¥ r i FREDERIGK STARR 'Y^LIE«¥]M]I¥IiI^SIIir¥- BOUGHT "WITH THE INCOME OF THE Ann S. Farnam Fund KOREAN BUDDHISM PLATE I Kim Ku Ha, President of Buddhist Committee FOR 1917 [Page 3S] KOREAN BUDDHISM HISTORY— CONDITION — ART Three L,ectures BY FREDERICK STARR 'M BOSTON MARSHALL JONES COMPANY 1918 COPYRIGHT, 19 I 8 BY MARSHALL JONES COMPANY All rights reser'ved St 2. PRINTED BY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. 5. A. THIS BOOK ON KOREAN BUDDHISM IS TO MY FRIEND AND FELLOW-STUDENT "KUGEN"- OGURI SAN OF TOKYO INTRODUCTION THE author does not over-estimate the importance of this little book: it is nothing more than its title claims. It consists of three lectures given to popular audiences, with the accompani ment of many illustrations. It represents, however, a considerable amount of work in an almost virgin field. It has involved hard journeys to remote mountain mon asteries, and days and nights of conversa tion and inquiry with many monks and priests. It is not, however, a profound study nor an exhaustive presentation. It barely touches many a subject, which would alone furnish more material than could be treated in three such lectures. It but scratches the surface. The material which it presents is how ever new. Outside of Mrs. Bishop's ac count of her visit to the Diamond Moun tain monasteries and scattered references in [vii] INTRODUCTION her book to a few local temples, there is almost nothing on the subject of Korean Buddhism accessible to English readers. A glance at our bibliography will show that not one of the books or articles there listed appeared in the West. All were printed at Seoul, Shanghai and Tokyo and pub lications appearing at those centers are little known outside. To aid serious readers, who may care to secure them, the pub lishers' names are given in our list. The author has carefully read all the items listed and acknowledges indebtedness to all the authors. The actual amount of material for the full study of Korean Buddhism is enor mous. There are many voluminous works in Chinese and Korean dealing with Kor ean history; when carefully sifted, these will yield many important facts. Many, perhaps all, of the monasteries have rec ords of their history somewhat after the nature of annals; most of these are in manu script, but a few have been printed, pre sumably from wood-blocks cut at the estab lishment by the monks. There is a third [ viii J INTRODUCTION source of information, as vast in bulk as either of the other two; it is the inscriptions on monuments, which are scattered in thou sands over the peninsula. The gleaning of information from these three sources — for the work must absolutely be of the nature of gleaning — will require many years, but the work is worth the doing. It is urgent also. Every one of these three sources is subject to destruction and even now is threatened. Old books in Korea are being constantly lost and destroyed; new editions of them are often carelessly and inaccur ately reproduced; in some cases, the new editions are intentionally mutilated, im portant passages being suppressed. The monastery records are less secure than ever before ; with the new life and energy in these old establishments, renovation and clearing out of nooks and corners and over hauling of accumulations of papers, places documents, the value of which is unknown or unappreciated, in serious jeopardy. As for the monuments many are disappearing and others are becoming undecipherable through weathering. There is pressing [ixj INTRODUCTION need then of promptly securing these ma terials and making them available for study. The Japanese are doing much good work. They are gathering old books and records. Up to 19 15 more than one hundred and fifty thousand books, manuscript and printed, had been gathered by the Government- General. Among these were the " Annals of Yi " numbering sixteen hundred and thirty-three volumes and the " Royal Diaries," aggregating thirty-one hundred and ninety-nine volumes, " all hand-written with the brush." Of the "Annals" there were four sets made under the Korean government for the four old royal libraries. The " Royal Diaries " were compiled at the king's orders; they dated from Yi Tajo himself, but those up to near the end of the sixteenth century were burned by the Ko reans at the time of the Hideyoshi invasion; those now existing cover the period from 1623 to 1907. Japanese scholars have or ganized a society for reprinting old and rare Korean books and have gotten out many volumes. They arc piling up direct observations also. From 1909 to 191 5, they [x] INTRODUCTION conducted a peninsula-wide survey of ancient monuments and have printed the results in four fine volumes, with splendid illustrations, under the title Chosen ko seki gafu. They have taken steps toward the preservation and, where necessary, the reconstruction of important monuments and notable buildings. They are copying the monastery records and ultimately will have a complete set of all that remain. The originals ought to be left in possession of the monasteries themselves, with the ob ligation to guard and keep them safely. As to monumental inscriptions, the Govern ment-General has been equally industrious. Up to March, 1915, there had been made thirteen hundred and seventy-seven direct rubbings from inscribed stones, of which forty-four represented Sylla, forty-three the period of the Koryu Dynasty and thirteen hundred and three the Yi Dynasty. It is fortunate that this preservation of material is being undertaken. The world will profit by it, though it may still be long locked up in Chinese characters. In this book the work of Yi Nung Hwa is [xi] INTRODUCTION mentioned. His Buddhist magazine should yield some data of value. If his History of Korean Buddhism is printed it ought to be of high importance, as he naturally has a much easier task in consulting the original sources than any foreigner. If his work is done with care and critical judgment it should be the necessary foundation for all future study. All depends upon how he performs his task. Readers who become interested in our lectures are advised to read Bishop Trollope's admirable Introduction. It clears the ground and indicates the direction of further studies. The author has hundreds of negatives illustrating Korean Buddhism. One hun dred and fifty pictures were used in the original lectures. When cutting down to what seemed the absolute limit, in selecting pictures for the book, he found that he had more than double the number permitted by the necessary conditions. Further re duction was diflicult and many pictures have been rejected, which are more beau tiful or interesting than some of those that are included. The final choice was based [xii] INTRODUCTION upon the desire to give as clear an idea as possible of actual conditions and to repre sent all the important phases presented in the lectures. One or two of the pictures were made by Manuel Gonzales in 191 1; all the others are the work of Maebashi Hambei, who accompanied me, in my last three expeditions to Korea, as photographer. Chicago, July 12, 1918. [ xiii ] CONTENTS Korean Buddhism: PAGE History i Condition 22 Art ee Bibliography gy Notes gg LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE I Kim Ku Ha. President of Buddhist Com mittee for 191 7 Frontispiece II General view: Pomo-sa . .... 2 III General view: Yuchom-sa, Diamond Moun tains 4 IV Sari monuments: Yuchom-sa 6 V Main Temple: Kumsan-sa 10 VI Sari monument pyramid, Kumsan-sa. (A relic of Buddha is supposed to be en shrined here) .... 16 VII Geomantic Mast: Chung-ju 18 VIII The Buddha: cave temple, Sukkul-am . . 22 IX Bodhisattva figure, Sukkul-am ... 24 X Great Miriok: Eunjin. General view . . 26 XI Group at Fukoan, branch of Sinkei-sa; Dia mond Mountains 28 XII Hain-sa: Building for the Wood-blocks . . 34 XIII Hain-sa: Building for the Wood-blocks, interior 38 XIV Great Buddha relief on rock face: Inner Kongo -44 XV Sari monument to Muhak: Hoiam-sa . . 48 XVI Head-priest and Pagoda: Sinkei-sa, Dia mond Mountains 5q [ xvii ] LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE FACING PAGE XVII Main Temple: Yuchom-sa, Diamond Mountains 52 XVIII Carved Door, Yuchom-sa 54 XIX Brahmanic Guardian of Buddhism: Songkwang-sa 56 XX, A, B. Two Deva Kings, Guardians of World Quarters: Sukwang-sa ... 58 XXI Gigantic Deva King. Guardian of World Quarter: Pawpchu-sa. The Korean standing by is a married man of normal stature 60 XXII Wall painting: The White Tortoise Scene of the Sei-yeu-ki: Pongeum-sa 66 XXIII Wall paintings on plaster: Sukwang-sa 68 XXIV Great figures of Buddhist Trinity, seated : Pawpchu-sa. Sakya, Monju, Fugen 70 XXV Great figures of Buddhist Trinity, standing: Kumsan-sa. Amida, Kwannon, Daiseishi. (Thirty feet or so in height) 72 XXVI Figures — a Trio of Trinities : Suk wang-sa. (The figures are said to be Kwannon, Amida, Daiseishi, Monju, Vairoshana, Fugen, Jihi, Sakyamuni Teikakara) 74 XXVII Figure and painting of Kwannon: Pomo-sa 76 XXVIII Hall of the Ten Kings of Hell: Yongju-sa. (Notice combination of figures and painting; the god of hell with two helpers, five kings with small servants, two other officers, and one of the two Brahmanic guardians) 78 [ xviii ] LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ' PLATE FACING PAGE XXIX Hall of Five Hundred Rakan: Suk wang-sa 80 XXX Extraordinary combinations of Rakan figures: Hall of Five Hundred Rakan: Songkwang-sa 82 XXXI Painting of the Seven Stars: Suk wang-sa 84 XXXII Group painting: Sukwang-sa .... 86 XXXIII One of the Eight Scenes in the Life of Buddha: Sakya gains Enlighten ment: Pomo-sa 88 XXXIV The God of the Mountain: Fuko-an, branch of Sinkei-sa, Diamond Mountains 90 XXXV Portrait of one of the chiefs of the Six teen Kakan: Chikchi-sa 92 XXXVI Great painting: Pawpchu-sa .... 94 XXXVII Great painting displayed at Buddha's Birthday Ceremony: Tongdo-sa . . 94 [xix] KOREAN BUDDHISM KOREAN BUDDHISM KOREAN BUDDHISM: HISTORY SINCE 191 1 it has been my privilege to make four journeys into Korea, so long known as "The Hermit King dom." To-day Korea has ceased to be an independent nation; she has been com pletely absorbed by Japan and forms part of the Japanese Empire. I found much of interest in the country. I studied the peo ple and their daily life; I visited many of the famous points of interest and beauty; I have studied somewhat into Korean his tory. Nothing, however, has more in terested me than the study of Korean religions, particularly Buddhism. When asked to give some public lectures this summer, I consented gladly to speak for three evenings on the subject of Korean Buddhism. My three lectures will deal with History — Condition — Art. [i] KOREAN BUDDHISM The history of Korea falls into three sharply marked periods. The first is known as the era of the Three Kingdoms — it ended with the year 918, a year easy to re member because exactly one thousand years ago. The second is the period of the Koryu Dynasty; it began with the year 918 and ended in 1392, a date easy for us to remem ber because precisely a century before the discovery of America by Columbus. The third period, known as the period of the Yi Dynasty, began with 1392 and continued until 1 910, when the independent history of Korea ended with its absorption by Japan. The history of Buddhism in Korea is divided into the same three periods, as the things which caused breaks in the national history were related to the religion. We shall then speak of the Buddhism of the Three Kingdoms, of the Koryu Dynasty and of the Yi Dynasty. The early period is called the era of the Three Kingdoms because at that time the peninsula was occupied by three different nations. The largest, in the north, was [2] PLATE II General view: Pomo-sa [Page 31] HISTORY called Koguryu. Japanese pronounce the name as Koma. It occupied more than half of the peninsula. Its capital city was P'yeng-Yang, still a city of importance. The second kingdom was smaller; in the southwest of the peninsula, it was known by the name of Pakche, which is pro nounced by the Japanese Kudara. The third kingdom occupied the southeastern section of the peninsula. It was larger than Pakche, but smaller than Koguryu, and was called Silla, Japanese, Shiragi. Such then, were the three kingdoms which existed through a period of hundreds of years. Unfortunately all names in Korea have several pronunciations. They are usually spelled with Chinese characters. If a Chinese pronounces the name, he will pro nounce it in a certain way, dependent upon what part of China he comes from; a Korean will pronounce the same characters quite differently; a Japanese has still a different pronunciation. It is for this rea son that the Korean and Japanese names of these kingdoms differ; the same char acters are pronounced Koguryu by the [3] KOREAN BUDDHISM Koreans and Koma by the Japanese; Pakche on the Korean tongue becomes Kudara with the Japanese; and where the Korean says Silla, the Japanese says Shiragi. Such then was the condition of the peninsula preceding 918. It was divided into three kingdoms, each with its own ruler. Buddhism, a religion which began in India, came to Korea by way of China. It naturally first reached the northern kingdom. It was introduced in 369 A.D. and its introduction was the result of foreign missionary effort. In those days there was an Empire of China, but there were also various small Chinese kingdoms along the northern border of the Korean peninsula. Buddhism came to Koguryu from one of these little Chinese kingdoms, the king of which sent its message by the hands of a priest named Sundo, who brought idols and sacred texts. He was well received on his appearance in P'yeng- Yang. The king of the country placed the crown prince in his care for education. In a few years the new religion had made [4] ^^^..' ^ vft-S PLATE III General view: Yuchom-sa, Diamond Mountains [Page 3 si HISTORY great headway. It had brought with it art and education, and the kingdom of Koguryu became a center of culture and advancement. Five years later, in 374, another priest named Ado was sent from the same Chinese kingdom. His coming added impetus to the religion and two great monasteries were founded near P'yeng-Yang, over one of which Ado was placed, while Sundo had charge of the other. These two mon asteries were not only centers of religion, they were full-fledged universities according to the ideas of the universities in those days. After they were founded Buddhism con tinued to spread rapidly so that in 392 it became the official religion of the kingdom. We are told that in the year 378, as the result of the coming of these foreign priests, the city of P'yeng-Yang was laid out as a great ship. To us this sounds strange. It is not easy for us to realize that a city was really regarded as a great ship and that a mast was erected in its midst, apparently in order that the sails of prosperity might waft the ship to good fortune and success. [5] KOREAN BUDDHISM Outside the city were stone posts to which the ship was to be tied up, and for many years it was forbidden to dig wells in the city because it was feared that if a well were dug, the boat would spring a leak and the whole place would be foundered. Such was science in the fourth century. It seems strange to us now, but ideas of that kind were rife in those days; in fact they have not yet disappeared from popular thought in Korea. I am not sure whether such ideas are connected with Buddhism, or whether they only form a part of that old geomantic philosophy which has so greatly influenced China, Korea and Japan through centuries. We find geomantic survivals of many kinds in many places. Old masts are scattered all over Korea, here and there, sometimes in quite inacces sible places; built of wood, they rise to a great height, and are sheathed with metal, which may bear an inscription and date. Many other places than P'yeng-Yang were thought of as great ships — temples, cities, entire valleys. (Plate VII.) At Tongdo-sa, a great monastery in the [6] > o CL, go s3 5 w '^ ^ Hwo s 5 < CO CONDITION the teaching almost immediately begins. He barely takes a little refreshment and rests a bit before he undertakes his duties. During the period of his stay the teaching continues throughout the day. One class or group comes in after another ; the teach ing is sometimes from books, sometimes from the teacher's own experience and knowledge. Are the monasteries really places of great learning; are they centers of deep piety? It is hard to tell and much depends on one's definition. We must remember that there are two vastly different kinds of Buddhism. They are almost opposite ; the one is certainly the negation of the other. The first is the Buddhism which the actual Buddha taught. You remember that he was an historic character, who lived at about five hundred years before Christ. An Indian prince, he is known under various names as Sakya muni, Siddartha and Gautama. Hc pon dered much over the problems of life and devoted himself to the solution of mysteries ; he tried asceticism and listened to one teacher after another; he wandered, medi- [49] KOREAN BUDDHISM tated, fasted ; he finally reached enlighten ment. He decided that life was an illusion and a snare which one would gladly be rid of; he discovered that the chain that bound one to this existence could be broken. Re lease comes from careful conduct; it comes through right living, and right thinking; it comes in course of time, after many many existences ; through right living in one life man gathers karma which carries him to higher and higher stages until at last he becomes a great scholar; finally he becomes a Bodhisattva, which is but one step from Buddha-hood; and finally, from a Bod hisattva, through enlightenment, he be comes a true Buddha and when his earthly life ends, passes out into oblivion, blissful, calm nothingness. Buddha was one of the greatest of world teachers. His teaching was simple; we may work out release gradually from the thraldom into which we are born; through careful thought and right living we may pass from stage to stage until at last we merge into infinity and lose our individu ality. Buddha taught that we end in Nirvana; [50] PLATE XVI Head-priebt and Pagoda: Sinkei-sa, Diamond Mountains [Page 74] CONDITION his doctrine was a revolt against the idea of an individual soul that lives forever; in his religion there were no figures, no idols, nothing for worship. Buddhism proper taught nothing about gods. It simply taught men to strive for enlightenment, to become Buddhas and to pass out into Nirvana. But this is not the Buddhism of China, Korea or Japan. The Buddhism of these three countries recognizes an individual soul that continues. It has scores of gods and represents them by images or idols ; the man who lives to-day does not try to work out salvation for himself through stage after stage of higher living. On the con trary he seeks salvation through another and that other is Amida Buddha. The Koreans call him Amida Pul. You may see them any day standing outside the temples repeating over and over again the formula, "Namu Amida Pul, Namu Amida Pul, Namu Amida Pul." They are thereby gaining salvation ; through faith in Amida they will reach the Western Para dise. There was no Western Paradise in [51] KOREAN BUDDHISM Buddha's teaching; there was no continued existence of the human soul; there was no one through whom men might be saved; one must work out his own salvation. But in this second Buddhism, any person in a single moment may gain salvation. It makes no difference whether a man has led a good or evil life, death-bed repentance may save him. A man does nothing for himself; faith only through the merit of another wins salvation — it sounds like good Presbyterian doctrine. It is evident that these two forms of Buddhism could not diverge more widely than they do. The early Buddhism taught by Sakyamuni is called Hinayana or the "Little Vehicle." The other form is known as Mahayana the " Great Vehicle." Ko rean Buddhism is and for the most part always has been Mahayana, yet in the Bud dhist temples of the Korean monasteries one finds many a figure of Sakyamuni and the worshippers seem totally unconscious of their inconsistency and of the fact that their worship of Sakya is a contradiction in terms. [52] PLATE XVIl Main Temple: Yuchom-sa, Diamond Mountains [Page 3SJ CONDITION This leads us to inquire regarding sects. Japanese Buddhism is divided into many. Thus we may speak of Shingon, Jodo, Zen, or Nichiren Buddhism there. Each of these narhes stands for a definite system of doctrinal belief. Every student of Bud dhism in Japan knows the fundamental differences upon which the dozen or more Japanese Buddhist sects are based. Know ing something of these divisions in Japan it was natural to ask on coming into contact with Korean Buddhism what sects they have. The answer was always immediate and glibly given. "We have two sects ^ — Syen and Kyo.^^ This was said everywhere, but I cannot see that there is anything in Korean Bud dhism like the sects of Japan. In Shingon there is a whole series of doctrines and beliefs and practices; so in Zen, so in every other sect. Every person belonging to a given sect holds those dogmas and practises those ceremonials characteristic of his sect. No man is at once Shingon and Zen. But in a Korean monastery we find Syen peo ple meditating and Kyo people reading [53] KOREAN BUDDHISM and to-morrow the situation will be re versed, and it seems as if the terms apply merely to two modes of discipline, not to actually different sects. At all events in the same monastery we regularly find Syen and Kyo. The texts of Mahayana Buddhism were originally in Sanskrit. They have been translated into Chinese and it is in their Chinese form that they are generally studied in China, Korea and Japan."^ In Korean monasteries we not infrequently find books that are printed, at least in part, in Sanskrit characters. Do the Korean monks know the Sanskrit language? Far from it. I doubt whether there are a half- dozen priests in all Korea who know any thing whatever of the language. At every temple one may secure tarani. A tarani is a sheet of paper with something printed on it in red from a wood-block. The wood-blocks at the different temples vary and while most of the characters in the printing are Chinese, there is a sprink ling of Sanskrit. A tarani is a sort of pass port to the Western Paradise and it is [54J o ffi >>^ aw> CONDITION supplied for burial with the dead. When a man is burned or buried a tarani is placed with his body. We secured them from almost every monastery visited. Perhaps no priest in Korea can read them. We saw, however, at one monastery, an old book concerning tarani, and it seems prob able that these texts have -been copied from such books. About sixty years ago there seems to have been a special fancy for cutting these wood-blocks for printing tarani and most of those we saw date from that time. Interesting are sari monuments. As we neared Yuchom-sa we passed ten or twelve stone monuments with a square base, a swelling body and decorated tip. We were told that these were sari stones and that in them a sari or " jewel " was buried. These sari are curious things. It is said that when the body of a monk of special piety is burned a little pebble will be found among the ashes. It is irregular in form, clearly shows fusion, and looks a little like a gem or crystal. It is believed that it has been formed from the elements [55] KOREAN BUDDHISM of the dead body, and they say that only about one man out of four hundred gives rise to one of these sari. I had always had my doubts about them. One day at Songkwang-sa, where the monks are exceptionally depraved, a policeman was with us to see that nothing happened. Coming to some sari stones we asked a monk about them. He told us the same story that we had heard before and we asked him if he really believed that it was true. He answered, " O yes, surely it is true." The policeman, however, expressed vigorous doubt. The monk replied, "You don't believe it, I will show you." So we proceeded to tear a sari monument to pieces! It seemed a shocking thing to do. We took off the top stone, and laid it by, and then turned the main stone upside down. At the center was a little cavity which was neatly covered with a thin sheet or disk of earthenware ; removing this we found inside a hole filled with packing, in which was a small tin capsule bearing an inscription. This was said to be the name of the man who had honored the dead [56] PLATE XIX Brahmanic Guardian or Buddhism: Songkwang-sa [Page 79] CONDITION priest by erecting the monument to him. Opening the capsule it was found to con tain some packing in the midst of which was the little gem — all that remained to represent the worthy dead man. We put it back with care, replaced the packing, closed the capsule, repacked it and recon structed the monument as it had been orig inally. No doubt all these sari stones really contain some such relic. That policeman had his doubts — I still have doubts as to just what sari are, but it seems certain that all sari stones really have sari in them. There is no question that there is much ignorance and even vice among the monks. In this monastery where we examined the matter of sari stones there were only five men, poor, ignorant fellows. We early noticed that the head priest there lacked a tooth, but only found after we had left the place that the most devout of the five monks had knocked it out the day before, having had a fight with his superior. The neighbors told us that that monastery was a place of constant disorder and bad conduct. [57] KOREAN BUDDHISM At one monastery we were even moved to give a lesson in behavior. Here we were accompanied by a Japanese policeman; he was with us to protect and give such aid as possible, but was absolutely of no use. The monks received us coldly, answered a few questions and then disappeared. Un accustomed to such treatment, I complained to the policeman who replied, " This mon astery has a very bad name in all this district; the monks are avaricious; they are thieves; they always treat visitors badly; they do nothing unless they are well paid. That is why I came with you." I replied, "Why don't you do something, then? Tell them to come out and do their duty." He shook his head sadly and said, "You do not know the reputation of this temple here abouts; it has a very bad name indeed." So turning to my interpreter I said, "We must deal with this problem right here." Calling a priest I said to him, " I under stand that in this monastery you have a bad name ; there is no time to waste ; we want no delays; call every monk and priest here at once." [58] PLATE XX A Deva King, Guardian of World Quarter: Sukwang-sa [Page 79] PLATE XX B Deva King, Guardian of World Quarter: Sukwang-sa [Page 79] CONDITION He did so, and when they had come I placed them in a semicircle before me and spoke to them. "You are Buddhists; you bear the name of Buddha, a great teacher; he was kind and good and cared nothing for money; he desired to help people and make them better, and people who are Buddhists should be like him; I am told that you are avaricious and when visitors come here you treat them with unkindness and discourtesy unless they pay you well ; I shall pay you nothing, but I want you to think of the disgrace you bring upon your name by such conduct; I am visiting the monasteries because I wish to see whether Buddhism is a living force in this land; I wish to see how you monks live and what your conduct is, and what the people say about you ; go back to your rooms and think over what I have said ; as I go from place to place, looking at things here, I expect to have them open, and I wish you to treat me as a brother and a friend ; remember that others who may come after me deserve equally good treatment; it is a shame to bring disgrace upon a cause." [59] KOREAN BUDDHISM Well, there was an instant conversion. Poor, ignorant fellows, living in their re mote mountain monastery, how should they know better? They gave me honey water and popped rice; they showed me their buildings and their treasure; they begged that I would come again and some accom panied me, when I was leaving, down to the outer gate. As for ignorance, it is probable that very few of them could pass examination on any kind of Buddhism, whether Hinayana or Mahayana. What more could be ex pected? Surely we can scarcely throw stones. What do most of us know about Christian doctrine? How wise religiously are the common people in our churches? In a recent newspaper it was stated that a man among us asked five professional men about the Holy Ghost. Do you suppose he got much in the way of a satisfactory answer? In reality he got nothing. All these educated men had other business than to know about the Holy Ghost. They were not well informed in regard to the religion in which they had been reared ; and yet we [60] PLATE XXI Gigantic Deva King, Guardian of World Quarter: Pawpchu-sa (The Korean standing by is a man of normal stature) [Page 80] CONDITION expect Buddhists, who have been exiled in mountain monasteries for four hundred years to know so much! How is the population of the monasteries maintained? Whence do new members come to-day? There is, of course, always a supply of orphan children, few of whom ever go back into the world after they have been brought up in monastery surround ings. Other people drift in for many rea sons. Men who have lost their friends and relatives by death often go to the mon asteries. So do those who fail in business, or who have been disappointed in life enterprises. The head-priest of one small, but very famous, ancient monastery, only recently became religious; he had been employed as a janitor or helper in a Bud dhist temple of Japanese in a Korean city and became interested and atti-acted. The head-priest of one of my favorite mon asteries was in the world until he had reached the age of fifty years or more; he had been in military service and I believe, had risen to the rank of Colonel; getting on in years, however, he began to think [6i] KOREAN BUDDHISM seriously of religious matters and retreated to the monastery. With one young priest at Yuchom-sa jn the Diamond Mountains we talked for hours, until midnight. He was genuine; he had the spirit of true re ligion; he was a thinker and was in the monastery from principle. There are no doubt many like him. We were at Tongdo-sa" on Buddha's birthday. It is one of the great monasteries of the South. They knew we were coming and therefore we found a place to sleep. When we were within three or four miles of it we found ourselves in a crowd of persons going up to the celebration. The nearest railway station is about ten miles away. Most of the people, however, had walked from their homes. It is a mountain district, sparsely settled ; there are surely only two or three towns of any size within fifteen miles of the place. When we reached the monastery we found one of the liveliest scenes we ever witnessed in Korea. The head-priest told us that ten thousand people slept on the grounds of the temple that night. The majority of them were [62] CONDITION women. Of course, that would have been true if it had been a Presbyterian gather ing. We were two nights there. On the full day that we spent with them a wonder ful crowd of people was present; there were a few Japanese — a teacher and one or two officials — but apart from these the multi tude was Korean. Probably fifteen thou sand people were there that day. We found that one of the events of that eve ning was a moving-picture show in one of the monastery buildings. The life of Bud dha was to be represented in moving pic tures. All this does not look much like death! It is said that at the other head monasteries there were proportionately equal crowds. We often asked what efforts were being made at monasteries for general improve ment and helping the outside world. The purpose of a monastery, of course, is not related to such undertakings. In all re ligions, at all times, monasteries have been only for persons who were seeking indi vidual improvement or salvation. In their very essence they arc not philanthropic or [63] KOREAN BUDDHISM reform movements. Still, with the lack of temples in the cities and definite teaching of the people through them, it might seem as if something would be undertaken by the monasteries. In reality there is much more in this direction than could be expected. At several of the monasteries there is a school for outside children; some have undertaken a definite work of teaching and some others realize that they have a genuine opportunity to aid in the elevation of the country. More and more the monasteries seem to awake to the existence of these possibilities. Korean Buddhism has, perhaps, a poli tical part to play. When the Japanese took over Korea, Buddhists came into the coun try in great numbers. Japanese priests and temples came with these settlers. These priests and temples are in the cities and larger towns. They do not, however, fit with the Koreans. There might be thou sands of them and they would still not make Korean converts — not because the Japanese are not ready to do mission work, but because the Koreans are not ready to [64] CONDITION accept it. The Korean Buddhism of to-day is actually Korean, not Japanese. I can imagine nothing that would be more dangerous to Japanese control than a strong and vital Korean Buddhism that was hostile to Japan. On the other hand, I can think of nothing that would be a greater help to Japan than a Korean Bud dhism developed among those people by their own priests and friendly to Japan. What Korean Buddhism is to be in the future depends upon its relation to the government now there. If Korean Bud dhism accepts and cooperates with the Japanese control, it will become the might iest factor that can be devised to make Japan's hold on the peninsula secure. If hostile to Japan, when the crisis comes, as it surely will come, when Japan will be tried out again and once for all on Korean soil, Korean Buddhism may be the decisive element in that moment of test. [65] KOREAN BUDDHISM: ART TO-NIGHT we are to consider art in Korean Buddhism. We shall ex amine it under six different forms — scenery, sculpture in stone, wood carv ing, architecture, images q_r idols and painting. Perhaps it scarcely seems to you as if scenery — real landscape, not landscape painting — were art. In the Orient, how ever, it is surely such. Eastern peoples have for hundreds of years been passion ately fond of the beautiful in nature. Chinese, Koreans, Japanese will travel on foot or by any possible conveyance many miles to see a famous view. They locate their houses in pretty places; they build temples and shrines upon commanding points. When the Korean monks, in the fifteenth century, were compelled to take refuge in the mountains, they located their buildings in surroundings harmonious to [66] PLATE XXII Wall Painting- the White Tortoise Scene of the Sei-yeu-ki: Pongeum-sa [Page 83] ART the religion. Their locations have been chosen with great care. And there is much more in scenery than the careless spectator thinks; for the Oriental scenery always contains something of the esoteric. For example, think of the Diamond Mountains. They are a remarkable tangle of peaks and ridges; measuring only thirty or forty miles across, the area is more or less elliptical in form; it is called "the twelve thousand peaks" or summits. The Diamond Mountains have been famous for two thousand years, and famous not only in Korea, but in China and Japan. They have been the theme of hundreds of poems and have furnished material for scores of books, some of them hundreds of years old. Artists have delighted in de picting their beauties. The Diamond Mountains with their twelve thousand peaks are divided into two portions. The name Diamond Mountains in itself is most suggestive; the diamond is one of the most precious symbols in Buddhism — indicat ing purity, clearness, brightness — and Ko rean Buddhism was a religion of light and [67] KOREAN BUDDHISM illumination. The two divisions of the Diamond Mountains are known as the Inner and the Outer Kongo. The traveller may visit the outer region and realize but little of the true significance of Kongo-San. In the Inner Kongo every outstanding rock is significant. Every building has been placed with reference to some hidden meaning of the landscape, and with every step the visitor goes deeper and deeper into mystery. Let us approach a mountain monastery. The trail is well marked long before we see the buildings. Once upon the grounds we come to some of those carved posts or pillars, devil posts, changson, which were illustrated in the preceding lecture, and were no doubt taken over from the old- time paganism. We pass through the outer gate. All the gates bear names significant to the thoughtful worshipper. We pass through gate after gate like " the gateway of Life," " the gate of All-powerful Truth," " the gate of Illumination." Many of these gates are pavilions, resting-places, whence one may view the scenery, or visit with [68] PLATE XXIII Wall Paintings on Plaster: Sukwang-sa [Page 8s] ART companions, or meditate in preparation for worship. As we approach the buildings we may find ourselves in a narrowing val ley, or passing some cascade. All the rock cliffs have been seized and utilized and bear inscriptions, beautifully cut into the stone material. We see the formula, con stantly on the tongue of Korean Buddhists, Namu Amida Pul, not once or dozens of times, but everywhere, repeated hundreds of times over. The Daimon, or great gate way, is the last; it signifies the gate of death through which we reach the heavenly life. At last we come to the mass of monastery buildings. Every temple has its name marked clearly on it, sometimes the names themselves are suggestive, helping the wor shipper to clearer thought and serious meditation. The second form of art is sculpture in stone. We have already mentioned the formulae and other inscriptions cut upon the cliffs. To the Oriental eye they are as beautiful and represent as much artistic skill as figures would. There are, however, also on the natural rock faces, [69] KOREAN BUDDHISM designs and figures cut in low relief, which we find in the most unexpected places. In the Inner Kongo there are many great rep resentations of the Buddhas cut upon the vertical rock face. Here, for instance, are three figures, twenty feet in height, one of the great Buddhist trinities. Again, there is a representation of Monju, of even greater size. (Plate XIV.) On another face of rocks are the figures of the famous fifty-three Buddhas who came so long ago to live and die among the Diamond Moun tains. In a former lecture we referred to the cave chapel of Sukkul-am. It is full of beauty. Excavated in the slope near a great ridge summit, it looks out upon the Eastern Sea. In the old days it was ap proached by a fine flight of steps. From its summit a passageway led to the sub terranean chamber. It was bordered on both sides by slabs carved with figures in high relief. Here are the two guardian de mons, the four kings of the cardinal points, the six generals. Passing between them we reach the little circular chapel, about thirty [70] PLATE XXIV Great figures of Buddhist Trinity, seated: Pawpchu-sa. Sakya, Monju, Fugen [Page 88] ART feet across, subterraneously situated in the hillside. Its low, vaulted roof is an in genious and wonderful construction. The surrounding walls are filled with slabs bearing fine carvings. Here are three splendid figures of Bodhisattvas, with boat-shaped haloes, three other figures of Bodhisattvas with round haloes, and distrib uted between them the ten first disciples of the Great Teacher. These ten figures present marvellous detail of feature; not only personal differences, but race differ ences are sharply brought out; more than that the figures were originally colored, and no doubt, different races are indicated by the different tints. There is no question that individuals of different races were among the first disciples of the Buddha. And in the center of all this beauty, this flowering of ancient art, sits the stone Buddha, on his lotus pedestal. It is a monolith, cut from a block of stone about eleven feet in height. It is beautiful in pose, in feature, and in expression. For almost fifteen hundred years it has sat there calmly looking out upon the Eastern Sea. [71] KOREAN BUDDHISM Every morning it is greeted by the rising sun. Besides figures cut in high relief, the old artists made full sculptures in the round. Such, of course, was the Buddha figure, just described. Such are the great miriok, sculptured from natural rock pinnacles, like the one at Eunjin. You may remember the picture of a giant lotus pedestal, lying in the courtyard of Kumsan-sa (Plates V, VI), which we showed you in the first lec ture; it is at least a thousand years of age. In the same courtyard, you remember that we saw a little tower or pagoda of stone, thirteen stories high, but in reality no taller than a man. At Pawpchu-sa there is that splendid bowl of stone, more than twelve hundred years of age, which in its time, no doubt, was filled with pure water for the cleansing of the hands and mouth of wor shippers. Sometimes we find stone lanterns and occasionally these are supported by animal figures in caryatid forms. Then there are the sari stones and altars and turtle-borne monuments. Look at this series of pictures from [72] PLATE XXV Great figures of Buddhist Trinity, standing: KuMSAN-SA. Amida, Kwannon, Daiseishi (Thirty feet or so in height) [Page 89] ART Hoiam-sa, one of the first temples we visited in 1917. (Plate XV.) To-day it is a place of no significance, but it was once a great religious center and has been asso ciated with three famous men. It chanced the day we visited it that the three monks who live there were about to celebrate the day sacred to the memory of these noted teachers; gifts and offerings and all the paraphernalia for worship were laid out, ready. These three men were Muhak, Chikong and Nanong. Chikong was a native of India, who spent his last days in Korea. Nanong was chaplain and pre ceptor of King Kong-Min-Oang, the- last king of the Koryu dynasty. Muhak was the chaplain and preceptor of Yi-tajo, founder of the Yi Dynasty. Behind the monastery building there rises a remark able narrow-backed and sloping ridge. It bears a line of monuments reared to the memory of these three men. The stones commemorating Chikong and Nanong were erected by Muhak in the year 1393; the stones in memory of him were reared in 1401. The monument to each of these [73] KOREAN BUDDHISM worthies consists of four stone objects — a lantern, an altar, a sari stone — which I sup pose contains the jewel that was left after the burning of the man in whose honor it was reared — and a stone turtle figure from whose back rises a slab bearing a long inscription. These turtle-stones with in scribed slabs are found everywhere in Korea; the turtle is the symbol of lon gevity and its use in this connection breathes the wish that the memory of the thing recorded may endure ten thousand years. These monuments are typical and good examples of their class. The carving on Muhak's sari stone is particularly beau tiful. In connection with stone work we must remind you again of the towers or pagodas of which you have seen repeated illustra tions. Here we show but one to refresh your memory. (Plate XVI.) Such towers or pagodas rise in stories, numbering from three to thirteen, but always odd — three, five, seven, thirteen. There are hundreds of them scattered over the peninsula and at all the old monasteries you will find them. [74] PLATE XXVI Figures — a Trio of Trinities: Sukwang-sa (The figures are said to be Kwannon, Amida, Daiseishi, Monju, Vairoshana, Fugen, Jihi, Sakyamuni, Teikakara) [Page 89] ART Some of those in the monasteries of the Diamond Mountains claim to be fifteen hundred years of age or more. They are symbolical, variously; they may denote the life of the individual, pointing heaven ward, developing from one stage of per fection to another ; they may mean the body of the faithful, or the church; the simple three-story towers symbolize earth, sky and heaven. Thirdly, are the wooden figures and other carvings in wood. And before we study these in detail let us remember that all religions are accustomed to borrow from those that have preceded them. In Christianity we have quantities of super stition lingering on from our days of pa ganism. Every religion that attempts a propaganda is compelled to take over much from the faiths which it displaces. India is a veritable mother of religions. One after another great religious systems have developed there. In very ancient days there was the simple nature worship of the old Aryans, as shown us in their sacred hymns, the Vedas. Among their gods two [75] KOREAN BUDDHISM of the greatest were Brahma and Indra. Brahma was the creator, Indra was a god of heaven, an atmospheric deity who wielded thunderbolts, who hurled light ning strokes against the foe. In course of time the old Aryans advanced in culture, and their ancient worship gave way to a systematized religion, Brahmanism, with many gods, having definite names and qualities and attributes. But old Brahma and Indra lived on from the early days into Brahmanism. In that system Brahma was the king of all the gods, Indra was the king of heaven — having a Special heaven of great beauty. It is said that his heaven was situated between the four peaks of Meru and consisted of thirty-two cities of Devas, eight on each of the four corners of the mountain. Indra's capital was at the center where he sat enthroned, with a thousand eyes and four arms grasping the thunder bolt, in company with his wife and eleven thousand and nine hundred concubines. There he received monthly reports regard ing the progress of good and evil in the world from his four Maharajas, heavenly [76] PLATE XXVII Figure and Painting of Kwannon: Pomo-sa [Page 89] ART kings of the cardinal points. The word Deva in Brahmanism is applied to the gods in general ; if a god is not specifically named he is called a Deva. Brahmanism was the religion of India when Buddha came. He devoted his life to its overthrow, and his teaching was hostile to its assumptions. Curiously, how ever, in the popular traditional life of Buddha many incidents are mentioned in which the friendliest of relations were established between Buddha and the Devas of the old faith. Thus it is said that Brahma himself appeared to Buddha and begged him to begin his teaching. Indra in these stories repeatedly shows his friend ship. There is one splendid occasion men tioned in which Buddha had been to Indra's heaven ; when he was ready to descend, stairs appeared for him made of the choicest and most beautiful materials, and as he came down this stairway, Brahma descended by a side stairway of silver and Indra upon a stairway of purple gold upon the other side, while with them came thousands of Devas, singing Buddha's praises. [77] KOREAN BUDDHISM The four Maharajas, heavenly kings of the cardinal points, who reported to Indra every month, showed themselves equally friendly. On one occasion Buddha was without a begging bowl; the Deva kings came to him and each one offered a begging- bowl of emerald; the Buddha refused to take them, as they were of too precious material; so they offered bowls less fine and each was strenuous that he should accept his gift; so Buddha took the four bowls and placing them together, lo, they became a single bowl, but with a rim showing how four had merged, so that none of the kind Devas was neglected or hurt in feeling, and the offering of all was accepted by the Great Teacher; it is said that this begging bowl was in existence hundreds of years after Buddha's time, kept as a precious treasure in a temple. We need not then, be surprised, to find that a number of the old Brahmanic gods were taken bodily over into Buddhism. Brahma and Indra are in fact to-day con sidered in Mahayana to be the chief patrons and protectors of Buddhism. The [78] PLATE XXVIII Hall of the Ten Kings of Hell: Yongju-sa (Notice combination of figures and painting; the god of hell with two helpers, five kings with small servants, two other officers, and one of the two Brahmanic guardians) [Page 91] ART four Maharajas have also been taken over completely. And Yama, the very ancient god of hell, to-day finds himself as com fortable in Buddhism as he ever could have been in Brahmanism, or in the earlier Aryan worship of the Vedas. Approaching any Buddhist temple in Japan or Korea you are almost sure to find two gigantic figures standing at the outer gate. They are the old gods Brahma and Indra. They are represented as full- muscled men of gigantic size, wrestling against the powers of evil. (Plate XIX.) At another gate, farther up the trail, one is almost sure to find the Maharajas, heavenly kings of the cardinal points, under shelter, each in a niche or alcove ; usually there are two on either side as one passes through the gate.^ Being related to the cardinal points, they are always ar ranged in the same order, and are dis tinguished from each other by having different colored faces, each having the color proper to the district over which he has control. (Plate XX, a, b.) Each carries a characteristic object, thus one bears a pa- [79] KOREAN BUDDHISM goda or tower on his hand, another carries a blazing jewel, the third varies what he carries, but frequently he plays upon a lute, the fourth one has a sword ; these four great Brahman deities are found to-day in Korea at every Buddhist monastery, at the gate commonly called " the gate of the four kings " ; there they watch, guarding the monastery against all harm. These are al most always figures of wood, but rarely one may find paintings on the wooden walls instead of the figures. While these guar dian kings are always represented in he roic size the series at Pawpchu-sa are of extraordinary dimensions, probably the largest in Korea. (Plate XXI.) Yama, too, was taken over from the older faith. The god of hell, he was assisted by ten helpers; each of these served as his representative in a separate hell, or di vision of that place of torment. Yama judges souls and inflicts penalties, assigns duties, and directs all the details of his realm. In most Korean monasteries there will be a hall of the ten kings in which we see figures of Yama with his assistants. [80] Hall of Five PLATE XXIX Hundred Rakan: Sukwang-sa [Page 90] ART Next we may consider architecture. We place it fourth because we have pursued a logical order of approach. Coming through the beautiful scenery, we have passed over the trail, noticing the inscriptions on the cliffs, passing by the guardians of the outer gate, walking between the four kings on their ceaseless guard, but at last have come to the monastery buildings proper and see them in their age and beauty before us. We have already seen representations of many of these temples in the preceding lectures. You have noticed that all were built of wood ; you have observed the curious mode of timbering; you have studied the tangle of projecting timber ends under the roof — the decorative features applied to them, the carving and painting; red, green, black, white and blue, the gaudiest of colors are used upon them in a fashion which we could not conceive, and from which we would expect disharmony, though the real effect is charming. You have examined in detail the carved decora tion of the doors, sometimes foliage, again [8i ] KOREAN BUDDHISM floral, or with figures mingled with the other designs. (Plate XVIII.) While the buildings themselves are al ways of wood there is a curious use made of stone at times in the way of supports. You remember in a picture from Sukwang-sa this was illustrated. The building was in the nature of a pavilion where tablets bear ing names were left by visitors ; the pavilion was borne upon upright columns of stone, highly characteristic of Korea, but not common elsewhere. Another feature of the architecture is wall-painting and here we find two differ ent kinds. Pictures may be painted directly upon the woodwork of the wall. It is more common, however, to panel the tim bered walls with plastering and then to paint upon the plaster. Let us examine examples of both kinds. You remember that among the Buddhist books recently printed in on-mun was an allegory by a Chinese monk. The writer's name was Chiu-Chang-Chun; he was born in 1208 and died in 1288. Flis book was named Sei-yeu-ki; at Pongeum-sa, a scene [82] PLATE XXX Extraordinary combinations of Rakan figures: Hall of Five Hundred Rakan: Songkwang-sa [Page 90] ART taken from his book is painted on the wooden wall. We present it as an example of this kind of decoration. It represents a scene from the closing part of the old story. (Plate XXII.) The pilgrims had almost finished their journey and were returning in state, on cherubim, with a great collection of idols and sacred texts. It was found, however, that they had suffered only eighty trials, and it seems that to be perfect they should pass through eighty-one — nine times nine — so angels were sent to overtake the eight cherubim, and tell them privately that they must let the monks suffer one trial more. This the angels did. As a sample of the story, and in explanation of the picture we quote from Dr. Richard's translation. " It was a strange sensation to be on the ground again. They had come down near some water. The master asked, ' Can anyone tell me where we are? ' The monkey said, ' Master, this Is the mouth of the Milky Way River.' The river was wide. It was also a lonely place, without houses or boats, and they were on the western side. How could they get across ? Two of them suggested [83] KOREAN BUDDHISM that since the master had left his mortal body behind they could cross the river by magic, but the monkey said, ' No, it cannot be done.' He knew that there was one trial more to undergo, and It was for this they had stopped on the way. Then they heard a cry, ' Chinese priest, come this way.' They went and found that It was the white tortoise, who had ferried them over as they went West, at the time when they had saved the family at Chen Kia Chwang. The tortoise said he had been waiting for their return for a long time and was glad to see them. The practical monkey said, ' Formerly we had to trouble you. Now we meet again.' At this the four pilgrims were very rejoiced to see the tortoise. He took them and the horse all on his back and swam across to the other side. As they neared the Eastern shore and it was getting dark, the tortoise said, ' Master, when you went West I asked you to Inquire of Buddha for me how I might return to my former state, and when I might get a human body. Did you remember to ask?' But the master had been so absorbed In his own affairs that he had completely forgotten the tortoise and his request and so he had nothing to say. The tortoise, finding that he had been forgotten, turned a somersault, and threw all and everything Into the river. Happily the mortal body of the master had been exchanged [84J PLATE XXXI Painting of the Seven Stars: Sukwang-sa [Page 92] ART for an immortal one, and therefore he was safe in the water. The pig and the monkey, the boy and the horse, were also at home In the water, but the books were all soaked." The old allegory took a strong hold upon Eastern Asia and there must have been hundreds of pictures painted in the course of time representing its incidents. As an example of the wall-paintings on plaster we may study a group of paintings, each representing an individual being, from one of the main temples at Sukwang-sa. None of these figures is haphazard, or with out significance. Each would be recog nized by the well-informed Buddhist. (Plate XXIII.) Fifth are the idols or images. In the Buddhism taught by Sakya there was no room for them. The Great Teacher rec ognized no gods, and his followers should have no representations of deities. In Amida Buddhism, however, there are many gods, and a multitude of figures. The Buddhas, themselves are all represented among them including Sakya. When we examine the figures worshipped in Buddhist [85] KOREAN BUDDHISM temples we find three groups, (a) Bud dhas, (b) Bodhisattvas, (c) Arhats or Rakan. Sakya was not the first Buddha; in fact he was the twenty-fourth or twenty- fifth in the line of those who attained en lightenment and gained Nirvana. The Indians reckoned time in long periods or kalpas; most of the Buddhas were in former kalpas, but even in the present kalpa, in which we live, Buddha had three predecessors; and before our kalpa ends a successor will appear, Maitreya, or Mi roku, the coming Buddha.^ The two Buddhas most commonly rep resented by figures in Korean Buddhism are Sakya and Amida. Miroku, too, is fre quently to be seen, but Miroku is not yet a Buddha but only Bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas were human beings who had piled up karma and passed from stage to stage until they stood within a single step of Buddha-hood ; during their next exist ence they could hope for illumination, en lightenment. Nirvana. There are many Bodhisattvas, but the ones most commonly represented by Korean figures are six in [86] PLATE XXXII Group Painting: Sukwang-sa [Page 95] ART number. Their Korean names are Miryek Posal, Titsang Posal, Kwandyeieun Posal, Taiseichi Posal, Mounsou Posal, and Po- hien Posal. These Bodhisattvas are much better known to the outside world by their Japanese names, and having introduced them in Korean terminology we shall refer to them as we have opportunity under the Japanese forms. They become, then, Maitreya or Miroku, Jizo, Kwannon, Daiseishi, Monju, Fugen. Curiously enough in Korean iconography Jizo, a most mild and gentle god, fond of and loved by children, replaces Yama often as the king of hell. Kwannon, god of mercy, usually considered female in Japan, though not invariably, is usually male in Korean representation. The third type of images of figures wor shipped in Korean monasteries are the Arhats or Rakan. These are men who have made progress; they have meditated, studied, listened and thought; some of them are the original students of Sakya; all have gained a store of helpful karma, and many of them are worshipped. When [87] KOREAN BUDDHISM made in figures there are two groups of Rakan. One known as the sixteen Rakan, the other as the five hundred. The sixteen Rakan are all absolutely historical person ages of early date, friends, relatives, and hearers, of Sakya. In figures and in paint ings they are represented with character istic attributes, readily recognized. These three kinds of figures are usually made of wood, painted and gilded; some times the gold leaf on them represents ab solutely considerable value. The figures of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are fre quently of large size, and often beautiful. They may be standing or seated, but in both cases the position of the hands and fingers is important and significant. (Plate XXIV.) Buddhism everywhere recognizes a series of finger symbols carrying a message. It is interesting to notice that the Buddha is usually included in a trinity. This fact is among many which have led some writers like Professor Lloyd, Doctor Richard, and Madame Gordon to think that Mahayana Buddhism is actually Christianity worked over and given the name of Buddhism. [88] PLATE XXXIII One of the Eight Scenes in the Life of Buddha: Sakya gains Enlightenment: Pomo-sa [Page 91] ART Trinities are conspicuous everywhere. Often we find the central figure of the three to be Sakya, while to his right and left are the Bodhisattvas Monju and Fugen. The former sometimes sits upon a dog or lion, and the latter upon a white elephant. Then they are easily recognized by their mount. When not mounted they are not so easy of recognition. Even more common in Korea is the Amida trinity. Amida is usually accompanied by Kwannon on one side and Daiseishi on the other. (Plate XXV.) There are other trinities to be seen in Korean temples but these two are common. (Plate XXVI.) These figures are generally in curious relation with paintings. In most temples where there are figures on the altar there are paintings hung up on the wall behind which usually represent the same beings as the figures, but accompanied by many more attendants. This association of pictures and figures representing the same being is rare, if it occurs, in Japanese Buddhism. (Plate XXVII.) Lastly, we come to paintings. While [89] KOREAN BUDDHISM many are related to figures as just men tioned, many more stand by themselves and are displayed upon the walls of halls and temples without figures. If we desire to make a study of the paintings of a mon astery we must pass from hall to hall. Many monasteries are absolute masses of great buildings. In the main temple there are usually figures of a trinity of Buddhas or sometimes even three trinities with paint ings hung behind. In the Rakan hall we may find the sixteen Rakan in figures, in paintings, or in combinations. In halls of the five hundred Rakan, we usually find five hundred little figures set on shelves thickly around all three sides; no two are just alike, and it is probable that you will be told with glee that if you look long enough you will find your own father represented among them. (Plates XXIX, XXX.) In the hall of the Ten Kings of Hell we some times find the figures of Yama or of Jizo with the ten helpers; if so, behind the fig ures are frightful paintings of the ten hells, a picture of each one behind its proper king. Sometimes, however, there are only paint- [90] PLATE XXXIV The God of the Mountain: Fuko-an, branch of Sinkei-sa, Diamond Mountains [Page 93 1 ART ings in this hall. (Plate XXVIII.) Atsome temples there is the hall of the Eight Scenes of the Life of Buddha." These scenes are definite and fixed in every detail, are tra ditional, and have been passed down for centuries. The whole building is occupied by the eight great paintings hung upon the wall. Each contains a mass of detail, and there may be hundreds of individuals rep resented in a single scene. (Plate XXXIII.) Occasionally there is a hall of portraits at a monastery ; such a one we saw at the mon astery where we rebuked the priests for avarice and impoliteness; the building is devoted to the portraits which are said to be reliable representations of the head priests of this monastery for a period of almost fifteen hundred years. One might, however, visit many monasteries without finding such a hall. Probably every monastery of any con sequence has its hall of Seven Stars. It is always a little building and on the out skirts of the group of temples. Korea must have worshipped the constellation of the Great Bear, the Big Dipper or the Seven [91 ] KOREAN BUDDHISM Stars, long before Buddhism came. Many Koreans still pay worship to the stars them selves. The father of a young man who was once my Korean interpreter, never fails to pray to the seven stars on any night when the sky is clear enough for them to be seen ; the worship is interesting and deserves at tention. It was probably taken over early by Buddhism. The picture always shown in this little hall is very curious. There is always a Buddha figure of some kind in it, but above are Buddha-like figures of the Seven Stars, heavenly beings, with pale faces; below there are the representations of seven earthly ministers corresponding to them; the idea that heavenly conditions are reproduced upon the earth is one com mon to many religions. (Plate XXXI.) One other building is certain to be found at every monastery. It is a wee structure, sacred to the God of the Mountain. He is a mysterious being. He is usually rep resented with a beard and a beard quite different from those regularly seen in China, Korea or Japan. He is always accompanied by a tiger, particularly notice- [92] PLATE XXXV Portrait of one of the chiefs of the Sixteen Rakan: Chikchi-sa [Page 95] ART able for head and tail ; the god of the moun tain varies more than any other representa tion in Korean art. The features mentioned, however, are always emphasized. All agree that the god of the mountain is individual ; he is not the god of mountains generally, nor a god overseeing mountains every where, but ever specifically the god of the mountain on which his shrine is located. (Plate XXXIV.) Sometimes there is another very little hall known as the hall of the Lonely Saint. When it occurs it usually stands at the side of the hall of the god of the mountain and is of its size. Within there is a hanging picture of the Lonely Saint. Unfortu nately we cannot show a copy of it. We have planned repeatedly to take it but something has always happened to pre vent. Trollope tells us that the lonely saint was a historic personage, Chikai, who lived in China in the sixth century, and was the founder of the very ancient Tendai sect. These paintings in Korean temples are rarely beautiful, but they surely deserve careful study by competent art students. [93] KOREAN BUDDHISM The colors used are bright and light. Faces of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are usually yellow or white. These high beings are regularly represented with aureoles, the boat-shaped aureole occurring commonly with Kwannon and Miroku. Gods and human beings occur in crowds in these paintings, hut no matter how crowded the composition the individuals are usually definite and known. The artists are priests and it is common for the few who have famous skill to travel from temple to tem ple, touching up old pictures and painting new ones. They stay for weeks or months and then pass on to new fields. The designs are certainly traditional and very old, but the paintings themselves, as we see them in the temple, are many of them the work of very recent years. Most of the monks and acolytes know very little of the meaning of the pictures, but those who paint them, and those who are serious students can identify the actors in the scenes depicted. We reproduce a picture from Sukwang-sa which illustrates the crowding of persons and the attention given to detail. -Upon it [94] PLATE XXXVI Great painting, Pawpchu-sa [Page 96] ^" i '', PLATE XXXMI Great painting displayed at Buddha's Birthday Ceremony: Tongdo-sa [Page 96] ART there are represented one Pul or Buddha, with three faces, four Posal or Bodhisattvas, the twenty-eight heavenly kings (each cor responding to one of the ancient constella tions), and ten times ten gods (they are actually grouped by tens and there are ten each of earth, fire, water, small water bodies, air, the human body, movement, field work and mountain fortresses). This design is really a common one, and we have a photograph of it also from Pawpchu-sa. Comparison of the two pictures shows absolute identity in the number and placing of the individuals. (Plate XXXII.) We have already stated that there is con siderable variation in the picture of the god of the mountain, though he is always recognizable by certain features. Pictures of individual Rakan are common in temples and these pictures are always precise and definite, giving in every instance the char acteristic features or attributes. (Plate XXXV.) Occasionally — perhaps more commonly than we know — the monasteries possess an enormous rolled painting of a single Bud- [95] KOREAN BUDDHISM dha. We have seen one at Pawpchu-sa and another at Tongdo-sa. At Pawpchu-sa they brought it out from the great temple and unrolled it for us, in the open, that we might see its size. At Tongdo-sa it was already elevated for the occasion of the celebration of Buddha's birthday. It tow ered above the highest building, and was worshipped by the crowding thousands. (Plates XXXVI, XXXVII.) In this brief study of Korean Buddhism we have but sketched a subject which pre sents a vast material, which as yet is almost unknown and practically untouched by students. [96] BIBLIOGRAPHY Gale. The Pagoda of Seoul. Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. VI, Pt. II, pp. 1-22. Seoul: 1915. Gordon. Some Recent Discoveries in Korean Tem ples and their Relationship to Early Eastern Chris tianity. Trans. K. B. R. A. S. Vol. V, Pt. II, PP- 1-39- Seoul: 1914. Gordon. Symbols of "the Way" — Far East and West. Tokyo: igi6. Maruzen & Co. Hulbert. History of Korea. Seoul: 1905. 2 vols. Methodist Publishing House. Jones. Colossal Buddha at Eunjin. Trans. K. B. R. A. S. Vol. I, pp. 51-70. Seoul: 1901. Richard. A Mission to Heaven . . . by Ch'iu Ch'ang Ch'un. Shanghai: 191 3. The Christian Litera ture Society's Depot. Trollope. Introduction to the Study of Buddhism in Corea. Trans. K. B. R. A. S. Vol. VIII, pp. 1-41. Seoul: 1917. [97] NOTES I. Aryavarman, a man of Sinlo {Corea), left Chang'an a.d. 638. He set out with a view to recover the true teaching and to adore the sacred relics. He dwelt in the Nalanda Temple, copying out many Sutras. He had left the eastern borders of Corea and now bathed in the Dragon pool of Nalanda. Here he died, aged seventy odd years. Hwui-nieh, a Corean, set out for India 638 A.D., arrived at the Nalanda Temple and there studied the sacred books and reverenced the holy traces. I-tsing found some writing he had left in the temple, where also he had left his Sanskrit MSS. The priests said he died the same year, about sixty years of age. Hiuen Ta'i, a doctor of the law, a Corean, called by the Sanskrit name of Sarvajnanadeva. In the year Yung-hwei (650 a.d.) he went by the Tibetan road through Nepal to Mid-India; he there worshipped the relics at the Bodhi Tree. Afterwards going to the Tukhara country, he met Taou-hi, with whom he re turned to the Tahsio Temple (Mahabodhi). After wards he returned to China, and was not heard of again. Hiuen-hau, a doctor of the law, a Corean, went with Hiuen-chiu, in the middle of the Chengkwan period, to India, and reaching the Tahsio Temple, he died there. Two priests of Corea, names unknown, started from Chang'an by the southern sea-route and came to Srib- hoja. They died in the country of Po-lu-sse, to the westward (the v/estern portion of Sumatra). [99] NOTES Hwui hun, a Corean, otherwise called Prajnavarma, came by sea from his own country to Fuchau, and pro ceeded thence to Chang'an. Following after the priest Hiuen-chiu, he reached the West, and during ten years dwelt in the Amravat country and in the Sin-che Tem ple (north of the Ganges). Passing through the eastern frontiers, and thence proceeding northward he came to the Tu-ho-lo {Tukhara) Temple. Beal: Life of Hiouen-T siang , pp. xxix— xxx, xxxvi. 2. Jones in his admirable discussion of the Eunjin miriok makes an interesting suggestion regarding its location : But the special interest these facts have for us in connection with the -great Buddha lies in the fact that it may have been here that Buddhism itself first entered Pakche. Buddhism was a for eign importation, being sent to the peninsular kingdoms by the Eastern Tsin dynasty of China (a.d. 317—19) and effecting an entrance almost simultaneously at two points — in the north into Koguryu and in the south into Pakche. Of this latter event the native historians tell us: — "In the year a.d. 384 the barbarian monk Maranant'a came from Tsin. King Chip-yu accorded him a most courteous and ceremonious reception and Buddhism was established as the national re ligion." We do not know at what point the monk-missionary landed, but it is not so unlikely that he may have come to this well-known port, and that one day among the ships making up that inextricable mass of masts and rudders at Si-jin there may have come the imperial junk of Tsin bearing " the barbarian monk Maranant'a " with his images, incense, bells, books and vestments to plant in Korea that cult which was to dominate the [ 100] NOTES people for a thousand years, thus landing close to the place where in later years the greatest monu ment that Buddhism possesses was to stand. And two hundred years later (a.d. 552) there probably embarked from this port that band of Pakche priests sent by their king to carry to the mikado of Japan the golden images of Buddha and the triad of precious ones, the sutras and sacred books, and to give the faith of Buddhism to the Sun-rise Empire. And it is said that these relics exist to this day and are preserved in the city of Nagano in Japan. Colossal Buddha: p. 62. 3. It occurs in the inscription regarding the Seoul pagoda and is particularly interesting as a contem porary description of a temple of remarkable splendor. Reckoning up the number of pillars support ing the building they were found to exceed 300. The Hall of the Buddha stood up high in the center, and the inscription board above was written Taikwang viyung jun, " Great light glor ious palace." To the left was the Sun Tang or study hall, while to the right was the Oon-chip or assembly hall. The gate was marked Chak- kwang Moon, Hidden Light and the outer gate was called Panya or Likeness gate. Beyond this again was the Hai-tal Moon. There was a bell-pavilion also which was called the Pup-noi-kak, Kiosk of Buddha's Thunder. The kitchen was named Hyang-juk, Kitchen House. There was a pond on the east side, where lotus flowers were planted ; and on the west was a garden-park where flowers and trees grew. Behind the Cheung-jun palace the sacred books were in keeping, and this house was called Hai-Jang Chun or Sea Covering Hall. Also a pagoda was built of thirteen stories called [lOl] NOTES sul-to-pOj Buddhist pagoda. Within it were placed the accumulated sari and the newly translated Wun-gak sutra. The palaces, halls, studies, guest rooms, stores, kitchens, outhouses, had each their particular place. The whole was magnificent and well constructed, and the ornaments were lavish, imposing, beautiful, all in keeping and fair to see. Its equal was nowhere to be found. Also the drums, gongs, etc., necessary for the service, and other useful implements were abun dantly provided for. Gale: Pagoda, p. lO. 4. Gale finds that the history of the erection of the Seoul pagoda was originally inscribed upon the turtle- borne slab that accompanies it. Of the pagoda itself, he says: I. The Pagoda was therefore built in 1464- 1466 a.d. 2. The builder was King Se-jo, who reigned from 1456-1468 and all the workmen were Koreans. 3. The form of it was modelled after the Pagoda in Pung Tuk County, which had already been standing nearly a hundred years, and had been built by Chinese workmen. There is no evidence that this pagoda had ever been brought from Peking though it finds its final resting place now in Tokyo. 4. It was built to commemorate the excellence of the Wungak Sutra from which it takes its name. 5. It is by far the most interesting Buddhist monument in Korea, p. 22. 5. The list of the thirty head-temples follows: Yongju-sa Chuntung-sa Pongeum-sa Pongsilm-sa [ 102] NOTES Makok-sa Unha-sa Pawpchu-sa Koun-sa Songkwang-sa Kumyong-sa Sunam-sa Peyak-sa Te,hung-sa Sawngpul-sa Pakyang-sa Yungmyung-sa Uipong-sa Pawphung-sa Posawk-sa P^Ti^un-sa Tongdo-sa Kiinpong-sa Pomo-sa Yuchom-sa Hain-sa Ualchung-sa Tonghwa-sa Sawkwang-sa Chuim-sa Kuichu-sa 6. The magazine conducted by Yi Nung Hwa has had several breaks in publication and after each the name has been changed. As here given the names are English translations of the original : Monthly Magazine of Chosen Buddhism. Nineteen issues, from January 25, 191 1 to August 25, 1913. Buddhist Magazine of the Eastern Sea. Eight issues from November 20, 1 913 to June 20, 1914- Monthly Magazine of the Association of Ris ing Buddhism. Nine issues from March 15, 1915 to December 15, 1915. Kingdom of Chosen Buddhism. Three issues from April 5, 1916 to June 5, 1916. General Magazine of Chosen Buddhism, from March 20, 191 7. Three numbers had appeared when I received this note in May 1 91 7. 7. The texts most commonly read in Korean mon asteries are the Hokkekyo, Kegon, Kishinlon, Fumon- bon and Amidakyo, according to Madame Gordon. These are Japanese pronunciation. [ 103] NOTES 8. The Japanese names of the four guardians are: Bishamon : east ; blue ; tower. Komoku: south; red; jewel. Jikoku: west; green; lute. Zocho : north ; flesh ; sword. 9. Three Buddhas have preceded Sakyamuni in the present kalpa and one is still to come before the kalpa ends. The entire list is: Krakuchanda (Pali, Kakusanda) , "who solves doubt." Kanakamuni (P. Konagamana) "body radiant as gold." Kasyapa (P. Kassapa) " swallower of light." Sakyamuni. Maitreya. Legge: Fa-hien, p. 51. 10. The eight scenes in the Life of Buddha are : {a) Incarnation. {b) Birth. (c) Encounter with age, sickness, death. {d) Escape — with aid of the four heavenly kings. {e) Asceticism. (/) Enlightenment. {0) Preaching — "turning the wheel." {h) Nirvana. [ 104] YALE UNIVERSITY QQ3Q0158t