and while this impression in certain respects Avas Avarranted it Avas not alto gether true or fair to its people. There Avas undoubtedly a period in the life of the community when it Avas intensely German in the observance of old world customs and habits. But, it is equally true that it responded at all times to the national spirit and was intensely loyal to the institutions of the American Republic. While those of German birth remained German in their family life, fostering Ger man social customs, reading German newspapers, attending German churches, and employing the German language in their social and business relations, they were also intensely American in their civic and political relations. They espoused American patriotism as eloquently in the German language as it could ever be espoused in the English language. They participated in the Civil war, shed their blood freely for the preservation of the Union, and won high distinction for bravery and courage on the battlefield. Thus, we have the picture of a people whose conception of America Avas of the most tolerant and liberal character. The fact, however, that the community was at one time intensely foreign tended to emphasize old Avorld characteristics and rendered the process of assimilation somewhat sloAver than it would be in centers where only a sprinkling of the foreign born had entered a native born population. Dur ing the middle of the last century the Americanization methods, now employed, were unknown. The foreign born was sought by the political parties for his vote. The naturalization laAvs were lax, and the immigrant became a voter immediately upon h s arrival, or as soon as he declared his intentions of be coming an American citizen, and his loyalty to his adopted country Avas un questioned. The literature AA'hich the political parties supplied to the immigrant, how ever, possessed some value. While much of it dealt with party achievement, and sought to invite the new citizen into this or that political party, it afforded splendid lessons in self-government and citizenship. The foreign born re ceived copies of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States printed in his native language. He became to all intents and purposes a loyal American citizen without having discarded either his mother tongue, or his foreign customs and habits. Dreamers and Idealists. — The German immigration had its beginning in the 755 756 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE early forties of the last century. Those Avho came here were mainly peasants from the rural districts of Germany and mechanics and laborers from the cities. The immigration received its intellectual impress through the student refugees who as the result of the revolution of 1848 in Germany fled to this country in large numbers. When the spirit of democracy began to assert itself in the revolutionary outbreaks of 1848 throughout Germany there Avas a sympathetic response in the German circles of the United States. The thought that Europe would break the traditional fetters of monarchial oppression and enter upon a neAv era of self determination enthused all nationalities. In AIihA'aukee this feeling found expression in a picturesque demonstration. A parade was formed at Market Square Avhich Avas participated in by the Anglo-Americans, Germans, Irish, and French. A great crowd participated. The Stars and Stripes led, followed by the French tri-color, the German and Swiss banners. Big cannons thundered their approval Avhile the parade moved towards the courthouse on the hill. Here the Washington Guard Band played the Star Spangled Banner and the Alarseillaise followed by speeches in English, French, and German. An Irish priest championed the freedom of Ireland. The adoption of resolution, espousing the cause of human liberty, followed. In the evening there fol lowed bonfires, illumination and fireworks. It became evident to the promoters of this demonstration that something more substantial must be done if the cause of freedom in Europe was to be aided. The Germans then organized a number of so-called "Three Cent So cieties," the members of AA'hich contributed three cents a Aveek for the support of the German revolution. These contributions Avere soon doubled and tripled and sent on to the East where similar organizations had come into life. But the revolutionary movements failed, with the result that many of their partici pants sought refuge in this country. These young men were not only cultured but high-spirited and imbued with a strong love of freedom. They became the intellectual leaders of the German element of the United States and played an important part in the social, commercial, and political progress of their countrymen. They became the editors, schoolmasters, artists, musicians, etc., and gave an uplifting char acter to an element that up to this time did not enjoy the esteem of the Amer ican to which it was entitled. Here we might mention, parenthetically, a tendency which manifested itself on the part of some of these student immigrants and AA'hich may be designated as characteristic of the race. The German is essentially a dreamer. His inner life is accentuated with a strong idealism Avhich at times transgresses the domain of the possible. Among German students Avho fled from their native country in 1848 was found also the idealist, the dreamer. His love for liberty in thought and action led hi in to dream of the fulfillment of his plans and purposes. He saw in the great number of his countrymen Avhich he found on every hand here, the foundation of a neAv German Empire on the American Continent. He saw the rise of splendid institutions founded upon the fraternity, justice and TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 757 liberty, whose halls would echo and re-echo with the glorious achievement of a Teutonic race in every field of human endeavor. But, alas, his dream Avas but an air castle. The free institutions of the new world were too securely founded to permit a new empire or even a new republic within a republic. The latter had been Avrested from an oppressive mother country at a cost Avhich involved vast treasures and precious human life. The German-American Avhile clinging to his mother tongue and to his native customs readily adapted himself to his new environments, and had im bibed the spirit of American institutions. While he was a German in his home and social life, he had become a fullfledged American in his political views, and in his commercial professional and industrial activities. Again, we might refer to the hardship which befell this contingent of im migrants who came to a neAv and strange land. The educated and refined student frequently found himself compelled to accept arduous manual labor in order .to keep body and soul together. We find instances where a college professor was obliged to work as a common day laborer digging trenches for railroad construction or a youthful, delicate student working in the pit of a coal mine. But where there was an honest incentive to work and an intelli gent direction of human effort, the ambition to succeed was gratified. These men made their mark and left an indelible impression upon the char acter of their time and furnished some of the brightest names in the history of American civilization. Gen. Carl Schurz 's contribution to American state- manship and independence of political thought, is well known. Gen. Franz Sigel's military leadership and splendid patriotism need not be discussed. And so we might mention scores of names, all of them written in bright let ters upon the scroll of fame in American history. The most conspicuous among the local so-called "Achtundvierziger" was Carl Schurz, who practically began his political career in Alilwaukee, and who attained great eminence in the higher political life of the nation. He became a cabinet officer and Avas only barred from becoming a presidential possibility by his foreign birth. The Germans of that day dwelled with pride upon the claim that they had made the election of Abraham Lincoln possible. Led by Carl Schurz and other German-Americans of that type they readily de clared their opposition to slavery and their support for the preservation of the Union. Moreover the idealist discovered that the German element could not be united into one compact controllable body nor could they be herded into one or the other of the great political parties. They found their way into the parties that most nearly met their political views. The German Lutherans in the main joined the republican party and the German Catholics allied them selves with the democratic party. Between them there was always a vote that shifted from one to the other party in accordance with their acceptance or rejection of campaign issues. The cultured among the German-American quoted authors, one among them who wrote : "In the great struggle for independence made by the Amer ican colonists frequent mention is made of the Hessians, some twenty-eight 758 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE German soldiers avIio Avere sent over under command of English generals. This unfortunate incident in the great struggle for American Independence has frequently been commented upon in an unpleasant manner, and some times Avith a Avrong interpretation. The facts are that the Hessians were under the control of several German princes, and were by them sold to the British government. They were helpless as far as their own will and ambi tion Avas concerned and too ignorant to understand the great question at issue. Suffice it to say that those of German blood fought for the cause of independ ence and such men as Generals ATon Steuben, De Kalb, Aluehlenberg and others rendered such magnificent service as to immortalize them in the annals of this great nation. "Under this heading a long chapter might be written telling a story of loyality and patriotism Avhich Avas paid for in precious blood. Over 300,000 German-Americans entered the Civil war Avith the same enthusiasm, the same readiness to sacrifice limb and life for the cause of human liberty that Avas mani fested by their Yankee brothers. Twenty German-Americans served as gen erals, hundreds as colonels and minor officers of the army. This page in his tory is so fully recorded and so generally knoAvn that it requires no further treatment at my hands. "It may be held here that in the stricter sense there is no German ele ment. The Germans separate on religious lines belonging to the A'arious de nominations, and they also separate on political lines. It may be added here that even social or educated classes hold themselves aloof from the unedu cated classes, and while there are strictly German churches, and social or ganizations there is no such thing as a general compact of the German speaking people. Thus, in the religious or political sense at least it cannot be said that there is a German element. "Innumerable names of German-Americans AA'ho gained distinction might be mentioned. Daniel Boone, the great pioneer, the first white man who trav ersed the Avestern country ; the Roeblings who designed and constructed the Brooklyn bridge ; Henry Villard avIio connected the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean by constructing the Northern Pacific Railway, etc." Customs and Habits. — Old Avorld habits and customs in family life found their adaptation to neAv world conditions. The exigencies of immediate sur- soundings as Avell as usage among the native born made their impress. Ex pediency became the controlling factor Avhereby the immigrant adjusted pre conception and former habits to neAv world realities. The little homes that were built in an earlier day on Alarket, East Water, and River streets, and the streets crossing them, had their backyard vegetable gardens with "salat, schnittlauch und petersilia," and there Avas ahvays a patch of floAvers Avith astors, forget-me-nots, while morning glories and sun flowers graced the back fences. The boys in those days had chores to do. They had to do errands for mother, run to the market, to the grocer, the butcher and the baker. They had to saw and chop Avood on Saturday mornings, turn the grindstone for father who sharpened his tools, carry water and wood into the kitchen, attend TRANSITION, ALT-AIILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 759 to the smokehouse and rock the baby. The girls were generally busy in helping mother about the kitchen and the household. Here was the old time baker whose ovens Avere open to the good house- AAives of the neighborhood who prepared their own dough in size and form to suit their own fancy. He merely charged them for the baking. In selling his rolls he invariably counted out thirteen in order to comply with the pro- A-erbial rule of a baker 's dozen. The butcher who did his own killing in the backyard had at the beginning a somewhat limited trade in fresh meats. The average family bought a pig or a quarter beef in the fall of the year Avhich Avas salted doAA'n for the winter's use. It also made its oavu sausages and " schwartemager. " The boy or girl who came to the butcher for an order of fresh meat always secured a com plimentary slice of sausage for serA'ing as carrier. Gradually Avith the rise of the meat packing houses the preparation of meats by families declined, and the so-called indhidual meat butcher became a modern meat market man. The fuel industry, too, underwent marked changes. The old time wood market, located in the vicinity of Poplar and Fourth streets saw its rise and decline. Farmers brought in loads of cordwood, of maple, bass and oak, and unloaded it on the purchasers' premises. It was not until wood became scarcer and the prices higher that coal came into general use as a fuel. The families of a former day not only salted their pork and beef for winter use, smoked their hams in an old smokehouse in the backyard, but also used the remnants of lard and grease for making soap. Somebody in every neighborhood owned an iron soap kettle and knew how to make lye and boil soap. Every family had its assortment of irregular cubes and squares of home-made washing soap. Every German neighborhood was the possessor of a cabbage cutter and every hausfrau pickled her own sauerkraut. There was the barber who dignified his calling by noting on his street sign that he was prepared to do "schroepfen" (cupping or blood-letting) as a side line. There were among the foreign born those who believed that the leeches applied by the barber would ease rheumatism, neuralgia and other ailments. The linguistic peculiarity of the neighborhood was found in the variety of English spoken by the German born. A keen ear could distinguish the North German from the South German by his English. The Alecklenburger from the North found the English language easier than did the Bavarian of the South. The former was aided by a similarity between Low German and English while the latter was hampered by a corresponding dissimilarity be tween his old Avorld dialect and the new world tongue. He constantly con fused the hard and soft consonants and found difficulty in giving his vowels the exact shade of pronunciation. Between the forties and sixties the Fourth of July celebrations assumed a most festh'e air. The main streets were decorated with green trees, garlands, bunting and flags. The forests about the city were stripped of saplings and shrubbery which were placed on the gutter side of the walks and at the entrances of small shops and saloons. The refreshing vegetation ornamented with flags and bunting, gave atmosphere, color and zest to the holiday spirit. The youth of the city was extremely busy burning powder and exploding 'ti"'- r'-sT THE OLD TIME MILWAUKEE GARDEN SALOON AND RESTAURANT ON THE Wl SIDE IN THE SIXTIES EST SCHLITZ PARK, FOR MANY YEARS KNOWN AS QUENTIN'S PARK Now Lapham Park TRANSITION, ALT-AIILAYAUKEE TO AA1ERICAN CITY 761 "firecrackers." There Avas an incessant bang and rattle of explosions from early morn until the late hours of the night. The roar of monster cannons and fireworks at night closed loudly and picturesquely the observance of Independence Day. The casualties reported on the folloAving morning indi cated that the boys had been patriotic to an enthusiastic and reckless degree. There Avere lost fingers, injured eyes and poAvder-marked faces. The gutters and alleys gaA-e evidence of a great day in the debris of crackers and Roman candles and sky rockets that had spent their glory of color, noise and illumina tion. The fire department usually recorded a busy day fighting numerous fires caused by a reckless observance of the nation s greatest holiday. The so-called "greenhorn" was a common product. The immigrant who groped his way through the English language amid American customs had an easy time when he moved among his fellow countrymen. But his embarrass ment and troubles began when he was obliged to deal with the American element. The immigrant boy fared much better. He was ridiculed for a time by his new playmates for "the funny way" he expressed himself, but he boldly picked up words and phrases and with surprising rapidity. In a short time he talked and cussed as fluently as the rest of the boys. He was particularly apt in enriching himself with cuss words and the street profanity indulged in by his youthful contemporaries. The numerical strength of the Germans, their prestige and standing in the community, together with the popular use of their language made its impress upon other nationalities. Many among the Anglo and Irish-Amer icans secured a smattering of German and in social gatherings learned to s ng German songs. Alany who could not speak German could at least under stand it. Occasionally some non-German would speak the German quite Avell. This was quite frequent among the Poles, Norwegians and Hollanders. Sometimes an Irishman coming from one of the counties to the immediate north of Alilwaukee would surprise and amuse his German friends by speak ing Plattdeutsch with fluency. Occasionally, too, some one Avith an English name could tell a Swabian or Bavarian dialect story because his mother had been born in Wuertemburg or Bavaria. The local German dailies published column after column of the most minute news happenings pertaining to the cities and villages of Germany. These neAvs items Avere usually reproduced from newspapers printed in Germany and covered every section of that country, arranged and classified under kingdoms, dukedoms and provinces for the convenience of the reader. With the constant accession of the immigrant classes it was only natural that in time the foreign element would outnumber the native born. But here it must be added that the average American family was small while the foreigner raised large families. This added to the number of native born and in time again over-balanced the foreign born, though it did not immediately change the foreign complexion of the community. While the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch, spoken in the German counties of Pennsylvania, has held its own for over two hundred years the Germanized English of Milwaukee has been of a fleeting duration only. It has never be- 762 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE come sufficiently enduring or flxed to find expression in printed books as has the Pennsylvania Dutch. The process of assimilation has been too rapid to permit the establishment of a mixture of English and German into a distinc- thre jargon. The older among the Germans Avere guilty of grotesque forms of English pronunciation and sentence construction as interpreted by the Dutch comedian on the American stage. Yet there Avas also the cultured German AA'hose Eng lish Avas most choice in point of diction and extremely faulty in articulation. The roll of gutteral r and the lack of a sharper distinction between the letters d and t and p and b gave a foreign flavor to the English employed. The school children of German parentage on the other hand usually gave correct pronunciation to English words and Avere inclined to enter upon queer sentence construction. The following Germanisms, picked up on the play ground of a public school on the north side of the city a number of years ago, illustrate the lapses indulged in by some of the pupils: "Annie, please make my apron shut"; "I think it AA'ill give yet rain today"; "Hans come home! Alother is already on the table, and father is half ate up " ; " Come good home, yes!" "Do you Avant some butter bread?" "Over tomorrow I go to a picnic"; "Your head is strubly"; "I seen a horse burn through (run away)"; "Lena she is by the dressing room making her hairs"; "De ball stands by de tree already"; "I'm late because I went by my aunt"; "Teacher, my paper is all"; "I first stood up at 8 o'clock this morning." These Germanisms have been severely criticized by teachers and others, but there have been those who have deemed them as pardonable as the Josh Whitcomb Yankee dialect which obtains in sections of New England, or the negro dialects of the South. Happily the German tinge given their English by the Milwaukee children has practically been eliminated. The Dutch comedian as he has appeared on the American stage, exaggerated in figure, dress and speech, never gave offense to those of German birth or descent. In fact, they enjoyed the burlesque upon their Teutonic brother Avith the rest of the audience. An interesting, yet not altogether a desirable, type of immigrant was he Avho came from a Avell situated family in Germany, frequently from one bear ing a distinguished title. He Avas the black sheep of the family Avhose mem bers ridded themselves of him by sending him to America. By sending him this distance they had the assurance that he Avould never accumulate enough money to make the return trip. Frequently this type floundered about aimlessly and became a burden upon his countrymen. Sometimes he Avould degenerate into a shabby genteel or develop into a slick adA'enturer. Sometimes expediency as well as neces sity drove him into becoming a barkeeper, Avaiter or piano player in concert saloon. Occasionally, OAving to the unsympathetic rebuffs and the gruff ad vice of his countrymen, he Avould follow a more honorable occupation by be coming a musician, cigarmaker or neAvspaper reporter. For a time his title, Avhich might be Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig Graf von Pumpernickel, Avould secure him promiscuous cash loans, free meals and plenty of free beer. Not infrequently he sought a faA'orable marriage connection. TRANSITION, ALT-AIILAYAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY 763 The hand of a girl, Avhose parents Avere plebeians in Germany and Avho had through industry and thrift accumulated a competence in this country, Avas acceptable, providing the prospective father-in-laAv Avas inclined to keep a titled son-in-laAv in funds. These marriages occurred occasionally but seldom proved satisfactory. The average German entertained for years, after his arrival here, a long ing to return to his native land. Gradually this desire wore doAvn until he was contented to remain until the end of his days. He realized that his material advantages and those of his family Avere better here than ever could be hoped for in the old country, and his desire to return did not extend be yond a mere visit to old home scenes. There were, of course, the exceptional few who, notwithstanding their own material prosperity, railed against the country of their adoption. They had enjoyed the blessing of a free country, acquired a snug fortune, and had every reason to be grateful. Yet they held that this Avas a country of "hum bug and schwindel, " and not fit for good people to live in. They held that German statesmanship was a paragon of honor and efficiency while American statesmanship was selfish, tricky and dishonest. Alen of this type were not taken seriously. Their inconsistency Avas too apparent. If perchance one of them made a visit to Germany he was usually glad to return to his American home again. The old country home Avas not what it had been in years before. Old friends had died, and the people were still poor and restricted in their views, Avhile the people in America were bet ter off and on the whole more intelligent, more progressive, more prosperous. "Yes, my native village is the same old place," was the usual statement, "but somehow things are changed. Everything looks smaller, more miserable and less attractive. I wouldn't care to live there again." The true answer was that nothing had changed. The Germany of 1880 provided better for its people than did the Germany of 1840. The real change was found in the standards, vieAvs and ideals of the German-American who had gone back to visit his native country. He had unconsciously become an American and had only aAvakened to that fact when in maturer years he con trasted his native AA'ith his adopted country. In the earlier period of the city's history the Irish- Americans celebrated Saint Patrick's Day AA'ith festive street parades about the city during AA'hich they braved inclement Alarch weather so common in this region. Sometimes they encountered snoAvstorms, while the streets were usually icy or Avet. Be ginning with the '80s the parades Avere abandoned. Thereafter the observance of the Patron Saint's Day was confined to halls Avhere the exercises assumed an educational character. In scanning old newspaper files one Avill note that during the '70s and '80s the editors liberally indulged in alliterative headlines. Here are some of them: "Alunicipal Melange," "Erin's Evils," "Foaming Fluid," "Female Freedom," "Flattering Figures," "Fuel Famine," "Play People," "Frivolous and False," "Senatorial Squabbles," "Blaine and Britain," "Counting the Cost," "Plots and Plotters," "Boer Brawn," "Life's Liberties," "Crime 764 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Calendar," "Farmers Forming," "Alexander's. Ashes," "Badger Beacons," etc. Equality and Social Caste. — In Europe the activities of men are- almost Avholly determined by caste and tradition. The boy follows the trade of his father; the mechanic associates only AA-ith his fellow mechanics. Professional, business and official careers run in families for generations. While the immigrant found himself freed from old world restrictions, and with new opportunities before him, he realized his educational limitations. He Avas obliged to follow the calling for which he had been trained. But, he was quick in appreciating the fact that the son need not necessarily become a shoemaker because the father was a shoemaker. The father stood ready to accord his son a better education than he himself had enjoyed, an opportunity which would have been denied to him under old world conditions. Thus, many splendid professional and business men have sprung out of working- men's families. The immigrants who tore themseh'es from old world traditions, with its restrictions and evils of caste and class distinctions, came to this country with somewhat liberal conceptions of social as well as political equality. They breathed to the full the atmosphere of freedom in a new land, "and rejoiced in the thought that "one man is as good as the next man." They made no allow ance for the inequalities of breeding, culture and social refinements. An interesting incident, which brought social distinctions into sharp con trast with each other and developed opposite conceptions in taste and form, transpired in the later '40s. Up to this time the Germans conducted their dances with a sort of provincial freedom. The males appeared on the dance floor in shirt sleeves, hats on, their heads, and pipes in their mouths, whirled their partners through waltzes and polkas, stamped their feet and yodled in Bavarian Schuhplattl fashion. There proved to be those Avho did not relish this form of terpslchorean amusement, and concluded to arrange a subscription ball of their own. The best hall in town was hired and the male guests Avere to appear in frock coats, white ties and gloves. Sixty couples had signified their acceptance to this exclusive affair. Noav followed a storm of opposition. Aristocracy Avas asserting itself. The leveling spirit of democracy was in danger. The one faction dubbed the other as "die GescliAvollenen." The objectors Avere designated as the "grime Deutschen. " It so happened that the "savcII" ball Avas set for the same night when the "popular" dance had been arranged for. This Avas deemed an added affront on the part of the aristocrats avIio ''Avore spectacles on their impudent noses." AYhen a brickbat came through the Avindow into the plebeian dance hall the climax Avas reached. A committee was sent to the ball room of the aristocrats a few blocks cIoavii the street to make a vigorous protest. The confab proved, hoAvever, a peacable one. No crowd of men and women so well groomed and refined could have stooped so low as to throw a brickbat into a rival dance hall. The savcIIs Avere exhonerated, and the objectors re ceived a new conception of social equality in a democratic land. TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 765 Racial Antagonism. — With the strong influx of the foreign element there arose doubts and fears in the minds of native Americans. These doubts and fears in due time developed into a prejudice and in many instances into a positive hatred for every person of foreign origin. Thus, AA'hen German immigration had reached its greatest impetus, it was also confronted in this country with the strongest prejudice against the for eigner which had ever been manifested in the history of the country. The so-called Know-nothing movement found its beginning about the middle of the last century and became so aggressive as to form itself into a national political party. Its watch cry was "America for Americans" subserving the immediate interest of the native born and antagonizing all foreigners. The attitude of the native element therefore towards the foreigners Avas not always a cordial one. While on the one hand immigration was welcomed as being conducive to material progress, there was on the other hand a feel ing of apprehension that a preponderance of foreign blood would endanger the stability of American institutions. In 1843 the opposition to the foreign born found vigorous expression in one of the local newspapers. The nativistic tendency of the whig party had prompted the Germans and Irish to join hands under the banner of the democratic party in securing suffrage equality with the native Americans. The newspaper said: "If these foreigners, who are unlike ourselves in birth, language, breeding and customs, secure equal rights with the Americans our institutions will be seriously endangered. It is an injustice to draw these untutored monarchial Barbarians out of their legitimate sphere and coddle them with fine things they do not understand. Already the population is more than half foreign born. If they once gain the upper hand our liberties are lost." The very fact, however, that the foreign born sought a vo;ce in the elec tion that was to elevate the Territory of Wisconsin into statehood, proved a signal step in the process of assimilation and citizenship. It proved itself an expression of the spirit of equality which strengthened rather than weakened the body politic. The foreigner had no aims other than to support the institu tions of the republic in harmony with the native born and secure a voice in their preservation. Incidentally the native born realized that the constant accession of for eign born stimulated his material prosperity. The latter came with sound bodies and willing hands to work. They were frugal, industrious and thrifty, and thus became an asset rather than a liability to the community. The German born who was at a special disadvantage compared with other foreigners who spoke the English language upon arrival, became a special object of contempt and suffered more largely from this hatred than the Scotch, Irish and other similar nationalities. The cry of "Damn the Dutch" was a more or less familiar one until 1871 when the result of the Franco-Prussian war lent a new aspect to the German character and its mental and physical fibre. Nevertheless, with the arrival of every ship-load of immigrants went up the cry that the country was being inundated by a foreign population which would HENRY WEHR'S, NO. 1 GRAND AVENUE A famous restaurant where excellent coffee, wines and beers were served for many years TRANSITION, ALT-AIILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 767 in time seriously endanger the stability of our form of government. The German immigrant, hoAveA-er, readily adapted himself to his neAv environ ments, freely imbibed the spirit of our political institutions, added vastly to the material progress of the country. Old and neAv world conceptions sometimes collided in a peculiar manner. The native element, for instance, had been taught to observe the Sabbath Avith almost puritanical regularity. When the Germans came with a continental conception of Sunday observance there Avas more or less irritation. Brass band music and parades Avere deemed sacrilegious. The quiet of the Sabbath had become proverbial. The issue came when the Fourth of July in the earlier period of the Ger man immigration, fell upon a Sunday the Germans planned a joyous celebra tion. The Yankee element objected. All festivities should be postponed until Alonday, the 5th of July. The Germans, however, went to church in the morn ing and in the afternoon and evening celebrated Independence Day Avith patriotic speeches, brass bands and parades and fireworks, and with all the enthusiasm, hurrah and noise of an American Fourth. The objections then mellowed into acquiescence. The opinion entertained by the average foreign born for the Yankee, especially for those who advocated a puritanical Sabbath and total abstinence, Avas not very flattering. The Yankees Avere regarded as a class of bloodless and soulless individuals who worshipped the almighty dollar, constantly sought to practice paternalism over the newcomer, and lacked an apprecia tion for the higher and nobler impulses of life. "The Yankee preaches total abstinence," said the' foreign born, "and drinks whisky behind the door. He is a hypocrite, and an enemy of personal liberty." In time, as the foreign born became acclimated, he learned to appreciate the qualities of the native American. He learned to know him as a generous- hearted man and appreciative of all the good things he found in others. The Yankee was enterprising and energetic in commercial and industrial under takings. He created business and gave employment. The German would rather Avork for a Yankee boss than work for one of his own countrymen. The latter was close-fisted; the Yankee was less exacting and more liberal in his dealings Avith his employes. The German Market. — Among the institutions which grew out of the life of an earlier clay was the German market, located at the corner of East Water and Juneau Avenue (then known as Division Street). While markets are a common utility knoAvn to most American cities, this market, known as "der Griiner Alarkt, " Avas in its earlier day a unique social center of German life in the community. It could well be likened to the public markets of Nurem berg, Munich, Hamburg and other German cities. The gossip of the town was here diffused in the Mecklenburger and Pommeranian dialects as freely as it was in the Bavarian and SAvabian dialects, although every one made an effort to employ high German. The low German market Avoman who sold butter, eggs and Schmierkase, had a husband who sat with his saw and saw-buck against the walls of the City Hall waiting for a call to saw a cord of wood. In the winter time he anchored 768 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE himself to the sunny side of the building while in the summer time he sought the shady side. If he happened to be engaged in an argument Avith a felloAv wood-saAvyer, and Avas in possession of a hunk of rye bread and some speck, and of a fair supply of tobacco, he respectfully declined to saw wood for any body. Alorning life at the market afforded a character study of the female popu lation of the community. The market woman, sturdy, red cheeked and out spoken, varied her manner of salesmanship, with the style and appearance of her customers. The well-dressed lady who came down from Yankee Hill to fill her market basket, and who was designated as the "Englische Dame," was treated Avith the utmost courtesy. The snippy hired girl who sampled the butter before she bought, or rolled over the vegetables before she made her ¦choice, came in for sarcastic response. The dog who sniffed about the market Avoman's baskets came in for a sAvift kick exerted by a heavy soled boot, and a parting salutation in Plattdeutsch. In the gossip which gained circulation and momentum in the morning crowds AA'hich gathered about the market stands the happenings of the day Avere discussed simultaneously with the quality of vegetables and the dairy products. The good housewife AA'ho had bought her yeast at the brewery, must fill her basket Avith greens and at the same time learn AA'hat people Avere talking about. Besides the births, marriages and deaths, there was the latest brewery or grain elevator fire, the scare aroused by a runaway horse, the arrival of some immigrant who claimed ownership of a great title, the German boy who mar ried an Irish girl, the Yankee who was building a new hotel, the indignant resentment of a German who had been called a Dutchman, and so forth. With the evolution of the corner grocery store, the introduction of a greater variety of food products, package and canned goods, the delivery system, and later on the telephone, the German market went out of existence. Attempts on the part of the municipality in later years to revive the old mar ket idea has resulted in the establishment of a number of smaller markets in different sections of the city which are conducted on vacant lots in the open air during the summer months. The German Beer Garden. — The German beer garden, too, grew into flour ishing proportions. Prominent among these Avas Milwaukee Garden, located at Fourteenth and Chestnut streets, conducted for years by Pius Dreher, and Quentin's Park, located on Walnut and Eighth streets, conducted by Paul Schuengel. Milwaukee Garden later gave way to a residence district and Quentin's Park is iioav a public park, knoAvn as Lapham Park. There were other parks of lesser popularity as for instance Terrace Garden, located on Ninth and State streets, Knurr 's Park and National Park, located on the south side, Bielefeld's Garden, located in the vicinity of upper Knapp Street on the east side, and Berninger's on South Pierce Street. The first beer garden brought into life by the earliest German settlers of Mihvaukee was Ludwig 's Garden, located on a delightfully wooded spot on the east bank of the Alihvaukee River to the immediate north of the present Cherry Street bridge. The admission fee was 25 cents and those who did not TRANSITION, ALT-AIILAYAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY 769 participate in the dancing Avere entitled 12y2 cents rebate payable in beer or coffee and kaffee kuchen. The festivities held in these parks Avere frequent and zestful. Beer and wine flowed freely, music and song rang out in joyous accents, and laughter and gayety Avas the order of the day. The various social benevolent and singing societies held their annual picnics in these beer gardens. Brass bands crashed their notes into patriotic airs, both American and German, selections from the leading operas, and then cosily lapsed into potpouris of popular folk song music. The American flag Avould flutter gaily beside or over the society banners, and everybody Avas happy to feel that he enjoyed the protection of that flag, and at the same time grateful in the thought that he Avas of German origin. They believed that the American flag Avas big and tolerant enough to permit them to enjoy themselves in accordance AA'ith their own native customs. "We are loyal to our adopted country," they would say, "We obey its laAvs, and pay our taxes, revere the American flag and stand ready to defend it against any enemy that may come forAvard. We know our rights and will assert them. We hold that we can sing and play, love and pray in our mother tongue with out becoming unpatriotic or disloyal. We are American citizens, even though Ave were not born here. Only the Indian has a better claim than Ave to that title." These beer garden festivals became picturesque reproductions of old Avorld plays and pleasures. A Schuetzenfest saw the target contestants in the hunts man garb of a Tyrolean or Bavarian. A Saengerfest presented large male and mixed choruses that revelled in classic productions as Avell as in German lieder and folksong. A Turnfest saw handsome athletes in white shirtwaists and gray pantaloons performing graceful gymnastics and building remarkable human pyramids. There were SAvabian and Bavarian folk festivals AA'here the Kellnerinen or waitresses appeared in picturesque native garb, where dialect obtained freely, where sauerkraut, bratwurst, and knoedel and the like, were the food order of the day, where beer and wine flowed in torrents, AA'here the soft strains of zither music alternated with the cornet solo, Avhere the Schuplattel Tanz displayed white hosiery and bulging skirts, where laughter and gaiety pro ceeded with the zest of happy children at play. One of the peculiarities evolved here is that the German who sipped his beer with moderation in his native country was inclined to drink it immoder ately in this country. Arears ago the Lutheran and Catholic parishes held annual picnics in the popular parks of the city at which wines and beers Avere dispensed. It Avas found that the sale of alcoholic drinks had to be dispensed with because excesses were indulged in. The American treating system, it was believed, was largely responsible for the difference. The old Avorld cus tom, where everybody paid for the wine and beer he himself consumed, led to moderation whereas the new world liberality led to over-indulgence. The Bier Wirthschaft. — The American saloon, as exemplified here in a German Bier Wirthschaft, proved a useful institution in teaching the mean ing of a new Avorld democracy. Those who came with exalted old Avorld 770 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE notions as to their blood and breeding sometimes received a rude lesson at the hands of those who had been among the submerged classes of Europe and who now asserted the law of equality. The man who by dint of character and honest effort had made something of himself, and was leading a useful life, had no patience with his polished countryman who was stiffly afflicted with notions of caste and ancestry. As already stated, these German saloons became veritable schools in democracy. They not only did much to make old world class distinctions seem ridiculous, but afforded the average foreign born much information on the economic and civic life of his adopted country. He learned to know some thing about men and measures in the political field, the principles of govern ment, and his rights and prerogatives as an adopted citizen. The traditional Stammtisch too, reserved for groups of friends who came together periodically for a social confab, had its value. Its discussions usually went beyond the domain of politics and the doings of the day. Art, music, the drama and old world diplomacy were under consideration, literature came and the discussions engaged in frequently developed into heated arguments. The latest play at the Stadt Theater, an article in the Gartenlaube, the new est Bismarck coup, the last musical society concert, the Know-Nothing move ment, the enlargement of a brewery, and so forth, became the burden of con versation. High German flavored with dialect characteristics was the language employed. Every German, whatever his dialect might be, made a pretense to a knowl edge and use of the written and official language as taught in the schools of his native country, but he did not always succeed in his use of high German in hiding the inflections of his dialect or the jargon of the particular section of the country he came from. There were those who could nead these dialect inflections and determine with reasonable exactness the birthplace of the speaker. There was something imposing and festive about the old-time beer wagon. The barrels containing the famous product Avere stacked in pyramid fashion on a broad, long, strongly built wagon. Frequently a row of barrels hung from the sides of the vehicle which was drawn by magnificent Pereheron horses. The driver, stalwart and broad-shouldered, who was the personification of the traditional Gambrinus, plus a huge leather apron and minus the beard, on arrival at a saloon could toss, roll or carry his "eights and quarters" with the dexterity and ease of a giant athlete. His appearance in a barroom was the signal for an all around treat in which the impecunious thirsty became the usual beneficiaries. The saloons and taverns AA'hich had become exceedingly numerous in the area lying between Oneida and Knapp streets, Broadway and the river, bore a variety of names. The signs which hung over the entrance door of the "Lager-Bierhalle" bore in large German lettering, such names as "Bayerischer Hof," "Schwabenhaus," "Zur Stadt Wien," "Preussischer Hof," "Jiiger- haus," "Schweitzer Heimath," etc. With the expansion of the village these saloons and taverns, which were the American replicas of the German gasthaus TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 771 and bierhalle, also sprang up on the west side, on Third and Chestnut streets and on the streets adjacent to them. While these taverns served as the headquarters for the immigrants upon their arrival and until they were otherwise provided for, they also served as boarding houses and usually maintained a bar. The real Bierstube with its Stammtisch and regular habitues soon developed. It had its guests who grouped themselves about the tables, sipped their beer slowly, and discussed the news of the day. These groups, in a somewhat milder degree, smacked of the class and caste of an old world drinking locality. While language and race origin dreAV them together in friendship and comraderie it was noticeable that the business and professional men grouped themselves about certain tables and that those of lesser intelligence and means formed other groups. Occasionally an "intellectual" would resent the familiarity of the plebeian AA'hose democracy did not harmonize with his old world standards of class superiority. The supersensitive, wine drinking aristocrat wanted it under stood that the plebian must keep his "dirty beer fingers" off his shoulders. The enterprising saloonkeeper frequently resorted to ingenious expedients in attracting patronage. Family events became public events. It was not uncommon to note an advertisement in the German press announcing that the saloon-host would celebrate his birthday, or that of his wife, by serving a delicious free lunch consisting of " Hasenpf eff er, " "Metzelsuppe," or "Span- ferkel" to all who on that day honored his "lokal" with their presence. The "bock-bier" season, too, when the foaming amber fluid consisted of a double- brew, afforded attractive publicity. These advertisements were sometimes embellished with the inspirational toast "Gambrinus Lebe Hoch!" and sometimes with the more practical an nouncement to the effect that the host sold "2 Glas Bier fur 5 ets.," adding that friends, patrons and the general "Publikum" was cordially invited. The walls of some of the popular restaurants and beer halls were richly decorated with vineyard scenes, with happy lads and maidens gathering luscious grapes into baskets, bearded dwarfs operating huge wine presses, and a cheery Bacchus astride a cask raising his cup of pearly wine. Then the walls, too, depicted a gay beA'y of hop pickers, men and women, young and old, and a corpulent Gambrinus drinking a pokal of the amber fluid. The drink proverbs done in bright colors and old German lettering, decorated both walls and ceilings, and gave zest and humor to the social atmosphere. The writer records a few of the proverbs as follows: Ofen Warm, Bier Kalt; Weib Jung, Wein Alt. Nie zu Viel, Denk ans Ziel. Raum ist in der kleinsten Kammer, Viir den grossten Katzenjammer. Erst Proben, dann Loben. Rausch erzahlt, Kater verhehlt. 772 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE Bier auf AYein, Dass lass Sein; Wein auf Bier, Dass rath ich Dir. Und ein Guter Alagen, Kami audi Beides Vertragen. Ob Heid, Jud oder Christ, Herein was Durstig ist. Art of Beer Making. — The old Avorld art of beer making was subjected to modifications in the neAv Avorld breAveries. The American inventive genius applied itself to the creation of methods, devices, apparatus designed to- facilitate quantity production and to meet the appetites of an American palate. It Avas sometimes held by connoisseurs that the American product could not compare in quality and taste with the German product. The American breAV- ers contended that AA'hile their product Avas lighter in substance it Avas also more palatable than the foreign product and better suited to their trade. At the same time they contended that they could readily duplicate any foreign product if this Avas deemed desirable. In this connection an interesting story is told: A concessionaire at the Chicago World's Fair conducted a German village at AA'hich the famous Mun- chener dark beer, imported directly from Alunich, Bavaria, Avas to be dis pensed. The earlier shipments proved that the beer had soured in transit. The concessionaire rushed to Alihvaukee and asked one of the leading breAvers AA'hether he could duplicate the famous Alunich brew. The answer Avas in the affirmative. The beer Avas produced and sold during the entire season of the world's fair as an old country product. The most expert beer connoisseurs did not discover the deception. The cost of production Avas somewhat higher but in quality and flavor it rivaled the old Avorld product. The civic and social life of Alihvaukee has, in certain of its phases, afforded an interesting study to strangers Avho haA'e marveled at the fact that the "great beer village," AA'ith its monster breweries and thousands of drinking places, Avas on the AA'hole sober, orderly and thrifty. A^isitors during their so journ of days and weeks failed to find a single intoxicated person and AA'hen they found one they also discovered that he Avas not a native but a stranger. Notwithstanding the city's liberal attitude on the drink question its percent age of vice and crime has been surprisingly Ioav. Religious Intolerance. — Some of the forty-eighters avIio settled in Alil- Avaukee came with someAA'hat perverted conceptions of American liberty. They failed to realize that the Constitution of the United States guaranteed liberty of conscience and that all men Avere free to Avorship their God in their oavii faith and in their oavii manner. They began to manifest the grossest intolerance in Avhich the Catholics became the special object of their attacks. In the early '50s of the last century they issued so-called " Fluchblaetter " in Avhich the local priesthood and the nuns Avere bitterly maligned and abused. The Notre Dame sisters, who first came to Alihvaukee in the early '50s, did not dare for several years to appear on the streets in their religious garb. Offensive caricatures Avere introduced and scandalous stories were invented. Later this propaganda found expression in the formation of freethinker societies and in the publication of periodicals espousing the cause of free thought and in unrelenting opposition to religious institutions. TRANSITION, ALT-AIIDWAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY 773 The so-called turner societies which came into life in an early day and Avhich fostered the art of physical culture in an attractive manner, took an attitude in favor of the freethinker element. Their efforts to promote physical perfection, however, met with remarkable support and the turner societies increased in number and in membership strength. So strong did they become that for a time they were a dominating force in the political life of the community. Their motto "frish, frei, stark, treu" (alert, free, strong, true), possessed the ring of appeal. They not only fostered a healthy body but also stimulated the social life of their adherents, and paid high tribute to the art of music. Their zeal for mental freedom as well as bodily strength, thus rounding out the complete man and citizen, led them to manifest opposition to the religious people, until turnerism and atheism became synonymous terms in the minds of the people. The splendid purpose of the turner societies to promote the physical man, therefore, did not receive popular support. If they had centered their efforts, it has been held, solely upon the idea of training the human body and mind, into health and happiness they would haA'e made a much larger contribution to physical wellbeing of their time and of future generations. Thus, the turner idea, namely the cause of bodily and mental health and vigor, which was deserving of general acceptance and emulation throughout the land, Avas stifled through hostility for those who professed and practiced religious freedom. Their attitude towards the religious elements, however, not only prevented their project from becoming generally popular but also reduced its exponents to a mere class or minor fraction of the community. With the passing of time many of the turner halls fell into disuse and the memberships of those remaining were reduced to a mere remnant. Thus, the absolute futility of the efforts of the freethinker and turner element to banish the priests and crush the churches has been fully demon strated with the lapse of time. Their propaganda of intolerance died Avith them. Their institutions have been relegated to other uses while the churches, both Protestant and Catholic, continued to grow in number, in beauty and in standing. These Germans had come AA'ith an old world prejudice bred in a country where church and state were one, where religion and politics were inter woven to an aggravating degree, one employing or opposing the other, in an incessant, acrimonious struggle for position, for advantage, for supremacy. In giving expression to this prejudice they failed to appreciate that the con tention carried on in the old world between religionists and non-religionists, under a political banner, lost its force in the new world AA'here a total separa tion of church and state was observed, and where the freedom of conscience was constitutionally recognized. They also proceeded upon the mistaken theory that American freedom im plied non-affiliation with religious bodies. To become allied AA'ith a church organization meant to become priest-ridden. Therefore, no man could be a free man unless he espoused atheism or free-thinkerism. 774 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE The business of kindling race or creed antagonism has been spasmodic in this country, and has never succeeded for long. Like disease germs that die under the rays of the sun it usually gave way under the light of justice and fair play, or degenerated into secret propaganda. Paradoxically, these Germans resented race prejudice vigorously, but practiced religious prejudice with equal intensity. Thus, the propaganda of religious antagonism although carried on openly, courageously and with absolute sincerity, was tiound to come to naught. The German Theater. — The German Theater has for many years been an educational influence in the circles that it served. It had its beginning in an early day and was known as the Stadt Theater, located on Third Street be tween Wells and Cedar streets. Its founder and director for many years was Heinrich Kurtz. Later the enterprise was transferred to the Pabst Theater on Oneida Street, where it was for many years under the management of the late Leon AYachsner, subsequently by Ludwig Kreiss, and is still conducted with fair success. The dramatic offerings have, in addition to the classic, included the neAver productions as they appeared upon the stage in Germany, Austria, France and the Skandinavian countries. For many years too, the English speaking stage of this country regularly presented the better productions of the Euro pean stage, but it was claimed that the Stadt Theater was always among the first to present old world dramatic novelties. "Closely allied and yet distinct from the musical life of the city," says the writer of ' ' Sixty Years of Service, ' ' issued by the German Herold ' ' is the theatrical interest. Everybody knoAvs that one of the institutions AA'hich for generations has given to Mihvaukee a distinct character is its German Theater. There had been German theatrical performances here as far back as in the '50s, at first by amateurs, later by professional actors. A permanent German stage, however did not appear until 1868, and it received from the first the same gene rous support, going far beyond mere reporting, let alone considerations of the counting-room, which Avas and is given to the musical life of the city. In the earlier days, the relations betAveen the German actors and the public Avas a far more intimate and personal one, than is possible in these days Avhen Alil waukee has assumed metropolitan size and ways. "Nearly every actor had some personal adherents AA'ho took active part in their rivalries, and endeavored to draw the neAvspapers into these con troversies. In the earlier files there is sometimes evidence of these feuds, to which an exaggerated importance Avas attributed; but it may be said that the files of the Herold are clearer of such quarrels, Avhether Avith the actors them selves or with their supporters in rival neAvspapers, than any of the others. In later days, when the technical side of neAvspaper printing and especially the art of illustration had made its great modern progress, the Herold did not remain behind any other paper, Avhether in the German or English language, in the space it devoted to the customary reproduction of the por traits of theatrical people and other matters referring to dramatic art. True to the principle of furnishing all the news any English paper furnished, and TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 775 in addition the news of special interest to the German element, the English- speaking stage also received ample attention. "The German stage has neA'er been a purely commercial enterprise. It has always been treated as a great cultural or educational institution. Con sequently the press gave to it the same support in promoting its business affairs that it gaA-e to the musical institutions of the city." The actors were procured from the leading theaters of Germany and it was always held that, owing to the better compensation afforded here, the Stadt Theater was able to secure superior dramatic talent. Annually the director would journey to Germany for a batch of the latest plays and for some additions to his stage personnel. The regular patrons of the theater usually subscribe to certain seats by the season. This has applied particularly to the Wednesday night perform ances, rather than to the Sunday or Friday performances. The Wednesday performances haA'e usually been devoted to the more substantial dramatic productions while the Sunday performances have included light comedies and operettas. The Friday performances have as a rule dealt with the so-called "Freie Buehne," involving problem plays and psychological studies and the like. Political Activities. — In the political activities of the community the Ger mans were slow pupils. They had come to America without previous political training. They had been reared under a monarchial form of government where political contests were few and far between, and where militarism and industrialism rather than political issues and party success were matters of individual and national concern. While they were sitting over their glasses of beer and singing "Heil dir im Siegeskranz, " or over a bottle of wine sing ing "Gaudeamus Igitur," the Irish were imbibing a stronger drink and dis cussing the affairs of state and the political situation of the day. Alen like Carl Schurz, who secured his political training in the Revolution of 1848, were the exception rather than the rule. The native element in control of local public affairs, in the interest of party expediency, gradually made a bid for the immigrant vote. By degrees the Germans became familiar with public men and measures, learned how to cast their ballots, and eventually Avere induced to aspire to public office. As a rule, they Avere more concerned in social and musical organizations and less in political affairs than their felloAv citizens of other racial origin. In 1842, Dr. Franz Hiibschmann the first German to manifest an interest in the political affairs of his adopted country, took a census of his fellow countrymen in the village with the view of ascertaining how many of them desired to participate in the elections. He found only seven eligible to the franchise. A year later the number was increased to thirteen. In the same year the Irish vote exceeded the number of four hundred. On the other hand the Irish element manifested a remarkable adaptability for political activity. They were temperamentally far better equipped for the American political arena. While the Irish possessed an advantage over the German in that they came with a knowledge of the language of the coun try which the other was still to master, they also came with a history and 776 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE tradition behind them designed to stimulate an interest in governmental affairs. Temperamentally, too, they were far better fitted for the strife and con tention of the political arena. They were imaginative, impulsive and com bative, while the German was idealistic, reflective and pacific. Thus, the Irishman Avould succeed in a political contest where the German failed. The former was a good sport and took a chance, the latter was half-hearted and took second place. Thus, it was not unusual to find a lone Irishman in a German Avard elected an alderman of that ward, or to find on Irish-American preside as mayor of the city when the German- American vote was strongest in comparison with that cast by citizens of other racial origin. The Polish element, too, although arriving at a later date, manifested a surprising adaptability for political activities. While they segregated them selves into colonies on the south, east and north sides of the city, they did not isolate themselves from the civic and material activities of the community. They shared in the economic fruits of the community and participated in its political life. In a comparatively short time they were represented in the city and county gOA'ernment by their own countrymen. They also sent their repre sentatives to the halls of state legislation. Today a young Polish-American represents the Fourth Congressional District with acceptable ability in the National Congress, and an American who first saw the light of day in Poland graces one of the local judgeships with credit to his race and to the com munity. In the formulation of political campaign lists, and the naming of candi dates for city and county offices some regard is still given to racial origin. A list of candidates designed to appeal to the popular vote always includes, in addition to the Anglo-American names, an equal proportion of Irish, German and Polish names. And yet it would probably be difficult to judge, in manner and speech, the racial origin of the different candidates. The Transition Period. — The process of assimilation proceeded in a natural and orderly manner. The transition period arrived. With the decline of the German immigration and with the passing year after year of the German born, the advent of a neAv generation schooled in the language of the country and in the customs and habits of the native born, the change came. Alihvaukee had passed the zenith point of Germandom. Its luster as the German Athens of America waned. The younger generation manifested tastes and desires that differed from those of their elders. They looked for English newspapers and sermons, and for dramas that dealt with phases of life with Avhich they Avere familiar. They preferred the negro minstrel shoAV, the Irish comedian, and the American melodrama to the comedies and problem plays at the Stadt Theater. They began to play baseball, patronize boxing and Avrestling matches, and admire a rough and tumble football contest. There came also the era of beautiful public parks, Avith their shady walks, green laAvns, artificial hikes, beautiful floAvers, vA'ilcl animals, soda fountains and ice creams. The attraction these formed tended to minimize the patron age enjoyed by the beer gardens. One by one their number Avas reduced. TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 777 Old and young deserted them and wended their way to the public parks whose popularity in time rendered the former practically obsolete. The old time German who insisted that his children must speak German at home soon discovered that an inexorable law of assimilation was at work. His children spoke English because every other child spoke it and because it was easier to speak it. The process of Americanization, unstimulated and unaided, had taken its natural, orderly, and logical course. The number of German born had reached its maximum soon after the Franco-Prussian war in 1872. The tide of immigration swept thousands of foreign born into Alilwaukee and Germandom, no doubt, reached its zenith during the years that immediately followed. Milwaukee was then frequently named the "German Athens of America." The German newspapers flourished in an exceptional degree. In 1880 there were being published three English daily newspapers and five German dailies and it was generally considered that the latter were more profitable than the former. Besides the publication of German books and pamphlets was more promiscuously engaged in than publications in the English language. The process of assimilation, however, which was constant and steady, is well illustrated in the gradual decline of the German press and the ascend ancy of the English language press. The writer happened to be employed in those days on an English daily whose offices adjoined those of the leading German daily and was enabled to observe at close range the shifting of the reading public from one to the other. Whenever a black-bordered obituary notice of an old German settler appeared in the German newspaper it fre quently also meant the loss of a subscriber. The younger members of the family would subscribe for a daily printed in the English language. Thus, at the end of forty years the German press of Milwaukee has been reduced to one afternoon daily neAvspaper. The English press on the other hand has groAvn to five dailies, one morning and four evening papers, whose circulation in the aggregate is exceedingly large. The strongest support AA'hich the German language receives today is confined to the Lutheran and Catholic churches where sermons are still being preached in the German language. The old time celebration of Independence Day, with its excessive hurrah and noise, its reckless use of firearms and fireworks, and consequent dangers to young and old, has given way to the observance of a "Sane Fourth." The numerous parks of the city become the festive centers where the children engage in pageants, plays and exercises in commemoration of the great na tional holiday. The reading of the Declaration of Independence, brass band music discoursing national airs, and the singing of the national hymn, char acterize the exercises of the clay. The children are carefully chaperoned and amply provided with sweets and refreshments. The day not only affords a maximum of wholesome pleasure for the youth ful participants, but also conveys a magnificent lesson in government and patriotism, stimulating love and loyalty for home and country, and exalting the spirit of true American citizenship. The transition, too, brought with it a tolerant spirit in matters of religion. The German agitators of a half century ago, who sought to inaugurate a THE OLD TIME FAMOUS WHITEFISH BAY RESORT WHERE FISH DINNERS AND OLD WINES WERE SERVED AN OLD WORLD "BIERSTUBE" AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE ANTE BELLUM GERMAN DAYS OF ALT-MILWAUKEE The old ' ' Kunstlerheim ' ' on West Water Street, later destroyed by fire, the "Forstkeller" on Chestnut Street, the "Bratwurst-Glocklein," formerly attached to the Republican House, and the Pabst Theater "Kneipe," affected the German restaurant interior. The illustration shown above is copied from a painting by the late F. W. Heine, a Milwaukee artist who took "Die Gossel-Schencke " at Vienna for his model. The figures to the right represent his wife, two daughters and grandson as guests. TRANSITION, ALT-MILWAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY 779 movement which would drive Christianity from the American continent had passed to their graves. Their A'oices had become silent, their organizations crumbled away, and their Avritings passed into the ash heap of time. What remains of the breeding and spreading of intolerance is confined to clandestine methods and secret machination which do not receive the support or approval of a dominant social order. The newer generations have fostered mutual respect between believers and non-believers, between Jew and Gentile, between Protestant and Catholic. Each is allowed to travel his way, worship his creator in his own fashion, or decline to profess any religion if he so ordains. Religious faith has come to be recognized as coming within the realm of conscience, which is as sacred as are the most intimate family relations, and therefore, a matter of indi vidual concern rather than of public controversy. The Pride of Race Origin. — There are those among the Americans of Ger man descent who have measured their own participation in the economic and political life of the nation and have drawn certain conclusions therefrom. They have found that while those of their own race origin have made re markable- strides in the industrial and commercial activities, they have not concerned themselves in the higher political counsels of the nation in the degree that those of English, Irish, Scotch, Dutch and Scandinavian descent have shared in them. This fact, it is asserted, has led to the minimizing in history of the contri bution made by the infusion of German strains of blood to the development of the natural resources, the arts and sciences and the material and social progress of the republic. These conclusions have led to the inauguration of a movement primarily designed to be thoroughly American in tone and spirit and at the same time to dignify German race origin and to lend the same prestige accorded to other strains of blood. In line AA'ith this thought the so-called Steuben Society of America was founded in July, 1920. At its second annual convention, held in Milwaukee, July 4, 1921, the plans and purposes, as reported in the Mil waukee Journal of February 19, 1922, were expressed by one of its promoters in the following language : , "Only American citizens can become members and only citizens of Ger man descent on father's or mother's side, whether born here or over there. German-Americans who, during the war or at any other times, have denied their descent or shown that they are ashamed of their German descent, are excluded from membership, which is preceded by the strictest examination. All new members take their oath on the Constitution of America and on the honor and respect of their descent. "The society is and means to be a fighting organization, but only in so far as fighting for his rights can help the American of German descent to get them. Intelligence is its weapon." The society declared its major purposes in a manifesto issued shortly after its foundation. In this manifesto it declares for: "One Country — A country so fair, tolerant and just that all Avho live in it may love it. 780 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE ' ' One Flag — An American flag for American purposes only. "One Language — The language of truth spoken in any tongue in which one chooses to speak it." While the German element had its radical leaders who sought the per petuation of language, customs and habits, there were also those who took a most rational view of the part which the Germans played in the economic, civic and social life of their adopted country. They proceeded upon the thought that the German born brought much to the new world worthy of emulation and of perpetuation. But they also saw the meritorious in the traditions, the ideals and the customs of the native American. They held that true Americanism meant to retain all the A'irtues of a native land and to recognize all the good found in a new world. But, they also reasoned that it meant the rejection of everything that was bad, be it of foreign or native making. Thus, the advanced type of German-American readily accepted the better things found in American life and only retained the things in German life Avhich he deemed worth retaining. He reasoned that no nation has a monopoly of all the virtues, or is free from all the vices. The true mission, .therefore, of the American is to accept the best in all the races that are merged into our body politic and our social life, and to combat the vicious and objection able, be it of native or foreign origin. If one ay ere to fancy to himself the composite citizen of Milwaukee today it would be found that the American born predominated to a large degree. This means that the American born, of either Irish, German or Scandinavian ancestry, have passed into the second and third, and even the fourth genera tion. It would also be found that other nationalities arriving at a later period, particularity the Poles, present a constituency of first and second gen eration American born. Thus, it is reasonable to hold that the composite pres- sents only a minor fraction of foreign born. That Alt-AIilwaukee period during which the city saw its A^ankee, Ger man and Irish inhabitants sequestered in colonies AA'hose racial qualities were definite and pronounced, is a thing of the past. Yankee Hill has been invaded by various nationalities, is no longer inhabited exclusively by the Anglo- American element, and is no longer knoAvn by that name. The area lying to the south of Wisconsin Street and bounded by the river and the lake AA'as for many years known as the Third AYard. The Irish who first landed here settled in this area. Gradually as the older generation died out and the younger generation sought homes in other sections of the city the racial com plexion of this area declined. Then came the great Third Ward fire AA'hich destroyed over three hundred homes, and Avhich prompted the remaining Irish families to seek homes elsewhere. Today this section has been largely invaded by commercial and manufacturing interests and the greatly minimized residence seel ion constituted the Italian colony of the city. The original German sections of the city, covering a radius of one-haip mile to the north of the city hall, has undergone physical and racial change. The old-time cozy cottages, one- and tAvo-storied, with their vegetable and floAver gardens, their Avoodsheds, chicken coops and smokehouses, have given TRANSITION, ALT-AIILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 781 AA-ay to business blocks, shops and factories. The population is croAvded into tenement and boarding houses and in apartments provided on upper floors of stores and shops. In racial origin the population presents a considerable variety. One hears Greek, ATddish, Croatian and Slavonian as frequently as English, and German no oftener than either of the other languages. Passing of Landmarks. — In discussing passing landmarks AA'hich recall the "good old days" and their forms of amusement and recreation the Sunday Alihvaukee Telegram of April 16, 1922, said the following : "This is not a tale concerning prohibition; there is enough heard, as it is, upon that subject among the current activities of 'good old Alihvaukee.' It is merely a retrospecth-e picture of years that have gone — of uoav Alihvau kee played during the brief intervals that occurred for leisure Avhile the mighty city of today Avas being fabricated from the elements Avhich existed in these parts seA'enty odd years ago. "Through the haze of years that have gone, the simple pastimes of the pioneers and of their children and children s children are filled Avith illusions that today are visualized AA'ith the keenest of relish and longing. "In those old clays the head of a family took his wife and children to a park or garden on pleasant summer Sunday afternoons, took possession of a large table near the stage, if opera Avas on the bill, or further back if a symphony orchestra or band furnished music to beguile the leisure moments ; and there the party remained in quiet enjoyment of the open air, the music and the refreshment — for an outlay of 30 or 40 cents. "It has been years since the 'garden life' of Alilwaukee was at its height — when 'the nights were filled Avith music' and the steins foamed o'er with rich, cool, and stimulating beer. In fact the gardens entered a period of decadence with the opening of this century .and the accompanying manifesta tions of established wealth and prosperity. The old gardens began to be 'too cheap.' "The younger generation came to believe that an evening passed in' sipping a single liter of beer Avas a waste of time — it Avanted something- more speedy, Avith a little more jazz in it. The burden of two generations of earnings became too heavy to bear through an evening of 'Fra Diavalo" or the 'Bohemian Girl' or the 'Mikado' a summer garden dotted with twin kling little lantern lights, SAvept by the warm summer evening breezes ; so the virile youth of that day called into being something a little more rapid, a little more 'peppy,' a little more expensive. "Those Days of Yore.— But still there are a good round 100,000 inhab itants among the nearly half a million in Greater Milwaukee, who not only remember the playtimes of other days with tremendous fervor and vivid ness, but who regaled themselves in the fashion of their day from youth till custom put a pall on many pastimes, or people so tired of them that they were abandoned. "The development of the gardens in Milwaukee was a very natural thing. The biergaertens of Germany, whence such a large proportion of Mihvau kee's builders came in the 50 's and later, and the spirit of 'freiheit' that 782 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE seemed especially to flourish in pleasure places of this character, were modeled after in the very early days. "A pioneer of those days, in speaking of this development, the other day, explained the fundamentals in this wise: 'The people who built Milwau kee were a hard-working, tireless lot, thrifty and economical. They be lieved that one of the most economical ways of obtaining healthful recrea tion was to be in the open air with a glass or stein of beer and a little music. This, they had learned in their childhood days was quite inexpensive and wonderfully satisfying. " 'The Foaming Steins. — It Avas a temperate outing and it drew people together, where they could talk over and develop plans for the growing city. " 'This idea of recreation was in fact a recreation for workers. The peo ple who Avrought this swampy town into a great city had to work and did. " 'I have never known a man personally who was both a hard worker and an opponent of the use of beer. The anti's, in general, are people who have not done constructive work either by the sweat of their brow or by their hands. Anti-beer agitation is a lazy man's and a lazy woman's avoca tion. " 'In those early days the family life of Alilwaukeeans AA-as much more admirable than today. The families lived in their homes and they went out in a body to their recreations. Alaybe it was old fashioned, but when I think back to those days I wish we could live them over again. But AA'ith the last generation speed overtook the simple pleasures of the pioneer days.' "It was at the Old Settlers' Club, where a newspaper Avriter went to find pictures of olden time gardens and gathering places, that it Avas re vealed that among the ancient prints upon the walls of the venerable organ ization's quarters no pictures told of that phase of the early days of Mil waukee. It Avas decided, however, that the club should 'get busy' on the subject, and now a little drive among the older members has been started to gather as many pictures as possible of those old pleasure grounds. "Milwaukee Garden probably AA'as the first of the beer gardens of im portance in Milwaukee. It was established in 1850, a year or tAvo after the influx of German refugees. The garden was west of Tenth Street, between State and Prairie streets, and for half a century was a leading factor in the gala events of Milwaukee. "The garden was the greater part of a city block, with an old style gate entrance. But inside there were gravelled walks and benches and summer houses, and a stage for speaking and tables and chairs for the throngs which attended during summers to hear music or programs of one kind or another or to join in patriotic celebrations. "Pius Dreher established Alihvaukee Garden and Avhen his sons grew up they helped operate it for many years. It Avas at this place that the great turnerfests were held, and for several years thousands of turners from Cincin nati, .New York, and Chicago came here to compete on the drill ground of the park. Later, when the labor union movement began to grow, the labor gatherings usually were held in these gardens. It would accommodate 12,- TRANSITION, ALT-AIILAYAUKEE TO AAIERICAN CITY 783 000 or 15,000 people, and on days of special importance there Avere music, dancing and lots of beer ; what times were had there ! "Alore than a quarter of a century ago the garden was abandoned as such and the property sold for building purposes. " 'In those days,' said Alax Dreher, recalling his days of service at the garden, 'people in Alilwaukee used to follow bands around like lost dogs fol low likely strangers. When there were parades and the bands in the pro cession would come into the park and take a stand at the space inside the gate to play till the marchers got in, the crowds would mill around the mu sicians and never get into the park proper at all. " 'I remember the greatest labor parade we ever had. There Avere 10,000 in the parade. I worked out an idea to get them to come in and hold a picnic. I told the musicians that there would be four barrels of beer in a far corner of the park, and that if they Avould march right through they could have it — providing they would play a few tunes. The bandboys certainly marched right straight through — perhaps they Avould now if the proposition was renewed. It was a hot June day and for three hours they kept playing. For the first time in history the entire parade and all the spectators got on the lot. After that we had no trouble about getting the crowd in.' "While the Alilwaukee Garden was a public meeting place, it did not eater as a 'family resort' through the summer, and as such a garden was a popular desire, the Sehlitz Garden Avas established, and there the first open air light opera was given in Milwaukee. "Music Drew Throngs. — The Sehlitz Garden was a popular resort for many years, finally taking the place of the Milwaukee Garden as a public gath ering place. From the stage in the garden theater many presidents of the United States or their principal campaigning representatives spoke. It was the scene of mass meetings and various gatherings of a general nature. "But the delightful memories of the old park are more concerned with the opera days, Avhen thousands gathered about the little white tables in the wooded park to listen to 'Bohemian Girl,' 'Fra Diavalo' and other operas of those days. Artists and audience mingled after the performances and a gay scene was always to be found from the close of the opera until midnight. For society gathered at the park for these performances and families of the burghers occupied groups of tables and busy waiters rushed hither and thither during ensemble numbers, but there always was a respectful and appreciative hush when solo numbers began. "Sehlitz park also fell into disuse Avith the development of enclosed gar dens, which could be operated summer and winter. Its site now is a public park. But the crowds that peopled it thirty years ago, when Milwaukee was half its present size', are no more. "One of the dearest memories of those who were active here at the fin de siecle was that of Whitefish Bay resort. This resort became a nationally known playground. Situated on the high bluffs overlooking the lake about six miles north of Milwaukee and at the end of the old 'toll road,' where, in the bicycle days, a nickel was charged at each gate for toll, the resort, during the summer evenings and Sundays of the '90s and later, attracted INTERIOR OF THE PALM GARDEN, THIRD STREET NEAR GRAND AVENUE, NATIONALLY FAMOUS IN ITS DAY AS A C'ONCERT HALL. CLOSED IN 1921 THE BAR AT THE SCHLITZ PALM GARDEN— CLOSED IN 1921 TRANSITION, ALT-AIILWAUKEE TO AA1ERICAN CITY 785 thousands upon thousands, especially after street ear connection Avas com pleted. "Fine music was the principal attraction at Whitefish Bay, although in its earlier days the cuisine established was especially appreciated. White- fish, taken from the bay after Avhich the resort was named, Avere prominent on the menu; heavy planked steaks and other substantial specialties made the place popular with healthy young gourmands. There Avas service inside the pavilion and outside on the terraces AA'hich had been cut into the sheer walls of the bluff. "The 'Dear, Dead Days.' — Alany a summer romance AA'hich ended in estab lishment of families now prominent in Milwaukee, developed in the beautiful summer evenings of long ago at Whitefish Bay. Today, the property is built up with dAvellings and very little remains to remind one of the 'dear dead days' of the Swoboda regime. "These were the principal garden resorts in the half century that ended in 1900. But there were many smaller out door gathering places, at which 'beer' was the symbol of enjoyment, and spicy food abundant. "Bief eld's gardens, situated Avhere Astor Street and Ogden Avenue noAv join, Avas an early day popular garden. Ludermann's-on-the-River and Luder- mann's-on-the-Lake were resorts that the 'old timers' recall with a watering of the mouth during 'bock beer' time. The Schuetzenpark and National park on the South Side Avere for many years popular playgrounds. "Later, the parks began to develop along the upper river shores. Pleas ant ATalley, the Blatz resort, became one of the most popular places in Alilwau kee in summer-time for Sunday and evening outings. Out on the West Side, the Aliller gardens at the west end of Wells Street also was a resort of pop ularity. "But the city outgrew the older and simpler outdoor resorts Avith the development of resorts in the AYaukesha County lake region. Then the 'in side gardens' had their day. The first of these elaborately ornamented in terior 'gardens' probably was the Kuenstlerheim, an artist's home, established by Robert Reinhardt, afterAA'ards a celebrated connoisseur of art Avorks and a dealer of international note. The Kuenstlerheim was decorated about the walls and ceiling Avith draAvings of Aveird subjects, and the scheme was car ried out in heavy paneled effects. When the panoramas of the Civil Avar were projected, much of that work was done in Milwaukee and several young German artists were brought from Alunich to do the work. Traces of their painting still exist in many buildings where they were housed or Avhere they congregated for beer and suppers. "But at the Kuenstlerheim, Mr. Reinhardt planned a scheme of decorations that was afterAvards executed by the youths and it remained a feature of the old place until its destruction by fire many years later. "The Empire garden, the East Side Palm garden, the Sehlitz Palm gar den, the Gargoyle Avere among the forerunners of the cabaret of today — they were large restaurants and gardens at which excellent musical programs Avere given, and beer served — at a price which today may hardly be believed. "The development of the bar-room-restaurants AA-as an early clay affair, Vol. 1—50 786 HISTORY OF AIILWAUKEE but they Avere popular despite that the then leading hotels, the Kirby House and NeAA'hall House, served large and sumptuous dinners for half a dollar, and the old Leigh House, on Broadway, had as its piece de resistance a mid day meal for 25 cents — 20 cents if a ticket were purchased for eighteen meals. "No. 1 Grand Avenue Avas Henry Wehr's restaurant and bar. It was the most advanced of any institution of its kind in the '70s and '80s. The cof fee served there was talked of all over these United States, for when actors and distinguished people came to Alilwaukee their visit was never complete until they had 'taken coffee' and coffee-cake at Wehr's. The old Wehr landmark is at present the eastern extremity of Gimbel Bros.' store. "Landmarks Removed. — Over on the East Side there were Weber & Alc- Laughlin's restaurant, the Wayside inn, Jacob Best's wine stube, Herman Toser's Avine stube and the old 'hangout' of newspaper row, the 'Quiet House.' In those places the business and professional men of Milwaukee foregathered for years. Any politician could always be found at Henry Weber's. Any journalist at the 'Quiet House.' Business men were at Toser's or Best's. In the latter the finest of imported European wines Avere available at prices involving nickles and dimes. The Alarble hall Avas a later development. The hall has now been changed into a rapid-fire quick lunch. Of the recrea tion places of former days there is noAv left hardly a trace. "When the last of the hack-drivers took to 'laying up' the hack for the winter months, the final link that connected the ' good old days AA'ith the present, was shattered. East Water Street is noAv a hurrying mass of busy people of an afternoon, going — where? Certainly not to Weber's or to Toser's or to the 'Quiet House.' " A Typical American City. — The World Avar became a sore trial to the Americans of German birth. To find the country of their adoption in mortal combat with the country of their birth, caused in many of them a. conflict between loyalty for the one and love for the other. While he no longer be lieved in a monarchial form of government, and had ahvays been opposed to the militarism and caste system of the Fatherland, there was something about the land of his birth that touched his sympathies. He found it hard at first to reconcile his allegiance to his adopted coun try with his reverence for the mother country. But he had to chose between Germania and Columbia. He owed his birth to the one, but his existence, his wellbeing, his fortune to the other; he owed something to the one, but a thou sand times more to the other. His future and that of his family Avas wrapped up in the fortunes of this country. After all, it was not difficult to choose between Kaiserism and a self-governing republic, betAveen a class-ridden and tradition-bound old Avorld and a land of political freedom and of equal op portunity. In the maze of conflicting emotions the German born eventually found himself. He remained true to his adopted country. While the war was in progress the editor of the only German daily re quested the author of this chapter to write an article which should reflect the attitude of the German-American element, as seen from the standpoint of a native born American. The article was prepared, translated into German and published and gen- TRANSITION, ALT-AI1LWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 787 erally accepted as picturing quite faithfully the duties and responsibilities of the foreign born, as well as the attitude to which he had adjusted himself or which he had voluntarily accepted. The article read as follows : ' ' Unity of Thought and Action. — The duty of the hour demands loyalty to Flag and Country. It has been our good fortune, as Americans, to have lived for many years in peace with the world and with ourselves. Today Ave are in a state of war — Avar Avith Germany. And Avhile we have practiced good citizenship in time of peace, it is doubly incumbent upon us to assert our faith, our courage, and our loyalty to our country in time of Avar. "No man loves Avar. All men should hate war. But, some of the na tion's highest ideals and greatest purposes have been realized through the medium of Avar. It Avas through war that the nation primarily secured its independence, that slavery was abolished, that the Union was saved, and that Cuba Avas set free. In the language of the late Senator John L. Alitchell, ' There are some things Avorse than war, some things better than money. ' "We have enjoyed the great fortune to live in a democracy, where a gov ernment of the people, by the people and for the people prevails. We have held firmly to the doctrine that there shall be no government Avithout the consent of the governed. When a government so constituted has spoken through its accredited representatives its voice becomes the law of the land; when it calls its citizenship into action, that citizenship must respond un hesitatingly, enthusiastically and courageously. "This is not a Avar against the German people, against German culture, German customs or German ideals. It is a war — paradoxically speaking — against Avar itself, against a system that makes war possible. It is a sacrifice and a prayer for the dawn of that day when no man can be compelled by government, monarchial or otherwise, to kill his fellow man! it is a struggle for permanent world peace. What cause could be more laudable, what motive more lofty, what purpose more exalting! "The foreign born who finds the country of his adoption at Avar with the land of his birth, may find it hard to adjust himself. He may be torn Avith conflicting emotions. But let us remind him that he owes his AA'hole and highest allegiance to the country under whose protection he lives. Uncle Sam loves his adopted children as he does his own, but he must remind them that in the stern hour of duty there can be no divided allegiance. The ties of blood and kinship, however strong, must be submerged when country is ar rayed against country. Individual consideration must give way to collective purpose — to the cause of a whole nation. "The German immigrant wended his way to the United States to escape economic hardships, compulsory military service, and the evils of class dis tinction. He came to the new world to establish a home, to exercise the right of citizenship, to provide his children with an education, to afford them op portunities which were denied him in his native land. Never, at any time, would he seriously have considered a return to the old world, or subjected his family to old world conditions. "But, the acceptance of new world blessings imply new world duties and responsibilities. Alen must leave old preconceptions and predilections behind 788 HISTORY OF MILWAUKEE them, and accept the true, the tangible, the imperative. They must be loyal to the land of their adoption. The tenets of true manhood demand this, honor and integrity exact it. "When public duty comes into conflict with private sentiment the latter must unequivocally give way to the former. The larger thought and purpose must prevail. The cause of state and nation overshadows all individual considerations. Their integrity and safety become paramount. Citizen must array himself Avith citizen into one strong, compact, invincible unit — to live, fight, and die for the cause. "Therefore, all men who live under the American flag, AA'ho enjoy its pro tection and its blessings, must come together in unity of thought, purpose and action. Such a course only, can render us, in this hour of trial, worthy of the proud title of Americanship and worthy manhood." Aluch that remained to testify to the one time popularity of all that was German, and the influence of the German element as such, was swept away as the result of the changed sentiment brought about by the World war. The feeling against everything German in name, sentiment or purpose became most bitter. The teaching of German, for instance in the public schools was speedily dropped, and German speech in public places became unpopular. Commercial and social enterprises had to yield to the preA'ailing sentiment. For instance, the Deutscher Club changed its name to Wisconsin Club, the German-American Bank changed to the American Exchange Bank, the Germania Building adopted the name Brumder Building and removed the statue of Germania from the structure. The German Theatre had to close its doors, and even after the armistice the feeling had not subsided sufficiently to permit immediate reopening. Some months elapsed before a German play could be produced Avithout incurring opposition. The reputation AA'hich Mihvaukee had gained throughout the United States as a German city became extremely embarrassing during the Avar. NeAvspapers everywhere charged its people with disloyalty. Locally rumors Avere current that prominent citizens of German descent were engaging in seditious operations. Overzealous persons resorted to unsupported charges causing unnecessary ill-feeling and unwarranted alarm. Alen Avho were loyal to the core and Avhose only crime Avas a German name, Avere subjected to suspicion and derision. But the misconception regarding Mihvaukee's status in the Avar against Germany, spread to many sections of the United States and suggested here and there boycotts against the trade and commerce of the city. The local commercial body saAv itself compelled to right false impressions and carry the facts to the world. These facts Avere to the effect that Alihvaukee had demonstrated its un questioned loyalty to the country's cause and had contributed its full share of man, money, and machine poAver towards the prosecution of the Avar. The records proved that in all the Liberty Bond, Red Cross, and other Avar aid drives, it had gone brilliantly over the top. In brief, Alihvaukee demonstrated her absolute loyalty to the nation s cause and her claim to the title of being a typical American city. TRANSITION, ALT-AIILWAUKEE TO AMERICAN CITY 789 The former racial character of Alihvaukee has not only been modified in that the process of assimilation has subdued an outstanding predominance of any one race, but also in the accession of other races. The Polish-American people, for instance, have become quite strong in population numbers, main taining two daily newspapers printed in the Polish language, Avhereas there is but one daily printed in the German language. The Irish, English, Scotch, Norwegian, Swede, Danish, Bohemian, Austrian, Russ.an, Greek, Italian, Slavonian, Slovak and Croatian races are well represented. While the transformation is not complete, namely that all foreign born have not mastered the English, or have been thoroughly taught in the tenets of their adopted country, the percentage of the uninitiated and untaught is believed to be nominal only. Be it said here that the hyphen is discredited, and while no foreign born is ashamed of his racial origin, eA'ery citizen Avants it understood that he is American to the core. The foreign born, who haA-e contributed so much to the material, civic and social development and growth of the city, are gradually passing from the scene and giving way to the newer generations of American born. They have left their impress, gave their labors, their virtues, their ideals, as a heri tage to those who shall succeed them. Let us not disparage their advent, but accord them the tribute which is due them. An old chronicle recites the story of an ancient city sunken beneath the waters of the sea. It is told that on Sabbath mornings, Avhen the sky, is clear, the nearby A-illagers gather at the water's edge and look reverently down upon the submerged turrets and towers and listen for signs of life. Then there rises from the deep, distant sounds of the ringing of church bells. They tell of an ancient people that loved and lived and responded to the voice of the Almighty. The day will come when the immigrant races are no more, when they Avill be submerged in a homogeneous people — an American people. The im migrant races will be like the people of the sunken city. Faintly a song, a custom or a name will serve as a reminder that immigrant races once lived upon the soil Ave now occupy, and that they helped to build an American city. An American city ! What a splendid distinction is conferred by that title ! What magnificent forces — marshalled and arrayed — are implied in that name ! The claim that the country is an asset and the city a liability no longer holds; one cannot be an asset without the other. Agriculture must rely upon the city for its operating equipment and the distribution of its products. The farm cannot become efficient without the aid of the factory. Rural life is impossible without the blessings of civilization fostered and radiated by the city. While the farm is a primary producer, the city is the secondary pro ducer and distributor. It can no longer be said that the country is the pro ducer and the city the consumer. Both are producers and consumers and absolutely essential to each other. What a remarkable institution the American city has been in advancing the progress of a nation, in building the greatest and most beneficent re public on earth and in enabling it to lead in the march of world civilization and in the cause of humanity. Milwaukee justly deserves the distinction of being classed as a progressive American city. vy q. j> INDEX Abbot, Edwin H Accessory buildings Accident to the Christopher Columbus Account of "Augusta's" captain Activities in Civil war, Walker's Adams, President, on spelling of Mil waukee Additional details (Roosevelt Shooting) Administration and management of trade trips Administration building Administration of Exposition Advantages possessed by Milwaukee . . "Adv." in Sentinel, 1847 Advertising and prizes Afloat on the Mississippi Aid extended (great fire) Aid in the selection erf vocations ' ' Albany Hall Movement, ' ' The Aleott, Ann M Ale, beer, etc Allouez, Father Claude Alpena, The Alpeter, Oscar Alphabetical list of ' ' Firsts " Alt-Milwaukee and transition Attitude of visiting merchants Amendments and changes in districts . . American Exchange Bank American house ' ' A Mistake in Bronze " Amount expended for dredging and docking Amount expended on bridges by years. . Analysis and comments on ordinance . . An American City! Anniversary, An important An appeal for organized labor An episode of the Civil war An illuminating example Animals and birds as mascots Animal-shaped mounds Annual merchants ' trips, The Anthony, Susan B Appeal to ordinance of 1787 Area districts Areas of various parks 459 Arteries of traffic 533 321 Arnold, Hon. J. E 275 551 Arnold, Jonathan E 106 146 Articles exported, amounts (1839) 275 132 Articles exported for year 1856 259 105 Articles imported in 1856 259 Articles made here in 1856 225 68 Artificial flowers 234 622 Art of beer making 773 Art progress in Milwaukee 685 397 Art Students League, The 688 427 Assistance received from foreign press 568 405 Aspect of Lake Michigan 46 517 Aspeet of Milwaukee from the lake .... 51 352 Associated Charities 747 406 Association of Commerce 383 23 Association of Commerce Officers 411 148 Association purpose and mission 412 653 Attempted assassination of Roosevelt.. 607 445 Attorneys of 1840 period . . . . 121 125 Auditorium, The 421 223 Auditorium Company, The 429 34 Auditorium Governing Board 431 142 Auto accessories 239-243 290 189 B 755 395 Back yard beginnings 221 553 Bading, G. A 291 358 Baird, Elizabeth Therese 71 213 Baird, Henry S 72 166 Banking and finance 339 Bank officers and directors 362-366 305 Banks, consolidated statement of 361 303 Banks, when formed, where located. . . . 351 39 Bannister, H. M 141 15 Barber, Capt. George 272 403 Barry, Captain 578 614 Barton, Dr. Wm. E 157 591 Basket weaving 229 741 Bay View Commercial and Savings 594 Bank 363 123 Bay windows and oriels 551 393 Beaubien, John B 57, 107 566 Beaubien, Medore 107 41 B, C and D districts, The 509 507 Beecher, Catherine 125 791 792 INDEX Beer, Ale, etc 223 Before the Civil Avar 379 Beginning of city -schools 632 Beginning of planning movement 485 Beginning of the journey 23 Beginnings, dates and events 189 Beginnings of grain business 122 Benefits of zoning in New York 501 Berger, Captain 164 Bertchy 's Mill 181 Beyer, Prof. W. G 158 Bier Wirthschaft, The 769 Billion dollar mark exceeded 242 Bills of wildcat banks 341 Birchard, Harvey 121 Bird houses 234 Birth of Juneau 83 Birthplace and good citizenship 614 ' ' Bivouac of the Dead, ' ' The 577 Black Hawk war of 1832, The 572 Blake, Lillie Devereaux 567 Blanket for a door 116 Bleyer, Henry W 154, 157 Board of directors, Auditorium company 429 Board of harbor commissioners 300 Board of organization and control 150 Boat motors 243 Boats, lost or damaged, by years. . . .281-287 Boats of the fur traders 71 Bogk committee, The 290 Bogk, Frederick C 287 Boilers, steam engines, machinery 223 Bolens, Harry AV 109, 164 Booth, Sherman M 584 Bounties for volunteers 466 Brave and daring few, The 577 Breaking the old home ties 117 Brewing of beer and ale 229 Brick making 223 Bridges, Expense of, by years 303 Brief description of terminal facilities. 332 Broekway fair grounds 154 Brown, Mrs. Olympia 566 Brown, William 106 Browne, Lyman H 169 Bronze tablet to Spencer 137 Bruce Publications, The 738 Bruce, William George 68 Bruce, William George, on Polish immi grants 182 Buck, Jas. S 89 Budget submitted to council 457 Budget system of Milwaukee, The 455 Building and loan associations 366-368 Building area 545-547 Building area limitation, where applied. 549 Buildings and endowment 648 Buildings in use for the home 743 Burning of the Sea Bird 145 Business men of the 1840 period 121 Butler, James D 344 Butter, Cheese and Egg Journal 736 Byron Kilbourn and Geo. H. Walker. . . 99 C Cabin making ' ' bees " 116 Cabins of the pioneers 115 Cadle, Rev. R. F 107 Cady & Farwell 121 Call for mass meeting, 1848 460 Camp, H. H 349 Campaign in Mexico, The 575 Canal building 209 C. & N. W. Ry. — mileage by states 337 Canals versus railroads 213 Candies and chocolates 245 Candy factories 239 Capital employed in industries 247-256 Captain seen holding a child 131 Capture of the assassin (Schrank) 621 Carley, Quartus G 118 Carlton, L. H 273 Carpenter, Hon. Matt 105 Carr, Hon. Clark E 39 Car works 243 Cary & Taylor 121 Cary, L. P 273 Cass, General Lewis 58 Catholic Citizen, The 734 Catt, Carrie Chapman 568 Census figures on foreign born 187 Certificates of occupancy 552 Chamber of Commerce 379 Chamberlain, A. C 145 Champions of zoning ordinance 531 Changed attitude of people 321 Changes in methods 441 Changes in Sherman Park 463 Changes made in courses of study 637 Changes requiring new certificate of oc cupancy 553 Change in the superintendency, A 639 Change of capital proposed 663 Chapman, Silas 209 Character and achievements of Mr. Roosevelt 617 Characteristic good nature of patient. . . 619 Characteristics of the Menomonee 62 Characteristics of the voyageurs 70 Character of war work 602 Charities of Milwaukee 739 Charter of 1852, The 441 Chicago and North Western Railway.. 331 INDEX 793 Chicago Fire of 1S71 151 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. . 328 Chicago-Milwaukee population compari sons 478 Chicago Relief and Aid Society 151 Chicago River and Robey Street 33 Chicora, The 142 Chimneys and flues 551 Choice of leader 22 Christensen, N. A 241 Christopher Columbus accident 146 Cities of east and west lake shores 221 Citizens Bank of No. Milwaukee, The. . 365 City's representation (Auditorium).... 431 City datum 474 City hall, The — Mayor Kirby 451 ' ' City of Milwaukee ' ' chartered 102 City planning and zoning 481 City planning commission, The 485 City schools in the '90s 639 City taxes more than doubled 443 Civil war, Effects of the 215 Clark, Gen. Geo. Eogers 75 Clarke, Thomas C 50 Clas River scheme, The 483 Clas studies, The 481 Class and trade publications 707 Claude Allouez 34 Clermont, Alexis, pioneer mail carrier . . 54 Clothing 245 Colby, Charles 323 Collections for relief fund 149 Colonel Roosevelt at the hospital 617 Colonel Roosevelt continues his speech. 610 Colonel Roosevelt on the platform 611 Colonel Walker's picturesque home.... 103 Columbia, The 735 Coming of the railroads 319 Commercial rise and expansion 257 Commission makes plans 467 Committee for fire relief 148 Committee report to council 290 Common schools established 629 Commonwealth Mutual Savings Bank. . 366 Comparative value of exports 261 Comparative value of imports 259 Comparison with southern states 215 Competition versus rivalry in business. 401 Completion and restoration of existing buildings 555 Composition of the population 173 Concentrating harbor traffic 291 Conclusions of the alienists 625 Concordia College 651 Conditions (school) in 1845 631 Conditions in pioneer period 333 Congress ignores appeals 41 Connelly, P. H 290 Connoisseurs and the dealers, The 698 Consequences of the 1857 panic 634 Consolidated statement of banks 361 Contingent fund, The 455 Continuation schools 652 Continuation school, The 654 Controls and gears 243 Cook, Mrs. Jane 138 Cooperation with the schools 671 Copperheadism 585 Copperhead propaganda in the north. . . 585 Corcoran, Cornelius 291 Cottage Inn burned in 1845 121 Cotton, L. H 275 "Could lick salt off top of your hat". . 110 County and township government 439 County in territorial days, The 557 Cousins, Phoebe 566 Crawford, Capt. John 272 Crocker, Col. Hans 273 Currier, R. J 118 Customs and habits 758 Cutler, Henry H 241 Cut-offs 551 D Daily German language press, The 727 Dairy capital 245 Dairy publications 736 Damage done in the collision 138 Danger from fires, The 523 Daniel Webster's view 40 Dates, events, beginnings 189 Davidson ship yard 181 Dawn of a better day, The 93 Days of the fur trader 67 Dear, dead days, The 786 Death of ' ' Old Abe, ' ' war eagle 597 Decline of lead production 81 Decline of the breweries 229 Definition of term ' ' Zoning " 497 Delicatessen 245 Denounces action of the assassin 612 Densmore, James 127 Departments of the university 648 de Peyster, Col. Arent 61, 143 Deschamps, Antoine 69 Description of Auditorium 607 Description of mackinaw boats 96 Description of the wound 617 Details of the journey 31 Dickson, John P 120 "Did I do my best?" 137 Directors and officers of banks 362-366 Directors C. & N. W. Ry 337 794 INDEX Directors C, M. & St. P. Ey 331 Directory section, post office 416 Disasters, Other notable lake 143 Distastrous fluctuations 50 Disbursements, post office 420 Discovery of Niagara Falls., 46 Discovery of the Great Lakes 43 Discovery of the great west 21 Distelhorst, Walter 156 Distressing scenes along shore 138 Distribution of teachers, The 643 District boundaries 551 Diversified production 242 Division of lots by boundary lines 552 Doctors Hiibschmann and Wiley 87 Doolittle, James R 42 Door a blanket 116 Doran, John L 141 Doty, Judge James Duane 56, 90, 118 Douglas, Stephen A 131 Dousman, G. D 273 Dousman, Michael 115 Dramatic scene, A. . . 609 Dreamers and idealists 755 Dredging and docking expense 305 Drink proverbs 771 Dumb panic seized throngs 132 Dunes on southwest shores 47 Dupre, J. B 107 Duty of the state, The 561 Dyes 245 E Eagle assists at many celebrations 597 Eagle's later adventures, The 595 Earlier beginnings, The 385 Earliest lake disaster 143 Early banking days 340 Early forms of name Wisconsin 67 Early life of Alexander Mitchell 347 Early mail routes 53 Early mention of Milwaukee 68 Early merchants, etc 181 Early railroad history 321 East and west lake shore cities 221 East Side Bank 366 Edgerton, B. II 273 Editorial comment (Schrank case) 625 Editor of "Picayune" lost 133 Editor of "Sentinel" and "News"... 126 Educational exhibits 406 Effect of widening a street 552 Effect upon contracts and upon other laws, etc 552 Effects of altering the boundary 38 Effects of fur trade on Indians 74 Effects of the attempted assassination. . 611 Effects of the (Civil) war. . .- 215 Efficient aid extended 148 Efforts at readjustment 445 Efforts in transportation 388 Efforts to obtain medal for Spencer. . . . 137 Efforts to stop the water 131 Elected mayor of Milwaukee 102 Electrical goods 238 Elevation of Lake Michigan 47 Elmore 's coalyard 181 Enameling 243 Enforcement by building inspector 552 Engines 243 Engines and rolling stock 333 En route to Green Bay 91 Enterprises, Growth of 235 Epitome of address (Lincoln's) 154 Equality and social caste 764 Era of internal improvements 207 Era of panorama painters, An 686 Era of water-borne commerce 271 Establishing a site for a trading post. . 114 Establishment of area districts 542 Establishment of height districts 541 "Et tous les petits Chatons?" 71 Events, dates, beginnings 189 Everest, Kate A 175 Evinrude, Ole 242 Examples from other cities 499 Examples of various cities 527 Excelsior, The 736 Exceptions 543 Exceptions as to existing buildings and uses 539 Exceptions to height limitations 542 Exchange from team to canal travel. . . 117 Excitement of the crowd 607 Exemption from taxation 705 Expenditures for relief 150 Expense of city plan undertaking 489 Exploration and discovery 21 Export business 247-256 Extension of school playgrounds 640 Extension to yards or courts 551 Extent of shore line of Lake Michigan 48 Facts about the post office 417 Failure of Congress to heed appeals. ... 41 Fairchild, Governor, on fire 151 Family AA'elfare Association 747 Famous boundary controversy 40 Farnsworth, William 13S Farwell, L. J 273 Father Marquette's successor 34 INDEX 795 "Father of the Typewriter," The 126 Fate decreed they should meet 83 Fauvel, Father 107 Feeble beginnings of Chicago 57 Fees for certificates of occupancy 552 Ferguson, David 343 Field of work (Public Library) 670 Fifteen thousand tons profitable 316 Final word of the public land commis sioners 495 Financial statement, Public Library. . . . 667 Financial troubles of the town 437 Finch, Jr., A 273 Fire and accident prevention 498 Fire and life insurance 369 Fire department — Mayor Kirby on 449 Fire engines from other cities 147 Fire escapes 551 Fire, The great Milwaukee 147 First Anglo-Saxon to settle here 118 First harbor commission, Report of.... 277 First law in 1913 (sewerage commis sion) 465 First loan success 604 First locomotive built here 325 First National Bank of Wauwatosa. . . . 365 First National Bank (West Allis) 365 First occurrences, etc 189 First postmaster, The 415 First public art gallery 689 First vessel arrivals 271 Fishermen plead for consideration 293 Five leading industries, 1910 228 Flint, Rev. Timothy 120 Flouring mills 223 Fluctuations in lake levels 48 Flynt, Josiah 59 Foaming steins, The 783 Fonda in the Blaek Hawk war 59 Fonda, John H 54, 57 Foreign born, Statistics on 187 Foreshadowing the World war 598 Formation, location, etc., Milwaukee banks 351 Fort Crawford 59 Foundering of the steamer 131 Founders of Northwestern National In surance Company 372 Fountain House, The 121 Fourth largest candy center 238 Fourth of July celebration program .... 450 Fourth of July celebrations, Early 759 Fowler, Albert, early settler 118 Fox, Isabella 95 Fox, Mrs. Frank 87 Fox-AA'isconsin improvement, The 211 Frankfurts and rye bread 233 Franks, Jacob 185 Friendship of Joliet and Marquette. ... 27 From standpoint of cities visited 395 Fundamental principles adopted 345 Further details of plan 507 Further proceedings in the (Schrank) case 622 Fur traders of revolutionary times 75 Future harbor project 311 Future plans (art) 697 Future water-borne commerce 312 Galena and Chicago Union E. R 336 Gears and controls 243 General city purposes (Revenues) 458 General effects of zoning 503 General regulations in area districts... 549 General statistics for 1919 (waterworks) 474 Generous gifts 695 Generous hosts 86 Genius of music, The 682 Genung & Co 81 George Smith's removal to Milwaukee. . 345 German beer garden, The 768 German immigration, The 174 Germanisms heard on school playground 762 German language in the schools, The. . . 638 German market 181, 767 German Theatre, The 775 Good roads in Wisconsin 561 Goral, Monsignor, on the Poles 185 Gorrell, Lieut. James 61 Government aid sought 273 Gradual fluctuations of the lake 50 Graham, Lieut. -Col. James D 48 Grain trade 276 Grass, Max 290 Gray, AV. D 241 Great fire of 1871 in Chicago 151 Great Milwaukee fire, The 147 Great Unknown River, The 22 Green Bay citizen continues work 211 Greene, Major John 107 Griffin, The 143 Grignon, Bernard 55 Grignon, Hypolite 93 Grignon, P. B 90 Grouping of boys by occupations 653 Grow, Galusha A 347 Growth of banking business 348 Growth of enterprises 235 Growth of the public schools 632 Growth of the railroads 335 Growth of schools in county 644 Growth of wheat production 215 796 INDEX H Had ninety-nine members 379 Halls (Auditorium) and their capacity. 427 Harbor and marine interests 269 Harbor and river, Mayor Kirby 451 Harbor commission of 1911 295 Harbor commission, 1912 297 Harbor development, Proposed 307 Harbor needs winter mooring facilities 292 Hardwick, Moses, noted mail carrier. . . 56 Harrison, Wooster 108 Hathaway, Joshua 106 Health commissioners 478 Health department 477 Heath, Frederick 128 Height limitations in 125 foot districts. 541 Height limitations in 85 foot districts. 542 Height limitations in 60 foot districts. 542 Height limitations in 40 foot districts. 542 Height of buildings interpreted in stories 549 Heights of buildings 505, 517 Higby and Wardner 121 Higby 's elevator 181 Higher accomplishments attained 649 Higher institutions of learning, The... 647 High service pumping station 472 Highways and roads 560 Historical Society building 661 Hoffman, Dr. W. J 62 Hoffman 's butcher shop 181 Hollister warehouse 121 Holton, E. D 349 Holton 'p (E. D.) reminiscences 120 Holton & Goodall 122, 275 Holton Street State Bank 365 Home Savings Bank 363 Homestead laws of 1862 348 Homeward bound 621 Horwitz, Isador S 185 Hovey, Richard 59 How Auditorium project was realized.. 421 How will Milwaukee benefit? 317 Hubbard, Gurdon S 59, 69 Hiiebschmann, Dr. Francis 275 Husting, Jean Pierre 86 I Ice Cream Review, The 736 Ilsley, Charles F 352 Immigration and race origin 171 Immigration of 1840 to 1875 18 Imperial cataract, The 45 Importance of Historical Society 663 Important anniversary, An 403 Imports and exports 259 Imports and exports, 1835-1841 280 Imports increase 275 In commemoration of Sholes' invention 128 Incorporation of town , of Milwaukee... 437 Increase in deposits M. & I. Bank, 1890- 1920 352 Increased facilities not unreasonable... 312 Increasing popularity of lake route. ... 78 Independent ticket, 1838 442 Indian villages 61 Indians at Milwaukee 63 Indignation meeting 273 Indispensable medium of intelligence, An 708 Individual enterprise and location 238 Industrial beginnings and achievement. 219 Industrial exposition, An 403 Industrial Exposition Association 426 Industrial Milwaukee excels 243 Industrial population, An 221 Industrial statistics summary 247-256 Industrial success, Secret of 222 Industries, Miscellaneous 225 Industries, New and obsolete 228 Industry and commerce, 1918 228 Influence of . emigration 579 Influence of lead mining 79 Influence of AVorld war 568 Ingram, Herbert, M. P 133 "In nearly 300 feet of water" 131 Inner courts 543-545 Inner harbor tow bills 315 Inquiry section (P. O.) 419 Insurance, Life and fire 369 Interesting summaries (school) 642 Internal improvements, Era of 207 Intimate part of ourselves 708 Introduction 17 Inventor of typewriter 239 Inventors 242 Invited musical celebrities 679 Invited notable men to city 411 Iron and steel 243 Iroquois blocked the way 45 Irrepressible desire to talk 620 Irwin, R. & A. J 107 Issuance of building permits 552 Italian immigration 185 Italian Alutual Savings Bank 365 ' ' It did, but it won 't any more " 237 "I will save them or die in the at tempt" 137 J ' ' Jack-knife posts " 76 Jacobs, John B 107 INDEX 797 James, Ada L 567, James Sidney Peek fund Jewish pioneers, The Jobber becomes producer Jobbing and wholesaling Joint terminal projected Johnson endowment fund Johnson, Prof. W. S Johnson text -book fund Johnston, Gen. John C Jones, Dr. Wm Jones Island condemnation Jones Island fish catch by years Jones Island the key Journal of Lieut. Gorrell Journey from Green Bay to Mackinac. . Judson, Maj. W. W Julius Klauser fund Julius Wagner fund ' ' Jumping the Rapids " Juneau and his family Juneau and Kilbourn Juneau as a young man Juneau marsh Juneau, Mrs. Solomon ' ' Juneau needs no encomiums " Juneau, Solomon Laurent.. 83, 166, 271, Juneautown Juneau 's claim as ' ' first settler " Juneaus generous in gifts to city 569 670185°22263 323 669 241669 369 61 292295289 6872 287669670 97S3 99 95 63 8993 415 9995 86 Kapp, Friedrieh 175 Kean, M 161 Kellogg, Amherst W 167 Kellogg, Louise Phelps 116, 569 Key to Milwaukee map of 1840 25 Kidder, D. P 142 Kilbourn, Byron 86, 123, 213, 271, 425 Kilbourn heirs brought suit 426 Kilbourn State Bank of Milwaukee .... 363 Kilbourntown 99 Killed three buffalo and four deer 32 Kinzie, Mrs., on mail at Chicago 53 Kirby, Mayor Abner 169 Knitting industry 238 Kundig, Bev. Father 275 Kuryer Polski 731 Labor troubles unknown 239 Lack of systematic observations 48 "Lady Elgin" and her captain 139 Lady Elgin disaster, The 129 La Framboise, Alexander 113 Lake and rail freight tonnage, 1901-1920 307 Lake commerce 261 Lake disasters, Other notable 143 Lake Erie eluded them 43 Lake freight tonnage 1890-1920 306 Lake Michigan, Facts about 47 ' ' Lake of the Illinois " 30 Landmarks removed 78 7 Land speculation 207 Land valuations 525 Language difficulties of immigrants. ... 174 Language of the gift, The 704 Lansing, Andrew J 118 Lapham, Increase A 123, 213 Lapham, Seneca 123 La Piana, G 186 Larkin, Charles H 141 Larson, Prof. L. M 173, 435 Last days of Galena and Chicago Union E. E 336 Last days of Marquette 33 Later art associations 693 Later history of suffrage movement. ... 567 La Tulipe, Frangois and Therese 83 Lau's superintendency, F. C 635 Lawe, Rebecca R 108 Lawyers of 1840 period 121 Laying of the corner stone 647 Layton Art Gallery, The 701 Layton Park State Bank 364 Layton School of Art, The 692 Layton's address at presentation 703 Lead mining industry, The 77 Leading men of 1840 period 122 Leading place of the museum 673 Leads in ' ' hobbies " 234 Leather and shoes 24o Legal complications (Auditorium) 425 Legler, Henry E 76, 118, 174 Leonard, Jas. H 145 Le Roy, Angeline 113 Le Roy, Daniel 90 Le Roy, Joseph 113 Lessons of the disaster 142 Levi, Meyer 1S5 Libby, Prof. O. G 78 Liberty State Bank 366 Librarians of the Public Library 667 Librarians of Young Men's Associa tion Library 667 Life and fire insurance". 369 Life and labors of Andrew J. Vieau. . . . 107 Life boats lost 131 Life routine of fur trader 115 Lincoln, Abraham 108 Lincoln, Hon. ' ' Abram " LIS Lincoln in Black Hawk war 16:; 798 INDEX Lincoln in Milwaukee 153 Lincoln in quest of new home 109 Lincoln in Wisconsin 593 Lincoln State Bank 364 Lincoln talks with Captain Berger 164 Lincoln Avalks from Milwaukee to She boygan 164 Lincoln 's letter 162 Lincoln's purpose in making visit 109 Lincoln's speech at Wisconsin fair.... 160 Lincoln's view of the ordinance 39 Linn, Senator L. F 271 Livermore, Mary A 566 Lives lost in boat accidents, by years 281-287 Lives lost in Lady Elgin disaster 141 Living church, The 734 Loathed her bondage 581 Location of county building, The 489 Lockwood, John 415 . Locomotive crosses the river 327 Locomotive leaves the shop 325 London editor lost in wreck 133 Loss of car ferry Pere Marquette No. 18 146 Loss of, or damage to, boats, by years 281-287 Loss of the propeller "Phoenix" 144 Loss of the steamer Alpena 146 Ludington, Harrison 121 Ludington, Lewis ' . . 121 Lumsden, F. A 133 Lunar tide in Lake Michigan 48 M MacAlister 's superintendency 636 McArthur, Judge 105 McKee, David 53 Mabbett 's lumber yard 181 Machinery 243 Machinery, steam engines, boilers 223 Mack, Edwin S 113 Madison, Wm. S 55 Mail carriers and routes 53 Mail carriers of early days 58 Mail stages followed freight routes. ... 81 Main street, Tho 181 Major Judson and Randolph report. . . . 287 Malott, Captain 132 Manufactures in 1856, Table of 225 Manufacturing and industrial districts. 505 Manufacturing interests in 1856 223 Marine and harbor interests 269 Marine National Bank 353 Marshaling the forces 599 Marshall and Ilsley Bank 351 Martin a frequent visitor 91 Martin and Juneau original plat owners 93 Martin, Morgan L 56, 209 Martin's estimate of Solomon Juneau.. 90 Marquette continues exploration 31 Marquette reached Kaskaskia 33 Material results of (Mexican) war 577 ' Matthew Keenan fund 669 ' ' May have wanted to see Lake Mich igan" 110 Mayor Kirby 's inaugural address. . .447, 592 Mayor Ludington of Milwaukee 152 Mayor Mason of Chicago 152 Mayors of Milwaukee 453 Meaning of interdependence 533 Mean stage of water on the lake 31 Members harbor commission, 1911 296 Memorials of Marquette 34 Memorial to Lincoln 169 Menomonee Indians, The 61 Menomonee Locomotive Works 327 ' ' Menomonee," The 325 Men prominent in affairs in early '60s. . 387 Merchants and Manufacturers Bank... 363 Merchants Association of Milwaukee . . . 387 Merchants' trips, The annual 393 Methods of relief 149 Metropolitan Park Commission 487 Metropolitan Sewerage Commission.... 562 Middle of last century 223 Middle period, The (art) 687 Mileage, C, M. & St. P. By. 1921 331 Military and civic funeral 141 Milk Dealer, The 736 Miller, Judge Andrew G 56 Miller, John ("Long John") 325. Milwaukee & Mississippi R. R 102 Milwaukee and Rock River Canal .... 212 Milwaukee Association of Commerce . . . 383 Milwaukee Auditorium, The 421 Milwaukee banks 349 Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce 379 Milwaukee Commercial Bank 364 Milwaukee county government, The. . . . 557 Milwaukee domestic mutual fire insur ance companies 376 Milwaukee-Downer College. .. .125, 648, 691 Milwaukee Female College 125 Milwaukee Fire Department, The 454 Milwaukee frankfurts 233 Milwaukee health department 477 Milwaukee Herold, The 727 Milwaukee House, The 121 Milwaukee incorporated as a city 438 Milwaukee in 1836 108 Milwaukee in the Civil war 586 Milwaukee in the Mexican war 574 Milwaukee in pioneer period 113 INDEX. 799 Milwaukee Journal, The 721 Milwaukee laid out in 1835 126 Milwaukee Mechanics ' Insurance Com pany 373 Milwaukee merchants alert for trade ... 81 Milwaukee over subscribes all war funds 603 Milwaukee Police Department, The.... 453 Milwaukee population compared with Chicago 478 Milwaukee postoffice, The 415 Milwaukee Public Museum 671 Milwaukee public schools, The 629 Milwaukee river problem, The 300 Milwaukee rye bread 233 Milwaukee Sentinel, The 78, 711 Milwaukee stock fire insurance com panies 376 Milwaukee to Marseilles 315 Milwaukee University School, The 657 Milwaukee waterworks 469 Milwaukee's advantages 517 Milwaukee's grain trade 276 Milwaukee 's healthy climate 480 Milwaukee 's musical history 675 Milwaukee 's relation to Chicago 528 Milwaukee's thirty-three mayors 453 Mine hoists 243 Mirandeau, Jean Baptiste 114 Miscellaneous industries 225 Mitchell, Alexander 343 Mitchell Street State Bank 364 Modes of travel 119 Modest beginnings 222 Money order business 420 Moore, Stephen F 241 More dock room necessary 313 Moriarity, J. E 153 Morsell, Arthur E 239 Motorcycles 243 Mounds of Wisconsin 123 Municipal government, The 435 Municipal revenues 439 Municipal support (art) 694 Musical history 681 Music drew throngs 785 N National Bank of Commerce 359 National Exchange Bank 354 National factor, A. . 380 Nationalities, Variety of 187 National Soldiers ' Home 103 Native versus foreign born 177 Natural history of Lake Michigan 46 Navigation of lakes and rivers 69 Negro population 186 Negro slavery in AA'isconsin 579 Neuhaus, Henry 185 Neustadel, Isaac 185 New and obsolete industries 228 Newhall, Daniel 161 Newhall House 110 News (of disaster) at Milwaukee 139 Newspapers 707 Newspaper accounts of "Lady Elgin" disaster 131 New York City 's problems 511 Nickname, ' ' Cream City " 228 ' ' No, not those " 234 Noonan, Josiah A 415 No reduction of yards or courts allowed 543 Normal Art School : 689 Normal Institute and high school 125 North Avenue Bank 364 North Point pumping station 471 Northwestern Confectioner, The 737 Northwestern National Insurance Co. . . 372 Northwestern Publishing House, The. . . 737 Notable lake disasters, Other 143 Notable men invited to city 411 Nowiny Polski (Polish News) 732 Number of employes in industries. . .247-256 Number of families housed 548 Number of firms in industries 247-256 Number of various nationals in Milwau kee 187 O Obligations of the employer. . . 653 O 'Brien, Timothy 141 Observations commenced in 1854 49 Obsolete and new industries 228 Obstacles to recruiting 574 Occurrences, dates, etc 189 Oddities of manufacture 234 Officers and directors of banks 362, 366 Officers C. & N. W. Ry 337 Officers C, M. & St. P. Ry. 1921 331 ' ' Old Abe ' ' at Soldiers ' Home fairs 596 ' ' Old Abe ' ' in action 595 ' ' Old Abe, ' ' AA'isconsin 's war eagle .... 593 Old Exposition building burned 423 Old Line Life Insurance Co 376 Old neighborhood, An 179 ' ' Old Parr 's Pills " 135 Old Pierron Pottery, The 182 Old Squire Janes 120 Old-time campaign document 442 Olson, Prof. Julius E 108, 158 One country, one flag, one language. . . . 780 One year of war to five of peace 605 800 INDEX On the road to recovery 619 Opened on Sundays 705 Operation of trains 335 Order in which lakes were discovered.. 43 Ordinance looks forward 533 Ordinance of 1787, The 37 Origin of name (Milwaukee) 68 Other instances of emancipation 579 Other inventors 242 Other notable lake disasters 143 Others of 1840 period 122 Our modern group of artists 701 Outbreak of the Civil war 664 Outer courts 543, 545 Outline of association (Commerce) his tory 385 Outline of proposed zoning ordinance . . 519 Packages and flour & feed 737 Painted monsters 27 Pallbearers, (Lincoln) public funeral. . . 169 Panic of 1837 342 Paper money issues 340 Paris and London 529 Park lighting equipment installed 463 Park Savings Bank 365 Parks stimulate love for music 678 Park system of Milwaukee 459 Participation in war 571 Passages from Roosevelt's speech 610 Passed winter at St. Ignace 22 Passing of landmarks 7S2 Payne, Henry C 415 Peek, George W 453 Peckham, Miss Lila 566 Peerson, Kleng 166 Penalties 555 Pere Marquette No. 18 146 Personnel of harbor commission by years, 1912-1922 300 Personnel of land commission 535 ' ' Pests of the wilderness " 45 Pfister, Guido 387 Phoenix, The 144 Physical features of Lake Michigan. ... 47 Physicians of 1840 period 121 Picton, Sir Thomas 74 Pierron pottery 181 Piers along lake shore 122 Pioneer in trade 380 Pioneer journey from New York 116 Pioneer railroad construction 105 Pioneer school houses 629 Pioneer traditions 67 Pioneers in music 676 Pipe distribution system (water) 473 Pixley, John 121 Pixley, Maurice 121 Plan of installation (exhibits) 405 Planning and zoning, City 481 Planning for improved transportation.. 82 Plans of Milwaukee Real Estate Board. 535 Plans of public land commissioners.... 531 Plied between Detroit and Monroe 117 Plumed Calumet, The 2S Police — Mayor Kirby on 451 Polish Courier, The 731 Polish immigration 182 Political activities 776 Poos, John 181 Pope, Nathaniel 37 Pope 's argument 38 Population an industrial one 221 Portier, Joseph 114 Position of ill-fated "Lady Elgin" 129 Postal receipts, 1870-1920 416 Postmasters 415 Post office locations 416 Post offices established 54 Post office, The Milwaukee 415 Powers, David J 162 Powers, W. P 162 Practices of the fur traders 71 Pratt, John 127 Preachers of 1840 period 121 Preface 13 Preliminary steps in construction 213 Prentiss, Wm. A 273 Preparation for Centennial exhibition. . 636 Presbytery of Milwaukee, The 580 Present and new Welland locks 316 Presidents — Association of Commerce.. 411 Press supports the city 708 Previous visits referred to 153 Pride of race origin, The 780 Prince of Wales stormbound 133 Principles and policies 411 Private schools 643 Prizes and advertising 406 Problem of tall buildings, The 513 Problem of transportation, The 521 Procedure in case of non-conformity. . . . 553 Procedure in making up budget 457 Proclamation by mayor 169 Professional advice submitted 489 Professional men and others 121 Progressive steps 641 Progress of art in Milwaukee 685 Project joint terminal 323 Projections allowed 551 Prolonging the speech 615 Prominent men of early '60s, Some.... 387 INDEX 801 Promotional factor, A 407 Promotion of the Public Museum 674 Prospective Milwaukee 481 Provides industrial areas 533 Providing the sinews of war 602 Provisions made in the articles 703 Public and private charities of Milwau kee 739 Publications 707 Public Library and Museum 667 Public vs. private interests 313 Purposes of Associated Charities 749 Q Quarles, Captain 577 Quarles, Charles, Opinion by 426 R Race antagonism 765 Racial complexion 173 Railroad connection with Chicago 336 Railway stocks and bonds 443 Railroads own steamboat wharfage 301 Randolph report, Major Judson and. . . . 287 Rapid growth of city 126 Rapid growth of the settlement 435 Rate table, R. R. fares 324 Rathbun, James 81 Reaching Lake Michigan 29 Rear yard, Computation of depth 549 Rear yard, Level of 549 Bear yard, reduction in size 549 Bear yard when required 549 Rear yard when riot required 549 Rear yards 543-545 Receipts, Post office 420 Recognition by Evanston people 137 Recommendations of (school; committee 632 Reconstruction period, The 389 Recovery from the panic 343 Redistricting and changing names of schools 637 Refrigeration machinery 243 Registry section, Post office 419 Regulations for amendments and changes 553 Relation between civics and commerce. . 399 Relief fund (great fire) 149 Relief measures organized 148 Religion and slavery 580 Religious intolerance 773 Remedies for chaotic conditions 515 Reminiscences of Edward D. Holton. . . . 120 Remington factory selected 127 Reporter as a public servant, The 709 Vol. 1—51 Report of first harbor commission 277 Required yards and courts 543 Reservoir 472 Residence districts 537 Response of the states 599 Response to the call of humanity 152 Results of tidal observations 49 Resumption of campaign activities 621 Resumption of "specie payments" 446 Retail trade interests 267 Review of the early period (schools) . . . 633 Review of New York city's problems. . . 515 Review of previous conditions 381 Review- of seventeen years, A (schools) 640 Review of woman's suffrage movement 565 Reviews and comments on the Schrank case 623 Reynolds, Edwin 241 Reynolds, Governor John 572 Rice, A. M 161 Richardson, George 158, 325 River and lake shore parks 495 Rolette, Joseph 71 Ross, Dr. Laura 566 Route between Green Bay and Chicago. 54 Rubber tires 245 Rublee, Hon. Horace 152 Rules for adoption 745 S Sales in various lines, in 1856 265 Salisbury, Prof. Rollin D 49 Samuel Marshall & Co. " Adv. " 352 Sand dunes 47 Sanitary sewage disposal plant 463 Sank in half an hour 131 Sausages . . . .' 231 Sawmills 243 ' ' Scalping knife leaped from its lurking place" 64 Scanlan, Charles M 572 Scenes and incidents 145 Scenes at the Auditorium 608 Scenes at the wreck (Lady Elgin) 135 Schoolcraft's observations 47 Schools — Mayor Kirby on 449 Schools of Milwaukee county 643 Schools, Milwaukee public 629 School superintendents, Later 634 Schooner Augusta 129 Schoyer, Gabriel 185 Schurz, Carl 175 Schurz on Lincoln 165 Schutz, Frank B 416 Secretaries — Association of Commerce.. 411 Secret of industrial success 222 802 INDEX Second AATard Savings Bank 355 Security Bank of Milwaukee 364 Seebote, The 735 Sentiment and practicability 403 Setbacks 545, 547 Seville, James 101 Sewerage systems and zoning 498 Shade trees in streets and parks 459 Shanty Town 107 Sliarpstein, J. R 415 Shipments of shot and lead, 1842, 1843. . 79 Shipping routes for lead and shot 78 Shoes, Leather and 245 Sholes, Christopher Latham 126, 239 Sholes Park 128 Sholes' political activities 127 Shores of Green Bay, The 73 Shot Tower on AA'isconsin river 77 Side yards 543, 545 Site of Chicago first visited by whites. . 30 Skandinavian element 186 Sketches of Kilbourn and Walker 99 Skunk Grove 119 Slave hunting in Milwaukee 581 Smith, George .343 Smith, Uriel B. 90 Some drink proverbs 771 Some things made in Milwaukee 234 Soothing effect of the Calumet 28 Southport Telegraph 126 Special delivery section (P. O.) 417 Speculation in Milwaukee 209 Spencer, Edward W 136 Spencer 's rescue work 136 Splendid gifts to the art gallery 704 Stanton, Elizabeth C.-idy 566 Starr, Elisha 106, 115 Starr, II. A 415 Starved Rock 29 State Historical Society, The 661 Statement of banks 361 State University, Tho 663 Status in 1856 of wholesale trade 263 Status of proposed harbor development. 307 Steamboat, "Walk in the AA'ater" 95 Steam engines, boilers, machinery 223 S1 earner ' ' O. C. Trowbridge " 122 Steel and iron 243 Steever, M itchell 415 Stevens, Horatio ]22 Stock casualty insurance compan os in Milwaukee 376 Starrs, N. G 120 Story of an old neighborhood 179 Story of Lady Elgin disaster 129 Stove-pipe hats in battle 74 Street arrangements and details 491 Street railway started 105 Struggle for the revolver, The 608 Stuart, Maj. John F 164 Subsequent appointments (health) 477 Subsequent status of the work 211 Sudden and gradual fluctuations 49 Suffrage movement in Milwaukee, The. . 566 Suggestions and recommendations 489 Summary of Schrank 's views and career 624 Survivors of Lady Elgin disaster 141 Swam Root river three times 119 Sweet, Alanson 122 T Table of chief manufactures, 1856 225 Takes up his abode in Milwaukee 121 Tall hats the fashion 74 Tallmadge, John J 169 Tarrant, L. II 290 Tax levies prepared in advance 455 Taylor, Colonel Zachary 59 Taylor, Wm. R 321 Teaching force (schools) 643 Telegram to Mrs. Roosevelt, The 618 Telegraphic communication 336 Temporary certificates of occupancy. . . . 553 Ten leading manufactures, 1918 228 Terms ' ' ordinance ' ' and ' ' act " 39 Territorial days (1836-1848) 118 Teutonia Avenue State Bank 365 The City Bank 363 ' ' The Man-devouring Lake " 143 Then and now 227 Thermostatic temperature control 241 Things to be proud of 231 Thirteenth city (census of 1920) . . . ¦ 200 Thompson, David D 137 Those days of yore 782 Three-hundred orphans by wreck 135 Thwaites, Reuben Gold 67, 211 Tiffany, Geo. A 273 "To fix the northern boundary of Illi nois" 38 Took interest in the fair. . . . ." 155 Took possession for French king 28 Tow bills burdensome 315 Traditions and ideals 619 Transition, Alt-Milwaukee to American city 755 Transition period 777 Transportation facilities 388 Traveling cranes 243 Treacherous confidant, A 583 Treatment of AVells and State streets. . . 493 Tribute to a musician 682 Tribute to Peter Engelmann, A 659 INDEX 803 Trunks and grips 245 Trust funds (Public Library) 669 Turner, Frederick J 76 Turner, Judge W. J 426 Tuttle, C. R 215 Tweedy, J. H 415 Twenty districts (county) 559 Twenty-four years in active war 606 Twenty-two hundred saloons 229 Typical American city, A 787 Tyrel], Henry F 369 U Union Bank of Milwaukee, The 361 Union Guard, The 131, 578 Unsettled state of country 55 Unveiling of Lapham Memorial 123 Upholding law and order 407 Upward tendenc}' of city expenses 447 United States at war twenty-four years 606 Useful information (water) 475 Uses of certain districts 503 Uses prohibited in commercial and light manufacturing districts 539 Uses prohibited in industrial districts.. 539 Uses prohibited in local business dis tricts 537 t'shcr, E. B 209 V Validity of ordinance 555 Value of fish caught at Jones Island. . . . 295 A'alue of production, five industries, 1910 228 A'alue of products in industries 247-256 A'alue of trade trips 394 Van Veehten, Peter, Jr 155 A'ariety of goods for Indian trade 75 Variety of nationalities 187 Various heights of buildings 521 Varying degrees of success 745 Vicissitudes of a banker's life 349 Vieau, Andrew J 63, 96, 113 Vieau, Jacques 85, 113 A'ieau, Josette 85 A'ieau leaves Port Washington 110 Vieau, Louis 119 Vision of the future, A 6 51 Visited Green Bay in 1820 48 Visit to the Illinois Indians 26 Vliet Street State Bank 364 von Hoffmann, A 241 von Hoist, Prof. Hermann 342 Voyages of Joliet and Marquette 21 Voyage on Lake Erie, The 117 AV Wages paid in industries 247-256 AValker, George II 102, 119, 272 AValker 's Point 101 Walton, W. B. & Co 325 War aids at home 600 War, Effects of the Civil 215 AVar, Participation in 571 Ward, James 213 Ward, J. & L 121 Warnings and admonitions 013 AA'atrous, J. A 102 Watrous, R. B 391 AA'atir-borne commerce, Era of 271 AA'ater frontage and land areas 312 AA'ater purification 471 Water rates 473 AVater supply and intake 469 Waterworks, The 469 AA'aters, James 327 AA'auwatosa State Bank 365 'Way over the top again 604 AA'einman, Adolph 167 AA'ellauer, John 181 AVells, C. K 415 Wells, Daniel , . 345 Wells, H. N 273 Wentworth 's reply to Vallandigham. . . . 585 West Allis State Bank 365 West, Samuel C 415 AVest shore of lake sought 18 West Side Bank of Mihvaukee 360, 365 West Side Market Association 425 AA'harf age owned by railroads 301 Wheat production, Growth of 215 AA'heeler, A. C 64 AA'lieeler's "Chronicles of Milwaukee". 106 AVhen news of disaster reached Milwau kee 135 Where industrial Milwaukee excels.... 243 White, H. Kirke 106 White, Mrs. H. K 87 Whitney, Daniel 77, 209 Whiskey Tribute, The 64 AA'holesale trade, Status of in 1856 263, Why more dock room is necessary 313 AA'liy the St. Lawrence route? 316 Wight, William AA'ard 123 Wildcat money 341 William Brown & Co 121 Will spend $1,300,000 468 Wilson, Captain John 131 Winter quarters of Marquette 32 Wisconsin authors 125 Wisconsin, Early forms of name 67 Wisconsin Inquirer 126 804 INDEX Wisconsin in the World war 598 Wisconsin Marine and Fire Insurance Company 344 Wisconsin News, The 717 Wisconsin Players, The 697 Wisconsin State Bank 364 Wisconsin Woman's Suffrage Associa tion 567 Wise counsels by M. Bassett 509 Wolcott, Dr. Alexander 57 Wolf, John R 189 Woman 's Club of Wisconsin 665 Woman 's Suffrage in Wisconsin 565 Work continued by citizen of Green Bay 211 Work, Henry C 133 Work of Council of Defense 601 Work of the Plan Commission 488 Work of various committees 150 ' ' Would rather steal than trade " 64 Wreck of the Lady Elgin 129 Y Yard and courts, when not required... 543 Years and days U. S. has been at war. 605 Yost, G. W. N 127 Youmans, Mrs. TheodoTe W 565, 569 Young Men's Christian Association. . . . 664 Young Women's Christian Association. . 665 • Z Zoning, City Planning and 481 Zoning for Milwaukee 497 Zoning Ordinance, Outline of 519 Zoning Ordinance, The 537 Zoning System, A 497 Zoological Gardens 461 3 9002 00574 2128