YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY ACQUIRED BY EXCHANGE THE CENTENNIAL NOETHWEST. AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE NORTHWEST, BEING A FULL AND COMPLETE CIVIL, POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTOKT OF THIS GREAT SECTION OF THE UNITED STATES FROM ITS EARLIEST SETTLEMENT TO THE PRESENT TIME; COMPRISING A GENERAL AND CONDENSED HISTORY OP OHIO, INDIANA, MICHIGAN, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, IOWA, ETC., INCLUDING KANSAS AND NEBRASKA, THE WHOLE FORMING A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE GREAT NORTHWEST. BY PROF. CHARLES R. .TUTTLE Author of "History of Wisconsin," "History of Indiana." "History of Michigan," "History of Border Wars," " History of Iowa," etc., etc., AND Rev. A. C. PENNOCK, For over thirty years a resident of the Northwest. SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. MADISON, WIS.: PUBLISHED BY THE INTER-STATE BOOK COMPANY. 1876. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year eighteen hundred and seventy-six, BY CHARLES It. TUTTLE, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. Madison, Wis. : ,, STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BY Wm M™™«"T Atwood & Culver. WM' J" Pat!k * Co" » KlsG **¦. Madison, Wis. INTRODUCTORY. The Centennial History of the Northwest will stand or fall by its own merits, owing nothing save the incentive to an early completion to^the great event of this era, the exposition in Fairmount Park, which will shortly chal lenge the attention of the whole world to the record of one hundred years of national growth under free institutions. "When ascending the mountains, it is sometimes well to pause for a moment to realize the height that has been at tained ; so we invite our fellow citizens to consider what has been done, as well generally as particularly since the year 1776. One century ago the steam engine had not been applied to traveling; now it is the agent by which millions of our fellow citizens follow their avocations daily, in every part of the union. Tho Watt and Boulton works in London had been established nearly ten years for the manufacture of steam engines, but the first idea of making steam available for traveling was due to our countryman, John Pitch, who had ascertained during his captivity among Indian tribes the vast area of this continent which could be reached by river navigation, and wisely di vined the important influence that steam could exert in developing our re sources. The country which stood upon the threshold of its greatness when he petitioned congress for assistance to complete his boat in 1785, had then a population of barely four millions; it has now fully forty millions of people included under its general government, enjoying the privileges of freedom in every essential, and it follows almost inevitably that the nation in its entirety has a history at once momentous and instructive, which during this centennial period may be studied with advantage. The Centennial North west is a contribution toward that great desideratum, and it deals in a Catho lic spirit with all the incidents of our development as a great and free people, within the limits specified, from the days when the Indian was first dispos sessed of his hold upon the hunting grounds once entirely enjoyed by the tribes, through all the vicissitudes of an incipient civilization to the present day, when steam travels our roads as well as our rivers with a completeness and dispatch of which neither Pitch nor Pulton dreamed, besides discharging ten thousand functions which seem marvelous even to the accustomed observer in our centennial year. The ground over which the historian travels in the great northwest may be said to be virgin soil, and in that respect much fresh- 4 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ness of tone has almost inevitably found its way into the style of the work; but in addition to that fact it is hoped that the phenomena of social life have heen observed and recorded in the true spirit of history, grasping the perti nent facts of an era and a state and applying the principle therein contained to the solution of every problem that arose during the expansion of the first settlement into territorial organization, and eventually into the finished essence of republican rule, the condition of a state in the union. The soil and the climate of every state in the northwest have been present ed to the reader in their natural colors, as the writer would " nothing exten uate, nor set down aught in malice," and it would be manifestly unfair to say one unwarranted word of praise or thc reverse, in a work which it is hoped will become an authority, not only in the region to which it relates, but among the millions in the eastern and northern states who cither for them selves or for their sons are scanning the aspects of this continent to ascertain the localities hest adapted for their future home. There are some men so blessed by nature with herculean frames and nervous force that hardly any climatic changes affect them, and there are others to whom the very slightest meteorological changes are important; but to all men it is important that they should know something of the soil and fertility of the states in which they are likely to take up their abode. This work has aimed at precision in all such particulars, and the reader will find the information conveyed so system atized, as that it will be convenientfor reference. The productions of a neigh borhood may seem to he unimportant matters to other classes than those en gaged in agriculture; but a second thought will convince the reasoning man, that the manufacturer and the merchant, the handicraftsman, and the lawyer, with all the other representatives of the several industries which make up the sum total of society are as deeply interested in all such matters as the farmer who is the immediate factor in procuring his and their subsistence from the earth. Where the agriculturist flourishes society may generally be found thriving and well employed, and where the primal labor of the husbandman fails of its reward, there can hardly be found anywhere an enduring prosper ity for a people. Various industries are on the other hand just as important to the tiller of the earth as his own. The teeming soil will give him its riches in vain, if when his harvests have been gathered in, there are no markets near at hand to accept his produce at fair valuation; because the mere cost of transport to distant centers of population, in ordinary seasons, will absorb nearly or quite all the profit which might properly have been reaped by his industry. It is hoped and believed that many vast cities will arise, where scattered hamlets are now planted, to become great depots of manufacturing energy for the more complete supply of American wants by American skilled labor and ingenui ty, in locations where the fertile prairies are only waiting for a population willing to be fed, and where the finest water powers to be found in the world are only running to waste for want of energy rightly applied to turn them to fit uses. This work will contribute its mite toward bringing the right men to the right place for their own sakes and for the continuous growth of the union. The farmer is deeply interested in other fields of labor than his own, Introductory. 5 because his stalwart sons and lovely daughters will not all continue in his walk of life. Within twenty years there have been so many and such vast improvments in agricultural implements, machinery ancl processes that one- third of the labor, once necessary for our present average of production has been liberated, and it is probable that the inventive skill and mechanical inge nuity of the next twenty years will be just as marked in their results, so that or necessity the young farmer will turn his attention to some one of the many pursuits for which his education and his talents fit him to help build up the wealth which is being diffused through all ranks. The enormous value oi the machinery and implements now in use upon the farms in this union amounting to a total of $300,000,000, will show at the first glance an outlet for superabundant energy, which must go on increasing every year as every avocation except that of the lawyer, the legislator, ancl divine, comes to to be more and more aided by the skill of the machinist. War, manufactures, and even the arts are becoming arenas for the wondrous talents of inventors, and every day widens the range within which science creates new industries and extends the old activities, to increase the happiness of mankind. With advancing skill will be found generally associated better rewards for labor and an always multiplying capacity to appreciate and enjoy such productions as were once' only offered to the few; consequently there r,ee:l be no fear that the mechanical aids which come to the service of the former will diminish the pay of his assistants, as indeed, experience shows that while the increase o mechanism has been so marked as to reduce tlu number of men employed by just one-third within twenty years, the wages fund employed in that branch of industry have almost doubled vr ithin the same term. History must deal with all such facts and allot them place as factors of human advancement; ancl in some degree it is hoped that the Centennial Northwest will be found to have adequately appreciated the situation. The important bearing of the great cen tennial exposition upon our future as a people has been treated briefly from a purely national stand point, and such information has been embodied un der that head as cannot fail to interest all readers. It has not been attempted in dealing with nn area of territoiy so vast as the Great Northwest, involving the history of nine states — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska — to deal exhaustively with one item, or one city; but wherever there arose in dealing with one or more cities a question of general interest, or where cities were in an especial sense metropolitan, it has been thought advisable to give especial prominence to the subject or the city in such a manner as would pre vent the reduplication of details. Incidents, such as are found very interest ing in the lucubrations of novelists, are not good history; the mythical apple that Mr. W. Tell did not shoot from his son's head has very materially af fected the demand for the marvelous; but wherever Truth stranger than Fic tion has presented itself to be annotated, the writer had striven to discriminate between the germinal well attested fact and its fabulous surroundings. The mysteries and wonders of real life are so many and various that it is not requi site to draw upon pure imagination to make an interest for the pages which ad equately narrate the movements of mankind. Could the essayist depict the 6 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. struggles through which Bigelow came to the realization of his several im provements of the loom, through which Whitney attained his eminence, or by virtue of which Goodyear perfected the process of vulcanization, he would present a story as full of human interest as any romance, and far more satis factory than the maunderings of Rosicrucian dreamers. The multiplication of the means whereby life in health can be maintained is legitimate history, and everything tending in that direction- is of interest to that class for wliich books are written. The means by which institutions are compacted, ancl the views of one generation crystallized into laws for the next, cannot fail to at tract the notice of reformers, who are prudential enough to see, that by the cultivation of an enlightened public opinion, in a land where the press and the scliool have free scope, every incrustation of error will be thrown aside in due course, as the convalescent casts away his crutches and plasters, after the purpose which they were originally meant to serve has been attained. The various institutions of the several states of the great northwest will be found, not treated with wearisome detail, but touched lightly in all such par ticulars as distinguish them from their surroundings. Schools and the sys tems by which they are sustained and administered, the cases in which they fail, the benefits that spring from their operation, the consequences arising from their neglect, and the means which may tend towards their more com plete success in tlie future of the union have been narrated ancl discussed with the deep earnestness which arises from a lifetime of effort in the cause of edu cation. There is no question which more immediately concerns America to day than that which arises upon this issue, considering that we are largely precluded from resorting to compulsion such as has been found so beneficial among the semi-despotic governments of Europe. The extent to which the education of every child becomes the duty as well as the interest of civil gov ernment ancl of society generally cannot be overrated, and the mere money cost of administering our laws will be largely reduced by a more liberal rec ognition of our duty in that particular. The advantages which must result from the wider diffusion of mental culture cannot be adequately stated in a cursory preface, but some attempts have been made to grapple with that sub ject in the text. The relative strengths of the several forms of government is a question so complex that it might well be allowed to re3t untouched at such a time as the present, hut so much has been said at various times as to the executive weakness < f Republican institutions, the government of the people, by the people, for the people, that it is necessary to inquire what other nation in the world could have solved the slavery problem so effectively in a space of time so brief? The ukase of the Czar of all the Russias, announced to the world, rather than to the serfs themselves, their liberation, and social growth has hardly yet realized the change which the law assumed to have operated in- stantly. In America the man who was a slave is free, with all the responsi bilities of free labor upon his shoulders, entitled to be a witness in court, and a voter at elections, to procure an education for his children, and to enjoy such civil rights as were once supposed to be the exclusive privilege of the white race. The revolution is stupendous, and the successive steps by Introductory. 1 which the great result has been attained will be found, glanced at rather than described, but still touched in the pages of this book. It is true that the gov ernment of this country is not capable of arbitrary strength, because it oper ates in society as volition rules in the individual; but the popular judgment once convinced, and its feeling aroused to action exerts through the sovereign form a power against which it is useless to struggle, and before which every wrong must succumb. The grand features of a free press in the union could have no better illustration than is supplied by the fact that there is no censor ship but public opinion, a power which can and must be moulded by the press itself. It cannot be denied that some portions of the journalistic litera ture of this country are partisan to a reprehensible degree, but that is an in evitable concomitant of our social growth under party government, the phase of life through which the nation is passing, toward the next evolution, possi ble only in the midst of an enlightened people, the rule of the wisest and best, expressing the highest thought of the community. The growth of the newspaper press will be found traced by successive instances in the north west, from the petty sheet devoted almost entirely to advertisements, to the in fluential daily that wields a power which can be felt throughout the union ; and arising from the taste thus formed and nurtured, the magazine literature of the day is graphically reviewed, as a yet more hopeful feature in press de velopment, toward which as well by patronage as by labor, this section of the union has not failed to contribute its quota. The church as a means of pro gressive effort has not been lost sight of in this history, because it has been found in every community in which the materials for a sketch have been collected, that the first and best steps toward social and intellectual organiza tion, have been in connection with the place of worship and the Sabbath school, leading up to a spiritual excellence and aesthetic culture, which will in the future rule the councils of the people. The value of secular training is not questioned, the conquests from nature, which from the curious experi ments with the Leyden jars and the Voltaic pile, were by the practical energy of an American newspaper man — Franklin — turned to such channels as that Faraday, an English bookbinder, carrying on the chain by which natural phenomena were surveyed, obtained the rotation of the needle round a mag netized wire, and laid the foundation of modern Telegraphy — which again is largely due to the activity of American intellect — will not admit of doubt; and few will be prepared to deny that electricity is to become every year more potent in aiding the progress of mankind by such works as electroplating, electrotyping and electro-dynamic machines, which may eventually supersede steam itself; but above and beyond the uttermost triumph of science and art, the race has a necessity for spiritual culture, which the church in its varied forms must help immensely toward realization; hence the little meeting house of logs in the backwoods settlement has been recognized as an agent with which civilization cannot afford to dispense, and the successive steps, by which the edifice has gone on to ever-improving forms and grander dimen sions, have been observed with the interest properly belonging to the highest essential in our lives. Science, as well abstract as applied, has been treated with the reverence 8 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. which belongs to the daily revelation and use of the laws — or modes of ac tion — by which God is seen in nature, and, necessarily, every college ancl university which tends to make men wiser as to the ministers of progress which have heen standing at the portals of history during unnumbered cen turies have not heen lightly considered. The day cannot be distant when not one form of industry alone, such as agriculture, but when every branch of labor will have its Technological Institute in every town, where the mechanic, resting from daily toil for a time, may refresh his soul in speculation in such national establishments, commanding, without cost, the fullest demonstration of the means by which new mechanisms work. The cost of all the models necessary, and of all the scientific skill required to work such a system of technical instruction, for the people at large, would be but as the dust in the balance compared with the results of more intelligent action in our work shops, and stimulated inventive skill upon our national wealth. The jour neys of the elder Stephenson to Newcastle-upon-Tyne to see such models of machinery as were in his day available, ihe speculations of Watt, the optician, with Newcomen's model of a steam engine, the experiments of the French weaver Jacquard upon the loom, no less than the movements of our own in ventors in n thousand various directions, explain the means by which the million-fold harvest would be reaped from such wise planting. Art instruc tion, as well as scientific training, is an essential in building up the greatness of a people. Man has more facets to his well cultured brain than all the tiny planes of the best work of the lapidary upon the precious stone, ancl the cul- tivalion of the beautiful in sight and sound is one of the many powers which must be used for his adequate development. Men who have studied the Chi naman in his liabitat cannot fail to see that his arrested growth in thought aud in government is largely due to the want of universality in his system of culture. The schooling which could allow the art of printing, once discov ered, to slumber unimproved for hundreds of years, which could permit a nation to remain untaught as lo the rules of perspective in painting, and as to the combination of sounds in music, should be a perpetual warning to every community ngainst the neglect of taste as a means of development, a branch of culture which we, as a people, have until of late years been in clined to hold too cheaply. The Historian owes it to himself, no less than to his subject, to make his contributions to literature a means of arousing at tention to all such clangers, ancl to assist in- evoking public spirit from the vast deep of thoughtlessness and inattention in which too many opportuni ties have found their grave " unwept, unhonored and unsung." The Northwest will be seen to have clone its fair proportion in all such works as have yet been accomplished, and some items in its history tending in these several directions, will be found duly chronicled in their proper rela tion to contemporary events. Columbus, the capital, and Cincinnati the me tropolis, of Ohio, will find their own deeds and records standing in their proper position, surrounded by the industrial prowess ancl social advancement of the state which they represent. Indianapolis, the wondrous city which since the year 1816, has won an approach to empire such as no city ever achieved in any other quarter of the globe in a century, will find that her in Introductory. 9 dustrial enterprises, her railroads, her timber and her exports have heen noted with an appreciative hand as an indication of the wealth ancl power which the future holds in trust for Indiana. Springfield, the home of Abraham Lin coln and his burial place, the capital of Illinois, and Chicago, the metropolis of the Great Northwest, have been depicted with no grudging pencil, al though the greatness of the last named city, its misfortunes and its heroic efforts in combating disaster, would task the resources of the ablest writer that the world has ever seen. Michigan has been sketched from the earliest days of a French trading post ancl fort at Detroit, to the standpoint of the state at this hour, and while the beauty of the metropolis has been recog nized, the other cities of that state have been described in the order of their importance. Madison, the handsome capital of Wisconsin, and Milwaukee, its commercial center, commanding the vast chain of lakes and the river commerce of the union, demanded a notice of some length, but the other cen ters of industry in the state have been set forth in their true colors, as thriv ing homes of large detachments of the great Army of Progress which, by the magic of well applied energy, is gradually, but not slowly, conquering wood land, river and prairie, for the best purposes of mankind, preparing a way through the wilderness for thc millions coming and to come from the coun- tries of Europe and Asia to build up new sections of the empire which the United States have established in the name of God and our race. St. Paul, which has advanced, with thc state of Minnesota which it represents, by steady strides from a log chapel, in 1839, to the vast ancl populous dimensions of to day, deserved ancl has received full credit for the prosperity which it has largely assisted to produce and diffuse over a tract of country which, for many years to come, must go on increasing in all the respects which render life enjoyable upon this footstool. Iowa came with her hands full of great cities which challenged admiration, ancl there has been an attempt to annotate her claims, but who could render justice to Des Moines, Davenport, Dubuque, Burlington, Keokuk and Council Bluffs within brief limits, when every city might have filled a volume with the incidents of early settlement, the strug gles for the soil, and the mineral wealth which slumbered in the rocks, the efforts which have made education a possibility, and the iron roads wliich unite every settlement in bonds of commerce with the wide world. Kansas had a peculiar history, having been for some years the battle-ground upon which was fought out in miniature the great struggle which eventually burst the shackles of the slave, and its soil and situation had claims upon special notice because of the manifold charms which have already commanded a population of over six hundred thousand souls in the brief time which has elapsed since peace has reigned in the state. There has been an effort to do justice briefly to the claims of Kansas, but the subject requires a work spe cially devoted to lhat purpose, ancl the vast quantity of material gathered for this precis has been further elaborated in a separate publication. Topeka, Leavenworth, Lawrence, and the other cities famous in history, have been de scribed from actual observation with some approach to detail, and it is hoped that the result will be accepted as an approximation. Nebraska, youngest of " the sisters nine," has yet much to be said, if not for her achievements, then 10 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest.' for her possibilities in a bright and prosperous future, to which, with a full and earnest admiration of their present glory, the author looks for the complete development of Lincoln, Omaha and Nebraska City with the state which they worthily represent. CHARLES R. TUTTLE. Madison, Wis., March, 1876. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil and Production — Ohio and In diana, - - 17 CHAPTER II. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil and Production — Michigan, 29 CHAPTER III. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Minerals — Soil and Production — Illinois, 42 CHAPTER IV. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Minerals — Soil and Production — Climate — Wisconsin, 45 CHAPTER V. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil ancl Production — Iowa, - 55 CHAPTER VI. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Climate — Minerals — Soil and Production — Kansas, 65 CHARTER VII. SOIL AND SURFACE. Topography — Climate — Minerals — Soil and Production — Nebraska, 91 CHAPTER VIII. EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT. First Exploration of the Northwest — Expeditions of Marquette and La Salle — The Company of the West — John Law — Early Outposts of Civi lization — The Missionaries, - 9G CHAPTER IX. THE FRANCO-BRITISH COLONIAL CONFLICT. French Claims to all Territory Northwest of the Ohio — English Claims to the Same Territory — Measures of Both Parties to Protect their Claimed Possessions — The War Clouds Gathering — Military Movements — Eng lish, French and Indians, 107 12 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. chapter x. THE FRANCO-BRITISH COLONIAL CONFLICT. French and English Colonies Preparing forWar-The ¦ Contest- The : Fall of Canada — Taking Possession of the Western Outposts — Pontiac Ap- pears, - CHAPTER XL BORDER WARS. A Review of the Western Outposts in 1759— Conditiou of the Indian Tribes- Sketch of Pontiae — History of the Pontiac War — Sketch of the Fall ol the Nine Western Outposts, - • lla CHAPTER XII. FRENCH ILLINOIS.. The Illinois Country Ceded to Great Britain — Johnson's Disastrous Expedi tion — Sketch o'f the Illinois Country — Last of the French, - 136 CHAPTER XIII. THE REVOLUTION IN THE NORTHWEST. Settlements in the Ohio Valley — Dunmore's War — Indian Border Wars — Affairs in the Lake Region — The Expedition of Geo. Rogers Clark, 144 CHAPTER XIV. CLARK'S EXPEDITION. Sketch of the Celebrated Expedition of Gen. Geo. Rogers Clark — Capture of Vincennes, Kaskaskia and Other Posts —The Memorable Contest between Clark and Hamilton at Vincennes, 155 CHAPTER XV. BRITISH, INDIANS AND AMERICANS. The Struggle for the Northwest between English, Indians and Americans, continued — The Americans Triumphant — Peace — The Ordinance of 1787, - 170 CHAPTER XVI. CRONOL06Y OF THE NORTHWEST. From 1512 to 1856, - - - 183 CHAPTER XVII. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — OHIO. First Settlement in Ohio — Cession of Virginia and Connecticut — Progress of Settlements — Dayton — Cleveland — The Territory of the Northwest — The Town of Manchester Laid Out — Second Grade of Government — Ohio admitted as a State — Introductory, - 194 CHAPTER XVIII. TRRITORIAL HISTORIES — INDIANA. ' Wm. Henry Harrison — Land Office — Indian Troubles — Tocumseh and tho Prophet — Indian Complication — The Battle of Tippecanoe — Terri torial Affairs — Legislation, - 203 CHAPTER XIX. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — MICHIGAN. Tecumseh's War — Organization of the Michigan Territory — Gov. Hull ap pointed—Hull Invades Canada — The British and the Amerieans con tending for Detroit— Hull's Inglorious Surrender, . gig Contents. 13 CHAPTER XX. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — MICHIGAN. Michilimackinac — Contest for this Northern Post — Gen. Cass appointed Governor — Progress of the Territory — State Government Organized, 227 CHAPTER XXI. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — ILLINOIS. Illinois under the French — English Virginia — Territorial Government formed in 1809 — The Chicago Massacre — Horrible Butchery of the Garrison — Indian Treachery — Formation of the State Government, 240 CHAPTER XXII. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — WISCONSIN. Wisconsin under French, English and American Rule — Organization of the Territorial Government — Administration of Dodge, Talmadge and Doty — Organization of the State Government, ... 254 CHAPTER XXIII. THE BLACK HAWK WAR. Sketch of Black Hawk and Keokuk — Causes that led to the War — History of the Contest — The Bravery of Black Hawk — His Fall, Arrest and Imprisonment — Incidents of the Liberation, 250 CHAPTER XXIV. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — IOWA AND MINNESOTA, 286 CHAPTER XXV. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — KANSAS. Early Kansas — Gov. Reeder — The Kansas-Nebraska Act — Territorial Con flicts of Kansas — Slavery Agitation — Kansas made a State — Ne braska, - - 293 CHAPTER XXVI. STATE HISTORIES — INDIANA. Administration of the Governors of Indiana from Jonathan Jennings to Thomas A.Hendricks — Internal Improvements' Troubles — Public Af fairs — Progress of thc State, Historical and Statistical, 303 CHAPTER XXVII. STATE HISTORIES — MICHIGAN. Michigan forms a Constitution — Sketch of the " Toledo War " — Michigan in thc War for the Union, 312 CHAPTER XXVIII. > STATE HISTORIES — WISCONSIN — MINNESOTA— IOWA, - 327 CHAPTER XXIX. THE STATE OF OHIO. Population — Manufactures — Commerce — Railroads — Education, etc., 334 CHAPTER XXX. THE STATE OF INDIANA. Population — Manufactures — Commcicc — Railroads — Education — Govern. ment, - ...... B30 14: Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. chapter xxxi. THE STATE OF MICHIGAN. Population — Manufactures — Commerce — Railroads — Education — Govern ment, - - - - 342 CHAPTER XXXII. THE STATE OF ILLINOIS. Population — Manufactures— Railroads — Commerce— Government —Edu cation — Charities, ... - 345 CHAPTER XXXIII. THE STATE OF WISCONSIN. Population — Manufactures — Railroads — Commerce — Government — Edu- cation, - 348 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE STATE OF MINNESOTA. Population — Manufactures — Railroads — Commerce — Government — Edu cation, etc., - - - 353 ' CHAPTER XXXV. THE STATE OF IOWA. Population — Manufactures — Education — Railroads — Government, etc., 355 CHAPTER XXXVI. THE STATE OF KANSAS. Population — Manufactures — Education — Government — Charities, etc., 359 CHAPTER XXXVII. THE STATE OF NEBRASKA. Population — Manufactures — Education — Commerce — Railroads — Govern ment, . . 362 CHAPTER XXXVIII. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF OHIO. Columbus — Cincinnati — Cleveland — Dayton —Toledo— Sandusky— Spri nir- ficld, etc., - . . 3g4 CHAPTER XXXIX. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF INDIANA. Indianapolis — Evansville — Fort Wayne — New Albany — Madison — La Fayette — Terre nautc, - . - 387 CHAPTER XL. ntlNClrAL CITIES OF ILLINOIS. Springfield — Chicago — Quincy — Peoria— Galena, - . - 429 CHAPTER XLI. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF MICHIGAN. Lansing - Detroit- Grand Rapids - Adrian - Saginaw - Bay Citv — Jack son, ..... 489 Contents. 15 CHAPTER XLII. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF WISCONSIN. Madison — Milwaukee — Racine —Fond du Lac— Oshkosh — Janesville, 511 CHAPTER XLIII. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF MINNESOTA. St. Paul — Minneapolis — Winona, 548 CHAPTER XLIV. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF IOWA. Des Moines — Davenport — Dubuque — Burlington — Keokuk, - 559 CHAPTER XLV. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF KANSAS. Topeka — Leavenworth — Lawrence — Atchison — Wyandotte, - 581 CHAPTER XLVI. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF NEBRASKA. Lincoln — Omaha — Nebraska City. 593 CHAPTER XLVII. CITY OF ST. LOUIS AND KANSAS CITY, MO., 595 CHAPTER XLVIII. 'Appenditory.) THE SIOUX MASSACRE. Terrible Outbreak and Massacre by the Sioux Indians in Minnesota in 1862, .... --- 601 CHAPTER XLIX. FAIRMOUNT EXPOSITION — THE GREAT CENTENNIAL, 613 CHAPTER L. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. - - 649 16 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ILLUSTRATIONS. Portraits. 1. Abraham Lincoln, - Illinois. 30. W. W. Belknap, 2. Ulysses S. Grant, " 31. D. N. Cooley, 3. Arthur St. Clair, . 32. G. C. R. Mitchell, 4. Robt. McClelland, Michigan. 33. G. W. Jones, 5. Lewis Cass, " 34. Chas. Negus, - 6. Eben B. Ward, it 35. S. J. Kirkwood, 7. Geo. R. Clark, K 36. Jas. Grant, 8. Schuyler Colfax, Indiana. 37. E. B. L. Grant, 9. Thos. A. Hendricks, " 38. Jas. W. Grimes, 10. 0. P. Morton, - u 39. M. Donohue, - 11. G. N. Fitch, u 40. J. I. Case, 12. M. C. Kerr, ft 41. J. R. Doolittle, 13. S. K. Wolfe, It 42. Philetus Sawyer, 14. D. D. Pratt, tt 43. H. Ludington, 15. T. J. Carson, - tt 44. I. A. Lapham, 16. J. P. 0. Shanks, tt 45. W. E. Smith, - 17. M. C. Hunter, - (( 46. David Atwood, 18. J. N. Tyner, - tt 47. Chas. G. Williams, 19. J. E. McDonald, tt 48. David Noggle, 20. H. S. Lane, tt 49. Alex. Mitchell, 21. G. T. Orth, ¦t 50. L. B. Villas, 22. G. W. Mears, - tt 51. L. C. Draper, 23. R. T. Brown, tt 52. Silas Garber, - - 24. J. A. Comingor, tt 53. A. Brunson, 25. W. B. Fletcher, tt 54. J. M. Heum, - 26. C. E. Wright, tt 55. Thos. A. Osborn, - 27. A. C. Dodge, - - Iowa. 56. John A. Halderman. 28. G. W. McCrary, " 57. C. K. Davis, 29. C. C. Carpenter, it Viewt , etc. CENTENNIAL. KANSAS SCENES Iowa. Wisconsin. 58. Exhibition Building. 59. Horticultural Hall. 60. Machinery Hall. 61. Agricultural Hall. 62. Memorial Hall. 63. Ladies Pavilion. Nebraska. Wisconsin. Kansas. tt Minnesota. 64. Montgomery's Heroic Defense. 65. Shocking Massacre of Spaniards. 66. The Rescue of Branson. 67. Escape of Gov. Reeder. 68. Raid on Lawrence. "H0vBMBERlJw£it,j' " " 6.00 ( Fixed Carbon, - - 42.00 Volatile matter, . - 52.00 \ Moisture @ 212° F., - 3.50 ( Gas 48.50 100 00 100.00 Ultimate analysis of the same coal : Carbon, 7]10 Asn, -------_ 7 65 Hydrogen, 6;0G Nitrogen * .- ox,y?en' " " 12. '74 Sulphur, \%'* 100.00 From the above analysis it will be seen that this coal is admi rably adapted to the manufacture of illuminating gas, both from the quantity it yields and its high illuminating power. One ton of two thousand pounds of this cannel coal yields ten thousand,- four hundred feet of gas, while the best Youghiogheny coal used at the Indianapolis gas works, yields but eight thousand six hundred and eighty cubic feet. This gas has an illuminating power of 25.2 candles, while the Youghiogheny coal gas has an illuminating power of seventeen candles. Soil and Surface. 27 Cannel coal is also found in great abundance in Perry, Greene, Parke and Fountain counties, where its commercial value has already been attested. There are numerous deposits of bog iron ore in the northern part of the state, and clay iron stones and impure carbonates and brown oxides are found scattered over the vicinity of the coal fields. At some localities the beds are quite thick, and of con siderable commercial value. Investigation is already showing that Indiana contains valuable ore beds, that will, at no distant day, contribute largely to her importance. Indiana also contains immense and inexhaustible quantities of building stone, sufficient for all future purposes, of the very best quality. Numerous quarries are already open and in successful operation. There is an abundance of excellent lime in the state. This is gaining a wide reputation and largely adding to the state commerce. The climate is mild as a general rule, but liable to sudden and severe changes. The summers are warm, but the winters, though severe, are short, and except in the most northern counties deep snows are not usual. The soil of Indiana is uniformly very good. Corn is the great staple of the state ; many fanners have become wealthy in rais ing it. It is easily cultivated, and almost every farmer has from forty to one hundred and fifty acres. Two persons can prepare the ground, plant and attend to and gather from forty to fifty acres, and the product is generally from thirty to seventy bushels an acre, averaging, perhaps, forty or forty-five. Good land, with the proper preparation and care, will, in a good season, produce from seventy to ninety bushels to the acre. Corn, in former days, say from 1840 to 1850, usually sold at from ten to thirty cents a bushel. Millions and millions of bushels have been used at the former price to fatten hogs in the interior ; but in this respect things have undergone a change — a change in favor of the farmer. The cultivation of corn is admirably adapted to the soil and climate of the state, and to the customs of the farmers. The soil is very rich, loamy, and with proper cultivation the corn does not often suffer either from cold, rains or drouth. The commercial and manufacturing interests of Indiana have 28 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. not been neglected, nor are they lagging. Commerce in the pro duction of the soil, for many years absorbed the attention of traders and speculators; but no sooner had the prosperity of trade created a demand for a general development of the agricul tural resources of the state, than a special interest was directed to manufacturing. This was manifested as early as 1840, and, from that year down to the present, a general prosperity has at tended almost every manufacturing establishment in the state. It is said that the largest carriage factory in the whole world, to-day, is located in the state of Indiana, at the flourishing city of South Bend. This is the greatest evidence of the enterprise of Indiana manufactures, when taken in consideration with the celebrated carriage factories of Connecticut, many of wliich have supplied, to a great extent, the markets of the old world. Fol lowing are some statistical observations. Manufacturing Statistics. Classes. 1875. 1870. 1860. 1850. Manfacturing establishments. Steam engines employed. . 16,812 3,684 114,961 1,641 38, 614 - 86,40281,631 3,7912,000 $117,463,161 35,461,987 104, 321, 632 301,304,271 11,847 2,881 76,851 1,090 23, 518 58, 852 54,412 2,272 2,168 $52,052,425 18,366,780 63,135,492 108,617,278 5,323 4,392 Total number waterwheels . . Horse power waterwheels . . . 21,295 20, 563 732 14,440 13, 748692 No. females over 15 years . . . $18,451,121 6,318,335 27,142,59742,803,409 $7,750,402 3, 728, 844 10,369,70018,725,423 Wages paid Soil and Surface. \ 29 CHAPTEB II. SOIL AND SURFACE. {continued.) Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil and Productions. MICHIGAN. The state of Michigan has an area of 56,451 square miles, and is situated between 41° 40' and 47° 30' N. latitude, and 82° 12' and 90° 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and lake Superior: on the east by the river Ste. Marie, lake Huron, the lake and river St. Clair, the Detroit river and lake Erie, which separate it from Canada, on the south by Ohio, Indi ana and Wisconsin, and on the west by Wisconsin and lake Mich igan. Lakes Michigan and Huron, and the Straits of Mackinaw, divide the state into two unequal peninsulas. The northern peninsula is about 320 miles long from southeast to northwest, with an ex treme width of 130 miles. The southern peninsula is about 283 miles long, from north to south, and 210 miles wide in its broadest part. " The southern peninsula of Michigan, so interesting in its agricultural and economical aspects, is rather tame in its topo graphical features, as there is no considerable elevation (compared with the country immediately around it) within its whole extent, though the ridge which divides the waters flowing into lakes Huron and Erie from those flowing into lake Michigan, is 300 feet above the level of the lakes, and about 1,000 feet above the sea. The country, however, may be generally characterized as a vast undulating plain, seldom becoming rough or broken. There are occasional conical elevations of from 150 to 200 feet in height, but generally much less. Thc shores of lake Huron are often steep, forming bluffs ; while those of lake Michigan are coasted by shifting sandhills of from 100 to 200 feet in height. In the southern part are those natural parks, thinly scattered over with 30 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. trees, called in the parlance of the country, ' oak openings ; ' and in the southwest are rich prairie lands. The northern peninsula exhibits a striking contrast, both in soil and surface, to the southern. While the latter is level or moderately undulating, and luxuriantly fertile, the former is picturesque, rugged, and even mountainous, with streams abounding in rapids and water falls — rich in minerals, but rigorous in climate, and sterile in soil. The Wisconsin or Porcupine Mountains, which form the watershed between lakes Michigan and superior, are much nearer the latter than the former, and attain an elevation of about 2,000 feet in the northwestern portion of the peninsula. The eastern part of this division of the state is undulating and picturesque, but the central is hilly, and composed of table land. The shores of lake Superior are composed of a sandstone rock, which, in many places, is worn by the action of the wind and waves into fancied resemblances of castles, etc., forming the celebrated Pic tured Bocks ; while the shores of Lake Michigan are composed of a limestone rock. The streams on the northern slope of the Porcupine Mountains have a rapid descent, and abound in picturesque falls and rapids. The northern peninsula is primitive, and the southern secondary; but primitive rocks are scattered over the plains of the latter, of more than one hundred tons weight, most abundant on the borders of the Great Lakes, on the flanks of valleys, and where traces of recent floods are apparent." * Lake Superior washes the northern shore of the state, Lake Michigan the western, and Lakes Huron and Erie the eastern. Detroit, between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and Grand Haven, on Lake Michigan, are the principal ports of the state. The principal bays are Saginaw and Thunder bays on Lake Huron, Tequamenon and Kewechaw bays on Lake Superior, and Green, Little and Grand Traverse bays, and the Great and Little bays des Noquets, on Lake Michigan. A number of small lakes lie in the state. They possess no commercial value, but form a beautiful feature of the landscape. The rivers of the state are nearly all small. The Detroit and Ste- *Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1189. Soil and Surface. 31 Marie have been noticed. Those of the southern peninsula empty into lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie. Tliose flowing into lake Michigan are the St. Joseph's, Kalamazoo, Grand, Maskegon and Manistee. The Au Sable and Saginaw flow into lake Huron ; the latter through Saginaw Bay, and the Huron and Baisin into lake Erie. The rivers of the northern peninsula are fine mill streams, but- are unfit for navigation by reason of rocks and rapids. The principal are the Menomonee. Montreal and the Ontonagon. The first flows into Green Bay, and the others into lake Superior." * A group of islands, forming Manitou county, lies in the northern part of lake Michigan. The climate of the state is not as severe as other portions of North America in the same latitude, being greatly tempered by the lake breezes. The existence of iron in the upper peninsular has long been known. The Indians, 'at an early day, gave information to the white traders which led to investigations ; but it was not until a comparatively recent period that operations on an extended scale commenced. The first company organized for the purpose was called the Jackson Iron Company. This company was organized in 1845. It is still in existence, and its mine has yielded the largest amount of iron of any in the district save one — -the Lake Superior mine only producing a larger amount. Upon the organization of the Jackson Iron Company, one of the corporators visited the lake Superior country, and, guided by the Indians, discovered and located what are now known as the Jackson and Cleveland mines. On his return home he brought a specimen of the ore, a portion of which he sent to Pittsburg, and another portion to Coldwater, in this state, for the purpose of hav ing its quality tested. At the former place it was pronounced utterly worthless, but at the latter a more favorable report was made. In 1846 the first opening was made in the Jackson mine. The year following a forge was put in operation, in which the first ore taken out of the Jackson mine was manufactured into blooms. Hon. E. B. Ward purchased the first blooms manufactured by this company, and used the iron in constructing the walking-beam * " The Great Republic," p. 900. 32 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of the steamer Ocean.- Other forges followed soon after, and, in 1853, three or four tons of iron were shipped to the World's Fair at New York. Owing to the difficulties of shipping, there was little done until 1856, when regular shipments commenced. The Cleveland mine was opened about the same time. The Marquette mine was next opened, and made its first shipment in 1868. Other mines were opened from time to time, as the atten tion of capitalists was attracted to the region'. Notwithstanding the unfavorable report made by the Pittsburg parties who tested the ore first shipped to them, lake Superior iron is now acknowledged to be the best in the world. Its strength per square inch, in pounds, has been found to be no less than 89,582. The nearest approach to this is in the best Bussia iron, the strength of which is 76,069 pounds ; whilst the best Swedish iron shows a strength of only 58,184. The common English and American iron bears a test of about 30,000> pounds. Lake Superior iron has been practically tested in every possi ble use to which iron can be put, and the universal testimony is that it is the best in existence, both as regards strength and ease of manipulation. The mines thus far developed are mainly in the county of Marquette. They are generally found in hills which are from 400 to 600 feet in height. These hills are in a range of about six miles wide and one hundred miles in length. They extend from lake Fairbanks to Keweenaw bay. In Menominee county there is another range of hills, equally rich in this ore, but thev are at present undeveloped. This range crops out at Bayfield, and at several other points large deposits of magnetic ores are found, which prove to be almost pure native iron. Five different varieties of ores have been found. The most valuable is the specular hematite, which yields about 60 to 75 per cent, of metal lic iron. The second in importance is the soft hematite which yields about 50 per cent, in the furnace, and has the advantage of being more easily reduced than any other ore of the district. The magnetic ore is found west of the other ores of the district. The Michigan, Washington, Edwards and Champion mines pro duce this ore almost exclusively. The flag ore is slaty or shistose silicious hematite, containing a less per centage of metallic iron PHILADELPHIA V. S. AMERICA X*=< MAY10r"'-oN0VEMBERl0T,,l876. ~^E5y<- Km^mwmiaszmMiMi lisraaiDiiffiiigM -; $Oi— Soil and Surface. 33 than the ores above named, and is rather more difficult to reduce. It is often magnetic and sometimes banded with dull red or white quartz. The iron is cold short, which is said to be one of the best qualities of this ore. The other ores of the district are red short. This ore is believed to be the most abundant in the district. At several points in the district, and accompanying the flag ore, is found a silicious iron ore, which contains a variable amount of -oxide of manganese. This is of great value as a mix ture. There are forty mines now in the district, which have produced since their opening, up to and including the year 1872, an aver age of over 130,184 tons. The aggregate yield, in tons, from 1856 to 1872 inclusive, is 5,567,373. The value of this yield has been $44,373,833. There are fifteen furnaces in the district, which have produced since their establishment an average of over 23,858 tons. Their aggregate production since 1858, when the first was started, up to and including 1872, is 357,880 tons. Michigan ranks as the second state in the union in the produc tion of iron, Pennsylvania only leading her. The magnitude of her iron interest is seen in the fact that, in 1872, she furnished about one-thirteenth of the entire product of the world. But, great as it is, it is yet in its infancy. Mountains of solid ore, cov ering many square miles, exist within her limits ; and, thousands of years hence, when this continent shall contain a population greater than now exists in the world, the iron mines of Michigan will still continue to pour out their rich treasures in inexhausti ble abundance. The principal copper mines in Michigan are in the counties of Keweenaw, Houghton and Ontonagon. The existence of copper in the upper peninsula was known to the Indians long before the white man had penetrated the depths of our forests ; and the early white settlers were informed of its existence many years ago. But no active measures were taken to ascertain the extent of the deposits, or to reap any benefit from their rich stores, until the year 1845. At that time the, fever of copper speculation broke out, and had a most disastrous run for several years. Numerous companies were organized, and speculations in copper stocks were indulged in to an enormous extent. The Cliff mine 34 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. was the first one developed. Three years were spent in de veloping it, with very discouraging results ; but at the end of that time, and just at the moment of Success, the mine changed hands. In the hands of the new owners it proved to be exceed ingly rich in both copper and silver. This mine is situated in Keweenaw county, just back of Eagle Harbor. In 1848 the Minnesota mine was discovered. Several years were spent in this mine with very little show of success. In 1855 the Pewabic mine was opened. The first four years the sum of $230,813 was expended, and $153,168 worth of copper was produced. Other mines were worked with similar results, some even more disas trously. Several causes conspired to produce these results. The St. Mary's canal was not yet built, aud all supplies had to be packed around the falls. They were then carried in boats along the shores for hundreds of miles. When the mining region was reached everything had to be packed on the backs of beasts or of men to the mines. Again, the want of practical experience in those who worked the mines led to much loss, great embarrass ments, and final abandonment of enterprises that with practical skill and good judgment might have been successfully carried out. The want of scientific exploration and examination of these regions was also a serious drawback. With the completion of the canal all this was changed, and copper mining received a new impetus. Goods could be transported more cheaply, and the pro duct of the mines could be readily transported to market. Scien tific explorations followed, and capital and skilled labor were brought into requisition. The finances were managed with more care, and the mines were worked with greater judgment. The result has been a rich reward for the enterprise and capital inves ted, and the production of copper has come to be one of the great industries of the northwest. The ore mined is of the richest quality, yielding about eighty per cent, of ingot copper. Many times vast masses of pure native copper, weighing many tons, have been taken out. Smelting works have been established at Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburg and Portage Lake. Twenty-five mines are now in successful opera tion, giving employment to over seven thousand men. The num ber of tons produced from 1845 to 1872, inclusive, is 175,756. Soil and Surface. 35 The value of the copper produced in that time is estimated at $76,560,720. The richness of the copper mines of the upper peninsula is not surpassed in the world. It is already one of the most important industries in the northwest, and further scientific research will un doubtedly lead to still more important results, and materially in crease the wealth and commerce of the state. " The first attempt to develop the saline resources of the state was made by the late Dr. Douglas Houghton, then state geologist, under the authority of the legislature. An appropriation of $3,000 was made for this purpose, and operations were commenced in June, 1838. A spot was selected on the Tittabawassee river, ten miles above the site o£ the present village of Midland. Two thousand dollars of this appropriation were expended before the depth of 100 feet was reached, and those engaged in the prosecu tion of the work began to look upon the enterprise as hopeless. Work was continued, however, until a depth of 140 feet was reached, when it was abandoned. Dr. Houghton never lost faith in the ultimate success of the enterprise, having the fullest confi dence in the existence of rich and extensive saline deposits under lying a large area -of the surface of Michigan. After this failure the matter rested for a time. Occasionally wells were sunk in various parts of the state, but with poor success, until 1860, when the first paying well was sunk in the Saginaw valley. Before the close of that year 4,000 barrels were shipped. Since that time numerous paying wells have been sunk, the manufacturing pro cess has' been improved so as to materially1 reduce the cost of pro duction, and to-day salt is one of the staple productions of the state. The principal salt region, as far as developed, is in the Saginaw valley. The wells are usually sunk in the vicinity of the saw mills, in order to be able to utilize the exhaust steam or the refuse of the mills, in the manufacture of the salt. This re duces the expense of manufacture to a minimum, and produces large returns in proportion to the capital invested and the labor involved. ' A little over twelve years have elapsed since the first ship ments were made from this state ; but in that time over six mil lions of barrels have been manufactured. 36 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. At the close of the year 1872 there were sixty salt manufac turing firms in the state, with a capital of $3,500,000 invested. These firms give employment to about 1,000 men, in the"manu- facture of salt and the business incident thereto. Their manu facturing capacity is about 1,158,000 barrels per annum. The following shows the districts, and the character and capa city of the works, as arranged by the state salt inspector : District No. 1, East Saginaw, has 4 salt companies, with 10 kettles, 1 steam and 2 pan blocks. Capacity, 140,000 barrels. District No. 2, South Saginaw, 10 firms, with 10 kettles and 3 steam blocks. Capacity, 135,000 barrels. District No. 3, Saginaw City, 8 firms, with 5 kettles, 7 steam and 1 pan block. Capacity, 150,000 barrels. District No. 4, Carrolton, 6 firms, with 12 kettles, 2 steam and 1 pan block. Capacity, 175,000 barrels. District No. 5, Zilwaukee, 6 firms, with 3 kettles, 4 steam and 3 pan blocks, and 2,776 solar salt covers. Capacity, 150,000 barrels. District No. 6, Portsmouth, Bay City and Salzburg, 9 firms, with 6 kettles and 8 steam blocks. Capacity, 175.000 barrels. District No. 7, Bay, Banks and Kawkawlin, 13 firms, with 4 kettles, 7 steam and 5 pan blocks, and 521 solar salt covers. District No. 8, Huron county, 3 firms, one at Port Austin, one at Caseville, and one at White Bock. Thejr have 2 kettles, 1 steam and 2. pan blocks, and 50 solar salt covers. • Capacity, 50,000'barrels. District No. 9, Mount Clemens, 1 firm, with 1 steam block. Capacity, 8,000 barrels. At St. Clair a well was sunk several years since. Good brine was obtained, and a salt block erected, from which a prime qual ity of salt was manufactured; but the manufacture was soon abandoned, owing, it is said, to the high price of fuel. The manufacture of salt has also commenced in East Tawas, and a new inspection district is about to be erected. / The quality of Michigan salt is unsurpassed, and is rapidly taking the place of all others in the markets of the west. The following chemical analysis will show its character : Chloride of sodium, 97.288 ; chloride of calcium, 0.229 ; chloride of magne- Soil and Surface. 37 sium, 0.340; sulphate of lime, 0.697; moisture, 1.300; insoluble matter, 0.046. Total, 100.000. The refuse from the manufactories is now being utilized. It produces aniline, one of the best known bases of color, and bro- mo-chloralum, an excellent disinfectant. The discovery of gypsum in Michigan dates as far back as the time when Gen. Cass was governor of the territorj'-. Nothing was done in the way of developing the beds until 1840, when the first plaster mill was erected at Grand Bapids. Two years before this, Dr. Douglas Houghton visited the Grand Bapids beds, and made a report which led to their development. The stratum of gypsum at this place is from eighteen to twenty feet in thickness, and covers an area of about 1,000 acres. The manufacture of plaster at Grand Bapids aggregates about 40,000 tons of land plaster, and about 60,000 barrels of stucco per annum. About $500,000 is invested in the business, giving employment to about threeihun- dred men. It is an excellent fertilizer, and finds a ready market among the farmers of this state and of Indiana. Plaster is also found at Alabaster, Iosco county, and in :the upper peninsula. The mines at Alabaster were only opened about six or seven years ago. They are located close to the water's edge, on an excellent harbor, and the facilities for mining and shipping are excellent. The plaster is taken from the mines to the dock over a tramway, where it is dumped from the cars into the vessel. A chemical analysis of the gypsum found in Michi gan presents the following result : Sulphuric acid, 48 ; lime, 32 ; water, 20. Total, 100. This business is destined to assume great magnitude, as the country settles up and the agricultural resources are developed. Its value. as a fertilizer is rapidly becoming known and appreci ated, and the demand increases from year to year. Geologists have long since demonstrated the fact that an im mense coal basin underlies the whole central portion of the state. Prof. J. W- Foster estimates the coal field of Michigan to be about one hundred feet in thickness, and to cover an area of five thous and square miles. Mines have thus far been opened at Jackson, at Corunna, Shiawassee county, and at Williamston, in the county of Ingham. The first operations in this line commenced in 1858, 38 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. at Jackson, and this mine has been regularly worked since that time. The coal is bituminous, and is strongly impregnated- with sulphur, which renders it unpopular for domestic use. In many branches of manufacture, however, it is well adapted and largely employed. The coal improves in quality as the shaft descends through the stratum. At Corunna, mining operations have been carried on for about ten years. The quality of the coal is similar to that at Jackson. A vein containing a very superior quality of coal has recently been opened, which bids fair to prove of great importance. A railroad track has been laid directly to the mine, thus affording the best facilities for shipment. The coal found at Williamston is much superior in quality to that of either of the above mines, and resembles, more nearly than any other in the state, the celebrated block coal of Indiana. Very little has heretofore been done at this mine, owing to a lack of railroad facilities. But this difficulty has recently been overcome, and mining is carried on vigorously. There are many other minerals in the state besides those enu merated above, some of which are destined to be developed and add greatly to the wealth of Michigan. Silver and gold are known to exist in the upper peninsula. The former, in no in considerable quantities, has been found in the copper mines. Lead and plumbago are also known to exist in that region. The Indi ans supplied themselves with bullets from mines at Lake Superior. but could never be induced to reveal the locality from which they obtained it. Mines have already been opened, but never worked to any great extent. It is safe to predict, however, that at no distant day profitable mines will be opened, and thus another branch of mining industry will be added to the other resources of the state. The business of manufacturing grindstones has assumed con siderable magnitude of late, the Huron gritstones being unrivaled in the market. Marble, of great variety and superior quality, is also found in the Marquette iron region. Yellow and red ochre and manganese beds are found in the St. Mary's Peninsula, where coloring ma terial can be mined in unlimited quantities. Soil and Surface. 39 Building stone of a very superior quality is found in various localities, equal in beauty and durability to the free stone of New England. Material for quick limes and hydraulic limes is also found in unlimited quantities. Clays of every variety for brick making are found in the greatest abundance. White and lemon colored bricks, so popular for building fronts, are made in many localities. Vast quantities of peat are found in many places, which, in future years, will prove of immense value. It is safe to say that no region on this continent of the same area, possesses so much valuable timber as Michigan. Not less than 20,000,000 acres, or one-half the area of the state, was origi nally covered with pine. What are here mentioned as pine lands must not be understood as being covered exclusively with that timber. Along the margins of the streams the pine forests are very dense ; but away from the streams it is generally liberally interspersed with various hard woods. The superior quality of the pine thus interspersed with the hard timber amply compen sates for the lack of quantity. The principal lumber region, thus far developed, is the valley of tbe Saginaw river, and along its tributary streams, extending to the upper Muskegon, thence to lake Michigan. The region around Thunder Bay also contains a large area of pine timber, and the Au Sable and the Manistee rivers penetrate an immense pine region. On all these streams lumbering operations are extensive ly carried on, but the principal sources of supply are at present the Saginaw valley on the east, and on the Muskegon river on the west Before railroads penetrated the pine forests of the interior, lum bering operations were confined almost exclusively to the immedi ate vicinity of streams. The logs were cut in the winter, and hauled on the snow to the streams, and floated to the mills on the current formed by the spring freshets. With the advent of rail roads, immense tracts of valuable pine, heretofore inaccessible, have been brought into the market. Mills spring up along the tracks of the railroads as they are laid through the forests, flour ishing villages appear as if by magic, the forests are cleared and brought under cultivation, thus giving employment to thousands 40 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of men, homes and productive farms to the hardy pioneers, and abundant and remunerative employment to the railroads in trans porting lumber and supplies. The principal roads that have thus penetrated the pine forests of the interior are the Jackson, Lan sing and Saginaw, the Flint and Pere Marquette, and Grand Bap ids and Indiana railroads. It is estimated that there are about 7,000,000 acres of pine lands in the Lower Peninsula that are yet untouched.' It is true that sum of this is interspersed with hard wood timber ; but that is com pensated for by the fact that the pine is of better quality and the lands better adapted to the purposes of agriculture than those covered exclusively with pine. In the Upper Peninsula it is es timated that there are at least 10,000,000 acres of pine as yet un touched, which will produce, probably, 7,000,000,000 feet of lum ber. It may be well in this connection to correct a mistake that pre vails to a great extent in reference to the adaptation of pinelands to the purposes of agriculture. No better farming lands exist than those which have produced a mixed growth of pine and hard wood timber ; and even the land that has been covered ex clusively with pine is very rich and productive under proper care and management. The quality of Michigan pine is unsurpassed for the purposes of lumber. It is principally white pine, of which there are several varieties. Norway pine grows abundantly in some localities, but the proportion is small compared with the more valuable white pines. On the best pine lands, the quantity of hard wood often exceeds that of pine. In many parts of the state walnut and cherry grow in abundance, and are largely used by the furniture makers of the state and of the east. Oak grows abundantly in many lo calities, and the trade in that timber for ship building purposes is of late years assuming magnificent proportions. Aside from that used in ship-yards along our own shores, vast quantities are an nually shipped to Montreal, Quebec, Buffalo and Cleveland. In the interior, where the heavy ship-timber cannot be transported to the streams, the oak is manufactured into staves which are shipped mainly to Europe and the West Indies. It may be proper in this connection to correct an erroneous im- Soil and Surface. 41 pression that has gone abroad, backed by apparently high authori ty, in reference to the variety of oak timber that is shipped from this state for purposes of ship-building. Beference is had to the popular belief that the variety known as "live oak" grows abun dantly in the forests of Michigan. The fact is live oak does not grow in this state at all. That variety in only found in the south ern states, and is known to botanists as quercus virens. The va riety which forms the bulk of the shipments from Michigan is quercus alba, popularly known as white oak. It is highly esteemed for ship-building, and is only exceeded in value for that purpose by the live oak of the south. The following will serve to give some idea of the magnitude of the lumber and timber trade of Michigan : In the year 1872 the aggregate of pine lumber cut by the mills of the state was 2,253,011,000 feet. Of this amount, the mills of the Saginaw valley cut 837,798.484 feet. The Muskegon lake mills cut 316,031,400 feet; the Huron shore mills 175,500,- 000 ; Manistee mills, 161,900,000 ; Grand Haven mills, 150,000,- 000 ; Menominee mills, 186,113,360 ; Flint and Pere Marquette Bailway mills, 114,234,554 ; White Lake mills, 85,302,347 ; De troit and St. Clair Biver mills, 80,000,000 ; Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw Bailway mills, 68,216,009 ; Saugatuck mills, 50.000,000 ; Ludington mills, 47,9,12,846 ; other mills, 30,000,000. Of shingles it is estimated that not less than 400,000,000 were produced the same year. Of lath about 300,000,000. The shipments of staves for the same year were as follows : Sagi naw river, 8,663,200; Detroit, 2,102,000; Port Huron, 1,536,900: Lexington, 204,000 ; New Baltimore, 184,000. About $20,000,000 are invested in the production of pine lum ber, giving employment to nearly twenty thousand persons. This estimate does not include the enormous amount of money invested in pine lands, nor the men employed in the transportation of the lumber to market, or those employed in the lumber camps in the woods. In addition to the pine timber of the state, as before intimated, the hard wood forests are immense and valuable. These, espe cially in the northern portion of the Lower Peninsula, have scarcely been touched. The quality of that kind of timber in the 42 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. forests of Michigan is unrivalled ; and it is safe to predict that but a few years will elapse before the product from this source will equal in value the present traffic in pine. CHAPTEB III. SOIL AND SURFACE. (.continued.) Topography — Minerals — Climate — Soil and Productions. ILLINOIS. The aeea of the great state of Illinois is 55,410 square miles, and is situated between 37° and 42° 30' N. latitude, and between 87° and 91' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by the state of Wisconsin ; on the east by Lake Michigan and the state of Indiana ; on the south by the state of Kentucky, and on the west by Missouri and Iowa and the Mississippi. A portion of the eastern boundary is washed by the Wabash. In the southern por tion of the state there is a hilly region, as also in the northwest, but as a general rule the surface is level, being for the most part one boundless, undulating prairie, covered with a luxuriant vege tation. "The great landscape feature of Illinois is its prairies, which are seen in almost every section of the state. The want of variety, which is ordinarily essential to landscape attraction, is more than compensated for in the prairie scenery, as in that of the boundless ocean, by the impressive qualities of immensity and power. Far as the most searching eye can reach, the great unva rying plain rolls on ; its sublime grandeur softened but not weak ened by the occasional groups of trees. in its midst, or by the for ests on its verge, or by the countless flowers everywhere upon its surface. The prairies abound in game. The prairie duck, some times but improperly called grouse, are most abundant in Septem ber and October, when large numbers are annually taken. Per haps the most striking picture of the prairie country is to be found on Grand Prairie. Its gently undulating plains, profusely decked Soil and Surface. 43 with flowers of every hue, and skirted on all sides by woodland copse, roll on through many long miles from Jackson county, northeast to Iroquois county, with a width varying from one to a dozen or more miles. The uniform level of the prairie region is supposed to result from the deposit of waters by which the land was ages ago covered. The soil is entirely free from stones, and is extremely fertile. The most notable characteristic of the prairies, their destitution of vegetation, excepting in the multitude of rank grasses and flowers, will gradually disappear, since nothing pre vents the growth of the trees but the continual fires which sweep over the plains. These prevented, a fine growth of timber soon springs up ; and as the woodlands are thus assisted in encroaching upon and occupying the plains, settlements, and habitations will follow, until the prairie tracts are overrun with cities and towns. Of the thirty-five and a half millions of acres embraced within the state, but thirteen millions, or little- more than one-third, were improved in I860, showing that despite her wonderful progress in population and production, she is yet only in her infancy. Ex cepting the specialty of the prairie, the most interesting landscape scenery of this state is that of the bold, acclivitous river shores of the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Illinois rivers." * Lake Michi gan forms the northern part of the eastern boundary. Chicago, the principal city, is situated near the southern end of the lake, and possesses a very large lake trade. The other towns "on Lake Michigan are : Otsego, Waukegan, Bockland, and Evanston. The Mississippi river forms the western boundary of this state, and receives the waters of the Bock, Illinois, and Kaskaskia rivers, besides those of several smaller streams. The important places on the Mississippi, beginning on the north, are Galena, Bock Island, Oquawka, Quincy, Alton, East St. Louis, and Thebes. The Ohio river forms the southern boundary, and empties into the Mississippi, at the extreme southern end of the state. The city of Cairo is situated at the confluence of these two rivers, and is an important place. The Illinois river is the largest in the state. It is formed by the confluence of the Des Plaines and Kankakee, which unite at Dresden, in Grundy county, southwest * Appleton's Hand-Book of American Travel. 44 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of Lake Michigan. It flows across the state in a southwestern direction, and empties into the Mississippi about 20 miles from Alton. It is about 320 miles long, and has been rendered navi gable at all seasons, to Ottawa, 286 miles from the Mississippi. Peoria, 200 miles from its mouth, is the most important town on the river. The Fox and Sangamon rivers are its principal branches. The former rises in Wisconsin, and is 200 miles long. It is a fine mill stream ; the latter rises in the east-central part of the state, ancl flows west into the Illinois. It is 200 miles long, and is navigable at high water for small steamers. The Bock river rises in Fond du Lac county, in Wisconsin, about 10 miles south of Lake Winnebago, and flows southward into Illinois, near the centre of the northern part of the state. It then turns to the southwest and flows across the state into the Mississippi, at Bock Island City. It is 330 miles long, and though interrupted in sev eral places by rapids, could be rendered navigable at a small ex pense ; steamers have ascended it to Jefferson, Wisconsin, 225 miles. It flows through one of the most beautiful and fertile por tions of Illinois. The Kaskaskia river rises in Champaign county, in the eastern part of the centre of the state, and flows southwest into the Mississippi a few miles below the town of Kaskaskia. It is 300 miles long, and is navigable for steamers for a considera ble distance. The Vermillion, Embarrass, and Little Wabash rivers, small streams, flow into the Wabash from this state. Sev eral small lakes lie in the northern part of the state."* " There are extensive deposits of lead in the extreme northwest ern part of this state, and extending into Wisconsin and Iowa. The principal mines lie in the vicinity of Galena. Copper exists in large quantities in the northern part of the state. Bituminous coal abounds. Iron is also found in abundance in the north, and to a limited extent in the south, and it is said that silver has been discovered in St. Clair county. There are a number of salt springs in the state, and a variety of medicinal springs. The other minerals are zinc, lime, marble, freestone, gypsum, and quartz crystals. The climate is not very severe, but is subject to sudden changes. Deep snows are not of general occurrence, but occasionally take place, and at long intervals the rivers are frozen over." *" The Great Repuhlic." Soil and Surface. 45 CHAPTEE IV. SOIL AND SURFACE. (continued.) Topography — Climate — Minerals — Soil and Productions. WISCONSIN. The state of Wisconsin has an area of 53,924 square miles, and is situated between 42° 30' and 46° 55' N. latitude, and be tween 87° and 92° 50' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Michigan, Lake Superior and Minnesota ; on the east by Lake Michigan ; on the south by Illinois, and on the west by Iowa and Minnesota. Its extreme length, from north to south, is about 285 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 255 miles. Concerning the topography, minerals, soil and climate, and productions of Wisjonsin, I condense from my history of that state already published, the following sketch : There are no mountains in Wisconsin. The whole surface may, with a few unimportant exceptions, be regarded as a vast plain, broken only by the cliffs fringing the streams and lakes. This plain has an elevation of from six hundred to fifteen hun dred feet above the ocean. The highest lands are located along the headwaters of the tributaries of lake Superior, which, near the sources of the Montreal river, are about eighteen hundred feet above the level of the sea. From this important watershed, the land slopes continuously toward the lake, as also toward the south, to the lower Wisconsin river. From the latter point, there is another slope, still to the south, drained by the waters of Bock river and its tributary streams. The waters of the Wisconsin and Fox rivers approach and mingle at Portage City. Near this point they are connected by a canal, from which there is a descent of a hundred and ninety-five feet to Green Bay, and a hundred and seventy-one feet to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. 46 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. In the southwestern part of the state there are numerous mounds, some of them of considerable proportions. Among the latter are the Blue, seventeen hundred and twenty-nine feet above the sea; the Blatte, twelve hundred and eighty-one feet above the sea ; and the Sinsinewa Mounds, eleven hundred and sixty-nine feet above the sea. J These elevations formerly served as guides to the adventurer, marking certain well known points, which accounts for their frequent mention in the early annals of the territory. There is also a class of ancient earthworks still visible in Wisconsin, containing many peculiarities. They have been made to represent quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and even the human form. In the vicinity of the well known Blue Mounds, there is a specimen of these earthworks, representing a man. It is a hundred and twenty feet long, with a body over thirty feet wide, and a well shaped head. Its elevation is six feet above the surrounding prairie. The mound at Prairieville is a very faithful and interesting representation of a turtle. The body is nearly sixty feet in length, and the shape of the head is still well preserved. Not far from the Four Lakes, there are over a hun dred small mounds of various shapes and dimensions ; and, in the same neighborhood, fragments of ancient pottery, of a very rude kind, have been found. A well formed mound near Cass ville represents the mastadon ; which has given rise to many speculative opinions, among which is that very reasonable one, that the ancients who built these earthworks were contemporaries with that huge animal. This theory is strengthened by the pres ence of mastodon bones in these mounds. But we will return, for the present, to notice more particularly the surface of the country. The southeastern portion of the state is broken by ravines bor dering the streams ; but these are depressed only a little below the surrounding level. The prairies are destitute of trees or shrubs, and are richly covered with grass, interspersed with beau tiful flowers of.,all shades and colors. The oak openings are 'also a remarkable feature of this portion of the state, as also the tracts of woodland which border the streams, and the natural meadows. As one proceeds north to the Fox and Wisconsin rivers and Green Bay, the timber increases in quantity and value, and the Soil and Surface. 47 soil changes gradually from the vegetable mould of the prairie to the sandy loam. The surface of the country becomes com paratively uneven, changing -from forest to rolling prairie, from prairies to swamps, and from swamps to extensive marshes. And still north, in the vicinity of lake Superior, it partakes somewhat of a rugged mountainous appearance. In the geological structure, there is nothing remarkable, beyond that met with in the surrounding states. Limestone underlies a great portion of the southern part of the state. In the mineral districts we encounter the cliff limestone, and in other parts the blue.* The northern part seems to be composed of primitive rocks, for the most part of granite, slate and sandstone. Com mencing a little south of the Wisconsin river, and along the Mississippi as far back as the falls of its tributaries, sandstone, with layers of limestone above and below, is the principal rock, and forms the cliffs on the Mississippi below St. Anthony's Falls for over thirty miles. The streams in this region are considerably obstructed by changing beds of sand. "From Lake Michigan, westward to the other sections named, is a limestone region, in many parts well timbered, while in others a considerable portion is prairie. Underlying the blue limestone is a brown sandstone, which crops out on the sides of the hills ; but no lead has ever been found in it. A section through Blue Mounds would give the following result, descending vertically : hornstone, 410 feet ; magnesian lime, or lead-bearing rock, 169 feet ; saccharoid sand stone, 40 feet ; sandstone, 3 feet ; lower limestone (at the level ot the Wisconsin), 190 feet. The elevations of different parts of the southern section of the state are given by Chancellor Lathrop : at Blue Mounds, 1,170 ; head waters of the Bock river, 316 ; egress of the same river from the state, 1,280 ; and portage between the Fox and the Wisconsin rivers at 223 above the level of lake Michigan and the Wisconsin river, f The minerals of Wisconsin constitute one of its most dis tinguishing features. A portion of the celebrated lead region, extending from Illinois and Iowa, is included in the southwest part of Wisconsin. Tbe whole region occupies an extent of near ly 2,880 square miles, about three-fourths of which is in Wiscon- * Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer. f Ibid. 48 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. sin. And we may add, that the portion of this valuable mineral region included in Wisconsin is as rich and remunerative as that in the other states. The lead is mixed with copper and zinc, the latter in large quantities, together with some silver. Copper is also found in Douglas, Chippewa, St. Croix and Iowa counties. " In Dodge county, at the so-called iron ridge, is the most prom ising locality of iron ore in the state yet discovered ; but on the Black river, and other branches of the Mississippi, good iron ore occurs. The iron ores of the Lake Superior region extend from Michigan into this state in abundant deposits of the richest quali ty. The other metallic substances are magnetic ircn, iron pyrites. and graphite, or plumbago. The- nonmetallic earths are agate, cornelians (found on the shores of the small lakes), bitumen, peat. Marble of a fine qualitiy, some gypsum, saltpetre, aud other min erals have been found. A vein of copper ore was discovered in 1848, near the Kickapoo river, which yields about twenty per cent, of copper ; but to what extent the bed runs has not been ascer tained. Mines were also worked at the Falls of Black Biver, and in its vicinity ; but they have been abandoned. Facts do not justify any expectations of great deposits of copper in the northwest part of the state. A great bed of magnetic iron ore lies south of lake Superior, near Tyler's Fork of the Bad river, in strata of metam- orphic state. The amount of lead received at Milwaukee for the year 1863 was 848,625 pounds. On the completion of the south ern Wisconsin railroad to Dubuque, it is estimated that 25,000,000 pounds will seek an outlet at Milwaukee. Beautiful varieties of marble have been recently discovered, or made known to the pub lic, in the nothern part of Wisconsin. According to Messrs. Fos ter and Whitney's report, they are found on the Michigamig and Menominee rivers, and afford' beautiful marbles, whose prevailing color is light pink, traversed by. veins or seams of deep red. Others are blue and dove-colored, beautifully veined. These are susceptible of a fine polish; and some on the Menominee are within navigable distance from the lakes."* The lakes and rivers of Wisconsin are invested with much of beauty. Besides the great lakes, Superior and Michigan, which bound the state of Wisconsin on the north and east, the state * Lippincott's Gazetteer. Soil and Surface. ii contains a number of smaller lakes. Many of these are noted for unrivalled natural scenery. The principal of these is lake Win nebago, a short distance southeast from the centre of the state. It is about twenty-eight miles long, and ten miles wide, and com municates with Green Bay, a northwestern arm of lake Michigan, through the Fox, or Neenah river. "These small lakes are most abundant in the northwest, and are generally characterized by clear water and gravelly bottoms, often with bold, picturesque shores, crowned with hemlock, spruce and other trees. They af ford excellent fish. In the shallow waters on the margins of some of them grows wild rice, once an important article of food with the savages of this region." * The rivers which traverse the interior, for the most part, flow generally in a southwest direction, discharging their waters into the Mississippi. The latter river bounds Wisconsin on the south west for more than two hundred miles. Commencing on this line at the south, we have, in their order, the Wisconsin, Bad Axe, Black, and Chippewa rivers. Of these, the largest is the Wis consin, which flows nearly directly south for over two hundred miles, and then west about a hundred miles, into the Mississippi. It is navigable for steamboats for nearly two hundred miles. The Chippewa is about two hundred, and the Black about a hundred and fifty miles long. The Fox river, or Neenah, is the outlet of Winnebago lake, and connects it with Green Bay. The Wolf river, from the north, is the main supply to this lake. The Me nominee emptying into Green Bay, and the Montreal into Lake Superior, are very serviceable streams for manufacturing pur poses. These rivers form part of the northeast boundary of Wis consin. " The Menominee has a descent of 1,049 feet. The St. Louis (considered as the primary source of the St Lawrence) coasts this state for twenty or thirty miles on the northwest, and is full of rapids and falls in this part of its course. These rivers are not generally favorable to navigation without artificial aid. The Wis consin may be ascended by steamboats to the rapids, where it ap proaches a tributary of lake Winnebago, within a mile and a half, where a canal is being constructed, which, when completed, will open an entire inland navigation from New York to the Upper * Lippincott's Gazetteer. 50 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Mississippi. The Bock river is sometimes, at high water, ascended by boats to within the limits of Wisconsin. The Bad Axe, Black, Chippewa, and St. Croix are important channels for float ing timber to market from the pine regions in the northwest of the state. The rivers flowing into 'lake, Superior are small; and, though unfavorable for commerce, their rapid courses make them valuable for mill-sites. Col. Long estimates that the Chippewa, Black, Wisconsin, and Bock rivers are respectively capable of a steamboat navigation of seventy, sixty, a hundred and eighty, and two hundred and fifty miles ; but at present they are a good deal obstructed by shifting sand and rapids." * The climate, though quite severe in winter, is free from those sudden changes that prevail farther south. The summers are warm; the winters, cold, and usually very long; but upon the whole, for general health, Wisconsin may be regarded as the most desirable place of residence. The natural scenery is not excelled for beauty in North America ; while, on the other hand, in many of its rivers, inland lakes, ancl mounds and dells, it presents fea tures of marvellous beauty far surpassing other localities. The climate of Wisconsin is more favorable to the raising of good crops than is generally supposed. The winters are long and severe, but the temperature is somewhat mitigated by the lake breezes. The summers are warm, but pleasant. The state is healthy as a general rule, and is less liable than ether new places to the diseases incident to new settlements, owing to the openness of the country. " The soil, as a general rule, is fertile, and is pro ductive, even in the mineral regions of the north. The best lands are on the prairies, where the soil consists of a dark brown vege table mould, from one to two feet in depth, very mellow, and entirely destitute of stones or gravel." f Wisconsin possesses abundant timber resources, and an immense lumbering business is carried on in many of the northern and western counties, the pineries of Marathon, Chippewa, Clark, Wood, St. Croix, and other counties, furnishing many millions of feet of logs and lumber annually. Our Clark correspondent claims that 100,000,000 feet of pine timber is cut each year in that count}' alone; while in Monroe 30,000,000 feet is annually * Lippincott's Gazetteer. f The " Great Republic." Soil and Surface. 51 cut into lumber by about twenty mills. Hard wood timber also abounds in all parts of' the state, and there are few counties with out sufficient wood for local uses. The lumbering business is a source of great profit to those engaged in it, and in Brown county parties boast of cutting enough white pine logs from eighty acres to net $1200 to $1500. In 1870, from 5,795,538 acres of improved land, the returns were as follows, as they have been steadily increasing each year since : Bushels of -wheat, - 25,323,647 if rye, - 1,350,736 It Indian corn, - 14,875,968 a oats, - 19,878,794 it barley, . 1,627,569 It potatoes, - - 6,642,845 Pounds of wool, - 4,086,638 u butter, . 22,257,117 k cheese, . 1,494,145 it hops, - 4,738,222 Tons of hay, . 1,280,432 Number of horses, - - 149,989 u asses and mules - - - - 1,998 Ii cattle, . 480,319 (( sheep, - 790,458 t( swine, . 865,998 U milch cows, . 250,312 Value of domestic animals, about - - $28,000,000 Estimated value of all farm productions, $77,507,261 Total assessed value of real and personal estate, - - $326,765,238 MINNESOTA. The state of Minnesota has an area of 83,531 square miles, and is situated between 43° 30' and 49° N. latitude, and between 89° 30' and 97° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, on the south by Iowa, and on the west by Dakota Territory. The topography of the state is quite diversified. " Although Minnesota is not a mountainous country," says Col. Girat Hewitt, of St. Paul, "its general elevation gives it all the advantages of one, without its objectionable features. Being equidistant from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, situated on an elevated plateau, 52 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. and with a system of lakes and rivers ample for an em pire, it has a peculiar climate of its own, possessed by no other state. The general surface of the greater part of the state is even and undu lating, and pleasantly diversified with rolling prairies, vast belts of timber, oak openings, numerous lakes and streams, with their accompanying meadows, waterfalls, wooded ravines and lofty bluffs, which impart variety, grandeur and picturesque beauty to its scenery. * * The Mississippi river, 2,400 miles long, which drains a larger region o£ country than any stream on the globe, with the exception of the Amazon, rises in Lake Itasca, in the northern part of Minnesota, and flows southeasterly through the state 797 miles, 134 of which forms' its eastern boundary. It is navigable for large boats to St. Paul, and above the falls of St. Anthony for smaller boats for about 150 miles farther. The sea son of navigation has opened as early as the 25th of March, but usually opens from the first to the middle of April, and closes between the middle of November and the first of December. In 1865 and 1866, steamboat excursions took place on the first of December, from St. Paul, and the river remained open several days longer ; in 1867, until December 1st. The principal towns and cities on the Mississippi in Minnesota are, Winona, Waba- shaw, Lake City, Bed Wing, Hastings, St. Paul, Minneapolis, St. Anthony, Anoka, Dayton, Monticello, St. Cloud, Sauk Bapids, Little Falls, Watab. The Minnesota river, the source of which is among the Coteau des Prairies, in Dakota territory, flows from Big Stone lake, on the western boundary of the state, a distance of nearly 500 miles, through the heart of the southwestern part of the state, and empties into the Mississippi at Fort Snelling, 5 miles above St. Paul. It is navigable as high up as the Yellow Medi cine, 238 miles above its mouth during good stages of water. Its principal places are Shakopee, Chaska, Carver, Belle Plaiue, Hen derson, Le Sueur, Traverse des Sioux, St. Peter, Mankato, and New Ulm. The St. Croix river, rising in Wisconsin, near Lake Superior, forms about 130 miles of the eastern boundary of the state. It empties into the Mississippi nearly opposite Hastings, and is navigable to Taylor's Falls, about 50 miles. It penetrates the pineries, and furnishes immense water power along its course. The principal places on it are Stillwater and Taylor's Falls. The Soil and Surface. 53 Bed river rises in lake Traverse, and flows northward, forming the western boundary of the state from Big Stone lake to the British possessions, a distance of 380 miles. It is navigable from Breckenridge, at the mouth of the Bois de Sioux river, to Hud son's Bay ; the Saskatchewan, a tributary of the Bed river, is also said to be a navigable stream, thus promising an active commer cial trade from this vast region when it shall have become settled .up, via the St. Paul and Pacific Bailroad, which connects the nav igable waters of the Bed river with those of the Mississippi. Among the more important of the numerous small streams, are Bum river, valuable for lumbering ; Vermilion river, furnishing extensive water power, and possessing some of the finest cascades in the United States; the Crow, Blue Earth, Boot, Sauk, Le Sueur, Zumbro, Cottonwood, Long Prairie, Bed Wood, Waraju, Pejuta Ziza, Mauja, Wakau, Buffalo, Wild Bice, Plum, Sand Hill, Clear Water, Bed Lake, Thief Black, Bed Cedar and Des Moines rivers ; the St. Jjouis river, a large stream flowing into Lake Superior, navigable for 20 miles from its lake outlet, and furnishing a water power at its falls said to be equal to that of the falls of the Mississippi at St. Anthony, and many others, besides all the innumerable hosts of first and secondary tiibutaries to all the larger streams." The eastern boundary of the state is washed by lake Suporior for a distance of 167 miles. Along this shore are several fine harbors. The surface is thickly dotted with small lakes which contain the usual varieties of fish. The soil is well watered. ; The minerals, as yet, have not attracted any great attention. Iron is abundant along the shores of lake Superior, ancl copper is found in small quantities. Coal and red-pipe clay are also found to a considerable extent. The climate of Minnesota is remarkable for its healthfulness. Col. Hewitt, in writing of this in his work on the soil and climate of the state, says : "The assertion that the climate of Minnesota is one of the healthiest in the world may be broadly and confidently made. It is sustained by the almost unanimous testimony of thousands of invalids who have sought its pure and bracing air, and recov ered from consumption and other diseases after they have been 54 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. given up as hopeless by their home physicians ; it is sustained by the experience of its inhabitants for twenty years ; and it is sus tained by the published statistics of mortality in the different states. Minnesota is entirely exempt from malaria, and conse quently the numerous diseases known to arise from it, such as chills and fever, autumnal fevers, ague cake or enlaYged spleen, enlargement of the liver, etc., dropsy, diseases of the kidneys, affections of the eye, and various bilious diseases and derange- , ments of the stomach and bowels, although sometimes arising from other causes, are often clue wholly to malarious agency, and are only temporarily relieved by medicine, because the patient is constantly exposed to the malarious influence which generates them. Enlargement of the liver and spleen is very common in southern and southwestern states. We are not only free from these ailments, but by coming to Minnesota, often without any medical treatment at all, patients speedily recover from this class of diseases ; the miasmatic poison being soon eliminated from the system, and not being exposed to its further inception, the func tions of health are gradually resumed. Diarrhoea and dysentery are not so prevalent as in warmer latitudes, and are of a milder type. Pneumonia and typhoid fever are very seldom met with, and then merely as sporadic cases. Diseases of an epidemic character have never been known to prevail here. 'Even that dreadful scourge, diphtheria, which, like a destroying angel, swept through portions of the country, leaving desolation in its train, passed us by with scarce a grave to mark its course. The dis eases common to infancy and childhood partake of the same mild character, and seldom prove fatal.' This is the language of Mrs. Colburn, an authoress, and the experience of physicans corrobor ates this opinion. That dreadful scourge of the human family, the cholera, is alike unknown here. During the summer of 1866, while hundreds were daily cut down by this visitation in New York, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other places, and it prevailed to an alarming extent in Chicago, not a single case made its appear ance in Minnesota, Another, and a very large class of invalids, who derive great benefit from the climate of Minnesota, are those whose systems have become relaxed, debilitated and broken down by over taxation of the mental and physical energies, dyspepsia, etc." Soil and Surface. 55 The soil of Minnesota is well adapted to agricultural pursuits, and Minnesota is regarded as the best wheat state in the union. The soil is of a dark, " calcareous, sandy loam, containing a va rious intermixture of clay, abounding in mineral salts and in or ganic ingredients, derived from the accumulation of decomposed vegetable matter for long ages of growth and decay." CHAPTEE V. SOIL AND SURFACE. (continued.) Topography — Climate— Minerals — Soil and Productions. IOWA. The state ol Iowa has an area of 55,045 square miles and is sit uated between 40° 30' and 43° 30' N latitude, and between 90° and 97° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Minnesota ; on the east by Wisconsin and Illinois, from which it is separated by the Mississippi river; on the south by Missouri, and on lthe west by Nebraska and Dakota territory. The following sketch of the soil, surface, minerals, etc. of Iowa is compiled from my History of the State of Iowa : The surface of the state of Iowa is remarkably uniform. There are no moun tains, and yet but little of the surface is level or flat. " The whole state presents a succession of gentle elevations and depressions, with some bold and picturesque bluffs along the principal streams. The western portion of the state is generally more elevated than the eastern, the northwestern part being the highest. Nature could not have provided a more perfect system of drainage, and, at the same time, leave the country so completely adapted to all the purposes of agriculture."* The state is drained by two sys tems of streams running at right angles with each other. The riv ers that flow into the Mississippi run from the northwest to the southeast, while those of the other system flow toward the south- * Iowa Board of Immigration Pamphlet. 56 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. west, and empty into the Missouri. The former drain about three-fourths of the surface of the state; the latter, the remaining one-fourth. The watershed dividing the two systems of streams represents the highest portion of the state, and gradually descends as one follows its course from northwest to southeast. " Low water mark in the Missouri river at Council Bluffs is about 425 feet above low water mark in the Mississippi at Davenport. At the crossing of the summit, or water-bed. 245 miles west of Dav enport, the elevation is about 960 feetabove the Mississippi. The Des Moines river, at the city of Des Moines, has an elevation of 227 feet above the Mississippi at Davenport, and is 198 feet lower than the Missouri at Council Bluffs. The elevation of the east ern border of the state at McGregor is about 624 feet above the level of the sea, while the highest elevation in the northwest por tion of the state is about 140 feet above the level of the sea." In addition to this grand watershed dividing the two great drainage systems of this state, there are smaller or tributary ridges or eleva tions between the various principal streams. These are called di vides, and are quite as fertile and productive as the rich valleys or bottoms along the borders of the streams. The entire eastern border of Iowa is washed by the Father of Waters, the largest river on the continent; and during the greater part of the year this stream is navigable for a large class of steam ers. The principal rivers which flow through the interior of the state, east of the dividing ridge, are the Des Moines, Skunk, Iowa, Wapsipinicon, Maquoketa, Turkey and Upper Iowa. One of the largest rivers of the state is Bed Cedar, which rises in Minnesota, ancl flowing in a southeasterly direction, joins its waters with the Iowa river in Louisa county, only about thirty miles from its mouth, that portion below the junction retaining the name of Iowa river, although it is really the smaller stream. The Des Moines is the largest river in the interior of the state ; it rises in a group or chain of lakes in the state of Minnesota, not far from the Iowa border. The head waters of this stream are in two branches, known as east and west Des Moines. These, after flowing about seventy miles through the northern portion of the state, converge to their junction in the southern part of Humboldt county. The Des Moines receives a number of large tributaries, among which Soil and Surface. 57 are Baccoon and the Three Bivers (north, south and middle) on the west, and Boone river on the east. The Des Moines flows from northwest to southeast, not less than three hundred miles through Iowa, and drains over ten thousand square miles of terri tory. At an early day steamboats, at certain seasons of the year, navigated this river as far up as "Baccoon Forks," and a large grant of land was made to the state by congress for the purpose of improving its navigation. The land was subsequently diverted to the construction of the Des Moines Valley Bailroad. For a de scription of the rivers already named, which drain the eastern three-fourths of the state, we refer the reader to the map. Crossing the great watershed we come to the Missouri and its tributaries. The Missouri river, forming a little over two-thirds of the length of the western boundary line, is navigable for large sized steamboats for a distance of nineteen hundred' and fifty miles above the point (Sioux City) where it first touches the west ern border of the state. It is, therefore, a highway of vast im portance to the great commercial interests of western Iowa. The tributaries of the Missouri, which drain a vast extent of territory in the western part of Iowa, are important to commerce also. The Big Sioux river forms about seventy miles of the western boundary of the state, its general course being nearly north and south. It has also several important tributaries which drain the counties of Plymouth, Sioux, Lyon, Osceola and O'Bri en. These counties are located in the northwestern part of the state. Among the most important of the streams flowing into the Big Sioux is the Bock river, traversing Lyon and Sioux coun ties. It is a beautiful stream, bordered by a pleasant and fruitful country. Being supported by living springs, it is capable of run ning considerable machinery. The Big Sioux river itself was, at one time, regarded as a navigable stream, but in later years its use in this respect has been considered of no value. Not fai be low where the Big Sioux flows into the Missouri, we meet the mouth of the Floyd river.' This is a small stream, but it flows through a rich, interesting tract of country. Little Sioux river is one of the most important streams of northwestern Iowa. It rises in the vicinity of Spirit and Oko- boji lakes, near the Minnesota line, and meanders through various 58 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. counties a distance of nearly three hundred miles to its conflu ence with the Missouri near the northwestern corner of Harrison county. With its tributaries it drains not less than five thousand square miles. Boyer river is the next stream of considerable size below the Little Sioux. It rises in Sac county and flows south west to the Missouri, in Pottawattomie county. Its entire length is about one hundred and fifty miles, and drains not less than two thousand square miles of territory. It is a small stream, mean dering through a rich and lovely valley. Going down the Mis souri, and passing several small streams, which have not been dignified with the name of rivers, we come to the Nishnabotna, which empties into the Missouri some twenty miles below the southwest corner of the state. It has three principal branches, with an aggregate length of three hundred and fifty miles. These streams drain about five thousand square miles of south western Iowa. They flow through valleys of unsurpassed beauty and fertility, and furnish good water power at various points, though in this respect they are not equal to the streams in the northeastern portion of the state. The southern portion of the state is drained by several streams that flow into the Missouri river, in the state of Missouri. The most important of these are Chariton, Grand, Platte, One Hun dred and Two, and the three Nodaways — East, West and Mid dle. All of these afford water power for machinery, and present splendid valleys of rich farming lands. These few general remarks concerning the rivers must suffice. Our space will admit only of a mention of the streams that have been designated as rivers, but there are many other streams of great importance and value to different portions of the state, draining the country, furnishing mill sites, and adding to the va riety and beauty of the scenery. So admirable is the natural drainage of almost the entire state, that the farmer who has not a stream of living water on his premises is an exception to the gen eral rule. Let us next look at the lakes. In some of the northern por tions of Iowa there are many small and beautiful lakes. They, for the most part, belong to that system of lakes stretching into Minnesota, and some of them present many interesting features. Soil and Surface. 59 Among the most noted of the lakes of northern Iowa, are the following : Clear lake, in Cerro Gordo county ; Bice lake, Silver lake and Bright's lake, in Worth county ; Crystal lake, Eagle lake, lake Edward and Twin lakes, in Hancock county ; Owl lake, in Humboldt county ; lake Gertrude, lake Cornelia, Elm lake and Wall lake, in Wright county ; lake Caro, in Hamilton county ; Twin lakes, in Calhoun county ; Wall lake, in Sac county ; Swan lake, in Emmet county ; Storm lake, in Buena Vista county, and Okoboji and Spirit lakes, in Dickinson county. Nearly all these are deep and clear, abounding in many excellent varieties of fish, which are caught abundantly by the settlers at all proper seasons of the year. The name " Wall lake," applied to several of these bodies of water, is derived from the fact that a line or ridge of boulders extends around them, giving them somewhat the appearance of having been walled. Most of them exhibit the same appearance in this respect to a greater or less extent. Lake Okoboji, Spirit lake, Storm lake and Clear lake are the largest of the northern Iowa lakes. All of them, except Storm lake, have fine bodies of timber on their borders. Lake Okoboji is about fifteen miles long, and from a quarter of a mile to two miles wide. Spirit lake, just north of it, embraces about ten square miles, the northern border extending to the Minnesota line. Storm lake is in size about three miles east and west by two north and south. Clear lake is about seven miles long by two miles wide. The dry rolling land usually extends up to the borders of the lakes, making them delightful resorts for excur sion or fishing parties, and they are now attracting attention as places of resort, on account of the beauty of their natural scenery, as well as the inducements which they afford to hunting and fish ing parties. The alternating patches of timber and broad prairie render Iowa distinguishable. Of course the prairies constitute most of the surface. It is said that nine-tenths of the surface is prairie. The timber is generally found in heavy bodies skirting the streams, but there are also many isolated groves standing, like islands in the sea, far out on the prairies. The eastern half of the state contains a larger proportion of timber than the western. The following are the leading varieties of timber : white, black 60 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. and burr oak, black walnut, butternut, hickory, hard and soft maple, cherry, red and white elm, ash „J inn, hackberry, birch, honey locust, cottonwood and quaking asp. A few sycamore trees are found in certain localities along the streams. Groves of red cedar also prevail, especially along Iowa and Cedar rivers, and a few isolated pine trees are scattered along the bluffs of some of the streams in the northern part of the state. Very many kinds of timber have been found to grow rapidly when transplanted upon the prairies, or when propagated from the planting of seeds. Prominent amonsr the mineral interests of Iowa are her vast coal deposits. "Iu some unknown age of the past, long before the history of our race began, nature, by some wise process, made a bountiful provision for the time when, in the order of things, it should become necessary for civilized man to take possession of the broad, rich prairies. As an equivalent for the lack of trees, she quietly stored away beneath the soil those wonderful carbon iferous treasures for the use and comfort of man at the proper time. The increased demand for coal has, in many portions of the state, led to improved methods of mining, so that in many counties, the business is becoming a lucrative and important one, especially where railroads furnish the means of transportation. The coal field of the state embraces an area of over 20,000 square miles, and coal is successfully mined in over thirty coun ties, embracing a territory larger than the state of Massachusetts." Within the last year or two, many discoveries of new deposits have been made, and counties not previously numbered among the coal counties of the state, are now yielding rich returns to the miner. A vein of coal of excellent quality, seven feet in thick ness, has been opened, and is now being successfully worked, about five miles southeast of Fort Dodge, in Webster county. Large quantities of coal are shipped from that point to Dubuque and the towns along the line of the Dubuque and Sioux City Bailroad. Three or four years ago, it was barely known that some coal existed in Boone county, as indicated by exposures along the Des Moines river, but it is only within the last two years that the coal mines of Moingona have furnished the vast supplies shipped along the Chicago and Northwestern Bailroad, both east Soil and Surface. 61 and west. The great productive coal field of Iowa is embraced chiefly within the valley of the Des Moines river and its tributa ries, extending up the valley from Lee county nearly to the north line of Webster county. Within the coal field embraced by this valley, deep mining is nowhere necessary. The Des Moines ancl its large tributaries have generally cut their channels down through all the coal measure strata. The coal of Iowa is of the class known as bituminous, and is equal in quality and value to coal of the same class in other parts o£ the world. The veins which have so far been worked are from three to eight feet in thickness, but it is not necessary to dig from one thousand to two thousand feet to reach the coal, as miners are obliged to do in some countres. But little coal has in this state been raised from a depth greater than one hundred feet. Prof. Gustavus Hinrich of the state university, who also offici ated as state chemist in the prosecution of the recent geological survey, gives an analysis showing the comparative value of Iowa coal with that of other countries. The following is from a table prepared by him — 100 representing the combustible : NAME AND LOCALITY. *. ty tas to < ° a s5 '3 a 6 i> Brown coal, from Arbesan, Bolieinia. . Brown coal, from Bilin, Bohemia Bituminous coal from Bentheu, Silisia. Cannel coal, from Wigan, England. . . 36 4051 6194 50 6467 49 39 6 50 3 16 21 10 2 5 n 00 532 5 114123 126113 104110 88 81808796 In this table the excess of the equivalent above 100, expresses the amount of impurities (ashes and moisture) in the coal. The analysis shows that the average Iowa co'als contain only ten parts of impurities for one hundred parts of combustible (carbon and bitumen), being the purest of all the samples analyzed, except the anthracite from Pennsylvania. The peat deposits have also proved to be extensive and valua ble. These have only been known to exist for the past five or six years. , In 1866, Dr. White, the state geologist, made careful observations in some of the counties, where it . was supposed to 62 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. exist. Other official examinations followed, and now it is esti mated that the state contains thousands of acres of good peat lands. The depth of the beds is from four to ten feet, and the quality is but little, if any, inferior to that of Ireland. As yet, but little use has been made of it as a fuel, but when it is con sidered that it lies wholly beyond the coal field, in a sparsely timbered region of the state, its prospective value is regarded as very great. Dr. White estimates that 160 acres of peat, four feet deep, will supply two hundred and thirteen families with fuel for upwards of twenty-five years. It must not be inferred that the presence of these peat beds in that part of the state is in any degree prejudicial to health, for such is not the case. The dry, rolling prairie land usually comes up to the very border of the peat marsh, and the winds, or breezes, which prevail through the summer season, do not allow water to become stagnant. Nature seems to have designed these peat deposits to supply the defi ciency of other material for fuel. The penetration of this portion of the state by railroads, and the rapid growth of timber may leave a resort to peat for fuel as a matter of choice, and not of necessity. It therefore remains to be seen of what economic value in the future the peat beds of Iowa may be. Peat has also been found in Muscatine, Linn, Clinton, and other eastern and southern counties of the state, but the fertile region of northern Iowa, least favored with other kinds of fuel, is peculiarly the peat region of the state. The lead mines have also attracted attention for the past forty years. From four to six million pounds of ore have been smelted annually at the Dubuque mines, yielding from 68 to 70 per cent. of lead. So far as known, the lead deposits of Iowa that may be profitably worked, are confined to a belt of four or five miles in width along the Mississippi above and below the city of Dubuque. Iron, copper, and zinc have been found in limited quantities in different parts of the state — the last named metal being chiefly associated with the lead deposits. Good material for the manu facture of quicklime is found in abundance in nearly all parts of the state. Even in the northwestern counties, where there are but few exposures of rock " in place," limestone is found amon°- the boulders scattered over the prairies and about the lakes. So Soil and Surface. 63 abundant is limestone suitable for the manufacture of quicklime, that it is needless to mention any particular locality as possessing superior advantages in furnishing this useful building material. At the following points parties have been engaged somewhat ex tensively in the manufacture of lime, to wit : Fort Dodge, Web ster county ; Springvale, Humboldt county ; Orford and Indian- town, Tama county ; Iowa Falls, Hardin county ; Mitchell, Mitch ell county, and at nearly all the towns along the streams north east of Cedar river. There is no scarcity of good building stone to be found along nearly all the streams east of the Des Moines river, and along that stream from its mouth up to the north line of Humboldt county. Some of the counties west of the Des Moines, as Cass and Madison, as well as most of the southern counties of the state, are supplied with good building stone. In some places as in Mar shall and Tama counties, several species of marble are found, which are susceptible of the finest finish, and are very beautiful. One of the finest and purest deposits of gypsum known in the world exists at Fort Dodge in this state. It is confined to an area of about six to three miles on both sides of the Des Moines river, aud is found to be from twenty-five to thirty feet in thickness. The main deposit is of uniform gray color, but large masses of almost pure white (resembling alabaster) have been found imbed ded in the main deposits. The quantity of the article is practi cally inexhaustible, and the time will certainly come when it will be a source of wealth to that part of the state. In nearly all parts of the state the material suitable for the man ufacture of brick is found in abundance. Sand is obtained in the bluffs along the streams and in their beds. Potter's clay, and fire - clay suitable for fire brick, are found in many places. An excel lent article of fire brick is made at Eldora, Hardin county, where there are also several extensive potteries in operation. Fire clay is usually found underlying the coal seams. There are extensive potteries in operation in the counties of Lee, Van Buren, Des Moines. Wapello, Boone, Hamilton, Hardin, and others. It is supposed that there is no where upon the globe an equal area of surface with so small a proportion of untillable land as we find in Iowa. The soil is generally a drift deposit, with a deep 64 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. covering of vegetable mold, and on the highest prairies is almost equal in fertility to the alluvial valleys of the rivers in other states. The soil in the valleys of the streams is largely alluvial, producing a rapid and luxuriant growth of all kinds of vegeta tion. The valleys usually vary in extent according to the size of the stream. On the Iowa side of the Missouri river, from the southwest corner of the state to Sioux City, a distance of over one hundred and fifty miles, there is a continuous belt of alluvial " bottom," or valley land, varying in width from five to twenty miles, and of surpassing fertility. This valley is bordered by a continuous line of bluffs, rising from one to two hundred feet, and presenting many picturesque outlines when seen at a distance. The bluffs are composed of a peculiar formation, to which has been given the name of " bluff deposit." It is of a yellow color, and is composed of a fine silicious matter, with some clay and limy concretions. This deposit in many places extends eastward entirely across the counties bordering the Missouri river, and is of great fertility, promoting a luxuriant growth of grain and veg etables. In Montgomery county a fine vein of clay, containing a large proportion of ochre, was several years ago discovered and has been extensively used in that part of the state for painting barns and outhouses. It is of a dark red color, and is believed to be equal in quality, if properly manufactured, to the mineral paints imported from other states. As before stated, the surface of Iowa is generally drained by the rolling or undulating character of the country, and the numer ous streams, large and small. This fact might lead some to sup pose that it might be difficult to procure good spring or well water for domestic uses. Such, however, is not the case, for good pure well water is easily obtained all over the state, even on the highest prairies. It is rarely necessary to dig more than thirty feet deep to find an abundance of that most indespensable ele ment, good water. Along the streams are found many springs breaking out from the banks, affording a constant supply of pure water. As a rule, it is necessary to dig deeper for well water in the timber portion of the state, than on the prairies. Nearly all the spring and well waters of the state contain a small propor- of lime, as they do in the eastern and middle states. Soil and Surface. 65 CHAPTEB VI. SOIL AND SURFACE. (continued.) Topography — Climate— Minerals— Soil and Productions. KANSAS. The state of Kansas has an area of 81,318 square miles, and is situated between 37° and 42° N latitude, and between 94° and 102° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Nebraska ; on the east by Missouri ; on the south by the Indian Territory, and on the west by Colorado. It is about 400 miles long, from east to west, and 200 miles wide, from north to south. The gen eral surface of Kansas is a gently undulating prairie, having no marked features like those of other prairie states, except, perhaps, the diversity presented by a more rolling surface. The division of land is of two classes. First to mention is the timber and rich alluvial bottom lands, bordering rivers and creeks, the esti mated area of which is ten million acres, being fully five times the amount of all improved lands in the state at the present time. To the second belongs the upland or rolling prairie, the soil of which averages from two to three feet in depth, with a subsoil of fertilizing qualities which will, "by careful cultivation, prove inex haustible. This class of land is considered, by far, preferable for the raising of grains and fruits, while the bottom land is selected for corn, hemp, vegetables and grasses. But such is the uniform character of the general surface of Kansas, that nearly every quarter section within its limits is capable of cultivation. Tim ber is confined mainly to the borders of rivers and creeks, and is not superabundant ; yet its scarcity is compensated for in a great measure by the very general distribution of rock throughout the state, which is easy of access, and furnishes the best of building and fencing material. No mountain ranges, swamps, sloughs, or lakes exist in the 5 66 v Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. state, except in some instances where rivers have changed their beds, leaving small lakes. Water courses are well distributed over the. state. Their usual course is south, of east. Among the most important -streams may be mentioned the Arkansas and Neosho on the south, the Kansas river and its tributaries in the northern part, and the Missouri river forming the eastern bound ary. The descent of the Kansas river may be regarded as show ing the rapidity of the water courses of the state. From its mouth, west 100 miles, the fall is a little over two feet to the mile ; for the second and third hundred miles, about six feet to the mile ; and for the last one hundred miles, about seven feet to the mile ; making a total fall of over 2,000 feet in 400 miles. Water powers are not abundant, but several are being improved on the Neosho and other smaller streams. A report, recently published under the authority of the state, thus speaks of the rivers of Kansas : " The Kansas river is the largest in the state, and one of the most beautiful streams of water in the west. It is formed by the junction of the Bepubli- can and Smoky Hill, near Junction City, in the central part of the state, and flows in an easterly district for a distance of 150 miles, through a rich fertile valley, from three to seven miles in width, and empties into the Missouri river at Wyandotte Citv, the eastern terminus of the Unjon Pacific Bailroad. The Bepub- lican river comes down from Colorado, through the norhwestern part of the state, coursing in a southeasterly direction throuo-h a rich, wild region of country, for a distance of over 300 miles. The Smoky Hill derives its source from the confluence of several smaller streams in the eastern part of Colorado, and flows to the east through the central part of the state, to its junction with the Bepublican. Along the rich valley of this river, a daily line of stage coaches pass from the western terminus of the Union Pa cific Bailroad to Denver City. The Neosho river rises near the centre of the state, and flows to the southeast through a rich agricultural and stock growing country, emptying into Grand river near the southeast. corner of Kansas. The Neosho valley is from three to seven miles in width, and contains some of the most beautiful, rich and desirable lands in the state. The Ar kansas river, collecting the snows of the Bocky Mountains, flows Soil and Surface. 67 in an easterly direction through the southwestern part of the state, for a distance of 300 miles. The great Nemaha rises in the north- central part of the state, and flows east, emptying into the Missouri river at the northeast corner of the state. There is a sufficiency of timber on its banks for all practical purposes in the country through which it passes. The Osage courses through a fine region of country in southern Kansas, about midway between the valleys of the Kansas and Neosho. The Pottawattomie and other smaller streams flow into the Osage. The valleys of these rivers contain some of the most valuable farms in the state. The Big Blue, from Nebraska territory, flows to the south, through the north- central part of the state, emptying into the Kansas river at the city of Manhattan. The Solomon rises in the northwestern part of the state, flows in a southeasterly direction, and empties into the Smoky Hill, about 30 miles west from Junction City. The source and general direction of the Verdigris, Cottonwood, Grass hopper, Grand, Saline, and all other Kansas rivers, may be seen by referring to Beam's Map of Kansas. In addition to the above is the Missouri river, which washes the eastern shore of the state for a distance of over 100 miles. This river, navigable at all times, is a source of great value to the state, and especially to Leavenworth, Atchison, Wyandotte, White Cloud, Doniphan, and other cities that stand on its banks. It is impossible to draw a line of distinction between different localities, the whole state being supplied with an abundance of pure, clear cold water. Be sides the clear running streams and cool, refreshing springs in the different localities, the best quality of water is also obtained by digging wells on the high prairies — ranging from 10 to 30 feet in depth." " Minerals," says Dr. Wayne Griswold, "are abundant, especial ly stone, coal, salt, and gypsum." The soil is almost universally rich, especially in all the eastern part of the state for two hundred miles up. It produces immense native crops of prairie grass, and, as far as it has been cultivated, it equals any state in the Union for the production of fruit, vegetables, and grain of all kinds. On her various streams are numerous water powers which, at some future day, will move a vast amount of machinery. If we take two hundred miles square of the eastern part of Kansas, compris- 68 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ing forty thousand square miles, or over twenty-five million acres of land, it will surpass any equal amount of continuous territory on the globe. In all this vast body of land there is little but what is good. All the choicest gifts which nature bestows in land, to make a country desirable for homes, for the production of wealth, and all the comforts of life are found here. Beyond, in Western Kansas, vast prairies, clothed with buffalo grass, stretch out for hundreds of miles, where vast herds of buffalo and wild horses roam undisturbed except by the crack of the rifle or the shrill whistle of the locomotive, All of these far-stretching prairies are interspersed with streams of various sizes, some extending for hundreds of miles, lined with timber and rich valley land. Vari ous minerals of great value sleep undisturbed under this vast ter ritory." The climate is beautiful and is becoming more and more attrac tive. The winters are exceedingly short, but little snow fal ling. The spring sets in about the first of March and " soon after the prairies begin to glitter with a profusion of beautiful wild flowers." In addition to the above, we compile the following sketch of the resources of Kansas, from a little work by C. C. Hutchinson, Esq., entitled " Besources of Kansas: " " The water of springs and wells in this state is pure and good. There are small isolated tracts, embracing two or three farms each, where good clear water is not easily obtained by digging; but the settlers here, like the settlers upon large tracts of country in Missouri, Iowa and Illinois, where the well water is uniformly turbid and unpalatable to the taste, must drink rain water caught in cisterns. This is healthful, and by use becomes agreeable. It is probable that on some of the high divides between streams in the western portion of the state, it may not be easy to find water by digging. In fact, the Kansas Pacific Bailroad failed to obtain water by digging at two or three of their stations near the western state line ; but of the many emigrants, buffalo hunters and others who have traversed all the western portion of the state, none say that they have much difficulty in finding water, either flowing from springs or by digging a few feet in favorable localities. It is a peculiarity of some streams in the extreme western portion of the Soil and Surface. 69 state, that they suddenly sink into quick sands, and appear again a few miles below. " One of the first things for a settler to do here, as in any coun try, is to provide good pure water. Dig a well at once, unless you are near a spring, and do not drink surface or creek water. This custom of western settlers, I believe to be the cause of more sick ness than any other, or perhaps all other bad habits or unneces sary exposures of western life. Of all the eastern half of the state, a tract of country two hundred miles square, and — if we except the inhabitable portions of Maine — as large as all New England, it can be truthfully stated that it is abundantly watered with springs and streams for stock purposes, and that clear, healthful drinking water is universally obtained from springs, or by digging from twenty to sixty feet. It is a peculiarity of the country, that water is often found upon the high prairies at a less depth than on the low lands. The water here is not, as in other western states, uniformly hard. Settlers can locate where they may have soft or freestone water if they prefer, as in a small portion of the state the sandstone formation predominates, which furnishes soft water. " All the streams in the settled portion of the state are larger than when the country was new, and many brooks and creeks flow continuously, which were formerly dry several months in each year. Not only is this well known to all early settlers, b ut there are thousands of springs on the prairies where was formerly no indication of one. This phenomenon is owing to causes which we have more fully alluded to under the head of climatic changes. " The editor of the Chicago Bailway Review, spent several weeks of 1870, in a thorough examination of Kansas, as he had previous ly examined the other western states. In his paper of October 27, 1870, he says : " The readers of our previous articles must be convinced that eastern Kansas is anything but a region desti tute of streams. No country in the world is better watered." " In the early settlement of the country, all the principal roads were laid out on the divides, winding about between the sources of the streams, because bridges could not at once be erected, and roads cut through the timber growing on their banks. From this fact many early travelers in Kansas, following the principal roads, con- 70 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. eluded that there were few streams in the country. The railroads, however, take a direct course across the country, and bridging is an expensive part of the work. A report of the bridge contractors of the Leavenworth, Lawrence & Galveston Bailroad, was pub lished in the Ottowa Journal of December 16, 1870, and this re port shows that in a distance of one hundred eight and one-half miles south from Lawrence to Thayer, there were constructed sixty-seven bridges and trestles (besides culverts), being nearly one to every mile and half of the road. More than three million feet of timber was used in the construction of these bridges and trestles. A glance at the map will show that this railroad does not follow the windings of one or two streams. The line is di rectly across the country over divides from the Kansas river to the Marais des Cygnes, thence to the Pottawattomie and thence to the Neosho. A few trestles are reported as over unimportant ravines, in which probably there is not a constant stream of water flowing, but the general evidence of this report is, that Kansas railroads are pretty well bridged for a country "destitute of stock water," as she has been reported to be. " In the eastern half of Kansas there is a sufficiency cf timber for practical purposes. It is found along the streams and in ad jacent ravines, sheltered from the ravages of prairie fires by' high rockcapped bluffs. The following is a list of the trees and shrubs of this state, prepared by Dr. C. A. Logan for a state document on the sanitary relations of Kansas : " White oak, red oak, burr oak, black oak, black jack oak, water oak, white or American elm, red or slippery elm, black walnut, white walnut or butternut, cottonwood, box el der, hackberry, honey locust, willow, shell bark hickory, pig nut hickory, pecan nut hickory, sycamore, white ash, sugar maple, red mulberry, linden or basswood, crab apple, wild cherry, coffee tree. _ " Of shurbs and vines he gives elder, sumac, green brier gooseberry, hazel, pawpaw, prickly, ash, raspberry, blackberry, prairie rose, and grapes of several varieties. " The streams, with their attendant timber belts, varying in width from two or three to as many miles, so cut the prairies in every direction that few farms of eastern Kansas are more than Soil and Surface. 71 one or two miles from timber, and cordwood sells from four to six dollars per cord in our towns. This wonderful advantage oyer most prairie states is appreciated by the writer at least, for my first experience in western farming was in Illinois, forty miles from Chicago, when every rail and fence post and stick of fire wood, or whipstock even, was hauled ten miles. Many splendid farms have been opened in the state by hauling timber twenty miles. " Kansas really needs less timber than any other western state. No where else is there as much good stone available for building purposes, while coal is abundant and good. Yet I think that in no other prairie state is there a fair supply of timber so evenly distributed. 'The mild climate of this state and the comparative dryness of the winter months, really make the demand for tim ber less imperative than in localities subject to excessive cold weather, or where cattle need continued shelter from cold rains. In the latter respect the timber in this state is distributed in ex act proportion to the wants of the country, for on the western and comparatively treeless prairies there is very little precipita tion of moisture during cold weather. "In the older settled portions of the state, considerable of the best timber has been cut, but railroads are already constructed in-every county in this region, bringing pine at moderate prices (which are given elsewhere), from the upper Mississippi and Michigan pineries. Two or three lines of Kansas railroads are also soon to penetrate the pineries south of this state. By these roads pine will be furnished at low rates. It now sells at the mills in the pineries of the Indian territory, Arkansas and Texas, at ten dollars to fifteen dollars per thousand feet. The hard pine of the southern pineries is unsurpassed for fencing, framing stuff and flooring, and much of it makes excellent siding, shingles, etc. " When large timber is cut, the remaining young trees grow with accelerated rapidity, and, as soon as prairie fires are checked, timber springs up on the open prairies, and in our rich soil soon becomes available for domestic uses. Besides, as is shown else where, it is a very easy matter to grow a thrifty young forest. In these ways the growth of native timber in the older settled prai rie regions of Illinois and Missouri have exceeded the consump- 72 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tion, so that there is actually more timber in many localities than there was fifty years ago. "Some writers have erroneously treated of 'prairie grass' as a distinct variety of grass, whereas all grasses growing upon the prairie are classed under this general name. There are many dis tinct varieties of these wild grasses, which it would be tedious and profitless to mention by name. " Excepting those varieties which pass under the general name of buffalo grass, the prairie grasses of Kansas are similar to those of other prairie states. They cover the entire surface of the earth, and stand from one foot to six feet in height. Tall coarse grasses grow on the bottom lands, and the hay made from them sells in towns for a dollar or two per ton less than ' upland hay,' which is' made from the shorter and finer varieties grown on higher lands. A constant change takes place in the varieties of prairie grass — certain kinds disappearing upon the settlement of the countrj', while other varieties take their place. The wide-leaved blue-stem or blue-joint — a very valuable variety — occupies most of east ern Kansas, and is rapidly extending westward. The nutritious pea vine and wild rye grow abundantly among the grasses in many places, and make a hay which is equal, if not superior, to the best of tame hay. " Upland prairie grass, when properly cut, cured and stacked, makes a hay but little inferior to timothy. There are good farm ers who feed both kinds and have little preference for either, but their prairie hay as well as tame grass hay is carefully prepared and stacked. " Wild grass, like tame grass, ought always to be cut for hay as soon as it is ' in bloom,' that is, when the pollen can be rattled from the head like fine dust. By allowing grass to stand any considerable length of time after this period, the sugar, starch and other elements which give it value for food, are converted into woody fibre, as any one can see who notices how hard and stiff the grass gradually becomes. Many persons neglect hay cuttino- until the grass is not only hard and unpalatable to stock, but per- - mit frost to come and find them haying. It is not surprising that such farmers think prairie hay of little value. Hay should be cured and stacked as soon as possible after cutting. By sprink- Soil and Surface. .73 ling a little salt upon it, the stock will eat it more freely, and, as many think, with better thrift ; and if the hay is a little damp when stacked, salt will keep it from spoiling. " Hay is generally stacked in ricks about ten feet wide, twelve or fifteen feet high, and as long as convenient. Stacks or ricks of hay (or grain) ought to be kept the highest in the middle from the commencement of the rick ; carry the sides straight up for two-thirds the height of the stack; when complete, twist large hay ropes and pass them across the top of the rick, fastening a heavy weight to the ends, or tie two rails or poles together, and throw across the top. Hay is put up in this manner with mowing machines and horse rakes, for two dollars to three dollars per ton, and by selecting a good locality, and stacking on the ground where cut, it can be put up for one dollar and a half per ton. Our prairies yield from one to three tons per acre, varying with the soil and the season. " From early spring to midsummer, the prairies are gaily decked with flowers of various -form and hue, presenting through this season a fascinating panorama of ever changing color, and afford ing boquets which rival the delicate tints of costly exotics. " ' How many days in the year,' asks one, ' is the mud deep and sticky in Kansas?' I answer that on the average, during three hundred days of the year, you can put your span of horses to your buggy and drive at a smart trot over our common natural prairie roads. At times the mud is deep and sticky, but this is a feature inseparable from a good soil, and owing to the excellent natural drainage of Kansas, the mud dries very soon after the frost goes out of the ground, or after a rain. " Excepting other portions of this peculiar trans-Missouri region, there is no other good agricultural country so favored in this regard. The mud is not as troublesome here as in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. " No people from any locality, which is a good farming region, need fear the mud of Kansas, and those who wish to live in towns will find sidewalks ready made, or if not made, the price of lots will be so low that they can afford to endure the discomfort of thick boots occasionally, to be benefited by the inevitable rise in such property as they purchase. 74 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. "The entire state of Kansas has the best natural roadways of any state in the Union, excepting Nebraska, which in this regard is like Kansas. Indeed, if Nebraska had our timber and stone and coal and climate and soil, she would be as good a state as Kansas is. With either a carriage or a loaded team, you can drive over the entire state regardless of roads, by selecting good natural crossings at the streams. There are no swamps as in Michigan, Ohio, or Indiana ; no sloughs as in Illinois or Iowa ; no bogs or half-filled ponds as in Minnesota. " No labor whatever is expended on the prairie roads. The first settlers ride over the country, selecting such routes as suit their convenience, and making a trail which soon becomes a well beaten track. The double track made by teams is soon worn below the level, leaving a ridge in the middle which is inconve nient for a single horse in a buggy. This is eventually worn down, and . a wide smooth road bed is formed whereon in dry weather the horses' feet clatter, as if upon the macadamized road ways of Central Park, in New York. Very few drive less than two horses in this country, because feed is so cheap that the keep ing of one or two horses, more or less, is a small matter. " Men who have floundered through the interminable sloughs of other western states, can appreciate the satisfaction one feels at driving into a ravine or bed of a run, and passing over upon solid rock or a gravel bed. The only difficulty in crossing streams here is at the steep banks of the larger steams, or from high water. Short stretches of bad roads are occasionally to be found on river bottoms. As before remarked, the roads upon the roll ing prairies, or the second bottoms, need little repairing, making it a small matter to secure splendid public highways at all seasons of the year. For bridging the streams, rock and timber are usu ally at hand upon the river bank. " Those who manage the public highways often make the same mistake here that is made elsewhere, by attempting to round or "pike" up with dirt, or fill in with stone at bad places, without first cutting ditches to carry off the water.- Who ever saw a rail road that was not thoroughly drained by open ditches upon each side ? Professional road makers understand that the basis of all good roads is drainage. All must have noticed that our roads, Soil and Surface. 75 even in the lowest places, are firm and smooth when the ground is dry. This ought to teach that such drainage as shall make it impossible for water to stand a single hour upon the road, is the first thing to be secured; without this, all other labor is vain, and in nine cases out of ten, this is all that is needed in our deep soil. Whatever is thereafter done, will be permanent and enduring. At a small cost, therefore, there will everywhere be solid roads in Kansas. "Limestone rock broken in pieces, none of which contain more than eight cubic inches, two inches each way, is placed upon our city streets at prices ranging from seven to ten cents per cubic foot. The layer is made from six inches to a foot thick, and this is called " macadamizing the streets." If the road bed is well drained and rounded a very little, this is probably the most eco nomical and enduring pavement we can use. The city of Law rence, however, is testing wooden pavement by putting it down on her principal street. " Frequent allusion has already been made to the important part which rock deposits play in the frame work of Kansas scenery, and in the economy of Kansas life. The importance of the sub ject in its pecuniary aspects merits still further mention. " The rock oE Kansas chiefly consists of limestone, sandstone and gypsum. At least 90 per cent, is limestone of various tex ture arid color. There is no better limestone in the United States than is to be found in Kansas. Columns dressed to eight inch face, fourteen inches deep, and fourteen feet high, are used in two story brick fronts at Topeka. "Prof. J. A. Bent, of Wheaton College, Illinois, expresses the following opinion which is founded upon extensive travel and observation : ' No state in the Union is so generally and so well supplied with rock as Kansas, and at the same time so free from rock which comes in the way of cultivating the soil.' " The reason why these two advantages are here combined in so extraordinary a degree is found in the fact that the strata of rock are nearly all horizontal, while the entire state slopes very considerably to the east. The strata are thereby caused to appear one above another, like broken and irregular terraces, or steps all the way westward. Then consider that excepting some of the 76 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. river bottoms, there are no flat surfaces in the state, but that the entire face of the country is swept by valleys, and rolls, ancl gentle bluffs, and it is easy to see why the rock is found on almost every farm, so situated at its projecting edges as to be convenient, but not troublesome. Above the rock are several feet of earth and soil, and below it, upon the sloping sides of the bluff or roll, is to be found a soil which is especially deep, quick and fertile. " Horace Greeley wrote from Kansas to the New York Tribune, October 9, 1870, as follows: 'Whenever a declivity, however moderate, is seen, there choice limestone for fencing, or building, or burning, may be rapidly taken out with the pick or bar. Most of it is in flat, square (or oblong) blocks of ten to sixty pounds, whereof the poorest may be laid up with facility into excellent wall, leaving the better available for building. This limestone has yielded, and is still yielding, near the surface, to decaj', enriching the soil, while increasing the facility with which the uncorroded portions are broken into convenient blocks for use.' "With this rock, wells, cisterns and cellars are walled, and foundations laid for wooden or brick buildings, while cheap and substantial buildings are erected of stone. Many hundred miles of stone wall have been built at a cost of $1.50 to $2.50 per rod. Frequently the rock is quarried on the fence line, and the wall laid by the side of the ditch thus made. ' Judge James Hanway, of Lane, writes me : 'I have a stone wall which three hands quarried, hauled and put up at the rate of four rods per day, using two yoke cf oxen, and a low wagon, and hauling a few rods. A skillful man can lay up five rods in a day, while others would be industrious at two rods.' " A kind of marble, freestone or sandstone, and gypsum are found in abundance. Of the latter Mr. Hutchinson has given us the following sketch : " This exceedingly valuable rock is not found, to any con siderable extent in the carboniferous formation which we have described, but it prevails to a greater or less degree over the western three-fourths of the state — that is, over an area of about sixty thousand square miles. The most easterly beds reported by the geological survey are in Marshall, and perhaps Nemaha county, in Northern Kansas, whence it crosses the state to the Soil and Surface. 77 southern line. It is found in beds o£ all thickness up to fifty feeet, and in the western half of the state it occurs in crystalized semi-transparent sheets, resembling mica (or isinglass) in texture, and alum in color. " It will be seen by a glance at the map, that five of the rail roads now running in Kansas cross the gypsum deposits, thus making it easily available to all portions of the state. " The uses to which this article is applied are various and im portant. It is used as a cement, and in taking casts by artists dentists and others ; in making busts and ornamental designs for the ornament of inner walls, as well as in giving to the walls themselves an elegant and durable ' hard finish.' But it is most extensively used as a fertilizer, whence it is called ' land plaster.' " We take from the work of the same author the following sketch concerning the coal deposits of Kansas: " The geological formation called carboniferous (coal bearing) occupies the entire eastern portion of the state, having a general width from east to west of about one hundred and twenty miles. Its western limit crosses the Kansas river through Davis and Biley counties, in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction, and its area is about seventeen thousand square miles. There are out croppings of bituminous coal throughout the entire extent of this vast surface, an area more than twice the size of the state of Mas sachusetts. Professor Swallow, the state geologist, counted ' twenty-two distinct and separate beds of coal. Many of these are thin, and of but little value, but ten of them range in thick ness from one to seven feet of coal, suitable for domestic and man ufacturing purposes.' The thickest outcropping veins are dis played in the southeastern portion of the state, and it is supposed that these continue westward under the other veins which lie higher, and which appear at the surface further west and north west. " No considerable experiments have been made in boring, or by test wells or shafts, except at Leavenworth City, where, at the depth of seven hundred and ten feet, an excellent quality was found, the bed varying from twenty-two to twenty-eight inches in thickness, averaging twenty-five inches. This mine has an exceb 78 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. lent steam engine and good facilities for delivering coal. It is proposed to sink the shaft to a greater depth, as it is believed that a vein three feet in thickness can be reached at a depth of a thousand feet from the surface. The miners receive nine to nine and a half cents per bushel, and the coal hap been sold by the car load for eighteen cents per bushel, but is now reduced to fifteen cents per bushel for manufacturing purposes. One of the upper coal veins, much inferior in quality to the shaft coal mentioned, was formerly worked a few miles distant from Leavenworth, and other veins have been worked in several localities in northern Kansas. " The coals of the upper strata, which are most worked, are in Osage and Franklin counties. The western portion of the latter county, and perhaps the entire surface of the former, with portions of adjoining counties, are occupied by veins showing themselves in many places, and everwhere within a few feet of the surface. The citizens usually work the mines by drifting into the banks, but mining companies also work by putting down shafts or wells. There is one company in Franklin county, and four or five in Osage county, that deliver coal on the railroads. The mines in these two counties show about twenty-two to twenty-five inches of solid coal. It is sold throughout the counties at the mines for fifteen to twenty cents per bushel of eighty pounds." In our copious selections from Mr. C. C. Hutchinson's work, we have given the reader no information concerning the mineral de velopments since 1870. This will be found further on in this work. As to salt, there seems to be no reason why any limit should be placed to the capacity of Kansas for supplying salt, as the following exhibit will show. And first we copy from the " First Annual Beport on the Geology of Kansas," by B. F. Mudge, A. M., 1864: " The buffalo licks or tramps, so common in almost every county of the state, in most cases owe their origin to the presence of salt brine, even when it does not appear in the shape of springs at the surface. The valleys of the Verdigris and Fall rivers have salt springs which supply a part of the local demand, though no exertions have been made to develop the supply, the Soil and Surface. 79 water from open springs or wells only being used, which is much diluted by the surface streams." Here follows an enumeration of springs and wells in eastern Kansas from which salt has been made in small quantities, but which I think have all been abandoned as unprofitable. They are but the surface indications of the vast reservoir farther west. We continue to quote from the report. " On the boundary of the state, a very large deposit of crystalized salt exists south of the great bend of the Arkansas river, in which it lies in beds from six to twenty-eight inches in depth. In one instance, two government wagons were filled in a few minutes, without being moved. The salt is so compact as to require a hatchet to cut it. These deposits are undoubtedly caused by the drying up of salt ponds or salt branches of the Cimmarron river. But this is situ ated so far from the settled portions of the state, or any regular route of transportation, that at present it is of no practical value. A railroad toward that region would make it of vast commercial importance." The professor thus dismisses these great salt plains, for he had at that time little idea that railroads would so soon reach their rich stores. The area of these plains, is estimated by the best authorities at more than five hundred square miles, en tirely covered with an incrustation of pure salt of various degrees of thickness. Very few white people have ever visited this re markable spot. But many bushels of excellent salt have been brought from there, and the wilder Indian tribes who formerly inhabited Kansas, annually went thither to procure a supply of salt in addition to that furnished them by the government. These salt plains lie partly in Kansas and partly in the Indian Terri tory, and are surrounded by a fine grazing and agricultural region. Professor Mudge proceeds to describe the salt region of Western Kansas, which he says embraces a tract of country about thirty- five miles wide and eighty miles long, crossing the Bepublican, Solomon and Saline valleys. Here are to be found numerous springs, but more frequently, extensive salt marshes. One of these he thus describes at length, as illustrative of the character and appearance of them all : " Take that in town four, range two, west of the sixth principal meridian, in the Bepublican valley, about seventy-five miles 80 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. northwest of Fort Eiley. It is sometimes called the Tuthill marsh. The valley here is wide, gradually rising to the high prairies so common in that part ofk the state. The marsh covers nearly one thousand acres, more or less impregnated with saline matter. About one-third is entirely void of vegetation, which the brine will not allow to grow. It is perfectly level, and at the time of our first visit was as white as a wintry snow field, with- a crust of crystalized salt. " The incrustation of salt is frequently three-eighths of an inch in thickness. This is scraped up and use*d, in its natural state, for salting cattle, etc., but for domestic purposes it is dissolved, by being mixed with about twenty gallons of water to a bushel of salt, when the mechanical impurities, sand, etc., readily settle. The salt is again returned to a solid state by evaporation. Ac cording to the observations of Mr. J. G. Tuthill, who lives near, and has made borings in over one hundred different places, to a depth of twenty or thirty feet, there is a very uniform supply and strength of brine. The water preserved for analysis was obtained by me from a boring made at random. It was found at four feet from the surface. The density, by the salometer, was 24 deg., (6.16 Baume, or specific gravity of 1.0421,) with the thermometer at 60 deg. This should give a bushel of salt for one hundred and thirty gallons of the water (not counting the impurities), which is three times the strength of the ocean. It was taken at our second visit, immediately after a heavy rain, which must have diluted the brine. " The large quantity of salt, within the tract designated is evi dent from the fact that the waters of the Soloman and Saline are so impregnated as to have a saline taste from points eighty miles above their entrance into the Smoky Hill river. The waters of the latter, when the stream runs low, also show the ^presence of the brine. The supply of salt sufficient to meet this daily and hourly amount thus carried clown must be immense." Here follows a statement of localities, where the professor found salt marshes, varying in size from a few acres up to three thous and acres, the latter located iu townships four and five, of range five west. Throughout the country south of the Arkansas river there are also extensive and very promising indications of salt. Brine Brine 1 Salt. 100 pts. U. S. gal. 96.689 4.708 2,861.20 1.959 0.573 348.23 0.216 0.157 94.41 0.300 0.231 140.39 trace trace. 0.050 0.010 0.01 0.786 94.221 57,327.05 100.000 99.900 60,773.19 Soil and Surface. 81 ; Having shown that these deposits are found in the true salt bearing geological formations, as developed in this country and in Europe, and having, proved that the strength of the brines is en tirely satisfactory, Prof. Mudge proceeds as follows : " The analysis of the salt ' and brine from the Tuthill marsh, made by Prof. C. H. Chandler, of the school of mines, Columbia c'ollege, New York, is as follows. Chloride of sodium (salt), Sulphate of soda, Sulphate of lime, Chloride of magnesium, Oxide of iron, Sand and clay, Water, Density of brine 1.0421 — 6.16 Baume. Total saline matter in brine, 5.779. Chloride of sodium per U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches, 6.53 oz. " This gives one bushel of solid matter to one hundred and ; ten gallons, or one bushel of pure salt to one hundred and thirty gallons of brine. The water was taken by me from a boring made at random, within four feet of the surface. Tbe salt, I took from one of fifty hollow logs, in which it was being made. The per centage of solid impurities is 2.55, and contains no chloride of calcium. No attempt was made to purify the salt, as the parties ' making it had no previous knowledge of the business.. The or dinary market salts of the United States contain frorh two to six percentage of impurities ; a larger portion being nearer the latter "• than the former standard." The report of the Onondaga salt springs, in the state of New York, shows that the "factory filled refined for table and dairy," contains 1.60 per cent, of solid impurities. The celebrated' " stoved Ashton salt," of England, contains about the same ' amount of impurities, and they are prepared with great care, and are acknowledged to be among the best salts in the world. Thus ' it is seen that our unrefined salts are nearly equal to the best commercial salts. G 82 Tuttle's Centennia Northwest. Lead, in small quantities, as also iron, alum and other valuable minerals, have been discovered. Mr. C. C. Hutchinson gives us the following sketch of western Kansas and the buffalo grass : " The western third of Kansas now demands our particular at tention — the portion so lately included in that mythical region, " The Great American Desert." lam firmly persuaded that no portion of the United States, east of the Bocky mountains, de serves this title, for the simple reason that there is no desert. Wherever buffalo, antelope and deer graze and fatten, there do mestic cattle may also graze and fatten, and it is known that these animals have, from time immemorial, ranged in countless num bers in all the region called the plains. Certainly it is a misno mer to speak of any country as a desert, that will, by a few months grazing, so fatten cattle that they actually compete in eastern markets with stall-fed cattle. This may be done in all that country alluded to. It is true that there is a great difference in the amount of feed produced per acre in different localities, but even the poorest of all this vast area produces scattering tufts of buffalo grass. "The treeless expanse, called "The Plains," sweeps along the base of the Bocky mountains, two or three hundred miles in width at its southern extremity, and gradually widening as it ex tends fifteen hundred miles northward into British America. On most of this vast area, the grass is not simply scattering, but is a continuous mat of fine herbage, three to six inches high. The best grass growing in Texas is called mesquit, and produces two or three times as much feed per acre as the buffalo grass. Near and among the Bocky mountains, is gramma grass, and also a va riety called bunch grass. On a portion of the plains is a grass called small or bastard mesquit. All these grasses have a curled leaf. The name, buffalo grass, is given to all grasses of this kind in Kansas. Some think the true buffalo grass to be a distinct variety from the small mesquit, and others claim that they are identical. The buffalo grass spreads on the ground somewhat in the manner of a strawberry vine, and its leaf curls close to the ground, so that it looks more like a bed of bleached moss than it does like common grass. Its seed grows on one side of a delica,te Soil and Surface. ¦ 83 stem. This grass is extremely sweet, and the more so nearer its roots. It is true that there are considerable alkali tracts on the plains (but not in Kansas, according to the best information which I can obtain), where grazing is not practicable, by reason of bad water, but not for lack of a fertile soil, because, by irrigation, al kali lands, as in Utah, become extremely productive. Most vari eties of these grasses are in a growing condition from early spring until autumn, when, during the beautiful weather of that season, they cure upon the stalk. Thus they retain their nutritious qual ities through the dry winters, which invariably bless the herds man and his herd in these regions. Other varieties are green in western Kansas during the winter months, as the attentive reader can learn from the letter of Bev. L. Sternberg, of Fort Harker. " Add to this sufficient evidence, the indisputable fact that cattle in vast herds, not of hundreds simply, but of thousands in num ber, are to-day grazing upon buffalo grass, and that not alone in Kansas, but also in Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming. Travel ers who pass through Kansas upon the Kansas Pacific Bailway, enter upon the buffalo grass region after riding about two hun dred miles through the fat meadows, the luxuriant corn fields, and the vigorous wild grasses of eastern Kansas, and as they come in sight of the brown and shriveled buffalo grass, it seems indeed contemptible. It is very true that vast herds of buffalo are seen, extending for miles in either direction, sometimes hud dled in distant masses which resemble low islands in the sea, or, at other times, are so numerous and so persistent in keeping to their course, that the engineer is obliged to stop his train and give them the track, until they cross it in their line of march. The traveler also sees the dressed carcasses of buffalo and antelope at every station, which are as fat as stall-fed beef; and yet many people return from the trip and talk about the "buffalo grass desert." Who would suppose that buffalo would return to a "desert " for feed year after year ? nay, that they would stay there the year around, as thousands annually do stay in the valleys of the Be publican, Solomon, Smoky Hill and Arkansas rivers, and their tributaries? Many an eastern farmer would gladly turn the flocks and herds on to this desert, which crop the low grass in his high priced pastures, or during six months of winter, eat the hay 84 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. he has so laboriously garnered. I think the higher and drier por tion of western Kansas is in some respects superior as a winter stock range. The less rain falls upon the grass, the richer it will be. This is not a theoretical opinion. Stock that ranged on grass during the hard winter of 1860-61, which succeeded the famous "dry season," came out in the spring in better order than usual. The grass was short, but very nutritious — having cured on the ground. The time is not distant when the western portion of the state, one hundred by two hundred miles in extent, will be selected as the choice pasture land of the continent. Its altitude of twenty-five hundred to thirty-five hundred feet above the ocean level, makes the climate all that could be desired. It is plenti fully watered for stock purposes, by springs and running streams, whose water is palatable to the herds and flocks, and upon the banks are small timber growths, and high bluffs for shelter. There are also stone quarries, from which houses may be cheaply con structed for the herdsmen. " I think it true that every where in Kansas, a little hay ought to be put up as a safeguard against light snows, accompanied by wind, which may render grazing difficult for a few days at a time. Such snows occur every two or thr^e years, in all the region we have been considering ; but are much less severe in Kansas than farther north. Whenever they occur, great herders expect to lose more or less stock. It is one of the chances they take, and aggregate results for a series of years prove that with all the risks, the business is still very profitable. But in every part of Kansas there is grass in abundance to make hay. The wide bottoms af ford from one to three tons per acre, even at the western limits of the state, and on ground as smooth as a floor, it is little trouble to put up hay with machinery. Perhaps half the year it would stand untouched, while stock fattened on buffalo grass. But it is better to provide against contingencies, and if not used, it will keep over in good condition, if well stacked. The estimated amount that ought to be put up per head in the buffalo grass re°ion is from four hundred to six hundred pounds. Among scores of ex' perienced stock men, with whom I compared notes upon this sub ject, none set it higher than the latter figures." The following letters, relating, respectively, to the northern Soil and Surface. 85 central and southern portions of western Kansas, written by gentlemen well known in their respective localities, will serve to confirm the foregoing sketch taken from Mr. Hutchinson's work. The following is from A. B. Warner, Esq., of Bepublic county : " Dear Sir — I send you a few facts concerning the northern part of the state, or at least that portion of it which has come un der my personal observation. The portion I shall refer to is chiefly watered by the Bepublican river and its tributaries. These streams have many beautiful mill sites, and we think here it would be hard to find a portion of prairie country more highly favored in r-espect to water, notwithstanding it is in 'drouthy Kansas.' " About eighty miles west of this county, a tributary takes in to the Bepublican, called Prairie Dog, and a beautiful stream it is, having quite a belt of timber along its banks. Its bottoms are wide and fertile, and all who see it are in no wise sparing of their praise. There is yet little or no settllement along the stream, ancl none on the adjacent prairies, but there is strong talk of a settlement there in the spring. White Bock is another tributary of the Bepublican and enters it about ten miles from where the last named stream crosses the western line of Kansas from Nebras ka, and in range five, west. On its lovely bank, on lands the most beautiful eyes ever rested upon, we have taken up our abodes. Its line towards the head is a trifle south of west, and it is about sixty miles long. It has quite an abundance of timber, though not quite so much as Prairie Dog, and besides the stream is not so large. The waters of the latter run the year round, while those of White Bock, in very dry weather, will sometimes cease to run, though at all times it contains a sufficiency of pure water for- stock. Its bottoms are very fertile, as well as the adjoining prairies. The former are all taken for thirty miles from its mouth, but of the latter there are thousands and tens of thousands of acres of as rich and beautiful prairie lands as ever graced a western state. The old inhabitants say they can get a living here easier than in any other place they ever saw." The following letter is from Bev. Dr. L. Sternberg, a Lutheran clergyman of high standing, of Fort Harker, Kansas: "Dear Sir: — You desire to know if the plains are well adapted to but ter and cheese making, and also my method. In replying to the 86 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. first inquiry, it may be proper to say that I am not prepared to speak of the plains generally. Portions of them may be barren and destitute of water and of natural shelter for stock. My re marks are intended to apply more' especially to Ellsworth county, the eastern limit in this part of the state of the buffalo grass region. Whether a country is well adapted for stock and dairy purposes depends upon its grasses, water and climate. "We have both winter and summer grasses. Our winter grasses are such as keep green, and grow somewhat during the winter, especially in sheltered places in ravines and near the banks of streams. They come forward very early in the spring so as to afford good pasturage, in this region generally about the middle of March. The principal variety ripens about the first of June, and resembles what we used to call the early June grass in New York. When green, it is sweet and tender, and cattle eat it with avidity. " Our summer grasses may be divided into two classes, con sisting of such as are only fit for grazing, and such as are also suitable to be cut for hay. The term buffalo grass includes the gramma grass, or the curled mesquit, both of them remarkably nutritious, even when ripened and dry, and affording almost as good pasturage in winter as in summer, but too short to be cut for hay. The blue joint is our principal grass for hay. It is the latest of our grasses in coming forward in the spring, only ap pearing about the time when our winter grasses are beginning to ripen. We have at present little more of this grass than is re quired for hay ; but I am sorry to say that it is slowly but surely supplanting the buffalo grass. The milk produced from these grasses is remarkably rich, and our cows have access to no plants giving their milk an unpleasant flavor, except that, late in the fall they sometimes eat a species of wild sage, giving it a bitter taste. " Good water is a prime necessity for a stock ancl dairy coun try. It should be running water. Stagnant water affects the quality of the milk injuriously. Water drawn by band involves too much labor, and is too uncertain a reliance. Our river water and that flowing from our numerous springs, is most excellent for stock. " Our climate is of a medium character. We are subject to oc- Soil and Surface. 87 casional storms, when cattle need some natural or artificial shelter, and it may be some hay. Usually, however, they graze upon the open prairie, in winter as in summer. Thus far I have not been required to feed my cattle more than about a dozen times during the winter, and they reach the spring in fine order, unless they should be pulled down somewhat by some special cause, such as coming in too early. In summer our climate is not warm er than in more northern latitudes. However warm it may be during the day, our nights are invariably cool and refreshing. The heats of summer, therefore, interfere but little with butter and cheese making, to those who have a suitable place for the purpose, and I know of no reason why we may not compete suc cessfully, both as to quality and quantity, with the dairymen of any part of our country. " In the manufacture of butter, I am careful as to the condi tion of my cream, not leaving it to stand too long. I use the dash churn. I am careful to work out all the buttermilk, and yet not destroy the grain of the butter. This requires both ex perience and skill. The salt which should be of the purest kind, and about an ounce to the pound of butter, should be thoroughly incorporated with the butter, and dissolve in it. If the cream be too warm in churning, the butter will be of an inferior quality, and will readily soften in warm weather. The proper tempera ture is from fifty-six to sixty degrees. The coolor the cream, the longer the butter is in coming, but the better the butter. The next letter is from Mr. Ernst Hohneek, a surveyor who has resided in western Kansas about fourteen years, and is en tirely familiar with the country he talks about. This letter throws light upon the " desert " question. There has been great inquiry for that desert for several years, and of late it has come to be be lieved that the whole account of " a desert " was a stupendous hum bug of ancient geographers. After describing various counties in that region, and showing that all are possessed of good water and good soil, with considerable quantities of timber, and coal opened of fair quality for fuel, he proceeds : " Bice county, south of Ellsworth, through which runs the Arkansas river and several tributaries, is, with the exception of timber, which is rather scarce, a most beautiful county, and contains, I believe, a greater per 88 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. centage of tillable land, than any other county in the state I know of. The southeast part is already somewhat settled, and a colony from Ohio is expected to settle on Plum Creek next spring. Cow Creek is also in this county. Around Fort Zarah, in Bar ton county, near the mouth of that fine stream where the Big Walnut empties into the Arkansas, the nucleus of quite a settle ment is now forming, and about two hundred families are to settle along the river and Walnut next spring. The advance of a Ger man colony, about ten families, settled eight miles above Zarah last spring, and raised quite a crop of corn, with pumpkins, melons, etc., without end. I have not a doubt but that the bottoms of the Arkansas river will turn out to be prodigious corn land. " Walnut Creek valley runs in a westerly direction for over a hundred miles, with abundance of timber and water, and as fine bottoms as a man wants to see. The only drawback to the settle ment of that part of our beautiful state may be Indian difficul ties. "In conclusion, let me give you the result of my observations during a residence of fifteen years in the state, the greater part of which I spent in the western part. " The story of the American desert, as far as it relates to that por tion of Kansas that lies north of the Arkansas river, is a myth, and never had any foundation. That "belt of land," beyond which, according to early histories of Kansas, the desert commenced, ex ists only in imagination. True, there is a range of sandhills, from one to two miles wide, on the west side of the Little Arkansas, as far north as the mouth of Jarvis Creek, emptying into Cow Creek, and also another narrow range of sandhills on the west side of Cow Creek, from the Plum Butes, on the old Santa Fe road, ex tending, with intermissions, about ten miles north. But the land west of these hills is just as good as east of it. " I suppose the idea of this desert originated in this wav : Dur ing that season when the buffalo roam north in immense numbers they eat the whole country so closely that it looks to the casual observer entirely bare, and devoid of vegetation. Buffalo and even horses, will find sustenance on this very ground, it being the nature of the buffalo grass to be continually growino-, and the part next fo the ground, almost in it, being the most nutritious Soil and Surface. 89 part, and very sweet ; horses, which are used to the plains, will graze on this very ground, when loose, in preference to places, where the grass has not been pastured. Another peculiarity of the buffalo grass is, that it only grows in packed ground, and dies out as soon as the buffalo quits the country, and the action of the rains and frosts loosens the soil. After the buffalo have left a portion of the country for good, in a few years single stools of blue, stem grass will appear, which increase in size from year to year, until the whole country, which grew once the short buffalo grass, is covered with blue stem, and then has all the appearance of an agricultural country. I have watched this transformation ever since 1855, and it is a fact and no theory. Thousands of tons of prairie hay can be cut now, where ten years ago nothing but buffalo grass grew. Whoever opens a farm in a buffalo grass region needs to plow his land deep, from six to eight inches at least, so as to prepare it at once for crops. And all this great re gion in the western part of the state will be thus transformed shortly, and will be found to be the granary of the west." Upon receipt of this valuable letter I wrote to the author, re questing him to explain why he confined his remarks to the re gion north of the Arkansas river, in showing that the country was generally good, and that a few square miles of sand hills had been magnified into a boundless "desert." In reply, the follow ing letter came to hand : "When I spoke rather negatively of the country south of Ar kansas river, I had in my mind a pear shaped tract of land, with its stem end near Fort Dodge, and the opposite about south of the mouth of Cow creek, which empties into the Arkansas in Bice county, with a width at its broadest part (south of Pawnee Bock, seventeen miles west of Zarah) of about sixty miles, which con sists of a series of sand hills, naked sandy flats and bunch grass prairie. This part is entirely destitute of timber, but in most parts well watered, and having considerable salt water branches running through it. " The Arkansas river is also, with the exception of a strip of about fourteen miles running east from Fort Zarah, destitute of timber from below the mouth of Cow creek to the west line of the state, and beyond to near Fort Lyon. The Atchison, Topeka 90 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. & Santa Fe Bailroad has been surveyed and located to Fort Dodge, which will open these wide and fertile bottoms to settlement. The sandy district, however, spoken of above, will be a great grazing country, as the grass on it is very nutritious, and the con figuration of the country affording a great deal of shelter to stock in the winter. South of this district lays a beautiful coun try along the tributaries of the little Bed river, or Bed Fork of the Arkansas. Mulberry, Turkey, Medicine Lodge, Bluff creek, etc., are among these creeks. The soil is here red in all its shades, and every little thaw or rain will color the streams red. "Two years ago this winter, I found the bottoms covered with the tallest blue stem grass. A great deal of winter grass, which we generally call June grass, grows also here. .The country is also timbered with cottonwood, cedar in great quantity on the bluffs, mulberry, elm, walnut, oak, hackberry, and on the South Fork, with china tree. I found bodies of timber containing from forty to eighty acres. Bock is very scarce here; the deepest canyon, as well as the highest bluffs, are devoid of it. In my opinion, it will not be very long before this country will be the great winter quarters of the stock men of western Kansas. As for shelter, there is nothing that will surpass it in these parts. "Since my last, I learned that about fifty claims are taken on Walnut creek, and the Arkansas, in the vicinity of Fort Zarah. So the Star of Empire is moving westward at a lively rate. It is some satisfaction to contemplate that, in fifteen years, civilization has conquered two hundred and fifty miles of wilderness." More will be found, further on in this volume, on the produc tions of Kansas in the chapters on her great industries. Soil and Surface. 91 CHAPTEB VII. SOIL AND SURFACE. (continued.) Topography — Climate — Minerals — Soil and Productions. NEBEASKA. The state of Nebraska has an area of 75,995 square miles and is situated between 40° and 43° N. latitute, and between 96° and 104° W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Dakota terri tory ; on the east by Iowa ; on the south by Kansas and Colorado territory, and on the west by Colorado and Wyoming territories. There are no mountains in the state ; the whole surface consists of rolling prairies, vast table and rich bottom lands in the valleys of the numerous streams. The principal river is Platte — -a wide, rapid, shallow stream, full of sand bars, with divided channel, and although not navigable, it is of inestimable value for the purpose of mill-sites, irrigation, etc. It enters the state in two branches, which unite about three hundred miles west of the Missouri river, and thence pursues an easterly course through the state, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. Its special feature is the unrivalled valley through which it courses from the mountains to the Mis souri river. This valley is from five to fifteen miles in width, and is widely celebrated for its picturesque scenery, rich, productive soil, and mild and healthful climate. The Wood, Loup and Elk horn rivers flow into the Platte on the north side, east of Kearney, and all have extensive, fertile valleys. The Big Blue and Little Blue, flowing southeast, cross the line into Kansas, the former about sixty -five and the latter about ninety miles west of the Mis souri. The numerous streams of the interior flow, in a southeast erly course, through valleys rank with vegetation, of loose, rich soil, in which they cut their channels deep and winding, with nothing to mark their course except the fringe of trees that line their margin. The valleys of these streams are generally skirted with a range of low, rounded hills, sometimes abrupt and irregu- 92 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. lar, but becoming less and less broken as they recede, until they gradually blend with the table land, and keeping about the same level, stretch away in low swells till intersected by another valley.* Next to the Platte river in magnitude and importance is the Bepublican, which enters the state from Colorado, at a point five miles from the southeast corner, takes a light curve to the north ward, bends back and passes out into Kansas, crossing the line about one hundred ancl thirty miles from the Missouri river. Its main tributaries in, and partially in, Nebraska are Whiteman's Fork, Willow, Medicine and Muddy on the north, and Beaver, Little Beaver and Prairie Dog on the south. The Bepublican and its tributaries " water" something over a dozen counties, and the latter affords some of the best mill-sites in the state. For magnificence, fertility and natural resources, the valley of the Be publican is scarcely second to that of the Platte, and contains many fine groves of timber, an abundance of fine building rock, etc. Not more than one-twentieth part of the area of the state has been turned over by the plough. Nearly one-half the whole is still remaining in possession of the government. Nebraska is one of the great corn-raising and stock-growing states where lands can yet be had for nothing, or for a nominal sum. Where moneyless men can become land owners by a mere resi dence, and men of small means, property-holders at once, or by trifling payments, distributed through a long series of years. She presents the anomaly of a state wherein railroads, wagon roads, (we might almost say churches and school-houses), etc., have pre ceded civilization, instead of following it, after the usual course. Nebraska is a "highland" state, constituting as it does part of the great interior continental slope, which terminates to the west ward, as stated, in the Bocky Mountains. Hence, sweeping winds from the westward and southward occasionally, and light, cooling breezes from one or another direction almost perpetually. Hence the absolute absence of malaria, and the innumerable train of con sequent diseases. In very many of the original settlements made in America dur ing the last three hundred years, the pioneers have been again and again driven back and out by agues, fevers, and other ma- * Compiled from Sketches by Hon. Geo. D. Brown. Soil and Surface. 93 larial ailments, by the savages, or by all these calamities. But Nebraska, in less than a decade, without interruption, from an unpeopled waste, straightway grows into a fully developed, strug-- gling community, numbering a quarter of a million souls. The rapid descent of the surface from west to east, together with the presence of the Platte, traversing its entire length and extending back to the mountains, (thus forming a superb conduit for their vast fields of melting snows, in early summer), furnishes a natural system of self- drainage, renders stagnant conditions impossible, and banishes from our borders every semblance of a swamp or morass, every sluggish stream and every putrid pond. Too much cannot be said of the purity of Nebraska air. It is a blessed privilege to be able to lie down at night, within doors or without, on hill or in valley, assured that the atmosphere which surrounds your couch or sighs through your window is free from poisonous taint of death-dealing malaria. The soil of Nebraska is excellent. An eastern editor truly re marks : " The finest garden mold in the state of New York is not a whit better than the average Nebraska soil, which is light and free from lumps and stones ; dark soiled, easily worked and emi nently productive. I would advise nurserymen in the east to im port a carload of it, to grow their most delicate plants in. They need take no precaution, but send their order to any postmaster or railroad agent, and tell him to dig the first dirt he comes to and send it along." Another writer says the soil " may be plowed to any depth required. Under the plow it becomes remarkably loose and mellow, and can be worked to advantage within a few hours after a long rain. From the absence of hard pan, and other impervious substances, it possesses the singular property of resisting both unusual wet and continued drouth ; a failure of crops from either of these causes is an unheard of event. It does not bake after rain, and deep mud is never known. The soil, although easily penetrated with a spade to any, depth, has a tenacity that renders the wailing of cellars and wells unnecessary." The su perstratum of black mold is usually blended with the underly ing yellowish clayey soil at a point about twenty-four inches be low the surface. This substratum is profusely impregnated with iron stains and lime seams and concretions, and will produce veg- 94 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. etation nearly equal to surface soil, to a depth of twenty-five to thirty feet. The roots of the shoe string (a low shrub resembling tea plant) penetrate to a depth of twelve feet, and the yellow mold thrown out of a well will grow thrifty squashes and fully matured corn and wheat. The distinguishing characteristics of this gray-yellow subsoil, is its porosity — that is, it is threaded, as it were, with minute seams and eells, herein differing from the soapy clay ancl the blue hard pans of the east. The good offices subserved by this peculiar subsoil are, the letting down of a super abundance of surface water in wet seasons, and a drawing or suck ing up of the subterraneous moisture when the earth is parched by an August sun. So that it may be written down as a simple fact that as regards capacity to stand both flood and drouth, Ne braska has few equals and no superiors. All species of grain and vegetables that are raised in the richer portions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Canada, can be grown here, with many others which require a longer interval between spring and autumn. Corn ranks as the first staple; then wheat, oats, potatoes, bar ley, flax, broom-corn, sorghum, etc. The cultivation o* onions, flax, hops, castor beans, tobacco, and other -specialties, has given ample returns for the capital and labor invested. From her first crop, Nebraska has always stood second in the list of states for average number of bushels of wheat per acre ; California being first. The average rarely falls below twenty bushels, and sometimes exceeds that figure. And it has become a settled question in Chicago that the wheat sent thither from this state is one of the best and highest grades received in that market. Timothy and clover grow rank and with unvarying cer tainty, but are little patronized, as wild grass is universal and of excellent quality. Millions of tons of the latter are annually burnt by the fierce prairie fires of November and the milder ones of April. * " A farmer who finds his meadow ready made, and which may be fenced with a dozen furrows any pleasant day in June, has gained quarter of a life time, from an Ohio or Pennsylvania point of view ; leaving him ample time to mildly fret about the ab- * From a sketch by Hon. G-. L. Brown. Soil and Surface. 95 sence of the decaying stumps and weed hidden rail fence of his boyhood, or at the well nigh perpetual breeze, which effectually sweeps away every vestige of miasma and malaria." "With the exception of the peach, fruit trees do not winter kill — if properly treated — and come into bearing as soon as in Illinois. Even peaches are successfully reared in sheltered loca tions. Apples, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, currants, berries, etc. , thrive most luxuriantly, when cared for. The ravines and shel tered nooks near the streams are literally full of plums, grapes and other wild fruits, and scarcely a season passes but the home steader's pantry is stored in autumn with preserves and jellies, little inferior to those of Indiana or New Jersey, without cost and without price. " Probably there is not a farmer in the entire state who has not some forest trees growing. To these a few are added each suc ceeding year, and in many cases quite extensive tracts have been planted. Trees invariably thrive and grow with a rapidity that is marvellous. The traveller has observed the thrifty groves of cottonwood along the line of the Union Pacific railroad. Similar ones exist along all the old emigrant and government roads or trails. A patch of "slips," carelessly " stuck out," near the rude huts of the inevitable rancher, and forgotten, has, in nearly every case survived the " ranch," and stands erect in the proud dignity of perfect life, high above the mouldering ruins of the old cabin, or oftener the weed-covered cellar where once it stood. Myraids of beautiful groves will throw their cooling shades over the com ing generation, where once lay the boundless, treeless, almost shrubless prairie. " That this is essentially a stock raising region cannot be gainsay- ed. Corn and grass, the two great indigenous growths, render it indisputably superior to eastern and northern parts in this respect ; and that herein lies the broad avenue of our escape from abject slavery to over production, the caprice of grain gamblers, and high railroad tariffs, all of which do pertain to the purely grain- raising districts, is equally undeniable." 96 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. CHAPTEE VIII. EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT.* First Exploration of the Northwest — Expeditions of Marquette and La Salle — The Company of the West— John Law — Early Outposts of Civiliza tion — The Missionaries. Having devoted considerable space to the soil, climate and productions of the Great Northwest, we may now come at once to the historical department, but, let it be understood in the ou-tstart that the limits of our space compel us to condense largely. The first exploration and settlement of the northwest, with the excep tion of a slight portion of Ohio, is a subject of French colonial history. It is true however, that the Mississippi valley was first entered by Spanish explorers. Following in the train of French exploration and settlement we find that in 1535, James Cartier entered and explored the St. Lawrence to the Isle of Orleans ; and, six years later in conjunction with Eoberval, he explored the same region and called it New France. Again in 1608, through the effort of Samuel Champlain, the^town of Quebec was estab lished. Five years after Montreal was founded. From these points the French pushed their way towards the great lakes, fight ing their way through hordes of savages. Contemporaneous with these explorations, the French missionaries carried on a zealous missionary work among the Indians, enduring many hardships and privations. The enthusiastic missionaries were soon in ad vance of the military expeditions, penetrating the whole lake re gion, and acquainting themselves with the natives, and the resour ces of the country. Meanwhile the government of New France was improving, and the French colony took on civil ancl military attire. In 1665 Claude Allouez was sent to the far west under some ? Before taking up the history of the northwest by states, we present a gen eral history of the exploration and early settlement of the whole section. Exploration, and Settlement. 97 kind of government auspices. "Beaching the Sault Ste. Ma rie, he passed around the south shore of lake Superior, and landed at the bay of Chegoimegon. There, at the chief village of the Chippewas, he established a mission, and made, on behalf of the colony, an alliance with them, the Pottawattomies, Sacs and Foxes, and the Illinois, against the Iroquois. In the next year, he passed with the Ottawas to the north shore, and at the western extremity of the lake met the Sioux, and from them learned of a great river flowing to the south, which. they called 'Messipi.' Thence he returned to Quebec to seek more la borers. In 1668, Claude Dablon and Jaques Marquette repaired to the Sault, and established the mission of Ste. Marie ; and dur ing the the next five years Allouez, Dablon and Marquette ex plored the regions south of Superior, and west of Michigan, and established the missions of Chegoimegon, St. Marie, Mackinaw, and Green Bay. The purpose of exploring the Mississippi sprang from Marquette himself ; but it was furthered by the plans of the intendent Talon, to extend the power of France to the west. In 1670, Nicholas Perot was sent to the west to propose a congress of the tribes of the lakes. In May, 1671, the great council was held at Sault Ste. Marie ; the cross was set up, by its side a column inscribed with the lilies of the Bourbons, the Vexilla Begis was chanted, and the nations of the northwest, with all the pomp of the feudal age, were taken into the alliance and under the protection of France. Talon was not satisfied with mere display. There were three opinions in regard to the course of the great river, of which Allouez had heard — that it ran to the southeast into the Atlantic, below Virginia — that it flowed into the Guf of Mexico — and that it emptied into the Gulf of California, and opened a highway to China and the east. To determine this problem, to secure the lands through which it flowed to France, and thus to signalize the close of his administration, Talon approved the pur pose of Marquette, and directed him, with M. Joliet, of Quebec, to explore the Mississippi." At Mackinaw, on the 13th of May, 1673, Marquette, Joliet, and five attendants embarked on this great expedition in two birch canoes. They visited Green Bay, where the Indians, who received them kindly, warned them against pursuing their intended journey, tell- 7 98 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ing them that hostile nations would impede their progress. They however progressed westward, and, on June 17th, they entered the broad Mississippi at, the mouth of the Wisconsin. Quietly floating down the great river, they noticed the deer, the buffalo, the swans — " wingless, for they lose their feathers in that coun try " — the great fish, one of which had nearly knocked their canoe into atoms, and other creatures of air, earth and water, but no men. At last, however, upon the 21st of June, they discover ed, upon the western bank of the river, the footprints of some fellow mortals, and a little path leading into a pleasant meadow, Leaving the canoes in charge of their followers, Joliet and Father Marquette boldly advanced upon this path towards, as they sup posed, an Indian village. After walking for two leagues, they came to a cluster of Indian villages along the banks of a river, then called the Moingona, now probably the Des Moines. Mak ing their presence known by a loud cry, they were met by four old men, who presented to them the calumet, and escorted them to their chief. Here they made known the purpose of their voy age, and here again they were begged to desist. The natives told them that their bodies would be tortured by the merciless savages which they were sure to encounter. They were hos pitably entertained by these savages. The explorers passed on down the great river to the mouth of the Missouri. They of course, next came to the mouth of the Ohio. In the neighbor hood of the Arkansas they were attacked by savages, but the ven erable old missionary presented the peace pipe, which he did with so much readiness and good grace that the head men were soft ened and persuaded the others to forbear. Having decided as to the outlet of the Mississippi, they returned north by way of the Illinois river. The Mississippi valley was now fairly opened up to French en terprise. Almost immediately following this great event, Eobert de La Salle, whose mind had already been occupied with projects for discovery, visited the king of France by whom he was highly honored and from whom his wonderful schemes received approval and support. Beturning to New France, he at once set out upon anexpedition of discovery, with Tonti and others. Louis Hen nepin also accompanied the expedition. " La Salle's first step " Exploration and Settlement. 99 says one writer " was to send forward men to prepare the minds of the Indiaus along the lakes, for his coming, to soften their hearts by well chosen gifts and words, and to pick up peltries, beaver-skins and other valuables ; and upon the 18th of Novem ber, 1678, he himself embarked in a little vessel of ten tons, to cross Lake Ontario. This, says one of his chroniclers, was the first ship that sailed upon that fresh water sea. The wind was strong and contrary, ancl four weeks nearly were passsed in beat ing up the little distance between Kingston and Niagara. Having forced their brigantine as far toward the falls as was possible, our travellers landed ; built some magazines with difficulty, for, at times the ground was frozen so hard, that they could drive their stakes or posts into it only by first pouring upon it boiling water ; and then made acquaintance with the Iroquois, of the village of Niagara, upon Lake Erie. Not far from this village, La Salle founded a second fort, upon which he set his men to work ; but finding the Iroquois jealous, he gave it up for a time, and merely erected temporary fortifications for his magazines ; and then leav ing orders for a new ship to be built, he returned to Port Fronte nac, to forward stores, cables and anchors for his forthcoming vessel. Through the hard and cold winter days, the frozen river lying before them "likeaplain paved with fine polished marble," some of his men hewed and hammered upon the timbers of the Griffin, as the great bark was to be named, while others gathered furs and skins, or sued for the good will of the bloody savages amid whom they were quartered ; and all went merrily until the 20th of January, 1679. On that day the chevalier arrived from below. The vessel in which his valuables had been embarked, was wrecked through the bad management of the pilots ; and though the more important part of her freight was saved, much of her provisions went to the bottom. During the winter, however, a quantity of, furs was collected, with which, early in the spring of 1679, the commander returned to Fort Frontenac to get another outfit, while Tonti was sent forward to scour the lake coasts, muster together the men who had been sent before, collect skins, and ex plore the country. In thus coming and going, buying and trad ing, the summer of this year passed away, and it was the 7th of August before the Griffin was ready to sail. Then, with the Te 100 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Deums and the discharge of arquebuses, she began her voyage up Lake Erie. " Over lake Erie, through the strait beyond, across the lake they named St. Clair, and into Huron, the voyagers passed most happily. In Huron they were troubled by storms, dread ful as those upon the ocean, and at last were forced to take refuge in the strait of Michilimackinac. This was upon the 27th of August. At this place La Salle remained until the middle of September, founded a fort there, and sent men therefrom in vari ous directions to examine the country. He then went on to Green Bay, the "Baie des Puans," of the French; and, finding there a large quantity of skins and furs collected for him, he de termined to load the Griffin and send her back to Niagara. Ac cordingly, upon the 18th of September, she was dispatched under the charge of a pilot, supposed to be competent and trustworthy, while La SaUe himself, with fourteen men, proceeded up lake Michigan, paddling along its shores in the most leisurely manner ; Tonti, meanwhile, was sent to find stragglers, with whom he was to join the main body at the head of the lake. " From the 19th of September till the 1st of November, the time was occupied by La Salle in his voyage up the sea in ques tion. On the day last named, he arrived at the mouth of the river of the Miamis, or St. Josephs, as it is now called. Here he built a fort and remained for nearly a month, when hearing noth ing from his Griffin, he determined to push on before it was too late. " On the 3d of December, having mustered all his forces, thirty laborers and three monks, after having left ten men to garrison the fort, La Salle started again upon ' his great voyage and glori ous undertaking.' " By way of the Illinois, La Salle traversed a large region of country, but, the loss of the Griffin and all his property, and the want of reinforcements and supplies, compelled him to return. He saw that he must return to Canada, raise new means and en list new men, not, however, for a single moment relinquishing his bold project. On the contrary, he determined that while he was on his return a small party should visit the Mississippi and ex plore that stream toward its source. He placed Louis Hennepin Exploration and Settlement. 101 at the head of this expedition, and started him out with instruc tions, and scanty supplies, on the last day of February, 1680. Tonti, and the few men that remained, were left to cultivate the friendship of the Indians, at Fort Crevecoeur. Through great hardships, La Salle reached Canada, where he found his affairs in a bad condition, but never despairing, he was soon on his return voyage of exploration, with new supplies. During his absence, the little band he had left on the Illinois suf fered extremely — so much so, that in September, 1680, Tonti abandoned his position, escaping from the hostile Indians with great difficulty, and, after much fatigue reached the lakes. When, therefore, La Salle reached the forsaken fort on the Illi nois, not having been informed of the troubles of Tonti and his associates, he was at the point of despair. He was again forced to return to Canada to secure more men and means. In June, 1681, he met Tonti at Mackinaw. Hennepin, who had been intrusted with the Mississippi expedi tion, reached no farther than the mouth of the Wisconsin river, when he was taken prisoner by the Sioux. The Indians treated their prisoners with some kindness, and took them to their vil lage, via. St. Anthony's Falls. These falls were named by Hen nepin - at the time. Some time after Hennepin was rescued by some French traders, and once more found his way to civiliza tion, and soon after to his native France. When La Salle met Tonti at Mackinaw, in 1681, he went down the lakes to Fort Frontenac, to make the needful preparations for prosecuting his western discoveries ; in August, 1681, he was on his way up the lakes again, and on the 3d of November, at the St. Josephs, as full of confidence as ever. " The middle of De cember had come, however, before all were ready to go forward ; and then, with twenty-three Frenchmen, eighteen eastern Indians, ten Indian women and three children, he started by the way of the Chicago river. On the 6th of April, 1682, they discovered the three passages by which the Mississippi discharges its waters into the Gulf of Mexico. Here they took possession, formally, of the whole Mississippi valley, in the name of the king of France, with great show and acclaim, raising the cross as an enblem of the religion of France. These events laid the foundation for the 102 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. claims of France to the Mississippi valley, and according to the usages of European powers, these claims were based upon good grounds. After accomplishing the design of the expedition, La Salle returned. It is not our plan to follow La Salle through his other unfortunate expeditions. We have merely referred to the expedition of Marquette and La Salle sufficiently to present the most important features connected with the exploration of the Mississippi valley. It is no part of our plan to present a history of the Spanish and French in America, or even a history of the forms of French government that were extended over the terri tory. On the other hand, we shall be content to notice, briefly, some of the principal events in the early history of the north west, through French and English rules, and then to speak more in detail of the events in the history under the United States government. After the combined expedition of Crozat and Cadillac, which failed in its search for gold and which was thwarted in its en deavor to establish a trade with the Spaniards, came the enter prise of the far famed Mississippi company, or company of the west, afterwards the " Company of the Indies." This company was organized to aid the immense banking and stock jobbing speculations of the notorious John Law, a Scotch gambler and speculator. This man had a most wonderful idea of wealth, one as false as it was attractive. His enterprise is thus spoken of by Eev. J. M. Beck, an early writer of western history : " The public debt of France was selling at 60 to 70 per cent, discount ; Law was authorized to establish a bank of circu lation, the shares in which might be paid for in public stock at par; and to induce the public to subscribe for the bank shares, and to confide in them, the company of the west was established in connection with the bank, having the exclusive right of tradino- in the Mississippi country for twenty -five years, and with the mo nopoly of the Canada beaver trade. This was in September, 1717. In 1718, the monopoly of tobacco was also granted to this favored creature of the"state ; in 1719, the exclusive right of trading in Asia and the East Indies ; and soon after, the farmin'o- of the public revenue, together with an extension of all these privileges to the year 1770 ; and, as if all this had been insuffi- Exploration and Settlement. 103 cient, the exclusive right of coining for nine years was next added to the immense grants already made to the company of the west. Under this hot-bed system, the stock of the company rose to 500, .600, 800, 1,000, 1,500, and at last 2,050 per cent. This was in April, 1720. At that time the notes of the bank in circu lation exceeded two hundred millions of dollars, and this abund ance of money raised the price of everything to twice its true value. Then the bubble burst ; decree after decree was made to uphold the tottering fabric of false credit; but in vain.. In Jan uary, 1720, Law had been made minister of finance, and as such he proceeded, first, to forbid all persons to have on hand more than about one hundred dollars in specie ; any amount beyond that must be exchanged for paper, and all payments for more than twenty dollars were to be made in paper; and this proving insufficient, in March all payments over two dollars were ordered to be in paper ; and he who dared attempt to exchange a bill for specie, forfeited both. Human folly could go no further; in April, the stock began to fall ; in May, the company was re garded as bankrupt, the notes of the bank fell to ten cents on the dollar, and though a decree made it an offense to refuse them at par, they were soon worth little -more than waste paper. Under the direction of a company thus organized and controlled, and closely connected with ,a bank so soon ruined, but little could be hoped for a colony which depended on good management to de velop its real resources for trade and agriculture. In 1718, colo nists were sent from Europe, and New Orleans laid out with much ceremony and many hopes ; but in January, 1722, Charle voix, writing thence, says : "If the eight hundred fine houses, and the five parishes, that were two years since represented by the journals as existing here, shrink now to a hundred huts, built without order, a large wooden magazine, two or three houses that would do but little credit to a French village, and half of an old store house, which was to have been occupied as a chapel, but from which the priests soon retreated to a tent, as preferable ; if all this is so, still how pleasant to think of what this city will one day be, and, instead of weeping over its decay ancl ruin, to look forward to its growth to opulence and power." And again, "The best idea you can form of New Orleans, is to imagine two 104 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ^ hundred persons sent to build a city, but who have encamped on the river bank, just sheltered from the weather, and waiting for houses. They have a beautiful and regular plan for this metrop olis ; but it will prove harder to execute than to draw." Such, in substance, were the representations and hopes of the wise his torian of New France, respecting the capital of the colony of Law's great corporation ; and it may be certain that with the chief place in such a condition, not much had been done for the permanent improvement of the country about it. The truth was, the same prodigality and folly which prevailed in France during the government of John Law, over credit and commerce, found their way to his western possessions ; and though the colony then planted survived, and the city then founded became in time what had been hoped, it was long before the influence of the gambling mania of 1718, 1719 and 1720 passed away. Indeed the returns from Louisiana never repaid the cost and trouble of protecting it, and, in 1732, the company asked leave to surrender their privi leges to the crown, a favor which was granted them." The same writer informs us that " Upper Louisiana, or the Illi nois, was probably occupied by the French, without interruption, from the time of the first visit of La Salle, in 1679. Of neces sity, their missions and settlements were formed along the routes of travel between Canada and the mouth of the Mississippi. The only mode of communication used was by canoes ; and of conse quence only the navigable rivers, tributary to the Mississippi and to tbe St. Lawrence, interlocking each other, were explored. From the hostility of the Iroquois, the earliest missionaries and traders were cut off from the lakes Ontario ancl Erie ; and their route to Superior and Green Bay was, from Montreal, up the, Ot tawa river to lake Nipissing, and down the French river to lake Huron. The route followed by Marquette was from Mackinaw to Green Bay ; thence up the Fox river of Wisconsin to Winne bago lake; thence up the Waupaca to a portage in Portage county, Wisconsin, to the Wisconsin river and to the Mississippi. The route followed by La Salle was from Niagara, up lakes Erie, St. Clair and Huron, to Mackinaw; thence down lake Michigan to the mouth of the river St. Josephs, up that river to a portage of three miles, in St. Josephs county, Indiana, to the Exploration and Settlement. , 105 Kankakee river ; thence down to the Illinois, and to the Missis sippi. Another route was established, about 1716, from the head of lake Erie up the Maumee to the site of Fort Wayne ; thence by a portage to the Wabash ; thence, by way of that river, to the Ohio and Mississippi. At a later period another route was opened. It passed from lake Erie, at Presquille, over a portage of fifteen miles to the head of French creek, at Waterford, Pa. ; thence down that stream to the Allegheny and to the Ohio. Along these lines the French posts were confined ; and, as there were no agricultural communities, except the Illinois settlement, in the west during the whole period of the French occupation, the posts were either trading stations or forts, built for the pro tection of the traders, or to secure the French ascendency over the Indians. At the most northern point of the southern penin sula of Michigan, and nine miles southwest of the island of that name, La Salle founded Fort Mackinaw, in 1679. At the mouth of the St. Josephs river he built Fort Miami, in 1679, which was burned, however, by some deserters from Tonti, two years after ward. In 1680, he built Fort Cre/ecoeur on the Illinois river, near the site of Peoria. In the same year, Tonti built Fort St. Louis, or the Bock Fort, in La Salle county, Illinois ; but its ex act location is unknown. These posts served as points of settle ment for the traders and voyagers who followed immediately in the track of La Salle, and for the Jesuit missionaries that accom panied or followed him. The climate and soil of lower Illinois were inviting, and accordingly the first settlements were made in that region. The exact date is uncertain. "It is conjectured, that before the close of the seventeenth century, traders passed down south from the St. Josephs to Eel river and Wabash ; ancl a report of La Salle to Frontenac, made perhaps in 1682, mentions the route by the Maumee and Wabash, as the most direct to the Mississippi. That route was indeed es tablished in 1716 ; but of the date of the settlements on the lower Wabash, there is no certain information. The uncertainty that is connected with the settlement of Vincennes is a case in point. Volney, by conjecture, fixes tire settlement of Vincennes about 1735 ; Bishop Brute, of Indiana, speaks of a missionary station there in 1700, and adds, ' The friendly tribes and traders called to 106 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Canada for protection, and then M. de Vincennes came with a de tachment, I think, of Carignan, and was killed in 1736.' Mr. Bancroft says a military establishment was formed there in 1716, and, in 1742, a settlement of herdsmen took place. Judge Law regards the post as dating back to 1710 or 1711, supposing it to be the same with the Ohio settlement, and quotes also an Act of Sale, existing at Kaskaskia, which, in January, 1735, speaks of M. de Vinsenne as 'Commandant au Poste de Ouabache.' Again, in a petition of the old inhabitants at Vincennes, dated in No vember, 1793, is found the settlement spoken of as having been made before 1742 ; and such is the general voice of tradition. On the other hand, Charlevoix, who records the death of Vincen nes, which took place among the Chickasaws, in 1736, makes no mention of any post on the Wabash, or any missionary station there ; neither does he mark any upon his map, although he gives even the British forts upon the Tennessee and elsewhere. Vivier, in 1750, says nothing of any mission on the Wabash, although writing in respect to western missions, and speaks of the necessity of a fort upon the 'Ouabache.' By this, it is true, he meant doubtless the Ohio, but how natural to refer to the post at Vin cennes, if one existed. In a volume of 'Memoires' on Louisiana, compiled from the minutes of M. Dumont, and published in Paris, in 1753, but probably prepared in 1749, though there is an ac count of the Wabash or St. Jerome, its rise and course, and the use made of it by the traders, not a word is found touching any fort, settlement or station on it. Vaudreuil, when governor of Louisiana, in 1751, mentions even then no post on the Wabash, although he speaks of the need of a post on the Ohio, near to where Fort Massac, or Massacre, was built afterward, and names Fort Miami on the Maumee. Still further, in " The Present State of North America," a pamphlet published in London, in 1755, with which is a map of the French posts in the west, it is stated that, in 1750, a fort was founded in Vincennes, and that in 1754, three hundred families were sent to settle in that region." * The company of the west was formed with the special purpose of developing the mineral resources of Louisiana ; and the upper Louisiana was regarded as especially rich in minerals. To open * "Western Annals — Bancroft's History ef the United States. The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. 107 and work them, Philip Francis Benault was sent out, in 1719, with two hundred mechanics, miners ancl laborers. On his way, he bought, in the name of the company, five hundred slaves at St. Domingo, for working the mines, and arrived at the Illinois in 1720. This was the first introduction of slavery into the terri tory of the Northwest; about the same time it was introduced into the southwest, and there soon acquired a permanent estab lishment. Of course, in the first instance, here as elsewhere, it existed without law, but was sanctioned and regulated by subse quent legislation. The " ordinance for the government and ad ministration of justice, police discipline and. traffic in negro slaves, in the province of Louisiana," though sufficiently cruel to disgrace even a French king of the old regime, yet compares fa vorably with the slave codes of a later day. CHAPTEE IX. THE FRANCO-BRITISH COLONIAL CONFLICT. French Claims to all Territory Northwest of the Ohio — English Claims to the Same Territory — Measures of Both Parties to Protect their Claimed Possessions — The War Clouds Gathering — Military Movements — En glish, French and Indians. The Feench, however, were not permitted to occupy and ex tend their western settlements without opposition. The English who occupied the Atlantic seaboard in the beginning of the eighteenth century, directed their attention to the great west, and although France claimed the territory by possession, the English disputed their professed ownership. In 1710, Alexander Spots- wood, the governor of Virginia, became fully awakened as to the designs of the French, and through his representations the assem bly of Virginia was brought to appropriate mone}r to explore the Alleghanies, for the purpose of discovering a suitable passage to the valley west of that mountain range. An expedition was suc cessful in carrying out the designs of the measure, and after a 108 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. passage was discovered, scattering Englishmen began to penetrate the western forests. Colonization companies followed, ancl in a short time there were several settlements on the Ohio. These opera tions attracted the attention of the French, and their fears were aroused. " To the danger of the English possessions in the west, Vaudreuil, the French governor, had been long alive. Upon the 10th of May, 1744, he wrote home representing the consequences that must come from allowing the British to build a trading- house among the Creeks ; and, in November, 1748, he anticipated their seizure of Fort Prudhomme, which was upon the Mississippi below the Ohio. Nor was it for mere sickly missionary stations that the governor feared ; for, in the year last named, the Illinois settlements, few as they were, sent flour and corn, the hams of hogs and bears, pickled pork and beef, myrtle wax, cotton, tallow, leather, tobacco, lead, iron, copper, some little buffalo wool, venison, poultry, bear's grease, oil, skins, and coarse furs to the New Orleans market. Even in 1746, from five to six hundred barrels of flour, according to one authority, and two thousand according to another, went thither from Illinois, convoys annually going down in December with the produce. Having these fears, and seeing the danger of the late movements of the British, Gallisoniere, then governor of Canada, determined to place along the Ohio, evidences of the French claim to, and possession of the country ; and for that purpose, in the summer of 1749, sent Louis Celeron with a party of soldiers, to place plates of lead, on which were written the claims of France, in the mounds, and at the mouths of the rivers." The following is a copy of the inscription on the plate deposited atVanango: "In the year 1749, reign of Louis XV, king of France, we Celeron, commandant of a detachment by Monsieur the' Marquis of Gallisoniere, commander-in-chief of New France, to establish tranquillity in certain Indian villages of these cantons, have buried this plate at the confluence of the Toradakoin, this twenty-ninth of July, near the river Ohio, otherwise Beautiful Biver, as a monument of renewal of possession which we have taken of the said river, and all its tributaries ; and of all the land on both sides, as far as the sources of said rivers ; inasmuch as the preceding kings of France have enjoyed it, and maintained it bv The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. 109 their arms and by treaties; especially by those of Byswick, Utrecht, and Aix La Chappelle." On the other hand the English laid claim to the same territory. The French labored hard to make good their title to the valley of the Ohio, and took active steps to fortify themselves in the possession of the territory. It was now plain that the French and English had fairly entered into a contest for the Mississippi val ley ; a contest that could not be settled save by an appeal to the sword. " To that, however," says an early writer, " neither party desired an immediate appeal, but both sought rather to establish and fortify their interests, and to conciliate the Indian tribes. In the fall of 1750, the Ohio company sent out Christopher Gist to explore the regions west of the mountains. He was instructed to examine the passes, to trace the courses of the rivers, to mark the the falls, to seek for valuable lands, to observe the strength, and to conciliate the friendship cf the Indian tribes. He visited Logs- town, where he was received with jealousy, passed over to the Muskingum, where he found a village of the Ottawas friendly to the French, and a village of the Wyandots divided in senti ment. There he met Croghan, who had been sent out by Penn sylvania, and in concert they held a council with the chiefs, and received assurance of the friendship of the tribe. Next, they pas sed to the Shawnee towns on the Scioto, received assurances of friendship from them, and then crossed the Miami valley. " Noth ing," said they, " is wanting but cultivation to make it a most de lightful country." They crossed the Great Miami on a raft of logs, and visited Piqua, the chief town of the Pickawillanies, and here they made treaties with the Piquas and representatives of the Weas (Ouias), and Piankeshaws. While there, a deputation of the Ottawas appeared to solicit an alliance of the Miami con federacy with the French. They were repulsed, however, by the address and promises of the English agents, and the chiefs of the tribe sent back a message with Gist, that their friendship should stand like the mountains. Croghan returned, Gist followed the Miami to its mouth, passed down the Ohio river until within fif teen miles of the falls, then returned by way of the Kentucky river, and over the highlands of Kentucky to Virginia, in May, 1751, having visited the Mingoes, Delewares, Wyandots, Shaw- 110 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. anees and Miamis, proposed a union among the tribes, and ap pointed a general council at Logstown, to form an alliance among themselves and with Virginia. Meanwhile, some traders had es tablished themselves at Larimie's store, or Pickawillany, some forty-seven miles north of the site of Dayton, Ohio. A party of French and their Ottawa and Chippewa allies demanded them of the Miamis as unauthorized intruders on French lands. The Miamis refused, a battle ensued, fourteen of them were killed, the traders were taken and carried to Canada, or, as one account says, burned. It is probable those traders were from Pennsyl vania, since that province made a gift of condolence to the Twig- twees for those slain in their def ense. Blood had now been shed, and both parties became more deeply interested in the progress of events in the west. The English, on their part, determined to purchase from the Indians a title to the lands they wished to oc cupy, and, in the spring of 1752, Messrs. Fry, Lomax and Patten, were sent from Virginia to hold a conference with the natives at Logstown, to learn what they objected to in the treaty of Lancas ter, of which it was said they complained, and to settle all difficul ties. On the 9th of June, the commissioners met the red men at Logstown, a little village, seventeen miles below Pittsburgh, upon the right bank of the Ohio descending. It had been a trading point, but had been abandoned by the Indians in 1750. Here the Lancaster treaty was produced, and the sales of the western lands insisted upon ; but the chiefs said that ' they had not heard of any sale west of the warrior's road, which ran at the foot of the Allegheny ridge.' The commissioners then offered goods for a ratification of the Lancaster treaty ; spoke of the proposed settle ment by the Ohio Company ; and used all their persuasions to secure the land wanted. On the 11th of June, the Indians re plied : They recognized the treaty of Lancaster, and the author ity of the Six Nations to make it, but denied that they had any knowledge of the western lands being conveyed to the English by that deed, and declined having anything to do with the treaty of 1744. ' However,' said the savages, ' as the French have already struck the Twigtwees, we shall be pleased to have your assistance and protection, and wish you would build a fort at once at the forks of the Ohio.' But this permission was not what the Vir- The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. Ill ginians wanted ; they took aside Montour, the interpreter, who was a son of the famous Catharine Montour, and a chief among the Six Nations, and persuaded him to use his influence with his fellows. By that means they were induced to treat, and upon the 13th of June, they all united in signing a deed, confirming the Lancaster treaty in its full extent, consenting to a settlement southeast of the Ohio, and covenanting that it should not be dis turbed by them. By such means was obtained the first treaty with 'fhe Indians in the Ohio valley." And now while all was at peace in Europe between France and England, events in the west were shaping for a contest between the colonies. While the English were surveying the country on the Ohio, laying out a town and preparing for the settlement of the country, the French were gathering cannon and stores upon lake Erie, and disregarding treaties, were busily at work gaining the good will and wishes of the natives. But during all this time the Indians, for the most part, were unable to comprehend the cause for a quarrel between the European colonists. The French became very industrious in their work of fortifying the country. They built a line of forts from lake Erie to the Ohio. These were Presquile, Le Bceuf and Vanango. In May, 1753, the governor of Pennsylvania called the attention of the assembly of that state to the movements of the French. That body there upon voted six hundred pounds for distribution among the tribes, besides two hundred for presents of condolence to the Twigtwees. From this time the French regarded the English as encroaching upon their territory, and the latter looked upon the advancing settlements of the former with precisely the same feelings. It was during this condition of things on the frontiers, and while the hostile feeling thus prevailed, that George Washington, then in his twenty-second year, was appointed by Gov. Dinwiddie to visit the western outposts, demand of the French commandant his de signs, and to observe the extent and disposition of his forces. Washington was informed by the French authorities in the west, that they considered themselves the rightful owners of the coun try, and that they would not yield it to any authority. This in telligence aroused the anger of the provinces, and measures con- 112 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. sistent with instructions from the British colonial secretary were taken to repel the French, who were already pushing their stock ades far up the valley of the Ohio. The legislating authorities of the several provinces were slow to provide the necessary meas ures, a number of questions corning up to hinder the progress, of their work. Boundaries were indefinite, and some were disposed to admit the claims of the French. Nevertheless the. necessary measures were at length carried through, at least in some of the provinces. Meanwhile, the French forces were gathering in the western forests, and all along the border the scene was one of com motion and preparation for battle. During this time Gov. Hamilton, in Philadelphia, had sum moned the assembly, "and asked them if they meant to help the king in the defense of his dominions; and had desired them, above all things, to do whatever they meant to perform, quickly. The assembly debated, and resolved to aid the king with a little money, and then debated again, and voted not to aid him with any money at all, for some would not give less than ten thousand pounds, and others would not give more than five thousand pounds; and so, nothing being practicable, they adjourned upon the 10th of April, until the 13th of May. In New York, a little, and only a little, better spirit was at work; nor was this strange, as her direct interest was much less than that of Pennsylvania. Five thousand pounds, indeed, were voted to Virginia ; but the assembly questioned the invasion of his majesty's dominions by the French, and it was not till June that the money was sent for ward. The old dominion; however, was all alive. As, under the provincial law, the militia could not be called forth to march more than five miles beyond the bounds of the colony, and as' it was doubtful if the French were in Virginia, it was determined to rely upon volunteers. Ten thousand pounds had been voted by the assembly ; so the two companies were now increased to six, and Washington was raised to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and made second in command under Joshua Fry. Ten cannon, lately from England, were forwarded from Alexandria ; wagons were got ready to carry westward, provisions and stores through the heavy spring roads ; and everywhere along the Potomac men were enlisting under the governor's1 proclamation, which promised to The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. 113 those that should serve in that war, two hundred thousand acres of land on the Ohio; or, already enlisted, were gathering into grave knots, or marching forward to the field of action, or helping on the thirty cannon and eighty barrels of gunpowder, which the king had sent out for the western forts. Along the Potomac they ^ were gathering, as far as to AVills' creek, and far beyond Wills' creek, whither Trent had come for assistance ; his little band of forty-one men was working away, in hunger and want, to fortify that point at the forks of the Ohio, to which both parties were looking with deep interest. A few Indian scouts were seen, but no enemy seemed near at hand ; and all was so quiet that Frazier, an old Indian trader, who had been left by Trent in command of the new fort, ventured to his home at the mouth of Turtle creek, ten miles up the Monongahela. But, though all was so quiet in that wilderness, keen eyes had seen the low entrenchment that was rising at the forks, and swift feet had borne the news of it up the valley ; and, upon the 17th of April, Ensign Ward, who then had charge of it, was astonished at the sight of sixty batteaux and three hundred canoes, filled with men, and laden deep with can non and stores, on the Allegheny. The commandant, Contrecoeur, immediately sent in a summons to surrender the fort. By the advice of the half king, Ward sought to evade a reply, by referr ing him to his superior, Frazier. It was in vain ; resistance by his feeble band behind unfinished works, against a thousand men, was alike useless; and Ensign Ward surrendered his works, and the next day passed up the Monongahela." When the news of the surrender of the Forks reached Wash ington, he was at Wills' creek, with three companies, on his march to Bedstone. He sent back to Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland for reinforcements, and advanced to Bedstone. On the 9th of May he reached Little Meadows, where he learned that the French had been reinforced by eight hundred men. At this time French spies and agents were scouring the forests, bribing the Indians and observing the operations of the English. On the 27th, Washington arrived at Great Meadows, where Gist, who then lived on Bedstone creek, informed him that a scouting party of French had been at his house the day previous. Washington was also informed that the French were encamped in force not 8 114 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. far distant, and he hastened to join a party of friendly Indians against them. The French were discovered in an obscure place, surrounded by rocks. The English and Indians arrayed for an attack. The French discovering their approach, ran to their arms; a conflict ensued. "The firing lasted about fifteen min utes, when the French surrendered ; Jumonville, their comman der, and ten of his men, were slain, twenty-two were taken pris oners, one escaped and carried the tidings of the skirmish to Fort du Quesne. Washington's loss was one man killed and two wounded. The Indians received no loss. The French afterwards claimed that this was an unauthorized attack; and that Jumon ville was sent in the character of an ambassador, to warn the English to depart from lands claimed by them. The circum1 stances of the case, however, proved the fact that they concealed themselves, and reconnoitered Washington's camp ; and the fact that they had instruction from ContreCoeur with them to examine the country as far as the Potomac, is appealed to by him as the proof that they were, as he had been informed, not messengers, but spies, and hence enemies, according to the usages of war. Deserters from Fort du Quesne, who afterward joined Washing ton, confirmed the fact that Jumonville and his party were sent as spies, and directed to show a summons which they bore, only if they were overpowered. Washington immediately returned to the Great Meadows, and threw up a fortification, to which he gave the name of Fort Necessity, and then proceeded to cut a road through the wilderness to Gist's plantation." After this, Washington, with his provincials, retired to Great Meadows, where they strengthened the little fortification that had been erected there, and prepared to make a bold stand against the French, who were understood to be approaching in great num bers. On the third of May, 1754, the French and Indians ap peared and commenced an attack in the midst of a heavy rain. This they continued until late the following evening, when terms of capitulation were agreed upon, and Washington retired to Wills' creek, where, immediately afterwards, Fort Cumberland was erected. The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. 115 CHAPTEE X. THE FRANCO-BRITISH COLONIAL CONFLICT. French and English Colonies Preparing for War — The Contest— The Fall of Canada — Taking Possession of the Western Outposts — Pontiac Ap pears. Although the year of 1755 opened with promises of peace, it soon brought results of war. France, in January, proposed to re store everything to the state it was in, before the last war, and to refer all claims to the commissioners at Paris, to which England, on the 22d of the same month, replied that the west of North America must be left as it was at the treaty of Utrecht. " On the 6th of February, France made answer, that the old English claims in America were untenable; and offered a new ground of com promise, that the English should retire east of the Alleghenies, and the French, west of the Ohio. This offer was long considered, and at length was agreed to by England, on the 7th of March, provided the French would destroy all their forts on the Ohio and its branches ; which the French government refused to do. While all this negotiation was going on, other things had also been in motion. Gen. Braddock, with his gallant troops, crossed the At lantic, and, on the 20th of February, landed in Virginia, com mander-in-chief of all the land forces in America; and in the north, preparation was made for an attack on Crown Point and Niagara. In France, too, other work had been done than negoti ation ; at Brest and Bochelle, ships were fitting out. and troops and stores being collected. England had not been asleep, and Boscawen had been busy at Plymouth, hurrying on the workmen, and gathering the sailors. In March, the two European neigh bors were seeking to quiet all troubles ; in April, the fleets ol: both were crowding sail across the Atlantic, and, in Alexandria, Braddock, Shirley, and their fellow officers, were taking counsel as to the summer's campaign. In America, four points were to 116 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. be attacked : Fort Du Quesne, Crown Point, Niagara, and the French posts in Nova Scotia. On the 20th of April, Braddock left Alexandria to march upon Du Quesne, whither he was ex pressly ordered, though the officers in America thought New York should be the main point for regular operations. The ex pedition for Nova Scotia, consisting of three thousand Massachu setts men, left Boston on the 20th of May; while the troops which Gen. Shirley was to lead against Niagara, and the provin cials which William Johnson was to head in the attack upon Crown Point, slowly collected at Albany. The fearful and de sponding colonists waited anxiously for news till midsummer ; and. when the news came that Nova Scotia had been conquered, and that Boscawen had taken two of the French men of war, and lay before Louisburg, hope and joy spread everywhere." But this rejoicing was soon crushed by news of Braddock's defeat. " The defeat of Braddock, and the failure of the expedition, left the whole western frontier of the English colonies exposed to the hostile incursions of the French and Indians. At that time the western settlements extended only to the head waters of the Sus quehanna, the Potomac, the Shenandoah, James and Boanoke rivers. Settlements, indeed, had been made between 1745 and 1750, near the sources of the Cumberland, Clinch^ and Holstou rivers. These were broken up, and the settlers compelled to re tire beyond the mountains, by the Cherokees. The valley of the Blue Bidge was desolated by the Shawanees, and to avenge their inroads in Virginia, Gov. Dinwiddie, in January, 1756, dispatched Col. Lewis to destroy their towns on the Scioto, and to build a fort at the mouth of the Great Sandy, as a barrier against their incursions." It will be seen that the doings of 1755 were not peaceful ; nevertheless, war had not yet been declared, nor was it until May following. The whole northwestern frontier was now let loose and French and Indians roamed in search of conquest. The cause of England languished in the northwest, as elsewhere, until the great Pitt was made prime minister of Great Britain. In the year 1758 there was a great revival of English forces, and on sea and on land, Britain regained what she had lost. In North America Louisburg yielded before Boscawen, Fort Frontenac was taken The Franco-British Colonial Conflict. Ill by Bradstreet, and Du Quesne was abandoned upon the approach of Forbes through Pennsylvania. When the expedition under Forbes first set out, the English de termined, besides sending military forces into the northwest to repel French insolence, to send emissaries for the purpose of winning over the Indians to the English cause. The first of these sent was Christian Frederick Post, a man who had lived seventeen years among the Indians, and who had married one of the natives. He was quite successful. Many tribes were induced to take a neutral stand, and others were persuaded to take sides with the English. However, the success of the British in 1758, in driving the French and their allies from Du Quesne, and in making a favorable impression on the natives, opened the way for the great struggle of "1759, which terminated with the fall of all Canada, and the complete reduction of French power in America. Without attempting to give here an account of the three well planned expeditions against Canada in 1759, it will suffice to say that, with the fall of Wolfe, the French were defeated, and the British gained the supremacy in the whole of the northern part of North America. Negotiations for peace followed immediately after the surrender of Canada. They were not successful, and "the family compact" was entered into between France and Spain, in which both parties were bound to share and balance all losses, in the war which it was declared was to be waged to op pose the growing power of England. The continuance of the war only contributed to the successes of England, and accord ingly negotiations were reopened, and on the third of November, 1762, preliminaries were agreed to and signed, and afterward rati fied at Paris, in February, 1763. To secure the restoration of Havana, Spain was obliged to cede to Great Britain East and West Florida. To compensate Spain, under the terms of the family compact, France ceded, by a secret article, all Louisiana west of the Mississippi, to Spain. The war had now ceased, and the French had been completely reduced. Canada, with all its dependencies, was in the hands of the victorious English, but it still remained for the English to take possession of the western outposts where the French still obstinately remained, and where they were supported by power- 118 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ful Indian tribes, hostile to the British, and still friendly to the overpowered Frenchmen. This was by no means an easy task. It was obviously a dangerous undertaking " to extend the author ity of England over the uncivilized regions of the west, to allay the hostility and conciliate the friendship of its barbarous inhabi tants, and thus to secure what they had so hardly earned — the blessings of peace to the exhausted colonies, and the fruits of its great conquest to the English crown. The great importance of the work was overlooked by those to whom its execution was intrusted. On the 12th of September, 1760, Major Eobert Sog ers received orders from Gen. Amherst, to ascend the lakes, and take possession of the French fort in the northwest. Bogers was well fitted for the task. On the borders of New Hampshire, with Putnam and Stark, he had earned a great reputation as a partisan officer ; and Bogers' rangers, armed with rifle, tomahawk and knife, had rendered much service, and won a great name. Later, that reputation was tarnished by greater crimes. Tried for an attempt to betray Mackinaw to the Spaniards, he abandoned the country, and entered the service of the Dey of Algiers. At the war of independence, he entered the American service, was detected as a spy, passed over to the British, and was banished by an act of his native state. Such was the man who was sent to plant the British flag in the great valley. Immediately upon receiving his orders, he set out to ascend the St. Lawrence with two hundred men in fifteen boats. On the 7th of November they landed at the mouth of Cuyahoga creek. Here they were met by a party of Indians, who were deputed to them to say that Pontiac, the great chief of the Ottawas, was near, and to demand that they should advance no further till they should receive his permission. During the day the great chief appeared, and imperiously de manded why the army was there without his consent. Eogers replied that Canada had been conquered, and, that he was on his way to occupy the French posts, and to restore peace to the Indians. Pontiac only replied that he would stand in his path till morning. On the next day he delivered a formal reply to the English officer, that he consented to live at peace with the English as long as they treated him with due deference. The, calumet was smoked, and an alliance made. Pontiac accompanied Border Wars. 119 his new friends to Detroit. On the way a band of Indians, sent out by the governor of Detroit, were waiting to destroy them. The influence of Pontiac was interposed, and the hostile Indians were induced to ally themselves with the English. A messenger was dispatched to Beletre, the governor, to demand the surrender of Detroit. He refused, avowed his intention to defend the post, and sought to arouse the Indians. It was in vain. Bogers ar rived below the village. Captain Campbell was dispatched with an order from Vaudreuil, commanding the surrender, and Beletre was compelled to obey. On the 29th of November, 1760, the colors of France were taken down, and the royal standard of England planted within the fort ; and the garrison and inhabi tants, amidst the shouts of the Indians, who looked on the strange scene with mingled awe of the English power, and astonishment at their forbearance. The lateness of the season prevented fur ther operations, but early in the next year, Mackinaw, Green Bay, Ste Marie, St. Josephs, and Ouiatenon were surrendered, and nothing remained to the French but the settlements of the Illinois."* For a time after the occupancy of these western out posts by the British, the Indians either remained neutral or were confessed friends to the British interests, but through the inso lence of the English, and the misrepresentations of the French, they were soon, as we shall sees in arms against them. CHAPTEB XI. BORDER WARS. A Review of the Western Outposts in 1759— Condition of the Indian Tribes- Sketch of Pontiac — History of the Pontiac War — Sketch of the Fall of the Nine Western Outposts. Let us pause in the current of events to glance at the western outposts, or the northwest, in 1760, when the British took posses sion of the territory. " One vast, continuous forest," says Francis * Compiled from Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac, and from Peck's and Perkins' compilations. 120 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Parkman, "shadowed the fertile soil, covering the land as the grass covers the garden lawn, sweeping over hill and hollow, in endless undulation, burying mountains in verdure, and mantling brooks and rivers from the light of day. Green intervals dotted with browsing deer, and broad plains blackened with buffalo, broke the sameness of the woodland scenery. Unnumbered rivers seamed the forest with their devious windings. Vast lakes washed its boundaries, where the Indian voyager, in his birch canoe, could descry no land beyond the world of waters. Yet this pro lific wilderness, teeming with waste fertility, was but a hunting ground and a battle field to a few fierce hordes of savages. Here and there, in some rich meadow opened to the sun, the Indian squaws turned the black mold with their rude implements of bone or iron, and sowed their scanty stores of maize and beans. Human labor drew no other tribute from that inexhaustable soil." Tbe population, consisting almost entirely of Indians, was so thin ancl scattered that sometimes one might travel for whole weeks without meeting a human form. Kentucky was but a "skirmish ing ground for the hostile tribes of the north and south ; " while in many parts of the lake region hundreds of square miles were inhabited only by wild beasts. At the close of the French war, the Indian population of the whole northwest did not exceed thir ty thousand. Out of this number there were not more than ten thousand fighting men. Yet this army, when detached and scat tered after the Indian customs of warfare, was all that the English could master. The condition of the savages had changed, al though, perhaps, it was but little improved. Onondaga, the cap ital of the Iroquois, where their council fires had been kindled from time out of mind, was no longer a place of great importance. The ancient council house of bark was still to be seen, but its deserted appearance bespoke the fall of the Six Nations. Their other villages presented a similar spectacle. Everywhere civili zation had worked evil for the savages. It was true that the use of firearms aided them in the chase, but all the advantage of the arts could not atone for the evils of rum. " High up the Susque hanna were seated the Northcokes, Conoys, and Mohicans, with a portion of the Delawares. Detached bands of the western Iro quois dwelt upon the headwaters of the Allegheny, mingled with" Border Wars. 121 their neighbors, the Delawares, who had several villages upon this stream. The great body of the latter nation, however, lived upon the Beaver creeks and the Muskingum in numerous scat tered towns and hamlets." In each village might have been seen one large building of better style than the rest. This was devot ed to festivals, dances, and public meetings. Along the Scioto were the lodges of the Shawanoes. To the westward, along the banks of the Wabash and the Maumee dwelt the Miamis. The Illinois were scattered ancl degraded. Having early met the French traders, they became addicted to the habit of drinking, and soon sank from their native purity into a wretched degeneracy. There was no tribe in the whole lake region which adapted itself to the customs of civilization with better results than the Wyandot family. At this time their villages along the Detroit, and in the vicinity of Sandusky, presented a clean and tidy appearance. They were husbandmen of considerable indus try, and their name ranked high in war and policy. The English settlements were scattered along the eastern seaboard on a narrow strip of land bordered on the west by a dense forest. At this time Albany, N. Y, was by far the largest frontier town. It was from this place that traders or soldiers bound for the lake region, or the wilds of the great west, set out on their hazardous journey. These hardy adventurers would embark in a canoe, ascend the Mohawk, pass the old dutch town of Schenectady, Fort Hunter and Fort Herkimer, finally reaching Fort Stanwix, at the head of the river navigation. They would then pass overland to Wood creek, carrying their canoes. Here they would embark, and by following its winding course, arrive at the Boyal Blockhouse. At this point they entered the waters of the Oneida. Crossing its western extremity, and passing under the wooden ramparts of Fort Brewerton, they would descend the river Oswego, to the town of the same name, on the banks of lake Ontario. Here the vast navigation of the lakes would be open before them. The principal trail from the middle colonies to the Indian coun try was from Philadelphia westward, mounting the Alleghenies, and descending to the valley of the Ohio. As soon as peace had b^een established, after the war between the colonies, adventurous fur traders hastened over the mountains, hoping to become rich 122 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. in the traffic of the wilderness markets, and forgetting the dangers with which they were surrounding themselves. These pioneer merchants would transport their merchandise on the backs of horses, threading the forests and fording streams for many miles into the unknown wilderness of the Indian country. They were a rough, bold, yet happy set of men, and often as fierce and as fond of war and adventure as the savages themselves. They wore but little dress. A blanket coat, or a frock of smoked deer skin, a rifle on the shoulder, and a knife and tomahawk in the belt, formed their ordinary equipment. The principal trader, " the owner of the merchandise, would fix his headquarters at some large Indian town, whence he would dispatch his subordi nates to the surrounding villages, with a suitable supply of blan kets and red cloth, guns and hatchets, liquor, tobacco, paint, beads and hawk's bills." This traffic was attended with every description of irregularity. Bivalism, robbery and murder were frequent results ; and, when it is considered that these adventur ers were in a country where neither law nor morals had any foot hold, such conduct will hardly be wondered at. A visit to the more remote tribes of the Mississippi valley was attended with still greater risk. No Englishman, however, attempted this haz ardous journey without losing his scalp, until several years after the conquest of Canada. The traveler bound to this region gen erally descended the Ohio in a canoe. " He might float,'" says Francis Parkman, " for more than eleven hundred miles down this liquid highway of the wilderness, and, except the deserted cabins of Logstown, a little below Fort Pitt, the remnant of a Shawnee village at the mouth of the Scioto, and an occasional hamlet or solitary wigwam along the luxuriant banks, he would discern no trace of human habitancy through all this vast ex tent." The body ol the Indian population lay to the north on the tributaries of this river, but scattering war parties were often to be encountered in this region. The traveler needed to exercise the greatest caution. If, perchance, he observed the blue smoke curling above the green bosom of the forest, betraying the camp ing ground of some war party, his light canoe was drawn into some hiding place on the bank of the river. When darkness closed in, the adventurer would again embark and float along in safety. Border Wars. 123 " In the southern portion of the present state of Illinois were to be seen the old French outposts, Kaskaskia, Cahokia and Vin cennes. From the latter the traveler could paddle his canoe up the Wabash until he reached the little village of Ouatauon. From this point a trail led through the forest to the Maumee, where stood Fort Miami. This is the spot where Fort Wayna was afterwards built. From this fort the traveler might de scend the Maumee river to Lake Erie. Here he would have San dusky on the right, or, further north, through the strait of De troit, he would pass Fort Detroit- and, enter the watery wastes of the northern lakes. Farther east, west of the Alleghany, were Forts Presque Isle, Le Boeuf and Venango. I have thus briefly pointed out the western outposts of civilization as they were to be found soon after the conquest of Canada, or at the commence ment of the Pontiac war. We will now glance at the Indians in their military capacity, and see to what extent they were prepared to prosecute the war into which they were about to plunge." * We have already observed that the Indians, soon after the British took possession of the western outposts, were instigated by the French to take up the hatchet against the new comers, and al though the Indians of the northwest were poorly qualified to en gage in war with the English, they had good reasons for com mencing it. A defeat could not be much worse than the insults to which they were every day subjected, and to stand quietly by and see their best hunting grounds invaded by English settlers, was not to be endured by Indian warriors who could boast as brave and sagacious a leader as Pontiac. -The French mission aries and fur traders, who had formerly come among them gave but little cause for alarm. These adventurers were, for the most part, satisfied with the proceeds of a traffic with the savages, or with telling them the story of the Cross ; but it was not so with the English. He was essentially a husbandman, and for half a league around his little hut he claimed exclusive rights to the re sources of the territory. When the Indian invaded these limits, he was treated with a haughty opposition, and ordered away. Thus the red men beheld the rapidly approaching ruin of their race, and hastened to avert it. Pontiac, whose penetrating mind * Compiled from Tuttle's History of the Border Wars. 124 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. could reach farthest into the annals of coming events, warned those around him of the danger of allowing the English to make permanent settlements in their country, and counseled the tribes to unite, in one great effort, against their common foe. He did not support the common idea which prevailed among the infuria ted Indians, of driving the English into the Atlantic Ocean, for he well knew their military skill and power; but being per suaded by the French that the King of France was at that time advancing up the St. Lawrence with a mighty army, he resolved to lead his warriors to battle with a view to restoring the French power in Canada, and to check the English in their progress west ward. Resolved on this course, Pontiac, at the close of the year 1762, sent out deputies to all the tribes. " They visited the country of the Ohio," says Parkman, "passed northward to the region of the upper lakes, and tbe wild borders of the river Ottawa, and far southward to the mouth of the Mississippi. Bearing with them the belt of wampum, broad and long as the importance of the message demanded, and the tomahawk stained red in token of war, they went from camp to camp, and village to village. Wherever they appeared the sachems arid old men assembled to hear the words of the great Pontiac. Then the head chief of Che embassy flung down the towahawk on the ground before them, and holding the war belt in his hand, delivered with vehement gesture, word for word, the speech with which he was charged." Everywhere the speech was received with approval, the hatchet taken up, and the auditors stood pledged, according to the Indian custom, to aid in the projected war. ' The onslaught was to begin in the following month of May. Each tribe was to surprise the garrison in his own immediate neighborhood, slaughter the sol diers, and then with a united effort all were to turn against the defenseless frontier settlements. The reader will here be anxious to know the names of those nations who thus eagerly united un der Pontiac against the English. With a few unimportant ex ceptions, they comprised the whole Algonquin family, the Wyan dots, the Senecas, and several tribes of the lower Mississippi. Of the Six Nations, the Senecas were the only nation who joined in the league. The other five nations remained neutral, it is said, through the timely influence of Sir William Johnson. Border Wars. 125 Although on the very eve of an outbreak, the savages con cealed their design with impenetrable secrecy. They continued to visit the various forts, and to solicit tobacco, ammunition and whisky in their usual manner. Now and then, enraged by Eng lish insolence, they would threaten the officers with the approaching slaughter, but beyond this, and with a single exception, the great conspiracy was unknown to the English until it burst forth in death and devastation. " On one occasion," says the author from whom I have just quoted, " the plot was nearly discovered. Early in March, 1763, Ensign Holmes, commanding at Fort Miami, was told by a friendly Indian, that the warriors in a neighboring village had lately received a war belt, with a mes sage urging them to destroy him and his garrison, and that this they were preparing to do." The commandant summoned the Indians together and openly charged them with their design. They confessed to the truthfulness of the report, declared that the plot had originated with a neighboring tribe, and promised to abandon it. Holmes communicated information of ¦ this affair to Maj. Gladwyn, of Detroit, who regarded it merely in the light of an ordinary Indian outbreak, and, believing that it would soon pass away, he took no notice of it. With the approach of spring, the Indians, returning from the chase, began to congregate in small parties around the different forts. They were unusually re served, seldom going into the forts, and encamping a short dis tance from them, in the edges of the woods. They were now rap idly preparing to strike the blow so long meditated by Pontiac, and the hour of treachery and massacre was nigh. They were by no means prepared for a successful war on their part, but, true to the Indian character, they loved the war path, and all were now anxious to enter upon it. "While there was little risk that they would capture any strong and well fortified fort, or carry any im portant position, there was, on the other hand, every reason to apprehend widespread havoc, and a- destructive war of detail. That the war might be carried on with vigor and effect, it was the part of the Indian leaders to work upon the passions of their peo ple, and keep alive the feeling of irritation ; to whet their native appetite for blood and glory, and cheer them on to the attack ; to guard against all that might quench their ardor, or abate their 126 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. fierceness ; to avoid pitched battles ; never to fight except under advantage, and to avail themselves of ail aid which surprise, craft and treachery could afford." The English colonies, at this time, having just emerged from a long and costly war with Can ada, were not in a position to meet this Indian outbreak without suffering largely from its consequences. Their little army was disorganized, and there remained hardly troops enough to garri son the feeble western outposts against which^Pontiac's war was now to be desperately waged. Sir William Johnson stood at the head of this inadequate force. He was then ripe in military re nown, and, withal, well qualified for the task which was thus un expectedly thrust upon him. "The command." says an able writer, " could not have been intrusted to better hands, and the results of the war, lamentable as they were, would have been much more disastrous but for his promptness and vigor, and, above all, his judicious selection of those to whom he- confided the execution of his orders." At this period the western wilderness presented an interesting scene. Everywhere Indians were preparing for the war. The war dance was celebrated in a hundred villages, and chiefs and warriors, painted and adorned, stood ready for the onset. To begin the war, however, was reserved by Pontiac as his own special privilege. In the spring of 1763, his great conspiracy was mature, and he summoned the chiefs and warriors of all the tribes in the newly formed league to a war council. The sachems met on the banks of the Ecorces river, Detroit, near whither Pontiac had gone to welcome them. Band after band of painted warriors came straggling in until the forest was alive with rest less savages, for nearly a mile up and down the little stream. It was, indeed, an important event for the red man. At frequent intervals during the year just passed, they had heard the words of the great Ottawa chief, as delivered by his deputies. Now they had met this wonderful man, face to face. He who, through his diligent ambassadors, had united all the tribes of the Algonquin family under a confederacy, equal in democratic scope to that of the far famed Six Nations, was now to speak to many of his sub jects for the first time. He was to tell them, in true Indian eloquence, the story of their approaching ruin ; he was to uncover Border Wars. 127 the selfish policy of the English, and point to the only means by which they could revive their declining prowess ; he was to stand before his savage auditors and verify, by matchless power of word and gesture, the thrilling story of his greatness, which had been passed from village to village on the tongues of his light footed messengers; he was this day to prove himself the mightiest among a thousand haughty, jealous savage warriors. Truly, the occasion was an exciting one for the assembled tribes. All waited patiently to hear the words of the famous Ottawa chief. This council took place on the 27th of April, 1763. " On that morning," says a reliable writer, "several old men, the heralds of the camp, passed to and fro among the lodges, calling the war riors in a loud voice to attend the meeting. In accordance with the summons, they came issuing from their cabins — the tall, naked figures of the wild Ojibwas, with quivers slung at their backs, and light war clubs resting in the hollow of their arms ; Ottawas, wrapped close in their gaudy blankets ; Wyandots, flut tering in painted shirts, their heads adorned with feathers and their leggins garnished with bells." All were soon seated in a wide circle upon the grass, row within row, a mighty and warlike assembly. Each savage countenance wore an expression of gravity. Pipes, with ornamented stems, were lighted and passed from hand to hand, until all had "smoked together in harmony." Then Pontiac came forth from his lodge, and walked forward into the midst of the council. He was a man of medium height, with a grandly proportioned muscular figure, and an address well calculated to win the admiration and respect of the savage heart. His complexion was rather dark for an Indian, and his features wore a bold and stern expression, while his bearing was imperi ous and peremptory. His only attire was that of the primitive savage — a scanty cincture girt about his loins, ancl his long, black hair flowing loosely at his back — excepting the plumes and decorations of the war dress. " Looking around upon his wild auditors," says Parkman, "he began to speak, with fierce gesture and loud, impassioned voice ; and at every pause, deep gutteral ejaculations of assent and approval responded to his words." At this point we will turn for a moment to glance at this won- 128 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. derful man. Pontiac was the son of an Ottawa chief, and by his valorous deeds, matchless eloquence and great force of character, had become exceedingly popular and influential among all the tribes in the vicinity of the great lakes. The Ottawas, Ojibwas and Pottawattomies were, at this time, united under a confederacy of which he was both civil and military, leader ; but his authority extended far beyond these tribes, and was almost unbounded wherever his voice could be heard. He did not owe his greatness to the fact that he was the son of a chief, for among the Indians many a chief's son sinks into insignificance among the common rabble of his tribe, while the offspring of a common warrior may succeed to his place. Personal merit alone can win the respect and obedience of the Indians. In the eyes of his numerous fol lowers, no other person possessed more of this than Pontiac. Courage, resolution, wisdom, eloquence and good address had been the principal passports to his fame and distinction. His in tellect was far-reaching, forcible and capacious. His energy and force of character, his great subtlety and craftiness, conspired to elicit the greatest admiration and respect from his wild and reck less followers. Although possessed of all these high qualities, Pontiac was a thorough savage, and, as we shall see, capable of deeds of the blackest treachery. He was now in his fiftieth year, and in the prime of life. His mental and physical powers were unimpaired, and he stood forth, the giant of his tribe in both in tellect and endurance. In short, he was in every respect qualified .. to lead his savage people into the bloody contest which followed. When deeds of lofty magnanimity best suited his purpose, Pon tiac could respond from the generosity of his own nature, while, from the same source, he could supply the foulest stratagems. During the long wars that had passed, he had been the constant friend and ally of the French, and had led his warriors to battle on many a hard-fought field in the interests of this people against the English. He commanded the Ottawa braves at the memora ble defeat of Braddock, and in this contest he fully set forth his rare military, skill and great craftiness. He had served the French officers in various capacities, and especially did. he render them valuable aid as a leader of Indian warriors in the hour of their greatest peril. For these deeds he had received many marks of Border Wars. 129 esteem from Montcalm, the brave commander of the French forces, who fell while defending Quebec in 1759. He gave a full and eloquent exposure of the English policy towards the Indians ; spoke of the French in high terms, and con- -trasted them with the "red coats." He recounted the many in sults which he and his followers had received at the hands of the British commandant at Detroit, and ably set forth the danger that would arise were the English allowed to continue their set tlements in the west. He said that their enemies had conquered Canada, and were now about to turn upon the Indians and slaugh ter them without mercy. Already their best hunting grounds' had been invaded by their settlers, and, if this was continued, it would not be long before they would be crowded from their homes altogether. Then he took up a broad belt of wampum, saying that he had received it from his great father, the king of France, in token that he had heard the voice of his red children, and was on his way to aid them in a war against the English, and to re store Canada to the French. i A plan of attack' upon the western outposts was projected by Pontiac, but through the instrumentality of an Ojibwa girl, that part of the plan contemplating the destruction of Detroit was made known to the commandant at that post. The garrison were not made aware of the plot until the evening previous to the day upon which it was to be executed. Early on the day set, a great number of Indians thronged around the fort. " Soon Pontiac, with sixty of his warriors, each carrying his gun, shortened for the purpose, under the folds of his blanket, appeared at the gate, and asked to hold a council with his father, the commandant. The gate was thrown open and they were admitted. When Pontiac entered, he involuntarily started back, and uttered an exclamation of surprise. He saw at a glance the ruin of his plan. All the gar rison were under arms, and so posted as to inclose the band. They passed on to the council house, and there were all the officers ready to receive them, armed and too plainly prepared for the con flict. The chiefs were seated. Pontiac arose to speak with the- wampum belt in his hand. He professed that he had come to smoke the pipe of peace, and brighten the chain of friendship' with his English brothers, "and, though conscious that he was 130 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. detected, he raised the belt and was about to give the fatal signal. At that instant Gladwin waived his hand ; the drums beat, the officers drew their swords, the soldiers presented their arms, and Pontiac sat down overwhelmed with astonishment. Gladwin briefly and sternly replied that he should enjoy his friendship as long as he merited it, and should be punished as soon as he deserved it ; and the chiefs, enraged and mortified, were allowed to withdraw. The next morning Pontiac returned with three only of his chiefs; they were admitted, smoked the peace pipe, and renewed their hollow pledges of friendship. On the next again, Pontiac, with a great multitude of his warriors, appeared at the gate and demanded admittance. He was told that he only might come in. He replied that all his warriors wished to smoke the pipe of peace. Gladwin replied that none of his rabble should enter the fort, and Pontiac turned away. At once the Indians fell upon and murdered the few English who were with out the fort. Immediate preparations were made for a siege, and the next day the attack began. Convinced, however, that the affair was only a sudden impulse of passion, Gladwin, through a Canadian, proposed to redress any grievances the Indians had. Pontiac dissembled, and asked that a deputation of officers might be sent to treat with him. Maj. Campbell and Lieut. McDougal, were sent, but were detained as prisoners. The Indians, foiled in their efforts to obtain possession of the fort, sat clown before it and commenced a regular siege. All Pontiac's skill and talent were employed in governing and directing the motley bands around him. The Canadian inhabitants complained that his Indians were robbing them of their provisions. Pontiac claimed that he was fighting their battles, and that, therefore, they ought to contribute to the support of his army, but forbade all depre dations upon their property. To provide for his bands, he levied a fixed contribution on the Canadians, organized a commissariat, and issued promissory notes, drawn on bark of the papyrus birch, and signed with the figure of an otter, for the payment of supplies, all of which were faithfully redeemed. i "Meanwhile, a recruit of ninety-six men with ammunition and provisions was advancing under Lieutenant Cuyler for the relief of the garrison, though • in ignorance of the danger to which they Border Wars. 131 were exposed ; and one of the two schooners was sent to meet it. Passing down the river they were attacked by a crowd of canoes, with the unfortunate Campbell exposed to the fire of the vessel. The wind sprang up and soon bore it beyond their reach. On the twenty-fourth day of the siege, the fleet of boats was seen by the garrison ascending the river. On a near approach they were seen filled with Indians. One of the crew when near the fort escaped, and related the fate of the convoy. They had landed below on the river bank, were attacked on shore, ancl driven to their boats ; three of these were taken with their crews ; two escaped with Cuyler, the commander, on board, who returned to Niagara. The prisoners were taken above the fort and burned. Soon after, in telligence reached the garrison of the fate of the posts around the lakes. A scalping party came into the camp, bringing with them Ensign Paully, the commandant at Fort Sandusky. On the 16th of May, seven Indians appeared at the gate of that post and asked to speak with Paully. They were admitted ; immedi ately seized him, and the garrison was massacred. Paully was brought to Detroit to be burned ; but was saved by being adopted by an Indian woman, and afterwards escaped. Soon after, a party of Pottawattomies arrived with Ensign Schlosser, the commandant at St. Josephs, and three men. They were exchanged, and the fate of that garrison revealed. A large party of Indians collected at St. Josephs on the 25th of May, on pretense of friendship, crowded within the barracks, ancl then suddenly massacred the garrison, and carried their prisoners to Detroit. The news soon arrived that Ouiatenon was taken. En sign Jenkins and several of his men were taken prisoners by stratagem, on the 1st of June ; the garrison surrendered on prom ise of protection, and were sent to Fort Chartres, in the Illinois. Soon after, it was reported that Fort Miami had fallen. Ensign Holmes was decoyed away from his post on the 27th of May, by an Indian girl, on the pretense of visiting a sick woman, and shot. The sergeant came out to learn the cause of the firing, and was taken ; the garrison surrendered and were made prisoners. A scalping party came in soon after from Presque Isle, and reported the fate of that post. On the 15th of June, an attack was made by two hundred Indians on that fort. The garrison 132 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest.' retreated to a block house, upon which the Indians began an immediate and furious assault. A breastwork was thrown up, from which they then poured a constant fire upon the block house. Bepeatedly it was on fire, and the indefatiga ble garrison, cut off from water, dug a well within it to obtain a supply sufficient to subdue the flames. Next the Indians began to mine the block house. Against this there was no defense, and after forty- eight hours of desperate fighting, the garrison surren dered, and were carried prisoners to Detroit, where Ensign Chris tie, the commandant, escaped. The news of the capture of Macki naw was brought to the garrison by Father Junois, a Jesuit priest. A large band of Ottawas, and another of Sacs, were encamped near the fort. On the morning of the 4th of June, a delegation came to the gate to ask the officers and soldiers to come out and see a game of baggattaway played on the plain by the rival tribes. The gates were thrown open, the soldiers clustered around the outside of the walls, mingled with a large number of Canadians, and among them a multitude of Indian women, close ly wrapped in blankets. At each end of the ground a post was erected ; hundred of players with bats thronged the plain, each apparently intent only on driving the ball to the post. Once and again, as if in the heat of the game, the ball was driven near the pickets, and the players crowded after it. Suddenly the ball rose • high in the air, and fell within the fort, and the whole multitude thronged after it through the gates. Instantly the war whoop was raised, the warriors snatched their tomahawks from the women, who carried them under their blankets. In a moment the garrison were overpowered ; the greater part of them were slain. Captain Etherington and the remaining men were carried away prisoners ; some of whom perished at the hands of their captors ; a few of them were ransomed. One only of the forest garrisons escaped, by the good conduct and address of its commandant. Lieutenant Gorell, in command of Green Bay, devoted himself to the task of conciliating the neigh boring savages. The Meriomonies were sharers in the conspiracy, but they were attached to Gorell, and delayed the execution of the work assigned them. On hearing of the fall of Mackinaw, Gor ell called a council of their chiefs, told them he was going thither Border Wars. 133 to punish the enemies of his king, and offered to leave the fort in the meantime in their care. The chiefs were divided. The warriors were waiting to strike the meditated blow, but providentially at this juncture, a deputation of the Dacotahs appeared, to denounce the vengeance of that powerful confederacy against the enemies of the English. The Menomonies laid aside their hostile designs. Gorell and his garrison passed down the bay, and along the lake to Mackinaw, under their escort, ransomed Etherington and twelve of his men, and passed by way of the Lake Huron and the Ottawa river, to Montreal. The beleaguered garrison at Detroit, mean while maintained their stubborn defense, and Pontiac pressed the siege, with a boldness and address far beyond the habit of Indian warfare. One of the vessels had been sent to hasten on Cuyler's ill fated detachment. With him and the remains of his crew on board, it was now returning, and was passing by night up the river. The force on board was concealed, and every disposition was made to invite an attack from the Indians. Late at night she was surrounded by a multitude of canoes. The men were arranged in silence for the attack. At the tap of a hammer on the mast, a volley of grape and musketry was poured upon the assailants, and they were dispersed and driven ashore. The ves sel landed safely, brought a reinforcement of men, and a supply of arms, and the welcome intelligence that the Peace of Paris was signed, and all Canada was surrendered to the British crown. The Canadians, craven, treacherous and malignant, who, all the while under pretense of neutrality, were inciting the Indians to massacre, and amusing them with fables of the coming of the great king, were now the subjects of Great Britain. Now again they redoubled their falsehoods. The armies of the great king were even then ascending the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi to take vengeance on the insolent English. Pontiac, weary of their neutrality, called a council of their principal men, and demanded their aid. He had been fighting their- battles ; they were doing nothing to serve their king. He had served their cause faithfully 4 they had been unfaithful to him. They had professed to be his friends ; yet they sought to make a profit to themselves by secretly aiding the English. This must end. If they were Eng lish, he was their enemy. If they were French, here was the war 134 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. belt and hatchet. The Canadians only deepened their dissimula tion. Hating the English garrison, they still sought to incite the Indians to destroy it. Afraid of the English vengeance, they sought to avoid any share in the work of blood. And concealing the treaty of Paris, they produced again the capitulation of Mon treal. The great king, said they, had here commanded them to be quiet till he came, for he designed to punish his enemies himself. If they disobeyed him in this, they would be punished. If the Indians made war on them for their obedience, they too would be punished. Pontiac was not thus to be put off. They must be his enemies or the enemies of the English ; and accordingly a band of trappers and voyagers took up the hatchet and joined the hostile tribes. Beinforced with these, the Indians made an assault, and their allies sought to entrench themselves near the walls. They were dislodged and repulsed, and in their rage at the defeat, the Indians seized and murdered the unfortunate Campbell. The two schooners that lay near the fort meanwhile annoyed the Indians, and they determined to burn them. Going up the river, they constructed a raft, filled with bark and sent it burning down the current, but it passed the vessels. Another was built, but it too passed without effect. Another, so large as to sweep the river, was begun, but a guard of boats, moored above the vessels, was provided for their defense, and the scheme was abandoned. In July, the garrison was reinforced by a detachment of two hundred and eighty men, under Capt. Dalzell, who, on his arrival, insisted on making an immediate attack on the camp of Pontiac, to disperse the Indians and raise the siege. Gladwin was opposed to the measure, but yielded, contrary to his judgment, to the soli citations of Dalzell. Preparations were made for an attack on the next night, but the plan was revealed to Pontiac by the treachery of the Canadians. On the night of the 30th of July, a detachment of two hundred and fifty men, with two barges accompanying them, under the command of Dalzell, marched to the attack. Their route was along the river bank, between the water's edge and a row of Canadian houses and gardens. A mile and a half above the fort, a creek, known since that night as Bloody run, passed down to the river through a deep ravine. Over it was a Border Wars. 135 narrow bridge, on the ridge beyond it were the entrenchments of the old camp of the Indians, piles of wood, fences ancl houses. Behind these the whole force of the Indians was posted. As the advance filed over the bridge, they were assailed by a volley from the Indians, and recoiled. Again they charged over the bridge and up the hill, but the Indians gave" way and escaped in the darkness. Suddenly they appeared in the rear, with an intent to cut the detachment off from the fort ; a retreat was immediately ordered. The Indians occupied a row of houses and fences along the line of their march, and from these they poured a continual and destructive fire upon the centre and rear of the army. They- were thus thrown into disorder, and retreated in confusion along the river bank, until Major Bogers, with a party of provincials, took possession of a Canadian house, from which he attacked the pursuers and checked the pursuit. Capt. Grant then secured an other position below ; a line of communication with the fort was formed, and the retreat of the detachment thus protected. Bogers and his party were brought off under a fire from the boats, and at length, after six hours' fighting, the whole party reached the fort. The loss of the English on this disastrous night was fifty- nine, including the commander Dalzell ; the loss of the Indians was supposed to be about fifteen or twenty. The Indians were greatly elated by their victory ; messages were sent out, fresh warriors came in, and the siege was pressed with renewed vigor. One of the schooners, meanwhile, had gone to Niagara. On her return, some Iroquois were landed at the mouth of the river, and conveyed to the Indians the information that she was manned by only ten men. A large band of Indians in canoes, collected and surrounded the vessel. They had ap proached close to the vessel in the darkness before they were dis covered, and climbing up the vessel's side, made a furious attack upon the crew, in disregard of the musketry that was poured upon them. The captain was killed, and several of the men were wounded, and the assailants began to crowd the deck, when Lieut. Jacobs ordered the men to fire the magazine and blow up the ship. The Indians heard the order and instantly leaped over board and swam in every direction, to escape the threatened ex plosion, and the vessel sailed up the river to Detroit."* The * From the Western Annals. 136 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. siege was pressed from May till October. At length, news reached the Indians that a British force, under Major Wilkins, was approaching. This news had the effect to scatter and dis hearten the Indians. At length, Pontiac was informed, by a let ter from Neyon, commandant at the Illinois, a French officer who was compelled to reveal the truth to the confiding savages. This letter plainly revealed the hopelessness of French assistance, and called upon Pontiac to espouse the English cause. The great chieftain was mortified. His great scheme had fallen. He broke camp, and threatening the English with a return in the spring, he passed down to the Maumee. CHAPTEB XII. FRENCH ILLINOIS. The Illinois Country Ceded to Great Britain — Johnson's Disastrous Expedi tion — Sketch of the Illinois Country — Last of the French. Deteoit and Fort Pitt were the oniy outposts that withstood the fury of the Indians, and these held out only under the great est dangers and hardships. The latter was relieved by the cele brated expedition of Col. Henry Bouquet. Iu the following spring, 1764, Pontiac again led the western tribes against the border posts and settlements, but the expeditions of Brodstreet on the one hand, and Col. Bouquet on the other, put a stop to their incursions. Besides the settlements and posts we have spoken of, there were six settlements of the French east of the Mississippi, what was called Illinois, which, though not included in the capitula tion of Montreal, were ceded by the treaty of Paris to Great Britain. They were, Cahokia, at the mouth of Cahokia creek, less than four miles below the site of St. Louis; St. Philip, forty- five miles below Cahokia, on the Mississippi; Kaskaskia, on Kas kaskia river, six miles from its mouth ; Fort Chartres, about fif- Franch Illinois. 137 teen miles northwest from Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi ; Prairie du Bocher, near Fort Chartres ; and Vincennes, on the Wabash. All these settlements were under the government of St. Ange de Belle Eive, commandant at Fort Chartres, subordinate to M. D'Abadie, at New Orleans, who was director -general and civil and military commandant of the province of Louisiana, under the king. It was known that Louisiana east of the Mississippi had been surrendered to the English ; it was not known that Louisiana west of the Mississippi had been ceded to Spain, and accordingly, immediately after the capitulation of Canada was known in Louisiana, movements were set on foot to extend. the settlements and power of France beyond the Mississippi. The most important of these, was the settlement of St. Louis. On the 16th of March, 1763, after the cession of western Louisiana to Spain, D'Abadie was appointed governor of Louisiana. Short ly after his arrival, on the 29th of June, at New Orleans, he granted to Pierre Ligeuste Laclede, and his associates, under the name of " The Louisiana Fur Company," a charter containing " the necessary powers to trade with the Indians of Missouri, and those west of the Mississippi, above the Missouri, as far north as the river St. Peters," with authority to establish such posts as they might think fit in furtherance of their enterprise. Accord ingly, on the 3d of August, Laclede with his party, including Au guste and Pierre Chouteau in his family, both then very young, left New Orleans, and on the 3d of November, reached St. Gene vieve. At that period there were only two settlements of the French west of the Mississippi, above the post of Arkansas. On 'the present site of New Madrid, a trading post was established as early, according to tradition, as 1740.* The early inhabitants were chiefly hunters and traders; ancl, from the great number of bears in that region, their principal occupation was the chase of that animal, and the preparation and sale of bear's oil, which they collected and shipped, by the Kaskaskia traders, to New Orleans. From this circumstance, and from the fact that it was situated on a bend of the river, it was named in keeping with French Creole humor, " L'Anse d' la Gresse " (greasy bend). On a beautiful plateau of alluvion, consisting of some five thousand * Peck's Compilation. . 138 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. acres, and extending some three miles below the present town of that name, the old village of St. Genevieve was located. It was settled as an agricultural hamlet about 1755, but, in addition to its agricultural advantages, its proximity to the mines, and its beautiful situation on the Mississippi, invited settlers ; and a con siderable accession to its population was afterward made by the French, who retired beyond the Mississippi immediately after the treaty of Paris, to avoid the rule of the British. Laclede found the position of St. Genevieve too far from the mouth of the Mis souri to serve his purposes ; no house, indeed in it, was found large enongh to accommodate his stores. Having been offered by the commandant the use of the store at Fort Chartres for that pur pose, he proceeded to that place, where his party spent the"winter. In the meantime, he explored the western side of the Mississippi, and chose a site on its western bank, eighteen miles below the mouth of the Missouri. It was a grove of heavy timber skirting the river bank, and behind it, at an elevation of some thirty feet, there extended a beautiful expanse of undulating prairie. Beturn- ing to Fort Chartres, he collected his party, increased by some fami lies from Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and the other French villages, and on the 15th of February, 1764, landed at the site he had chosen, took formal possession of it in the name of France, and laid off the lines of a town which he named St. Louis, in honor of Louis XV.* The position of the new town was inviting ; the French of the Illinois were deeply dissatisfied with the cession of the treaty of Paris, and to avoid living under the government of their hereditary enemies, and, as they hoped, to remain under the protection of their mother country, many of them crossed the river and located themselves at, or near St. Louis. The hamlets of Vide Poche. or Carondelet, established by De Tergette, in 1767, six miles below St. Louis ; Les Petites Cotes, now St. Charles, established by Blanchette, in 1769 ; Florisant, established by Demegant, between St. Louis and St. Charles, in 1776 ; and the Portage des Sioux, established about the same time, eight miles above the mouth of the Missouri, were also places around which dissatisfied Frenchmen assembled. In the early spring of 1764, Capt. George Johnston with a * Peck's Compilation. French Illinois. 139 regiment of troops set out to take possession of Louisiana; and, on the 27th of February he dispatched Major Loftus to occupy Fort Chartres. The latter proceeded with his detachment up the Mississippi a considerable distance above Bed Biver, where he was attacked by hostile Indians, slain with a large number of his men, and the detachment broken, and disheartened, returned. After this the attempt to occupy the Illinois was abandoned until the following year, when a general peace with the Indians was -concluded. In the spring of 1765, Capt. Sterling of the British army, was sent, by way of Detroit, to the Illinois to take posses sion of the posts and settlements of the French, east of the Mis sissippi. When he arrived, St. Ange surrendered Fort Chartres, and retired with his garrison and many of the French inhabitants to St. Louis, where he acted as commandant by the consent of the people until superseded by the Spanish governor, Piernas, in 1770. Capt. Sterling received the allegiance of the Frenchmen who re mained, and established British rule over them. Capt, Sterling remained only a short time in Illinois and was succeeded by Maj. Farmer, who was succeeded by Col. Beed. The latter was excessively tyrannical and becoming exceedingly unpopular left the colony. He was succeeded by Lieut. Col. Wilkins. who ar rived at Kaskaskia in 1768. In the spring following his arrival he established courts of justice and appointed seven judges, who met and held their first court at Fort Chartres on the 6th of Dec. -1768. The trial by jury was denied and the courts soon became unpopular. It cannot well be ascertained just when Col. Wilkins left the country or who succeeded him, but in 1778, when Col. Geo. B. Clarke took possession of it, Mr. Bochclave was the com mandant. A detailed and interesting description of the French settlements in what was known as the country of the Illinois, is given in a work entitled " The Present State of the. European Settlement on the Mississippi," by Capt. Phillip Pitman, and published in Lon don in 1770. He speaks of the country as bounded by the Mis sissippi on the west, by the river Illinois on the north, the rivers Wabash and Miami on the east and the Ohio on the south. Of this tract of country he writes as follows : " The air, in general, is pure, and the sky serene, except in the 140 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. month of March, and the latter end of September, when there are heavy rains, and hard gales of wind. The months of May, June, July and August, are excessively hot, and subject to sudden and violent storms. January and February are extremely cold, the other months in the year are moderate. The principal Indian nations in this country are the Kaskasquias, Kahoquias, Mitchi- gamias, and Peoryas ; these four tribes are generally called the Illinois Indians. Except in the hunting seasons, they reside near the English settlements in this country. They are a poor, de bauched, and detestable people. They count about three hun dred and fifty warriors. The Pianquichas, Mascoutins, Miamies, Kickapous, and Pyatonons, though not very numerous,' are a brave and warlike people. The soil of this country, in general, is very rich and luxuriant ; it produces all sorts of European grains, hops, hemp, flax, cotton, and tobacco, and European fruits come to great perfection. The inhabitants make wine of the wild grapes, which is very inebriating, and is, in color and taste, very like the red wine of Provence. In the late wars, New Orleans and the lower parts of Louisiana were supplied with flour, beef, wines, hams, and other provisions, from this country. At present its commerce is mostly confined to the peltry and furs, which are got in traffic from the Indians ; for which are received in return such European commodities as are necessary to carry on that com merce, and the support of the inhabitants. "Fort Chartres, when it belonged to France, was the seat of government of the Illinois. The headquarters of the English commanding officer is now here, who, in fact, is the arbitrary gov ernor of this country. The fort is an irregular quadrangle ; the sides of the exterior polygon are 490 feet. It is built of stone, is plastered over, and is only designed as a defense against the Indi ans. The walls are two feet three inches thick, and are pierced with loopholes at regular distances, and with two portholes for cannon in the faces, and two in the flanks of each bastion. The ditch has never been finished. The entrance to the fort is through a very handsome rustic gate. Within the walls is a banquette raised three feet, for the men to stand on when they fire through the loopholes. The buildings within the fort are, a commandant's and commissary's house, the magazine of stores, corps de garde, French Illinois. 141 and two barracks ; these occupy the square. Within , the gorges of the bastion are a powder magazine, a bakehouse, and a prison, in the lower floor of which are four dungeons, and in the upper, two rooms, and an outhouse belonging to the commandant. The The commandant's house 'is thirty-two yards long, and ten broad, and contains a kitchen, a diningroorn, a bedchamber, one small room, five closets for servants, and a cellar. The commissary's house (now occupied by officers) is built on the same line as this, and the proportion and the distribution of its apartments are the same. Opposite these are the storehouse and the guardhouse ; they are each thirty yards long, and eight broad. The former consists of two large storerooms (under which is a large vaulted cellar), a large room, a bedchamber, and a closet for the storekeeper ; the latter of a soldiers' and officers' guardroom, a chapel, a bedcham ber, a closet for the chaplain, and an artillery storeroom. The lines of barracks have never been finished ; they at present con sist of two rooms each for officers, and three for soldiers ; they are each twenty feet square, and have betwixt them a small passage. There are fine spacious lofts over each building, which reach from end to end ; these are made use of to lodge regimental stores, working and entrenching tools, etc. It is generally believed that this is the most convenient and best built fort in North America." In 1756, the fort stood half a mile from the bank of the river ; in 1766, it was eighty yards. In two years after, Capt. Pitman states : " The bank of the Mississippi, next the fort, is continually falling in, being worn away by the current, which has been turned from its course by a sandbank, now increased to a considerable island, covered with willows. Many experiments have been tried to stop this growing evil, but to no purpose. Eight years ago the river was fordable to the island ; the channel is now forty feet deep. In the year 1764, there were about forty families in the village near the fort, and a parish church, served by a Franciscan friar, dedicated to Ste. Anne. In the following year, when the English took possession of the country, they abandoned their houses, except three or four poor families, and settled in the vil lages on the west side of the Mississippi, choosing to continue under tbe French government." About the year 1770, the river made further encroachments, and in 1772, it inundated portions 142 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of the American bottom, and formed a channel so near this fort, that the wall and two bastions on the west side, next the river, were undermined and fell into it. The British garrison aban doned the place, and it has never since been occupied. Those portions of the wall which escaped the flood, have been removed by the inhabitants of Kaskaskia and adjacent settlements for building purposes.* Capt. Pitman gives us the following description of Kaskaskia. His spelling of the name of the post is Cascasquias : " The vil lage of Notre Dame de Cascasquias, is by far the most consider able settlement in the country of Illinois, as well from its number of inhabitants, as from its advantageous situation. Mons. Paget was the first who introduced water mills in this country, and he constructed a very fine one on the river Cascasquias, which was both for grinding corn and sawing boards. It lies about one mile from the village. The mill proved fatal to him, being killed as he was working it, with two negroes, by a party of Cherokees, in the year 1764. The principal buildings are, the church and Jes uits' house, which has a small chapel adjoining it; these, as well as some other houses in the village, are built of stone, and, con sidering this part of the world, make a very ^ood appearance. The Jesuits' plantation consisted of two hundred and forty ar- pents of cultivated land, a very good stock of cattle, and a brew ery ; which was sold by the French commandant, after the coun try was ceded to the English, for the crown, in consequence of the suppression of the order. Mons. Beauvais was the purchaser, who is the richest of the English subjects in this country ; he keeps eighty slaves ; he furnishes eighty-six thousand weight of flour to the king's magazine, which was only a part of the har vest he reaped in one year. Sixty-five families reside in this vil lage, besides merchants, other casual people, ancl slaves. The fort, which was burnt down in October, 1766, stood on the sum mit of a high rock opposite the village, and on the opposite side of the Kaskaskia river. It was an oblongular quadrangle, of which the exterior polygon measured two hundred and ninety by two hundred and fifty-one feet. It was built of very thick, squared timber, and dovetailed at the angles. An officer and * Peck's Compilation. French Illinois. 143 twenty soldiers are quartered in the village. The officer governs the inhabitants, under the direction of the commandant at Char tres. Here are also two companies of militia." Captain Pitman also describes Prairie du Bocher. He says that it is seventeen miles from Kaskaskia. It was, however, but fourteen miles : " It is a small village, consisting of twelve dwel ling houses, all of which are inhabited by as many families. Here is a little chapel, formerly a chapel of ease to the church at Fort Chartres. The inhabitants here are very industrious, and raise a great deal of corn," and every kind of stock. The village is two miles from Fort Chartres. It takes its name from its situation, being built under a rock that runs parallel with the river Missis sippi, at a league distance, for forty miles up. Here is a com pany of militia, the captain of which regulates the police of the village. Saint Philippe is a small village about five miles from Fort Chartres, on the road to Kaoquias. There are about sixteen houses and a small church standing ; all the inhabitants, except the captain of the militia, deserted it in 1765, and went to the French side [Missouri]. The captain of the militia has about twenty slaves, a good stock of cattle, and a water mill for corn and planks. This village stands in a very fine meadow, about one mile from the Mississippi." This very early writer next gives us a description of Cahokia, or as he spells it, Kaoquias. These sketches from Capt. Pitman's writings supply a valuable link in the early history of Illinois : " The village of Saint Famillede Kaoquias," Pitman writes," is generally reckoned fifteen leagues from Fort Chartres, and, six leagues below the mouth of the Missouri. It stands near the side of the Mississippi, and is marked from the river by an island of two leagues long. The village is opposite the centre of this island ; it is long and straggling, being three-quarters of a mile from one end to the other. It contains forty-five dwelling houses, and a church near its centre. The situation is not well chosen, as in the floods it is generally overflowed two or three feet. This was the first settlement on the Mississippi. The land was purchased of the savages by a few Canadians, some of whom married women of the Kaoquias nation, and others brought their wives from Canada, and then resided there, leaving their children to succeed them. 144 , Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. " The inhabitants of this place depend more on hunting, and their Indian trade, than on agriculture, as they scarcely raise corn enough for their own consumption ; they have a great plenty of poultry, and good stocks of horned cattle. The mission of St. Sulpice had a very fine plantation here, and an excellent house built on it. They sold, this estate, and a very good mill for corn and planks, to a Frenchman who chose to remain under the Eng lish government. They also disposed of thirty negroes and a good stock of cattle, to different people in the country, and re turned to France in 1764. What is called the fort, is a small house standing in the centre of the village. It differs nothing from the other houses, except in being one of the poorest. It was formerly inclosed with high palisades, but these were torn down and burnt. Indeed, a fort at this place could be of little use." All of these posts, and the whole country which Pitman has thus been describing to us, passed into the hands of the English and soon after all the province of Lousiana and that of New Or leans passed into the hands of the Spaniards, and thus terminated French rule in the new world, a termination sad, indeed, to France, and to Frenchmen, since so much treasure had been ex pended in a vain attempt to establish a branch of the French em pire in North America. CHAPTEE XIII. THE REVOLUTION IN THE NORTHWEST. Settlements in the Ohio Valley — Dunmore's War — Indian Border Wars — Affairs in the Lake Region — The Expidition of George Rogers Clark. - Eaelt in the year 1774, Lord Dunmore, prompted, as is be lieved, by Col. Croghan, determined, by extensive measures, to extend the authority of Virginia over Pittsburgh and its vicinity. He therefore dispatched Capt. Connolly with power to take pos- The Revolution in the Northwest. 145 session of the country upon the Monongahela, in the name of the king. Capt. , (doctor) Connolly issued his proclamation to the people in the neighborhood of Pittsburgh, ancl Bed Stone, calling upon them to meet on the 24th or 25th of January, 1774, in order to be enrolled as Virginia militia. Arthur St. Clair, after wards governor of the northwest, was present at Pittsburgh at the time, and being the western agent of the proprietors of Pennsyl vania in the west, he had Connolly arrested before the meeting took place. The people, however, assembled, and although Con nolly was not permitted to meet them, they made some riotous demonstrations, partly in favor of Virginia. Connolly was soon after released on bail ; and going to Stanton, he was sworn as a justice of the peace of Augusta county, Virginia, and soon after returned to Pittsburgh, with civil and military authority, to exe cute the laws of Virginia. A contest followed, but it is not oui purpose, in this work, to give any account of the events connected with the early settlement of Kentucky or western Pennsylvania, but merely to skip along on the heads of important events until we come to the early history of Ohio. Nor do we propose to enter into any account of the great revolutionary war, except in so far as relates to the northwest. An account of Dunmore's war and the long train of attendant border events, would be in teresting, but it does not properly come within the bounds of this work. For a long while, or until 1776, Kentucky had a bitter struggle for an existence, and it was not until her founder, George Bogers Clark, made it his home, that it gained any great head way. While the valley of the Ohio was filling up by settlers from the British provinces of Virginia and Pennsylvania, the lake region was gradually increasing in civilization from a Canadian standpoint. In this section the English made but little change,v either in the laws or in their administration, and pursued the same general policy as their predecessors, the French. The com mandants of the posts, although responsible to the governor gen eral at Quebec, were still possessed of a discretionary power, which was all but absolute, and which they exercised in a highly arbitrary manner. In 1774, while Gov. Hamilton was command ing at Detroit, an act was passed, called the Quebec act, establish ing the boundaries of Canada, including Michigan, and extending 10 146 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. thence to the Mississippi and Ohio rivers on the south, and north from the St. Lawrence to the latitude of 52°, or, to the lands of the Hudson's Bay company. This act granted to the Catholic in habitants the free exercise of their religion, the undisturbed pos session of their church property, and the right, in all matters of litigation, to demand a trial according to the former laws of the province. But this right was not extended to the settlers on lands granted by the English crown. The criminal laws of Eng land were introduced into Canada, and the crown reserved to itself the right of establishing courts of civil, criminal and eccle siastical jurisdiction. The enterprise of the people was not wholly confined to the fur trade. As early as 1773, the mineral regions of lake Superior were visited ; and a project was formed for working the copper ore discovered there, and a company in England had obtained a charter for that purpose. A sloop was purchased and the miners commenced operations, but soon found, however, that the expenses of blasting and of transportation were too great to warrant the prosecution of the enterprise, and it was abandoned. In 1783, several influential merchants, who had been individually engaged in the fur trade, entered into partnership for its more successful prosecution, and established what was styled -the Northwest Fur Company. In 1787, the shareholders appointed from their num ber special agents, to import from England such goods as might be required, and to store them at Montreal. This plan of con ducting the trade was not dissimilar to that which had been pur sued by the French. Storehouses were erected at convenient places on the borders of the lakes ; and the posts formerly occu pied by the French were used for the same purpose. Agents were sent to Detroit, Mackinaw, the Sault Ste. Marie, and the Grand Portage, near lake Superior, who packed the furs and sent them to Montreal, for shipment to England. The most important point of the fur trade was the Grand Portage of lake Superior. Here the proprietors of the establishment, the guides, clerks and interpreters messed together in a large hall, while tlie canoe men were allowed only a dish of " hominy," consisting of Indian corn boiled in a strong alkali, and seasoned with fat. Thus, this inter esting trade, which had been carried on for more than a century, The Revolution in the Northwest. 147 still continued to circulate in its ordinary channels along the wa ters of the lakes. But the spirit of mercantile rivalry was carried to a great ex tent, and unhappily excited the worst passions of those interested in the several^ companies. The employes of the Hudson's Bay and Northwest companies, the boundaries of which were not very clearly defined, often came into active and desperate conflict, and made repeated attacks upon the trading posts of each other. Lord Selkirk, however, having placed himself at the head of the Hud son's Bay Company, succeeded at length in uniting the stock of the two companies, and this put an, end to the strife. These two companies held dominion over the territory bordering on the lakes, and studied only to keep it a barren wilderness, that their trade might be preserved and prolonged. The American revolution was already bursting forth ; but, dur ing this eventful struggle, much of the northwest, from its remote situation, was but little affected by the war, though the Indians within its borders were employed to harass the American settle ments upon the frontiers of New York, Pennsylvania and Vir ginia. Detroit and Michilimackinac were, during this period, the points of deepest interest in the lake region. At these posts the Indian warriors were assembled and furnished with arms and am munition, and from thence they were dispatched against the near est American settlements, to burn and destroy, and to massacre and scalp the defenseless inhabitants. On their return from such murderous expeditions, these savage allies were met by the British commanders in the council houses of" Michilimackinac and De troit, and there paid a stipulated price for the scalps which they brought. In some instances the Indians were supported in these' expeditions by the regular troops and local militia. One of these joint expeditions, commanded by Capt. Byrd, set out from Detroit to attack Louisville. It proceeded in boats as far as it could ascend the Maumee, and then crossed over to the Ohio, and marched to Buddie's Station. This post surrendered at once, without fighting, under the promise of being protected from the Indians. This promise, however, was violated, and the prisoners were all massacred. A small stockade, called Martin's Station, 148 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. was also taken by the same commander, and his march through the whole region was attended with the utmost consternation. All along during the revolutionary struggle, the loyal colonists of Canada instigated the Indians to a miserable war upon the border settlements. Dunmore's expedition did much to discour age the natives, but it was not until the celebrated expedition of Col. Geo. B. Clark penetrated the western wilds, that the English and Indian power, as arrayed against the struggling colonists, who were fighting for independence, was broken. It was in 1775 that Col. Clark's attention was first directed to the French settle ments (under English rule), in what is now Indiana and Illinois, and in the following spring he visited them, with a view to having them brought under the jurisdiction of his own colony. In pur suance of this end he assembled the people at Harrodstown, Ky., and requested them to elect delegates, with power to treat with the assembly of Virginia respecting the political affairs of the country. It was at that time the intention of Col. Clark, if suita ble conditions could be procured, to have the inhabitants of these western settlements declare themselves citizens of his own state, or to establish an independent government consistent with the interests of the American cause. The meeting was held at Har rodstown on June 6, 1776, and George Bogers Clark and Gabriel Jones elected delegates to the assembly of Virginia, with instruc tions to present a petition to that body, praying the assembly to accept them as such. The papers were prepared and in a few days they set out for Williamsburg in the hope ol'arriving before the assembly, then sitting, should rise. They proceeded on their journey as far as Bottetourt county, and there learned that they were too late, for the assembly had already adjourned. At this point they resolved to wait for the fall session. When it was convened, Messrs. Clark and Jones presented their credentials. The assembly resolved that the western delegates could not take their seats as members, but that their business should be attended to. "It was late in the session," says Clark, _" before we got a complete establishment of a county by the name of Kentucky." He continues : " The commandants of the different towns of the Illinois and Wabash I knew were busily engaged in exciting the The Revolution in the Northwest. 149 Indians. Their reduction became my first object — "expecting, probably, that it might open a field for further action. I sent two young hunters to those places (in the summer of 1777) as spies, with proper instructions for their conduct, to prevent sus picion. Neither did they, nor any one in Kentucky, ever know my design until it was ripe for execution. They returned to Harrodstown with all the information I could reasonably have expected. I found from them that they had but little expectaion of a visit from us, but that things were kept in good order, the militia trained, etc., that they might, in case of a visit, be pre pared — that the greatest pains were taken to inflame the minds of the French inhabitants against the Americans, notwithstanding they could discover traces of affection in some of the inhabitants. When I left Kentucky, October 1, 1777, I plainly saw that every eye was turned toward me, as if expecting some stroke in their favor. Some doubted my return, expecting that I would join the army in Virginia. I left them with reluctance, promising them that I would certainly return to their assistance, which I had predetermined. On my arrival at Williamsburg, I remained a considerable time settling the accounts of the Kentucky militia, and making remarks of everything I saw or heard, that could lead me to the knowledge of the disposition of those in power. Burgoyne's army having been captured, and things seeming to wear a pleasing aspect, on December 10th, I communicated my design to Gov. Henry. At first he seemed to be fond of it ; but to detach a party at so great a distance (although the service performed might be of great utility) appeared daring and hazard ous, as nothing but secresy could give success to the enterprise. To lay the matter before the assembly, then sitting, would be dangerous, as it would soon be known throughout the frontiers ; and probably the first prisoner taken by the. Indians would give the alarm, which would end in the certain destruction of the party. He had several private councils, composed of select gen tlemen. After making every inquiry into my proposed plan of operations (and particularly that of a retreat in case of misfortune, across the Mississippi into the Spanish territory), the expedition was resolved upon ; and as an encouragement to those who would engage in said service, an instrument of writing was signed, 150 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. wherein those gentlemen promised to use their influence to pro cure from the assembly three hundred acres of land for each in case of success. The governor and council so warmly engaged in the success of this enterprise, that I had very little trouble in getting matters adjusted ; and on the second day of February, 1778, received my instructions, and £1,200 for the use of the expedition, with an order on Pittsburg for boats, ammunition, etc. Finding from the governor's conversation in general to me, on the subject, that he did not wish an implicit attention to his instruc tions should prevent my executing any thing that would mani festly tend to the good of the public, on the fourth I set forward, clothed with all the authority that I wished. I advanced to Maj. William Smith £150 to recruit men on Holston, and to meet me in Kentucky. Capt. Leonard Helm, of Fauquier, and Capt. Joseph Bowman, of Frederick, were to raise each a company, and on the [first?] of February arrive at Bed Stone Old Fort. " Being now in the country where all arrangements were to be made, I appointed Capt. William Harrod, and many other officers, to the recruiting service ; and contracted for flour and other stores that I wanted. * * I received information from Capt. Helm, that several gentlemen ' took pains to counteract his interest in re cruiting, as no such service was known of by the assembly. Consequently he had to send to the governor to get his conduct ratified. I found also opposition to our interest in the Pittsburg country. As the whole was divided into violent parties between the Virginians and Pennsylvanians, respecting the territory, the idea of men being raised for the state of Virginia affected the vulgar of the one party ; and as my real instructions were kept concealed, and only an instrument from the governor, written de signedly for deception, was made public, wherein I was author ized to raise men for the defense of Kentucky, many gentlemen of both parties conceived it to be injurious to the public interest to draw off men at so critical a moment for the defense of a few de tached inhabitants, who had better be removed, etc. These cir cumstances caused some confusion in the recruiting service. On the twenty- ninth of March, I received a letter from Maj. Smith, by express, informing me that he had raised four companies on Holston, to be marched immediately to Kentucky, agreeably to The Revolution in the Northwest. 151 his orders ; another express from Kentucky informed me that they had gained considerable strength since I left that quarter." With such forces as he could raise, Col. Clark moved forward to the falls of the Ohio, where he disclosed his plans to his troops, at which many of them deserted him. At this point, Clark, owing to the weakness of his force, resolved to commence operations in Illinois, where the settlements were smaller, and where the Indians were less an object of terror. At this time the conquest of Vincennes was among the possibilities of the future. He moved toward Kaskaskia; and, "on the fourth of July," says Clark's memoir, " in the evening, we got within a few miles of the town, where we lay until near dark, keeping spies ahead, after which we commenced our march, and took possession of a house, wherein a large family lived, on the bank of the Kaskas kia river, about three-quarters of a mile above the town. We were informed that the people, a few days before, were under arms, but had concluded that the cause of the alarm was without foundation ; and that at that time 'there was a great number of men in town, but that the Indians had generally left it, and at present all was quiet. We soon procured a sufficiency of vessels, the more in ease to convey us across the river. * * With one of the divisions I marched to the fort, and ordered the other two into different quarters of the town. If I met with no resistance, at a certain signal, a shout was to be given, and certain parts were to be immediately possessed ; and the men of each detachment who could speak the French language, were to run through every street and proclaim what had happened, and inform the inhabi tants that every person who appeared in the streets would be shot down. This disposition had its desired effect. In a very little time we had complete possession, and every avenue was guarded, to prevent any escape, to give the alarm to the other villages in case of opposition. Various orders had been issued, not worth mentioning. I don't suppose greater silence ever reigned among the inhabitants of a place than did at this at present ; not a per son to be seen, not a word to be heard from them for some time , but, designedly, the greatest noise kept up by our troops through every quarter of the town, and patrols continually the whole night around it, as intercepting any information was a capital 152 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. object ; and in about two hours the whole of the inhabitants were disarmed, andj'informed that if one was taken, -\ attempting to make his escape, he should be immediately put to death." After Col. Clark, through bloodless means, had excited the ter ror of the French inhabitants of Kaskaskia, he surprised them and won their firm confidence and lasting friendship by perform ing many acts of generosity unexpected by them. On the fifth of July, he caused a few of the principal men of the village to be arrested and put in irons. This occurrence caused the priest of the village, Father Gibault, and several of the principal set tlers, to call upon Clark and plead for liberty to assemble peace ably in their little church, and take leave of each other. Col. Clark calmly replied that he had nothing against their religion ; that they might do as they had requested, but that they must not venture out of the town. Accordingly the trembling Frenchmen assembled at the church, where they laid the burden of their troubles at the foot of the cross. After a long and devout service, they returned to their dwellings. A deputation of the principal citizens again waited on the conqueror, and represented that the inhabitants could submit to the loss of their property, knowing that their situation was the fate of war, but that they desired not to be separated from their wives and children, and that some clothes and provisions might be allowed for their support. In reply, Col. Clark asked the Frenchmen if they regarded the Virginians as savages. "Do you think," said he, " that Americans intend to strip women and chil dren, or take the bread out of their mouths ? My countrymen disdain to make war upon helpless innocence. It was to prevent the horrors of Indian butchery upon our own wives and children, that we have taken arms and penetrated into this remote strong hold of British and Indian barbarity, and not the despicable pros pect of plunder." He told them that the king of France had united his powerful arms with those of America ; and that the war for independence would not probably long continue; that .they were at liberty to take which side they pleased, without the least danger to either their property or their families. Nor would their religion be a source of disagreement, as all religions were re garded with equal respect in the eye of the American law, and The Revolution in the Northwest. 153 that any insult offered it would be immediately punished. He concluded by telling them to go and inform their fellow citizens that they were at liberty to conduct themselves as usual, without the least apprehension ; and that their friends who were in con finement should be released immediately. This speech dispelled the gloom that was resting on the minds of the inhabitants, and, together with the intelligence that an alliance between France and the United States had been effected, induced them to take the oath of allegiance to the state of Virginia. So effective was the impression which Clark produced upon them, that a volunteer company of French militia joined his forces. Having brought the settlements of Illinois under the jurisdiction of Virginia, Col. Clark next turned his attention to Vincennes. Believing that Father Gibault was inclined to the American interest, he con sulted him on the subject of excluding the British power from that post. The priest at once suggested a plan of operations. The governor of Vincennes, he said, had gone to Detroit on busi ness ; and the inhabitants could easily be induced to declare them selves on the side of the Americans. He offered to engage in the work of accomplishing this result. Clark was pleased with the plans ;' ancl the priest, with some attendants, immediately set out for Vincennes. " Having arrived, they spent a day or two in ex plaining the nature of the war to the people. The French inhabitants unanimously acceded to the proposal, and went in a body to the church, where the oath of allegiance was administered to them in the most solemn manner. The American flag was at once unfurled over the fort, and an Ameri can officer was appointed to the command. These events made a great change in the little settlement of Vincennes. The Indians were at once both astonished and delighted, and the white inhab itants put on new hopes.' The cause of the United States began to prosper in the northwest from that hour. As soon as the news of the bloodless conquest of Vincennes reached Clark, at Kaskas kia, he appointed Capt. Helm to the command of the post, as also agent for Indian affairs in the department of the Wabash. It was about the middle of August when Capt. Helm left the latter place to assume command at Vincennes. He took with him a speech and a belt of wampum from Col. Clark for the " Grand 154 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Door," as the leading chief at Vincennes was called. Arriving safely, he was received with acclamations by the settlers, and with promises of friendship by the Indians. The British interest lost ground daily in the northwest, and in a short time the influence of the Americans reached all the settle ments on the Wabash and the St. Josephs of Lake Michigan. Gov. Henry of Virginia, was constantly informed as to the progress of these events, and in October, 1778, the general assem bly of that state passed an act providing that all the citizens of the commonwealth of Virginia, "who are already settled, or shall hereafter settle, on the western side of the Ohio, shall be included in a distinct county, which shall be called Illinois county ; and the governor of this commonwealth, with the advice of the coun cil, may appoint a county lieutenant, or commandant-in-chief, in that county, during pleasure, who shall appoint and commission so many deputy commandants, militia officers, and commissaries, as he shall think proper, in the different districts, during pleasure ; all of whom, before they enter into office, shall take the oath of fidelity to this commonwealth, and the oath of office, according to the form of their own religion. All civil officers to which the in habitants have been accustomed, necessary for the preservation of peace, and the administration of justice, shall be chosen by a ma jority of the citizens of their respective districts, to be convened for that purpose, by the county lieutenant or commaudaut, or his deputy, and shall be commissioned by the said county lieutenant or commandant-in-chief." But before the provisions of this act could be carried out, the British lieutenant governor at Detroit collected an army consist ing of about thirty- regulars, fifty French volunteers and four hun dred Indians. Marching this force down the Wabash, he took possession of Vincennes in December, 1778. When this force ap peared before Vincennes there were but two Americans at the post. They were the commandant, Capt. Helm and a man named Henry. The latter had a cannon well charged and placed in the gate of the fort, while the bold Helm stood by it with a lighted torch in his hand. When Gpv. Hamilton and his invading army approached within hailing distance, Helm shouted " Halt ! " and added : " No man shall enter here until I know the terms ! " Clark's Expedition. 155 The British officer replied, " you shall have the honors of war." The fort was then surrendered, Capt. Helm was made a prisoner and the French inhabitants were disarmed. No sooner had Vin cennes been retaken by the English than Clark's situation in the west became indeed, dangerous. Indian war parties began to as semble in the vicinity of his forces in Illinois, and to strengthen his position, he ordered Maj. Bowman to evacuate Cahokia and join him at Kaskaskia. CHAPTEB XIV. CLARK'S EXPEDITION. Sketch of the Celehrated Expedition of Gen. Geo. Rogers Clark — Capture of Vincennes, Kaskaskia and other Posts — The Memorable Contest between Clark and Hamilton at Vincennes. It was not long before Clark received information that the British had weakened their position at Vincennes ; that Gov. Hamilton had but eighty men in his garrison, three pieces of cannon, and some swivels mounted ; that the hostile Indians were to meet at Post Vincennes in the spring, drive the Americans out of the west, and attack the Kentucky settlements in a body, joined by their southern friends ; that all the goods were taken from the merchants of Vincennes for the king's use ; that the troops under Hamilton were repairing the fort and expected a reinforcement from Detroit in the spring ; that they expected to have plenty of all kinds of stores ; that they were strict in their discipline, but they were not under much apprehension of a visit* From this report Col. Clark concluded that if he could reach the place undiscovered he could succeed in taking it. f- " Col. Clark's was indeed a critical situation. He was, in a man ner, cut off from any intercourse between himself and the United States. He knew that Gov. Hamilton, in the spring, by a junc- * Clark's Memoir. + Tuttle's History of Indiana. 156 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tion of his northern and southern Indians, would be at the head of such a force that his little army would not be able to maintain possession of the country. Further than this the threatened war on the borders in the following spring could not fail to ruin Ken tucky, should the enemy be permitted to make the necessary preparations in peace. In this critical situation, Col. Clark could see but one course, which was to attack the enemy in their quarters. He immediately gave orders to prepare for the enter prise. Although it was a bold venture, the inhabitants of Kas kaskia gathered about him with great enthusiasm, volunteering, donating provisions,- etc. Plenty of provisions were soon pro vided, and every man was completely provided with all he could desire to enable him to withstand the coldest weather. It was resolved to send a vessel round by water to carry the artillery and stores. This vessel was to be armed so that she might force her way if necessary. For this purpose a large Mississippi boat was purchased and completely fitted out. Two four-pounders and four large swivels were placed in position, and forty-six men were assigned to man her under the command of Capt. John Bogers. He embarked on the fourth of February, with orders to force his way up the Wabash as high as the mouth of White river, and there to remain in secret until further orders ; but if he found himself discovered, to do the enemy all the damage he could, without running' too much risk of losing his vessel, and not to leave the river until he had lost all hope of the arrival of the land forces. Col. Clark placed much reliance upon the aid he was to receive from this vessel. She was far superior to any thing the enemy could fit out without building a vessel ; and at the worst, should they be discovered, they could build a number of large pirogues to attend her, and with such a little fleet, annoy the enemy considerably. Every thing being ready on the fifth of February, after his men had received a lecture and absolution from the priest, Col. Clark crossed the Kaskaskia river with one hundred and seventy men. The weather was very wet, and a great part of the plains covered with water several inches deep. The march was exceedingly disagreeable and difficult. In the face of these obstacles, it became an object of Col. Clark to keep his men in spirits. ' I suffered them,' says Clark, ' to shoot game • Clark's Expedition. 157 on all occasions and feast on it like Indian war dancers — each company by turns inviting the others to their feasts, which was the case every night.' Perhaps Col. Clark stimulated his men most by setting a brave example, wading as much through the mud and water as any of them. Thus, insensibly, without a murmur, were those men led on to the banks of the Little Wabash, which they reached on the thirteenth of February, having passed through great difficulties and suffered indiscribable hard ships. A camp was formed on a small elevation on the bank of the river, and without waiting to discuss plans for crossing the river, Clark ordered the men to construct a vessel, and pretended that crossing this stream would be only a piece of amusement, although inwardly he held another opinion. The vessel was finished on the evening of the fourteenth, when, freighted with a select company, she was sent to explore the ' drowned lands ' on the opposite side of the river. The men who embarked in this enterprise were privately instructed what report to make, and, if possible, to find a piece of dry land. They fortunately found about half an acre, and marked the trees from thence back to the camp, and made a very encouraging report. On the fifteenth the work of crossing the river commenced. Fortunately the day was unusually warm for the season. At this point the channel of the river was about thirty yards wide. A scaffold was built on the opposite shore, which was about three feet under water. The baggage was then ferried across and placed on it. The horses next swam across the river and received their loads at this scaf fold. The troops were all ferried across in safety, and without any important accident the little army was again on the march in water about knee deep.' 'By evening,' says Clark, 'we found ourselves encamped on a pretty height in high spirits ; each party laughing at the other in consequence of something that had happened "in the course of this ferrying business, as they called it. A little antic drummer offered them great diversion by floating on his drum. All this was greatly encouraged, and they really began to think themselves superior to other men, and that neither the rivers nor the seasons could stop their progress. Their whole conversation was now concerning what they would do when they got about the enemy. They now began to view the main Wa- 158 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. bash as a creek, and made no doubt but such men as they were could find a way across it. They wound themselves up to such a pitch that they soon took Post Vincennes, divided the spoils, and before bed time were far advanced on their route to Detroit. All this was no doubt pleasing to those of us who had more serious thoughts." Here Clark discovered that the whole Wabash valley was overflowed, and that the enemy could easily approach him if they discovered his whereabouts, and wished to risk an action. They marched for several days under a drenching rain, and through mud and water. Beaching the Wabash, they constructed rafts for the purpose of crossing the river on a food-stealing expedition ; but they labored all day and night to no purpose. They then com menced to construct a canoe, in which, when finished, a second attempt was made to steal boats. This expedition returned in a short time, having discovered two fires within a mile of the little army. Clark immediately dispatched the canoe down the river to meet the vessel that was supposed to be coming up with sup plies, with orders to hasten forward day and night. This was the last hope, as their provisions were all gone, and starvation was at hand. The soldiers were much cast down, but on the following day they commenced to make more canoes, when, about noon, the sentinel on the river brought to a boat with five Frenchmen from the fort. From these persons they were informed that their presence was undiscovered at the fort. The hardships of this day were in a great measure relieved by a deer which had been killed by one of the men. On the following day, Clark succeeded in getting the little army across the Wabash, and he determined to reach the fort, and, if possible, to capture it that night. From this point we will let Col. Clark tell the story of the march and the siege, in the language of his own journal : " This last day's march through the water was far superior t<5 anything the Frenchmen had any idea of. They were backward in speak ing ; said that the nearest land to us was a small league, called the sugar camp, on the bank of the river. A canoe was sent off and returned without finding that we could pass. I went in her myself and sounded the water ; found it deep as to my neck. I returned with a design to have the men transported on board the Clark's Expedition. 159 canoes to the sugar camp, which I knew would expend the whole day and ensuing night, as the vessels would pass slowly through the bushes. The loss of so much time to men half starved was a matter of consequence. I would have given now a great deal for a day's provision, or for one of our horses. I returned but slowly to the troops, giving myself time to think. On our arrival, all ran to hear what was the report. Every eye was fixed on me. I unfortunately spoke in a serious manner to one of the officers; the whole were alarmed without knowing what I said. I viewed their confusion for about one minute — whispered to those near me to do as I did ; immediately put some water in my hand, poured on powder, blackened my face, gave the warwhoop, and marched into the water without saying a word. The party gazed, ancl fell in, one after another, without saying a word, like a flock of sheep. I ordered those near me to begin a favorite song of theirs ; it soon passed through the line, and the whole went on cheerfully. I now intended to have them transported across the deepest part of the water ; but when about waist deep, one of the men informed me that he thought he felt a path. We examined, and found it so ; and concluded that it kept on the highest ground, which it did ; and by taking pains to follow it, we got to the sugar camp without the least difficulty, where there was about half an acre of dry ground, at least not under water, where we took up our lodging. The Frenchmen that we had taken on the river, appeared to be uneasy at our situation. They begged that they might be permitted to go in the two canoes to town in the night. They said that they would bring from their own houses, provisions, without a possibility of any persons knowing it; that some of our men should go with them as a surety of their good conduct ; that it was impossible we could march from that place till the water fell, for the plain was too deep to march. Some of the [officers ?] believed that it might be done. I would not suffer .it. I never could well account for this piece of obstinacy, and give satisfactory reasons to myself or anybody else, why I denied a proposition apparently so easy to execute, and of so much ad vantage ; but something seemed to tell me that it should not be done, and it was not done. The most of the weather that we had on this march wa3 moist 160 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. and warm for the season. This was the coldest night we had. The ice, in the morning, was from one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick near the shores and in still water. The morning was the finest we had on our march. A little after sunrise I lectured the whole. What I said to them I forget ; but it may be easily imagined by a person that could possess my affections for them at that time. I concluded by informing them that passing the plain that was then in full view, and reaching the opposite woods, would put an end to their fatigue — that in a few hours they would have a sight of their long wished-for object — and imme diately stepped into the water without waiting for any reply. A huzza took place. As we generally marched through the water in a line, before the third entered, I halted and called to Major Bowman, ordering him to fall in the rear with twenty -five men, and put to death any man who refused to march, as we wished to have no such person among us. The whole gave a cry of appro bation, and on we went. This was the most trying of all the difficulties which we had experienced. I generally kept fifteen or twenty of the strongest men next myself, and judged from my own feelings what must be that of others. Getting about the middle of the plain, the water about middeep, I found myself sensibly failing ; and as there were no trees nor bushes for the men to support themselves by, I feared that many of the most weak would be drowned. I ordered the canoes to make the land, discharge their loading, and play backward and forward with all diligence, and pick up the men ; and, to encourage the party, sent some of the strongest men forward, with orders, when they got to a certain distance, to pass the word back that the water was getting shallow ; and when getting near the woods to cry out 'Land!' This stratagem had its desired effect. The men en couraged by it, exerted themselves almost beyond their abilities, the weak holding by the stronger. * * The water never got shallower, but continued deepening. Getting to the woods, where the men expected land, the water was up to my shoulders ; but gaining the woods was of great consequence; all the low men, and the weakly, hung to the trees, and floated on the old logs until they were taken off by the canoes. The strong and tall men got ashore and built fires. Many would reach the shore, Clark's Expedition. 161 and' fall with their bodies half in the water, not being able to support themselves without it. This was a delightful dry spot of ground, pf about ten acres. We soon found that the fires an swered no purpose ; but that two strong men taking a weaker one by the arms was the only way to recover him — and, being a de lightful day, it soon did. But fortunately, as if designed by Providence, a canoe of Indian squaws and children was coming up to town, and took through a part of this plain as a nigh way. It was discovered by our canoes as they were out after the men. They gave chase and took the Indian canoe, on board of which was near half a quarter of a buffalo, some corn, tallow, kettles, etc. This was a grand prize, and was invaluable. Broth was immediately made and served out to the most weakly, with great care ; most of the whole got a little ; but a great many gave their part to the weakly, jocosely saying something cheering to their com rades. This little refreshment, and fine weather, by the afternoon, gave new life to the whole. Crossing a narrow, deep lake, in the canoes, and marching some distance, we came to a copse of timber called the Warriors Island. We were now in full view of the fort and town, not a shrub between us, at about two miles distance. Every man now feasted his eyes, and forgot that he had suffered anything — saying that all that had passed was owing to good policy, and nothing but what a man could bear, and that a sol dier had no right to think, etc. — passing from one extreme to another, which is common in such cases. It was now we had to display our abilities. The plain between us and the town was not a perfect level. The sunken grounds were covered with water full of ducks. We observed several men out on horseback, shooting them, within a half a mile of us, and sent out as many of our active young Frenchmen to decoy and take one of these nien prisoner, in such a manner as not to alarm the others, which they did. The information which we got from this person was similar to that which we got from those we took on the river ; except that of the British having that evening completed the wall of the ¦fort,, and that there were a good many Indians in town. Our sit uation was now truly critical — no possibility of retreating in case of defeat — and in full view of a town that had, at this time, upward of six hundred men in it, troops, inhabitants and Indians. 11 162 Tuttl's Centennial Northwest. The crew of the galley, though not fifty men, would have been now a reinforcement of immense magnitude to our little army (if I may so call it), but we would not think of them. We were now in the situation that I had labored to get ourselves in. The idea of being made prisoner was foreign to almost every man, as they expected nothing but torture from the savages if they fell into their hands. Our fate was now to be determined, probably in a few hours. We knew that nothing but the most daring con duct would insure success. I knew that a number of the inhabi tants wished us well — that many were lukewarm to the interests of either — and I also learned that the grand chief, the Tobacco's son, had, but a few days before, openly declared, in council with the British, that he was a brother and friend to the Big Knives. These were favorable circumstances ; and as there was but little probability of our remaining until dark undiscovered, I deter mined to begin the career immediately, and wrote the following placard to the inhabitants : "' To ike Inhabitants of Post Vincennes: Gentlemen-: Being now within two miles of your village with my army, determined to take your fort this night, and not being willing to surprise you, I take this method to request such of you as are true citizens, and willing to enjoy the liberty I bring you, to remain still in your houses. And those, if any there be, that are friends to the king, will instantly repair to the fort and join the hairbuyer general, and fight like men. And if any such as do not go to the fort shall be discovered afterward, they may depend on severe punish ment. On the contrary, those who are true friends to liberty may depend on being well treated ; and I once more request them to keep out of the streets. For every one I find in arms on my ar rival, I shall treat him as an enemy. [Signed] G. R Clark.' " I had various ideas on the supposed results of this letter, I knew that it could do us no damage, but that it would cause the lukewarm to be decided, encourage our friends, and astonish our enemies. * * We anxiously viewed this messenger until he entered the town, and in a few minutes could discover by our glasses some stir in every street that we could penetrate into, and great numbers running or riding out into the commons, we sup posed to view us, which was the case. But what surprised us Clark's Expedition. 163 was, that nothing had as yet happened that had the appearance of the garrison being alarmed — no drum nor gun. We began to suppose that the information we got from our prisoners was false and that the enemy already knew of us and were prepared. * * A little before sunset wre moved and displayed ourselves in full view of the town — crowds gazing at us. We were plunging our selves into certain destruction or success. There were no midways thought of. We had but little to say to our men except incul cating an idea of the necessity of obedience, etc. We knew they did not want encouraging, and that anything might be attempted with them that was possible for such a number — perfectly cool, under proper subordination, pleased with the prospect before them, and much attached to their officers. They all declared that they were convinced that an implicit obedience to orders was the only thing that would insure success, and hoped that no mercy would be shown the person that should violate them. Such language as this from soldiers to persons in our station must have been ex ceedingly agreeable. We moved on slowly in full view of the town ; but, as it was a point of some consequence to us to make ourselves appear as formidable, we, in leaving the covert that we were in, marched and countermarched in such a manner that we appeared numerous. In raising volunteers in the Illinois, every person that set about the business had a set of colors given him, which they brought with them to the amount of ten or twelve pairs. These were displayed to the best advantage ; and as the low plain we marched through was not a perfect level, but had frequent raisings in it seven or eight feet. higher than the common level, (which was covered with water), and as these raisings gen erally run in an oblique direction to the town, we took the advan tage of one of them, marching through the water under it, which completely prevented our being numbered. But our colors showed considerably above the heights as they were fixed on long poles procured for the purpose, and at a distance made no despica ble appearance ; and as our young Frenchman had, while we lay on the Warriors Island, decoyed ancl taken several fowlers, with their horses, officers were mounted on those horses, ancl rode about more completely to deceive the enemy. In this manner we moved and directed our march in such a way. as to suffer it to be 164 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. dark before we had advanced more than half way to the town. We then suddenly altered our direction, and crossed ponds where they could not have suspected us, and about eight o'clock gained the heights back of the town. As there was yet no hostile appearance, we were impatient to have the cause unriddled. Lieut. Bayley was ordered, with fourteen men, to march and fire on the fort. The main body moved in a different direction, and took posses sion of the strongest part of the town. The firing now commenced on the fort, but they did not believe it was an enemy until one of their men was shot clown through the port, as drunken Indians frequently saluted the fort after night. The drums now sounded, and the business fairly commenced on both sides. Beinforce- ments were sent to the attack of the garrison while other arrange ments were making in town. * * We now found that the garrison had known nothing of us ; that, having finished the fort that evening, they had amused themselves at different games, and had just retired before my letter arrived, as it was near roll call. The placard being made public, many of the inhabitants were afraid to show themselves out of their houses for fear of giving offense, and no one dare give information. Our friends flew to the commons and other convenient places to view the pleasing sight. This was observed from the garrison, and the reason asked, but a satisfactory excuse was given ; and as a part of the town lay between our line of march and the garrison, we could not be seen by the sentinels on the walls. Capt. W. Shannon and another being some time before taken prisoners by one of their [scouting parties], and that evening brought in, the party had dis covered at the sugar camp some signs of us. They supposed it to be a party of observation that intended to land on the height some distance below the town. Capt. Lamotte was sent to inter cept them. It was at him the people said they were looking when they were asked the reason of their unusual stir. Several sus pected persons had been taken to the garrison ; among them was Mr. Moses Henry. Mrs. Henay went, under pretense of carrying him provisions, and whispered him the news and what she had seen. Mr. Henry conveyed it to the rest of his fellow prisoners which gave them much pleasure, particularly Capt. Helm, who amused himself very much during the siege, and I believe did Clark's Expedition. 165 much damage. Ammunition was scarce with us, as the most of our stores had been put on board of the galley. Though her crew was but few, such a reinforcement to us, at this time, would have been invaluable in many instances. But, fortunately, at the time of its being reported that the whole of the goods in the town were to be taken for the king's use (for which the owners were to receive bills), Col. Legres, Maj. Bosseron, and others, had buried the greatest part of heir powder and ball. This was immediately produced, and we found ourselves well supplied by those gentle men. The Tobacco's son being in town with a number of war riors, immediately mustered them, and let us know that he wished to join us, saying that by the morning he would have a hundred men. He received for answer that we thanked him for his friend ly disposition, and as we were sufficiently strong ourselves we wished him to desist, and that we would counsel on the subject on the morning ; and as we knew that there were a number of In dians in and near the town that were our enemies, some confusion might happen if our men should mix in the dark; but hoped that we might be favored with his counsel and company during the night — which was agreeable to him. " The garrison was soon completely surrounded, and the firing continued without intermission (except about fifteen minutes, a little before day), until about nine o'clock the following morning. It was kept up by the whole of the troops — joined by "a few of the young men of the town, who got permission — except fifty men kept as a reserv e. * * * I had made myself fully ac quainted with the situation of the fort and town, and the parts relative to each. The cannon of the garrison were on the upper floors of strong blockhouses at each angle of the fort, eleven feet above the surface ; and the ports so badly cut that many of our troops lay under the fire of them within twenty or thirty yards of the walls. They did no damage except to the buildings of the town, some of which they much shattered; and their musketry in the dark, employed against woodsmen covered by houses, pal ings, ditches, the banks of the river, etc., was of but little avail, and did no injury to us except wounding a man or two. As we could not afford to lose men, great care was taken to preserve them sufficiently covered, and to keep up a hot fire in order to 166 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. intimidate the enemy as well as .to destroy them. The embra sures of their cannon were frequently shut, for our riflemen, find ing the true direction of them, would pour in such volleys when they were opened that the men could not stand to the guns — seven or eight of them in a short time got cut down. Our troops would frequently abuse the enemy in order to aggravate them to open their ports and fire their cannon, that they might have the pleasure of cutting them down with their rifles — fifty of which, perhaps, would be leveled the moment the port flew open; ancl I believe that if they had stood at their artillery, the greater part of them would have been destroyed in the course of the night, as the greater part of our men lay within thirty yards of the walls ; and in a few hours were covered equally to those within the walls, and much more experienced in that mode of fighting. * * * Sometimes an irregular fire, as hot as possible, was kept up from different directions for a few minutes, and then only a continual scattering fire at the ports as usual ; and a great noise and laugh ter immediately commenced in different parts of the town by the reserved parties, as if they had only fired on the fort a few min utes for amusement, and as if those continually firing at the fort were only regularly relieved. Conduct similar to this kept the garrison constantly alarmed. They did not know at what moment they might be stormed or [blown up ?] as they could plainly dis cover that we had flung up some entrenchments across the streets, and appeared to be frequently very busy under the banks of the river, which was within thirty feet of the walls. The situation of the magazine we knew well. Capt. Bowman began some works in order to blow it up, in case our artillery should arrive; but as. we knew that we were daily liable to be overpowered by the nu merous bands of Indians on the river, in case they had again joined the enemy (the certainty of which we were unacquainted with), we resolved to lose no time, but to get the fort in our pos session as soon as possible. If the vessel did not arrive ' before the ensuing night we resolved to undermine the fort, and fixed on the spot and plan of executing this work, which we intended to commence the next day. " The Indians of different tribes that were inimical had left the town and neighborhood. Capt. Lamotte continued to hover about Clark's Expedition. 167 it, in order, if possible, to make his way good into the fort. Par ties attempted in vain to surprise him. A few of his party were taken, one of which was Maisonville, a famous Indian partisan. Two lads that captured him. tied him to a post in the street, and fought from behind him as a breastwork — supposing that the enemy would not fire at them for fear of killing .him, as he would alarm them by his voice. The lads were ordered by an officer, who discovered them at their amusement, to untie their prisoner and take him off to the guard, which they did; but were so inhuman a's to take part of. his scalp on the way. There happened to him no other damage. As almost the whole of the persons who were most active in the department of Detroit were either in the fort or with Capt. Lamotte, I got extremely uneasy for fear that he would not fall into our power — knowing that he would go off if he could not get into the fort in the course of the night. Finding that, without some unforseen accident, the fort must inevitably be ours, and that a reinforcement of twenty men, although considerable to them, would not be of great moment to us in the present situation of affairs, and knowing that we had weakened them by killing or wounding many of their gunners, after some deliberation, we concluded to risk the reinforcement in preference of his going again among the Indians ; the garrison had at least a month's provisions, and if they could hold out, in the course of that time he might do us much damage. A little before day, the troops were withdrawn from their position about the fort, except a few parties of observation, and the firing totally ceased. Orders were given, in case of Lamotte's approach, not to alarm or fire on him without a certainty of killing or taking the whole. In less than a quarter of an hour he passed within ten feet of an officer and a party that lay concealed. Ladders were flung over to them, and, as they mounted them, our party shouted. Many of them fell from the top of the walls — some within, and others back; but as they were not fired on, they all got over, much to the joy of their friends. But, on considering the matter, they must have been convinced that it was a scheme of ours to let them in, and that we were so strong as to care but little about them or the manner of their getting into the garrison. * * The firing immediately commenced on both sides with redoubled 168 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. vigor, and I believe that more noise could not have been made by the same number of men — their shouts could not be heard for the firearms ; but a continual blaze was kept around the gar rison without much being done until about daybreak, when our troops were drawn off to posts prepared for them about sixty or seventy yards from the fort. A loophole then could scarcely be darkened but a rifle-ball would • pass through it. To have stood to their cannon would have destroyed their men without a proba bility of doing much service. Our situation was nearly similar. It would have been imprudent in either party to have wasted their men without some decisive stroke required it. " Thus the attack continued until about nine o'clock on the morning of the twenty-fourth. Learning that the two prisoners they had brought in the day before had a considerable number of letters with them, I supposed it an express that we expected about this time, which I knew to be of the greatest moment to us, as we had not received one since our arrival in the country ; and, not being fully acquainted with the character of our enemy, we were doubtful that those papers might be destroyed — to prevent which I sent a flag (with a letter) demanding the garrison." We include here a copy of the letter which Col." Clark ad dressed to the British governor: "Sib: In order to save yourself from the impending storm that now threatens you, I order you immediately to surrender yourself, with all your garrison, stores, etc. For if I am obliged to storm, you may depend on such treatment as is justly due to a murderer. Beware of destroying stores of any kind, or any papers or letters that are in your pos session, or hurting one house in town — for, by heavens ! if you do, there shall be no mercy shown you." In answer to this bold letter, Gov. Hamilton sent this reply : " Lieut. Gov. Hamilton begs leave to acquaint Col. Clark that he and his garrison are not disposed to be awed into any action unworthy British subjects." When this refusal was received the firing was resumed and con tinued until evenitig when a flag appeared with this proposal : "Lieut. Gov. Hamilton proposes to Col. Clark a truce for three days, during which time he promises there shall be no defensive works carried on in the garrison, on condition that Col. Clark shall observe on his part a like cessation of any defensive work ; Clark's Expedition. 169 that is, he wishes to confer with Col. Clark as soon as can be, and promises that whatever may pass between them and another per son, mutually agreed upon to be present, shall remain secret until matters be finished, as he wishes that whatever the result of the conference may be, it may tend to the honor and credit of each party. If Col. Clark makes a difficulty of coming into the fort, Lieut. Gov. Hamilton will speak to him by the gate." Col. Clark refused to discontinue the siege, and offered to meet the British officer at the church with Capt. Helm, who was then a prisoner in the fort. The meeting was had, and after much argument, terms of capitulation were agreed upon, and on the following day the garrison was surrendered, and the bold Clark took possession of the fort. Soon after, the vessel with the stores and provisions arrived in good condition, and the Americans at Vincennes were rejoicing over their exploit. Seventy-nine prisoners, and stores to the value of $50,000 were obtained by this bold and desperate enterprise, and the whole country along the Mississippi aud the Wabash was not only se cured to, but remained ever after in the peaceful possession of the Americans. Gov. Hamilton was sent to Bichmond, and his men- permitted to return to Detroit on parole of honor. Six were badly, and one mortally wounded on the part of the British, and only one man wounded on the part of the Americans. The gov ernor and some others were sent prisoners to Virginia, where the council ordered their confinement in jail, fettered and alone, in punishment for their abominable policy of urging barbarians to greater barbarism, as they surely had done by offering rewards for scalps, but none for prisoners, a course which naturally re sulted in wholesale and cold blooded murder ; the Indians driv ing captives within sight of the British forts and then butchering them. As this rigid confinement, however just, was not in accor dance with the terms of Hamilton's surrender, Gen. Phillips pro tested in regard to it, and Jefferson having referred the matter to the commander-in-chief, Washington gave his opinion decidedly against it, in consequence of which the council of Virginia re leased the Detroit " hair buyer " from his irons.* Clark returned to Kaskaskia, where, in consequence of the competition of the tra- * Spark's Washington, vi, 315. 170 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ders, he found himself more embarrassed from the depreciation of the paper money which had been advanced him by Virginia than he had been by the movements of the British ; and where he was forced to pledge his own credit to procure what he needed, to an extent that influenced vitally his own forture and life thencefor ward. After the taking of Vincennes, Detroit was undoubtedly within the reach of the enterprising Virginian, had he been but able to raise as many soldiers as were starving and idling at Forts Laurens and Mcintosh. In his letter to Mr. Jefferson, he says, that with five hundred men, when he reached Illinois, or with three hundred after the conquest of Post Vincennes, he could have taken Detroit. The people of Detroit rejoiced greatly when they heard of Hamilton's capture. Gov. Henry having promised him a rein forcement, he concluded to wait for that, as his force was too small to both conquer and garrison the British forts. But the re sults of what- was done were not unimportant; indeed of very great importance. CHAPTEE XV. BRITISH, INDIANS AND AMERICANS. The Struggle for the Northwest between English, Indians and Americans, continued — The Americans Triumphant — Peace — The Ordinance of 1787. During the revolutionary war and for several years after, the British posts in the lake region, such as Niagara, Presque Isle, Detroit, etc., were instrumental in keeping up a disastrous border war from which the Americans cause suffered much. The pious Moravian missionaries, on the banks of the Muskingum, did not escape the hand of the English at Detroit. They were suspected of holding a secret correspondence with the congress at Philadel phia, and of contributing their influence, as well as that of their Indian congregation, to aid the American cause. Deputies were therefore sent to Niagara, and a grand council of the Iroquois was assembled, at which those Indians were urged to break up British, Indians and Americans. Ill the Indian congregation collected by the Moravians. These tribes, not wishing to have anything to do with it, sent a message to the Chippewas and Ottawas, with a belt, stating that they gave the Indian congregation into their hands " to make soup of." In 1781, these Moravian missionaries arrived at Detroit, when they were brought before De Peyster, the commandant. A war council was held, and the council house completely filled with Indians. Capt. Pipe, an Indian chief, addressed the assembly, and told the commandant that " the English might fight the Americans if they chose ; it was their cause, and not his ; that they had raised a quarrel among themselves, and it was their business to fight it out. They had set him on the Americans, as the hunter sets his dog upon the game." By the side of the British commander stood another war chief, with a stick in his hand, four feet in length, strung with American scalps. This warrior followed Capt. Pipe, saying : " Now, father, here is what has been done with the hatchet you gave me. I have made the use of it that you ordered me to do, and found it sharp." Such were the scenes at Detroit that occurred frequently, from the close of the Pontiac war till the advent of the "stars and stripes." During the whole course of the revolutionary war, the savage tribes in this vicinity were instigated to commit the most atrocious cruelties against the defenseless American settlements. Every avenue was closed whereby a different influence might be intro duced among them, and they were made to believe that the Americans were only seeking to possess themselves of their lands, and to drive them away from the territory they had inherited from their fathers. But at last the cause of America was tri umphant, and the treaty of Versailles, in 1783, opened the way for the settlement of the northwest, but no sooner was a treaty of peace concluded, than new troubles began to arise. We have seen how, during the revolutionary war, the western outposts of Great Britain were instrumental in sending the savages against the weak settlements; and, now that the Americans had been victorious, England refused to withdraw her troops from the gar risons in the lake region. However, by the second article of Jay's treaty, in 1794, it was provided that the British troops should be withdrawn from all the pjsts assigned to the United States by the 172 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. former treaty of 1783, on or before the first day of June, 1796. This matter being settled, the American people turned their atten tion to the northwest, with a view to its settlement ; and meas ures were accordingly taken for its temporary government. The circumstances which had more particularly directed the public attention to the western domain was a memorial from the soldiers and officers of the Bevolutionary army, presented to Gen. Wash ington in 1783, setting forth their claims to a portion of the public lands. One difficulty that lay in the way was that the territory northwest of the Ohio was claimed by several of the eastern states, on the ground that it was included within the limits indicated by their charter from the English crown. But, in answer to the wishes of the government and people, these states, in a patriotic spirit, surrendered their claims to this extensive territory, that it might constitute a common fund, to aid in the payment of the national debt. Many of the native tribes conveyed to the United States their rights to territory in this domain, and thus was the way prepared for the ejection of the territory northwest of the Ohio. A government was formed for this extensive region, with Arthur St. Clair as governor; and, on the seventh of April, 1788, a company of forty-seven individuals landed at the site of the present town of Marietta, and there commenced the settlement of Ohio. We have seen that the western posts were still retained by the British government. This gave rise to several questions of no little interest, which excited unfriendly feelings between the two nations, and which largely governed their policy. Debts due by Americans to British subjects, the payment of which had been guarantied by the treaty, were not paid ; ancl, on the other hand, the slaves belonging to Americans, and who had been taken away by British officers, were not restored. In consequence of these, and other unsettled matters, when Baron Steuben was sent by Gen. Washington to Sir Frederick Haldimand, at Quebec, to ar range for the occupation of these posts, with instructions to pro ceed to Michigan, and along the line of the lake frontier, for the purpose of taking possession of them, he was informed that they would not be given up, and was refused passports to Niagara and Detroit. In addition to the retention of the western posts by the English, a new confederacy among the savages was organizing. British, Indians and Americans. 173 In December, 1786, a grand council of the different tribes was held near the mouth of the Detroit river. At this council were delegates from all the nations inhabiting the northwest. The principal subject of discussion appears to have been the question of boundary. It was contended by the Indians that the United States had no right to cross the Ohio. This pending outbreak among the savages was undoubtedly the work of the English, who were again seeking their aid to harass the Americans.* England set forth as a plea for retaining the western posts, that the exten sive and valuable country in which they were situated had been ceded away through some oversight on the part of the commis sioners, or from their ignorance of the geography of the country ; and now, aided by the savages, they hoped to retain their posses sions in the west. It was at this juncture that Alexander Mc Kenzie, an agent of the British government, visited Detroit, painted like an Indian, and stated that he had just returned from the remote tribes of the upper lakes, who were all in arms, and prepared to oppose the claims of the Americans to the western lands ; that large bodies of warriors had already assembled, and that they were about to attack the infant settlement of Ohio. These stories, gotten up by McKenzie, succeeded as he had desired. In 1794, an agent was sent from the Spanish settlements, on the banks of the Mississippi, for the same object, and to hasten the organization of the Indian confederacy against the United States. Excited by his speeches, bands of savage warriors, armed with the tomahawk and scalping knife, were seen hastening toward the lake posts, and the great Indian confederacy was formed against the Americans, equaling that constituted a quarter of a century pre vious, under the great Pontiac, against the English themselves. The border incursions commenced immediately, and again the work of desolation reigned among the infant settlements on the Ohio. These outbreaks, which were believed to be the work of the British, induced the American government, in 1790, to send , Gen. Harmer, an able officer, with an army to quell them. He advanced against the hostile tribes with a force amounting to four teen hundred men ; but, imprudently dividing his army, he was taken by surprise and defeated by a body of Indians, led by Little * From Tuttle's History of Michigan. 174 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Turtle. Harmer having failed, Gen. St. Clair advanced into the Indian country, in 1792, with two thousand men. This army was defeated by a large body of Indians, who lay in ambush, and com pelled to retreat. Efforts were now put forth to increase the army; ancl in 1793, Gen. Anthony Wayne succeeded St. Clair in the command of the western army. Advancing through the forest to the spot which had been rendered memorable by the defeat of St. Clair, he there constructed a fort, ancl called it Fort Eecovery. Advancing further into the wilderness, he found many Indian villages deserted. At the Eapids of the Maumee he erected Fort Deposit, where he stored his supplies. They were now within a few miles of a British post, which had been garri soned by soldiers sent from Detroit, for the purpose of aiding the Indians. Gen. Wayne had been instructed to use his English opponents according to the usages of war ; and, with a bold deter mination, he pushed forward to the enemy's fort. The Indian force, their whole strength being collected at this point, was, in numbers, about the same as that of the Americans. The Indians were stationed in a dense forest, and protected by the bank of the river and a breastwork of fallen trees, and they were disposed in three lines, within supporting distance of each other. The battle soon followed ; and, through stratagem, Wayne was successful, and completely routed the savages. He destroyed the Indian villages and cornfields on the banks of the Maumee, and pro ceeded towards Fort Defiance. Before he left the battle ground, however, he paraded his force in front of the British post, that they might see its strength; while he advanced towards the' glacis, to examine the character of the position, and to ascertain, as far as was possible, what were the intentions of the garrison. The American officers, as they drew near, could discover the British soldiers, with matches lighted and standing by their guns, ready for any emergency that might arise. Gen. Wayne finally concluded a treaty with the Indians, at Greenville, which effect ually broke up the whole confederacy. In 1795, a project was started, which, had it been successful, would have injured the interests of the west. Eobert Eandall and Charles Whitney, of Vermont, in connection with several merchants of Detroit, entered into a compact for the purpose of British, Indians and Americans. 175 appropriating to themselves a vast territory, comprising nearly twenty millions of acres, situated between Lakes Erie and Mich igan. The land was to be divided into a number of shares, and distributed among the purchasers and the members of congress who should exert their influence in procuring the passage of the necessary law. But, as soon as the corrupt character of the plot had been discovered, the two principal projectors were brought before the bar of the house of representatives. On hearing the evidence, Bandall was discharged, but Whitney was fined the amount of the costs, and received a severe reprimand. Wayne's victory having broken the Indian power, and the treaty of Greenville binding them from further agressions, the Island of Mackinaw and the fort of Detroit were surrendered by the English, but the retiring garrisons, to show their spite, locked the gates of the fort, broke all the windows in the barracks, and filled the wells with stones, so as to annoy the new occupants as much as was in their power. It was in the beginning of June, 1796, that Capt. Porter, with a detachment of American troops, entered the fort at Detroit, which had been previously evacuated by the British. The American flag was displayed, and the dominion of the country peaceably transferred. We have seen how Virginia, and those eastern states holding claims to western territory, ceded the whole northwest to the government of the United States, thus opening up the country to settlement under such general plan as congress might see fit to adopt. Congress, with this deed of cession, was now prepared to negotiate with the Indians for the relinquishment of their claims. With these possibilities, congress, in 1787, adopted an ordinance for the government of the whole northwest, which is known in history as the "ordinance of 1787." We insert the ordinance in •full, as it is the foundation of the constitutions of the several north western states : "Be it ordained by the United States in congress assembled, that the said territory, for the purposes of temporary government, be one district, subject, however, to be divided into two districts, as future circumstances may, in the opinion of congress, make it expedient. " Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, that the estates, 176 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. b6th of resident of and nonresident proprietors in said territory, dying intestate, shall descend to, and be distributed among, their children, and the descendants of a deceased child, in equal parts ; the descendants of a deceased child, or grandchild, to take the share of their deceased parent in equal parts among them : And where there shall be no children or descendents, then in equal parts, to the next of kin in equal degree; and, among collaterals the children of a deceased brother or sister of the intestate shall have, in equal parts among them, their deceased parents' share ; and there shall, in no case, be a distinction between kindred of the whole and half-blood ; saving, in all cases,, to the widow of the intestate, her third part of the real estate for life, and one-third part of the personal estate; and this law, relative to descents and dower, shall remain in full force until altered by the legislature of the district. "And, until the governor and1 judges shall adopt laws as here inafter mentioned, estates in the said territory may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing, signed and sealed by him or her, in whom the estate may be (being of full age), and attested by three witnesses ; and real estates may be conveyed by lease and release, or bargain and sale, signed, sealed and delivered, by the person, being of full age, in whom the estate may, be, and attested by two witnesses, provided such wills be duly proved, and such conveyances be acknowledged, or the execution thereof duly proved, and be recorded within one 3rear after proper magistrates, courts, ancl registers, shall be appointed for that purpose ; and personal property may be transferred by delivery, saving, how ever, to the French and Canadian inhabitants, and other settlers of the Kaskaskias, St. Vincents, and the neighboring villages who have heretofore professed themselves citizens of Virginia, their laws and customs now in force among them, relative to the descent and conveyance of property. " Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, that there shall be appointed, from time to time, by congress, a governor, whose commission shall continue in force for three years, unless sooner revoked by congress ; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein in one thousand acres of land, while in the exercise of his office. British, Indians and Americans. Ill " There shall be appointed, from time to time, by congress, a secretary, whose commission shall continue in force for four years, unless sooner revoked ; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein in five hundred acres of land, while iii the exercise of his office ; it shall be his duty to keep and preserve the acts and laws passed by the legislature, and the public rec ords of the district, and the proceedings of the governor in his executive department, and transmit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings every six months, to the secretary of congress. There shall also be appointed a court to consist of three judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall have a common law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, and have each therein a freehold estate in five hundred acres of land while in the exer cise of their offices; and their commissions shall continue in force during good behavior. " The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in the district such laws of the original states, crimi nal and civil, as may be necessary, and best suited to the circum stances of the district, and report them to congress from time to time; which laws shall be in force in the district until the organi zation of the general assembly therein, unless disapproved of by congress ; but, afterward, the legislature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit. • " The governor, for the time being, shall be commander-in-chief of the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the same be low the rank of general officers ; all general officers shall be ap pointed and commissioned by congress. " Previous to the organization of the general assembly, the governor shall appoint such magistrates and other civil officers, in each county or township, as he shall find necessary for the preser vation of the peace and good order in the same. After the gen eral assembly shall be organized, the powers and duties of magis trates and other civil officers shall be regulated ancl defined by the said assembly ; but all magistrates and other civil officers, not herein otherwise directed, shall, during the continuance of this temporary government, be appointed by the governor. " For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and 12 178 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof ; and he shall proceed from time to time, as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district, in which the Indian titles shall have been extin guished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature. " So soon as there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants, of full age, in the district, upon giving proof thereof to the gov ernor, they shall receive authority, with time and place, to elect representatives from their counties or townships to represent them in the general assembly : provided, that for every five hundred free male inhabitants, there shall be one representative, and so on progressively with the number of free male inhabitants, shall the right of representation increase, until the number of representa tives shall amount to twenty-five ; after which, the number and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by the legisla ture : provided, that no person be eligible or qualified to act as a representative unless he shall have been a citizen of one of the United States three years, and be a resident in the district, or un less he shall have resided in the district three years ; and, in either case, shall likewise hold in his own right, in fee simple, two hundred acres of land within the same : provided, also, thrt a freehold in fifty acres of land in the district, having been a cit izen of one of the states, ancl being resident in the district, or the like freehold and two years' residence in the district, shall be necessary to qualify a man as an elector of a representative. " The representatives thus elected shall serve for the term of two years ; and, in case of the death of a representative, or re moval from office, the governor shall issue a writ to the county or township for which he was a member, to elect another in his stead, to serve for the residue of the term. " The general assembly, or legislature, shall consist of the gov ernor, legislative council, and a house of representatives. The legislative council shall consist of five members, to continue in office five years, unless sooner removed by congress ; any three of whom to be a quorum ; and the members of the council shall be nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit : As soon as representatives shall be elected, the governor shall ap- British, Indians and Americans. ' 179 point a time and place for them to meet together ; and when met they shall nominate ten persons, residents in the district, and each possessed of a freehold in five hundred acres of land, and return their names to congress, five of whom congress shall ap point and commission to serve as aforesaid ; and whenever a vacancy shall happen in the council by death or removal from office, the house of representatives shall nominate two persons qualified as aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names to congress ; one of whom congress shall appoint and commission for the residue of the term. " And every five years, four months at least before the ex piration of the time of service of the members of the council, the said house shall nominate ten persons, qualified as aforesaid, and return their names to congress; five of whom congress shall ap point and commission to serve as members of the council five years unless sooner removed. And the governor, legislative council, and house of representatives, shall have authority to make laws in all cases, for the good government of the district, not repugnant to the principles and articles in this ordinance es tablished and declared. And all bills, having passed by a ma jority in the house, and by a majority in the council, shall be refer red to the governor for his assent ; but no bill, or legislative act whatever, shall be of any force without his assent. The governor shall have power to convene, prorogue and dissolve the general assembly, when in his opinion, it shall be expedient. " The governor, judges, legislative council, secretary, and such other officers as congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or affirmation of fidelity and duty to office — the gov ernor before the president oi congress, and all the other officers before the governor. As soon as a legislature shall be formed in the district, the council and house assembled in one room, shall have authority, by joint ballot, to elect a delegate to congress, who shall have a seat in congress, with a right of debating, but not of voting, during this temporary government. " And for' extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics, their laws and constitutions are erected ;¦ to fix and establish those principles as the basis of all laws, constitutions, and govern- 180 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. * ments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said terri tory ; to provide also for the establishment of states, and perma nent government therein, and for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal footing with the original states, at as early periods as may be consistent with the general interest. "It is hereby ordained and declared by the authority aforesaid, that the following articles shall be considered as articles of com pact between the original states and the people and states in -the said territory, and forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit : " No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly manner shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship or religious sentiments, in the said territory. " The inhabitants of said territory shall always be entitled to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus and of the trial by jury, of a proportionate representation of the people in the legislature ; and of judicial proceedings according to the course of common law. All persons shall be bailable, unless for capital offenses, where the proof shall be evident, or the presumption great. All fines shall be moderate ; and no cruel or unusual punishment shall be inflicted. No man shall be deprived of his liberty or prop erty, but by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land ; and, should the public exigencies make it necessary, for the common preservation, to take any person's property, or to demand his par ticular services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And, in the just preservation of rights and property, it is under stood and declared, that no law ought ever to be made, or have force in the said territory, that shall, in any manner whatever in terefere with or affect private contracts or engagements, bona, fide, and without fraud, previously formed. " Beligion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians ; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent ; and, in their property, rights and liberty, they shall never be in vaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by congress ; but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall, from British, Indians and Americans. 181 time to time, be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them. " The said territory, and the states which may be formed there in, shall forever remain a part of this confederacy of the United States of America, subject to the articles of confederation, and to such alterations therein as shall be constitutionally made ; and to all the acts and ordinances of the United States in congress as sembled, conformable thereto. The inhabitants and settlers in the said territory shall be subject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted, or to be contracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of government, to be apportioned on them by con gress according to the same common rule and measure by which apportionments thereof shall be made on the other states ; and the taxes, for paying their proportion, shall be laid and levied by, the authority and direction of the legislatures of the district or districts, or new states, as in the original states, within the time agreed upon by the United States in congress assembled. The legislatures of those districts or new states shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the United States in con gress assembled, nor with any regulations congress may find neces sary for securing the title in such soil to the bona fide purchasers. "No. tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the United States; and, in no case, shall nonresident proprietors be taxed higher than residents. The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways, and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of_ the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other states that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impostor duty, therefor. " There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than three nor more than five states; and the boundaries of the states, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of cession, and consent to the same, shall become fixed and established as follows, to-wit : The western state in the said territory, shall be bounded by the Missis sippi, the Ohio, and Wabash rivers ; a direct line drawn from the Wabash and Post St. Vincent's due north, to the territorial line between the United States and Canada ; and, by the said territo rial line, to the Lake of the Woods and Mississippi. 182 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. " The middle state shall be bounded by the said direct line, the Wabash from Post St. Vincent's to the Ohio ; by the Ohio, by a direct line drawn due north from the mouth of the Great Miami, to the said territorial line. The eastern s.tate shall be bounded by the last mentioned direct line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said territorial line : provided, however, and it is further under stood and declared, that the boundaries of these three states shall be subject so far to be altered, that if congress shall hereafter find it expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two states in that part of the said territory which lies north of an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan. " And, whenever any of the said states shall have sixty thou sand free inhabitants therein, such state shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the congress of the United States on an equal foot ing with the original states in all repects whatever, and shall be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and state government : provided, the constitution and government, so to be formed, shall be republican, and in conformity to the principles contained in these articles ; and so far as it can be, consistent with the general interests of the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, ancl when there may be a less number of -free in habitants in the state than sixty thousand. " There shall be neither slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes, where of the party shall have been duly convicted : provided always, that any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or ser vice is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or services as aforesaid." With this general collection of events touching the history of the northwest, in a general sense, we proceed to present historical sketches of the several states separately, and wherein we have omitted the mention of important events in the foregoing, the de ficiency will be supplied in the following chapters. In many in stances we have skipped over events in the history of Ohio and Michigan in this general sketch, preferring to leave subject matter for connected state histories. Chronology of the Northwest. 1S3 CHAPTEE XVI. CHRONOLOGY OP THE NORTHWEST.* Prom 1512 to 1856. 1513. In this year Tonce de Leon discovers Florida. 1516. Florida is visited hy Diego Miruelo. 1530, The natives are captured for slaves by Vas.- quez de Ayllon — And Florida is visited by Pampkilo de Narvaez. 1535. The St. Lawrence river is entered ancl ex plored for a considerable distance by James Cartier. 1538-4,4. De Soto asks leave to conquer Florida — He reaches Tampa bay — Thence to Appalachee bay — Thence to Georgia — His journey on the .Alabama— He rambles to the Mississip pi — His journey and death — His followers attempt to reach Mexico by water — De Bied- ma presents an account of De Soto's expe dition, to the king of Spain. 1562. French colonists settle in Florida. 1565. Pedro Melandez de Avilez establishes St. Au gustine — Avilez, by order of the kinj; of Spain, exterminates the Huguenots of Flor ida— Domiuic de Gourges, a French Catho lic, avenges his countrymen. 16C8. Quebec founded by S. Champlain. 1613. Montreal Island settled. 1616. Le Caron explores Upper Canada. 1 630. Charles I grants Carolina to Sir Eobert Heath. 1634. First Mission founded on the eastern shore of Lake Huron— Bi ebceuf, Lallemand and Dan iel, missionaries, arrive at lake Huron. 1635. Missionaries visit the Sault Ste. Marie. 1636. St. Joseph, St. Louis and St. Ignatius mis sions established. 1640. Raymbault and Pigart follow to the west. 1641. Canadian envoys first meet northwest, at the Sault Ste. Marie. 1647. Sieur de Longneville, with a small company, it is said, was at Fox River Rapids (.doubt- iul.) •Compiled from Albach's work, aud other works. I 1654. Father Simon Le Moine discovered the Onon- dago saline— Fur traders from Montreal pen etrate the western lakes. 1659. Two French traders passed the winter on the shores of Lake Superior. 1660. Rene Mesnard coasts the southern shore of Lake Superior— Mesnard establishes the missions of Ste. Theresa and Chegoimegon. 1661. Mesnard perished in the forest, of cold and hunger. 1663. Colonel Wood's alleged travels. 1605. Tracey made viceroy of New France— Allouez founds first permanent station on Lake Su perior. 1667. La Salle first arrives in Canada from France. 1608. Claude Dablon and Jacques Marquette plant mission of Ste. Marie. 1670. X. Perrot is ordered west by the intendant to propose a congress of Lake Indian*. — Al leged travels of Captain Bolt. 1671. Grand council at the Sault Ste. Marie— French take formal possession of the Northwest — Marquette establishes permanently the mis sion of St. Ignatius. 1672. Allouez aud Dablon visits Green Bay and all the western shores of Lake Michigan. 1673. Marquette and his companions leave Macki nac to seek the Mississippi — They cross from Fox river to Wisconsin — They reach Mississippi — They meet Illinois Indians — they reach Arkansas — They leave on return to Mackinac— Marquette and Joliet at Des Moines (as supposed) — Marquette at and alone about Chicago. 1675. Marquette dies on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan— La Salle returns to France. 1676. La Salle again in Canada and rebuilds Fort Frontenac. 1677. La Salle visits France a second time. 1678. La Salle and Tonti sail for Canada— They ar rive at Quebec— They cross Lake Ontario — 184 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Persons from New England said to have explored the Southwest. 1679. La Salle loses his stores in Lake Ontario — The Griffin sails up Lake Erie through the straits to Huron — La Salle ancl his party encounter dreadful storms on Lake Hu ron — The Griffin miraculously saved, ar rives at Mackinac — The party weigh anchor and sail to Green Bay — The Grirlin laden and sent back to Niagara — La Salle with part of his men commences voyage up Lake Michigan — They reach the head of Lake Michigan and discover the St, Josephs riv er — During November build Fort Miamies at mouth of St. Josephs river — Reinforced by Tonti, they ascend the St. Josephs and cross to Kankakee. 1680. La Salle and his party in Peoria lake — La Salle, under great depression of mind, builds and names Fort Crcvecceur — Henne pin sent to explore the Mississippi — La SaUe commences his journey, returning to Canada — M. Hennepin on the upper Mis sissippi— Tonti commences building Fort St. Louis — Hostility of the Iroquois oDliges Tonti to leave the country — La Salle re turns to Illinois — Hennepin returns to Canada. 1681. La Salle and Tonti meet at Mackinac — La Salle a third time goes westward — He is at St. Josephs again — He goes by Chicago to Illinois river — He finds Fort Crevecceui in good condition. 1682. La Salle goes from Chicago westward — Heis on banks of the Misissippi — He descends Mississippi — He discovers mouths of Mis sissippi — He takes possession by process verbal — He returns to St. Josephs, of Michigan — He intends to ascend the Mis sissippi with a colony. 1683. La Salle leaves Illinois for Quebec — He im mediately sails for France, at Rochelle, in December. 1684. La Salle sails from France for mouth of Mis sissippi — He reaches St. Domingo — He sails from St. Domingo for mouth of Mis sissippi—He discovers the main land — The Iriquois place themselves under Eng land. 1685. La Salle in the Gulf of Mexico — He sends party on shore to go eastward for mouth of Mississippi — He reaches Matagorda Bay — Beaujeu sails for France, Leaving La Salle in great distress — La Salle buiiding in Texas ; unfortunate — He in person searches for the Mississippi. 1686. La Salle returns to Matagorda Bay — He goes again to seek the Mississippi — Tonti goes down Mississippi to meet La Salle — La Salle returns unsuccessful. 1687. La Salle leaves for Mississippi the third time — He sends men to look for stores — He fol lows and is killed by those men — His mur derers quarrel and slay one another — Seven of La Salle's best companions leave the main body — The seven proceed toward Mississippi, and reach Arkansas — They reach Fort St. Louis, on the Illinois river— La Salle's death was not published until next year. 1688. La Salle's former companions leave Fort St. Louis for Quebec — Thence they sail for France, and arrive at Rochelle, in October — Population of all French North America, about 12.U00. 1680. War of the European alliance — D'Iberville victorious on Hudson's Bay. 1690. D'Iberville invades English colony of New York. 1693. Rev. Gravier, a missionary at Kaskaskia, Illi nois — Kaskaskia founded by Gravier; date unknown — Cahokia settlement prior to Kaskaskia; date likewise unknown. 1697. Treaty between France and England, and peace of Ryswick. 1698. D'Iberville appointed governor of Louisiana — Bienville appointed intendent of Louis iana— Dr. Coxe sends two vessels toward the Mississippi. 1699. D'Iberville at the Bay of Mobile — He enters the Mississippi — He sails for France — Sounds Mississippi and meets English — Fort L'Huillier built on Blue Earth river, Minnesota. 1700. D'Iberville returns from France — He goes up the Mississippi to Natches — He sends Le Seur to St. Peter's, in search of eopper mine. 1701. De La Motte Cadillac founds Detroit — D'Iber ville founds a colony on Mobile river — Iro quois again place themselves under Eng land. 1702. Fort built on the Bay of Mobile. 1705. Colony much reduced by sickness. 1706. D'Iberville at Havana, on a voyage to France — Bienville, governor pro tern. 1707. First grant of lands at Detroit. 1708. D'Artaguette in Louisiana. 1710. Governor Spottswood, of Virginia, explores the Alleghanies. 1712. War between the French and their allies, and the Ottagamie and Mascoutens Indians — Monopoly of Louisiana granted to Crozat — Tuscaroras admitted in confederacy with Iroquois. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht, leaving boundary between colonies unsettled. 1714. Fort Rosalie (Natchez) commenced. J717. Crozat resigns his privilege of monopoly— Fort Chartres commenced; first a wooden structure— Louisianastrade granted to Com pany of West — New Orleans commenced — John Law connected with Company of the West. Chronology of the Northwest. 185 1718. Emigrants augment the population of New Orleans — Renault leaves France for Illi nois. 1719. Company cf the West made Company of the Indies — Gov. Keith, of Pennsylvania, urges the building a fort on Lake Erie. 1720. Law made minister of finance — Stock of Company of the Indies worth 2050 per ct.— Stock commences depreciation — Company of the Indies bankrupt — Charlevoix arrives in America and lands at Quebec — Renault buys slaves at St. Domingo for working mines in Illinois — Mine La Motte, Missou ri, discovered and wrought — Spanish inva sion of Missounes from Santa Fe— Span iards totally defeated and all except a single individual slain — La Harpe explores Wa shita and Arkansas. 1721. Charlevoix at Montreal — He is at the Falls of Niagara — He is at Fort de Pontchartrain (Detroit) — He is at Mackinac — He is at the Fort on St. Josephs river — He is at the source of the'lheakiki (Kankakee) — He is at Pimiteouy (Peoria) — He is at Kaskas kia — He is at Natchez. 1722. English erect a trading post at Oswego — Charlevoix at New Orleans— And at Bi- loxi. 1726. Iroquois a third time place themselves under England. 1727. English build a fort at Osw«go. ' 1739. French among the Natchez, murdered. 1730. Natchez conquered and destroyed — Alleged travels of Sailing in the West — Gov. Keith earnestly recommends securing West to England. 1732. Company of Indies resign Louisiana to the king. 1735. Vincennes settled according to some author ities. 1736. Expedition of French against Chickasaws — D'Artagnette conquered and slain — Vin- eenues, Senat and D'Artaguette burned — Bienville fails in assault on Chickasaws, and retreats. 1739. French collect to attack the Chickasaws. 1740. Peace between French and Chickasaws^— Lanse d'la Grasse (at New Madrid) supposed to have been inhabited. 1742. John Howard is said to havo gone down Ohio river. 1744. Treaty of English and Iroquois at Lancaster— Vaudreuil fears English influence in the West — Renault returns to France. 1745. Pierre Ohartier conciliates Shawanese and French. 1748. Chickasaws attack French post on Arkan sas—Conrad Weiser sent to the Ohio — Ohio Land Company formed — Pierre Char- tier instigates war between Iroquois and Shawanese — English establish a trading post on Great Miami, Ohio — Excessively cold, stormy, and severe winter. 1749. Grant of land to Loyal Company — Celeron sent to bury medals along the Ohio river. 1750. English traders it is said were made prison ers at Great Miami — Twigtwee or Miami Indians killed by French soldiers — Both time and place are uncertain — English driven from their station on Miami, by the French — Twigtwee or Miami Indians de fend the English and are killed — Large shipments of products from Illinois to New Orleans— Five French villages in Illinois — Forty sailing vessels at New Orleans — Dr. Walker explores Kentucky. 1751. Christopher Gist (it is believed) explored thc interior of Ohio — Gist surveyed land south of Ohio river, east of Kanawha — Gen. An drew Lewis surveyed for Greenbriar Com pany. 1752. French again attack English post on Great Miami (doubtful) — Treaty at Logstown ; In dians confirm Lancaster Treaty of 1744 — Families locate West of the Alleghenies — French organize an army to occupy the Up per Ohio. 1753. French build Fort Presqu' Isle —French build Fort Le Bceuf— Fort Venango commenced— Pennsylvania Assembly informed of French movements — Commissioner sent to warn French; stops at Logstown — French sent with arms for friendly Indians — Colonies authorized to resist French by force — Trea ty with Northwestern Indians at Winches ter— Treaty at Carlisle with Iroquois, Del awares, Shawanese, Miamies and Wyandots — Ohio Company open line at Braddock's road — Washington commissioned to bear message to French commandant — He leaves Will's creek for Fort Venango — He is on Monongahela, at Turtle creek — He makes accurate observation at the junction of the two rivers — He is at Logstown, engages Indian chief to accompany him — He is at Venango, directed to proceed to Le Bceuf — He reaches French commandant at Le Bceuf— Great number of boats containing French army passes Oswego — Washington leaves French commandant to return to Virginia. 17.*4. Washington at Gist's house, on Mononga hela — Washington at Williamsburg, the the capital of Virginia — Troops called into service b3r Virginia — French fort at Venan go finished — English commence building a fort at the junction — Contrecceur de mands surrender of the English — Ensign Ward capitulates ; is permitted to leave, to gether with his men and stores — yirginia troops moving westward — Washington crosses Alleghenies — He attacks and kills Jumonville — New York sends £5,000 to Virginia — Washington at Fort Necessity — He surrenders Fort Necessity — lie retires to Mount Vernon — French hold the whole West. 1755. France proposes a compromise — Braddock lands at Alexandria in Virginia — France and England send fleets to America— Brad- dock's army marehes by two routes west- 186 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ward — Expedition against Nova Scotia leaves Boston — Braddock arrives at Fort Cumberland — He marches from Fort Cum berland — He reaches the Monongahela — He recrosses Monongahela, meets French and Indians, and is defeated — Braddock dies at the Great Meadows. 1756. Fort Chartres rebuilt; a strong stone struc ture—Lewis' expedition against the Ohio Indians, and failure — Indians till the valley of Virginia — War formally declared be tween France and England — Armstrong's expedition against Kiitanning — First In dian treaty held at Easton — Monseur Don- ville defeated and slain. 1757. Massacre at Fort William Henry — Pitt made prime minister. 175«. Fort Stanwix built — Louisburg and Fqrt Frontenac taken — Post leaves for the Ohio river to conciliate Indians — He encounters much fatigue and danger — He arrives at Kuskushkee, and goes to Fort Du Quesne — He confers with Indians near Fort Du Quesne — Grant defeated near Fort Du Quesne — Washington opening a road over the mountains —French aud Indians attack Forbes at Loyalhauna — Forbes marches from Loyalhanna to Turtle creek — Post's second mission to Ohio Indians — French burn and retire from Fort Du Quesne — Forbes takes possession of the Forks (Pittsburgh) — English erect temporary works; Forbes returns to Philadelphia — Col. H. Mercer left in command — Chero kee Indians become hostile to colonists. 1759. Forbes dies at Philadelphia — D'Aubry brings army stores and troops from Illinois to Ve nango — Garrison at Fort Pitt fear the French at Venango — Gen. Stanwix arrives at Fort Pitt — Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara and Quebec yield. 17CO. Tho French yield Canada to the English — Cherokee war against southwest Colonies — Gen. Monkton treats with the Indians at Fort Pitt — Settlers again go over the mountains — ' Rogers takes possession of Detroit — Rogers returns across Ohio to Fort Pitt. 1761. Death of Pierre Francois Xavier de Charle voix — Alexander Henry, Indian trader, vis its Northwest — Christian F. Post goes to settle on Tuscarawas river. 1762. Bouquet warns all persons from settling on Indian lands — Post and Heckwelder go to Tuscarawas — Dark day at Detroit — Pre liminaries to Peace of Paris settled — Loui siana transferred to Spain — The' Canadas contain upward of 100,000 souls. 1763. Mason and Dixon commence to survey line between Pennsylvania and Maryland — Treaty of Paris concluded — Detroit at tacked by Pontiac — Mackinac taken by In dians— Presqu' Isle (Erie) taken by In dians — Sandusky Fort surprised and taken by Indians — St. Josephs Fort, on St. Jo sephs river, taken by Pottawattomies — Ouiatenon garrison surrendered ; were not massacred — Fort Miami (near Fort Wayne) garrison made prisoners — Fort at Green Bay evacuated and garrison escapes — Le Bceuf attacked, fort burnt, garrison es capes — The date of the massacre at forts at Venango not known — Battle of Bushy Run — Fort Pitt besieged, and relieved by -Bouquet — Proclamation to protect Indian lands — Laclede arrives at Ste. Genevieve — Laclede selects site of St. Louis — Forts Bedford and Ligonier attacked; not taken. 1764. St. Louis founded by Laclede — Bradstreet makes dishonorable peace with Northern Indians — Bouquet makes peace with Ohio Indians — French officers ordered to give up Lower Louisiana to Spain. 1765. Sir William Johnson makes treaty at German Flats — George Crogan goes westward — Croghan made prisoner at the W abash — Capt. Stirling, for England, takes posses sion of Illinois — Proclamation of Gov. Gage. 1766. First families known to be at Pittsburgh — " Quebec Bill " passed in the British Par^ liament — Capt. Jonathan Carver explores the unknown Northwest — Settlers again cross the mountains — Walpole company . proposed — Col. James Smith visits Ken tucky. — Capt. Pitman arrives m Illinois — Mason and Dixon's line finished to Dunker Creek. 1767. Western Indians grow impatient — Franklin labors for Walpole company — Finley visits Kentucky — Zeisberger founds Mission on the Allegheny — Gen. Bouquet died at Pen sacola — Mason and Dixon ceased surveying line between Pennsylvania and Maryland — Buglish traders first visit the Assiniboinje river. 1768. Treaty of Fort Stanwix; grand acquisition of lands from Indians — Capt. Pitman still at Illinois — Capt. Carver returns from North west — Indian treaty at Pittsburgh — Severe penal laws, to prevent settlement on Indian lands. 1769. Mississippi company proposed — Boone and others start for Kentucky; they reach Red river, of Kentucky — Boone made prisoner by the Indians. 1770. Grave Creek settlement, in Virginia, first made — Moravians invited to Big Beaver — Moravians leave Allegheny aud remove to Beaver — Treaty of Lochaber — Ohio com pany merged in Walpole company — Wash ington visits the west — The Zanes found Wheeling — Spain takes possession of St. Louis and Upper Louisiana — The Long Hunters explore the west. 1771. Boone returns to North Carolina— The Long Hunters still abroad. 1772. Indians murdered by whites on Lower Kana wha — Moravians, invited by Indians, re move from Beaver to Tuscarawa — Gen. Gage's proclamation against Bettlers on Wabash — Moravians found Schoenbrum on Tuscarawa. 1773. Boone and others start to settle Kentucky — He and companions attacked by Indians and return — Bullitt. M'Afee aud others de scend the Ohio — Bullitt and others survey at Falls and Kentucky river — Gen. Thomp- Chronology of the Northwest. 187 son surveys the valley of Licking — Gen. Lyman goes to Natchez — Purchase hy Illi nois company in Illinois — Big Bone Lick, near the Ohio, discovered — Kennedy, from Kaskaskia, ascends Illinois river in search of a copper mine — He describes ruins of a fort at southwest end of Lake Peoria. 1774. James Harrod in Kentucky — Contentions between Pennsylvania and Virginia — Con nolly calls out militia, and usurps civil au thority — St. Clair arrests Connolly and companions — Connolly and associates are released on parole — Connolly receives armed forces from Virginia — Connolly takes possession of Fort Pitt and names it Fort Dunmore — Magistrates made pris oners by Connolly — Pennsylvania magis trates carried prisoners to Virginia — .Dis cussion about the unfinished Mason and Dixon line — Connolly writes to the settlers about Wheeling to attack Indians — Cresap unfortunately agrees with Connolly— Great- house murders several Indians — Logan re venges his family; preparation far war — Boone sent for surveyors down the river — Friendly Shawanese attacked by Connol ly—Several Indian traders murdered — M/Donald attacks Wapatomica — Troops under Lewis march d-iwn Kanawha; they reach Point Pleasant — Battle of Point Pleasant — Dunmore makes an unpopular peace — Simon Girty considered a valiant soldier — He acts iu concert with Virgin ians against Indians. 1773. Treaty of Wataga; purchase by Transylva nia company — Boone returns to Kentucky, and founds Boonsboro — Henderson and associates arrive at Boonsboro — Hender son calls representatives to the first legisla ture in the west; representatives hold their session under a large tree — Guy Johnson influences Iroquois against Americans — Oneidas and Tuscaroras adhere to Ameri ca — Congress forma three Indian depart ments — Meeting of commissioners and Indians at Pittsburgh — Connolly arrested in Maryland — Purchase by Wabash com pany on Wabash river — Capt. John Neville takes possession of Fort Pitt — Provincial 5overnment of Pennsylvania denounces udge Crawford — A very large meeting at Hannastown of citizens of Western Penn sylvania. 1776. Monongalia county, Virginia, made from West Augusta— Ohio county, Virginia, erected from West Augusta district — An attack on Detroit proposed in congress — Washington advises the employment of Indians — Indi ans generally incline to the British — Con gress authorizes the employment of Indi ans — Indians drive off Kentucky settlers — George Rogers Clark moves to Kentucky — Kentuckians choose delegates for Virginia assembly — Clark and Jones are their rep resentatives — Clark procures gunpowder from Virginia council — Virginia admits Kentucky among her counties — Clark and Jones return from Virginia by Pittsburgh — Jones is killed by Indians — Clark returns to Harrodsburg — Kentucky settlements made Kentucky county, Virginia — Fort Ap pleby built at Kittanning. 1777. Cornstalk (Indian chief) murdered at Point Pleasant — Congress of Indians and British at Oswego — Kentucky infested with north- era Indians — Kentucky elects (legally) bur gesses to Virginia assembly — Logan's sta tion assailed by Indians — Clark sends spies to Illinois — Logan crosses the mountains for gunpowder — Bowman, with one hun dred men, comes west from Virginia — Fort Henry (Wheeling) attacked — First court in Kentucky, at Hiirroilsburg — The attack ou Detroit urged in congress — Clark opens his plan of conquering Illinois to Gov. Henry — Harrodsburg attacked by Indians. 1778. Orders issued to Clark to attack Illinois — Boone taKen prisoner at Salt Licks, on Licking river — Boone taken to Detroit, thence to Scioto — Clark succeeds in gath ering a small army at Louisville — Clark passes falls of Ohio, and descends to Fort Massac — Boone escapes from Indian cap tivity — Clark marches from Ohio river towards Kaskaskia — He conquers Kaskas kia, as likewise Cahokia— Vincennes joins the American cause — Mcintosh sent to command at Fort Pitt — Fort Mcintosh, ou the upper Ohio, built — New Jersey objects to land claims of Virginia — Boone makes an incursion against Indians on Scioto — Boonsboro besieged by British and Indi ans — Fort Laurens built on the Tuscara was — Clark holds council with Indians of the Illinois — Treaty with Delaware Indians at Pittsburgh — Virginia grants Henderson and company the Green river laud— Gov ernor Hamilton, from Detroit, retakes Vin cennes. 1779. Boundary between Pennsylvania and Vir ginia settled— Clark is notified of the cap ture of Vincennes ~ Clark's extraordinary march from Kaskaskia — Clark's miracu lous recapture of Vincennes — Governor Hamilton sent a prisoner to Virginia — State of Delaware objects to land claims of Virginia — Americans suBpect aud attack the Iroquois — First settlement of Lexing ton, Kentucky — Virginia passes additional land laws —Maryland objects to land claims of Virginia— Brodhead1 s expedition against the Allegheny Indians — Sullivan's expedi tion against the Iroquois — Bowman's ex pedition against Indians in Miami valley — Fort Laurens on Tuscarawas abandoned — Indians treat wi'ch Brodhead at Fort Pitt — Rogers and Benham attacked by Indians — Land commissioners open their sessions in Kentucky — Congress asks Virginia to re consider land laws — Continued Indian out rages about Fort Pitt. 1780. Hard winter — Great suffering in the west — New York authorizes a cession of western lands — Fort Jefferson built on the Mis sissippi — Great emigration to the south west— , Virginia grants lands in Kentucky for education — St. Louis attacked by Brit ish and Indians — Louisville established hy law — Byrd with a large force invades Ken tucky^ Clark prepares to attac.i the Sha wanese — Clark builds block house opposite the mouth of Licking — Marches thence to Upper Miami — Clark: defeats the Shawa nese and destroys their property — Battle of King's mountain in North Carolina — Scarcity of, provisions ; almost famine at Fort Pitt — Southwestern boundary of Pennsylvania definitely established. 1781. Laws of Virginia prevent sale of provisions out of the state— .Renewed efforts foran expe_ 188 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. dition against Detroit ,— Virginia makes her first act of cession — Spaniards from St. Louis take Fort St. Josephs, near Lake Michigan — Jay instructed that he may yield the navigation of Mississippi — New York cedes her western lands — Brodhead attacks Delaware Indians on Muskingum — Gen. G. R. Clark solicits aid from Western Pennsylvania — Clark addresses Col. Loch- ry, of Westmoreland — Lochfy, Orr and others raise a force and descend the Ohio — Lochry killed; his troops taken prisoners — Mary Heckewelder born, first white child in Ohio — Americans begin to settle in. Illi nois — Chickasaws attack Fort Jefferson — ¦ Moravians carried to Sandusky by British aud Indians — Moravian missionary taken to Detroit — Williamson leads a party against Moravian Indians— Clark forestalls surplus provisions of Pennsylvania — Penn- sylvanians disgusted with the grasping conduct of Clark — Col. Brodhead prevents Virginians removing cannon from Pitt — Great emigration of girls to Kentucky — Washington county, Pennsylvania, estab lished. 17S2. British establish a military post at San dusky — Moravian Indians murdered by Americans — Moravian missionaries taken to Detroit — Attack on Estill's station; whites defeated— Crawford's expedition; taken prisoner and burnt — Attack on Bry ant's station — Battle at the Blue Licks; Kentuckians defeated — Land offices opened for Virginia lands — Clark's second incur sion through Miami valley — Provisional articles of peace with Great Britain — Rice's fort, near Wheeling, assailed by In dians — Lexington, Ky., incorporated by Virginia assembly — Fort Nelson built at falls of Ohio, Louisville— Catfish (Wash ington), Pennsylvania, first laid out as a town. 17S3. Hostilities between United States and Great Britain cease — Kentucky formed into one district- Congress calls on the states to cede lands —Peace proclaimed to the army — English propose to carry away slaves — Washington protests against course of Eng lish— Rufus Putnam applies for lands in the west — Baron Steuben sent to receive western posts - Cassaty sent to Detroit- Virginia withdraws Clark's commission — Definite treaty of peace — Washington writes to Duane about western lands — Congress proposes terms of cession to Vir- finia — Cougress forbids all purchases of ndian lands — Congress instructs Indian commissioners — Virginia grants Clark and his soldiers lands — Virginia authorizes cession on terms proposed — British leave New York (taking slaves) — Col. Daniel Brodhead opens first store in Kentucky, at Louisville. 17S4. Col. James Wilkinson opens second store in Kentucky, at Lexington —Treaty of peace ratified by the United States -^Virginia gives deed of cession — Indian commis sioners reinstructed — Pittsburgh resur- veyed; population increases — Treaty of peace ratified by England —Virginia refuses to comply with treaty — England refuses to deliver up western posts — Treaty with Iro quois at Fort Stanwix — Logan calls a meet ing at Danville — First Kentucky conven tion meets — Kentucky receives many emi grants — Maysville, Ky., settled. 17S5. Treaty with Delawares, etc., at Fort Mcin tosh — Severe penalty against settling north of Ohio river — All previous settlers forced from their homes — Officers of United States enjoined to prevent families crossing Ohio— An attempt to settle at mouth of Scioto in defiance of law — The aggressors are killed by Indians — Ordinance for the survey of western lands passed-1- Second Kentucky convention meets— Don Gardoqui comes from Spain — Third Kentucky convention meets — A -colony emigrates from Virginia to Illinois — Great confederacy of northern Indians formed by Brant — Fort Harmar built at mouth of Muskingum — First sur vey of lands in the northwest territory (congress land) — Morgantown, Virginia, established. 17S6. Brant visits England to learn purposes of minis ter.s — Virginia agrees to independence of Kentucky — Putnam and Tupper call meeting to form Ohio company — Treaty with Shawanese at Fort Finney (mouth of Miami) — Ohio company of associates formed — Governor of Virginia writes to cougress respecting Indian invasions — The negotiation about Mississippi before congress — Resolution of congress produces cession by Connecticut — Congress author izes the invasion of northwestern territory- Pittsburgh Gazette commenced; first print ing in Ohio valley — Jay authorized to yield navigation of Mississippi at a definite term — Pursuant to invasion of northwest ern territory, Clark marches to Vincennes — Clark ascends the Wabash to Vermillion river — Kentucky troops become mutinous, and return home without discharge — Clark abandons the expedition, and returns to Vincennes — Connecticut makes a second act of cession — Americans seize Spanish property at Vincennes — Virginia protests against yielding navigation of Mississippi — Great dissatisfaction throughout the west — Governor of Virginia informed of Clark's movements — Great Indian council in north west; they address congress — Frankfort, Ky., established by Virginia assembly. 17*7. Fourth Kentucky convention meets — New England Ohio land company choose direct ors — Meeting in Kentucky relative to navi gation of Mississippi — Wilkinson goes to New Orleans — Dr. Cutler negotiates with congress for lands — Congress makes order in favor of Ohio company — Ordinance passed for government of northwest terri tory— Innis refuses to prosecute invaders of Indian lands — Kentucky Gazette estab lished at Lexington — Symmes of New Jer sey applies forland — First entries of Vir- finia reserve lands north of the Ohio — if th Kentucky convention meets — New England Ohio land company completes a contract — Symmes' application referred to board of treasury — United States troops ordered west — St. Clair appointed governor of northwestern territory — New England ers of Ohio land company prepare to go west — Symmes issues proposals for set tlers—John Brown, first western repre sentative, goes to congress — Fort Frank lin, on the site of Franklin, Pennsylvania, built. 17S8. Indians expected to make a treaty at Mariet ta — Denham purchases the site of Losan- tlyille (Cincinnati) — The admission at Chronology of the Northwest. 189 Kentucky debated in congress — New Eng landers of Ohio Company land at Musking um — Marietta and her avenues named with pomp and pageantry — Admission of Ken tucky refused by congress — St. Clair reach es the Northwestern Territory— Sixth Ken tucky convention meets — First law of Northwestern Territory published — Symmes starts for the west — Losantiville (Cincinnati; planned and surveyed — First court held at Marietta — Symmes reaches his purchase; is overjoyed — Another grand Indian council in the Northwest — Indians forbid treaties with separate nations — Sev- ei th Kentucky convention meets — Colum bia settled by Stites and others — Dr. Con- 1 oily in Kentucky, as a spy and British agent — The founder of Cincinnati leaves MayBviile — Cincinnati reached according to McMillan — Virginia passes third act to make Kentucky independent — Col. George Morgan, of New Jerssy, at New Madrid — Almanacs first printed at Lexington, Ken tucky — Great emigration west; about f\\e thousand persons pass Fort Harmar— Mays ville, Kentucky, establishes a town. 1789. Treaty of Fort Harmar concluded — Wilkin son goes to New Orleans again — Daniel Story first clergyman and teacher at Mariet ta— Symmes' settlement threatened by In dians — The force sent to protect Symmes §o to Losantiville — Major Doughty builds ort Washington at Losantiville (Cincin nati) — Western scouts withdrawn by Vir ginia — Eighth Kentucky convention meets — Gov. Miro, of New Orleans, writes to Se bastian — Congress empowers president to call out western militia — President author izes Gov. St. Clair to, call out militia — Gen. ilarmar reaches Fort Washington with three hundred troops — Thomas Hutchins, United States geographer, dies at Pitts burgh—Fort Steuben (or blockhouse) built near Charleston, on upper Ohio river. 1790. Gov. St. Clair arrives at Losantiville and names it Cincinnati; descends the Ohio to Fort Steuben (Jeffersonville); proceeds to Vincennes, aud crosses prairies to Kaskas kia — Antoine Gamelin sent to upper Wa bash Indians — Indian hostilities take place — St. Clair calls out western militia — Ninth Kentucky convention meets —Troops gather at Fort Washington (Cincinnati — Harmar leaves Fort Washington and march es northward — Col. Hardin, with the ad vance, reaches Miami villages — Main army reaches Miami villages — Camp at Miami village; men behave unsoldierlike — Col. Trotter is sent to reconnoiter the Indian haunts — Hardin attacks Indians; not suc cessfully—He desires another trial with Indians; is again defeated — He loses all confidence in the militia; is dissatisfied with Col. Trotter, and marches on return to Fort Washington — Army halts at old Chil licothe; soldiers disobedient — Militiamen are punished hy whipping — Harmar repri mands Col. Trotter and Major McMullen — Mutiny of Kentuckians quashed; army pro ceeds to Fort Washington — Western in habitants petition congress to fight Indians in their own way — Massy and others con tract to settle Manchester. 1791. Big Bottom settlement destroyed by Indians — Excise laid on ardent spirits by congress — Gen. Charles Scott authorized to march against Indians — Proctor starts on his western mission; reaches Buffalo creek, and is refused a vessel to cross lake Erie — Fam ily of Kirkpatricks attacked at morning worship and murdered hy Indians in Arm strong county, Pennsylvania — St. Clair at Fort Washington preparing his expedition, — Proctor abandons his mission and re turns—Gen. Charles Scott marches against' Wabash Indians — Meeting at Brownsville, Pennsylvania, against excise — Wilkinson marches against Eel river Indians — Excise officers of Allegheny and Washington coun ties, Pennsylvania, assailed — Meeting at Pittsburg to oppose excise law — St. Clair commences his march northward; builds Fort Hamilton on Great Miami — He and Butler disagree — St. Clair builds Fort Jef ferson in Northwestern territory; marches north, towards head of Maumee ; arrives at a branch of Wabash, supposed to be the St. Mary's; is attacked and defeaied, *mdarmy disorganized — Portion of the army returns to Fort Washington — Feeble garrisons are left at Forts Jefferson and Hamilton — Ter ror of Indian invasion expressed by western Pennsylvania and Virginia — Massacre of Jolly's family, near Wheeling. 1792. Peace offered by the United States to western Indians, through the Senecas — Pond and Stedman sent west as peacemakers — Brant invited by government to Philadelphia — Wilkinson sends a party to the field of St. Clair's defeat— Gallipolis settled by de luded French colonists —Iroquois chiefs visit Philadelphia — Instructions issued to Truman — Kentucky admitted into the union as a state — Excise law amended, though not to satisfaction — Hendrick, a Stockbridge Indian chief, sent west — In structions issued to Rufus Putnam — True- man and Hardin leave Fort Washington — Pennsylvania purchases from congress the Triangle tract — Gen. Wayne moves west ward—Brant, pursuant to invitation, visits Philadelphia — Fire lands given to sufferers by Connecticut — Great anti-excise meeting at Pittsburgh-^ Rufus Putnam makes treaty with Indians at Vincennes — Great Indian council at " Grand Glaize'1'' (Fort Defiance) — Adair attacked near Fort St. Clair — Op position to excise law diminishes — United States troops at Legionville, on the Ohio. 1793. United States legion goes down to Cincinnati — Last Indian depredation in Kentucky — Pickering and others appointed to treat with Indians at Maumee — Unsual prepara tions for a council and treaty at Sandusky — Citizen Genet reaches the United States — Commissioners for council with Indians reach Niagara — Genet is presented to Washington — First Democratic Society in Philadelphia — Commissioners correspond with Gov. Simcoe — They meet Brant and hold a council — Commissioners at Elliott's house, head of lake Erie — Indians arrive at Elliott's and meet commissioners — Indi ans decline meeting Americans at Sandusky — Final action of the commissioners and In dians — Wayne leaves Cincinnati with his legion ; encamps at Greenvihe, and is joined hy Kentuckians under Scott — Lowry and Boyd attacked near Fort St. Clair — French emissaries sent west — Field of St. Clair's defeat visited by Wayne — Fort Recovery built on St. Clair's battle-ground — Western people dissatisfied with government — Op- 190 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. position to excise feebler — First session of Kentucky assembly at Frankfort — Brant gives the true character of the British. 1 794. Fort built at Le Bceuf (Waterford), by Major Denny — Whisky riots recommence — Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians — The Min go Creek Association formed — Wayne pre pares for his campaign — Gov. Simcoe builds a fort on Maumee — Democratic society formed at Pittsburgh — Spaniards offer help to Indians — French emissaries forced to leave the west — Contest respecting Presqu1 Isle — Indians attack Fort Recovery — Suits commenced against whisky rioters — Gath ering about Neville's house — Neville's house burnt — Meeting at Mingo creek — Mail robbed by Bradford — Charles Scott, with fifteen hundred men, joius Wayue — Great gathering at Braddock's field — Wash ington issues proclamation against insur gents — Wayne marches toward Maumee — He sends his last message to Indians — He commences building Fort Defiance — He builds Fort Deposit — He meets and con quers Indians — His correspondence with Col. Campbell — He threatens Fort Miami — He returns to Fort Defiance and finishes it — He marches to head of Maumee — Fort Wayne built at head of Maumee — Commis sioners of government meet whisky insur gents — British try to prevent Indians mak ing peace — Vote taken upon obedience to the law in Pennsylvania — Vote not satis factory to the government — Washington calls out militia of four states — Gen. Lee marches with militia against insurgents — The most guilty malcontents escape by flight — The less guilty surrender without resist ance — Indians ask for peace of Col. Ham- tramck — Last depredation by Indians in western Virginia — Sandy Lake Fort, Min nesota, erected. 1795. Block-house built at Presqu1 Isle (Erie), by Gen. Irvine — Indians sign preliminaries of a treaty — Prisoners are interchanged — Connecticut prepares to sell her reserve — Council of Greenville opens— The Baron de Carondelet writes to Sebastian — Jay's protracted treaty finished — Treaty of Green ville signed — Council with Indians at Greenville closed — Grant by congress to Gallipolis settlers — Connecticut sells west ern reserve to land company — Pinckney concludes a treaty with Spain — Dayton, Ohio, laid out by Ludlow. 1796. Chillicothe, Ohio, laid ffo and settled — Sebas tian visits the southwest — Cleveland, Ohio, laid out and named — British surrender posts in the northwest — Difficulties with Spain recommence — Gen. Wayne died at Presqne Isle (Erie) — First paper manufac- > tory in the west — Dayton, Chio, first popu lated — Congress donates land to Ebenezer Zane — Fort Maiden, Canada West, build ing commenced — Tract of land granted to the Zanes. 1797. Power visits Kentucky and writes to Sebas tian — Daniel Boone moves west of Missis sippi — Occupying claimant law of Ken tucky passed— Cleveland, Ohio, first popu lated — Brooke county, Virginia, erected — British subjects from Detroit settle near Pott Maiden. 1798. William Henry Harrison made secretary of Northwest Territory — Alien and sedition laws passed — Nullifying resolutions in Kentucky — Representatives for Northwest Territory first chosen — Washington ap pointed (second time) commander-in-chief of American army — Steubenville, Ohio, founded ; streets surveyed at right angles — Transylvania University established at Lex ington, Kentucky — Amhertsburg, adjacent to Fort Maiden, settled by Britons from Detroit. 1799. Greensburg, Pennsylvania, incorporated a borough — Representatives of Northwest Territory meet — Representatives nominate candidates for council — Assembly of N orth- west Territory organize at Cincinnati — W. H. Harrison appointed delegate in congress from Nortewest Territory — Zanesville laid out and settled on Zanes tract. 1800. Great increase of products sent from Ohio river — Indiana Territory formed — Con necticut yields jurisdiction of her reserve — United States gives Connecticut patents for the soil — Treaty of St. Ildefonso — Assem bly of Northwest Territoiy meets at Chilli cothe — First missionary in Connecticut re serve — Lancaster, Ohio, surveyed and set tled — Congress authorizes the president to make inquiry for copper mines in north west — President John Adams appoints an agent to examine the south side of lake Su perior— A number of new counties made in western Pennsylvania. 1801. W. H. Harrison appointed governor of Indiana Territory — St. Clair reappointed governor of Northwest Territory — Legislature of Northwest Territory again at Cincinnati — Worthington made agent to procure a state Government for Ohio — Cauonsburg, Penn sylvania, incorporated a borough — Beaver, Pennsylvania, incorporated a borough — Louisiana ceded by Spain to France. 1802. University at Athens, Ohio, established — First bank in Kentucky — Congress agree that Ohio may become a state — The Span ish intendant forbids the use of New Or leans by Americans — Convention meets and forms a constitution for Ohio — Consti tution for Ohio finished — Cinciunati incor porated a borough — Jefferson college, Penn sylvania, chartered and organized — Con vention at Pittsburgh to form an exporting company — Advent of French Swiss to In diana. » 1803. Congress approbates the constitution, and declares Ohio a state — New Orleans made free for American shipping — Livingston and Monroe in France; purchase Louisiana — Lands located for Miami University — Miami Exporting Company at Cincinnati chartered — United States senate ratify the purchase of Louisiana — Louisiana gives up to the Americans — Xenia, Ohio, town plat surveved — Col. Hanuramck died at Detroit — D. Goforth discovered mammoth skele ton at Big Bone Lick, Kentucky. 1804. Fort Dearborn built at Chicago — Territory of Orleans and district of Upper Louisiana organize.! — Lewis and Clark dtart on their expedition — Immense quantity of land pur chased from Sac and Fox Indians — Ohio University chartered by state legislature — "First inhabitants in Xen„a, Ohio — Harnio- Chronology of the Northwest. 191 nie Society settle in Butler county, Penn sylvania — Kittanniug, Pennsylvauia, sur veyed and settled. 1805. Michigan Territory formed — Detroit (old town) burnt to the ground — Burr's visit to the west — General assembly meet in Indiana Territory — Tecumseh and the Prophet be gin to influence the Indians — Indians sell all their land in northeastern Ohio — Pike ascends and explores the Mississippi above St. Anthony's — Pike purchases land for military stations on upper Mississippi — Steubenville, Ohio, incorporated a borough. 1806. Great eclipse of the sun, June 16th — Burr again active; writes to Wilkinson — Span iards cross the Sabine river — Burr again goes west; is at Pittsburgh — Lewis and Clark return from Oregon — Daviess tries to arrest Burr — Sebastian found guilty by Kentucky legislature — Burr's men descend the Ohio river — His boats and stores ar rested— Burr meets his men at the mouth of Cumberland — Pike's expedition to heads of Arkansas — Washington College, Pennsyl vania, incorporated. 1807. Burr yields to civil authority of Mississippi- He escapes and is seized — His trial at Richmond — Petition for Slavery in Indi ana territory — Bank of Kentucky chartered — Brant, the celebrated king of Mohawk Indians, dies — Merriweather Lewis ap pointed governor of Upper Louisiana — G. C. Moreau arrives at Pittsburgh. 1808. Bank of Marietta, Ohio, chartered — Bank of Chillicothe, Ohio, chartered — Teeumthe and the Prophet remove to Tippecanoe — Madison, Indiana, settled — Rev. David Zeisberger, Moravian missionary, dies, aged eighty-seven — Harrison's first interview with Teeumthe. 1809. Vincennen is four weeks without a mail — Ill inois Territory formed — Miami University chartered— Settlement made at Boone's Lick, Missouri — Missouri Fur Company formed at St. Louis — Gov. Lewis, of Mis souri, alarmed at Indians; ca*lls out militia. 1810. Second interview of Harrison with Teeumthe — A trapper and hunter, named Colter, de scended .Missouri via Jefferson river, three thousand miles alone — Monks of La Trappe locate at the Great Mound on American Bottom, Illinois. 1811. Pittsburgh Magazine Almanac published by Cramer, Spear & Eichbaum — Company of rangers organized in Illinois — Mammoth Cave discovered in Kentucky — Teeumthe goes to the South — Harrison proposes to visit Indians.— Harrison marches toward Tippecanoe — First steamboat (named New Orleans) leaves Pittsburgh — Battle of Tip pecanoe — Great earthquakes begin —West ern people generally in consternation — Hudson's Bay Company's grant to Lord Selkirk — Meadville Academy incorporated by act of assembly, March 30. 1812. Gov. Meigs, of Ohio, calls for 1,200 volunteers or militia— Gen. Hull marches from Day ton, Ohio — Declaration of war against England — British at Maiden informed of thc declaration of war — Hull encounters a tedious and tiresome march through the forest; he arrives at Maumee, near tlie head of Lake Erie; sends men and goods by water to Detroit; first informed of declara tion of war — Americans cross to Sandwich, Canada — Mackinac surprised and takeu by the British — American army returns to De troit — Brock reaches Maiden, and advances to Sandwich; he crosses to Detroit; Hull surrenders — A detachment of Hull's army defeated at Brownstown — Massacre of troops and families near Chicago — Fort Harrison attacked by Indians — W. H. Har rison appointed commander in Northwest — Gov. Edwards and Gen. Hopkins' plan to conquer Indians — Gen. Hopkins with a large force at Vincennes; he marches up Wabash and crosses at Fort Harrison; en ters the prairies, and marches to meet Ed wards; his officers are disobedient, revolt and return to Kentucky — Edwards attacks the Indians on Illinois river — Hopkins makes an expedition to Upper Wabash — Lord Selkirk plants colony on Red river — Plopkins attacks Indians on Ponce Passu (Wild Cat) river — Generals Winchester and Harrison meet at Fort Wayne — Winchester marches to Fort Defiance — Harrison makes headquarters at Franklinton, Ohio — Col. Campbell attacks Indians on Mississinewa — Inhabitants at river Raisin importune Winchester for aid — Massacre of families at Pigeon creek, Scott county, Indiana, by Indians — Ohio legislature selects "High Bank " of Scioto river for capital — Little Turtle, the famous Miami Indian war chief, dies — Name of Upper Louisiana changed to Missouri territory. IS 13. Winchester marches down Maumee to the rapids — Winchester again importuned for help; sends troops to French town — British at Frenchtown first defeated — Americans defeated at Frenchtown with great loss — Massacre of the wounded at Frenchtown — Harrison retreats to Portage river; he re turns to Maumee and builds Fort Meigs — Fort Meigs besieged — Gen. Clay reaches Fort Meigs; Dudley's party lost— British return to Maiden — British fleet prepare to attack Erie — Fort StephenEon besieged — Siege of Fort Stephenson raised — Perry's vessels first leave Erie harbor — Victory by Perry on Lake Erie — British troops evacu ate Maiden; citizens remain at Amherts- hurg — Americans take possession of Am- hertsburg and make it headquarters — American government reestablished in Lower Michigan — Battle of the Thames in Canada — Buffalo burnt by the British — New Albany, Indiana, founded — . Vevay, settled by Dufours — Monks of La Trappe leave Illinois and return to France. 1814. Holmes1 expedition into Canada — John Cleves Symmes dies at Cincinnati — Expe dition under Croghan against Mackinac — Oov. Clark's expedition to Prairie du Chien ; Fort Shelby built — Lieut. Campbell sent to reinforce Fort Shelby; is attacked by In dians at Upper Rapids, defeated and returns to St. Louis — Fort Wayne rebuilt — Maj. Tavlor's expedition on upper Mississippi — He meets Indians at Rock Island — Is at tacked by Indians; defeated and retreats — Second grand Indian treaty at Greenville, Ohio — M'Arthur's expedition into Canada — Treaty of Ghent, preliminaries of peace with England — Fort Erie taken by Gen 192 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Brown-r- Evansville, Indiana, surveyed anl settled -^ Cleveland, Ohio, incorporated a borough. 1815. Treaty with eight Indian tribes at Detroit — Various treaties with Indians — Ohio taxes banking capital. 1816. Act of congress excluding foreigners from In dian trade — Pittsburgh is incorporated a city — Columbus made capital of Ohio — Bank of Shawneetown chartered — General banking law of Ohio passed — Indiana ad mitted into the union — Terre Haute, Indi ana, settlement made — Richmond, Indiana, founded and settled by " Friends Society " — Lord Selkirk conquers Northwest Com pany ; takes Fort William — Explosion of steamboat Washington, Point Harman. 1S17. First steamboat at St. Louis — Northwest of Ohio purchased from Indians — United States Bank open branches at Cincinnati and Chillicothe — Allegheny College at Meadville, Pennsylvania, incorporated — Fort Dearborn, at Chicago, rebuilt — Butler, Pennsylvania, incorporated a borough. 1818. Illinois becomes a state — Gen. St. Clair dies at his residence in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania — Gen. G. R. Clark dies near Louisville, Kentucky — Bishop Dubourg ar rives at St. Louis — First manufactory of fine flour at Prairie du Chien — Treaty at St., Mary's, Ohio, with Wyandot, Seneca and Shawanese Indians. 1819. First steamboats on the Missouri river — First steamboat on Lake Erie — Military post es tablished at Council Bluffs — Expedition to the Yellowstone river — Contest of Ohio with the United States Bank — Indian treaty at Edwardsville, Illinois — Cincin nati incorporated a city — Great depression in financial affairs in Pennsylvania — Fort Snelling built at mouth of St. Peter's — Fort Crawford built at Prairie du Chien — Citizens of Missouri Territoiy move for state government. 1820. Indiana legislature appoint commissioners to locate seat of government — Nullification resolutions of Ohio — Constitution formed for Missuri state — Congress refuses Mis souri constitution — Gov. Cass visits Lake Superior and upper Mississippi. 1821. Missouri received into the union by procla mation of president — Indianapolis made permanent seat of government for Indiana — Epidemic fever at St. Louis, Missouri; great mortality — Kittanniug, Pennsylva nia, incorporated a borough. 1822. Ohio moves in relation to schools and canals — Population of St. Louis diminished by sickness and financial depression. 1823. Steamboat Tennessee sunk near Natchez — Illinois moves in relation to canals — Com mencement of stone paving streets in St. Louis. 1824. Slavery contest in the state of Illinois — Sem inary established at Bloomington, Indiana — St. Louis revives and recommences im provements — From December until March, 1825, mostly warm, sunshine weather at Cincinnati. 1825. Ohio passes canal and school laws — Gov. Clark holds council with Os.vje Indians — Gen. James Wilkinson dies La Fayette, In diana, planned and surveyed — First legis lation at Indianapolis — Maj. Gen. La Fay ette ascends the Ohio river. Steamboat Mechanic sunk on his passage — United States grant 300,000 acres to Illinois for ca nal — La Fayette, Indiana, begins to popu late. 1826. First steamboat on Lake Michigan — Kenyon College founded at Gambier, Ohio — West ern Jtteserve College, at Hudson, Ohio, chartered. 1827. Congress donates lands for Wabash and Erie canal — Fort Leavenworth (Kansas), built and garrisoned — First seminary built and opened in Illinois — First grammar school at South Hanover, Indiana — From Decem ber until March, 1838, rain fell nearly every day. 1828. Extraordinary increase of lead mining at Ga lena, Illinois. 1829. Steubenville female seminary established — Fort Leavenworth threatened by Indians. 1830. Treaty with Keokuk at Prairie du Chien — Attempt to drive Black Hawk west of Miss issippi. 1831. Punishment by hard labor and imprisonment commenced in Illinois — Black Hawk is hostile, and is driven across the Mississip pi — Black Hawk War commenced — Legis lature of Indiana authorizes making Wa bash and Erie canal — Illinois militia are sent' against Black Hawk— United States troops sent against Black Hawk — Black Hawk makes treaty at Fort Armstrong, and confirms the treaty of 1804. 1832. Great flood of the Ohio river — Indianians commence Erie and Wabash canal — First steamboat at Chicago — Maysville, Ken tucky, incorporated a cily — College edifice at South Hanover erected and charter ob tained — Granville (Baptist) College, Ohio, chartered — Schoolcraft's expedition to the source of Mississippi — Indians reassert their rights, and war is resumed — Black Hawk, in great force, returns east'Of Miss issippi— Stillman aud party defeated near Rock river — Black Hawk defeated on Wis consin ; also on Mississippi — He is deliv ered to United States government — Cholera among Scott's troops and along the lakes — Final treaty with Sac and Fox Indians — First epidemic cholera on Ohio and Missis sippi—Two hundred U. S. soldiers die of cholera at Fort Gratiot. 1833. First settlement made in Iowa — Extraordi nary meteoric storm in November— Trouble about boundary between Ohio state and Michigan territory — Governor of Ohio sends militia troops to the border — Stock- bridge and Brothertown Indians emigrate to Michigan territory. 1834. John O'Connor condemned and executed at Du Buque, without law— Oberlin institute, Ohio, chartered, with university privileges Chronology of the Northwest. 193 — Gazetteer of Illinois, published at Jack sonville — Termination of bank charters in Ohio — Wabash college, Crawfordville, In diana, incorporated — Capitol of Indiana, at Indianapolis, finished — Late in May all foliage in the west destroyed by frost. 1835. Wabash college, Crawfordville, Indiana, or ganized — Michigan forms a constitution lor state government — Congress refuses the constitution, but offers terms — Oberlin in stitute organized as a-college — Milwaukee, Wisconsin, surveyed (previously settled). 1836. Madison, Wisconsin, planned and surveyed — Cornplanter, Seneca Indian Chief, dies, aged about one hundred years — The condi tions offered by congress to Michigan re jected— Illinois and Michigan Canal com menced — Territory of Wisconsin (including Iowa) organized — Cleveland, Ohio, incor porated a city — Mania of land and town lot trading in Chicago — American Cannel Coal Company chartered, Indiana — Heather! y war in western Missouri — Nicollet explores Mississippi to its source.1837. Michigan complies with the terms of congress and becomes a state — Internal improve ment system adopted in Illinois — Riots at Alton, Illnois; Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy killed — Chicago is incorporated as a city — State house of Missouri, at Jefferson City, burnt — Asbury university, at Green Castle, Indiana, chartered — Explosion of the steamer "Du Buque" off Muscatine bar — Steamboat "Ben Sherrod" burnt on Miss issippi river. 1838. Explosion of the steamboat "Moselle" near Cincinnati" — Territory of Iowa organized — Contest with Mormons in Missouri — Death of Gov. William Clark of Missouri — Indiana University, at Bloomington, Indi ana, chartered — Financial affairs at Chica- fo in a desperate condition — Exceeding rought; Ohio river scarcely navigable from July until January, 1839. 1838-39. Trouble between Missouri and Iowa territory about boundary — Militia forces sent to the border by each government. 1839. Bank commissioners appointed in Ohio — Mormons retreat to- Illinois, and locate at Commerce — They change the name of their new location to Nauvoo — The first steam arrival at Sault Ste. Marie: (the " Lexing ton) — Stockbridge and Brothertown Indi ans, in Wisconsin territory, made citizens of the United States. 1839-40. Iowa City located and made seat of govern ment. 1840. Presbyterian Theological Seminary removed to New Albany, Indiana — Bloody tragedy at Bellevue, Iowa; seven men killed — Great political excitement in the presidential can vass. 1841. Death of W. H. Harrison, president of the United States — Public improvements cease in Illinois — Great depression in financial matters throughout the west -t- Smith May the and Lyman Crouch hung, without trial, in Kentucky — Bethany college found- 53 ed by Rev. Alexander Campbell, D. D.— Wabash and Erie canal completed to La Fayette — Lake steamboat "Erie" burnt; more than one hundred lives lost. 1842. Fort Des Moines, Iowa territory, huilt and garrisoned — Cincinnati astronomical soci ety founded— Col. John C. Fremont's ex pedition left St. Louis, 1842-3. Excessively cold and protracted winter. 1843. Illinois banks closed by legislature — Corner stone of Cincinnati observatory laid — Dreadful massacre of the Chippewa Indians by the Sioux, in Minnesota. 1844. Steamboat "Shepherdess" sunk near St. Louis — Great flood of Mississippi and Mis souri rivers— * Steamboat navigation over the American Bottom — American Bottom submerged sixty-five miles — State consti tution formed for Iowa not accepted by congress — Capt. J. Allen ascends Des Moines river to its source — Steamboat "Lucy Walker" exploded near New Al bany. 1845. Banking law in Ohio for state and independ ent ban.vS — Illinois negotiates with bond holders to finish canal — Conflagration of one-fourth of Pittsburgh — Wirteiuberg Col lege, at Springfield, Ohio, chartered. 1846. Public improvements of Illinois resumed — Convention in Wisconsin prepare a consti tution for state — Constitution for Wiscon sin rejected hy people — Milwaukee, Wis consin, chartered hy territorial legislature — Meadville Theological school incorporated. 1847. Collision of schooner and steamboat" near Conneaut, Ohio — Convention in Illinois forms a new constitution — Charter of As bury University, Indiana, amended — Friends' High school established at Rich mond, Indiaua — Explosion of steamboat "A.N. Johnston" near Manchester, Ohio — Steamboat " Phoenix" burnt on lake Mich igan. 1848. Constitution of Illinois adopted hy the peo ple — Michigan and Illinois canal com pleted — Wisconsin forms a constitution which is accepted by congress — California gold hunting commences. 1849. Minnesota territory organized — Cholera is again epidemic on Mississippi and Ohio rivers — Epidemic cholera and great fire at St. Louis — O'Plain river (branch of Illi nois) flowed from its course — Pacific rail road convention at St. Louis — Migration to California, via Missouri river, commences — Steamboat "Virginia" exploded, between Wheeling and Steubenville — Ohio moves for a new constitution. 1850. Rt. Rev. Benedict Joseph Flaget, first Catho lic bishop in the west, dies at Louisville, Kentucky — California gold hunters ascend Missouri river in great numbers — Dreadful mortality from cholera among California emigrants on Missouri river — Great migra tion to Minnesota territory — First steam boat above the falls of St. Anthony — Ur- bana University, Ohio, chartered— Steam- 194 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. boat "G. P. Griffith" burnt on lake Erie, with immense loss of liie — Ohio elects delegates to convention for new constitu tion. 1851. Gen. Hugh Brady dies atDetrbit — New con stitution for Ohio formed. „ „. . 1853. Collision on railroad near Chicago; many Jives lost. 1854. Explosion of steamboat " Kate Kearney " at St. Louis — Kansas-Nebraska bill passed by congress — Summer and antumn of this year an unprecedented drouth — Epidemic cholera at Pittsburgh — This year closes with fearful forebodings of famine. the Ohio river — from May until December of this year the Mississippi valley was visited with an unusual quantity of rain — Agriculturists rejoice in a large yield of the fruits of their toil. 1856. Josiah Copley reports practicibility of im proving the navigation of the Ohio river, by means of dams and steamboat locks, at moderate expense — First three months of this year much colder than usual — Lowest water ever known at the head of the Ohio river — Political excitement attending the presidential campaign intense.* •This table is compiled from "Western An- 1855 ¦ nals," " History of Wisconsin," " History of Explosion of the steamboat "Lexington" on I Ohio," and other works. CHAPTBE XVII. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — OHIO. First Settlement in Ohio — Cession of Virginia and Connecticut — Progress of Settlements — Dayton — Cleveland — The Territory of the Northwest — The Town of Manchester Laid Out — Second Grade of Government — Ohio Admitted as a State. / INTRODUCTORY. At this point, we will pause to observe that, for convenience, we have classified the subjects which fall under our attention in the following pages, so that reference will be had to either both by classes and by states. For instance, the educational interests of the northwest are presented in one department, but the depart ment is divided into states. The same plan obtains with refer ence to the internal improvements, laws and courts, etc. Hence the reader will by no means find all that pertains to any one state in consecutive order, but in different places. This plan enables us to bring kindred interests together, securing both com parison and contrast, and at the same time preserving distinctly, state boundaries. We will first direct attention to a condensed nar- tative history of each state ; then the internal improvements, edu cational interests, etc., will be taken up in the order of their im portance. Territorial Histories — Ohio. 195 The English built a trading post on the Great Miami river, in 1749,'' which may be regarded as the first settlement of Ohio. Previous to this, however, the French had explored the country, and had established a trading post on the lower Ohio, within the present limits of the state of Illinois. The French aud Indians destroyed the English post on the Miami, in 1752, and made some prisoners, who were carried captives' into Canada. As we have observed in the foregoing general sketch, the territory was for a long time a matter of dispute, both the French and the English claiming the right of possession. The Ohio Company, with its charter from the British king, claimed the right of occu pying the country, and the French at the same time were active and bold in their efforts to prevent English settlements in it. " It was this quarrel," says James D. McCabe, Jr., in his Great Eepublic, " which first brought Washington forward as a mili tary leader. The territory was inhabited' by Indian tribes, who were friendly to the French, and hostile to the English. They made frequent incursions across the Ohio against the settlements of the whites in Virginia, and were in their turn frequently at tacked in their own homes by the English. During the revolu tion, they were the allies of the British, and waged a bitter war fare upon the western settlements of the Americans. This gave rise to several memorable campaigns by the American forces west of the Ohio, in which the savages were severely punished. After the close of the revolutionary war, several of the states became involved in disputes as to the right of soil in this terri tory, which were only settled by the cession of all the state claims to the United States. Virginia, in ceding her claims, re served nearly four millions of acres, near the falls of the Ohio, as bounty lands for her state troops, and Connecticut reserved a similar tract, near Lake Erie, which was sold to actual settlers. The sale of these lands laid the foundation of the school fund of Connecticut." The town of Marietta was founded by the New England Ohio Company, in 1788, and three years later, 168 French colonists founded Galliopolis. Other settlements were started, and in a short time the country began to take on civilized appearances. The Indians, however, continued very troublesome, and Gen. 196 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Harmer made a campaign against them in 1790. He subdued them in some degree, but by no means conquered them, and Gen. Arthur St. Clair, then governor of the new "territory of the United States northwest of the Ohio," marched against them with a force of 3,000 men, but was surprised and defeated, with a loss of 600 men. In 1794,. Gen. Anthony Wayne, an officer of revo lutionary fame, succeeded Gen. St. Clair in the command of the army, and conducted a campaign into the Indian country, and overpowered the Indians, compelling them to beg for peace. Gen. Wayne's campaign had the effect of producing peace on the borders. Meanwhile the settlements in Ohio increased ; Cincinnati was already a thriving post, and the Ohio was beautified for many miles with good farms. The southwestern shore of lake Erie was, also opening up its resources to enterprising settlers. Meanwhile, a government was provided for the territory northwest of the Ohio river by the celebrated ordinance of July 13, 1787. On the 7th of August, 1789, an act of congress was passed to give full effect to the ordinance of 1787, and to adapt it to the constitution of the United States, providing for the organization of a government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial departments. During this period, however, other settlements had been taking place in Ohio, which in their influence upon the destinies of the state were deeply felt — that of the Virginia reserve, between the Scioto and Little Miami rivers, that of the Connecticut reserve, and that of Dayton. In 1787, the reserved lands of the old dominion, north of the Ohio, were examined, and, in August of that year, entries were commenced. Against the validity of these entries, congress, in 1788, entered their protest. This protest, which was practically a prohibition of settlement, was withdrawn in 1790. As soon as this was done, it became an object to have surveys made in the reserved region, but as this was an undertaking of great danger, in consequence of the Indian wars, high prices in land or money had to be paid to the surveyors. The person who took the lead in this gainful but unsafe enterprise was Nathaniel Massie, then twenty-seven years old. He had been for six years or more in the west, and had prepared himself in Col. Anderson's office for the details of his business. The town thus laid off by Territorial Histories — Ohio. 197 Massie was situated some twelve miles above Maysville, and was called Manchester ; it is. still known to the voyager on the Ohio. From this point, Massie and his companions made surveying ex peditions through the perilous years from 1791 to 1796, but though often distressed and in danger, they were never wearied nor afraid; and at length, with Wayne's treaty, all danger of im portance was at an end.* Connecticut, as has been stated, had, in 1786, resigned her claims to western lands, with the exception of a reseived tract extending one hundred and twenty miles be yond Pennsylvania. Of this tract, so far as the Indian title was extinguished, a survey was ordered in October, 1786, and an office opened for its disposal ; part was sold, and, in 1792, half a million of acres were given to those citizens of Connecticut, who had lost property by the acts of the British troops, during the revolutionary war, at New London, New Haven and elsewhere; these lands are known as the " Firelands " and the " Sufferers' lands," and lie in the western part of the reserve. In May, 1795, the legislature of Connecticut authorized a committee to take steps for the disposal of the remainder of their western domain ; this committee made advertisement accordingly, and before autumn had disposed of it to fifty-six persons, forming the Con necticut Land Company, for one million two hundred thousand dollars, and upon the 5th or 9th of September, quitclaimed to the purchasers the whole title of the state, territorial and judicial. "These purchasers, on the same day, conveyed the three mill ions of acres, transferred to them by the state, to John Morgan, John Caldwell and Jonathan Brace, in trust ; and upon the quit claim deeds of those trustees, the titles to all real estate in the western reserve, of necessity, rest. Surveys were commenced in 1796, and by the close of 1797, all the lands east of the Cuyahoga were divided into townships five miles square. The agent of the Connecticut Land Company was Gen. Moses Cleveland, and in honor of him the leading city on the reserve, in 1796, received its name. That township and five others were retained for pri vate sale, and the remainder were disposed of by a lottery, the first drawing in which took place in February, 1798. Wayne's treaty also led. at once to the foundation of Dayton, and the peopling of * McDonald's Sketch of General Massie — Western Annals. 198 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. that fertile region. The original proposition by Symmes had been for the purchase of two millions of acres between the Mi amis ; this was changed very shortly to a contract for one mill ion, extending from the Great Miami eastwardly twenty miles ; but the contractor being unable to pay for all he wished, in 1792, a patent was issued for 248,540 acres. But although his tract was by contract limited toward the east, and greatly curtailed in its extent toward the north, by his failure to pay the whole amount due, Judge Symmes had not hesitated to sell lands lying between the eastern boundary of his purchase and the Little Mi ami, and even after his patent issued, continued to dispose of an imaginary right in those north of the quantity patented. The first irregularity, the sale of lands along the Little Miami, was cured by the act of congress in 1792, which authorized the exten sion of his purchase from one river to the other ; but the sales of territory north of the tract transferred to him by congress, were so entirely unauthorized in the view of the government, that in 1796 it refused to recognize them as valid, and those who had be come purchasers beyond the patent line were at the mercy of the federal rulers, until an act was procured in their favor in 1799, by which preemption rights were secured to them. Among those who were thus left in suspense during three years, were the set tlers throughout the region of which Dayton forms the center. Seventeen days after Wayne's treat}', St. Clair, Wilkinson, Jona than Dayton and Israel Ludlow contracted with Symmes for the seventh and eighth ranges, between Mad river and the Little Miami. Three settlements were to be made, one at the mouth of Mad river, one on the Little Miami, in the seventh range, and another on the Mad river." * On the 21st of September, 1795, Daniel C. Cooper started to surve}r and mark out a road in the purchase, and John Dunlap to run its boundaries, which was done before the 4th of October. Upon the 4th of November, Mr. Ludlow laid off the town of Dayton, which was disposed of by lottery. From 1790 to 1795, the_' governor and judges of the Northwest territory published sixty-four statutes. Thirty -four of these were adopted at Cincin nati during June, July and August of the last named year, and ?Western Annals. Territorial Histories— Ohio. 199 were intended to form a pretty complete body of statutory pro visions ; they are known as the Maxwell Code, from the name pf the publisher, but were passed by Gov. St. Clair and Judges Symmes and Turner. In 1796, the Ohio settlements progressed rapidly. Nathaniel Marsie founded Chillicothe, and secured considerable capital and energy to his enterprise. One hundred in and out lots in the town were chosen by lot, by the first one hundred settlers as a donation, according to the original agreement of the proprietor. " A number of in and out-lots were also sold to other persons de siring to settle in the town. The first choice of in-lots was dis posed of for the moderate sum of ten dollars each. The town increased rapidly, and, before the winter of 1796, it had in it sev eral stores, taverns, and shops for mechanics. The arts of civil ized life soon began to unfold their power and influence in a more. systematic manner than had ever been witnessed by many of its inhabitants, especially those who were born and raised in the fron tier settlements, where neither law nor gospel were understood or attended to. There were three places in Ohio called Chillicothe by the Indians, one of which was in the neighborhood of this town site. It is a Shawanese word, and denotes place or site. Old Chillicothe was on the Little Miami, and the other was on or near the Maumee, or Miami of the Lake. The Shawanese nation. which originated from the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida, was divided into four tribes — the Piqua, Mequachake, Kiskapocoke and Chillicothe tribes." * These were the days of the old northwest territory. In Sep tember, 1796, Winthrop Sargent, secretary of the Northwestern Territory, proceeded to Detroit, and organized the county of Wayne, and established the civil authority in that quarter. This year, also, the settlements in the Muskingum, Scioto, and Miami valleys were much extended. The immigrants from the New England and middle states came into the west by way of Brownsville and Wheeling. At Brownsville, many fitted up flat boats, and descended the Ohio to Limestone, and other points in Kentucky, or else landed on the north side of the Ohio. Others proceeded by land from Wheeling, to that section of the territory * Western Annals. 200 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. i they had selected for their future homes. The colonies destined for the valleys of the Muskingum and Scioto chiefly passed by this route. Small villages and farming settlements were made on the banks of the Ohio, and its tributaries below the Muskingum. Symmes' purchase, on the Miami, underwent rapid changes. Cincinnati had increased its population and improved its style of building. In 1792, it contained about thirty log cabins, beside the barracks and other buildings connected with Fort Washing ton, and about two hundred and fifty inhabitants. The first house of worship, for the first Presbyterian church, was erected. In the beginning of the year 1796, Cincinnati had more than one hundred log cabins, besides twelve or fifteen frame houses, and a population of about six hundred persons. Within the Virginia military land district, which lay between the Little Miami and Scioto rivers, several new settlements were made, and surveys were executed by Nathaniel Massie, the enterprising pioneer of the Scioto valley, over the most fertile lands westward to the Little Miami, as far north as Todd's fork, and on all the branches of Paint Creek, and eastward to the Scioto. He performed much service as a pioneer in extending the settlements and boundaries of civilzation in this part of Ohio.* As early as 1790, Massie laid out the town of Manchester, before mentioned, and by March, 1791, he had a complete stock ade around the place, and about thirty families within it. " Emi grants from Virginia," says Eev. J. M. Peck, an early writer, " advanced in great numbers into the Scioto valley, and settle ments extended on the fine lands lying on Paint and Deer creeks,. and other branches of the Scioto. At the same time the pioneers of civilization were gradually extending settlements along the Muskingum, as far as the mouth of the Licking. It was in this year that Ebenezer Zane obtained the grant of a section of land as the consideration of opening a bridlepath from the Ohio river at Wheeling, across the country by Chillicothe, to Limestone, in Kentucky, which was located where Zanesville now is. The United States 'mail traversed this route for the first time the fol lowing year. Before the close of the year 1796, the white popu lation of the Northwestern Territory, now included in the state of * Peck's Western Annals. Territorial Histories — Ohio. 201 Ohio, had increased to about five. thousand souls of all ages. These were chiefly distributed in the lower valleys of the Musk ingum, Scioto and Miami rivers, and on their small tributaries, within fifty miles of the Ohio river. With this progress of settle ments, the end of the Indian war by the treaty at Greenville, and the delivery of the northern posts by the British, under Jay's treaty, all apprehension of danger on the part of the whites ceased, and. friendly intercourse with the natives succeeded. Such disaffected Indians as persisted in their feelings of hostility to the Americans, retired into the interior of the northwestern wilderness, or to their allies in Canada. Forts, stations, and stockades, [became useless, and were abandoned to decay. The hardy pioneer pushed further into the forest, and men of enter prise and capital in the older settlements became interested in securing claims and titles to extensive bodies of fertile lands, and sending out colonies for their occupation. Settlements were made and towns and villages planted in western Virginia and Kentucky. When Winthrop Sargent, the secretary of the Northwestern Ter ritory, in 1798, was appointed to the charge of the Southwest Terri tory, William Henry Harrison was appointed in his place. He held this position until elected to congress. The Northwestern Territory, as may be seen by a reference to the ordinance of 1787, was to have a representative assembly as soon as its inhabitants numbered five thousand. Upon the 29th of October, Gov. St. Clair gave notice by proclamation that the required population existed, and directed an election of representatives to be held on the third Monday in December. The representatives, when assem bled, were required to nominate ten persons, whose names were sent to the president of the United States, who selected five, and with the advice and consent of the senate, appointed them, for the legislative council. In this mode the country passed into the second grade of a territorial government. The representatives of the Northwest Territory, elected under the proclamation of Gov. St. Clair, met at Cincinnati on the 22d of January, 1799, " and under the provisions of the ordinance of 1787," says the writer from whom we last quoted, "nominated ten persons whose names were sent to the president of the United 202 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. States. On the 2d of March, the president selected from the list of candidates, the names of Jacob Burnet, James Findlay, Henry Vanderburgh, Eobert Oliver, and David Vance, and on the next day the senate confirmed their nomination as the legislative coun cil of the Northwest Territory. The territorial legislature again met at Cincinnati on the 16th of September, but for want of a quorum was not organized until the 24th of that month. The house of representatives consisted of nineteen members, of whom seven were from Hamilton county, four from Eoss, three from Wayne, two from Adams, one from Jefferson, one from Washington, and one from Knox. After the organization of the legislature, Gov. St. Clair ad dressed the two houses in the representatives' chamber, and recom mended such measures to their consideration as, in his judgment, were suited to the condition of the country, and would advance the safety and prosperity of the people. Congress made Chillicothe the capital of the Northwestern Ter ritory, and on the 3d of November, 1800, the general assembly met there. On this occasion, Gov. St. Clair remarked : " My term of office and yours, gentlemen of the house of representatives, will soon expire. It is, indeed, very uncertain whether I shall ever meet another assembly in the character I now hold, for I well know that the vilest calumnies and the greatest falsehoods are insidiously circulated among the people, with a view to prevent it. While I regret the baseness and malevolence of the authors, and well know that the laws have put the means of correction fully in my power, they have nothing to dread from me but the contempt they justly merit. The remorse of their own consciences will, one day, be punishment sufficient. Their arts, may, how ever, succeed. Be that as it may, of this I am certain, that be my successor who he may, he can never have the interests of the people of this territory more truly at heart than I have had, nor labor more assiduously for their good than I have done ; and I am not conscious that any one act of my administration has been influenced by any other motive than a sincere desire to promote their welfare and happiness." However, St. Clair was reappointed governor, in 1801. From 1799 to 1803, the territorial legislature met annually, though it Territorial Histories— Indiana. 203 made but few laws, owing to the extensive powers conferred upon the governor by the ordinance of 1787, and the very arbitrary manner in which he vetoed every bill passed that seemed to cross his line of thought. He erected new counties at his pleasure, fixed county seats, and issued divers proclamations, enacting laws by his own authority. From these and other like acts the gov ernor became extremely unpopular. The territorial progress of Ohio was surprisingly rapid. With out going into the dry details of legislative history, we find the people of the territory, early in 1802, in convention at Chillicothe, preparing a constitution, which was accepted by congress, and on the 30th of April, 1802, Ohio was admitted into the Union as a sovereign state. CHAPTEE XVIII. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — INDIANA. Willliatn Henry Harrison — Land Office — Indian Troubles — Tecumseh and the Prophet — Indian Complications — The Battle of Tippecanoe — Ter ritorial Affairs — Legislation. In 1800, when the territorial government of Indiana was organ ized, although a few places in the state had been settled for over fifty years by whites, yet the country was a wilderness.* Its numerous rivers were not disturbed except by an occasional canoe loaded with furs, which the Indians and half-breeds propelled with oars. Its scattered settlements were filled with scenes and inci dents of border life, many of which were full of romantic situ ations. In the meanwhile, however, a considerable traffic was carried on with the Indians by fur traders at Vincennes, Fort Wayne, and at different small trading posts which were estab lished on the borders of the Wabash river and its tributaries. " The furs and peltries which were obtained from the Indians," says Dillon, " were generally transported to Detroit. The skins *Tuttle's History of Indiana. 204 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. were dried, compressed and secured in packs. Each pack weighed about one hundred pounds. A pirogue, or boat, that was suffi ciently large to carry forty packs, required the labor of four men to manage it on its voyage. In favorable stages of the Wabash river, such a vessel, under the management of skillful boatmen, was propelled fifteen or twenty miles a day." Soon after the organization of the territorial government of In diana, William Henry Harrison, ,the governor of the territory, turned his attention to making treaties with the Indians, relin quishing their claims to the territory. He entered into several treaties with the natives, by which, at the close of the year 1805, the government of the United States had obtained about forty-six thousand square miles of territory, including all the lands lying on the borders of the Ohio river, between the mouth of the Wa bash river and the western boundary of Ohio. After passing to the second grade of government, in 1807, the territorial statutes were revised, and under the new code, treason, murder, arson and horse stealing were each punishable by death. The crime of manslaughter was punishable by the common law. Burglary and robbery were each punishable by whipping, fine, and in some cases by imprisonment " not exceeding forty years." Eiotous persons were punishable by fine and imprisonment; the crime of larceny by fine or whipping, and in some cases by being bound to labor for a term not exceeding seven years. Forgery was pun ishable by fine, disfranchisement, and standing in the pillory. Assault and battery, as a crime, was punishable by fine not ex ceeding one hundred dollars. Hog stealing was punishable by fine and whipping. Gambling, profane swearing and Sabbath breaking were each punishable by fine. Bigamy was punishable by fine, whipping and disfranchisement. The code provided for the punishment of disobedient children and servants by the fol lowing section : " If any children or servants shall, contrary to the obedience due to their parents or masters, resist or refuse to obey their lawful commands, upon complaint thereof to a justice of the peace, it shall be lawful for such justice to send him or them so offending to the jail or house of correction, there to remain until he or they shall humble themselves to the said parent's or mas ter's satisfaction. And, if any child or servant shall, contrary to Territorial Histories — Indiana. 205 his bouhden duty, presume to assault or strike his parent or mas ter, upon complaint and conviction thereof, before two or more justices of the peace, the offender shall be whipped not exceeding ten stripes." By the act of congress of 1804, three land offices were opened for the sale of lands in Indiana territory. One of these was located at Detroit, another at Vincennes, and another at Kaskaskia. By an act of congress approved 1807, a fourth land office for the sale of Indiana lands was opened in Jeffersonville, Clark county. This town was first laid out in 1802, agreeably to the plans suggested by Mr. Jefferson, who was then president of the United States.* " In his annual message to the territorial legis lature, in 1806, governor Harrison congratulated the people upon the peaceful disposition of the Indians. He was inclined to the opinion that they would never again have recourse to arms, unless driven to it by a series of injustice and oppression. They did, as we shall see, again resort to arms, and it is noL improper, even at 'this late day, to make the inquiry as to whether or not they were not driven to do so by the very policy which governor Harrison pointed out as dangerous in 1806. In the same message the gov ernor remarked that they were already making complaints — complaints far from being groundless. The laws of the territory provided the same punishment for offenses committed against Indians as against white men, but, unhappily, there was always a wide difference in the execution of those laws. The Indian was, in all cases, the sufferer. This partiality did not escape their ob servation. On the contrary, it afforded them an opportunity of making strong comparisons between their own observance of treaties and that of their boasted superiors. All along, from 1805 to 1810, the Indians complained bitterly against the encroachments of the white people upon the lands that belpnged to them. The invasion of their favorite hunting grounds, and the unjustifiable killing of many of their people were the sources of their discontent. An old chief, in laying the trouble of his people before governor Harrison, remarked : ' You call us your children ; why do you not make us as happy as our fathers, the French, did? They never took from us our lands ; indeed, they were in common be tween us. They planted where they pleased, and they cut wood ?History of Indiana. 206 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. where they pleased ; and so did we. But now, if a poor In dian attempts to take a little bark from a tree to cover him from the rain, up comes a white man and threatens to shoot him, claiming the tree as his own.' " These complaints were not groundless, nor will any fair minded person blame the savages for lifting up the hatchet in their de fense. Indeed, at this time, it was the only thing in their charac ter worthy of admiration. Surely here was an opportunity for an Indian patriot to leave a nameworthy of remembrance and ex ample among the nations of civilization. Nor was the opportuni ty neglected. Law-le-was-i-kaw, no doubt at the suggestion of his brother, the sagacious warrior, Tecumseh, took upon himself the character of a prophet, and assumed the name of Pems-quat-a- wah, or the Open Door. Thus was the crafty Shawanee warrior enabled to work effectually, both upon the superstitious and the rational sides of tbe dissatisfied tribes around him." The Prophet was a good orator, somewhat peculiar in his ap pearance, and withal, well calculated to win the attention and re spect of the savages. He began by denouncing witchcraft, the iise of intoxicating liquors, the custom of Indian women intermar rying with white men, the dress and habits of the white people, and the practice of selling Indian lands to the United States. "He told the Indians that the commands of the Great Spirit required them to punish, with death, those who practiced the arts of witch craft and magic. He told them, also, that the Great Spirit had given him power to find out and expose such persons; to cure all kinds of diseases ; to confound his enemies, and to stay the arm of death in sickness, and on the battlefield. His harangues aroused, among some bands of Indians, a high degree of superstitious ex citement. An old Delaware chief, whose name was Tate-a-bock- o-she, through whose influence a treaty had been made with the Delawares in 1804, was accused of witchcrafc, tried, condemned, and tomahawked. His body was then consumed by fire. The wife of the old chief, his nephew, who was known by the name of Billy Patterson, and an aged Indian whose name was Joshua, were then accused of witchcraft, and condemned to death. The two men were burnt at the stake ; but the life of the wife of Tate- e-bock-o-she was saved by her brother, who suddenly approached Territorial Histories— Indiana. 207 her, took her by the hand, and, without meeting with any oppo sition from the Indians who were present, led her out of the coun cil house. He then immediately returned and checked the grow ing influence of the prophet by exclaiming, in a strong, earnest voice : ' The evil spirit has come among us, and we are killing each other.' "* As soon as Gov. Harrison was made acquainted with these events, he sent a special messenger to the Indians, strongly entreating them to renounce the prophet and his works, which, to a small extent, destroyed the prophet's influence. In the spring of 1808, having aroused nearly all the tribes of the lake region, the prophet, with a considerable number of followers, set tled near the mouth of the Tippecanoe river, at a place which af terwards bore the name of the Prophet's Town. Taking advan tage of the influence which the prophet was exerting over the tribes, as well as of his own popularity as a warrior, Tecumseh ac tively engaged himself in forming the various tribes into a con federacy. In his speeches before the many Indian councils that he assembled, he proclaimed that the treaties by which the United States had acquired lands northwest of the river Ohio, were not made with fairness, and should be considered void. He said that no single tribe of Indians was invested with the power to sell lands without the consent of all the other tribes, and that he and his broth er, the prophet, would oppose and resist all future attempts which the white people might make to extend their towns in the lands that belonged to the Indians. Early in 1808, Gov. Harrison sent a speech to the Shawanee tribe, warning them not to listen to the prophet. This act wounded the pride of the native orator, and he assured the speech bearer that he was not in league with the Brit ish, but friendly with the Americans. In August, the prophet visited Vincennes and remained there for several weeks in friend ly interviews with the governor, but it was not long after before both Tecumseh and the prophet were in open accord with the British interest. In the face of all these troubles, Gov. Harrison continued to prosecute the work of extinguishing Indian titles to the lands in the Indiana territory with very good success. In 1810, the "land title controversy" absorbed the attention of the officials, and was the means of much spirited discussion. The question of ?Dillon's Early History of Indiana. 208 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. a division of the territory of Indiana was discussed in 1806, 1807, and in 1808, and, in 1809, congress passed an act declaring that " all that part of the Indiana territory lying west of the Wabash river and a direct line drawn from the said Wabash river and Post Vincennes, due north to the territorial line between the United States and Canada," should constitute a separate territory, and be called Illinois. This occasioned some confusion in the govern ment of the territory of Indiana, but in due time the new elections were confirmed and the new territor}' started' off on a journey of prosperity which its people are still pursuing with great advantage. During the year 1810, the movements of Tecumseh and the Prophet were full of suspicious situations. Their confessed ob ject was to unite the tribes, with a view to prevent the sale of their lands, but the train of circumstances which followed proved that English revenge was at the bottom of the whole scheme of Tecumseh's confederacy, and that his true motive was to oppose the power of the American government. We condense the following account of the Harrison-Tecumseh conflict, from the History of the State of Indiana : In order to counteract the bad influence of the English which was being ex erted over the Indians, and to promote good will between the Prophet's followers and the Americans, Gov. Harrison exhausted all the means at his command to no purpose. There was a power behind this crafty Shawanee that constantly kept his restless spirit alive to an intention of revenge upon the Americans. In the spring of 1810, the followers of the Prophet refused to re ceive their " annuity of salt," and the officials who offered it were denounced as "American dogs," and otherwise treated in a dis respectful manner. Immediately after this, Gov. Harrison sent a succession of messengers to the Prophet's town, in order to ob tain information concerning the intentions of the hostile Indians there, and to warn them of the danger of engaging in a war with the Americans. To all of these the crafty Shawanee disclaimed any intention of beginning a war, and gave as an excuse for as sembling the tribes, " that the Indians had been cheated out of their lands ; that no sale was good unless made by all the tribes ; that he had settled near the mouth of the Tippecanoe by order of the Great Spirit, and that he was likewise ordered to assemble as Territorial Histories — Indiana. 209 many Indians as he could collect at that place." Gov. Harrison, in July, 1810, made an attempt to gain the friendship of the Prophet by sending him a letter, offering to treat with him per sonally in the matter of his grievances, or to furnish means to send him, with three of his principal chiefs, to the. president at Washington. The bearer of this letter was coldly received, both by Tecumseh and the Prophet, and the only answer he received was that Tecumseh, in the course of a few days, would visit Vin cennes for the purpose of holding an interview with the governor. Accordingly on the twelfth of August, 1810, the celebrated Sha wanee chief, with seventy of his principal warriors, marched up to the governor's door at Vincennes, in Indian file. They were directed to a small grove near the governor's house, where, from that time until the twenty-second of August, Gov. Harrison was almost daily engaged in holding councils and interviews with them. In all of his speeches, Tecumseh was haughty, and some times arrogant. On the twentieth of August he delivered his celebrated speech, in which he gave -the governor the alternative of returning their lands or meeting them in battle. It was while the governor was replying to this speech that he was interrupted by Tecumseh, who manifested great anger, declaring that the United States, through Gov. Harrison, had "cheated and imposed on the Indians." When Tecumseh first rose, a number of his party also sprung to their feet, armed with clubs, tomahawks and spears, and made some threatening demonstrations. The govern or's guards, which stood a little way off, were marched up in haste, and the Indians, awed by the presence of this small armed force, abandoned what seemed to be an intention to make open attack on the governor and his attendants. As soon asTecumseh's remarks had been interpreted, the governor reproached him for his conduct, and commanded him to depart instanly to his camp. The next day Tecumseh repented his rash act, and requested the governor to grant him another interview, and protested against any intention of offense. Gov. Harrison consented, and the council was reopened on the twenty-first, when the Shawanee chief addressed him in a respectful and dignified manner, but re mained unmovable in his policy. The governor then requested Tecumseh to state plainly, whether or not the surveyors who 14 210 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. might be sent to survey the lands purchased at the treaty of Fort Wayne, in 1809, would be molested by Indians ; and whether or not the Kickapoos would receive their annuities. Tecumseh re plied : " Brother, when you speak of annuities to me, I look at the land, and pity the women and children. I am authorized to say that they will not receive them. Brother, we want to save that piece of land. We do not wish you to take it. It is small enough for our purpose. If you do take it you must blame yourself as the cause of the .trouble between us and the tribes who sold it to you. I want the present boundary line to con tinue. Should you cross it, I assure you it will be productive of bad consequences." This talk terminated the council, but on the following day the governor, attended only by his interpreter, vis ited the camp of the great Shawanee, and in the course of a long interview, told him that the president of the United States would not acknowledge his claims. " Well," replied the brave warrior, " as the great chief is to determine the matter, I hope the Great Spirit will put sense enough into his head to induce him to direct you to give up this land. It is true, he is so far off he will not be injured by the war. He may sit still in his town, and drink his wine, while you and I will have to fight it out." When the new territorial legislature convened in 1810, Gov. Harrison, in his message, called attention to the dangerous views which were held and expressed by the Shawanee Prophet and his brother, Tecumseh.* " to the pernicious influence of alien enemies among the Indians ; to the unsettled condition of the Indian trade; to the defects in the revenue laws, the judiciary system, and the militia laws ; to the policy of extinguishing Indian titles to land, and to the subject of popular education." The govenor further remarked that although much had been done toward the extinguishment of Indian titles in the territory, much still re mained to be clone. There was not yet a sufficient space to form a tolerable state. The eastern settlements were separated from the western by a considerable extent of Indian lands ; and the most fertile tracts that were within the territorial bounds were still their property. Almost entirely divested of the game from which they had drawn their subsistence, it had become of little * Dillon's"Early History of Indiana. Territorial Histories — Indiana. 211 use to them ; and it was the intention of the government to sub stitute, for the pernicious and scanty supplies which the chase affords, the more certain support which is derived from agricul ture, and the rearing of domestic animals. By the considerate and sensible among them, this plan was considered as the only one which would save them from utter extirpation. But a most formidable opposition was raised to it by the warriors, who would never agree to abandon their old habits, until driven to it by ab solute necessity. As long as a deer was to be found in their for ests, they would continue to hunt. It was, therefore, supposed that the confining them to narrow limits was the only means of producing this highly desirable change, and ayerting the destiny which seemed to await them.* " Are, then," continued the gov ernor " those extinguishments of native title, which are at once so beneficial to the'Indian, the territory aud the United States, to be suspended upon the account of the intrigues of a few indi viduals ? Is one of the fairest portions of the globe to remain in a state of nature, the haunt of a few wretched savages, when it seems destined, by the Creator, to give support to a large popula tion, and to be the seat of civilzation, of science, and true re ligion ?" In the same message the governor referred to the neces sity of establishing a popular system of education. Among the acts passed by this legislature, there was one which authorized the president and directors of the "Vincennes library to raise the sum of one thousand dollars, by lottery. A petition was sent to congress for a permanent seat of government for the territory, and commissioners appointed to select the site. With the begin ning of the year 1811, the British agent for Indian affairs adopted measures calculated to secure the support o| the savages in the war which, at this time, seemed almost inevitable. Meanwhile Gov. Harrison did all in his power to destroj*- the influence of Tecumseh and the Prophet, and thus break up the Indian con federacy which was being organized in the interests of Great Britian. It soon became a difficult matter to preserve peace be tween the pioneer settlers of Indiana and the followers of the Prophet. Straggling parties of Indians occasionally committed depredations on the property of the settlers. Now an Indian * Gov Harrison's Message. 212 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. was picked off and then a white man was tomahawked in return. Thus matters were progressing when Gov. Harrison sent a speech to Tecumseh and the Prophet, warning them of the danger of a war which their actions would immediately bring upon them. This speech was long and unmistakable in its tone. Its bearer was politely received by Tecumseh who sent by him to Gov. Har rison a brief reply, stating that he would visit Vincennes in a few days. He arrived, accordingly, on July 27, 1811. He brought with him a considerable force of Indians, which created much alarm among the inhabitants. On the day of the arrival of Tecum seh, Gov. Harrison, in adopting various precautionary measures, reviewed the militia of the county — about seven hundred and fifty well armed men — and stationed two companies of militia and a detachment of dragoons on the borders of the town. In the course of the interview which took place, at this time, between Gov. Harrison and Tecumseh, the latter declared that it was not his intention to make war against the United States — -that he would send messengers among the Indians to prevent murders and depredations on the white settlements — that the Indians, as well as the whites, who had committed murders, onght to.be forgiven ; that he had set the white people an example of forgiveness, which they ought to follow ; that it was his wish to establish a union among all the Indian tribes ; that the northern tribes were united ; that he was going to visit the southern Indians, and that he would return to the Prophet's town. He said that he would, on his return from the south, in the next spring, visit the presi dent of the United States, and settle all causes of difficulty be tween the Indians and him. He said, further, that he hoped no attempts would be made to make settlements on the lands which had been sold to the United States, at the treaty of Fort Wayne, because the Indians wanted to keep those lands for hunting grounds. Immediately after his interview with Gov. Harrison, Tecumseh, with about twenty of his followers, departed for the south, for the purpose of inducing the tribes in that quarter to join his confed eracy. "In the year 1811," says Dillon,* "a lawsuit, in which1 Gov. Harrison was plaintiff, and a certain William Mcintosh ? Dillon's Early History of Indians — Davison's Life of Harrison. Territorial Histories — Indiana. 213 was defendant, was determined in the supreme court of the terri tory, at Vincennes. The jury, in the case, found a verdict in favor of the plaintiff, and assessed his damages at the sum of four thousand dollars." The defendant, Mr. Mcintosh, was a wealthy resident of Vincennes, a native of Scotland, well educated, and a man of considerable influence among those who were opposed to the treaty making policy which had distinguished the adminis tration of Gov. Harrison. The suit at law was instituted against Mcintosh, for asserting " that Gov. Harrison had cheated the Indians out of their lands ; and that, by his conduct in so doing, he had made them enemies to the United States." To satisfy the verdict of the jury in this case, a large quantity of land, owned by the defendant, was sold, in the absence of Gov. Harrison. The governor, some time afterward, caused about two-thirds of the property to be restored to Mr. Mcintosh, and the remainder was given to some orphan children. Gov. Harrison, after exhausting every possible means for main taining peace with the Indians, determined to resort to military measures. Such were his instructions from the President. His first movement was to erect a new fort on the Wabash river, and to break up the assemblage of hostile Indians at the Prophet's town. For this purpose he ordered Col. Boyd's regiment of in fantry to move from the falls of the Ohio to Vincennes. On the twenty-fifth o£ September, 1811, when the military expedition that had been organized by Gov. Harrison, was nearly ready to march to the Prophet's town, several Indian chiefs arrived at Vin cennes from that place, and declared that the Indians would com ply with the demands of the governor and disperse. This, how ever, did not check the military proceedings. The army, under the command of Harrison, moved from Vincennes on the twenty- sixth of September, 1811, and on the third of October, having encountered no opposition from the enemy, encamped at the place where Fort Harrison was afterwards built, and near where the city of Terre Haute now stands. On the night of the eleventh of October, a few hostile Indians approached the encampment and wounded one of the sentinels. This caused considerable excite ment. The army was immediately drawn up in line of battle, and small detachments were sent in all directions, but the enemy 214 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. could not be found. At this point the governor sent a message to the Prophet's town, requiring the Shawanees, Winnebagoes, Pottawattomies and Kickapoos, who were at that place, to return to their respective tribes. It also required the Prophet to restore all the stolen horses in his possession, and to deliver up the mur derers of white people, or to give satisfactory proof that such per sons were not then, " nor had lately been " under his control. To this message the governor received no answer, unless that an swer was delivered in the battle of Tippecanoe. The new fort on the Wabash was finished on the twenty-eighth of October, and on that day, at the request of all the subordinate officers, it was called Fort Harrison. This fort was garrisoned with a small number of men, under Lieut. Col.. Miller, and on the twenty-ninth the re mainder of the army moved toward the Prophet's town. This force amounted to about nine hundred and ten men, and it was composed of two hundred and fifty regular troops, under the com mand of Col. Boyd, about sixty volunteers from Kentucky, and about six hundred citizens of the Indiana territory. About two hundred and seventy of the troops were mounted. With this army Gen. Harrison marched to the Prophet's town, where the celebrated battle of Tippecanoe was fought, and the Indians completely humiliated. This triumph over the Indians broke up the power of the Prophet for the time being, and temporarily relieved the frontier settlements from Indian depredations. This temporary re lief, however, was fully ended when, in June, 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain. This event was not unexpected by the citizens of the Indiana territory ; and from the hour that it occurred, or was made known in the northwest, scat tering bands of hostile Indians began to commit depredations on the frontier settlements. Tecumseh had forsaken the soil of the United States, and settled in Maiden, Ontario, where, counseled by the English, he continued to excite the tribes against the Americans. In the early part of the month of September parties of hostile Indians began to assemble in considerable numbers in the vicinity of Fort Wayne, and about the same time a large force attacked Fort Harrison, while other bands' of Indians passed through the territory of Indiana to the counties of Clark and Territorial Histories — Indiana. 215 Jefferson, where they massacred twenty four persons at a place which was called " the Pigeon-roost Settlement." The attack on Fort Harrison, which at that time was command ed by Captain Zachary Taylor, is described by that hero in his re port as follows : " About eleven o'clock I was awakened by the firing of one of the sentinels. I sprung up, ran out, and ordered the men to their posts — when my orderly sergeant, who had charge of the upper blockhouse, called out that the Indians had fired the lower blockhouse. * * The guns had begun to fire pretty smartly from both sides. I directed the buckets to be got ready, and water brought from the well, and the fire extinguished immediately, as it was perceivable at that time ; but, from debili ty, or some other cause, the men were very slow in executing my orders. The word "fire! " appeared to throw the whole of them into confusion, and by the time they had got the water and brok en open the door, the fire had unfortunately, communicated to a quantity of whisky, * * and, in spite of every exertion we could make use of, in less than a moment it ascended to the roof, and baffled every effort we could make to extinguish it. As that blockhouse adjoined the barracks that made part of the forti fications, most of the men immediately gave themselves up for lost, and I had the greatest difficulty in getting my orders executed. And, sir, what from the raging of the fire — yelling and howling of several hundred Indians — the cries of nine women and child ren (a part soldiers' and part citizens' wives, who had taken shel ter in the fort), and the desponding of so many of the men, which was worse than all, I can assure you that my feelings were un pleasant. And, indeed, there were not more than ten or fifteen men able to do good deal ; the others being sick, or convalescent ; and, to add to our other misfortunes, two of the strongest men in the fort, and that I had every confidence in, jumped the pickets and left us. But my presence of mind did not for a moment for sake me. I saw, by throwing off a part of the roof that joined the blockhouse that was on fire, and keeping the end perfectly wet, the whole row of buildings might be saved, and leave only an entrance of eighteen or twenty feet for the entrance of the In dians, after the house was consumed ; and that a temporary breast work might be erected to prevent their even entering there. I 216 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. convinced the men that this might be accomplished, and it ap peared to inspire them with new life; and never didmen act with more firmness and desperation. Those that were able (while the others kept up a constant fire from the other blockhouse and the two bastions) mounted the roofs of the houses, with Dr. Clark at their head (who acted with the greatest firmness and presence of mind the whole time the attack lasted, which was about seven hours),, under a shower of bullets, and in less than a moment threw off as much of the roof as was necessary. * * Although the barracks were several times in a blaze, and an immense quantity of fire against them, the men used such exertions that they kept it under, and before day raised a temporary breastwork as high as a man's head, although the Indians continued to pour in a heavy fire of ball and an immense quantity of arrows during the whole time the attack lasted. * * After keeping up a constant fire iintil about six o'clock the next morning, which we began to re turn with some effect after daylight, they removed out of the reach of our guns. A party of them drove up the horses that belonged to the citizens here, and, as they could not catch them very readi ly, shot the whole of them in our sight, as well as a number of their hogs. They drove off the whole of the cattle, which amounted to sixty-five head, as well as the public oxen." During the absence of Gov. Harrison on military duty, the func tions of governor of the territory of Indiana were discharged by John Gibson, the secretary of the territory. On the first of February, 1813, the legislature convened at Vincennes, when the seat of government was moved to Corydon, and the session was prorogued by Secretary Gibson to meet at the latter place in De cember of the same year. In 1813, Mr. Thomas Posey, who was at that time a senator iu congress from the state of Tennessee, and who had been an officer of the army of the revolution, was ap pointed governor of the territory of Indiana, to succeed Gen. Har rison. The new governor arrived in Vincennes, and entered upon the .discharge of his official duties, on the twenty-fifth of May, 1813. During this year there were several expeditions set on foot in the Indiana territory, against the Indian settlements, but these will be considered so fully in the Second Part of this work as to make a reference to them here inexpedient. The general as- Territorial Histories — Indiana. 217 sembly of the Indiana territory met at Corydon, in December, 1813, where the new governor delivered his first message to the legislature. During this session of the territorial legislature several laws were passed, and the general welfare of the settlements pro vided for. In the following year, owing, principally, to the great success of the army under Gen. Harrison in the northwest, the settlements in Indiana began to improve. The fear of danger from the incursions of the hostile Indians had, in a great measure, subsided, and the tide of eastern emigration again began to flow into the territory. In January, 1814, about one thousand Miamis, in a state of great destitution, assembled at Fort Wayne for the purpose of obtaining food to prevent starvation. They met with ample hospitality, and their example was speedily followed by others. These, with other acts of kindness, won the lasting friend ship of the Indians, many of whom had fought in the interest of Great Britain. General treaties between the United States and the northwestern tribes were subsequently concluded, and the way was fully opened for the improvement and settlement of the lands. The last regular session of the territorial legislature of Indiana was held at Corydon, convening in December, 1815. Owing to the sickness of Gov. Posey, who lived at Jeffersonville, he was un able to be present, but his regular message was delivered to both houses in joint session by his private secretary, Col. Allen D. Thorn. In this message he congratulated the people of the terri tory upon the general success of the settlements, upon the great increase of immigration to the territory ; recommended light taxes, and a careful attention to the promotion of education and the im provement of the state roads and highways. He also recommended a revision of the territorial laws, and an amendment to the militia S3?stem. During this session, which lasted only a month, several laws were passed, and measures adopted, most of which were cal culated to promote the desired change from a territorial to a sto,te government. On the fourteenth day of December a memorial was adopted praying for the authority to adopt a constitution and state government. This was laid before congress by the territorial dele gate, Mr. Jennings, on the twenty-eighth of the same month, and on the nineteenth of April, 1816, the president approved a bill, 218 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. enabling the people of Indiana territory to form a constitution and state government, and providing for the admission of such state into the Union on an equal footing with the original states. CHAPTEE XIX. ¦ I J j:\rgl l TERRITORJALj HISTORIES — MICHIGAN. , hoi J i Tecumseh's War — Organisation .of the Michigan Territory — Gov. Hull Ap pointed — Hull Invades Canada — The British- and the Americans Con tending for Detroit — "HufFs Inglorious Surrender. , ,?' 'jii Tecumseh's war to&hife full effect upon the infant settle ments in the Michigah-rte¥fit'ory, and upon the outposts of civili zation in the lake regictB^The Michigan territory was organized in 1805, and William Hull was appointed governor. When he first arrived at his post, Detroit was about, the only place of im portance in the country, and it was but a weak trading post. In the same year it was destroyed by lire, and, on being rebuilt, it was left without a stockade which had previously surrounded it. However, the hostile appearances of the Indians caused the gov ernor to have it rebuilt. In September, 1809, a special council of the Hurons was called near Brownstown, and, at the instigation of their principal chief, Walk-in-the-water, they freely spoke of their grievances to Gov. Hull. The speech addressed by this chief to the governor, set ting forth the title of his tribe to a large tract of territory near the Detroit river, which was -claimed by the United States, under the treaty of Greenville, shows how dissatisfied they were with this treaty, and with the encroachments of the American people. In the midst of all these evidences of war, the territory of Michi gan remained in a comparatively defenseless state. There were at this time, in the whole territory, but nine settlements of any ¦ importance ; nor were the inhabitants of these villages calculated to show any considerable resistance to the approaching incursions of the savages. These settlements were situated on the rivers Territorial Histories — Michigan. 219 Miami and Eaisin, on the Huron of lake Erie, on the Ecorse, Eouge and Detroit rivers, on the Huron of St. Clair, the St. Clair river, and the island of Mackinaw. In addition to these there were, here and there, groups of huts belonging to the French fur traders. The villages upon the Maumee, the Eaisin and the Hu ron of lake Erie contained a population of about thirteen hun dred ; the post of Detroit and the settlements on the rivers Eouge and Ecorse, and on the Huron of lake St. Clair, numbered about two thousand two hundred; the islaud of Mackinaw about one thousand. Detroit was garrisoned by ninety-four men, and Macki naw by seventy-nine. Thus, the entire population of the state was only about four thousand eight hundred, four-fifths of whom were French, and the remainder Americans. An Indian war be ing now apparent, a memorial was presented to congress, setting forth the defenseless condition of the territory, and praying for aid from that body. This memorial was signed by the principal inhabitants of Detroit, and sent to Washington on the 27th of December, 1811. Tecumseh had collected his warriors, and was now ready for action. The first hostile demonstration was in the shape of marauding parties, going from one settlement to another and committing depredations. On the banks of the Kalamazoo river a smith's forge had been erected, where hatchets and scalp ing knives were made by the savages ; and, at no great distance from this, the Indian women were cultivating corn with which to supply the warriors with food. All the plans having been fully matured, the contest at length began on the banks of the Wabash, at the Prophet's town. The Indian warriors from all quarters came to join Tecumseh, and the English, on the oppo site shores, looked on with deep interest upon what was passing, regarding the savages as important allies in the conflict in which they expected shortly to be engaged. A body of troops was col lected in Ohio, consisting of about twelve hundred men, raised by order of the president of the United States ; and this number was largely increased by volunteers. These troops were formed into three regiments, under the command of Cols. McArthur, Finelly and Cass ; and a fourth regiment, about three hundred strong, under Col. Miller, afterwards joined them, the whole be ing under the command of Gen. Hull, the governor of Michigan. 220 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. With this force, Gen. Hull marched from Dayton towards Detroit.* " While under march, near the river Eaisin, on the 3d of July, 1812, Gen. Hull received dispatches from Washington City, an nouncing the declaration of war against England. Two days. after, they reached the river Huron, where a floating bridge was constructed, so that the entire army, with all the baggage' and stores, passed over in safety. On the 5th of July, the army passed the Indian council ground at Brownstown, crossed the river Eouge, and encamped at Springwells, about three miles be low Detroit. The fourth regiment marched to the fort and occupied it on the following day. The volunteers took up their position near the fort, and a movement was made to procure a large num ber of boats for the purpose of transporting the army into Canada. Orders were accordingly issued for the army to be in readiness to cross the river early on the following morning ; and, at this time, the army moved up the river to a point opposite the lower end of Hog island. It was now daylight, of a delightfully bright sum mer morning. The whole line entered the boats, which had, on the previous evening, been taken from opposite the fort, at a point near Sandwich, in order to mislead the enemy as to the place se lected for their advance. The army was not attacked on landing in Canada, as they expected, and marched down the .road along the bank of the river, to a point opposite the town, presenting a fine appearance from the opposite shore. The inhabitants, nearly all Canadian French, welcomed the troops as friends, and white handkerchiefs and flags waved from every house, and many greet ed the army with shouts of, ' We like the Americans ! ' A vacant, unfinished two-story brick house, belonging to Col. Baby, with extensive grounds, became the headquarters and intrenched camp of the northwestern army in Canada. The roof of the house was shingled, the floors laid,, and the windows in; otherwise, it was entirely unfinished. A partition of rough boards was put up on each side of the hall, which ran entirely through the building. Gen. Hull, with his aids, occupied the north half of the house ; Gen. James Taylor, quartermaster-general of the army, with his two assistants, occupied the south side. The councils of war were held in the second story, over the room occupied by the com- ? Tuttle's History of Michigan. Territorial Histories —Michigan. 221 manding general, access to which was had by a rough stairway. Gen. Hull and his son, Capt. Hull, lodged most of the* time at headquarters; Gen. Taylor, being unwell, lodged in Detroit." While in Canada, Gen. Hull issued a proclamation to the peo ple of Canada, in which he promised protection to life and prop erty, if the inhabitants maintained a strict neutrality, and an nounced that if resistance was made, the war would be prosecuted to extermination. He warned them that no white man caught fighting by the side of aq Indian would be taken prisoner, but would instantly be put to death ; and closed with the hope that the Divine Euler would guide them in their choice to a result most compatible with their rights, interests and happiness. This address is said to have been written by Gov. (then colonel) Cass. The troops quartered at Sandwich for four weeks, during which time a detachment under Col. McArthur marched up the Thames river, and returned with large supplies of flour, wheat, beef, cattle, and about a thousand sheep. The following sketch of Hull's disgraceful speculations in Michigan territory is condensed from Tuttle's History of Michigan : "The latter were all sent over the river, and were permitted to range at large upon the extensive common back o£ the fort, where they remained until after the surrender of the army, when they were killed by Indians, and the meat appropriated to their use. A reconnoisance in force, under Cols. McArthur and Cass, marched to the vicinity of Maiden, where they dislodged a picket guard, posted at the bridge over the Canard river, fourteen miles from camp, and four miles above Maiden. Another reconnoissance by the light infanry and a small detachment of the Fourth U S. regiment, commanded by Capt. Snelling, was made about the twentieth of July, by which it was ascertained that the enemy had withdrawn his outpost at the Canard bridge, and had stationed a. vessel, named the Queen Charlotte, off and near the mouth of the Canard river, in a posi tion of observation. A plan was formed, by these officers and others to construct some floating batteries, place a twenty -four pound gun upon each, and, with the addition of a few gunners and sailors then in Detroit, to descend along the shore of the river on -the first dark night, and capture the Queen Charlotte. This project met with a refusal at headquarters, and all that could be 222 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. obtained was a permission to make a further reconnoissance, and ascertain the exact position of the vessel. In making this recon noisance, it was intended, if possible, to carry her by boarding, but the attempt, for the want of the batteries and sailors, and ow ing to the night brightening after twelve o'clock, did not succeed. " At this time, the British had posted a small Indian force on the line of communication between Detroit and Ohio, and had captured a bearer of dispatches from headquarters, as well as pri vate correspondence, which of course were taken to Maiden. Gen. Hull, therefore, ordered Major Vanhorne, of the second regiment of volunteers, with two companies of infantry, a part of a company of volunteer cavalry, together with1 a part of a rifle company, to escort the mail and dispatches, as well as a few gen tlemen, belonging to the commissary department, ¦ returning to Ohio. He proceeded down the same road the army had marched up on its approach to Detroit, and, on reaching a point nearly opposite Maiden, about the center of Grosse Isle, was attacked, and, after the loss of many brave men and officers, compelled to retreat back to the fort. This, together with the reception at head quarters of the news that Fort Mackinaw had been captured by Eoberts, seemed to have shocked the commanding general, and to have' divested him of all control over his fears. From the twentieth of July, the army was in hourly expectation of orders to march on Maiden. The enemy's weakness was well known, and it is believed that the English would have made but a small resistance. But time passed on, and no such orders were given. On the evening of the seventh of August, marching orders were given. At eleven o'clock, tents were struck and loaded, and the wagon train was moving; but, instead of moving down the road, in the direction of. the enemy, it was driven to the landing, and taken by ferry boats across the river, and stationed on the com mon, north of the fort. Orders were issued during the night to break up camp, and the army recrossed to Detroit. This act cre ated astonishment and indignation among the soldiers, and it was freely whispered that Gen. Hull had disgraced himself and the army. This act of Hull's is the more astonishing, when we con sider that the enemy's force was known to him to be slight, and hourly becoming weaker. It had already been reduced by deser- Territorial Histories — Michigan. 223 tion from six hundred and sixty Canadian militia to one hundred and sixty ; from one hundred Indians, under Tecumseh, to sixty, and having but two hundred and twenty-five regulars. It was also known to Hull that the British officers had already sent their most valuable effects on board their vessels in the port, prepara tory to a precipitate" evacuation of the post. Such were the forces, and such the condition of the British. Now let us see what was the strength of the American army. According to the official report of the brigade major, acting as adjutant general of the army, the forces numbered 2,300 effective men, well supplied with artil lery, independent of the guns of the fort and advanced batteries. As we have already seen, there was an abundance of provisions, ancl nothing was wanting to secure the most favorable action of the troops. But, with this superiority of numbers, with the ene my already defeated with alarm, Gen. Hull ingloriously sur renders Detroit and his whole army to a handful of English ! " But we shall see more particularly how this was done. On the ninth of August a strong detachment was marched down the road, with orders to attack the enemy, who had crossed from Maiden in force, and taken up a position nearly opposite the center of Grosse Isle, cutting off the road of communication with Ohio. The detachment reached them at three o'clock in the afternoon, and immediately charged upon their lines, and drove them three miles to their boats, when, as it had become dark and was rain ing, the most of them escaped to Maiden. In this action, some say that the forces were about equal ; but it is probable that the Americans had the strongest force. The British brought into the field a large part of their regulars, together with all the Indian contingent, the whole being under the command of Maj. Muir. The following day, the American detachment, after sending for ward the mails and dispatches, returned to the fort. The Ameri cans lost sixty-eight men in the battle ; the English loss was some what less. This action is known as the battle of Brownstown." This fight developed the fact, that a largely increased Indian force had gone over under the flag of the Shawanee chief, who had circulated the news of the fall of Mackinaw among the tribes, and summoned them to his aid with promises of plunder. He had now one thousand men under his command. " A. suspicion, . 224 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. strongly grounded and deeply felt, on the part of the most active and intelligent o£ the volunteers," says Col. W. S. Hatch, " had now risen to such a point, that there was no longer any confi dence reposed in the valor or patriotism of the commanding gen eral. A consultation was held, and it was decided to get up a ' Bound Eobin ' — a written document, signed by names in a ring or circle, so as not to show who signed it first — addressed to the colonels of the Ohio volunteers, requesting the arrest or displace ment of the general, and devolving the command on the eldest of the colonels, McArthur." This was on the twelfth of August, and on the following day, it was reported that an armistice, or, at least, a temporary cessation of hostilities, had been agreed upon by the British authorities and the American armies on the Niag ara and northern frontier ; and that Maj. Gen. Brock, governor of Upper Canada, an officer of high reputation, had arrived at Maiden, to conduct operations in that quarter. " The suspicion and distrust of 'the army," says Col. Hatch, " was increased- by Gen. Hull's peremptory refusal to allow that distinguished officer, Capt. (afterwards Col.) Snelling, to cross the river in the night, to carry and destroy an unfinished battery, which was being con structed on the opposite bank, under the direction of Capt. Dixon, of the royal artillery. This was the only battery of any conse quence established by the enemy, and the only one that injured the Americans. It opened on the afternoon of the fifteenth, and continued its cannonade during the morning of the sixteenth, when one of its balls struck, and instantly killed Lieut. Hanks, who had been in command at Mackinaw. The same ball passed on and mortally wounded Surg. Eeynolds, of the third regiment of volunteers. On Thursday, August thirteenth, it was absolutely necessary that the greatest vigilance should be maintained, and that the outlying pickets should be largely increased. At eleven o'clock of this evening a boat was discovered approaching the fort from the Canadian side of the river, and, as it neared the shore, two men were noticed sitting aft, and two more at the oars. On beino- challenged, the boat came up, and one of the gentlemen gave the countersign. " He was well known, and known to have the con fidence of the commanding general more than any other officer," Territorial Histories — Michigan. 225 says the same authority, already quoted, " and, in almost every instance, had been intrusted with the duty of intercourse by flag with the enemy. The other gentleman appeared, as near as could be judged by the dim light, to be young, well formed, and of military bearing. They directed their steps to the headquarters of the commanding general, remaining there three hours. They then returned to the boat, and crossed to the Canadian shore. The boat came back; but one of the gentlemen only was with her. He gave the word, and passed on. At that time, on that night, the capitulation of the fort and the surrender of the north western army was agreed upon. The parties to that agreement were Gen. Hull, and, on the part of the British, Maj. Glegg, one of the aids-de-camp of Gen. Brock." Col. Hatch further sub stantiates his views as follows: "This is a historic fact, which Maj. Glegg, if alive, will corroborate, as, after the war in 1815, at a hotel in Philadelphia, he communicated his participation irf the act, as above stated, to the late quartermaster general of the northwestern army, Gen. James Taylor, of Newport, Kentucky." Previous to this time a reinforcement of t'wo.hundred and thirty men, under the command of Col. Henry Brush, of Chillicothe, Ohio, conveying supplies, including one hundred head of cattle, had arrived at the little French settlement at the crossing of the river Eaisin, thirty-five miles from the fort. Here they halted, in consequence of the threatening attitude of the enemy, and reported to the commanding general, who issued orders on the afternoon of Friday, the fourteenth of August, for a detachment of about three hundred and sixty men, under command of the colonels of the first and third regiments of Ohio volunteers, to march at twilight on the line of a circuitous route or trail, which passed by the river Eouge, several miles above its mouth, and continued far into the interior, passing the Huron, and striking the Eaisin, and passing down that stream to Frenchtown. Ac companying the order was the information that Col. Brush had been ordered to move from his camp up this route, and would doubtless be met between the Eouge and Huron, and at a distance not exceeding twelve miles from the fort ; but the detachment was to continue its march till he was met. " The officers of the detachment," says Col. Hatch, " believing that they would meet 15 226 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Col. Brush and party, and return with it to Detroit by two or three o'clock A. m., and, desiring the troops to march light and rapid, directed that no food or baggage be taken along, not even their blankets, nor would they remain for supper. This order at the time excited no particular suspicio'n. The course adopted was attributed to timidity, overruling sagacious and prompt mili tary conduct on the part of the commanding general. But here all were deceived, as no order had been sent to CoL Brush to move *in the direction stated, or to move at all. The sole object of the movement was to reduce the active force at the fort, preliminary to carrying into effect the capitulation which had already been agreed upon ; to get rid of a large number of officers and men known to be keenly sensitive to an honorable success, and had been openly hostile to the inaction of the army when in Canada, aud to the recrossing the river, and who, if present, would have re sisted to the extremest point, regardless of all or any conse quences, any attempt to surrender the fort or the army." The de tachment left the fort at dusk, and entered the woods just in the rear of the common. They continued their march until thirty-five miles from Detroit, when, ascertaining that Col. Brush had not started from his camp, they returned. As they neared the fort a brisk cannonading was heard, from which it was supposed that the enemy had crossed the river below the town and made an attack on the fort. " If the firing had continued until the detach ment had reached the little settlement on the river Eouge," says the same authority, " it would have entered by the Springwells road, and have come in on the left flank and rear of the enemy ; and, doubtless, as we believed, would have captured the entire British forces, as they would have been between the fires of our volunteers in front of the fort, and ours in the rear. Entertaining these exhilarating hopes, although without food for so long a time, the troops composing this detachment, without exception, appeared stimulated by the anticipated and hoped for conflict. With these high and cheering expectations, they not only marched in double quick time, but actually kept up with the slow trot of the horses for at least twenty miles, when the cannonading ceased. We resumed this unusual march, and, without once halting until we arrived, at about midnight, at the edge of the woods which we Territorial Histories — Michigan. 227 entered the night before; when, to our utter astonishment and in dignation, we beheld the British flag floating from the flagstaff of the fort, and the Indians in the extensive common before us, tak ing horses and cattle." The fort of Detroit and the northwestern army had been surrendered. The detachment that we have just followed was also included, as well as that under Col. Brush, at the Eaisin. Col. Brush, however, decided that he would not be surrendered. He detained the British flasr sent to inform him of the capitulation, only long enough to obtain supplies for his soldiers, and the whole force was then started for Ohio, which they reached in safety. On the 17th of August the British celebrated their success by firing a salute, using the cannon belonging to the fort. A provis ional government was established by the British at Detroit, and a small force placed in the fort. The Indians, who were numerous, and claimed large rewards for their cooperation, and who were but slightly, if at all, restrained by the garrison, carried plunder and devastation into almost every house, and through almost every farm in the territory. The miserable inhabitants had no alterna tive but to submit, or incur the hazard of more aggravated out rage. Most of the citizens of Detroit were sent into exile, and distress and ruin appeared to be the inevitable lot of all. CHAPTEE XX. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — MICHIGAN. (continued.) Michilimackinac — Contest for this Northern Post — Gen. Cass appointed Governor — Progress of the Territory — State Government Organized. About one year after the memorable massacre at Michilimac- inac under the conspiracy of Pontiac, the British sent troops under Capt. Howard, to garrison the fort. Soon after this the fort was removed. In 1779, a party of British officers from the post of Michilimackinac visited the Island of Mackinaw, which lies in 228 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. the straits separating the two peninsulas of Michigan, for the purpose of selecting a suitable site for the fort. This done, they gained permission from the Indians to occupy it, and the fort was removed to the island in the summer of 1780, the troops taking possession July fifteenth. The removal of the inhabitants from the mainland was gradual, and the fort was not completed until 1783. In 1795, when the British gave up Fort Mackinaw to the Americans, they repaired to the island of St. Joseph, which is situated in the St. Mary's river, about twenty miles above Detour, and there constructed a fort. At the commencement of the war of 1812, the fort was garrisoned by a small detachment of British regulars, under command of Capt. Eoberts. At this time the garrison of Fort Mackinaw consisted of only fifty-seven effective men, under the command of Lieut. Hanks. The walls, which had been built by the English in 1780, and which are still stand ing, were surmounted by a palisade of cedar pickets, about ten feet high, intended as a defense against the Indians. To make it impossible to scale this palisade, each picket was protected at the top by sharp iron prongs. Through it were numerous port-holes, through which a leaden shower of death might be poured upon any foe that should come near. Two or three guns, of small calibre, were planted at convenient places upon the walls, and one small piece in each of the three block houses. When the war of 1812 was declared, the Americans were, for some cause, slow to notify the western outposts, while the British were very prompt* " With almost incredible dispatch, a messenger was sent to the island of St. Joseph, situated in the St. Mary's river, bearing a letter to Capt. Eoberts, containing the information of the declaration of war, and also the suggestion of an immediate attack on Fort Mackinaw. Eoberts was but poorly prepared for an enterprise of such moment, yet, entering warmly into the views of his superior officer, and being cordially supported by the agents of the Northwest Fur company, he was not long in de ciding upon his course. The Ottawas and Chippewas, two neigh boring Indian tribes, soon flocked to his standard in large num bers. The French, jealous of the Americans, still further aug mented his strength; and, in the short space of eight days, he had ? From Tuttle's History of Michigan. Territorial Histories — Michigan. 229 a force, naval and military, of more than a thousand men at his command. On the sixteenth day of July he embarked for Mackinaw. But all this was unsuspected by the little garrison and the inhabitants of Mackinaw. The first intimation which they received that all was not right was from the conduct of the Indians. In obedience to the summons of Capt. Eoberts, they were going toward the Sault in large numbers. This caused some uneasiness, and Lieut. Hanks, with the citizens of the place, made every effort to learn from them the object of their journey. Several councils were called, but in vain. Seegenoe, chief of the Ottawas, was questioned closely, but not a word could be elicitedfrom him which in any way explained their conduct. " Failing to get any satisfaction from the Indians, they next called a public meeting of the citizens, where it was resolved to make yet another effort to unravel the mystery. One Mr. Dous- man, an American fur trader, had, sometime before, sent two of his agents into the Lake Superior region, to trade with the Indians for furs. He had heard of their return to the Sault, but knew of no reasons why they had not returned to his headquarters at Mackinaw. He, therefore, on the sixteenth of July, under the pretense of ascertaining the reason of their delay, but really to learn what it was that called so many of the Indians in that di rection, set out for the Sault. He had not gone far before he learned the whole truth ; for meeting Capt. Eoberts' expedition, he was taken prisoner, barely escaping with his life. In the evening of the same day, when the expedition was nearing the island, it was proposed by Capt. Eoberts to send one Oliver, a British trader, to the people of the town, to inform them of his approach, and conduct them to a place of safety. Mr. Dousman now urged upon Capt. Eoberts that the people would, perhaps, be slow to believe such a report from a stranger ; and, anxious for the safety of his friends, asked leave to return on that mission himself. This he was permitted to do, having first taken oath that he would not give information of their approach to the gar rison. He returned to the harbor, in front of the town, and an hour before day, proceeded to the house of Mr. A. E. Davenport, and rapped loudly at the door. Mr. Davenport, on' learning who 230 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. was at the door, rose hastily, and went out, where he learned from his friend that war had been declared, and that the British had come to take the fort, being already upon the island. The news spread rapidly from one settler to another, yet the fort re mained in ignorance of danger, for none dare betray the secret. Word was circulated that if the citizens took refuge in the distil lery, they would be safe. Like wildfire, the message went from mouth to mouth, until every man, woman and child were on their way to the place of promised safety. " Meanwhile, Capt. Eoberts proceeded to the northwest side "of the island, landed his forces, and began his march toward the fort. At the farm near the landing they took possession of a number of cattle, and before the dawn of day, reached the hollow which may be seen a short distance to the rea'r of the fort. Upon a little ridge, which separates this hollow from the parade ground, they planted a gun in the road, and anxiously awaited the ap proach of day. The dawn appeared, and the unsuspecting garri son began to move. As Lieut. Hanks looked out from his quar ters, he was surprised at the unusual quiet that prevailed in the town below. No smoke was seen curling from the chimney tops and no footsteps were heard in the streets. This looked strange, and he ordered Lieut. Darrow, with two men, to go down and as certain the reason. When this officer arrived at the distillery, the truth flashed upon him. Under a strong guard which had been sent by Capt. Eoberts, the inhabitants of the place were awaiting the decision that would again make them subjects of the British Crown. Darrow entered the distillery, and shook hands with its inmates ; but when he started to return to the fort, the guards proposed to make him prisoner. Taking a pistol in each hand, and demanding permission to return, he faced the guards, and followed by his men, walked backwards till beyond their reach, when he returned, without molestation to the fort. But Lieut. Hanks did not have to wait for the return of Darrow, to learn the state of affairs below, for the sharp report of a British gun soon told him all. The report had scarcely died away, when a British officer, with a flag in hand, appeared and demanded a surrender, emphasizing the demand by a statement ot the over whelming numbers of the invading army, and a threat of indis- Territorial Histories — Michigan. 231 criminate slaughter by the savages at the first motion towams resist ance. When the inhabitants of the town had been gathered under guard at the distillery, Messrs. Davenport, Abbot, Bostwick, Stone and Dousman, who were among the leading citizens, were advis ed to go at once to the landing, and give themselves up to Col. Dickinson, who had been left at that point by Capt. Eoberts, for that purpose. This they accordingly did. They were then urged by Col. Dickinson to petition Lieut. Hanks to surrender the fort at once, stating that the Indians would be entirely unmanageable in case there should be any resistance. This they did promptly. Lieut. Hanks' position can now be easily imagined. Not having received intelligence of the declaration of war, he was wholly off his guard, and unprepared to defend himself. The British troops though less in numbers than the garrison under his command, had a position which commanded the fort, and were supported by nearly a thousand Indian warriors, who had been instructed to show no mer cy, in case any resistance was made. Under these circumstances, Lieut. Hanks surrendered the fort at once, and his men were parol ed and sent to Detroit. After the surrender, the citizens were as sembled at the government house, and the oath of allegiance to the British crown administered to them. They were generally willing to take the oath, but Messrs. Davenport, Bostwick, Stone, Abbot and Dousman refused to turn traitors. These men were immedi ately sent away with the soldiers, and were not permitted to re turn until after the declaration of peace. Capt. Eoberts and his men were highly complimented by the British government, and richly rewarded, for thus surprising and capturing the fort. Prize money, to the amount of ten thousand dollars, was distributed among the volunteers and soldiers, and merchandise and arms given to the Indians. Having thus easily and cheaply succeeded in wresting from the American people one of their most import ant military positions, , the English at once set about strengthen ing themselves in their new possession. Fearing that they would not be able to hold what they had so easily gained, they hasten ed to construct a fortification on the crowning point of the island, which, in honor of their reigning sovereign, they called Fort George. The remains of the old fort, afterwards called Fort Holmes, may still be seen.* ? From History of Michigan. 232 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Events thus transpiring, so unfortunate to the American arms and so triumphant to the Britsh, threw a gloom over the ter ritory of Michigan. However, with the glorious termination of the war in the northwest, under Gen. Harrison, Detroit was again occupied by an American force in 1813, under Gen. Cass. So far as the northwest was concerned, the war was now practically closed, yet Fort Mackinaw was in the hands of the British, and it remained to plant the stars and stripes in that quarter. Several very persistent attempts were made to this end, but to no pur pose ; all terminated disastrously for the Americans, and it was not until 1815, after peace had been declared that the English evacuated the post and it was occupied by American troops. As we have observed, in 1805, Michigan began its territorial existence. In 1818, upon the admission of Illinois into the union, all the territory lying north of that state and of Indiana was an nexed to Michigan. From 1805, when the territory was erected, to 1819, the political condition was, in every respect, that pre scribed by the ordinance of 1787. By an act passed in the latter year, the territory was authorized to elect a delegate to congress. Under the ordinance, the privilege only accrued to a territory when it should have entered upon the second grade of govern ment, and the delegate was then to be chosen by the general as sembly. By the act referred to, the power was given direct to the people, and the right of suffrage was extended to all taxable citizens. In the year 1823, the form of the territorial government was essentially changed by an act of congress, which abrogated the legislative power of the governor and judges, and granted more enlarged ones to a council, to be composed of nine persons, selected by the president of the United States, from eighteen chosen by the electors of the territoiy. By this law, eligibility to office was made coextensive with the right of suffrage as estab lished by the act of 1819. The limitation of the tenure of the judicial office to a term of four years is another important feature of the act of 1823. In the year 1825, all county officers, with the exception of those of a judicial character, or whose functions con nected them with the administration of justice, were made elect ive ; and the appointments which remained in the hands of the executive were made subject to the approval of the legislative Territorial Histories — Michigan. 233 council. In 1827, the electors of the territory were authorized to choose a number of persons, corresponding with that at which the members of the council was fixed, and their election made abso lute. This, indeed, was the last form of the territorial govern ment of Michigan. The legislative council was empowered to enact all laws not inconsistent with the ordinance of 1787 j their acts, however, were subject to be annulled by congress, and to the absolute veto of the executive of the territory. Gen. Hull was the first governor of the territory of Michigan. When he arrived at Detroit to assume his official duties, he found the town in ruins, it having been destroyed by fire. Whether this disaster had been occasioned by accident or design was not known. However this may have been, as the town was very compact, covering only two acres of ground, and the materials were of the most combustible character, it was soon entirely consumed, and the unfortunate in habitants were obliged to encamp in the open fields, almost des titute of food and shelter. Still, they were not discouraged, and soon commenced rebuilding their, houses on the same site. The general government also took their case into consideration, and an act of congress was passed, granting to the sufferers the site of the old town of Detroit, and ten thousand acres of land adjoin ing* As before mentioned, a judiciary system was now estab lished, and the territorial militia organized. In October of the same year, a report was made to congress of the condition of the territory ; and in May of the following year, a code of laws was adopted similar to those of the original states. This code was signed by Gov. Hull, Augustus B. Woodward, and Frederick Bates, judges of the territory, and was called the " Woodward Code." The bounds of the territorial government, as then estab lished, embraced all the country on the American side of the De troit river, east of a north and south line drawn through the cen ter of lake Michigan. The Indian land claims had been partially extinguished previous to this period. By the treaty of Fort Mc intosh, in 1785, and that of Fort Harmer, in 1787, extensive ces sions had either been made or confirmed, and, in the year 1807, the Indian titles to several tracts became entirely extinct. In consequence of the settlements which had been made under the * From Tuttle's History of Michigan. 234 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. French and English governments, some confusion sprang up in regard to the titles to valuable tracts that were claimed by differ ent individuals, under the French laws. Congress, accordingly. passed an act establishing a board of commissioners, to examine and settle these conflicting claims; and, in 1807, another act was passed, confirming, to a certain extent, the titles of all such as had been in possession of the lands then occupied by them from the year 1796, when the territory was surrendered, up to the date of that act. Other acts were subsequently passed, extending the same conditions to the settlements on the upper lakes. In addition to the settlements along; the shores of the Detroit and St. Clair rivers, and the lake of the latter name, where there was a continued line of cottages, with farms adjoining, containing orchards of pear and apple trees, planted at an early date, and the old posts on the island of Mackinaw, at Ste. Marie, and at St. Jo seph, the French colonists had a line of cabins on the river Eaisin, where the city of Monroe now stands. The interior of the coun try was but little known, except by those who were engaged in the fur trade and these were interested in representing it in as unfavorable a light as possible. No portion of the public domain had yet been brought into the market. But few American settlers had, therefore, ventured into this region, though the adjoining state of Ohio had already acquired a considerable population. Such was the condition of Michigan just before the Tecumseh war, a full account of which is given in a previous chapter. After this contest, Michigan emerged into a new existence. Col. Cass, who had served with much zeal during the war, was appointed governor of the territory ; and under his administration it gradu ally advanced in prosperity. *"But we must not enter upon the successful administration of Gov. Cass, without following Gen. Hull, the first governor of the territory, a little further. In our last mention of him, he was be ing conveyed to Montreal, a prisoner of war. We next find him before a court martial, at Albany, New York. The court con vened January 3, 1814, with a full board, and Gen. Dearborn was the president. No objection was taken to the constitution of this court by the accused. The session of the court was protracted, ? From Tuttle's History of Michigan. Territorial Histories — Michigan. 235 and every facility afforded to Gen. Hull to present his defense. The judge advocate, Mr. Van Buren, was remarkably fair and impartial in conducting the examination. The charges were three in number : treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty. The court acquitted the accused of the high crime of treason. As to the other charges, the court, upon mature deliberation, found Gen. Hull guilty, and sentenced him to be shot ; but, by reason of his services in the war of the revolution, and his advanced age, earn estly recommended him to the mercy of the president. The pres ident approved of the finding of the court, but remitted the exe cution of the sentence, and dismissed him from the service. As we have seen, the affairs1 in Michigan territory were indeed gloomy when Lewis Cass was appointed governor. Civil govern ment was yet to be established, and laws enacted and enforced, before any permanent advancement in prosperity could be hoped for. His task was a delicate and difficult one. He was not only a part of the legislative power, but was the sole executive. The laws which were enacted in the one capacity, he was obliged to execute in the other. How well he performed his task, the con dition of the state when he resigned his office, after eighteen years of service, abundantly testifies. In 1817, Gen. Cass made a most important treaty with the Indians, by which their title was extin guished to nearly all the land in Ohio, a part in the state of Indi ana, and a portion in the state of Michigan. This was not only the most valuable treaty that had at that time been made with the Indians, but was of the utmost importance to the territory of Michigan. It attached the isolated population of Michigan to the state of Ohio ; made the territorial government, in a fuller sense, an integral part of the federal union, and removed all apprehen sion of a hostile confederacy among the Indian tribes along the lake and river frontier. Up to this time there was not a road within the limits of^the territory, save the military road along the Detroit river. But, now that the Indian settlements and lands could not be interposed as a barrier to the undertaking, Gen. Cass resolved to bring the attention of congress to the necessity and advantage of a military road from Detroit to Sandusky. He. pointed out the peculiar political and pecuniary advantages of such an undertaking, and congress immediately authorized the 236 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. road to be built over the route indicated ; taking in its course what was known as the Black Swamp, then a trackless morass for teams and wagons, but now one of the most fertile regions of the country. Two events occurred in 1819, which may be regarded as start ing points of Michigan progress. The first was when the steam boat, the Walk-in-the- Water, made her appearance on Lake Erie, crossing that lake and passing up to Mackinaw. The second was the granting to the people of Michigan the privilege of electing a dele gate to congress. These events were great advances in the hopes and prosperity of Michigan. By the first, a new and valuable means of commercial intercourse was introduced; and, by the latter, a new channel of communication was opened, through which the people could communicate to congress and the national government their wants and situation. Again, what was, per haps, of as great importance as either of the above events, fur ther sales of public lands were ordered and made. This would cause settlements to be made further into the interior of the pen insula, and land, now studded, at long intervals, on the banks of her lakes and rivers, by the Frenchman's hut, or the solitary post of the fur trader, would soon become the sites of towns and vil lages, teeming with commerce and civilization. The census taken about this time showed a population in the Michigan Territory of 8,896. Detroit contained 250 houses and 1,450 inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison. The island of Mack inaw, which continued to be the central mart of the fur trade, had a stationary population of four hundred and fifty, which oc casionally increased to not less than two thousand, by the Indi ans and fur traders who resorted there from the upper lakes. The settlement at the Sault Ste. Marie contained fifteen or twenty houses, occupied by French and English families. The territory now rapidly increased in population ; roads were built, and general improvements went forward ; settlers were ex tending themselves along the rivers St. Clair, Eaisin and Huron, and settlements were made where now stand the cities of Ann Arbor, Ypsilanti, Jackson, Tecumseh and Pontiac. But they were not yet free from the annoyance of the Indians. The Foxes and Sacs annually made their appearance to receive thousands of Territorial Histories— Michigan. 237 dollars of presents from the British agents at Maiden. It was no unfrequent occurrence for them, as they passed along, to commit depredations upon the property of the whites. This annual trib ute also had a tendency to create and strengthen an attachment . and sympathy between the Indians and the British government. It became obvious, then, that some measures were necessary to put a stop to this custom, and to remove the Indians as far as possible from British influence, so annoying to- the settlers even in time of peace, and in time of war so dangerous. In 1823 congress passed an act changing the form of territorial government. This act abrogated the legislative power of the governor and judges, and established a legislative council, to consist of nine members. These members were to be ap pointed by the president of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, out of eighteen candidates elected by the people of the territory. This council and the gov ernor of the territory were invested with the same powers which had been before granted by the ordinance of 1787 to the govern or, legislative council and house of representatives of the north western territory. By this law the term of a judicial office was limited to four years, and eligibility to office required the same qualifications as the right of suffrage. This act met the cordial approbation of the people of the territory. They were now in vested with a more compact and energetic government. An in terest was awakened in the minds of the people in the affairs of their government, and they began to experience that sensation of citizenship which underlies the growth and prosperity of all civil ized communities. The first legislative council convened under this act, met for the first time at the council house at Detroit, on the seventh day of June, 1824. Gov. Cass then delivered his message, briefly reviewing the progress of the territory since his administration commenced, and marking out what he considered the proper line of policy in its existing condition. Amongst other matters to which the governor called the attention of the council was that of schools and education — a subject not so much discussed or generally appreciated as since. In the course of this year, Gov. Cass called the attention of the general govern ment to the mineral resources of the Lake Superior country, and 238 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. asked that steps might be taken to procure from the Indians the privilege of exploring and mining in that country. In compli ance with this recommendation, the senate passed a bill conferring authority on the president to appoint a commissioner to treat • with the Indians for this purpose. The house, however, refused to concur ; but at the next session of congress the bill passed both houses. This was the first legislation which led to the com mencement of mining operations on Lake Superior. In November, 1826, the council again convened. During that session they were called upon to consider a question which, sev eral years after, threatened to embroil the territory in an armed conflict with the state of Ohio. This was in reference to the dividing line between Michigan and the contiguous states of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. A discussion of this question is, however, more properly reserved for a future chapter. " In the meantime, a change had been made in the manner of selecting the minor officers of the territory. All the county offi cers, save those of a judicial character, were made elective by the people, and all executive appointments were required to be ap proved by the legislative council. An act was also passed em powering the governor and council to divide the territory into townships, to incorporate the same, and to define their rights and privileges. The country was now rapidly increasing in wealth and population. A new impetus had been given to the growth of the whole northwest, by the opening, in 1825, of the Erie canal from Hudson river to Buffalo. The effect of the completion of this magnificent enterprise was to cheapen transportation, and give to the west the foreign merchandise of which it stood in need,. at a greatly reduced price. At the same time it had the effect of enhancing the price of the agricultural products of the west in a still greater proportion. Consequently lands increased in value, and new facilities and new motives were offered for settlement. The Walk-in-the- Water was now found too slow and of insufficient capacity to accommodate the travelers and their goods over the rough waters of the lakes. To accommodate this increase, the Henry Clay and other steam vessels were built. To meet the increasing demand for land, new surveys were made, and large tracts of land thrown upon the market. Capital began to flow in Territorial Histories — Michigan. 239 and seek investment in the fertile acres which were thrown open for settlement. Improvements, local and general, were made ; the small settlements began to swell into villages; public edifices and private mansions were projected and built ; the echo of the woods was supplanted by the busy hum of commerce; and rich fields of golden grain, and other products of agricultural industry, were to be seen on every hand, and were harvested and shipped to the seaboard. Michigan now began to be considered the asylum and the retreat for all who would better their fortunes by industry. In the meantime, in order to meet the claims of the increasing population of the territory, new privileges of a political character had been granted them. The legislative council was increased to thirteen members, to be chosen by the president, from twenty-six selected as candidates by the people. This change was made in 1825. In 1827 an act was passed authorizing the electors to choose their representatives directly, without the further sanction of either the president or congress. The power of enacting laws was given to the council, subject, however, to the approval of congress, and the veto of the governor of the territory. Upon this footing the government of the territory remained until the organization of the state government." * Iri 1831, Gov. Lewis Cass was appointed secretary of war in the cabinet of Prest. Jackson, and he thereupon retired from the office of governor of Michigan, having served in that capacity for the period of eighteen years. He had been appointed six times, running through the. presidency of Madison, Monroe, and John Quincy Adams — without -a single representation against him from the people in all- that time, or a single vote against him in the senate. He had, in the meantime, faithfully discharged his duties as Indian commissioner, and had concluded nineteen treaties with the Indians, and acquired large cessions in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan. The people of the territory fully ap preciated his worth at the time, as was more than once manifested in after years. He was succeeded by Gen. Geo. B. Porter in July, 1831. On the sixth of July 1834, the office of governor became va cant, by the death of Gov. Porter. By the provision of law * History of Michigan. 240 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. for the government of the territory in case of the death, removal, resignation, or necessary absence of the governor, the secretary of the territory was required to execute the powers and perform all the duties of the governor during the vacancy. The functions of the office, consequently, devolved upon the secretary, Stevens T. Mason. Cotemperaneous with the question of forming a state govern ment, that of the southeastern boundry of the state became im portant, and caused much bitter feeling between Michigan and Ohio. After the boundary contest which was conducted with no great credit to the officials of Michigan, the territorial govern ment was succeeded by a state government aud Michigan was ad mitted into the union a soverign state. CHAPTEE XXI. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — ILLINOIS. Illinois under the French — English Virginia — Territorial Government Formed in 1809 — The Chicago Massacre — Horrible Butchery of the Garrison — Indian Treachery — Formation of the State Government. The great event in the northwest in 1809 was the organiza tion of the territory of Illinois: The people of this section had, at several periods, been left without a government As we have already observed, it was, originally a portion of ancient Louisiana under the French monarchy. By the treaty of France with Great Britian, in 1763, all Canada, including the Illinois country, was \ ceded to the English. However, British authority and laws did not reach Illinois until 1765, when Capt. Sterling in the name and by the authority of the British Crown, established the pro visional government at Fort Chartres. In 1766 the passage of the celebrated " Quebec bill " as it was called, placed Illinois and the Northwest territory under the local administration of Canada. But the memorable conquest of the country by Clark in 1778, brought it under the jurisdiction of Virginia, and in the month of Territorial Histories — Illinois. 241 October of that year the legislature of that state organized the county of Illinois. The cession of the country to the Continental congress was made in 1784, and the ordinance which provided for the erection of the territory northwest of the Ohio was adopted in 1787, and the governor and judges who exercised, in one body, legislative and judicial authority, did not go into operation until July, 1788. Still the Illinois country remained without any or-v ganized government till March, 179.0, when Gov. St. Clair or ganized the county that bears his name. Hence, for more than six years at one period, and for a shorter time at other periods, there was no executive, legislative, and judicial authority in the country. The people were a " law unto themselves," and good feelings, harmony, and fidelity to engagements predominated. From 1800 they had been a part of the territory of Indiana. In all the territories at that period, there were two grades of territor ial government. The first was that of governor and judges. These constituted the law making power. Such was the organization of Illinois in 1809. The next grade was a territorial legislature ; the people electing the house of representatives, and the president and senate appointing the council. By an act of congress, of February 3, 1809, all that part of Indiana territory which lies west of the Wabash river, and a direct line drawn from that river and Post Vincennes, due north, to the territorial line between the United States and Canada, was constituted into a separate territory, by the name of Illinois ; and the first grade of territorial government was established. For eight years Illinois had formed a part of Indiana, and the principal statutes of that territory were reen- acted by the governor and judges, and became the basis of statute law in Illinois. The principal event, or we may say, the most shocking event that occurred during the territorial existence of Chicago, was the massacre at Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in 1812. A small trading post had been established at Chicago in the period of French ex plorations, but no village formed ; and it will be remembered that at the treaty- of Greenville, in 1795, the Pottawatomies, Miamis and other nations agreed to relinquish their right to a piece of land, six miles square, at the mouth of the Chicago river, " where a fort formerly stood." The United States ereeted a small fort 10 242 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. upon the site of the present city of Chicago, in 1804, called F;>rt Dearborn. It stood in the same place where the fort was erected in 1833, but was of a different construction, having two block houses on the southern side, and, on the northern side, a sally port or subterranean passage from the parade ground to the river. In 1812, the fort was garrisoned by Capt. Heald, commanding, Lieut. Helm, Ensign Eonan, Surg. Voorhees and seventy-five men, very few of whom were effective. The Indians in the vicinity had always manifested a friendship for the. officers and soldiers of the garrison. However, the prin cipal chiefs and braves of the Pottawotomie nation visited Fort Maiden on the Canada side, annually, received presents to a large amount, and were in alliance with Great Britain. Many Potta watomies, Winnebagoes, Ottawas and Shawanoes were in the bat tle of Tippecanoe, yet the principal chiefs in the immediate vicin ity were on amicable terms with the Americans at this post. Besides those persons, attached to the garrison, there was in the fort the family of Mr. Kinzie, who had been engaged in the fur trade at that spot from 1804, and a few Canadians, or engages, with their wives and children. On the 7th of April, 1812, a band of hostile Winnebagoes at tacked Mr. Lee's settlement, at a place called Hardscrabble, e bout four miles from Chicago, and massacred a Mr. White and a Frenchman in his employ. Two other men escaped. For some days after this there were signs of hostile Indians, and repeated alarms at the garrison, but the whole passed off in quietness until all apprehension was dismissed. On the 7th of the following August, Winnemeg, or Catfish, a friendly Pottawatomie chief, ar rived at Chicago (Fort Dearborn) bringing dispatches from Gov. Hull, the commander-in-chief in the Northwest. These des patches announced the declaration of war between the United States and Great Britain; that Gen. Hull, at the head of the army in the Northwest, was on his way from Fort Wayne to De troit, and that the British had possessed themselves of Mackinac. His orders to Capt. Heald were, " to evacuate the post, if practi cable, and, in that event, to distribute the property belonging to the United States, in the fort and in the factory or agency, to the Indians in the neighborhood." * * Western Annals. Territorial Histories — Illinois. 243 Chief Winnemeg, after delivering his dispatches, repaired to the house of Mr. Kinzie and stated to him that he was acquainted with the purport of the communications he had brought, and begged him to ascertain if it were the intention of Capt. Heald to evacuate the post. He advised strongly that such a step should not be taken, since the garrison was well supplied with ammuni tion, and with provisions for a six months' siege. He added that it would be far better to remain until a reinforcement could be sent to their assistance. If, however, Capt. Heald should decide on leaving the post, it should by all means be done immedi ately. The Pottawatomies, through whose country they must pass, being ignorant of Winnemeg's mission, a forced march might be made before the hostile Indians were prepared to inter rupt them. Capt. Heald was immediately informed of this advice. He said that it was his intention to evacuate the post, but that inasmuch as he had received orders to distribute the United States property, he would not leave until he had collected the Indians in the neighborhood, and made a fair division of the property among them. Winnemeg then urged the expediency of marching out and leaving all things standing. Possibly, he said, while the savages were engaged in apportioning the spoils, the troops might effect their retreat unmolested. Mr. Kinzi strongly supported this advice, but it did not meet the approbation of the command ing officer. The order for evacuating the post was read on the following morning at parade. For some reason, Capt. Heald relied on his own judgment in this matter, and refused to hold a council with his officers. In the course of the day, finding no council was called, the officers waited upon Capt. Heald, wishing to be informed as to what course he had determined to pursue. When they learned his intention to leave the fort, they remon strated with him, setting forth the dangers that such a measure would incur upon the garrison. It was highly improbable, they said, that the command would be permitted to pass through the country in safety to Fort Wayne. For, although it had been said that some of the chiefs had opposed an attack upon the post, planned the preceding autumn, yet, it was well known that they had been actuated in that matter by motives of private regard to 244 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. one family, and not to any general friendly feeling towards the Americans ; and that, at any rate, it was hardly to be expected that these few individuals would be able to contol the whole tribe, who were thirsty for blood. In the next place, their march must necessarily be slow as their movements must be accom modated to the helplessness of the women and children, of whom there were many with the garrison ; that, of their small force, some of the soldiers were superannuated and others invalid ; therefore, since the course to be pursued was left discretional, their advice was to remain where they were, and fortify them selves as strongly as possible. Succor from the other side by the peninsula might arrive before they could be attacked by the British from Mackinac, and even should there not, it were far better to fall into the hands of the latter, than to become the victims of the savages. Capt. Heald's reply was, that a special order had been issued by the war department, that no post should be surrendered with out battle having been given; and that his force was totally inadequate to an engagement with the Indians. That he should, unquestionably, be censured for remaining when there appeared a prospect of a safe march through, and that upon the whole, he deemed it expedient to assemble the Indians, distribute the property among them, and then ask of them an escort to Fort Wayne, with the promise of a considerable reward upon their safe arrival — adding, that he had full confidence in the friendly professions of the Indians, from whom, as well as from the soldiers, the capture of Mackinac had been kept a profound secret. From this time the officers held themselves aloof, and spoke but little upon the subject, though they considered the project of Capt. Heald little short of madness. The dissatisfaction among the soldiers hourly increased, until it reached a high degree of insubordination. Upon one occasion, as Capt. Heald was con versing with Mr. Kinzie, upon parade, he said, " I could not remain, even if I thought it best, for I have but a small store of provisions." " Why, Captain," said a soldier, who stood near, forgetting all etiquette in the excitement of the moment, " you have cattle enough to last the troops six months." "But," Territorial Histories — Illinois. 245 replied Capt. Heald, "I have no salt to preserve the beef with." - " Then jerk* it," said the man, " as the Indians do their venison." The Indians now became daily more unruly. Entering the fort in defiance of the sentinels, they made their way without ceremony into the quarters of the officers. On one occasion, an Indian took up a rifle and fired it in the parlor of the com manding officer, as an expression of defiance. Some were of opinion, that it was intended, among the young men, as a signal for an attack. The old chiefs passed backward and forward, among the assembled groups, with the appearance of the most lively agitation, while the squaws rushed to and fro in great ex citement, and evidently prepared for some fearful scene, f Any further manifestation of ill feeling was, however, suppressed for the present, and Capt. Heald, strange as it may seem, continued to entertain a conviction of his having created so amicable a dis position among the Indians, as would insure the safety of the command, on their march to Fort Wayne. In the midst of this excitement, a messenger arrived among the Indians from Tecumseh, with the news of the capture of Mackinac, the defeat of Van Horn, and the retreat of Gen. Hull from Can ada. He desired them to arm immediately, and intimated that Hull would soon be compelled to surrender. Matters continued in this state until the twelfth of August, when a council was held with the Indians who had collected. None of the military officers attended except Capt. Heald, al though requested by him to do so. They had been informed that it was the intention of the young chiefs to massacre them in council, and as soon as the commander left the fort, they took command of the blockhouses, opened the port holes and pointed the loaded cannon so as to command the whole council. This, probably, caused a postponement of their horrid designs. At the council the captain informed the Indians of his inten tions to distribute, the next day among them, all the goods in the storehouses, with the ammunition and provisions. He requested the Pottawatomies to furnish him an escort to Fort Wayne, prom- ? This is done by cutting the meat in thin slices, placing it upon a scaffold, and making a slow fire under it, which dries and smokes it at the same time. f Western Annals. 246 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. isin'g them a liberal reward upon their arrival there, in addition to the liberal presents they were now to receive. The Indians were profuse in their professions of good will and friendship, as sented to all he proposed, and promised all that he desired. The result shows the true character of the savages. " No act of kind ness, nor offer of reward, could assuage their thirst for blood." Mr. Kinzie, who well understood the Indian character and their de signs, waited on the commander, in the hope of showing him his real situation. He told him that the Indians had been secretly hostile to the Americans for a long time ; that since the battle of Tippecanoe he had dispatched orders to all his traders to furnish no ammunition to them, and pointed out the wretched policy of Capt. Heald in furnishing the enemy with arms and ammunition to de stroy the Americans. This argument opened Heald's eyes, and he resolved to destroy the ammunition and liquor. On the thir teenth the goods were distributed, and the liquor and ammunition destroyed. Meanwhile, Capt. Wells was hastening forward from Fort Wayne to aid the garrison at Chicago. He had heard of the or der of Gen. Hull to evacuate Fort Dearborn, and knowing the hostile intentions of the Pottawatomies, he had made a rapid march through the wilderness, to prevent, if possible, the expo sure of his sister, Mrs. Heald, the officers and garrison, to certain destruction. But he came too late! The ammunition had been destroyed, and the provisions were in the hands of the enemy. He, therefore, urged an immediate departure, and, accordingly every preparation was made for the march of the troops on the following morning. On the day of Capt. Wells' arrival another council was held with the savages, in which they expressed great dissatisfaction at the destruction of the liquor and ammunition. "Murmurs and threats were heard in every quarter." Among the chiefs and braves were several who, although they partook of the feelings of hostility to the Americans, yet retained a personal regard for the troops and the white families in the place. They exerted their utmost influence to allay the angry feelings of the savage warriors, but to no purpose. Among these was Black Partridge, a chief of some distinction. The evening after the sec ond council, he entered Heald's room and said : " Father, I come Territorial Histories— Illinois. 247 to deliver up to you the medal I wear. It was given me by the Americans, and I have long worn it in token of 'mutual friend ship. But our young men are resolved to imbrue their hands in the blood of the whites. I cannot restrain them, and I will not wear a token of peace while I am compelled to act as an enemy." The ammunition that had been reserved — twenty-five rounds to a man — was now distributed. The baggage wagons for the sick the women and children were ready, and, " amidst the surrounding gloom, and the expectation of a fatiguing march through the wil derness, or a disastrous issue on the morrow, the whole party, ex cept the watchful sentinels, retired for a little rest." At length the fatal morning of the fifteenth of August arrived. The sun rose in splendor above the placid bosom of Lake Michigan, the air was balmy, and excepting the distressing apprehensions of the garrison and their families, the morning was delightful. At an early hour Mr. Kinzie received a message from Tope neebe, a friendly chief of the St. Joseph's band, informing him that the Pottawatomies, who had promised to be an escort to the detachment, designed mischief. Mr. Kinzie had placed his family under the protection of some friendly Indians. This party em barked in a boat, and consisted of Mrs. Kinzie, four children, a clerk of Mr. Kinzie's, two servants and the boatmen, with two Indiaus as protectors. This boat was "intended to pass along the southern shore of the lake to St. Joseph, while Mr. Kinzie and his eldest son had agreed to accompany Capt. Heald and the troops, as he thought his influence over the Indians would enable him to restrain the fury of the savages, as they were much attached to him and his family. Topeneebe urged him and his son to accompany his family in the boat, assuring him the hostile Indians would allow his boat to pass in safety to St. Joseph's. The boat had but reached the lake, when another messenger arrived from the same chief to detain them where they were. At nine o'clock the troops, with the baggage wagons, left the fort " with martial music and in military array." Capt. Wells, at the head of hfs band of Miamis, led the advance, with his face blackened after the manner of Indians ; the troops with the wag ons, containing the women and children, the sick and lame, fol lowed, while, at a little distance behind, were the Pottawatomies, 248 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. about five hundred in number, who had pledged their honor to escort them in safety to Fort Wayne. The party took the road along the lake shore, and on reaching the point where a range of sand hills commenced, the Pottawatomies defiled on the right into the prairie, so as to bring the sand hills between them and the Americans. They had marched about a mile and a half from the fort, when Capt. Wells, who, with his Miamis, was in advance, rode furiously back and exclaimed : " They are about to attack us ; form instantly, and charge upon them !" But these words had scarcely been uttered, when* a volley of balls from Indian muskets, behind the sand hil,ls, poured upon them. The troops were formed as quickly as possible, and charged up the bank. One man, a veteran soldier of seventy, fell as they mounted the bank. The battle became general. The Miamis fled at the outset, though Capt. Wells did his utmost to induce them to stand their ground. Their chief rode up to the Pottawatomies, charged them with treachery, and, brandishing his tomahawk, declared, " he would be the first to head a party of Americans and punish them." He then turned his horse-and galloped after his companions over the prairie.* The American troops charged upon the Indians in a gallant manner, and "sold their lives dear ly." Mrs. Helm, wife of Lieut. Helm, was in. the thickest of the action, and behaved with singular presence of mind. Indeed every woman present acted with great composure. Mrs. Helm, in giving an account of the battle, or the massacre, said that the horses pranced and bounded, and could hardly be restrained, as the balls whistled around them. She drew off to one side and gazed upon Lieut. Helm, her husband, who was as yet unharmed. She says : " I felt that my hour was come and endeavored to forget those I loved, and prepare myself for my approaching fate. While I was thus engaged, the surgeon, Dr.V, came up ; he was badly wounded. His horse had been shot under him, and he had received a ball in his leg. Every muscle of his countenance was quivering with the agony of terror. He said to me, ' Do you think" they will take our lives ? I am badly wounded, but I think not mortally. Per haps we might purchase our lives by promising them a large reward. Do you think there is any chance ?' * Western Annals. Territorial Histories — Illinois. 249 " ' Dr. V.,' said I, ' do not let us waste the few moments that yet remain to us in such vain hopes. Our fate is inevitable. In a few moments we must appear before the bar of God. Let us endeavor to make what preparation is yet in our power.' ' Oh ! I cannot die ! ' exclaimed he ; 'I am not fit to die — if I had but a short time to prepare — death is awful ! ' I pointed to ensign ,Eonan, who, though mortally wounded, and nearly down, was /still fighting with desperation upon one knee. " ' Look at that man,' said I, ' at least he dies like a soldier ! ' " ' Yes,' replied the unfortunate man, with a convulsive gasp, 'but he has no terrors of the future — he is an unbe liever ! ' " At this moment a young Indian raised his tomahawk at me. By springing aside I avoided the blow which was aimed at my skull, but which alighted on my shoulder. I seized him around the neck, and, while exerting my utmost efforts to get possession of his scalping knife, which hung in a scabbard over his breast, I was dragged from his grasp by another and older Indian. " The latter bore me, struggling and resisting, towards the lake. Notwithstanding the rapidity with which I was hurried along, I recognized, as I passed them, the lifeless remains of the unfortunate surgeon. Some murderous tomahawk had stretched him upon the very spot where I had last seen him. "I. was immediately plunged into the water, arid held there with a forcible hand, notwithstanding my resistance. I soon per ceived, liowever, that the object of my captor was not to drown me, as he held me firmly in such a position as to place my head above the water. This reassured me, and regarding him atten tively, I soon recognized, in, spite of the paint, with which he was disguised, The Black Partridge. " When the firing had somewhat subsided, my preserver bore me from the water and conducted me up the sand banks. It was a burning August morning, and walking through the sand in my drenched condition, was inexpressibly painful and fatiguing. I stopped and took off my shoes to free them from the sand, with which they were nearly filled, when a squaw seized and carried them off, and I was obliged to proceed without them. When we had gained the prairie, I was met by my father, who told me that 250 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. my husband was safe, and but slightly wounded. They led me gently back toward the Chicago river, along the southern bank of which was a Pottawatomie encampment. At one time I was placed upon a horse without a saddle, but soon finding the motion insupportable, I sprang off. Supported partly by my kind con ductor, and partly by another Indian, Pee-so-tum, who held dang ling in his hand the scalp of Capt. Wells, I dragged my fainting steps to one of the wigwams. " The wife of Wau-bee-nee-mah, a chief from the Illinois river, was standing near, and seeing my exhusted condition, she seized a kettle, dipped up some water from a little stream that flowed near, threw into it some maple sugar, and stirring it up with her hand, gave it to me to drink. This act of kindness, in the midst of so many atrocities, touched me most sensibly, but my attention was soon diverted to another object. The fort had become a scene of plunder to such as remained after the troops had marched out. The cattle had been shot down as they ran at large and lay dead or dying around. "As the noise of the firing grew gradually less, and the stragglers from the victorious party dropped in, I received con firmation of what my father had hurriedly communicated in our renconter on the lake shore ; namely, that the whites had surrendered after the loss of about two-thirds their number. They had stipulated for the preservation of their lives, and. those of the remaining women and chidren, and for their delivery at some of the British posts, unless ransomed by traders in the Indian country. It appears that the wounded prisoners were not considered as included in the stipulation, and a horrible scene occurred upon their being brought into camp. " An old squaw, infuriated by the loss of friends, or excited by the sanguinary scenes around her, seemed possessed by a demo niac ferocity. She seized a stable fork and assaulted one miser able victim who lay groaning and writhing in the agony of his wounds, aggravated by the scorching beams of the sun. With a delicacy of feeling scarcely to have been expected under such circumstances, Wau-bee-nee-mah stretched a mat across two poles between me and this dreadful scene. I was thus spared, in some degree, a view of its horrors, although I could not entirely close Territorial Histories — Illinois. 251 my ears to the cries of the sufferer. The following night five more of the wounded prisoners were tomahawked." But why dwell upon this painful subject? Why describe the butchery of the children, twelve of whom, placed together on one baggage wagon, fell beneath the merciless tomahawk of one young savage? This atrocious act was committed after the whites, twenty-seven in number, had surrendered. When Capt. Wells beheld it he exclaimed : " Is that their game ? Then I will kill, too." So saying, he turned his horse's head, and started for the Indian camp near the fort, where had been left their squaws and children. Several Indians pursued him, firing at him as he galloped along. He laid himself flat on the neck of his horse, loading and firing in that position ; at length the, balls of his pursuers took effect, kill ing his horse and severely wounding himself. At this moment he was met by Winnemeg and Wau-ban-see, who endeavored to save him from the savages who had now overtaken him ; but as they supported him along, after having disengaged him from his horse, he received his death blow from one of the party (Pee-so- tum), who stabbed him in the back. The heroic resolution of one of the soldier's wives deserves to be recorded. She had, from the first, expressed a determination never to fall into the hands of the savages, believing that their prisoners were always subjected to tortures worse than death. When, therefore, a party came up to her to make her prisoner, she fought with desperation, refusing to surrender, although as sured of safe treatment, and literally suffered herself to be cut to pieces, rather than become their captive.* The heart of Capt. Wells was taken out and cut into pieces, and distributed among the tribes. His mutilated body was not in terred until " Billy Caldwell," Tecumseh's secretary, arrived and buried it. The head was entirely separated from the body, and the latter was cut into several pieces. The family of Mr. Kinzie had been taken from the boat to their home, by friendly Indians, and there strictly guarded. Very soon a hostile party of the Pottawatomies arrived from the Wabash, and " it required all the ? Western Annals. 252 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. skill and bravery of Black Partridge, Waubansee, Billy Caldwell and other friendly Indians to protect them." Messengers had been sent by the Chicago Indians to notify all hostile tribes of the intended evacuation of the fort, and of their plan of attacking the troops. Wherever these messages were delivered, the Indians wasted no time in repairing to the scene of massacre, but most of them arrived too late. These were infuriated at their disappoint ment, and sought to glut their vengeance on the wounded and prisoners. Mr. Kinzie and his family escaped through the pro tection of the savages. Of the other prisoners, Capt. Heald and Mrs. Heald were sent across the lake to St. Joseph's the day after the battle. Capt. -Heald had received two wounds, and his wife seven, the ball of one of which was cut from her arm by Mr. Kin zie with a pen knife, after the engagement. Mrs. Heald was ran somed on the battle field by a half-breed, for a mule and ten bottles of whisky. Capt. Heald was taken prisoner by an Indian from the Kankakee, who, seeing the wounded and suffering con dition of Mrs. Heald, generously released his prisoner, that he might accompany his wife. But when this Indian returned to his village on the Kankakee, he found that his generosity had excited so much dissatisfaction in his band, that he resolved to visit St. Joseph's and reclaim his prisoner. News of his intention having •reached Topeneebe, Keepotah, Chandonnai and other friendly braves, they sent them in a bark canoe, under the -charge of Eob- inson, a half-breed, along the eastern side of Lake Michigan, three hundred miles, to Mackinac, where they were delivered over to 'the commanding officer. Lieut. Helm was wounded, in the action, and taken prisoner ; and afterwards taken by some friendly Indians to the Au Sable, and from thence to St. Louis, and liberated from captivity through the agency of Thomas Forsyth. Mrs. Helm received a slight wound in the ankle, had her horse shot from under her, and, after passing through the agonizing scenes described, went with the family of Mr. Kinzie to Detroit. The soldiers, with their wives and children, were dispersed among the different villages of the Pottawatomies, upon the Illinois, Wabash, Bock river and Mil waukee. The largest proportion were taken to Detroit, and ran somed the following spring. Some, however, remained in captiv- Territorial Histories — Illinois. 253 ity another year, ancl experienced more kindness than was expected from an enemy so merciless. On the 18th of April, 1818, congress authorized the people of Illinois to form a state constitution, and delegates to the constitu tional convention were chosen. This body assembled at Kaskas kia, m July, and closed their labors by signing the constitution they had framed, on the 26th day of August. The election for the first legislature was appointed to be held on the third Thurs day and the two following days in September, and all white male inhabitants above the age of twenty-one years, who were actual residents of the state at the time of signing the constitution, had the right of suffrage. The first session of the general assembly was to commence at Kaskaskia on the first Monday in October following, but all subsequent sessions on the first Monday in De cember thereafter. The constitution was not referred to the peo ple for adoption. In general, the latter were satisfied with the labors of their servants. Members to the general assembly were elected, met at the time appointed, and set in operation the new machinery of government. Shadrach Bond, of Kaskaskia, had been duly elected governor, and Pierre Menard, of the same place, lieut. governor. Their terms of service were from 1818 to 1822. Gov. Bond, in his brief inaugural address, called the early atten tion of the general assembly to a survey, preparatory to opening a canal between the Illinois river and lake Michigan. The second session commenced about the 1st of February, 1819, and con tinued until the 20th. During this period they revised and re- enacted the territorial laws as far as applicable to the state, with such additional laws as the public exigencies seemed to require. 254 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. CHAPTEE XXII. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES— WISCONSIN. Wisconsin under French — English and American Rule — Organization of the Territorial Government — Administrations of Dodge, Tallmadge and Doty — Organization of the State Government. Previous to 1818 the settlements in what is now Wisconsin, were either under French, English or American rule. If the latter, it was government under the ordinance of 1787, and was, for judicial purposes, connected with one of the older territories. In this year it was attached to Michigan, and was divided into two counties known as Brown and Crawford. Brown county in cluded all the territory east of the line drawn due north from the northern boundary of Illinois, through the middle of the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin rivers. Crawford county em braced the territory between the Mississippi river and the western boundary of Brown county. And on the 9th of October, 1829, by act of the legislative assembly of Michigan, Iowa was formed from that portion of Crawford county lying south of the Wiscon sin river ; and on the 6th of September, 1834, the western bound, ary of Iowa county was changed to the line between the Green Bay and Wisconsin land districts, which was a north and south line from the northern boundary of Illinois on the range line between ranges eight and nine. After the organization of Iowa county in 1830, the county of Crawford was attached to Iowa county for judicial purposes, and remained so until Wisconsin territory was organized in 1836. In the spring o*f 1835, the legislative council of Michigan passed an act authorizing the people of the peninsula to form a constitution and state government for Michigan. By this act, all that part of the territory of Michigan lying west of lake Michigan was' left without organization, though measures were being taken in con gress for the organization of Wisconsin territory. In the inter- Territorial Histories — Wisconsin. 255 regnum, John S. Horner, secretary of Michigan territory, as act ing governor, issued a proclamation on tbe 9th of November, 1835, convening the legislative council of Michigan (comprising the excluded territory referred to) at Green Bay, Jan. 1, 1836. The following were the members : First district, John Lowe, George H. Walker, Gilbert Knapp, William B. Slaughter and B. H. Edgerton ; second district, William S. Hamilton and James E. Vineyard; third district, T. P. Burnett; fourth district, Allen Hill and J. Parker ; fifth district, J. B. Teas and Jeremiah Smith. Col. William S. Hamilton was elected president; A. G. Ellis, secretary ; Levi Sterling, sergeant-at-arms ; and W. B. Long, re cording secretary. The act of congress "establishing the territorial government of Wisconsin" was approved April 20, 1836. It provided that all the country included within certain prescribed boundaries, in cluding all the territory now embraced in the states of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, and a part of the territory of Dakota, should form, and after the third day of July, 1836, constitute a separate territory, for the purposes of the temporary government of Wisconsin ; at which time all the power and authority of the government of Michigan in and over the said territory ceased. The executive power over the territoroy was vested in a governor, who was also superintendent of Indian affairs, and whose approval of all laws was necessary before they should take effect. The first important thing to be done to complete the formation of the embryo government was the organization of the legislative assembly, preliminary to which a census was to be taken by the sheriffs, and an apportionment of members of the two branches made by the governor, among the several counties. That portion of the territory which comprises the present state consisted of four counties — Brown, Crawford, Iowa and Mil waukee. The time fixed by the governor for the election was the 10th of October, 1836. The election excited a very considerable interest, growing chiefly out of local considerations. The permanent location of the " seat of government," the division of counties, and the location of county seats, were the questions that chiefly influenced the elections ; while the views of candidates in rela- 256 . Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tion -to. national politics had little or no influence upon the re? suits. ,. , i .... Mr. John Atchinson, an enterprising citizen of Galena during the summer and autumn of 1836, having laid out a town, plat be tween the two Platte, moundsj to which he gave the name of Beh montj erected there;several buildings designed for the accommoda tion of the legislative assembly; and the governor by proclama tion, appointed that, place, and the- 25th of October as the time, for the meeting of the first session of the assembly. A quorum pf each house was in attendance at the time fixed for the meet ing ; and the two houses were speedily organized by the election of Hon. Henry S. Baird, of Green Bay, president of the council ; and Peter Hill Engle, of Dllhuque, speaker of the house of repre sentatives. . Each. of. the three branches of the infant government was, now in working order, except thatjt remained for the legis lative assembly. to divide the territory into judicial districts, and make, ari , assignment of , the judges. ; This was speedily done. Crawford and Iowa constituted the. first district,, to. which., the. chief justice was assigned ;: Dubuque and Des Moines, the second, to which Judge.. Irvin was assigned ;./md Judge Frazer to. the third,, consisting of Milwaukee and Brown counties. Gov. -Dodge in his first message directed attention to defining the jurisdiction and powers of the several courts, and of matters connected- with .their administration; recommended memorializ- ing congress on extending the right of preemption to actual set tlers and to miners on the mineral lands, the removal of the ob structions in the' rapids- of the upper Mississippi, the construction of-. .harbors.. and light houses on Lake Michigan, .the improvement of the navigation of the Fox river, and a survey of the same from Green • Bay to Fort Winnebago, the improvement of the Eo'ck river, the increase of lands ;to the territory for school purposes, and for organizing and arming the militia for the protection of the frontier settlements. The great and paramount question of the session was the loca tion of the seat of government. . To this, all others were subor: dipate and made; subservient. The wild spirit of .speculation, — which, in the earlier part of the year 1836, had,, like a tornado, swept over the whole country,' and' which, having invaded and Territorial Histories —Wisconsin. 257 "unsettled the prices of every species of personal property, seized upon the unsold public domain, which was transferred by millions of acres from the control of the government and the occupation of the settler, to the dominion of the speculator, — although on the wane in the last month of that year, was still omnipotent, and ' exerted a marked influence upon many of the members of the Belmont legislature. Nearly, four weeks were spent in skirmishing outside the legis lative halls, when, on the 21st of November, the battle was for mally opened in the council, and the bill considered in committee of the whole until the 23d, when it was reported back in the form in which it became a law, fixing on Madison as the seat of govern ment, and providing that the sessions of the legislative assembly should be held at Burlington, in Des Moines county, until March 4, 1839, unless the public buildings at Madison should be sooner completed. Gen. Henry Dodge was the first governor of the territory of - Wisconsin. He was succeeded by James Duane Doty, who was succeeded by Gov. N. P. Tallmadge. Henry Dodge was reap pointed governor to succeed the latter in 1845. The progress of the territory under these several administrations was rapid, and in 1846, Hon. Morgan L. Martin, delegate to congress in the house of representatives, gave notice for leave to introduce a bill to enable the people of Wisconsin to form a constitution and state government, and for the admission of such state into the Union. On the 13th, he introduced such a bill; which was read twice, and referred to the committee on territories., After amendments a bill was agreed upon in both houses. In the same year the governor of Wisconsin issued his proclamation for the election of a hundred and twenty-five members to a convention to form a state constitu tion. The estimate of population assumed by the legislative as sembly for fixing a basis was a hundred and seventeen thousand; but the excess exhibited by the census over this estimate resulted in a more numerous body than had been anticipated. The con vention met at Madison on the fifth day of October, 1846. D. A. J. Upham was elected president, and Lafayette Kellogg secretary ; and after forming a constitution, and adopting it, they adjourned on the 16th of December. This constitution was submitted to 17 258 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. popular vote on the first Tuesday of April, 1847, and was rejected, — ayes 14,119, noes 20,233. The second constitutional conven tion met at the capitol on the 15th of December, 1847, and was organized by the election of Morgan L Martin as president, and Thomas McHugh secretary, and continued in session until the first day of February. The result of its labors was the constitution submitted to the people on the second Monday of March ensuing (1848), which,' having been duly ratified, constitutes the present fundamental law of the state ; the vote being 16,667 for its adop tion, and 6,252 against it. With this constitution Wisconsin was admitted into the Union on the 29th of May, 1818. In closing this account of the territorial history of Wisconsin, it may be proper to say, that Wisconsin has successively been un der the government of Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Mich igan. The territory once belonged to Virginia ; or, at least, she has now the full credit of having ceded it, together with all the territory northwest of the Ohio river, to the United States. Up to thc year 1800, Wisconsin was under the authority of the terri torial government established in Ohio. In that year she was attached to Indiana territory, and remained so until 1809, when the Illinois territory was organized, extending north to lake Su perior, and, of course, including Wisconsin. When Illinois took her place in the Union, in 1818, our territory was finally attached to Michigan, and remained so until the organization of the terri torial government of 1836. It will thus be seen, that, within the space of one hundred and sixty-six years, Wisconsin has been successively ruled by two kings, one state, and four territories, and is now in a condition to • govern herself, and all brought about without any great internal exciting events to produce these revolutions. The people have submitted to each change without a struggle or a murmur. To summarize : Wisconsin has been under the government of France from 1670 to 1759, eighty-nine years; of Great Britain, 1759 to 1794, thirty-five years ; of Virginia and Ohio, from 1794 to 1800, six years; of Indiana, from 1800 to 1809, nine years; of Illinois, 1809 to 1818, nine years; of Michigan, 1818 to 1836, eighteen years : total, one hundred and sixty-six years. The Black Hawk War. 259 CHAPTEE XXIII. THE BLACK HAWK WAR. Sketch of Black Hawk and Keokuk — Causes that Led to the War — History of the Contest — The Bravery of Black Hawk — His Fall, Arrest and Im prisonment — Incidents of the Liberation. Before passing on to note the principal events in the history of Iowa territory, let us pause to glance at an account of the Black Hawk war. This war is connected with the history of Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin alike, and may properly be consid ered separately at this point. Black Hawk, the Sac chieftain, was born at the principal Sac village on the Eock river, in the year 1767. As with many other distinguished warriors, he was not a chief's son, but rose to that station through his own ability. At the early age of fifteen he distinguished himself by killing an enemy, and was at once permitted to paint himself after the cus tom of the Sac braves. At a later day he was also permitted to wear feathers according to the ancient customs of his tribe. As darly as 1783, he united in an expedition against the Os ages, and had the high fortune to kill several of the enemy. For this brave act he was now permitted, for the first time, to join in the scalp dance.- Subsequently he became the leader of a small band of his own tribe, and again performed acts of great valor. His band was soon increased, and presently he found himself at the head of more than a hundred braves. With this band he marched to an Osage village on the Missouri, but finding it de-- serted, most of his followers became discouraged and returned home. Black Hawk, however, with only half a dozen followers, pursued the enemy, and after several day's march, succeeded in overtaking a small party and killing one man and a boy. Secur ing their scalps, he returned home, being greeted with additional respect. In 1786 he was again marching at the head of two hundred 260 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. braves into the country of the enemy. On this occasion he met a party quite equal to his own in numbers, and a battle took place in which he was victorious, having killed, one hundred and losing only nineteen. Nearly a score of the enemy fell by his own hand. This successful event had a two fold result — that of keeping the Osages in check and winning glory for Black Hawk. The Sacs, with this brave at their head, now turned their attention to the Cherokees, who had committed several depredations upon them. A battle was fought between these tribes upon the Merrimack •river, below St. Louis, in which Black Hawk's father was killed, but the Cherokees were defeated and compelled to retreat with a loss of twenty-eight men, the Sacs losing but seven. So great was his success at this battle that he was immediately promoted to the high station of chief. In the year 1800, " he made another excursion," says Mr. Con- clin, " against the Osages, at the head of about five hundred Sacs and Foxes, and a hundred lowas, who had joined him as allies. After a long march they reached and destroyed about forty lodges of the enemy, killing many of their bravest warriors, five of whom were slain by the leader of the invading army." In 1802, he waged a successful war against the Chippewas, Kaskaskias and Osages, killing over one hundred warriors. In 1803, Black Hawk made a visit to St. Louis, to see his " Spanish father." He was well received, but found many sad faces because the United States were about to take possession of their country. Soon after, Lieut. Pike visited the camp of Black Hawk, made several presents, and delivered a speech to the Sacs, telling them that their American father would treat them well. He presented them with an American flag, which was hoisted, and requested them to pull down the British flag and give him their British medals, promising to give them others from their Ameri can father. This, however, Black Hawk declined, saying that his people wished to have two fathers. Soon after, the building of Fort Edwards near the head of the Des Moines rapids, ga/e great uneasiness to the Sacs. They, sent a deputation to that point, which returned with unsatisfactory re ports. Black Hawk now placed himself at the head of a strong force and marched to Fort Madison, which stood on the west bank The Black Hawk War. 261 of the Mississippi, some distance down the Des Moines. This fort was garrisoned with about fifty men. Black Hawk's spies having ascertained that the soldiers marched out of the fort every morning for exercise, he determined to conceal his party near the place and shoot them down. On the morning of the proposed at tack several soldiers defiled out upon the plain, and three of their number were instantly shot down. The Indians then opened fire upon the fort, but being unable to accomplish anything in this way they returned to their village. Upon the opening of the war of 1812, the Sacs tendered their services to the United States, but their offer was declined. They had not been as liberally supplied with presents by the Ameri cans as they had anticipated, and in the meantime the British agents had '•artfully fomented their discontent, and labored to win their confidence by the most liberal distribution among them of goods and ardent spirits." Soon after the declaration of war a British trader appeared among them with two boats loaded with goods. The British flag was immediately hoisted, and the trader told Black Hawk that he had been sent by Col. Dixon, who was then at Green Bay, with a large quantity of goods, and who was desirous that the Sac chieftain should raise a party of warriors and join him. Black Hawk had but little difficulty in raising two hundred braves. At the head of this band he marched to Green Bay, where he found Col. Dixon encamped with a large body of Indians from various tribes, who had already been furnished with arms and ammunition. Dixon received Black Hawk with many marks of respect, told him that the English were about to drive the Ameticans from their hunting grounds, and placing a medal about his neck he said, " you are to command all the braves that will leave here the day after to-morrow to join our braves near Detroit." Arms, clothing, knives and tomahawks were now distributed among Black Hawk's baud, and at the appointed time five hundred warriors left Green Bay on their march to Detroit to join the British army. This was in August, 1812, shortly after the massacre at Fort Dearborn. Black Hawk was unsuccessful among the British, and being tired with successive defeats, he returned to his village on Eock river, where, in all probability, he would have remained neutral 262 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. , had it not been for the murder of his adopted son. By this law less act he was again roused to vengeance againt the Americans, and after remaining a few days at the village, and raising a band of braves, prepared for offensive operations upon the frontiers. The party, consisting of about thirty, descended the Mississippi in canoes to the site of old Fort Madison, which had been aban doned by the American troops and burned. Continuing their course they landed near Cap au Gis, where they killed one of the United States rangers, but were finally dispersed by a detach ment from Fort Howard. The Indians, however, returned to the contest and a battle ensued between Black Hawk's party and the troops of Fort Howard, under Lieut. Drakeford of the United States rangers. In this battle the Americans lost ten killed and several wounded, the loss being about equal on both sides. In 1815, when the Indians along the Mississippi valley had been notified of the peace between the United States and England, they, for the most part, ceased hostilities ; but Black Hawk and his band, and some of the Pottawatomies, were not inclined to live in peace. In the spring of 1816 they,- in connection with the British, captured the garrison at Prairie du Chien, and attacked some boats that were ascending the Mississippi to that point with troops and provisions. One of the boats was captured and several of the crew killed. The boats were compelled to return. In 1816, however, Black Hawk and his tribe concluded a peace with the Americans, by which the hatchet was buried ; and now, we hear but little of this wonderful Indian until the hostilities which broke out in 1832. Soon after this treaty the United States government built Fort Armstrong, upon Eock Island, in the Mississippi river, and but a few miles from the Indian village where Black Hawk resided. The Sac Indians were jealous of this movement, for they loved to look upon Eock Island as one of their choisest resorts. They had a traditionary belief that this island was the favorite residence of a good spirit which dwelt in a cave in the rocks on which Fort Armstrong was afterwards built. This spirit had often been seen by the Indians, but after the erection of the fort, alarmed by the noise and intrusion of the white man, it'spread its beautiful wings and departed. The Black Ha wk War. 263 In the autumn of 1818, Black Hawk and some of his band went on a visit to their British father at Maiden, and received many presents from him. A medal was given to Black Hawk for his fidelity to the British, and he was requested to make an nual visits with his band, and receive such presents as had been promised him by Col. Dixon in 1812. These visits were regularly made down to 1830. In the latter year Black Hawk and his party encamped at Two Eivers for the purpose of hunting, and while there were so badly treated by some white men, that his prejudices against the Americans were greatly revived. In the ensuing summer the Americans urged the whole of the Sacs and Foxes to remove to the west side of the Mississippi. This policy was urged upon them by the agent at Fort Armstrong. The principal Fox chief, and several of the Sac chiefs, among whom was Keokuk, assented' to the removal. The latter sent a message through the village informing the Indians that it was the wish of the great father, the President, that they should all go to the west side of the Mississippi, and he pointed out the Iowa river as a suitable place for their new village. There was a party among the Sacs called the " British Band," who were bitterly op posed to a removal ; and they appealed to their old leader, Black Hawk, for his decision on the question. He claimed the ground on which their village stood had never been sold, and that, there fore, the Americans had no right to insist upon the measure. Black Hawk was now becoming old, and he felt that his power in the tribe was waning before the rising popularity of Keokuk, his rival. He now resolved to place himself at the head of a band, and, if possible, recover his influence. However, during the following winter, while Black Hawk and his party were absent on a hunting expedition, several white fam ilies arrived at their village, destroyed some of their lodges, and commenced making fences over their cornfields. As soon as the old Sac chieftain heard of this movement, he promptly returned to Eock Island, where he found his own lodge occupied by the whites. He next went to Fort Armstrong and made complaint to the interpreter, the agent being absent. He next visited the prophet, Wabokiesheik, or White Cloud, whose opinions were held in much respect by the Sacs. This distinguished man urged 264 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Black Hawk not to remove, but to persuade Keokuk and his party to return to Eock river. Black Hawk now returned to his hunting party, and in the spring when the band returned to their village, they found the white settlers still there, in possession of their lodges and corn fields. About the same time Keokuk visited Eock river, and did all in his power to persuade the remaining Sacs to accompany him to the new village on the Iowa, but Black Hawk said it would be an act of cowardice to yield up their village and the graves of their fathers to strangers, who had no right to the soil. Keokuk's influence was exerted in vain, and he returned to the western village. The settlers began to increase, and it would seem that the Sao village on Eock river was the principal point of attraction. At this place the Sacs had had their principal village for more than seventy years. Their women had broken the surface of the sur rounding prairies with their hoes, and inclosed with a kind of pole fence many fields which were annually cultivated by them in the raising of corn, beans and squashes. They had also erected sev eral hundred houses of various dimensions, some probably one hundred feet in length by forty or fifty feet broad, which were constructed of poles and forks, arranged so as to form a kind of frame, which was then inclosed with the bark of trees, which, being pealed off and dried under a weight, for the purpose of keeping it expanded, was afterwards confined to the walls and roof by means of cords composed of the bark of other trees. This was, indeed, a delightful spot. On the northwest rolled the majestic Mississippi, while the dark forests which clothed the island of Eock river, with its several rippling streams on the south coast, formed a delightful contrast which was rendered still more pleasing from the general declivity of the surrounding country, as it sinks gradually away to the shores of these rivers. This ancient village literally became the graveyard of the Sac nation. Scarcely an individual could be found in the whole nation who had not deposited the remains of some relatives in or near this place. Thither the mother, with mournful and melancholy step, annually repaired to pay a tribute of respect to her departed off spring, while the weeping sisters and loud lamenting widows The Black Hawk War. 265 joined the procession of grief, sometimes in accordance with their own feelings, no doubt, but always in pursuance of an established custom of their nation from time immemorial. On these occa sions they carefully cleared away every spear of grass or other vegetable which they found growing near the graves, and made such repairs as seemed necessary. They 'also carried to the grave some kind of food which they left for the spirit of the deceased, and before they concluded these ceremonies they often, in a very melancholy and lamenting mood, addressed the dead, inquiring how they fared, and who, or whether any one performed for them the kind offices of mother, sister or wife, together with many other inquiries which a frantic imagination happened to suggest. This being one of the most important religious duties, was scrupulously observed by all the better class of this people.* The settlers who established themselves at Eock river, in viola tion of the laws of congress, and the provisions of all treaties, committed various aggressions upon the Indians, such as destroy ing their corn, killing their domestic animals, and whipping the women and children. f They took with them as articles of traffic, whisky and other liquors, and by distributing it among the sav ages, produced all the horrors of debauchery. Black Hawk remonstrated against this, and, upon one occasion, he, with two of his companions, entered one of the houses where the liquor was kept, rolled out a barrel of whisky, broke in the head and emptied the contents upon the ground. Thus matters continued for several years. The settlers were pushing their claims in de fiance of the rights of the Indians, and the latter could obtain no redress. According to the treaty which defined the rights and wrongs of this matter, " as long as the lands which are now ceded to the United States remain their property, the Indians belonging to said tribes shall enjoy the privilege of living and hunting upon them." None of the lands in the vicinity of Eock river were brought into market by the United States until the year 1829. Previous to this date, of course, the white settlers there were tres passers of law and justice. In the latter year, however, a' tract of land at the mouth of the Eock river, including the Sac village, * Chronicle of North American Savages. f Life of Black Hawk. 266 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. was sold. This was done with a view of removing the Sac In dians to the west side of the Mississippi. Therefore, in the spring of 1830, when Black Hawk and his band returned from the winter's hunt to occupy their lodges, and prepare for raising their crop of vegetables, they found that their lands had been pur chased by the settlers. Black Hawk, greatly disturbed by this change, applied to the Indian agent at that point, wishing redress, but was informed that since the government had sold his land, he had no longer any right to it. The chief still refused to cross the river, and in the course of that season he visited Maiden, to talk with his British father on the subject. He also called upon Gov. Cass, at Detroit, on the same subject. Both of these persons told him that if he remained quietly upon their lands, the Ameri cans would not interfere with them. Consequently Black Hawk returned home determined to keep possession of his old village. But it was late in the fall when he arrived ; his people had gone to the hunting grounds, and he was not long in following them. During this winter, Keokuk exerted his best influence to induce them to desert Black Hawk and follow him to the new village on the Iowa, but without success. They were so firmly attached to their old chief and to their ancient village that they returned with him to it in the following spring of 1831. The traders at Eock river now attempted to induce Black Hawk and his band to leave by making him presents, and after a long persuasion the old chief agreed to go, provided the government would distribute six thousand dollars' worth of goods among his people. This the government promptly declined to do, and threatened to send an armed force to drive him from the village if he and his people did not leave at once. The squaws had planted their corn, and it was beginning to grow, but the settlers, claiming that the Indians had no right to the ground, plowed it up again. Matters had at last come to a crisis. The old chief could stand it no longer, and he notified every settler to leave the village at once. Meanwhile, not satisfied with their encroachments upon the rights of the sav ages, the settlers united in a memorial to the governor of the ter ritory of Illinois, in which they declared that the Sac Indians " had threatened to kill them ; that they had acted in a most out rageous manner ; threw down their fences ; turned horses into The Black Hawk War. 267 their cornfields stole their potatoes, saying the land was theirs, and that they had not sold it ; levelled deadly weapons at the cit izens, and, on some occasions, hurt the citizens for attempting to prevent the destruction of their property." " One of these eight afflicted memorialists," says Mr. Conklin, " swore the other seven to the truth of their statements, and, with an earnest prayer for immediate relief, it was placed before his excellency on the nineteenth of May." But this was not the only complaint. Every day reports were coming in to the gevernor's office representing the lawless acts of "Gen. Black Hawk" and his "British band." These repre sentations had the desired effect. A strong force was sent against the Sac Indians, and they were driven in terror to the west of the Mississippi. Before passing on to the consequences of this measure, let us glance, for a moment, at Keokuk, Black Hawk's rival, who figures conspicuously in our narrative. He was a native Sac, and was born near Eock river village, about the year 1780. Like Black Hawk, he was not a chief's son, but worked his way to the distinguished position of chief by his own native force of charac ter, bravery and address. He began to manifest rare qualities at a very early period of his life. While but a youth he engag ed in a battle against the Sioux. In the engagement he encoun tered and killed a Sioux warrior, with his spear, while on horse back ; and, as the Sioux are distinguished for their horsemanship, this feat was looked upon as marvellous. A public feast was made in commemoration of it by his tribe, and the youthful war rior was from that day ranked among the greatest Sac braves. During the war of 1812, and before Keokuk was old enough to be admitted to the councils of his nation, the American gov ernment, as we have already seen, sent an expedition against the Peoria Indians. During the advance of this detachment, a rumor reached the Sac village on Eock river, that the expedition would also attack the Sacs. This news threw the whole tribe into con fusion. A council was immediately held, and all agreed to aban don their village. As soon as Keokuk heard of this decision, he advanced to thc door of the council house aud asked to be admit- ' ted. This being granted, he next demanded permission to speak, 268 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. which was also freely granted him. He said that he had heard their decision with surprise and regret ; that he was opposed to a flight, until the strerigth of the enemy could be ascertained. He said, " make me your leader ! Let your young men follow me, and the pale faces shall be driven back to their towns. Let the old men and the women, and all who are afraid to meet the white man stay here, but let your braves go to battle." The speech had a magic effect, and every warrior present declared that he was ready to follow the gallant Keokuk. He was chosen at once to lead them against the enemy. Of course it turned out that the rumor was" without foundation, and there was no enemy to battle with, but the eloquence and bravery of Keokuk placed him very high in the ranks of the Sac braves. But it was not long before events transpired which gave him an opportunity to display his warlike spirit. At one time Keokuk was hunting with a party in the country which lay between the Sac and Sioux villages. As is well known, these tribes had been at war for many years. Unexpectedly a party of Sioux came upon them, mounted and ready for battle. The Sacs were also mounted, but the situation and numbers were both in favor of the Sioux. Keokuk instantly formed his men into a compact circle, ordered them to dismount and take shelter behind their horses. By this ingenius movement they were enabled to screen themselves from the flying missiles of the Sioux. It also placed them in a position by which they could avail themselves of their superior skill as marksmen. The battle was a long and hard one, but Keokuk was triumphant, and routed the enemy with great loss. He had many other opportunities of showing his military skill, and was almost always successful. Keokuk's eloquence and ability in civil matters were quite equal to his military talents. Some of his speeches are splendid evidences of his sagacity. While Black Hawk led many of the Sac braves against the Americans in the war of 1812, Keokuk and a majority of them remained neutral, but in this he was ex posed to great danger. He requested the agent of the American government to send to his village, on the west side of the Missis sippi, a white man who understood the Sac language, and who might bear witness to his sincerity and faithfulness to the whites. The Black Hawk War. 269 Such a person was sent. The excitement among the people, kin dled by the power of Black Hawk, every day increased, until Keokuk stood upon a mine liable to be exploded by a single spark. He was in peril of being slain as the friend of the Amer icans ; but he remained calm and. unawed, ruling his turbulent little state with mildness and firmness, but at the constant risk of his life. One day a new emissary arrived from Black Hawk's party ; whisky was freely introduced into the camp, and Keokuk saw that the crisis was at hand. He warned the white man, who was his guest, of the impending danger, and advised him to con ceal himself. A scene of tumult followed. The emissary spoke of the blood that had been shed ; of their relations who had been driven from their hunting grounds ; of many insults and injuries which had been boldly perpetrated by the Americans ; hinted at the ready vengeance that might be taken on an exposed frontier ; of defenseless cabins and rich booty. The braves began to dance around the war pole, to paint, and to give evidences of a warlike character. Keokuk watched the impending storm, and prepared himself to take an important part in it. He drank and listened, and apparently assented to all that was said. At length his war riors called out to be led to battle, and he was asked to lead them. He rose and spoke with that power that had never failed him. He sympathized with their wrongs, their thirst for ven geance, and won their confidence by giving utterance to the pas sions by which they were moved, and echoing back their own thoughts with a master spirit. He then considered the proposi tion to go to war, spoke of the power of the whites, and the hope lessness of the contest. He told them he was their chief ; that it was his duty to rule them as a father at home, or to lead them to war if they determined to go. But in the proposed war there was no middle course. The power of the United States was such that, unless they conquered that great nation, they must perish ; that he would lead them instantly against the whites on one con dition, and that was, that they would first put all their women and children to death, and then resolve that, having crossed the Mississippi, they would never return, but perish among the graves of their fathers, rather than yield them to the white men. This proposal, desperate as it was, presented the true issue, and 270 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. it calmed the spirits of the clamorous warriors, who now regarded Keokuk as their ruler, and obeyed his counsel. It will be seen that the Sacs were divided, part under Black Hawk and part under Keokuk. This division created many dis sensions in the tribe, and at length led the overthrow of the latter, a young brave being elected to take his place. Keokuk received the change with a good grace, and took his place among the com mon warriors without a word. But it was not long before the in capacity of his successor manifested itself, and Keokuk was again called upon to rule the councils of his nation, and lead the war riors to battle. In 1832, five Sacs, belonging to Keokuk's party, murdered a settler in Illinois. One of the guilty party was his own nephew, but he immediately seized and delivered up to the civil author ities, the other four having escaped. Some time after, the Amer icans demanded the other four prisoners, but they could not be found. Keokuk called a council and stated the matter at length, saying that something must be done to appease the wrath of the president. An expedient was soon offered. Four young warriors ' came forward and gave themselves up,' manifesting a willingness to die for the crimes of their brethren. These brave men were turned over to the proper officers and imprisoned. Keokuk was present at their trial, and testified that the prisoners were not guilty, but that they had offered to die in order to satisfy the law. He said that the real murderers had escaped. The prisoners were, of course, set at liberty. Some time after, Keokuk, Black Hawk and several Sac chiefs made a visit to Washington and the principle cities of the eastern states, in which they were well received. In Boston they created great excitement, which was caused by the war dance on the common. In all the savage virtues, Keokuk was a superior In dian, far in advance of Black Hawk. We have now before us two men — Black Hawk and Keokuk. A glance at their different virtues has enabled the reader to judge somewhat of these Indians. Let us now notice, briefly, the prin cipal acts of their lives. Black Hawk and his band had not been long in their new village before difficulties began to arise which terminated in a violation of the treaty which he had made subse- The Black Hawk War. 271 quent to his removal. They had been sent away from their homes too late in the season to admit of planting corn and beans, and before autumn was over they were suffering for provisions. It is not surprising that in this condition they should attempt to steal the corn which they had planted on the opposite side of the river in the spring. Many events followed, trivial in their char acter, but all well qualified to foster the hatred which already ex isted between Black Hawk's band and the Americans. In April, 1832, the whole party, under this chief crossed over the river, and, in open violation of their treaty of the previous year, as-- scended the Eock river to the'territory of their friends, the Win nebagoes, having been invited thither to raise corn. Gen. Atkin son, with a body of troops, was then at Fort Armstrong, having been ordered by the government to that point for the purpose of quelling a war which existed between the Menominies and the Foxes. Black Hawk had not proceeded far up the river when he was overtaken by a messenger from Gen. Atkinson with an order for him and his party to return and recross the Mississippi. This the chief refused to obey, saying that the general had no right to issue such an order. He declared that he was at peace with the Americans, and that he was peaceably traveling towards the village- of his friends. They journeyed on, but were soon overtaken by another messenger, who brought word that, unless the Sacs returned and recrossed the Mississippi at once, an armed force would be, sent to compel them. Black Hawk's reply was decisive; he would not return. Arriving at the village to which he was traveling, the Sac chief found that in case he should be pursued by the troops at Fort Armstrong, he would be unable to obtain any assistance from these Indians, and he therefore resolved, if overtaken, to return peaceably. He encamped at Kish-wa-co- kee and began preparations for a dog-feast, with which to compli ment the Pottawatomies. Meanwhile the Illinois militia was ordered out and formed a junction with the regular troops under Gen. Atkinson, at Eock Island. From this point the militia, being for the most part mounted, proceeded by land to Dixon's ferry, on Eock river, about half way between the fort and Black Hawk's present en campment. Gen. Atkinson, with three hundred militia and three 272 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. hundred regulars, ascended the river in boats to the! same point. "Maj.Stillman," says Mi". Coriolin, "having under his command .a body of two hundred. and seventy-five mounted volunteers, ob tained leave of Gen. Whitesides, then in command of the Illinois militia at Dixon's ferry, to go out on a scouting expedition. He ¦ proceeded up Jtock' river about thirty miles, to Sycamore creek, which empties intb'that river on the .east side. This movement brought him within a few miles of the camp of Black Hawk and. a partof his braves at the time when the old chief was en- - gaged in getting up a dog-feast in honor of his Pottawatomie -visitors." While engaged- in this ancient ceremony, on the 14th of May, Black Hawk received intelligence of the advance of a large num ber of mounted volunteers, which were reported as being about eight miles distant. "I. immediately started,". says the old chief, " three young men with a white flag to meet them and conduct thein to:our camp, .that we might hold a council with them and descend Eock river again ; and directed them,' in case the whites had encamped, to return, and I would go and see them. After this party had started, I sent five young, men to see what might take place. The first party, went to the encampment of the whites and were taken prisoners. The last party had not proceeded far before they saw twenty men coming towrards them in full gallop. They stopped, and firiding that the whites were coming so fast, in a warlike, attitude, they turned and retreated, but were pursued and overtaken, and two of them killed. The others made their escape. When they came in with the news, I was preparing my flags to meet the war .chief. The alarm was given. Nearly all my young men were absent, about ten miles off. I started with what I had left, about forty, and had proceeded but a short dis tance before we saw a part of the enemy approaching. I raised a yell, and said to my braves, 'some of our people have been killed — wantonly and cruelly murdered ! we must avenge their death !' In a httle while we discovered the whole army coming towards us in full gallop ! We were now confident that our first party had been killed. I immediately placed my men in front of some bushes,- that we might have the first fire, when they approached cl6se enough. They made a halt some distance from us. I gave The Black Hawk War. ' 273 another yell, and ordered 'my brave warriors, fo charge upon them, expecting that we.'would'all be killed ! i They did charge.: Every man rushed arid fired, and the enemy retreated in the utmost con fusion and .consternation -before, my little' but brave band of war riors. After pursuing the enemy for some distance, I found it useless to follow thern, as they rode so fast, and- returned, to my encampment with a few of . my 'braves, about twenty-five having gone. in pursuit of the enemy. I lighted, niy pipe and sat down to thank the Great Spirit for what he had done. I had not been long meditating when two of the three young men I. had sent out with the flag to meet- the American war chief entered. My aston ishment was not greater than my- joy to see them living arid well. I eagerly listened to their story,, which was as follows,: " ' When we arrived near , to the ¦ encampment of- the whites, a number of them .rushed out . to meet us, bringing their guns with them. They took us in the' camp,' when an American' who spoke the Sac language a little, told us that;his chief wanted to know how we were, where we were- going, where .our, camp was, and where Black Hawk was. We told him that-We had come to see his chief; that our chief had: directed' us to conduct him to our camp, in case he had not encamped, and in that evoiitto tell him that he (Black Hawk) would come to^see him ; he wished to hold a council with him, as he had given up all intention of going to war. At -the conclusion of the talk a party of white men came in on horseback. We saw by their countenances that something had . happened. . A general tumult; arPse. They.looked at- lis with indignation, talked among themselves, for a moment; when several cocked their guns; in a second they:fired at us in the crowd ; our companion fell dead. We rushed through the crowd • and made our escape. We remained in ambush but a short time before we heard yelling like Indians ' running an; enemy. In a little while we saw some of the whites in full speed. One of them came near us. I threw my tomahawk and struck him ' on the head, which brought him to the ground. I ran to him and with . his own knife took off his scalp. I took his gun, mounted his horse, and took, my< friend* here behind me. We -turned to follow our braves, who were running '. the- enemy, and had not gone-far before'we overtook a whife man 'whose : ho'rs'e had' mired in a 18 274 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. swamp. My friend alighted and tomahawked the man, who was apparently fast under his horse. He took his scalp, horse and gun. By this time our party was some distance ahead. We fol lowed and saw several white men lying dead on the way. After riding about six miles we met our party returning. We asked them how many of our men had been killed. They said none, after the Americans had retreated. We inquired then how many whites had been killed. They replied they did not know, but said we would soon ascertain, as we must scalp them as we go back. On our return we found ten men beside the two we had killed before we joined our friends. Seeing that they did not yet recognize us, it being dark, we again asked how many of our braves had been killed. They said five. We asked who they were. They replied that the first party of three who went out to meet the American war chief had all been taken prisoners and killed in the encampment, and that out of a party of five who fol lowed to see the meeting of the first party and the whites, two had been killed. We were now certain that they did not recog nize us, nor did we tell them who we were until we arrived at our camp. The news of our death had reached it some time be fore, and all were surprised to see us again.' " " The precipitate flight of the troops under Maj. Stillman," says Con'clin, " has no justification." No effort was made to rally the troops, and all the baggage of the army, blankets, saddle-bags, camp equipage and provisions fell into the hands of the Indians. Black Hawk, finding that his peace flag had been fired upon, and being intoxicated with his success, determined on war. Indeed, with the provision and other supplies which he had secured in this contest, he was not poorly qualified for the undertaking. He assembled his braves and began active preparations for a border war. He immediately sent out spies to watch the movements of Gen. Atkinson, and prepared to remove his women and children from the seat of war further up the Eock river, where, as he thought, they would be secure from the whites. In passing to this point he was met by a band of Winnebagoes, who, havino- heard of his victory, signified a willingness to join him. But meanwhile the defeat of the troops spread consternation throughout the settlements of Illinois. The Indian forces were The Black Hawk War. 275 greatly misrepresented, and everywhere Black Hawk and his band were spoken of as bold and cunning warriors. Gen. Atkinson at once fortified his camp at Dixon's Ferry, and the governor of the state issued a call for more mounted volunteers. The secretary of war sent one thousand troops from the east under Gen. Win field Scott, who was to have the command of the campaign against the Black Hawk forces. And now we come to the horrors of another border war in which, many frontier families were massacred or carried away into captivity, torture and death. The catalogue begins with the In dian creek massacre. At this point a party of hostile Pottawato mies, thirty in number, fell upon a little settlement on Indian creek, one of the tributaries of Fox river, and murdered fifteen men, women and children, taking two prisoners, the Misses Hall. who were afterwards returned to their friends by the Winneba goes. It was, indeed, a war of detail. A party of Indians stole the horses belonging to Capt. Stephenson, who resided not far from Galena. The captain pursued them with twelve men. A battle or skirmish ensued, in which six Indians and three soldiers were killed. Soon after, a party of eleven Sacs killed five white men at Stafford's farm. Vengeance followed ; Gen. Dodge followed and overtook them in a swamp, when they were all shot down and scalped. Three soldiers fell in the contest. On the twenty- fourth of June, 1832, the Indians made an attack upon the fort at Buffalo Grove,- not far from Dixon's Ferry. The post was garrisoned by one hundred and fifty men, commanded by Capt. Dement. In this contest many of the soldiers and forty horses were killed. After accomplishing this, and seeing that they could not take the fort, they commenced a retreat. They had not gone far when they were overtaken by a detachment under Col. Posey. This is Black Hawk's account of the- contest which followed : " We concealed ourselves until they came near enough, and then commenced yelling and firing, and made a rush upon them. About this time their chief (Posey), with a party of men, rushed up to the rescue of those we had fired upon. In a little while they commenced retreating, and left their chief and a few braves, who seemed willing and anxious to fight. They acted 276 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. like braves, but were forced to give way when I rushed upon them with my braves. In a short time the chief returned with a large party. He seemed determined to fight and anxious foi battle. When he came near enough, I raised the yell, and firing commenced from both sides. The chief, who is a small man, addressed his warriors in a loud voice, but they soon retreated, leaving him and a few braves on the battlefield. A great number of my warriors pursued the retreating party and killed a number of their braves as they ran. The chief and his braves were unwilling to leave the field ; I ordered my braves to rush upon them, and had the mortification of seeing two of my chiefs killed before the enemy retreated. This young chief deserves great praise for his courage, but fortunately for us, his army was not all composed of such brave men." The numbers on both sides were about equal in this engagement. On the fourth of July, the army under Gen. Atkinson, consisting of four hundred regulars and over one thousand mounted volunteers, arrived at the foot of Lake Koshkonong. Two brigades of volunteers, under Gen. Dodge, pursued the Indians from this point, and overtook them on the twenty-first of July, about sundown, on the banks of the Wisconsin. An attack was made, resulting in the route of the Indians, with a heavy loss. One of the troops was killed and eight wounded. " The exact loss of the Indians in this engage ment cannot be ascertained. One account," says Mr. Conclin, "places the number at sixteen." Black Hawk says that he had but fifty warriors with him in this engagement, the rest being engaged in assisting the women and children in crossing the Wis consin to an island, to protect them from the fire of the whites. This was undoubtedly a mistake, as one of his own men gives the nnmber engaged in the battle at sixty or seventy. " A party of Black Hawk's band, including many women and childrem, now attempted to descend the Wisconsin upon rafts and in canoes, that they might escape by recrossing the Mississippi." But in this attempt they were overtaken and attacked by troops which had bean stationed on the banks of the river. Many of the savages were killed, some were taken prisoners, others escaped to the neighboring woods, where they soon perished from hunger, Another party, among whom was Black Hawk, having it is said, The Black Hawk War. 211 abandoned all idea of continuing the war, and being unwilling to trust themselves to a capitulation, started across the country, hoping to escape west of the Mississippi. In this route they lost many of their people from starvation. Beaching the Mississippi, a number of the women and children undertook to descend the river in canoes to Prairie du Chien. Many of them were drowned in this attempt, and those who did reach their destination were found to be in a starving condition. But let us turn to Black Hawk and his party. On the first of August, while in the act of crossing the Mississippi, he was attacked by the steamboat War rior, with an armed force on board. In this engagement the Indians lost twenty-three killed, and a great many wounded, while on board the Warrior, not one of the gallant little crew was killed, only one being slightly wounded. On the following morning, the whole of Gen. Atkinson's army was upon them. The Warrior also assisted, killing three by the first shot. In Atkinson's army nine were killed and seventeen wounded. The Indians were, of course, cruelly put to flight. Gen. Atkinson was not satisfied with his triumph upon the Wisconsin, but pushed forward with his whole army in pursuit of the Indians, making forced marches over a rough, uneven country. On the morning of the second of August, when within ten miles of the Mississippi, it was ascertained that the enemy was then on the bank of the river in their front, preparing to embark, at a place called Bad Axe. Arrangements were at once made for an attack. Gen. Dodge's squadron was placed in front, followed by the infantry, and these by the brigades of Henry, Alexander and Posey. They had proceeded in this order for about five miles, when they discovered a small party of Indians, and immediately fired upon them. This band retreated to the main body on the bank of the river. In order to prevent the Indians from escaping, Gens. Alexander and Posey were directed to form the right wing of the army, and to march to the river above the Indian encamp ment, and then to move down along the bank. Gen. Henry formed the left wing, and the United States infantry and Gen. Dodge's squadron occupied the centre. In this order the army descended into the valley, which was covered with weeds and heavy brushwood. Gen. Henry was the first to discover the 278 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. enemy. He opened a heavy fire upon them, which was returned. Gen. Dodge's, troops and the United States infantry joined him in the action, and the whole, with Gen. Henry's men, rushed upon the savages, killing them without mercy. Only a few of them escaped. Meanwhile, the brigades of Alexander and Posey, which were approaching along the river's bank, fell in with another party of Indians, putting them to rout with great slaughter. The Indians were driven to the edge of the river, where they hoped to escape by swimming to the opposite side, but they were shot in the water, until nearly all had perished. Among the few who escaped was Black Hawk. Gens. Atkinson, Dodge and Posey, descended the Mississippi to Prairie du Chien in the Warrior, and there awaited the arrival of the mounted volunteers. The latter arrived on the fourth. The few Indians who escaped in this battle, reached the western side of the Mississippi, only to fall a prey to the tomahawks of their enemies, the Sioux. The loss of the Indians was about a hundred and fifty killed, thirty-nine women and children taken prisoners. The American loss did not exceed ten killed and fifteen wounded. Soon after this fatal battle, Black Hawk and the prophet Wa- bokieshiek, who had escaped into the country of the Sioux, were captured by two chiefs belonging to the Winnebagoes, and deliv ered as prisoners to the Indian agent at Prairie du Chien. The prisoners were all conducted to Fort Barracks, a few miles below St. Louis. Soon after, Gen. Scott arrived at Eock Island from the east, and made some investigations into the causes which led to the Black Hawk War, from which it was made to appear that the whole contest might have been avoided. On the twenty-first of September, Gen. Scott and Gov. Eey- nolds concluded a treaty with the Winnebagoes and the Sacs and Foxes. For the faithful performance of the provisions of this treaty on the part of the Indians, it was stipulated that Black Hawk, his two sons, the Prophet and six other chiefs of the hostile band, should be retained as hostages during the pleasure of the President. All the other prisoner j were set at liberty. The hostages were confined in Fort Barracks, and put in irons. " We were now confined," says the old chief, Black Hawk, " to Thl Black Hawk War. 279 the baraacks, and forced to wear the ball and chain. This was extremely mortifying and altogether useless. Was the White Beaver (Gen. Atkinson) afraid that I would break out of his bar racks and run away, or was he ordered to inflict this punishment upon me? If I had taken him prisoner, upon the field of battle, I would not have wounded his feelings so much by such treat ment, knowing that a brave war chief would prefer death to dis honor. But I do not blame the White Beaver for the course he pursued. It is the custom among white soldiers, and, I suppose, was a part of his duty. " The time dragged heavily and gloomily along throughout the winter, although the White Beaver did everything in his power to render us comfortable. Having been accustomed, throughout a long life, to roam through the forests, to come and go at liberty, confinement under any such circumstances could not be less than torture. " We passed away the time making pipes, until spring, when we were visited by the agent, trader and interpreter, from Eock Island, Keokuk and several chiefs and braves of our nation, and my wife and daughter. I was rejoiced to see the two latter, and spent my time very agreeably with them and my people, as long as they remained." Keokuk made exertions to obtain the release of Black Hawk, pledging himself to be responsible for his good conduct. But while the rival chief was endeavoring to effect this, an order arrived from the secretary of war to have the prisoners sent to Washington city. Accordingly they set out, and reached the national capital in the latter part of April, 1833. They were im mediately sent to Fortress Monroe, " there to remain until the conduct of their nation was such as to justify their being set at liberty." The chiefs were much dissatisfied with this part of their reception, and remonstrated bitterly. The Prophet said : " We expected to return immediately to our people. The war in which we have been involved was occasioned by our attempting to raise provisions on our own lands, or where we thought we had a right to do so. We have lost many of our people, as well as the whites. Our tribes and families are now exposed to the attacks of our enemies, the Sioux and Menominees. We hope, therefore, to be permitted to return home to take care of them." 2S0 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Black Hawk concluded his complaint by saying : " We did not expect to conquer the whites. No ; they had too many horses, too many men. I took up the hatchet, for my part, to revenge injuries which my people could no longer endure. Had I borne them longer without striking, my people would have said Black Hawk is a woman. He is too old to be a chief. He is no Sac. These reflections caused me to raise the war-whoop. I say no more of it; it is known to you. Keokuk once was here, and when he wished to return to his home, you were willing. Black Hawk . expects that, like Keokuk, we shall be permitted to return, too." The president assured them that their women and children should be protected against their enemies, and that as soon as he was satisfied that peace was restored to the frontiers, he would set them at liberty. It was on the twenty-sixth of April that the chiefs entered Fortress Monroe, at Old Point Comfort, where they remained until the fourth of June, when they were released. When about to depart, Black Hawk waited upon the commandant of the fort, and said : " Brother, I have come on my own part and in behalf of my companions to bid you farewell. Our great father has at length been pleased to permit us to return to our hunting grounds. We have buried the tomahawk, and the sound of the rifle will here after only bring death to the deer and the buffalo. Brother, you have treated the red men very kindly. Your squaws have made them presents, and you have given them plenty to eat and drink. The memory of your friendship will remain until the Great Spirit says it is time for Black Hawk to sing his death song. Brother, your houses are as numerous as the leaves of the trees, and your young warriors like the sand upon the shore of the big lake that rolls before us. The red man hath but few houses and few warriors, but the red man has a heart which throbs as warmly as the heart of his white brother. The Great Spirit has given us our hunting grounds, and the skin of the deer which we kill there is his favorite, for its color is white, and this is the emblem of peace. This hunting dress and these feathers of the eagle are white. Ac cept them,' my brother. I have given one like this to the White Otter. Accept it as a memorial of Black Hawk. When he is far The Black Hawk War. 281 away this will serve to remind you of him. May the Great Spirit bless you and your children. Farewell." On the 5th of June, Black Hawk and his five companions left the fortress under the charge of Maj. John Garland, of the United States army. Before leaving the place they visited Norfolk and the navy yard at Gosport. They were taken on board of some of the war ships, and Black Hawk expressed a desire to see the chiefs who commanded them. In the journey to the west, Black Hawk was conducted through the principal cities of the east, and in every place to which he was taken he received great attention from the officials and from the people at large. Fort Armstrong had been chosen as the proper place for the ceremonies of the liberation of Black Hawk and his party. Its central position enabled the commander to assemble the surround ing Indians at short notice, runners being sent out for that pur pose. The first to arrive was the friendly Keokuk and his band. He ascended the Mississippi by water, and led the van with two large canoes lashed side by side, handsomely decorated, with a canopy erected over them, " beneath which sat the chief and his three wives, with the American flag waving over them. More than twenty canoes followed the chieftain, each containing from four to eight of his warriors, whose shouts and songs swept over the transparent waters of the Mississippi and were echoed from shore to shore." The little fleet passed slowly up the river, opposite the camp of the captives, and landed on the west side of the river. At this place Keokuk and his party spent several hours in arranging their dress, painting and equipping themselves for the occasion. When this important duty had been completed thej' crossed the river. Beaching the bank the great Keokuk turned to his followers, and said : " The Great Spirit has sent our brother back; let us shake hands with him in friendship." He then approached Black Hawk, followed by his warriors. The old chief was seated in front of his temporary lodge, surrounded by his followers, and appeared to be deeply affected by the scene. Now the rivals met face to face — Keokuk in his glory and Black Hawk in disgrace, fallen, forsaken ! But the proud ruler did not exult in his well-merited triumph. Approaching the old chief, Keokuk stretched forth his hand in friendship, which Black Hawk 282 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. grasped with a degree of cordiality. Keokuk and his followers then took seats, which was followed by a long silence. The pipe was lighted and passed from hand to hand, followed by friendly sentiments expressed by both parties. At length Keokuk arose and shook hands with the fallen chief, saying, " We will return to-morrow." He then recrossed the river to his own camp. On the following day, the grand council for the liberation of the captives was held. "It presented," says Mr. Conclin, "the novel spectacle of a chief, compelled by a third power, to acknowl edge the authority of a rival, and formally descend from the rank which he had long sustained among his people. Fort Armstrong presented a commodious room for the ceremonies of the day, and it was fitted up for the occasion. About ten o'clock in the fore noon, Keokuk and one hundred followers recrossed the river and proceeded in martial array to the garrison. They were conducted into the council room and shown the seats which they were to occupy. Keokuk was seated with Pashepahow (the Stabber) on one side, Wapellar (the Little Prince) on the other — the former a chief of the Sacs, the latter of the Foxes. The remainder of his band took their seats in the rear, and maintained, throughout the ceremony, profound silence." ' In a few minutes Black Hawk and his followers came into the council. As they entered, Keokuk and the two chiefs by his side rose and greeted them. The old chief and his associates were seated directly opposite Keokuk. Black Hawk was accom panied by his son, Nasinewiskuk, and both appeared to be dis pleased. They had, the day previous, offered great objections to the council, saying it was altogether unnecessary and would be very painful to them, and it was now with the greatest reluc tance that they came into it. For several minutes a profound silence reigned over the assem bly, at the end of which Maj. Garland rose ancl addressed the council. He said he was pleased to see the Sacs and Foxes greet Black Hawk with friendship, and he believed that hereafter they would live in peace. At this point Maj. Garland caused the speech delivered to Black Hawk at Baltimore by the president to be again interpreted to him. This ended, Keokuk rose, and after shaking hands with those around him, said : The Black Hawk War. 283 " I have listened to the talk of our great father. It is true we pledged our honor, with those of our young braves, for the libera tion of our friends. We thought much of it ; our councils were long ; their wives and children were in our thoughts ; when we talked of them- our hearts were full. Their wives and children came to see us, which made us feel like women ; but we were men. The words which we sent to our great father were good ; he spoke like the father of children. The Great Spirit made his heart big in council. We received our brothers in friendship ; our hearts were good towards them. They once listened to bad counsel ; now their ears are closed. I give my hand to them ; when they shake it they shake the hands of all I I will shake hands with them, and then I am done." Maj. Garland again rose and said that the president, their great father, would hereafter recognize Keokuk as the principal chief of the Sac and Fox nations, and that he wished and expected that Black Hawk would conform to his (rival's) councils. All unfriendly feelings between them must be buried, and the band of Black Hawk must be hereafter merged in that of Keokuk. And just here I cannot resist from making a single comment : Was it not enough that Black Hawk, whose once powerful band of warriors had been shot down by American soldiers, had been left without any followers, that he had suffered the shame of a long, and, in some respects, merciless confinement? Why crush out the last spark of pride within him? On hearing the words of Maj. Garland, the old chief, who had suffered his captivity and imprisonment with fortitude, lost all control of himself and became deeply excited. The great spirit which had borne him through the daring struggles of his great war, and made his name terrible wherever it was spoken, sud denly returned and burst forth with great violence. He leaped to his feet, trembling with anger, his eyes sparkling with rage, and exclaimed : " I am a man ! an old -man ! I will not conform to the councils of any one ! I will act for myself ! None shall govern me ! I am old ; my hair is gray. I once gave councils to my young men. Am I to conform to others? I shall soon go to the Great Spirit, where I shall be at rest. What I said to our great father, I say again. I will always listen to him. I am done." 2S4 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. This speech created great excitement in the council, and the interpreter was directed to explain to Black Hawk that the presi dent had only requested him to listen to the counsel of Keokuk. But the old man was displeased and would make no reply. Keokuk approached him and whispered, " why da you speak so before the white men ; I will speak for you ; you trembled. You did not mean what you said." Keokuk then took his place, and remarked to the council : " Our brother has again come to us, has spoken, but he spoke in wrath. His tongue was forked. He spoke not like a man — a Sac. He knew his words were bad ; he trembled like the oak whose roots have been wasted away by many rains. He is old — what he said, let us forget. He says he did not mean it ; he wishes it forgotten. I have spoken for him. What I have said are his own words, not mine. Let us say he spoke in council to-day — that his words were good. I have spoken." Several other speeches were made, after which Maj. Garland rose and told Black Hawk that he was at liberty to go where he pleased ; that the people of the United States, as well as himself, were pleased with the uniform good conduct of all the captives while among them; that they were convinced their hearts were good, but they had listened to bad councils. The major, in conclusion, said he hoped that peace and harmony would long exist between them. Black Hawk rose in reply, and made a short and appropriate speech, asking the reporters to draw a line over the speech he had made. He said he did not mean it. The council was then broken up. In the evening of the same day, Maj. Garland invited the prin cipal chiefs to his own quarters, and, after treating them to cham pagne, all indulged in speeches. Black Hawk, who was the last one who spoke, said : " I feel that I am an old man ; once I could speak, but now I have but little to say ; to-day we met many of our brothers ; we were glad to see them. I have listened to what my brothers have said ; their hearts are good ; they have been like Sacs since I left them ; they have taken care of my wife and children, who had no wigwam ; I thank them for it ; the Great Spirit knows that I thank them. Before the sun gets behind the hills to-morrow, I shall see them : I want to see them. When I left them I ex- The Black Hawk War. 285 pected soon to return ; I told our great father when in Washing ton, that I would listen to the counsels of Keokuk. I shall soon be far away. I shall have no village, no band. I shall live alone. What I said in council to-day, I wish forgotten. If it has been put on paper, I wish a mark drawn over it ; I did not mean it. Now we are alone, let us say we will forget it. Say to our great father and Gov. Cass, that I will listen to them. Many years ago I met Gov. Cass in councils, far across the prai ries, to the rising sun. His counsels were good ; my ears were closed; I listened to the great father across the waters. My father listened to him whose band was large. My band was once large ; now I have no band. I and my son, and all the party, thank our great father for what he has done. He is old ; I am old ; we shall soon go to the Great Spirit, where we shall rest. He sent us through his great villages. We saw many of the white people, who treated us with kindness. We thank them ; we thank you and Mr. Sprague for coming with us. Youi road was long and crooked. We never saw so many white men be fore. When you were with us, we felt as though we had some friends among them. We felt safe ; you knew them all. When you come upon the Mississippi again, you shall come to my wig wam; I have now none. On your road home, you will pass where my village was once ; no one lives there now ; all are gone. I give you my hand ; we may never meet again. I shall long remember you. The Great Spirit will be with you and your wives and children. Before the sun rises I shall go to my family ; my son will be here to see you before we go. I will shake hands with my brothers here, and then I am done." On the following morning Black Hawk crossed the river and wasted no time in reaching his wife. The other Indians also repaired to their vil lages. In addition to this, it will be proper to add that in September, 1838, while on his way to Eock Island to receive his portion of the annual payment, he took a heavy cold, which resulted in a fatal attack of bilious fever, which terminated his life on the third of October, after an illness of only a few days. His wife, who was devotedly attached to him, mourned deeply during his sick ness. She said on the day before he died, " he is getting old, he 286 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. must die. Monotah calls him home." After his death, he was dressed in the uniform presented to him by the president while in Washington, and buried. " The grave was six feet deep, and of the usual length, situated upon a little eminence about fifty yards from his wigwam. The body was placed in the middle of the grave, in a sitting posture, upon a seat constructed for the purpose. On his left side, the cane given him by Henry Clay, was placed upright, with his right hand resting upon it. Many of the old warrior's trophies were placed in the grave, and some Indian garments, together with his favorite weapons." CHAPTER XXIV. TERRITORIAL HISTORIES — IOWA AND MINNESOTA. low A, in 1838, was ready to form a territorial government and thus to take the first step toward a place in the union. In 1838, the legislature of Wisconsin convened at Burlington, on the first of June, and continued in session till that portion of the territory west of the Mississippi- was cut off from Wisconsin, and formed a separate government. There was an act passed by congress on the 12th of June, 1838, by which it was provided, " that from and after the third of July next, all that part of the territory of Wisconsin that lies west of the Mississippi river, and west of a line drawn due north from the head waters or sources of the Mis sissippi to the territorial line, was, for temporary purposes, consti tuted a separate territorial government, and called Iowa." This law made provisions, that there should be " nominated and by and with the advice and consent of the senate, appointed by the president of the United States, a governor, secretary, chief justice and two associate judges, a United States attorney and marshal. The governor was appointed for three years, and the other officers for a term of four years. The governor was re quired to reside in the territory, was the commander-in-chief of the militia, was rquired to perform the duties. The idea which has been carried into operation in lieu of all these disagreeable contingencies, draws the water for the supply of the city from the lake, two miles from the shore, and the stream flows as an underground river, through a tunnel five feet two inches high, by five feet wide. The crib which supplies the pressure and directs the stream into the tunnel is capable of sending fifty-seven millions of gallons daily to the populous city, where it is conducted and forced by powerful machinery into a tower one hundred and fifty feet high, with a cylinder three feet in diameter, after ascending and descending which it is capable, by its own force, of supplying the highest building in Chicago. The proposition was novel, and its execution has fully warranted the promises of the projectors, and the expense was only about $2,500,000, a mere bagatelle to the city, which, in 1834, deliber ated long and painfully before resolving to procure a loan of $60, to expend in improvements. In the year 1865, an improvement was effected in the canal, which, at a cost of $3,000,000, lowered 442 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. the bed for twenty-six miles, to six feet below the low water level of lake Michigan, securing a stream of lake water at all seasons, instead of the chocolate colored abomination which had stagnated in the channel for many years, reminding every literate passer by of the stench plagued city of Cologne. The canal now empties itself into the rivers Des Plaines and Illinois, and the stream which has served its apprenticeship to commerce in Chicago finds its way to the Mississippi, where a still greater tide, serving the same master, carries the argosies of a nation upon its bosom. The ca nal bisected the city, and at every second block, the stream nearly two hundred feet wide on an average, is crossed by swing bridges which alternately carried the traffic of the streets, and then upon due warning turn round into a line with the canal, to permit vessels to pass upon their way. The sound of the challenging steam whistle, and the warning bell, which caused pedestrians and equestrians to pause by the canal banks for an indefinite period, became so great a nuisance to the hurrying crowd, that two tun nels were constructed under the canal, the first connecting the west and south portions of the city at Washington street, the sec ond connecting the north with the south at La Salle street, so that the three divisions of the vast city can now remain in com munication all hours of the day and night, irrespective of the stream of commerce which flows above the heads of the bustling metropolis. The main streets were laid out in the original platting of Chi cago very wide indeed, vast boulevards rather than streets. A visitor from London, knowing something of the " blocks " which occur in the streets of that metropolis, when traffic is arrested by some accident in Fleet street, or near Temple Bar, or who 're members the narrow rues, which used to invite insurrectionary gatherings and barricades in Paris, before the Rue Rivoli and other like improvements destroyed such dangerous facilities, found in Chicago a wonderful extension upon old world ideas, in such respects, and the advantage is found now, when street rail ways traverse the main thoroughfares, and still leave room for four teams to pa^s, two on either side without dangerous crowd ing. Had the streets been as narrow in Chicago, when the great fire occurred, as they are* now in some of the cities on the conti- Principal Cities of Illinois. 443 nent of Europe, where the upper stories in the poorer quarters are so close as that men shake hands from opposite windows, the loss of life must have been as terrific as the loss of property in that conflagration was stupendous. Many attempts were made in the way of street improvement, before the Nicholson pave ment was adopted, in and after the year 1856, affording the cleanest and least noisy of all methods for the transport of traffic and travel through the streets of a great city. The device is so well understood, now, that it is hardly necessary to say that wooden blocks laid side by side constitute the roadway, were it not for the desire to rescue from oblivion, and to hand down to a remote posterity, the joke of a profane newspaper man, who said on that occasion, that : " The city fathers laid their heads together, and made wooden pavement for Chicago." Up to the year 1870, the city had extended until it was six miles long, and rather more than three miles broad, but along the lake shore it was still more rapidly pushing its lines, and fully ten miles of frontage were more or less populated from Hyde Park to Lake View. All the spaces named had been filled up by gradual and rapid accretions of dwellings and business houses. Many cities live on paper for years, before the promising squares and parks become more than promises, but Chicago could have said with "Topsy " that "she sposed shegrowed," and it was not until her gigantic dimensions compelled attention to health and recre ation, that parks and public reserves for the several quarters of the city were provided connected by avenues and boulevards, such as are now found intersecting the thronged streets of the ever widening city. The parks were late in realization, but they are immensely valuable to Chicago and its environs. Chicago in its earlier days was almost entirely built of wood. There were no quarries in the muddy banks of its almost stagnant river, from which building materials could be obtained, and con sequently when the population multiplied itself by six in every ten years of its early growth, and almost up to the year 1870, still multiplied its total by three, in every decade, it was neces sary to have recourse to the pineries of the north, for lumber, with which to house the people. Most of the houses were of a very fragile structure, adapted to give the largest appearance with 444 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. the least possible strength and capacity for comfort. These " bal loon houses " were so light that when better buildings were de sired, on the sites which they occupied, they could be and were removed further afield, to give place to other premises, a trifle more substantial, still of wood, and considered as only temporary. The city was known as "shanty town" for many years. Per sons were allowed to build their valueless houses on the school section in the heart of the city for the consideration of a small rental, their rooms were divided by such partitions as would as sist the spread of a fire, the public buildings were roofed with shingles, and even where premises of a better class had been erected, they were connected with other edifices of an inferior con struction, without the least regard to safety, and the number and extent of wooden cornices which were everywhere apparent, in vited the destroying element. It would be difficult to find any where an assemblage of corporate officials, more entirely obtuse than those who made ready the course for the flames which came to sweep away the good and the bad together. Still it is wonder ful, that such rapid growth should have been so long preserved from dire calamity, considering the soil on which Chicago rose, the temptation to use cheap and inflammable materials, and the recklessness which very generally manifests itself in young com munities, brought together from every point of the compass. While the cholera was prevalent, men had no time to stop to con sider what kind of residences they would occupy, there was a race to escape immediate prostration, and any shelter was better than none, in the presence of death. Then came the struggle for wealth which for a time kept men just as oblivious of the value of home comfort. Except in California, there had been no city so rapid in its development, and that speed rendered due care for health and safety almost an impossibility. In the year 1830, there was nothing on the site of Chicago ex cept an Indian agency, directed and controlled from Washington, if directed and controlled at all, and connected with that estab lishment, more or less directly, there were just seventy persons forming a nucleus out of and around which the city grew. Before the fire, that number had increased to more than three hundred and thirty-four thousand, within the lifetime of one gen- Principal Cities of Illinois. 445 eration, from the day that settlement actually commenced. There had been an unsurpassable basis on which to build a city, refer ring now, not to the soil on which buildings were erected, but having reference to the position, as commanding shipments from a broad area of agricultural lands, dotted with farms, villages, and cities, stretching south and west from Chicago, and in the main, depending upon the city for supplies of all kinds, as well as ex pecting to find here a market for its variety and wealth of pro duce. From this point speedy transportation was possible to all parts of this continent and to the ports of Europe, even before railroads were multiplied as we now see them, hence the proverb, " all roads lead to Eome," which dealt with a time of universal conquest, during the centuries when the Eoman legions were roadmakers as well as soldiers, came in the northwest to be ap plied to the rapidly expanding metropolis ; an'd all roads really led to Chicago. The prairies were laughing with harvests in every section of the country, and all the produce, beyond what was demanded for home consumption, found its way to the city. Byron said : " One morning I awoke and found myself famous." That was the case many years ago with Chicago, but its fame will endure longer than that of the hero of Missolonghi, and the demon of Mrs. Stowe. The canal from Chicago to La Salle, the head of steamboat navigation on the Illinois river, which was opened for traffic in 1848, made the city the best outlet of the Mississippi valley; and the little bayou of Lake Michigan, on which Chicago was located, combined all the advantages that could be desired, for the site, upon which was to be transacted the transfer and ex change of commodities from all parts of the northwest, conveyed over the waters of the lake, or to be so conveyed, to distant ports in all parts of the world. Eailroads came in due course to sup plement the lake in building up the greatness of Chicago. The Chicago and Northwestern railroad came first, but then known as the Galena and Chicago Union, which was opened to the Fox river, a distance of forty miles, in 1850. The result of that trial announced that the multiplication of railroads would convert the whole of Illinois into a vast garden, sustaining an immense pop ulation, dependent upon the produce of her fruitful valleys. From that date, numerous competing companies have striven with 446 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. each other for the support which the merchants of Chicago can give or withhold, until it is hardly possible for men going from New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, or elsewhere on this continent, to India, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the Pacific, to avoid a visit to the metropolis of the northwest en route; and every man visiting this country from afar looks upon Chicago as one of the points of interest which must not be avoided ; one of those places " Which not to know, argues one's self unknown." By and by, in a not very distant future, the whole passenger traffic, and very nearly all the more valuable merchandise, from Europe, intended for the other hemisphere, will be sent across this continent, coming by fast steamers over the Atlantic, traversing this vast area by the iron road, with a few days break of journey, to rest and see Chicago, then onward through Omaha to San Fran cisco, to cross the Pacific, by boats equal to the Cunard line,Jand- ing the passenger and his valuable effects in "Far Cathay," or upon the gold fields of Australia, with a saving of time equal to at least one month on every journey, and a gain of comfort, as well as of time, which cannot be assessed in coin. The future of Chicago will see wonders in this, respect, and hundreds of thous ands of emigrants of the better class, making their way to the ex pensive lands of Australia, where one acre costs more than five in this country, and does not give better results, will conclude to rest here for the business of life, investing their capital in prose cuting our enterprises, and assisting to build up the greatest na tion that has ever existed on this globe. The lake navigation which is available for Chicago and for the cities and districts that find here their port of shipment, may be said to regulate railroad freights and travel over all parts of the continent, although such companies as the Michigan Central ; the Chicago and Michigan Lake Shore ; the Indianapolis, Peru and Chicago ; the Lake Shore and Southern Michigan ; the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago ; the Pittsburgh, , Cincinnati and St. Louis ; the Louisville, New Albany and Chicago ; the Chicago, Danville and Vincennes ; the Illinois Central ; the Chicago and Alton; the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy ; the Chicago and Principal Cities of Illinois. 4A1 Iowa ; the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific, and the Chicago and Northwestern, with their eight lines under one supreme direction, make their termini and stations at this point, con necting the citj', by their several routes, with Pittsburgh, 468 miles away; with Indianapolis, at a distance of 161 miles; with New York, 958 miles away on the Atlantic; with San Francisco, 2,407 miles away on the Pacific, and with Omaha, en route, at 493 miles distance. The lake and canal traffic of Chicago connects the city with every port on lake Michigan, and through the Wel land canal, with all the world. With the Erie Canal and Hudson river at her service, she can send her produce and her people to New York, over a route which every traveler should desire to see. By the Illinois and Michigan canal, she has easy access to the Mississippi valley and along that course to the gulf of Mexico. Her steamboats and other vessels connect her with Canada in a commerce so large, that in the year 1873, there were 666 vessels, with a tonnage of 93,919 tons, constantly engaged in the traffic. The immense trade thus indicated, by quotations from her busi ness intercourse with the Dominion of Canada alone, has been the growth of a very few years, as we have seen. In the year 1838, seventy-eight bushels of wheat were sent east.from this city; in the year 1845, wheat and flour, equivalent to one million bushels of wheat, were shipped ; and in the year when the canal before mentioned was opened, in 1848, three millions were sent. Bail- roads were advancing this way in 1852, and the results of such stimulation were seen in six millions of bushels of grain being exported, which had increased to twenty-one millions in 1856 ; and four years later, in 1860, the year preceding the outbreak of the great rebellion her shipments reached thirty-one millions. During the succeeding five years, the results in bushels annually shipped, increased from forty-six millions to fifty-six millions, reaching in 1866, the enormous aggregate of nearly sixty-five million five hundred thousand bushels. To continue the quota tion of figures could serve no useful purpose ; such growth as is here typified must be seen to be understood. In every branch of business the like evidence of expansion was visible. The trade in live stock increased in like proportion daily, and had done so ever since the year 1848. The receipts of cattle, which 448 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. had showed a gross total of 48,524 head in the year 1857, had, in the year 1870, increased to 532,964 head ; and live hogs, which had been received in 1857, to the number of 200,000, had, in the year 1870, increased to 1,693,158, besides 260,000 or more slaughtered carcasses sent from the interior. The packing of hogs in Chicago, for the winter "1870-71, showed a total of 919,197 head against 500,066 head packed in Cincinnati. Other items of trade and commerce go on in the same gigantic proportion. In 1848, the lumber trade in this city showed a total of 60,000,000 feet; in 1870, the trade had increased to 1,000,000,000 feet, and since that date the increment has been enormous. The manu facturing interests in the city, in the year 1871, showed a capital invested of about $40,000,000, producing annually about $70,- 000,000, and supporting from its wages fund about sixty thous and souls ; and since that date the vast rush of capital from all parts of the world to rebuild aud to renew the life of Chicago has. extended all such industries to an extent which forbids all attempts to estimate results. There was and there still is in this expanding city, an amount of intellectual development and art culture, which might hardly have been expected to coexist with so much attention to the " main chance," commercially and other wise. Chicago has seen reduced to cinders, what might have been a mine of wealth, artistically considered, in many cities, but she is rebuilding her museums, extending her art galleries, and her annual exposition of industry shows her activity and her resources greater than at any former period in her history. The relics of her fire, which are now distributed over the world in almost every museum of curiosities, would, if they were col lected in one spot, with brief addenda, showing from what cities, what kingdoms and what persons they had been brought together, supply the most singular and suggestive memoranda of the civi lized and semicivilized world ever collected in one spot; and prove beyond question, that the fame of Chicago, even in her misfortune, is more extensively diffused than that of any other city, ancient or modern, on this globe. There was a time when it was truthfully said that Chicago was a good place in which to make money but not a good place in which to spend it ; not because it resembled the modern representative of the ancient Principal Cities of Illinois. 449 city of Jericho, where the most extravagant man could only squander $200 per year, but because, with all the opportunities for extravagance which could be indulged ad libitum, there was not the tone of good society, nor the openings for true culture within the limits of the great city. That statement is true no longer. Artists of the highest merit make their home in Chicago, and the fruits of their labors command the highest rewards ; not merely because they are reputed to be great painters or sculptors, and have become the fashion, but because there is a fair average of cultivated men and women in the city whose judgments have won sway in the community, and have procured for true art in its highest developments an appreciative audience. The press of Chicago has, at this time, engaged upon its several departments, men who could command positions on any of the leading papers in Europe, or in any of the foremost journals in America. That fact speaks volumes for the newspaper press which can reward such talent, and secure the ear of an extended and intelligent constituency, which will repay an outlay so praiseworthy. Then, again, the pulpits of Chicago are filled by men, many of whom are worthy of the ear of the whole world, so commanding are their talents, so wide is, their philanthropy, so broad are their views • on all the great questions which agitate the foremost minds of this peculiarly intellectual age. The character of the pulpits in any- community tells the story of mental culture in the people. The mere dullard and Jhe formalist who will thoughtlessly, or with a bigot's zeal, repeat the creed of a sect, will serve in many com munities, winning the praise of "groundlings," as Shakspere terms them, by such antics as cannot fail to "make the judicious grieve;" but in a city like Chicago, where the great unchurched crowd must needs be reached, if ministrations are to be made use ful, another type of man is demanded ; one who can read the fore most thought of the age with a glance of the brightest intelli gence, and find the better than golden key which unites science with religion. There are many such men in the various churches in Chicago, where preachings are not the dry and tasteless matter under which congregations sleep, but such living utterances as were addressed by St. Paul to the thinking crowd in Athens, in that day when he won their attention to Christ as to a newer and 29 450 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. higher philosophy than ever theretofore had been heard by the Areopagites. When men speak to men from pulpit or platform the language of common sense, they are tolerably sure to be re ceived among the hest of their hearers at their full value ; hence the effectiveness of the church of Chicago, and the high tone, ever progressing which may1 be heard in the pulpit. In that fact the aesthetical development of the metropolitan city appears more than in any other single feature that can be named. Most of the churches in Chicago are fine, many of them are very beautiful specimens of architecture, but after the manner of modern times ; the chief excellence is looked for, not in the lesson of beauty and magnificence conveyed by stone and cement, but in the teachings of the great exponent of the truth. There are not now such en thusiastic followers of any man as were they who followed Peter Abelard to the banks of the Arduze, when he established " The Paraclete ;" but the modern preacher is aided in his work by more intellecual appreciation, which demands and procures a better general tone in the mind of the well defended and well cared for minister. Abelard was compelled by his enemies to wander from place to place, pleading even for life itself, because he had dared to utter his thoughts concerning the highest interests of mankind ; but no St. Bernard can endanger the life of the modern thinker, about whom the masses have encamped and set up their taber nacle ; nor is it necessary that any Abbot of Cluny should stand between the genuine soul and his antagonists. The spirit of the age suffices. The schools established by a community bespeak the tone of its best men and women, the ruling sentiment. In the year 1871, there were 80,280 children of school age in Chicago, of whom only a little more than one- third, or 28,174, were in average at tendance, although one-half, or rather more, 40,832, were enrolled as scholars ; 'but the tone of society which provided the available facilities, and which governs Chicago in that respect, will never rest content until the entire population avails itself of the advan tages which are offered free of special and individual cost to every child. Besides the public schools proper, there were at that time numerous other establishments devoted to tuition in various grades ; the army of public instruction being apportioned in one Principal Cities of Illinois. 451 normal school containing 587 pupils, presided over in their several departments by twenty-three teachers ; six evening schools, ac commodating 1,232 scholars with forty-eight teachers ; twenty- three grammar schools, containing 21,581 students, with a direct ing force of four hundred and twenty-eight teachers ; and fifteen primary schools with 6,593 boys and girls in -attendance, under the care of one hundred and twenty-three teachers. The uni versity of Chicago was first opened to the public in the year 1858, and, in the year 1871, there were fourteen professors and 277 stu dents occupying one of the most elegant and commodious build ings devoted to such purposes in the whole northwest. Connected with that establishment, the Dearborn observatory contains one of the largest and best constructed telescopes possessed by any institution in this section of the country. The academy of sci ences, which suffered severely in the great conflagration, but is now once more in good working order, was organized in 1856, and incorporated nine years later ; and its collection, taken altogether, is found immensely valuable by the student of nature who is de sirous to apply his book knowledge to the animals, minerals, and botanical specimens, upon which the best thinkers base their speculations. The historical society, organized in 1856, contains a library of over 100,000 volumes, well catalogued and arranged for reference, and in addition thereto, valuable documents which will prove very serviceable to the historian in future times. The law institute contains seven thousand volumes, mostly legal and technical, but in all cases just such works as may, if well used, constitute1 our young men jurists of civil and common law in any community in the world. The library of the Y. M. A. suffered terribly in the fire, but the perseverance of its officers ancl members has not only reinstated the society in its old usefulness, but many offshoots have since been established, and are now in good working order, giving reading rooms, well warmed and comfortably provided in every way, for the use of any persons desirous of such accommo dation, from an early hour in the morning until late at night. Only those who have realized the solitude which is possible for the friendless in great cities can appreciate such provision. There are three medical colleges in Chicago, the " Eush Medi- 452 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. cal College," the "Chicago Medical College," and the "Hahne mann Medical College, " the last named being devoted to the study and practice of Homeopathy, upon the principle that " like cures like," stated in the maxim, " similia similibus curantur" an idea which must have procured ingress, ages ago, into the brain pan of the toper, who first prescribed for himself " a hair of the dog that bit him," as the cure for a drunken fit. The advantages which arise from such institutions need not be enforced. The man who is least inclined to indorse dogmatic allopathy is well aware that to allopathic practitioners, he is indebted for the discoveries of Harvey and Jenner, and for the medical jurisprudence of Hunter, with many other steps slowly won in the art of alleviating human suffering, since the days when the stump of the amputated limb was thrust into boiling pitch, as a terrible expedient to prevent the patient bleeding to death, and when the ailments incidental to some petty derangement of the digestive apparatus were looked upon as proofs of diablerie and witchcraft. The disciples of the globule may have more faith than is warranted by hard fact and practical experience in their infinitesimal medicaments, but their system of study is certainly revealing, more fully than ever before has fallen within our range of notice, the power which little causes may exert in changing the tone and current of a life, and in the same ratio, the likelihood that simple alteratives, wisely used, may assist the forces of nature to throw off the pressure of impending disease. Very clearly the homeopath ist is less likely to injure his patient by the presence of drugs in his system, than his allo pathic brother, and in the end, when every student shall have done his best, it is highly probable that the happy mean will be reached by a class of eclectics, who will take for the benefit of their clientelle, the advantages revealed by every system, combining the whole into an enlightened practice, which will be to the old pharmacopoeia what the polished marble is to the quarry from which it has been hewed. Theology, which used, in the era of Duns Scotus, to be almost the whole learning of the world, is now narrowed down very con siderably ; bnt its professors are wiser than of yore, and with their abated pretensions, have come also to greater usefulness. This branch of study is well supported by the many sided hu- Principal Cities of Illinois. 453 manity of Chicago. The Theological Seminary is an institution of great promise, and it flourishes beyond the modest expectations of its projectors. There is a fine chapel, a good library and ap propriate lecture rooms, which, at their proper times, are occupied by the professors in charge of the several departments. The Baptists and Presbyterians have similar institutions, which serve the purposes of their founders admirably, and are building up habits of thought among the students, which must eventually prove of vast service to the world. Turning now from the several churches, colleges and semina ries, the museums of art and science, the libraries of the several associations, and all the machinery of arduous schooling, we come to the best form in which instruction can be given to society. When the Greeks were laboring upward toward the highest art culture the world had ever dreamt of, they made the theatres and the sports of all classes, conducive to the ends in view. Aristophanes may have mainly aimed at causing laughter, but the stage on which his writings were presented had previously been enriched by the works of the great masters of tragedy, and it was part of the same system of education, that the Olympian and Isthmian games should be interspersed with the competition between poets and prose writers, such as find favor to this day in Wales, and wherever the Welsh are sufficiently numerous to estab lish their national eisteddfodd. The young men who contended for the prizes which were given for physical beauty and agility in the country of which Byron sadly wrote : " 'Tis Greece, but living Greece no more " — were witnesses of such trials of skill as have resulted in giving Homer to the world, whether from one brain and stylus, or from many. The sports in their proper relation, were of as much im portance as the intellectual demand for " some new thing," which we, in our sadder and more sombre civilization, have toned down into a perpetual commentary on the weather, and an unwise ab negation of enjoyment, among classes of men who aim to be the teachers of the generation. The player was for many years among our ancestors, a vagabond, and the laws tended to make him conform to the description. When brave Oliver Cromwell ruled the destinies of England, it was dangerous for a theatrical 454 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. manager to attempt a show ; partly of course the rigor of that time was due to the general disloyalty of actors, to the Puritan regime, but the disloyalty was also in part a consequence of such rigor, and in any case the men who played, and the- audience that at tended, were in danger of being raided by troops and officials, and carried off to sit in the stocks, to stand in the pillory, and to endure such other punishments as the harsh goodness of the time could suggest. When John Philip Kemble, one of the founders of an illustrious family of players, walked the streets of London in the last century, he was occasionally howled at by children, who uttered in their simple way the blame an d derision, with which their parents and older associates talked, of the " diverting vagabonds," among whom Shakspere, Ben. Jonson, and Phil lip Messinger, with many other illustrious presonages, stand re corded. " He's only a player," pleaded a young sweep when his master in the soot bag profession blamed him for throwing stones at Kemble, " He's only a player." But the gentleman in black was shocked at the want of charity in his disciple, and he chided him thus: "Never mind, if he is only a player. You let him alone. We are all born, but we're not buried, and you don't know what you may be before you die." There is a change in the status of players now, as we discover when men like Vanden- hoff, Forrest, Macready, Sothern, and women like Miss Cushman, come before the footlights. But there are yet many who are so unwise as to disparage their efforts, or if that be not the fact, stiil to fear to be seen in attendance at theatres, where the best lessons of the day are given, in the language suited to the hour, and gener ally with a grace and perspicuity of word and action, from which the wisest might learn. The great English orator, the Earl of Chatham, and his son, the equally famous William Pitt, studied elocution under Garrick. The Emperor Napoleon was the pupil of the great tragedian Talma. The Scotch church in the latter part of the last century, when the annual assembly convened in Edinburgh, or Glasgow, used always to adjourn early in the after noon, to afford members an opportunity to attend the theaters at night ; and in France, although the church, with a persistent big otry, refused to allow actors and play writers to be buried in con secrated ground, yet such men as Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Massillon Principal Cities of Illinois. 455 and La Eue were glad to avail themselves of the lessons which the best players could give, to make their sermons more effective. Apropos to the intolerance which denied to Voltaire and other.s, whose sin was play writing, the rite of burial in consecrated ground, it may not be amiss to digress, for just one moment, to mention that, when Moliere died, the king was anxious to over come the scruples of the Archbishop of Paris, but even to the monarch the priest was hard as adamant, and Louis scarcely wished to provoke a quarrel. At last his majesty enquired : "How deep does your consecration affect the land?" "About six feet," was the answer. " Then bury Moliere eight feet deep," ' replied the wise occupant of the throne, " and nobody will be dis turbed." There was a player refused proper rites of burial some years ago in this country, but the whole public responded to the indignant protest of the celebrated Rip Van Winkle, Joseph Jeff erson, and " The Little Church Bound the Corner," stands " damned to immortal fame." Men are becoming more catholic in their appreciation of service, and in Chicago, as well as else where, theaters are accepted as means of education as well as of amusement. We can realize the age in which Henri of Navarre, the hero of a hundred fights, fell under the dagger of the assassin, Eavaillac, all the better for having seen Eichelieu well presented as written by Bulwer, and we remember for all time the worthy lesson : " In the hands of men entirely great, The pen is mightier than the sword." In the same way Evelyn in "Money," by the same writer, is as good as a sermon for millions of men and women, and " Caste," or "Ours," and the society pieces of to-day, as well as Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth, and the Midsummer Night's Dream, will con tinue to keep the stage in their several ways, doing more than the work of the schoolmaster, for "children of a larger growth," through many generations. The theatrical accommodation en joyed by Chicago is second only to that afforded in New York city. McVicker's will comfortably seat about two thousand five hundred persons, and the pieces produced answer to the demands of the populace. If sometimes it might be desired that some plays of a higher type should hold the boards, the blame belongs 456 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. largely to the directors of public opinion, who by their influence. restrain the best and wisest from attending such performances, and thus deprive the actor of the intellectual and appreciative public, before which he would always desire to exercise his pro fession. The player does not merely live to act, he must act to live, and the best interests of society demand that the theatre should be used to convey the highest lessons, in the most efficient way, promoting morality and religion, as well as advancing art, and literary culture. Hooley's Opera House is not so large as McVicker's theatre, but it. draws the most select audiences in the city, and there are other houses of less repute, all well conducted, contributing their share toward recreating and improving humanity. Lectures are very well attended in Chicago, and many of the best names in American literature are customarily heralded to the public as participants in that kind of winter teaching for the masses. Parton, Bret Harte, and Beecher are among the men so distinguished, and almost every eminent person in war, letters, or state craft, is expected to lecture on some congenial, or unconge nial topic. The existence of such a taste is a matter for congratu lation, aud the outcome of its indulgence will not fail to be found in improved intellectuality, and better views of life, than are likely to be enjoyed by men, who find their amusements in the area of the saloon, or in the disgraceful exhibitions of the prize ring. There are considerably more than one hundred newspapers and periodicals published in Chicago, representing every shade of religious thought, from Presbyterianism and Episcopacy, down to the Eeligio-Philosophical journal of the Spiritualists, and every tongue from the Scandinavian to the politest Anglo-Saxon. Many of the dailies are known all over the Union, and their talents in various directions are such as to merit praise, but it is open to the r.eaders of at least one of the dailies, to wish that a little moral power should be occasionally infused into its columns. Upon this city of Chicago thus developed, and growing, with all the best features of human freedom and vigor, there fell in October, 1871, a fate almost as terrible as that which destroyed Gomorrah so many years ago, that the pillar of salt which stood to witness that conflagration has long since melted awav. It was Principal Cities of Illinois. 457 Sunday evening, October 8th, when one Mrs. Leary, living near the junction of Jefferson street and De Koven, ventured with her lamp into the shed, where a capricious cow was ailing, and before anybody knew anything beyond that fact, a portion of the city was lapped in flame. The wind was almost a hurricane when the accident occurred ; hay, roof and walls of the barn were one bright flame in a moment, and ere many minutes had passed, the devouring element was taking hold on more substantial struc tures. The people were hurrying from their churches, and the clangor of the bell did not disturb their devotional tendencies, save in the case of a few who became unpleasantly conscious that the glare shone out in the immediate neighborhood of their own dwellings. It was a time when minutes would effect the ruin which customarily might occupy hours, as the fierce wind hurried along, scattering glowing embers among sun dried buildings as inflamma ble as touchwood. The sound of the fire bell was no uncommon affair in Chicago, but this time the conflagration had commenced at a point where — -and in a manner which — if an enemy had planned the assault upon the greatness of the city, he could not more artfully and maliciously have combined his forces, " to make assurance doubly sure." Those wooden houses had been stand ing many years, a disgrace even to " Shantytown," and still there were no officers empowered to compel their removal, until pande monium set its fierce power to compel attention. The fire bell had rung out just twenty-four hours earlier, and for many hours the fire department had been employed combating flames, which then had hardly a breath to fan the embers, when the wind of Sat urday came to be compared with that which raged on Sunday. People had stayed in doors all the day long because of the gale, but they had concluded to visit church in the evening, and there was no inducement to stand around in the cold night air, looking at the blaze of a cowshed. The fire department came upon the first alarm, but the men were tired and sleepy, as since the conflagration of the previous night, they had been occupied much of the time in repairing damages and restoring their apparatus to its accustomed trim appearance. The men were roused to do their utmost, for it soon became evident, even to the least skillful observers, that 458 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. there was going to be a great destruction of human habitations. Among the earliest of those upon the spot, that Sunday evening, stood the writer of this memoir. Mrs. Leary's famous barn and the residence attached were already beyond help, and nobody mourned that result, but it soon appeared that an immense gap would be made in the western division of the city before the flames could be mastered. Three alarms rang out upon the raging wind spreading the news wherever the current of air would carry it; that something more than " only a fire " had to be subdued. Houses were grasped by hooks and ropes, and willing hands by the hundred walked away with the hauling apparatus to make a gap over which the flames could not reach ; but almost before one such miserable fire trap had been reduced to ruin, the wind carried a flaming ember across the chasm, and there was another starting point for the destroyer. With something like the same spirit as that which possessed the French soldiery in Moscow, when they saw the Kremlin on fire, and their own quarters bursting into flame at fifty points at once, the wretched inhabitants came pouring out from the fetid courts and narrow alleys in which they had vegetated, some haggard and care worn, but too much scared to cry, some loaded with worthless items which would not have paid for finding in the streets, some frenz- iedly breaking windows, under the impression that they were helping to abate the destruction, when they were establishing a draught of air through the blazing structure, which would laugh to scorn the best directed efforts of the firemen. The firefiend was master of the situation, and it was evident that nothing effectual could be done to stay the flames, until the river was reached on one side, and on the ether, the scene of the Saturday night's conflagration, offered a gap, in the face of which, the blaze of ruin could burn itself out, powerless for further damage. Several blocks had been completely destroyed the preceding night, making a broad margin near the river, that would be the end of the march of devastation. Many went home out of the wind and the smoke, when that conclusion had been reached, but the scene was too full of excitement and interest to permit an active minded man to retire from that terrible array of flame until the last ember had been quenched. " Good night my boy," Principal Cities of Illinois. 459 said an English friend of the writer, who thought he could see where the end would be, and would no longer deny himself sleep. When the fire died out at last, a few calcined bones and some molten metal were all that remained of the poor fellow, and his valuable watch, jewelry and coin, to tell the story of the long, long sleep to which he had hurried. Through block after block, of the western division of the city, the flames rushed ; one man, hurrying home from church, would rush into his dwelling, from which his family had already removed, in terror. His frantic impulse bore down all opposition, and he was gone into a house already burning, from which he never returned alive. The stair way was one blaze almost immediately after he had ascended ; he was seen at a window and his scared aspect told of the reali zation of his peril ; he looked down to the street below as if con templating a mad leap ; some idea of help or escape in another direction, called him from the aperture, and within what seemed, in that fearfraught time, a few seconds, the walls were all ablaze, the.roof had fallen in, and there was nolonger a man in danger, only the charred remains of something that was hardly human to the sight. Within an hour from the first outbreak, planing mill3 and furniture factories had carried on the work of the demon until it seemed as though hell itself had been loosed upon the city. Large elevators with all their contents were gone ; thousands were homeless. One man looking for one of his children, whom he remembered bringing out from his burning home, made no account of all his other losses, in his anxiety to discover that child. An hour before, he owned the house he lived in, with one on either side, and in the rear, an immense workshop, in which he employed ten men and some apprentices, building up a competence already large, and now he stood there without coat or hat, no longer the possessor of a dwelling or a dollar, but his only care was for his boy who had thoughtlessly wandered from his side. The boy was found again, safe and unhurt, and his father lived to rebuild his fortune when the city rose from her ashes. The scene of the former night's ruin was already reached, but it seemed as if there were a series of whirlwinds circling in the centers of fire. The terrible heat produced a kind of vacuum, the vortices of the old philosophers were being realized, the 460 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. heated atmosphere ascended straight from the middle of the tor nado of flame, and from every side the fierce and hungry air swept in to take part in the dance of death. It was a sight never to be forgotten. Through every street that opened upon the scene of disaster came a rush of air to burst through the portals of flame, and supply the vacuum. The whole city was a furnace, and the gods had set themselves to make Vulcan's stithy too hot to hold him. The burnt district had no power to arrest the flame, the cinders of last night burned over again fiercely as ever, the air had become inflammable. Blazing timbers careered through upper air, as if aimed from a catapult, to carry the baleful visi tant over the river. The shipping was on fire at Van Buren, Polk street and Adams, the bridges were ablaze, the south side was a new area open to destruction, and despair usurped the place which had been filled by hope, until the river had been carried by the grand coup, which seemed fated to destroy every vestige of habitation and wealth. It was now one on Monday morning ; the fire had been burning about four hours, and the south side was on fire at two points, and in the seething crowd which rushed from place to place, the writer heard a hundred statements hazarded within ten minutes, which magnified the real danger into still more terrible propor tions ; but unhappily, before the next twenty-four hours had gone by, the wildest exaggerations had been more than verified by the fact. The tar works were one mass of flame, near the gas house of the south division, and there was Greek fire spreading dismay on every hand. The better materials among which the work of ruin was now proceeding, seemed to have no capacity to stay the devastation ; a whole block was being consumed, before the be wildered department could imagine what should next be done. The gas works, the armory, and the buildings adjoining on either side, were only heaps of ruins, and there were two bodies of fire in several ranks marching rapidly as the wind itself, east and north, across Fifth avenue to La Salle street, on the one hand, along Monroe, Madison and Washington streets on the other. The handsomest buildings in Chicago were as tinsel when the flames came licking round them. The Pacific hotel, six stories high, and every story lofty as art could imagine, or convenience Principal Cities of Illinois. 461 desire, was but a morsel when the jaws of flame were opened. The vast building was gone, and at the same moment the word was passed through the crowd, as if by spirit telegraphy, that the depot of the Michigan Southern Eailroad, the finest in Chicago, had gone up in the smoke. It seemed useless to fight with such monsters bent on destruction, as the two bodies of fire which were assailing the city in two points so wide apart from each other, yet continuing the cordon of communication so completely that hardly a block escaped untouched. From La Salle to Clark street was but a step, and the Chamber of Commerce, Farwell Hall, and the buildings intervneing were blackened and charred embers, noth ing more. From some source now new energy had come to the councils of the firemen. When the fire was first reached, one block of the worthless structures, that only fed the flame, might have been destroyed and the whole city saved ; but there was no great man to see the emergency and to compel obedience to his will, in grappling with a foe so deadly, by the only means that could succeed. Now that the palaces of banking and commerce had been reached, there was the energy of desperation, but it pame too late. The crash of gunpowder was heard, and as the report came with deafening force upon the ears of those who were near at hand, for at a distance nothing could be heard save the dull roar of the enemy, pile after pile of buildings toppled and fell over, but nothing availed to stay the destroyer now. The chasm was as nothing, the tongues of flame darted over the cavity made by the fall of half a block, and before one could think of such a thing as possible, the next block was illuminated by the nimbus of de struction. Afterwards, when the fire had died out in its own despite, because the wind had carried it where there were no build ings to be consumed, it was found that the blazing embers had reached out two miles across the lake, and had fallen hot and smok ing upon the crib of the waterworks, as though striving to fin d a way over the lake itself to some new fields of industry which might be wrecked. With an enemy so masterful, aided by a wind so strong, what mattered half a block or a block of build ings, where every house, was blistered and smoke dried, waiting for the first tongue of flame only to surrender itself to the de stroyer. The two lines of flame which branched from the tar 462 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. works, burning with the avidity of Greek fire, had flung out lines without number at every new street, running down the row of buildings on either side with frightful regularity, without abating one stride in the onward march. Market street, Wells, Franklin, La Salle, were gone ; Jackson, Quincy and Adams had been as sailed at their river ends, and were looked upon as past hope. Hundreds who had looked on for hours with an impassive cool ness, were now homeless and beggars, their roofs, their employ ment, their clothing, almost their last coin, all gone together, and there seemed no prospect of even a supply of food, when the night of horror should be spent. The grotto like coolness of Washing ton street tunnel was no protection from the blast of hot air and flame which was borne upon the gale, the roadway was burned and the blaze was drawn as into a flue, far beyond the opening of the underground passage. The coal y'ards had become one vast furnace, in which the masses of anthracite gave forth their gases to be carried in expanding masses of fire, as it seemed, more than two blocks away, where the destruction seized hold upon crisped buildings, which until now had defied the efforts of the foe. Men who had aggregated upon roofs, from whence they had been able in perfect safety to contemplate the diorama of disaster, against which it had long since appeared that heroic energy was as noth ing, found themselves suddenly in the very center of the fight, and before long that struggle, like every other on that night of horror, ended in a stampede before the onrush of death. One after another, the great hotels were reached, and hundreds of guests and employes of every grade were without shelter, out in the fire-laden night air, fleeing for life. Some few edifices which had been abandoned early in the night as beyond rescue, were spared by the advancing lines of destruction, because, just as the jaws of Eblis were yawning to engulf them, the pitying winds blew aside the current of annihilation to sup on daintier food. The south division had one such structure north of the Eandolph street bridge, and the two bridges on Eandolph and Madison streets were left passable, if not entirely unscathed. South Water street went up in flame, a terrible holocaust. Elevators teeming with golden grain, warehouses which contained the wealth of an empire, and the treasures of two hemispheres, were heaps of cin- Principal Cities of Illinois. 463 ders, nothing better. The lumber exchange disappeared like " an unsubstantial pageant faded." Lake street, more splendid to the sight but not more rich, followed in the same track of ruin. The stone walls almost glowed with red heat, the basements were filled with red cinders-, made up of rafters, roof-tree, stairs and floors, and in the terrible illumination, unnumbered millions of dollars had sailed away upon the cyclone, which added flame to whirl wind. The Massasoit, the Eichmond, the Adams, and the Tremont houses had gone, and the Illinois Central depot was a ruin. Then the Briggs, the Metropolitan, the Matteson and the Sherman swelled the tide of the shelterless.. The flames stretched across to the court house almost without an effort, not destroying the structure entirely, but burning up the woodwork, until it became necessary to choose between allowing crime to roast in the prison cells, at the base of the building, and — the other alternative — turning adrift upon society such horrible wretches, as might in tensify the appalling visitation, under which Chicago reeled to destruction. Some of these creatures fled as soon as their doors were opened, and were heard of no more, perhaps lured to de struction by the possibility of drunkenness without cost, and then lying down regardless of danger to be trampled upon by men and horses, in some frightful rush before the fierce Moloch, which came on to finish the work of obliteration. Some were seen later in the day armed to the teeth, defying owners of property to move their own wealth, or compelling them by frightful threats, to open safes which had resisted their ingenuity. Scenes were enacted which recalled in a thousand different ways the words of Eobert Burns : " Man's inhumanity to man, Makes countless angels mourn." Theaters, newspaper offices, churches, the opera house, went down, until only McVicker's establishment and the Tribune office seemed likely to remain when the black wing of desolation should have folded itself down upon the rest of the locality in which they stood, but it was " hoping against hope." About four in the morning the news came that the north side was falling into the lap of fire which had swallowed the rest of the city, and the 464 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. yet more dreadful tidings followed that the water works had gone, with the rest, so that there was no longer a stream, however pow erless, with which to continue the battle. Four hours later the last theater and the last newspaper office followed each other down the red road of incineration, and the great avenues of Wa bash and Michigan, emptied of their contents, were waiting to be possessed by the spoiler. Daylight was upon Chicago, but such daylight as had never-shone over a city in the world's history be fore. When Moscow burned, a disciplined mass of men retired with some show of order, before an enemy whose range of terror could be calculated at the worst. When London was burned, the crazy buildings in narrow streets were but so many nuisances re moved out of the way of the often recurring plague, and a moder ate show of courage in the directing minds of the government might have stayed the ravages, at almost any moment, but under a worthless king, as cold and callous as Nero, there were none to stamp out the conflagration. Here was a force superior to man's energies. The winds, neutralized in their general tenor, were all turned toward this livid vortex and palaces of commerce or of rest, which only a few hours before seemed fire proof, were now burning like pitch pine. Daylight was upon Chicago, but it came down through an overarching canopy of smoke, fretted with fire, in which it seemed as if the air held carbon in mechanical equipoise, as a medium along which flame might traverse to the remotest point, fed by the stream of oxygen, in the hot atmos phere. Never such a day had the world seen, when conquering armies carrying cities by assault, applied the torch of war to the best evidences of civilization, and made rapine more terrible by savage brutality, within the roar of their hellish tempest. It was a sight before which the worst pictures on the page of Dante paled and went out, as poetry always must when it collides with actual existence. Drunkenness, and greed, and robbery,' perhaps murder, were in the streets, but none could pause to interfere with their course, in the terrible flight for life, on which men and women had long since entered. Onward went the crowd. One man with a child seated on his shoulders, tugged one more with either hand, and anxiously implored their mother to keep abreast of him, in the torrent, which was rushing toward the lake shore. Principal Cities of Illinois. 465 God only knows the outcome of their struggle. Here were men loaded with articles of furniture, for which they seemed to be more Solicitous than for their own safety. One person carried a statuette of Parian marble representing " Una and the Lion," whom her innocence and trust had tamed, and all his sorrow in the mad rush of events seemed to have concentrated itself upon the fact, that the glass shade had been broken by some heedless passer-by. There is a wondrous comfort for us all, in the freaks of insanity which sanctifies to every man some hobby behind which he is en trenched against the world's worst calamities. There were plenti ful signs visible now, for men had abandoned their masks, and faces couldbe seen everywhere. The ruffian was at no pains to wear the seeming of politeness, which at other hours he had worn, to some de gree, even in his worst haunts ; and the hidden features of every character, such as Nathaniel Hawthorne said were only visible to the student, in the sun painted pictures of human kind, were here drawn up to the surface, and made prominent, before every eye, by the glare of this awful scene. If the eternal fire can thus brutalize the race, who would dare the risk of hell, for all the kingdoms of this earth, or the whole universe ? " Booksellers Eow " went down under the flood of fire, about the same time as the Tribune building was destroyed, and powder was applied more freely than ever, to countermine the enemy, using one ruin to hem in another, but nothing could arrest the advance. The lines which had diverged from the gas works came here once more within range of each other, having com pleted their ghastly circuit, and from the vast piles of palaces aflame the heat struck terror into the hearts of thousands, who had accumulated their more precious articles of furniture by the lake shore, and in the base ball grounds, in the assurance that nothing could harm them at that distance from any habitation. The Britons prayed to Eome for help, because they stood defense less between the barbarians and the sea ; here was a foe worse, incomparably, than Pict or Scot, on the one hand, and on the other the waters of the storm-tost lake, with no Eome from which available succor could be hoped. The multitude broke and fled when the hot emissaries of ruin came hurtling down upon their household gods; it was useless to continue the battle, save for the 30 466 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. rescue of life itself, and there was joy unspeakable in many breasts, when in the midst of that hail of devastation, they had passed through the park southward beyond the end of Washing ton street, and could count 'their little ones alive in the groups by which they were surrounded, athirst, starving and helpless. Wabash and Michigan Avenues, Terrace Eow, and the beautiful churches which had adorned the city in this neighborhood had been resplendent with flame for an hour or more, and they were now lying there black and smoking in irredeemable defeat. Some walls tottered in the wind, but men feared the swift de struction in which their fall might at any moment involve the passer-by, and it was a relief when the vast edifices crumbled to their base. The water works were among the earliest buildings to succumb in the North Division, and after that event there was no let nor hindrance to the onrush of that awful fire, until the North Division was erased. The flames had entered the Wash ington street tunnel, but when the body of fire advanced upon the tunnel in La Salle street, the tongues of flame came through and danced with glee in the further extremity, reducing the wood work to charcoal, burning the stonework into quick lime or pow der. When such distances could be bridged by flame, under the river, where was escape possible ? Swift flight, never pausing to look behind, was the only chance of safety on the north side, once the fire made headway among the fragile edifices in that quarter. The Soman phalanx linked their shields together and moved on to victory, a wall of brass, backed up by fierce and disciplined humanity. The fire phalanx on the north side linked together tongues of flame, and marched onward an irresistible body, such as no human power could confront and live. The conflagration, in the quarter last attacked, was more unrelenting than elsewhere. The other quarters had been eviscerated, but something remained entire ; a head here, limbs there, the case, from which the living interior had been consumed ; but in the North Division, there was absolute destruction, and the people could only fly to the open country. The abating storm at one point, and the untiring work of a few friends in another, saved a residence in the midst of a burning block, and a block in the northwest corner of the North Division, close to the river, but in Principal Cities of Illinois. 467 the panic of the day men hardly dared to attempt salvage, in the face of that relentless carnival of ruin. The work of destruction went on until Fullerton Avenue, in the extreme north, was reached, and the fire died out for lack of fuel. The cemetery, near Lincoln Park was made a temporary bivouac on Monday night, but the enemy raided in upon living and dead, and the sleepers on the surface were forced to fly once more. There was no safety for the stricken crowd except on the open prairie to the north, far beyond where Father Marquette once made his home, or out upon the bosom of Lake Michigan. When at last there was breathing time for the fugitives, they looked back upon the spot where so many millions of millions of dollars had been real ized and expended, and they saw through the falling rain of Mon day night, a huge, black, smoking wreck, which seemed more dis mal than the " slough of despond," of which John Bunyan had told them, or the counterpart thereof, which many in those con courses had seen, on which the pioneers of .the once thriving city had commenced its era of unrivalled growth. In that wide area of overthrow, in which the elements had rioted in a desperate at tempt to carry the earth back to its primeval chaos, during the thirty hours that the fire raged and the wind howled until the heavens dropped tears of sympathy like a pattering rain, there appear to have been less than two hundred deaths, but how many were actually destroyed will never be known until the last dread ful day of account reveals all mysteries. The fire was stayed at last, and if the smoking embers were not quenched, there was a cessation of danger, and time for men to look about them, The homeless must be sheltered, the hungry must be fed, the naked must be clothed, however terrible the calamity from which the people had escaped ; and every church and public building of whatever kind, in which walls and a roof remained untouched by the destroyer, must now afford a home to the precious waifs and strays, which, within the last few hours, had been flotsam and jetsam on the tide of fire. The flood gates of pity were opened in almost every breast, in the depths of the terrible affliction which had overwhelmed the community. " The poor ye have with you always," and the poorest are oftentimes the best sympathizers, even within their powers, the best helpers 468 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. also. Now all the city was poor, and in the common sorrow there was common pity. Once more, for a little time, men "had ail things in common," as they have when a crew from some ship wreck escape upon a raft, or when a beleaguered city must hus band its resources, by giving to every defender his ration of diet, and sending the noncombatants away. The city fed its poor and cared for the fatherless and motherless in their affliction until the news of the direful calamity had circled the earth, and answers came from every civilized land with promises of succor. The agony of those nights and that lurid, awful day were compensated for the living by an outburst of practical commiseration, such as no former time had known. The merchant whose means had been consumed, learned now the value of his credit, which could not be destroyed by fire, when his creditors sent along the wires in spiring words, which told him that he might rebuild his ware houses, and procure such aid as he required to resume his avoca tion. There were many such incidents in the history of Chicago, within the week that followed its destruction, and before the stone work was yet cold, men were employed preparing the way for new premises, in which business could be temporarily resumed, pend ing the erection of more spacious edifices, such as never until then had been erected in such haste, at such cost, for the purposes of commerce. The painful uncertainty of the first twenty-four hours after the rain commenced, came to an end when it became appar ent that every laborer who would use his strength under direc tion, could earn better wages in the blackened debris than the average miner in California, and that every man that could build with brick or stone could command enough remuneration to re kindle his own hearth fires. Lawlessness was repressed with very little delay as the streets were once more opened for traffic, and scoundrelism shrank back to its hideous lairs. Proclamations were distributed through the yet burning city on Monday after noon, rallying all lovers of order to assist the authorities in pre serving peace ancl protecting property, and on Thursday, Lieut. Gen. Sheridan was temporarily made director of the efforts of the citizens for the better realization of such objects. The city stood pledged to feed the hungry, and to protect the honest citizen in his vocation. Therein were the elements of final settlement, ancl Principal Cities of Illinois. 469 the end was near at hand. Ten days from the fire the city water works were in sufficient order to allow of a resumption of supply. Then within five days of that time the gas works could once more light the city in such parts as had been rescued from destruction. Speedily the newspapers of Chicago came out again, not precisely in their old forms, but under provisional arrangements which bridged the time of sorrow until the bright days came again, and every issue told of the noble deeds which, better than words, illus trated the generous spirit of all nations. The banks reopened ten days after the fire, and there was no run upon their resources, Business flowed once more in the old channels, builders were ready to employ every capable workman, and when the wintry frosts set in, which, under other circumstances, would have arrested building operations, immense fires were kept up to preserve the mortar and cement from freezing, so that the walls might be erected without delay, for a business larger and more prosperous than even Chicago had known. No JEtna, nor Vesuvius, nor Hecla, throwing out pumice and vomiting lava, ever revealed the power of fire so strangely as it was seen in the debris of Chicago ; but men could not pause to consider those items of distortion and agglomeration. The army of industry was in possession of the works temporarily held by the enemy, and every minute was worth gold in preparing a fortification against winter. On Tues day there was a load of lumber hauled into the south division, to commence the work of rebuilding, and before twenty-four hours had elapsed a merchant had opened the store for which that tim ber was designed. The abodes of wealth and fashion in Wabash and Michigan avenues, in West Washington street, West Lake, Eandolph, Madison, Monroe, where, until then, trade had been " tabooed," were temporarily taken hold upon for business, and the rest of the city was given over to artificers in wood and metals, to be made once more the favored abode of commerce. The horse barn of the Southside- railroad became a fashionable emporium, occupied by one of the largest dry goods houses in the northwest, and within a few hours it appeared to have been used for just such purposes all its days. Before the end of December there were more than two hundred buildings of brick and stone being erected by the aid of innumerable fires in the city of Chicago, and the 470 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. number of wooden erections cannot be named. The courage of a people had been terribly tried, but it was equal to the emer gency, and very soon the capital of all the world sought Chicago as an area for investments, where profits all but fabulous might be secured in rebuilding a commerce which, more surely than in any former time, must now command the resources of the vast, fertile valley of the Mississippi. The districts ravaged by the fire amounted in the aggregate to two thousand and twenty-four acres, and seventeen thousand four hundred and fifty buildings had been destroyed, many of them of vast extent — hotels, stores, depots, elevators, manufactories, including the homes of ninety-eight thousand five hundred people, the total loss in property being very nearly two hundred millions of dollars. The men who have seen Chicago since that fire, as it has, with unparalleled rapidity, risen from its ashes, can but wonder that such devastation should be so speedily effaced ; but there is yet an other lesson which writes itself upon the minds of men, as they look upon the vast expanse of parks and palaces which stretches from the rivers' banks and from the lake shore far out upon the prairie, and that is the wonder that such a monition as the finger of fire has writ ten upon the walls has not taught the government of that city to compel the removal of wooden buildings where they have so fearful a menace for the whole community. The city is not even now be yond danger in that respect, and the men who administer its affairs have not the courage, or they lack the energy, to insist upon the observance of proper and safe rules for building within the limits where special dangers must arise from the erection of wooden dwellings and places of business. Fires, not to be compared in devastation and extent with that of October 8 and 9, 1871, but yet tremendous, have since that time arisen among the wooden rookeries which disgrace that vast beehive, and it behooves the citizens some day soon to rise in their might to a full recognition of their responsibilities, and taking the election of their officials out of the hands of wire-pullers and ward bummers, to secure, in the interests of property, life, and aesthetic development, a govern ment in the city such as they would demand if they were legis lating only for the welfare of their own private business. A city so great and prosperous, with a vitality so invincible and a future Principal Cities of Illinois. 471 so grand, deserves that its best men should watch over its interests and preserve it from the disgrace of bad and inefficient govern ment. The charitable institutions located in Chicago deserve more lengthened notice than our space will permit, and many of the minor benevolent societies, with their machinery of mercy, must be omitted entirely, but enough can be said here to prove that the maxim, " Charity covereth a multitude of sins," is not over looked in the metropolitan city. Abou Ben Adhem was content at last, when the vision had humbled and gladdened his heart, to be enrolled in the list of those who "loved their fellow men," and in that category the citizens of Chicago have vindicated their right to be numbered, wherever the cry of sorrow has gone up, from Kansas and Nebraska, from districts overwhelmed by floods, from transatlantic Ireland, or wherever the sanctification of deep agony has called for assuagement. The United States Marine Hospital is a noble institution, well located and supported by the general government. The Cook County Hospital is sustained by contributions from a wide area as well as by occasional grants, and the city is not behind hand with her quota. The Magdalen Asylum says, by its action, to a wide class of offenders — to whom society should show its countenance of reproof, " more in sorrow than in anger " — what Christ said to the woman who was brought before him by the crowd of undetected sinners : " Go thou, and sin no more ;" and although the operations of the managers are cloaked in mystery, enough is known to assure contributors that the money expended in this benevolent manner is a vast gain to society at large, in the fact that it saves hundreds annually from the suffering and degradation of street life, to become useful and industriouj women. The Protestant Orphan Asylum indicates by its name the emulation which stirs the younger branches of the Christian community to uphold their claims to be recognized as practical religionists, by the care which they extend " to these my little ones" who have lost their natural defenders. St. Joseph's and St. Mary's are the corresponding institutions sup ported by the " elder church," and it is satisfactory to know that whenever extraordinary appeals are made to the public on behalf of the Catholic charities, there is always a liberal spirit manifested 472 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. by protestant merchants and traders in the community. Male children only are received at St Joseph's, and females at St. Mary's. The Home for the Friendless is devoted to the assistance, temporalily, of deserving men and women who might otherwise fall into evil company, and endure many discomforts, pending the time which comes with care in the career of every individual, when the desired opportunity can be secured to exchange labor for bread and shelter. One-half of all the discomforts endured by humanity arise from " square pegs being crowded into round holes," in the hurry and bustle of life, and they must remain there, being once placed, as the rush of the rearmost ranks over their heads is an almost irresistible force crushing their angles out of form. This institution aims in part to distribute labor into its proper places, where the best results can be attained. The Sol diers' Home tells its own story " sans phrase" as the French say. It is to the disabled men of this state, who fought and bled for the Union, what the Hotel des Invalid&s was to the veterans who had outlived active service, under the empire of the Great Napoleon, and the existence of such a home tells the patriot who may at any moment be called to risk life and limb in defense of altar and hearth, that his exertions will not be considered as fully paid by the stipend accorded to military duty. The Soldiers' Home is well conducted, and the edifice is an ornament to Chicago. When the fire panic in Chicago was being subdued by various organiza tions for charity, as well as by the vigorous and extraordinary efforts of the constituted authorities, there came to the city long lines of cars and freight trains, bringing men and women, clothes and provisions beyond enumeration, to meet the wants of the hour. Besides all these contributions toward relieving the needy, immense sums of money, amounting in the aggregate to many millions of dollars, were forwarded for distribution. Sums came from France at the moment when that gallant nation was obliged to buy off the invading host. From Prussia and Germany at large, just flushed with conquest. From the Emperor Frederick William, immediately after he had dictated his dispatch, thanking God for the slaughter of men. From Austria, from Ireland, from Italy, from Scotland, Wales, and England, from the gold fields of Australia and New Zealand, from China and Japan, and from the Principal Cities of Illinois. 473 British possessions in India. Such arrivals rendered an organiza tion necessary to aid in the wise distribution, as it very often occurs, not only at such times, that the greatest sufferers are the least demonstrative, and in many instances loans were accepted by deserving men and women, who even in such an emergency. had too much honest pride to accept charity. Such loans were repaid by the better class at a later date, and many of the remit tances from distant points came too late to be used in immediate acts of charity, consequently the Belief and Aid Society became a permanent organization, occupying valuable premises, drawing rents, and permanently endowed for the distribution of the unem ployed into such districts as will gladly repay their labor with the current wages of the day. The society is one of the most useful in the city of Chicago. The books of the institution lie open at all hours to register the names of men wanting employment, with a columnar description of their trades and callings, and on corres ponding pages the names in extenso of employers wanting help, with their addresses, and the purposes, or avocations in which they are engaged. The value of such records which could be consulted by both classes at all hours — without fee — ¦ will readily be perceived. Sometimes the society helps deserving persons who are in sore need, by procuring them tools, or a passage by the railroads to distant points where their labor is demanded, and so well are the affairs of the organization carried on, that cases of imposition upon the funds are comparatively rare. The second floor of the society's building is devoted to meet the requirements of women, not asking charity, but wanting direction, without cost, to the points where their services are in demand. Illustrating the prevision exercised by the society, one case may be mentioned with advantage. A young Norwegian woman, singularly prepos sessing in appearance, had come from Norway to be married to a countryman of hers who had been some few years in America. Unfortunately he had died just before her arrival, without making due provision for his betrothed wife, and she arrived in Chicago with just enough money to keep her at a first class hotel until she had learned the story of her bereavement. She was without money, among strangers, in a city where every man and woman pursued some personal aim with metropolitan eagerness, hardly 474 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. pausing to notice the signs of sorrow which were' not obtruded with professional skill. A face so beautiful, coupled with igno rance of the language of the country, and unacquaintance with the tricks resorted to in great cities by procuresses and their abet tors, might have led to the ruin of the young woman, but for tunately she found her way to the offices of the society, and the lady superintendent, a practitioner of medicine, whose acquaint ance with society gave her many opportunities to serve the cause of mercy, found means to place the Norwegian in a good home, where her amiable demeanor and her talents make her invaluable, and there are few persons in Chicago, not native born, who speak the Anglo-Saxon tongue more attractively than the fair stranger does at this time. As a teacher of singing and music, she will amass a competency if she does not allow herself to be persuaded to grace a home which now waits her acceptance. One instance is worth a hundred aphorisms, and the course of usefulness indi cated in the case described, illustrates the means which are daily in operation, to help deserving women in this city. If our large cities were better supplied with such organizations, there would be less need for the Magdalen asylums, for in the words of Tom. Hood : "Evil is wrought, by want of thought, As well as want of heart." The city has twelve cemeteries beyond the city limits, among which Graceland, Eose Hill, Calvary, and Oakwoods, are the chief; all of them are more or less adorned with shrubs and mausoleums, and some bid fair to rival the luxuriance of Pere la Chaise. The city has a police force more extensive and costly than efficient, because political influences are more potent than they should be in manning and officering the department ; but it may be anticipated that such abuses will in course of time be erased. The fire alarm telegraph and the steam fire apparatus bespeak the fullest readiness on the side of the departments to combat with the continually recurring fires to prevent the rook eries, when they burn up, involving the whole community in de struction. There are numerous squares and parks which serve the purposes of lungs for the mighty city, and others are in con templation. The best of those now in existence are Lake Park, Principal Cities of Illinois. 475 better known perhaps as the Esplanade, Dearborn Park, Union, and Jefferson, which range from one acre to five in extent ; added to which, Lincoln Park, the largest of the series fronting on the lake, embraces an area of sixty acres, and is rapidly becoming a very handsome as well as commodious pleasure ground. Several references have been made to elevators in this record of the progress and vicissitudes of Chicago; and inasmuch as this volume will be read by many persons who are not personally in timate with those wonderful contrivances for the dispatch of grain, we quote a graphic description of the commercial wonder for the benefit of European readers. A traveler comprehensively says: "An elevator is as-ugly a monster as has yet been produced. In uncouthness of form it outdoes those obsolete old brutes who used to roam about the semi-aqueous world, and live a most un comfortable life with their great hungering stomachs and huge unsatisfied maws. The elevator itself consists of a big movable trunk — movable as is that of an elephant, but not pliable, and less graceful even than an elephant's. This is attached to a huge granary or barn ; but in order to give altitude within the barn for the necessary moving up and down of this trunk — seeing that it cannot be curled gracefully to its purposes as the elephant's is curled — there is an awkward box erected on the roof of the barn, giving some twenty feet of additional height, up into which the elevator can be thrust. It will be understood, then, that this big movable trunk, the head of which, when it is at rest, is thrust up into the box on the roof, is made to slant down in an oblique direction from the building to the river ; for the elevator is an amphibious institution, and flourishes only on the banks of nav igable waters. When its head is ensconced within its box, and the beast of prey is thus nearly hidden within the building, the unsuspicious vessel is brought up within reach of the creature's trunk, and down it comes, like a mosquito's proboscis, right through the deck, in at the open aperture of the hold, and so into the very vitals and bowels of the ship. When there, it goes to work upon its food with a greed and an avidity that is disgusting to a beholder of any taste or imagination. And now I must ex-. plain the anatomical arrangement by which the elevator still de- 476 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. vours and continues to devour till the corn within its reach has all been swallowed, masticated and digested. Its long trunk, as seen slanting down from out of the building across the wharf and into the ship, is a mere wooden pipe : but this pipe is divided within. It has two apartments ; and as the grain-bearing troughs pass up the one on a pliable band, they pass empty down the other. ', The system, therefore, is that of an ordinary dredging machine ; only that corn and not mud is taken away, and that the buckets or troughs are hidden from sight. Below, within the stomach of the poor bark, three or four laborers are at work, helping to feed the elevator. They shovel the corn up toward its maw, so that at every swallow he should take in all that he can hold. Thus the troughs, as they ascend, are kept full, and when they reach the upper building they empty. themselves into a shoot, over which a porter stands guard, moderating the shoot by a door which the weight of his finger can open and close. Through this doorway the corn runs into a measure, and is weighed. By measures of forty bushels each, the tale is kept. There stands the apparatus, with the figures plainly marked, over against the porter's eye ; and as the sum mounts nearly up to forty bushels, he closes the door till the grains run thinly through, hardly a handful at a time, so that the balance is exactly struck. Then the teller standing by marks down his figure, and the record is made. The exact porter touches the string of another door, and the forty bushels of corn run out at the bottom of the measure, disappear down another shoot, slanting also toward the water, and deposit themselves in the canal boat. The transit of the bushels of corn from the larger vessel to the smaller will have taken less than a minute, and the cost of that transit will have been — one cent. "But I have spoken of the rivers of wheat, and I must explain what are those rivers. In the working of the elevator, which I have just attempted to describe, the two vessels were supposed to be lying at the same wharf, on the same side of the building, in the same water, the smaller vessel inside the larger one. When this is the case, the corn runs direct from the weighing measure into the shoot that communicates with the canal boat. But there is not room or time for confining the work to one side of the Principal Cities of Illinois. HI building. There is water on 'both sides, and the corn or wheat is elevated on one side, and reshipped on the other. To effect this, the corn is carried across the breadth of the building; but, never theless, it is never handled nor moved in its direction on trucks or carriages requiring the* use of men's muscles for its motion. Across the floor of the building are two gutters, or channels, and through these small troughs on a pliable band circulate very quickly. They which run one way, in one channel, are laden ; they which run by the other channel are empty. The corn pours itself into these, and they again pour it into the shoot which com mands the water. And thus rivers of corn are running through these buildings night and day. The secret of all the motion and arrangement consists, of course, in the elevation. The corn is lifted up ; and when lifted up, can move itself, and arrange itself, and weigh itself, and load itself." Quincy. — This is the county seat of Adams county, and it ranks second only in size and importance in the state of Illinois. It is located on the eastern bank of the world famed Mississippi river, forty-four miles from Keokuk, one hundred and sixty-four miles from the city of St. Louis, and two hundred and sixty-three miles by railroad southwest from Chicago. The city of Quincy is built on a limestone bluff one hundred and twenty-five feet above the river, and the extensive view of the Father of Waters, and of the country through which it flows, is one of the most beautiful sights in this region. The city is laid out in squares and blocks, the streets crossing each other at right angles, and the business premises are usually handsome as well as commodious. The pub lic buildings, which will be more particularly referred to here after, are ornamental to Quincy, and the private residences of the more wealthy citizens challenge admiration. The city is lit with gas and well" supplied with water, and its population at the pres ent time cannot be less than thirty-five thousand souls, as in the year 1850 the census showed 6,812, in 1860, 13,566, and in the year 1870 there were more than twenty-four thousand, since which time six years of surprising progress have developed the resources of Quincy beyond the hopes of its best friends. As a center of railroad communication the city rises daily into greater import- 478 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ance. The main line and Carthage division of the Chicago, Bur lington and Quincy Eailroad has here an immense business ; and here also the Toledo, Wabash and Western Eailroad, the Quincy, Alton and St. Louis, the Hannibal and St. Joseph, the Mississippi Valley and Western, and the Quincy and Missouri Pacific Bail- roads have each important stations. The Hannibal and St. Jo seph has a very beautiful bridge across the Mississippi river at this point, and that fact assists materially in developing Quincy. There are twelve newspapers published here, and three of them are daily, employing men whose brillant talents are recognized in journalistic circles all over the union. The educational facilities of the city are such as might be expected, where so many well conducted newspapers are well supported by the population. The public schools are graded ancl well administered in every depart ment, and there are many private academies in which the standard of training is very high. Two of the newspapers published in the city are printed in German, to meet the wants of a large section of the population of Quincy and the surrounding country. There are no less than twenty-four churches in the city, a very fair pro portion, considering how large is the average of every population, that will remain unchurched, " charm ye never so -wisely." As usual where the Germans form a large element in the population, "music hath charms," to which exemplary attention is given, and there are no less than ten public halls available for such and sim ilar entertainments. The court house, a county structure, is very large and really beautiful in its proportions, being more noticeable than any other of the edifices in the city, if we except three of the churches, on which large and wise expenditures have been made at various times, educating the eyes of thousands who never come within the sound of the gospel. The surroundings of Quincy are made up of very fertile and beautiful land, which has been largely improved for agricultural purposes, and the facilities afforded for shipment at this point have resulted in building up a great local business, which is rapidly extending into metropolitan propor tions, as its river communications by steamers and other vessels give especial opportunities for carrying the war beyond " pent up Utica." The river landings and wharves are customarily thronged' with steamboats, which bring the fruits and grain of other prairies Principal Cities of Illinois. 479 to compete in the markets here with the productions of her own farming population, before the lines of railway are called upon to give shipment to the liberal remainder. The rapid increase of commerce and manufactures in Quincy makes the home market a considerable item in the calculations of the farming communities, which make this place the center of their trade. Iron, lumber, flour, tobacco, machinery and carriages are among the chief ar ticles produced in the city, if we except the one hundred thousand hogs, whose carcasses are annually converted into excellent packed pork. The first settlement made on the site of Quincy dates from the 3-ear 1822, and the name was adopted in honor of the celebrated John Quincy Adams, when that gentleman was inaug urated as president, in the year 1825. The town was laid out in that year by order of the county court, but the population in the vicinage was very small. The whole county of Adams had but three white persons living in its area at the time when Quincy was first settled, and the nearest mill — a horse mill only — was distant forty miles at a place called Atlas, to which each settler in his turn made a pilgrimage to procure corn meal. After the Black Hawk war in 1832, the country became much more widely settled, the enforced departure of the Indians being a desideratum among those inclined to colonize. The healthful situation in which the city is built, and the care bestowed upon improving the natural advantages of the site, leave no room for doubt that Quincy will long continue to maintain its exceptional reputation for salubrity^. Peoria ranks next to Quincy in population, and it is the seat of administration for the county of Peoria. It stands on the western bank of the Illinois river, at the outlet of Peoria lake, one hundred and ninety-two miles from the point where the river discharges its volume into the Mississippi. It is claimed by some that the river forms the lake on which the city stands, while oth ers, with as great a show of reason, claim the lake as one of the feeders of the river : but perhaps the best way to arrange an oth erwise interminable dispute is, by admitting that " the reciprocity is not all on one side." Peoria stands about seventy miles north from the state capital, and a little over one hundred and fifty 480 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. miles from Chicago. The city has first class railroad accommoda tions, in addition to the advantage of the river being navigable to this point, which gives free passage to the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi river. The lake system is opened to Peoria by the canal, which connects the city with Chicago and Lake Michi gan ; and the Michigan canal is almost as important to the manu facturing interests as the railroads themselves. The railroad lines which have stations or termini at Peoria are the Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw ; the Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville ; the Peoria branch of the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific; the Peoria branch of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy ; the Peoria and Eock Island ; and the Indianapolis, Bloomington and Western Bailroads ; many of these have termini, and in that fact there is conclusive evidence that the most astute business men of the day anticipate great growth for Peoria, The manufacturing interests in this locality are very large and wealthy, embracing among many smaller but improving industries, foundries and machine shops, boiler works on a large scale, agricultural implement man ufactories, wagon and carriage shops, planing mills, breweries and distilleries. The city stands on a plateau, rather more than two miles square, with bluffs very easy of access, surrounding the area, and affording numerous beautiful sites for residences. The river and lake afford large quantities of excellent fish and the charm of the scenery surrounding that large body of water will lead to a much larger settlement here of that class of persons that can afford to choose their residences, guided only by love of the beautiful in the surroundings. The scene, from the banks of the lake to the bluffs, majestic in form and crowned with hand some dwellings, is truly captivating, and the city intervening on the broad plateau is really well worthy of the position. The streets average about one hundred feet in width, and the lines of shade trees make the city resemble a park c'onverted into a busi ness area. The grading of the streets is perfect and the streets slope toward the river in length or in breadth so that everywhere perfect drainage is secured. The city is far beyond the reach of an inundation, unless it assumes the proportions of the Noachian deluge. A traveler, who recently visited the place, says of the city : " Peoria is the most beautiful town on the river. Situated Principal Cities of Illinois. 481 on rising ground, a broad plateau, extending back from the bluff, it has escaped the almost universal inundation. The river here expands into a broad, deep lake. This lake is a most beautiful feature in the scenery of the town, and as useful as beautiful, supplying the inhabitants with ample stores of fish, and in winter with an abundance of the purest ice. It is often frozen to such a thickness that heavy teams can pass securely over it. A sub stantial drawbridge connects the town with the opposite shore of the river. Back of the town extends one of the finest rolling prairies in the state, which furnishes to Peoria its supplies and much of its business." When Father Marquette was on his way back from the Mississippi, completing his canoe voyage of two thousand miles, by his return to Lake Michigan, at his point of departure, St. Ignace, he landed and tarried a little while on the site of Peoria, where a considerable village of Indians then lived. M. Joliet, who was a kind of traveling companion of the worthy Pere, was much pleased with the aspect of affairs here and would gladly have stayed longer, where the scenery, the quality of the fishing, and the temper of the natives, combined to multiply at tractions. When Baron La Salle ascended to this point from Lake Michigan for the first time, in 1680, he caused a fort to be erected here, and under its protection a trading post was estab lished, and the colony of La Salle on the Illinois river continued to be a place of some importance from that time onward. The conquest of Canada, by the troops commanded by General Wolfe, until that officer fell mortally wounded at Quebec, on the heights of Abraham, involved a change of masters for Illinois, but the settlement was not remarkable for wealth nor attainments in 1796, when Uncle Sam had become the sovereign. It was then an Indian village, with variations, composed of Indian traders with squaws and half castes, some hunters, and Canadian French voyageurs and nondescripts, many of whom had substan tial reasons for not desiring to dwell in cities. The Peoriaco Indi ans made up the bulk of the population, and they were as the In dians seem fated always to remain, as long as they remain at all, pseudo savages combining the vices of barbarism with the still more fatal vices of our civilization. The city, as well as being the most ancient settlement on the Illinois river, is also the most 31 482 j Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. populous town on that stream at the present time. Grain, pork, lumber and ice, in large quantities, are sent by the river to Chi cago and St. Louis, regular lines of steamboats plying constantly to St. Louis, except in those seasons when winter seals up the running streams in these latitudes. The county buildings are located here, and the city hall deserves notice for the neatness of the structure. There are twenty-eight churches in Peoria, many of the edifices being models of architectural beauty, and the pub lic schools merit praise for the effectiveness of the system of grading and tuition, under which the youth of the city are as sisted to master the difficulties of school life. The settlement on the site of Peoria was in such ill repute in the year 1812, when the British troops raided in upon the city of Washington, that it was considered necessary to break up the evil associations, and the Indian village was purged as by fire. In the following year, Fort Clark was built near the lake, under orders from Gov. Ed wards, and six years later actual settlement upon the town site commenced. Growth was slow until the fine country which sur rounds Peoria became thickly settled, but the town was incorpo rated in the year 1831, and thirteen years later Peoria became a city of the second class. In the year 1850, there were five thou sand people assembled within the city bounds, and in ten years from that time, the number had increased to nearly fourteen thou sand. When the last census was taken in 1870, the population was 22,849, and assuming the same rate of progression to have continued, the inhabitants of Peoria cannot fall far short of thirty thousand at the present time. There are thirteen newspapers published in the city, representing the interests- of the city and county, and all of them appear to be well sustained. Three of the number are dailies, with weekly editions, and the talent dis played fully equals tbe average of such publications. The city is lighted with gas, and well supplied with beautiful water. Galena. — The name of this city signifies " lead mine " in the French tongue, and it is upon that branch of industry that the city has risen to such eminence as it now possesses. It is the seat of justice for Jo Daviess county, and was the residence of Ulysses S. Grant before the war of the rebellion called that gen- Principal Cities of Illinois. 483 tleman and officer from other avocations, to crush the suicidal at tempt of the south. Galena lies on the Fevre river, five miles from its junction with the Mississippi, and steamboats connect this center of mining enterprise with St. Louis. The mines are the mainstay of the city and of the surrounding country, but the population does not increase very rapidly. There were six thousand persons in Galena in the year 1850, and there was only an increase of a little more than two thousand in the next decade, the number decreasing to seven thousand at the time of the last census. There are six newspapers published here, but like every other place in which mining is the main reliance, the city is sub ject to severe fluctuations. The city is built on the steep banks of the Fevre river, the parallel streets communicating with each other by flights of steps but the effect as seen from the river is very fine. The railroad communication with Galena is moderate ly good as the Illinois Central has a station at -this point, seven teen miles southeast of Dunleath, and fifty miles west of Freeport. Chicago is one hundred and sixty miles distant, and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis can be reached by steamboat travel at distances of one thousand six hundred and fifty miles ; and four hundred miles respectively. The river on which Galena stands is more properly described " as an arm of the Mississippi, up from whose waters the rocky bluffs ascend with an air of majesty, and the windings of the stream are very effective in a scenic point of view. There are numerous churches on the first ledge above the levee, and the terrace is much, adorned by their presence. Al though there is an abundance of stone to be had for the trouble of quarrying, most of the houses are built of brick. The streets are well paved, and lighted with gas. It is needless to say that the drainage is perfect, as it would be impossible to establish a mud hole on such a site. The county buildings are in Galena, and they are tolerably graceful specimens of architecture. The pub lic schools are well graded ; and the buildings are substantial, the management being perfectly satisfactory, but the average attend ance is far below the number of children of school age in the citv, who are entitled to the advantages of tuition. There are some private schools, but not enough to make the attendance sufficient, and the question confronts the philosopher and philanthropist at 484 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ^ every stage, in every village, town and city in the union, how can we best employ the forces at the disposal of society to induce a free people to fulfill their duties to their offspring in this matter of education ? The mere establishment of schools effects nothing, unless the children can be brought under the influence of efficient tutors, and a juvenile population daily running in the streets must come up in a large measure for diplomas of efficiency in our county jails. The city is one of the oldest in the state, and it has the interest which must attach to a region in which thousands of men have won their bread in the bowels of the earth for nearly half a cen tury. The first settlement dates from just fifty years ago, in the year 1826, midway between the birth of the union and its centen nial anniversary ; and it is estimated that there remains enough lead still, to furnish one hundred and fifty millions of pounds annually for a term of years which the present generation will not be able to define. There is a considerable- quantity of copper found with the lead ore in the Galena mines. Many other mining towns of less note, some of them in Wisconsin, send their ores to this city for shipment down the Mississippi, as steamers ply be tween this mining center and all the river towns while the frost permits of such operations. We have already seen how complete is the railroad communication between Galena and all points east and west throughout the union. The country around Galena does not impress one very favorably, as the hills are largely want ing in the green mantle which usually drapes the outline of the globe, and at the first glance the antiquarian might imagine that he has come upon a settlement of juvenile mound builders. The mounds are there undoubtedly, but they are Lilliputian in bulk, compared with those vast mausoleums and sacrificial altars in which the relics of the dead and gone possessors of this continent are found, and on a closer inspection, he finds that in the center of every mound, like a crater, surrounded by the debris of innumerable belchings forth of lava, there is an orifice which may afford some explanation as to the mode by which this configura tion arises. The visitor climbs one of the numerous hills, and we may as well accompany him. There is a track worn by the heavy tread of men who are accustomed to leave " foot-prints on Principal Cities of Illinois. 485 the sands of time," and the point aimed at is soon reached. The yellowish mound is the waste that has to be dug out by the miner in order that he may reach the ore, and one man on the top at tends to a windlass, by which he winds up from the hole the stuff which his partners, a hundred feet below, continue to make ready, and to load into the tub used as a vehicle of conveyance. There are hundreds of these windlass men within sight, almost within hail, where we stand, but we could not hold converse with them all if we tried, and the first that we encounter can give us all the in formation that is desired as to this business. We can see for our selves that the tub comes up loaded with rock and refuse, and it is not difficult to distinguish between the material that will help to swell the mound and that which will give profit to the workers. The miners don't wish to be disturbed by every visitor, but there are influences which will open even the doors of a mint ; so we are on our way to the bottom of the hole. There are some shafts much deeper than others ; many are only forty feet ; this is one slightly exceeding a hundred, and may go deeper still. But there is a loop on the end of the windlass rope, and one foot is made fast; you have a tight grasp with both hands, above your head, upon the faithful support to which your life is entrusted. " Lower away," is the word, and you are going steadily down, down, down, into Hades itself, so dark is the road below you. •" How far is it from this place to hell? " asked a would be facetious traveler of the class leading Methodist who tended the windlass. " Let go of that 'rope and you will be there in a minute," was the quick, if not pleasant, reply. The air becomes sensibly cooler as we de scend beyond the range of sunlight, and the earth seems to close in around us ; then there is a warmth, not entirely for want of ventilation, but an actual contribution of heat from the central fires, or from the slowly cooling rocks, which have retained a por tion of the sun's ardor, if nbt of his radiance, during all the mil lions of years which have elapsed since the solar system was shaped and set in motion. We are down now in the darkness on solid ground once more, but it is not entirely dark. A man stands there before us with a candle set in a sconce of clay upon his headgear, and if it were not for his straight hair, his thin, com pressed lips, and the gray eyes which patiently overhaul his ob- 486 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. server, it would be easy to believe that the miner is a " gentleman of color." ¦ The aspect of the workman is due to his occupation; as Shakspere says, that "the dyer's hand is subdued to the color in which he works." This mine is made up of many galleries or drifts, and away at the extremity of each there is a man at work, following his lode of metal through the earth, blasting the rock sometimes to procure it, and then removing the fragments with his pick, until he has enough debris to load a tub for the windlass man on the surface. Each "drift" contains its man, but men don't always find the mineral for which they are searching. Mining becomes almost as alluring a pursuit as the gaming table itself. The poor fellows sometimes follow the ignis fatuus luck down there out of the sunlight, month after month, without pro curing lead enough to pay for sharpening the pick, and still the idea is powerful as ever that a lode will be found presently that will pay for all this labor. The miner does not call his vein a "lode" ; his term is "lead," and very naturally so, because he is led by it as far as the vein traverses the rock until he reaches the confines of his claim. His drive is from four to six feet high, and from three to four feet wide, without apparently any timber sup ports to prevent the superincumbent earth "caving in," and bury ing the human mole at his work. This man has found lead long, long ago, and he kindly allows you to see him at his work, strik ing, lifting, driving, forcing in every way that seems most likely to effect his purpose, to dislodge the mineral from the crevice of rock, into which it is wedged and fastened, as metal runs into a mould. The colors which flash from the treasure as it stands there waiting to be won are sometimes brilliant as diamonds and opals, as the candle reflects its light on a hundred glancing facets, and you wish there were some richer results than lead to reward the patient labor of these sons of toil ; but when they win lead enough to keep their families in comfort they are content. Gold in the earth does not look always as brilliant as the mass of lead now before us, and the returns of the gold miner are not nearly so steady as the more moderate earnings of the lead miner at Galena. The one mineral gives a profit to its workers, and to the nation ; the other is an absolute loss to the community. Mine lead, and you will find, after the wages fund of the whole enterprise and all Principal Cities of Illinois. 487 of its expenses have been paid, there is a margin of gain to be divided among the promoters. Mine gold, and although some few will strike "pockets,' and "jewelers' shops," the great ma jority of hard working and hard faring men will not earn wages, nay, worse than that they do not get, in thousands of cases, enough to pay for their stores. The gold " finds" in California and in Australia have only sold at the best for about $20 per ounce, and when the number of men working in the mines has been charged against the whole result, at wages which would readily be earned by easier work in their several trades and call ings, it is found that the cost of the precious metal which will sell at $20 is a little more than $26.25. Perhaps when gold mining comes to be followed out more systematically by skilled workmen, ¦ with the aids of machinery, and under the supervision of able metallurgists, as is growing to be every day more and more the case in our quartz mines, there will be better results in that indus try also. Certainly gold has been mined in the most reckless way that can be imagined, and the waste of labor and capital in the process has been no more than might be expected in any pursuit in which persons, without special culture, would undertake to direct " enterprises of great pith and moment," in which fortunes could be expended in a year. When Galena was first made a settlement there were no white neighbors within a journey of about three hundred miles. Dubuque was mined much more ex tensively than any other locality in the northwest for this mineral, and the Frenchman who gave his name to that region began his operations in the last century, when Spain still claimed sovereignty over the tract of territory under which he and his workmen pur sued their toilful avocation. A visitor, who has given special attention to the mines at Galena says, concerning the indications of metal, which are sought with so much solicitude by the miner : " Veins of mineral in the same vicinity run in the general direction. Those in the vicinity of Galena run east and west. The crevice which contains the- mineral is usually perpendicular, and from one to twenty feet in width, extending from the first solid rock above the mineral to uncertain depths, filled with large, loose rocks, and a peculiar red dirt, in which are imbedded masses of mineral. These masses are 488 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. made up of cubes, like those formed by crystallization, and many of .them are as geometrically correct as they could be made with compass and square. Before the mineral is broken, it is of the dull blue color of lead; when broken, it glistens like silver. Sometimes caves are broken into, whose roofs are frosted over with calcareous spar, as pure and white as the frost upon the win dow pane, and from dark crevices in the floor comes up the gurg ling of streams that never saw the sun. The life of a miner is dark and lonesome. His drift is narrow, and will not admit of two abreast; therefore, there is but little conversation, and no jokes are bandied about from mouth to mouth. The alternations of hope and disappointment give a subdued expression to his countenance. There are no certain indications by which the miner can determine the existence of a vein of mineral without sinking a shaft. Several methods are resorted to, such as the linear arrangement of any number of trees a little larger than the generality of their neighbors, which is considered an indication of an opening underground corresponding to their arrangement. Depressions in the general surface are also favorable signs, and there are yet some believers in the mystic power of witch-hazel and the divining-rod. In the largest number of cases, little at tention is paid to signs other than to have continuous ground — that is, to dig on the skirts of a ridge that is of good width on top, so that any vein that might be discovered would not run out too quickly on the other side of the ridge. On such ground the method of search is by suckering, as it is called. The miner digs a dozen or more holes, about six feet deep, and within a stone's throw of each other, and in some one of these he is likely to find a few pieces of mineral, the dip of certain strata of clay then in dicates the direction in which he is to continue the search, in which, if he is so successful as to strike a lode, his fortune is made." Principal Cities of Michigan. 489 CHAPTEE XLI. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF MICHIGAN. Lansing — Detroit — Grand Rapids — Adrian — Saginaw — Bay City — Jack son, etc. Lansing. — The earlier and more eventful days of the state of Michigan were not identified with the city in which the capitol now stands, and we shall, therefore, turn aside from the usual course be fore describing Lansing, to say a few words of the state and its early history, which otherwise might escape our recording pen. The Jesuits were the earliest settlers in Michigan, some French mis sionaries having established themselves in the country as early -as 1630. Thirty years later they extended their labors from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, and other missions were successively established in 1668, and in 1671, the latter being the special labor of Father Marquette, whose name is identified with Chicago and the earliest navigation of the Mississippi. The Hurons who were converted by the Jesuits were destroyed in subsequent assaults by the Iroquois ; and the Indians generally have preserved but little of the religious spirit which their teachers strove to enforce. Trading posts were established in commanding situations, and gar risons of French soldiers were concentrated on points which were likely to be most effective in preventing disorder or massacre. The nearness of Detroit to the French possessions in Canada, led to a colony being formed there in 1701 ; but the beauty of the position and its fitness as a commercial basis could not sustain the community against the enmity of the Iroquois and their allies. In spite of a fort and garrison, the colony languished. Pontiac sought to expel all the white settlers from Michigan after the conquest of Canada by the British, and the scheme came very near being successful. The organization of the territory of Mich igan was effected in the year 1805, and^Detroit was then the seat of justice ; but many vicissitudes were endured during the war of 1812, and the population of the territory .was so scanty in the 490 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. year 1820, that Michigan and Wisconsin, then united in one gov ernment, had less than nine thousand souls collectively. Twelve years later, Michigan became the center of attraction for thousands of families which were anxious to discover locations adapted to settlement, as the steamboats on the lakes had opened new views of life, and entirely new possibilities for the population, in the state which enjoyed such exceptional navigation of vast inland seas. There was an increase of inhabitants steadily progressing, until in 1834, there were ninety thousand persons in the territory, including the Wisconsin district, and in the year 1837, Michigan was admitted to the union. The war record shows that during the great rebellion, Michigan sent more than ninety thousand men into the field to uphold the government and the great principle which was imperilled and vindicated by that struggle. . Lansing is the capital of the state of Michigan, having been formally constituted the seat of government in the year 1850, prior to which time that honor and advantage had been enjoyed by the city of Detroit. Lansing is a city, and is situated on the banks of the Grand river, at the point where that stream joins the Cedar river, in Ingham county, one hundred and ten miles north west of Detroit. The original plans of the city have not been carried out, but enough has been effected in that direction to show that Lansing will become the home of a great and enterprising community, as its development proceeds. The streets are very broad, and they intersect each other at right angles, the breadth being availed of to plant rows of shade trees which have an excel lent effect upon the appearance of the city, which otherwise might seem much too scattered ; an outline drawing instead of a state capital. The railroad communications of Lansing are excellent. The Detroit, Lansing and Lake Michigan Eailroad here forms a junction with the Peninsular road, and the Lansing Division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Eailroad. There is a large manufacturing interest here, and the water powers afforded by the two rivers are largely used by several mills. There are flouring 'mills, saw mills, chair factories, a woolen mill, and sash and blind factories, which employ a number of hands, and the commerce of the city is considerable. It is claimed by many of the foremost residents in Michigan, that the Massachusetts of the Principal Cities of Michigan. 491 west will be located just here, with Lansing for its capital, and the intellectual tone of the city favors that belief, although there are some parts of Michigan where it would be pardonable if force were used to make the schools and educational institutions, gen erally, of more immediate value to the population. There are two newspapers published in Lansing, and they are moderately well supported. The population in the year 1850 was a little over twelve hundred, and in 1860 the census showed an increase to three thousand, the latest enumeration indicating an increase of nearly four thousand in twenty years. It is probable that the population of Lansing slightly exceeds seven thousand now. Among the public buildings the state house is the largest and by far the most handsome. It stands in an enclosure of ornamented grounds which are in the season much frequented by beauty and fashion. The capitol is spacious and well worthy of the highly important interests which will be dealt with in its chambers. The location of the state capitol at Lansing was first mooted in ,1847, when a gentleman who owned considerable property on the Grand river, offered to give twenty acres of land, and to erect the state buildings at his own cost, if the seat of government was established at this point. The proposition attracted so much atten tion, that although the grant of land and buildings was not ac cepted, the location was determined upon the same year by an act of the legislature. At that time there was only one family where the city now stands, but immediately after the town was platted, and the intention of the state government became known, one thousand persons, many of them from Lansing in New York state, moved into the locality. The fact of so many of the settlers com ing from Lansing, N Y, determined the name of the state capital. The State Agricultural College is an ornament to Lansing, and it is a very valuable institution for all who are interested in the success of farming. The professors who are employed in this college deserve to rank among the foremost in the state, and as a rule the number of students indicates very high appreciation of the advantages which can be conferred by such an institution. There is a college for ladies exclusively in this city, and it is very numerously attended, the general appearance of the students show ing a very high standard of intellectuality. It would be difficult 492 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. to find a city in Michigan in which, in proportion to its size, so many well educated women can be found, yet, withal, there is little to complain of in the way of pedantry, and scarcely a sign of the " blue stocking " to be seen. There are two public schools, and they are graded, but the attendance does not more than half cover the requirements of the time, after making every allowance for private tuition. There are twelve churches in the city, but none of them are exceptionally handsome. The reform school, or house of correction for juvenile offenders,- stands in the eastern portion of Lansing, and the number of young "reformers" is much more noticeable than the reformation, which might be de sired, but is seldom found in their manners. The large majority of those persons who are enrolled among the legally compelled students in the reform school consists of those unpromising mem bers of society who cannot be induced to attend school under ordinary conditions, or who have shared only to a nominal extent and perfunctorily in public school training. Detroit. — This city was the capital of Michigan until the year 1850, and it will long continue to be the metropolis of the state. The position of the city is very beautiful, and the elegance of Detroit is beyond praise. It is situated on the northwest bank of the river of the same name, eighteen miles from the head of Lake Erie, and eight miles from the outlet of Lake St. Clair. The river is considerably more than half a mile wide, the distance between the docks on the opposing banks — between which large ferry boats ply all the day long — being just half a mile. Wind sor, in the dominion of Canada, on the farther side of the Detroit river, is little more than a suburb of the larger city. The grade between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie into which its outlet flows, gives an average velocity of two miles and a half per hour to the river as it flows past Detroit. The power of this stream prevents the formation of sandbars at the mouth of the river, such as com pel continuous care on the part of the authorities at Chicago. The same causes preserve an open and safe harbor at Detroit, all through the winter, as the ice formed elsewhere has no chance to effect a lodgment and to dam up the stream. The plan of the city is rectangular from the river bank, and for a distance of Principal Cities of Michigan. 493 twelve hundred feet ; beyond that line the plan changes to the triangle, and the vast city covers an area of very nearly ten square miles. Starting from the grand circus the streets and avenues become magnificent boulevards of from one hundred to two hundred feet in breadth, ornamented by rows of shade trees, and the roads, traversed in part by street railways, are superb carriage drives, such as can hardly be surpassed in any part of the world. The Campus Martius and the Grand Circus are very handsome localities, around which the choicest buildings are grouped ; but the private residences of the wealthier citizens, standing back from the avenues, in grounds well ornamented by forest trees and shrubs, or laid out as croquet lawns, suggest, beyond the possibil ity of a doubt, that the people congregated in the city know how to enjoy life. An old resident says : " This beautiful city of Detroit is, as you say, charming to the eye, but it is the spirit which prevades the population that is really its greatest fascina tion. Society is high toned, but not exclusive. The able and the worthy have here no difficulty in procuring the entree to the best circles ; and it would be no easy matter to find a community in which intellect is more entirely at home." The street cars unite the more distant points within the city limits, and in conse quence large numbers of people who might, uri der other circum stances, crowd into squalid tenements in the city, are able to move further away from the center without inconvenience, with an actual gain in comfort and in rental. The old city was built almost entirely of wood, and many of the narrow and crowded streets still bear the nomenclature which marks their origin, but the new city which is rising every day into greater prominence, until the small beginnings are all but lost sight of, is being mainly constructed of brick, stone and iron. The city was at one time besieged by the Indian forces combined under Pontiac, but the citizens and the soldiery were fully competent for the work of defense. In the year 1812, Governor Hull surrendered the city to the British without a blow and for some time the place re mained in their hands ; but the following year was brightened by an event more glorious for our arms, when Commodore Perry, with a small force, attacked and conquered the British fleet on Lake Erie, demonstrating that the blood of the old Vikings had 494 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. not died out in the hardy race. The defeat of Tecumseh by Gen. Harrison, and the victory achieved over the British forces by that officer, on the banks of the Thames in Canada, only a few miles ¦ from Detroit, caused the city to be evacuated without delay ; and the original mishap was lost sight of in the subsequent glorious conduct of our troops. The old state house, which.fell into disuse when Lansing became the capital of Michigan, is now devoted to science, literature and the arts; and its latter days are better than the first. The custom house is a fine stone edifice, but it is en tirely eclipsed by the new city hall, the high tower of which is visited by almost every person that makes a stay in the city. The coup d'ceil is magnificent, and the panorama that could do justice to the scene of beauty, unrolled many hundreds of feet below the spectator, here in the charming river, there on the lake, then stretching away on the other side into the British dominion, here striking off by avenue, -railway and road toward the interior of the state, with all the principal residences embowered in trees, and the populous streets thronged by the moving caravans of commerce, would offer to the contemplative mind the beau ideal of modern civilization. Having spoken with becoming praise of the intellectual tone of Detroit, it is but the corollary of that fact to say that the public school system is well nigh perfect. There are one hundred and twelve public schools, all provided with suitable buildings, and the grading of these institutions has been attended to with great success. The people have much cause to be proud of those establishments, but tho statistics of education reveal the unhappy truth that a large per centage of the children of school age in the city are not partakers in the training pro vided for their advantage. The number of enrolled scholars is a little over eleven thousand, the children who should attend aggre gating about twenty-seven thousand. There are one hundred and fifty teachers engaged in the work. During the ten years ending in 1870, the population of Detroit increased from 45,619 to 79,577, consequently, considering the rapid growth which has marked the community during the time which has since elapsed, it is safe to assume that the city has now a population of fully one hundred thousand. The number and elegance of the churches in this place furnish a never failing theme for comment. Principal Cities of Michigan. 495 There are splendid facilities here for railroad travel and traffic, and of course, the river and lake are alike available for commerce. The eastern terminus of the Michisran Central railroad, and of the Detroit and Milwaukee railroad are here, the freight depot of the first named company being a superb establishment. The north ern terminus of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the western terminus of the Grand Trunk railroad of Canada being also here, there are unrivalled opportunities for passengers and commerce. Detroit is the port of entry and the seat of justice for Wayne county. The commercial importance of the city ap pears upon an inspection of its imports and exports, the latter includ ing grain, wool, pork, and copper ore, and the tonnage of enrolled and licensed vessels in the year 1871, aggregated more than sev enty-eight thousand tons, the clearances for that showing a total of 904,778 tons. The city is well lighted with gas, and the water supply is obtained from the river by a steam engine which deliv ers it to a large hydraulic reservoir, from whence the city pipes are fed. The steam fire department is very effective, and the system of signals worked in the city, enables the people to locate the cause of every alarm within a few doors at farthest. The benevolent institutions of Detroit include the House for the Friendless, the Industrial School, the Orphan Asylum, and three hospitals, the Harper, the Marine Hospital and St. Mary's. The Industrial School gathers in all the vagrancy and rags among the juveniles of the city, and the little ones are fed once every day and being taught to mend their clothes, and make new garments, as well as to read, write and sing. The amount of good effected by such means is so great, that the expense of the operation is a mere bagatalle by comparison. Detroit has many ideas which are worthy of being copied. There are thirty newspapers, magazines . and periodicals published in the city, many of the papers posses sing great merit. The manufacturing enterprise of Detroit is de veloped in the manufacture of iron machinery of all kinds, loco motives, window sashes and blinds, leather and leather ware, fur niture of the best kinds, lumber, lager, and iron and brass works of every kind. There is one large establishment in the city de voted to the manufacture of iron from the ores which are shipped to this point from lake Superior, where extensive mines are being 496 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. worked ; and more than $2,000,000 worth of copper from the same range of country is annually smelted into ingot copper in Detroit. When the French, in 1670, first erected a fort on the site now occupied by the city, the country around was occupied by Indian villages, the Ottawas, the Pottawattamies, and the Hu rons, but when the Hurons had been converted by ihe Jesuits, that tribe was nearly destroyed and wholly scattered by the Iroquois. When Canada was conquered from the French the British forces took possession of the fort in 1760, and after the close of the revolutionary war, Great Britain made many excuses for holding the fort until 1796, thirteen years after the delivery should have been made. There was then a village around the fort, and that had become a town in 1805, when a great fire de stroyed almost every vestige, and a new plan was adopted in platting the elegant city which is now known as Detroit. Grand Bapids. — ¦ This is a city which is very rapidly devel oping, as its manufactures increase daily, its commerce is large, its railroad connections are very complete, and the citizens generally are very enterprising people. Kent county has its seat of justice in Grand Eapids, and the population cannot be less than twenty- two thousand, upon the most moderate estimate. In the year 1860, this little settlement on the banks of Grand river, had only about eight thousand people, and during the ten- years next ensu ing, its numbers had increased to 16,507. The lines of, railroad which are connected with Grand Eapids are the Detroit and Mil waukee, the Grand Eapids and Indiana, which crosses the river at this point connecting this city with Kalamazoo and the north ern parts of Michigan, besides which, a branch of -the Michigan Central, connects this center of industry with the cities of Char lotte and Jackson. Grand Eapids stands east of Grand Haven, distant about thirty-two miles,and it is forty-nine miles from Kala mazoo. There are eight newspapers published in the city, and the tone of the press is metropolitan. The rapids of Grand river probably suggested the establishment of lumber works at this point, forty miles from the mouth of the river, and the city has grown up rapidly on both banks. The stream is about nine hun dred feet wide at the location of the city, and numerous works are Principal Cities of Michigan. 497 established where the current can be turned to account as motive power for flouring mills, foundries and saw mills. Small steamers run on the river above the rapids to Lyons at a distance of fifty miles, and larger vessels connect with Grand Haven, the city of sandhills, whence larger steamers cross the lake in every direction to Milwaukee, Chicago, and elsewhere. There are very handsome and commodious business premises in the city of Grand Eapids, the bustle in its streets, and the amount of capital invested in manufactures, alike testifying to the vast capabilities of its mer cantile population. Persons arriving at this point from Grand Haven are very favorably impressed by the contrast which is abruptly presented. The streets are quite wide and in moder ately good repair, but fires, which have several times attacked the city, will cause the quantity of lumber used for building purposes to decrease every year, the more1 especially as large quantities of building stone are quarried in the neighborhood. Lumber is one 'of the chief exports from Grand Eapids, and gypsum or land plas ter, as it is more frequently called, is procured here in considerable quantity. Building stone, and lime which can be manufactured here, also figure among the shipments, assisting to make an im mense aggregate of wealth conveyed by the river and the roads. There are salt springs in this neighborhood, which produce a bushel of salt from every twenty-nine gallons of water, and the minimum of chemical impurities which are found in the manufac ture place the saline springs of this locality almost on a par with the larger and more numerous springs of the same kind in Kan sas, considerably above the average of the sources of salt supply in Great Britain. The excellent quality of the article, and the nearness of the supply, causes quite a demand for this salt in Chicago, for packing purposes, and the manufactories increase their activity continually. The Grand river flows through one of -the best timbered sec tions of the state of Michigan, and the lumber trade of Grand Eapids is the center of supply for an immense area, as all the means which facilitate easy and .profitable handling of immense masses of timber, and converting them into the forms best adapted to serve the purposes of builders, are here possessed in perfection. So large is the range of country from which supplies are pro- 498 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. cured, that it is claimed, apparently on a sound basis, that the reproductive powers of nature are fully equal to all the drain yet made upon its resources, the young timber springing up all the more rapidly where the clearings are made, and speedily attain ing such proportions as will in a few years make it valuable for lumber of some kinds. The city is well endowed with churches, no less than fourteen of various capacity and orders of architec ture, being now in good working order, and two other edifices are projected. Three of the churches are really handsome buildings, and all of them taken together are sufficiently commodious to meet the demand for church sittings in this locality. For Grand Eapids, like many other places where the lumbering interests are large, confirms the idea that, as a class, lumbermen are not the most strict in the observance of the Sabbath, nor the most steady in their visits to the house of prayer. Whether this arises from the business itself or from the natural tendencies of the men who generally follow this business, we leave the reader to decide for himself. The city of Grand Eapids was first settled in the year 1833, but there were only a few scattered residences to accommodate workmen and employers until the year L836, when the growing demands for lumber indicated the permanency of the works upon the river banks, and a village was accordingly platted. In the year 1850, the population and the prospects of the place had made such advances, that the town was incorporated as a city, and its growth since that period has gone on in an increas ing ratio. The city is now supplied with water from the river, and the supply can be increased sufficiently to meet the wants of a population of one hundred thousand. The fire de partment is very effective, and the best machinery is available for the rescue of life and property, as well as for the extinction of flames when a conflagration occurs. The site of the city is pronounced very favorable to health, a consideration of moment, in a state which has the reputation of being able to supply chills and fever for a continent Grand Eapids is lighted with gas, and the number and completeness of its hotels give it preeminence over most cities in western Michigan. Principal Cities of Michigan. 499 The schools, public and private, in Grand Eapids, are good, and in the former the grading has been attended to by a school board, exceedingly well qualified for the work, consequently the results which are attained give good returns upon the capital in vested. The private schools compete in a very spirited way for the support of the wealthier sections of the community, and many of those institutions deservedly take a high rank. Adrian. — The city of Adrian is a very beautiful place and it is the home of a very enterprising community, but for some years past its growth has been very moderate, a neighboring town hav ing competed very effectually for shipments of grain. The first settlement on the site of Adrian was made in the year 1828, when the principal attraction to the spot was the beauty of the position on the banks of a branch of the river Eaisin, which runs through the city. The water powers which are here available were very inviting in the center of a rich agricultural country, well adapted for the production of grain, and flouring mills were soon afterwards erected, forming the nucleus of many similar en terprises since that time. Settlement on the lands around Adrian was proceeding very rapidly, before the town was laid out, and the growing community by the river banks was the mgrket to which the agriculturists looked for the exchange of their products for the various luxuries and necessaries of which they stood in need. That fact brought a large local trade to Adrian very early in its history, and the number of mills and factories upon the banks of the stream went on increasing. The position of Adrian, only thirty-three miles from Toledo, or more properly from the the upper and lower landings, on the site which has since become Toledo, in the neighboring state of Ohio, enabled the traders to ship off their accumulating grain, at intervals, to the shores of lake Erie, where there never failed to be found warehousemen and shippers ready for such traffic, and the importance of the little town increased with every sign of such enterprise. Detroit, the capital of the state, was too far away to be made the commercial center for Adrian enterprise ; the difference was forty miles in favor of Toledo, the distance to Detroit being seventy-three miles. The branch of the Eaisin is but a small stream, valuable for 500 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. water power, but not for navigation, although the spring freshets give it quite an imposing appearance. Iu the year 1853, the progress made by Adrian justified its promoters in procuring its incorporation as a city, and long before that time its value as a ship ping center had been recognized by farmers and stock raisers, more especially after the construction of railways had opened the way for rapid and economical transit to Detroit as well as to Toledo, and had connected the city through Chicago, with the whole of the union. Adrian increased very considerably after railways were opened, as almost every center of population is cer tain to do where there are agricultural, mining, manufacturing or other industrial facilities to sustain the energies of the people. Adrian is a very beautiful city, with broad well paved and well graded streets, and the business premises are handsome as well as commodious, many of the merchants therein being men of ex ceptional attainments, who have brought into their commercial pursurts, the ripe results of high culture. The roadways are laid out at right angles, and shade trees adorn the streets, which are mainly devoted to private residences. The prevalence of wooded grounds and croquet lawns around the dwellings of the more wealthy' citizens, gives an air of comfort and enjoyment to the city, and those who have been so fortunate as to stay for ever so brief a term within the hospitable habitations of Adrian carry with them remembrances of hearty welcome, and intellectual delight, which will not readily die. The number of churches in Adrian and the splendor of many of those edifices are marked features in the locality. The Methodist Episcopal church is perhaps the hand somest, as certainly it is the largest in the city, but where so many other buildings of the same kind are beautiful, it seems invidious to make distinctions. College life gives a tone to Adrian society, and contributes largely to the elegance of its social circles, as many of the professors and their families are leaders of ton, with out in any sense derogating from their scholarly attainments, and with a manifest gain in their capacity to communicate to others a knowledge of the methods by which they have mounted the eminences of Parnassus. There are three newspapers in Adrian, and they are generally high toned and well sustained. One of the dailies has a lady for associate editor, and the raciness Principal Cities of Michigan." 501 of its style, the courage with which its opinions are expressed, and the earnestness with which the journal enters into questions of the day, give to the columns of that paper vast influence with the reading public, and as an almost inevitable consequence a commanding claim upon advertisers, which makes the commer cial success of the undertaking one of the certainties. The popu lation found in Adrian at the time of the last census in 1870, was just 8,438, and it may be safely assumed that it now exceeds ten thousand souls. The public buildings of the city are substantial, and the edifice which is devoted to collegiate pursuits commands the attention of travelers for many miles before they reach Adrian, so effective and so well placed is that architectural fea ture, amid the beautiful surroundings of the place. Doubtless the elegance of that edifice has had some influence in elevating the style of the private residences here, which attracts the atten tion of all observant visitors. The supply of water in Adrian is ample, and the city is illuminated with gas. The opera house is very commodious, and during winter is largely employed for lec tures and other entertainments of an intellectual character, which customarily repay the promoters in a financial point of view as well as otherwise. Theatrical performances are only occasional in the city, but when first class performers visit that locality, they are tolerably sure of an appreciative public, and the distance from Chicago, only two hundred and eleven miles, broken by many ex cellent stopping places en route, secures quite a large share of all the best entertainments of every season for a place situated little more than three hours journey from Detroit, and only thirty- three miles from Toledo. The railroad station at Adrian is a point of junction for many lines and the area covered by the iron roads, the depots which accommodate the large traffic, and the workshops occupied by the employes of the companies are very extensive. The amount of capital employed in the several flour ing mills and manufactories along the river banks is considerable, and the hands employed in such enterprises, added to those who depend upon the railroads for their support, make up a large item in the industrial population centered here, which supports the local trade. Farming enterprise has of late years been direct ed largely into fruit growing, and in the season there are few 502 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. cities in the state in which a person inclined for such enjoyment can more advantageously share in the gifts of Pomona. The school system in Adrian is excellent, the schools are well graded, and taken for all in all, there are -not many cities in Michigan bet ter adapted for the residence of families. Saginaw is a city of considerable promise, situated on the banks of the river of the same name, which is formed in Saginaw county by the confluence of the Shiawassee river with Flint river, forming a navigable stream, which, flowing north, connects this city with lake Huron and the lake system generally. The dis tance to lake Huron is only about twenty-four miles, and the wide, deep stream is traversed by fine steamers which convey pas sengers and the more valuable kinds of freight to the busy center. Heavier and less valuable freights have their appropriate means of dispatch by the same river, "'and the stream being navigable for at least six miles above the town, there will be, in the course of a few years, a still wider extension of the populated area. The river Saginaw, with its numerous tributaries, drains a large pro portion of the lower area of the peninsular state, and the country, which is watered by the many branches of the stream, comprises some of the best timbered and most fertile lands in Michigan. Agricultural pursuits flourish in every part of the surrounding country, and the city, which is the natural as well as the com mercial center for an immense population, must expand into very- great proportions. The city is the seat of justice for Saginaw county, and the buildings necessary for the transaction of county business are very creditable edifices, although unlike most of the public buildings in some states, they do not remind one of the Parthenon at a very considerable distance. The city stands in the township of the same nomination, so that river, county, town ship and city, are all Saginaw. The lumber trade in this region is very extensive, as the presence of timber, water power, labor, capital and inventive skill combine to afford facilities here for that line of business which can hardly be excelled in the world, and when the trees have been converted from the rude beauty in which they adorn the forest, to the grooved and planed plank of commerce, which may make the walls of the farm house, or the Principal Cities of Michigan. 503 flooring for a palace, there are unrivaled facilities for the convey ance of the manufactured article to whatever points may afford the best market, without incurring the expense of railroad traffic. There are other very important industries which are prosecuted here, and the river will afford motive power and dynamical force for an almost illimitable extension. There may come a time when force will be made so cheap, that the velocity of a flowing stream will be of no account, except as a means for the supply of local demands; but the time is yet distant, and the population of Saginaw will have many opportunities to grow rich, before the latest suggestion of science, the utilization of wave power on every shore of oceans and seas, and the natural outflow of that sugges tion, the erection of works to employ wave power everywhere, will make it no longer necessary for man to start the sweat drop upon his brow, except in directing his multifarious agents to their work. The time will come, of course, when the waves in their unceasing beat, as well as the tides and the winds in their courses, must severally do the bidding of man, and in that confidence we quote the words of the poet, "Still may it wave." There are many flouring mills here, which are employed by the vast sup plies of grain, which require to be converted into the form best adapted to meet the demands of graminivorous man. This branch of enterprise is decidedly on the increase, as many of the mills are increasing their powers considerably, and there are some new works being started which will employ numerous hands in that business. The quality of the product shipped from this port will have the effect of still further increasing the demand for Saginaw flour. Planing mills are numerous and extensive, and a very- large aggregate of capital is employed in this department of in dustry, which supports quite a considerable proportion of the population in Saginaw, and which will increase as the country be comes peopled. Many persons suppose that the increase of resi dents in an area of country must necessarily diminish the supply of timber, and they are right, when immense metropolitan cities ex pand their borders, covering many square miles in extent ; but only so far as the soil is occupied in that way. The agriculturist who settles down upon the land, to wrest his living from old mother earth, is not only a farmer, and he does not want his land 504 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. entirely denuded of wood. The fertile bottom lands which are high and dry above the chances of inundation may be wanted for his golden grain and his orchards, or for other similar occupation ; but there are certain to be found many spots where he may ad vantageously plant groves sufficient in the aggregate to supply the saw mills and planing mills in endless succession. Even though no trees should be planted by the hand of man, every monarch of the forest that is felled, leaves room for two or three successors, and at least fifty competitors are ready to enter on the race. Wherever the soil is allowed an opportunity to develop its re sources, trees spring into existence rapidly, and the farmer finds his advantage in the shelter thus afforded to his stock and grow ing crops, to say nothing of the supply of fuel, and the profit which he will eventually reap from the sale of first class trees to be manufactured into building materials and furniture. Saginaw will not suffer for want of lumber on which to operate, for many years to come, and the lumber trade will increase rathe, than di minish. There are machine shops here, which afford a wide range of employment to skilled mechanics, and the salt works are estab lishing a good reputation for the saline product which is largely exported. There are also other manufactories, which, in the ag gregate, employ a large number of hands, but not of such extent as to justify particular mention, and on the whole, Saginaw may be included in the numerous list of cities in this state, which offer to the workingman and to the manufacturer, to the inventor and to the capitalist, as well as to the wide extent of population which must depend upon their enterprise, first class openings for the employment of their energies and wealth, in a manner profit able to themselves and to the community at large. The popula tion -of Saginaw in the year 1870 was 7,460 ; but the growth since that date has been rapid, and it may safely be averred that there are now not less than eleven thousand persons in the city and its busy suburbs. Eailroads have contributed materially to the growth of the city by creating demands for its lumber and other products in other parts of the state. The Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw Eailroad intersects the Flint and Pere Marquette Eail road at this point, and the two roads thus crossing afford bound less facilities for overland shipments to busy centers. Detroit, Principal Cities of Michigan. 505 standing only eighteen miles from lake Erie, is one hundred miles from this city, and the traffic between the two points is very con siderable. The school system in Saginaw is very good, but the attendance is much below the point which should be reached, if the interests of the rising generation are to be properly defended. The philosopher who was asked what should be done to build up an empire replied, " educate your children," and such advice must needs be of yet greater importance, where the youths are to become custodians of a sovereign power, known only to compon ents of a republic. There are two newspapers published in Sag inaw, and they are well conducted exponents of two sided public opinion. The advertising columns are especially well perused, and the journals carry with them the best signs of their own suc cess as well as of the prosperity of their constituents. 'Churches are well supported in Saginaw, but among the lumbermen are many hard cases that would require special missionary enterprise locally applied to reach them with customary ministrations. The public buildings and private residences of the city are very at tractive, and the city will grow for many years to come. Bay City is the county seat of the county bearing the same appellation, which is derived from its location, bounding Saginaw Bay, into which all the rivers and streams which drain and water the county flow. The area of the region of which Bay City is the- administrative center is about seven hundred and sixty square miles, and its population is very rapidly increasing, having ad vanced to nearly sixteen thousand in the year 1870, from a total but little over three thousand, ten years before. The city has an almost unlimited supply of timber in the county, as the lands are intersected in every direction by rivers and streams, all of which have their banks fringed with woodlands. The principal rivers in the county are the estuary of the Saginaw river, in the southern section of the area, Sagnin river, Cog-a-lane river, Eifle river, and Aux Grais. The surface of this region is level and although its capacity for supplying lumber is so great, it contains farms whose aggregate value is set down at over eight hundred thousand dollars, and additions to stock are estimated at two hun dred thousand dollars. In the year 1870, the district produced 506 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. 9,398 bushels of wheat, over 10,000 bushels of oats, 26,505 bush els of potatoes, 1,799 bushels of rye, 8,458 bushels of Indian corn, besides 3,534 tons of hay, and 65,245 pounds of butter. The city and county seat represents the wealth of the whole district because nearly all the markets are found, and shipments made in the commercial center, and a large local business is necessarily effected here. The distance from East Saginaw is just thirteen miles by the river, and the city is consequently only nine miles from Lake Huron at Saginaw Bay. The proximity of the lake has led to a great deal of money being invested in fishing ven tures on that body of water, and there is no difficulty in finding a market for any quantity of fish of the quality common in Lake Huron. Many of the inland lakes and rivers of this continent would repay piscicnltural enterprise, but the waters of Lake Huron abound in fish of the best descriptions in endless variety. The number of men engaged in this business in Bay City affords quite a large local market for the agriculturist, and farmers as a class are great consumers of fish, so that the community can effect a large trade by simple barter. There is no difficulty in sending the finny treasure, which is in excess of the local demand, to in land markets by railroad, as two lines compete for the carrying trade of Bay City, the Flint and Pere Marquette, and the Jack son, Lansing and Saginaw Eailroad. The aggregate of shipments by these lines, and by the lake steamers, which can ascend the river Saginaw, is very considerable, leaving a large margin of profit on the transactions of every day. Dairy produce forms quite a large item in the trade records of Bay City. Lumber is one of tbe main industries in the city and county, and the busi ness is prosecuted in every branch, except that it is probable that in the course of a few years the manufacture of furniture will be acclimated as a means of multiplying wealth for the toilers on land and water. There are extensive salt works in the county, which find an outlet for their product through Bay City, and the " salines " are not likely to be exhausted by the demand, however great it may become. The schools in Bay City are numerous and well administered, but the attendance does not average one-half of the number of children of school age in the locality, and although there are some private schools, their pupils added to those in the Principal Cities of Michigan. 507 public schools still fall far short of the number which should re ceive daily instruction and training. It is not easy to see how this can be remedied, but it is imperative that every good man and woman should consider the fact of paramount importance. There are several churches in Bay City, and the orders of archi tecture are not of a kind to demand special notice, but the services therein are marked by deep earnestness among all classes, and the attendance is good. There are five newspapers published here, representing the views and interests of the whole county. Jackson is a very handsome city, and the seat of administra tion for Jackson county, being situated on the banks of Grand river, which intersects the county, flowing from east to west, through the northern area. The Michigan Central Bailroad runs along the course of the Grand river, intersecting the Michigan Southern, the Fort Wayne, Jackson and Saginaw, and the Jack son, Lansing and Saginaw railroads at this point, just seventy-six miles west of Detroit, and two hundred and eight miles east of Chicago. The population of Jackson city and county have in creased very rapidly of late years, and the exceptional richness of the soil of the county, which is being very rapidly taken up for agricultural purposes, will continue to compel growth in every relation. The Grand river affords exceedingly valuable water powers, which are to some extent improved, but in the year 1870, the total value of manufactures for the whole county was under four thousand dollars. There are several flouring mills and other works located on the banks of the river, and there is good reason for believing that Jackson will now make very rapid progress. In the year 1860, the population was only 4,799, and within ten years the increase had brought up the numbers to 11,447, but the vast acceleration of growth within the five years which have since elapsed must have brought the population up to twenty thousand souls, if not far beyond that point. The railroad depot in Jack son, which is the site of so many intersections, as we have seen, is a very extensive building, containing telegraph offices, the pas senger depot, with very extensive accommodations for persons waiting for the cars, very handsome refreshment saloons, baggage departments, book stalls, and every convenience that foresight 508 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. could suggest for the benefit of travelers. The traffic and travel along these lines is simply immense, as nearly all the railroad business of the state, from Grand Haven to Detroit, seems to pass through Jackson city. The school system in Jackson is well car ried out by a board of able men, well qualified for the discharge of such onerous duties, and the teachers, who administer the ad mirably graded institutions of this locality, are well adapted to their several departments, but when all that has been said, we are still confronted by the unwelcome fact that the attendance is far below the number which should be seen. Hardly one'half of the children of any city in the union, at this day, can be induced to attend school with such regularity as will secure valuable re sults; and many of those who are in regular attendance pursue their studies perfunctorily, if that can properly be called pursuit, which is in reality only tame acquiescence in a prescribed course. When Martin Luther and his classmates, the Minnesingers, were compelled to sing in the German streets, to procure the means to live, while they studied day after clay, there was earnestness and holy zeal in their childish voices, which came afterwards out into the broad sunlight, in their manly and noble lives ; but our boys and girls, lapped in luxuries, of which these grand souls never dreamed, feel that they have " Come to this world as a gentleman comes, To apartments ready furnished," and it hardly beseems them to be in earnest about education, although the priceless jewel in their heads must fall into almost utter worthlessness, without proper and continuous labor. Per haps the low rate of remuneration which is customarily bestowed upon tutors and professors in this country is one reason why children are so lax in their studies. The girls have more zeal than the boys, because their gentler natures incline toward culti vation ; but the boys know how small are the salaries paid to the very best talent procurable in schools, and they are not tempted to embrace a pursuit which offers remuneration so meager. , It would be a wise expenditure on our part if every salary were doubled from this hour, and the fact made known that every man and woman in the community, and every boy and girl now grow- Principal Cities of Michigan. 509 ing up under the system, might enter into competitive examina tions from time to time, to prove their fitness for' the task of tuition, with the certainty that the most able would carry off prizes worth winning in the battle of life. Every youth would strive then to press to the front for the rich rewards which would wait upbn special fitness, and in the honor thus bestowed upon learning, society at large must be in every way the gainer. The best tal ents would be engaged in tuition, and the very poorest would be stimulated to better work than can be expected now, under a sys tem which grinds the face of the teacher, and gives to him or her no more pay than barely suffices to keep body and soul together. Time was, and that not more than three centuries and a half ago, when education led the way to the highest offices in the state among our ancestors, and Cardinal Wolsey was one of the latest fruits of that system, which brought men of comprehensive intel lects to the front, giving them prominence in both church and state ; but education of the better sort is being divorced from state craft, until it is a most unusual thing to discover among our lead ing men the bright intellects which illumine the world. Who would not be surprised if James Eussell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes, or Ealph Waldo Emerson should be offered as candidates for high office ? Yet no man doubts that when supreme fitness becomes the test, just such men will be sought in their retreats and compelled to assume such responsibilities. Pericles was a philosopher, as well as a warrior and statesman. Socrates repre sented his people as a legislator before he figured as a soldier, and before anybody suspected that the wondrous sculptor had within that plain but marvellously endowed head the faith and the intel lect which would raise him to the Christian level as a teacher of mankind and a martyr to his constancy in adoring the unknown God. The days must come again when learning and true fitness shall be the passport to every high position, and when that under standing shall have been well established in the minds of the community, there will be no difficulty in bringing to our schools ninety-nine one-hundredths of all the children of school age. We have " muzzled the ox which treadeth out the corn," and we won der that there are not crowds of competitors for his ill-requited toil. We starve our scholars, while our quack medicine vendors 510 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. grow wealthy, and are honored, and then we are surprised to discover that the rising generation quit school with eager haste, to become quacks. The inventor of some ingenious machine, which will abridge the toil of the laundress, may reap his reward in an old age in the lap of luxury ; but the school ma'am must pinch every day of her life, if she would avoid in the decline of her well spent vigor a practical illustration of the affecting line, " Over the hills to the poor house." Our nostrum for remedying all the existing carelessness as to school is, simply to increase the honors and emoluments of the school ma'am, and of her better paid male competitor, until they have no longer to endure the whims ancl caprices of the people, among whom they "board round," until they can afford to wear the insignia of comfort and competence, and can afford to surround themselves with the best books and thoughts of the world's greatest men. It has been said with truth, that, " The hand that rocks the cradle Is the hand that moves the world," and the mother's influence cannot be underrated by a nation, with out such loss as will speedily reduce its greatness to zero ; but the best mother has so many duties to perform that she is always ready to welcome the assistance which a well graded school affords, for the efficient discharge of her onerous task. The re muneration given to teachers in the city of Jackson, and through out the county of which it is the seat, is not smaller than in the average of cities of the same size in Michigan, but everywhere throughout the state, intellect engaged in tuition is too meagerly rewarded, and throughout the whole union an improvement in that respect will be found advantageous to our national develop ment. There is a seminary for young women in Jackson, which is of exceptional worth, and it is tolerably well sustained by the long suffering and ill-paid class for which it is intended. We hope to see the day when such seminaries will be the cynosure of all eyes in the community, and when for every woman and for every man, scholastic training will be the wise beginning of long lives of culture, from which must come brighter achievements in science and mechanics, lovelier forms of poetic thought, and a better ca pacity generally to see the world as it is, in all its irradiating Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 511 glory, as well as to make the most of its conditions. The state penitentiary is located in Jackson, and within its walls are found hundreds of hard cases that have graduated outside of the school house, to become a charge upon society as criminals and ruffians, or as prisoners all their lives. We establish hygienic regulations at our ports fur the prevention of the chance of infection reaching our children and ourselves from over sea. Personal liberty is a myth where our quarantine regulations are brought into opera tion, and it must some day be perceived that we are allowing a far worse virus to affect whole classes of our population, because we are over scrupulous about personal rights. The churches are numerous and very beautiful in Jackson ; indeed, the whole city is very handsome and well laid out; the streets, business prem ises, churches and opera house illuminated with gas, and well supplied with water, which gushes forth in fountains before the residences of the wealthy, making their green swards a delight to the eyes of the passers by. We have seen that tbe population of the city in 1860 was 4,799, and within ten years it increased to 11,447, consequently it is not difficult to credit the assumption that at the present time the city has twenty thousand inhabitants. The highly improved soil of the county supplies an immense amount of agricultural produce for shipment at Jackson, creating a large local trade, which will be increased every year by more rapidly developing manufactures, until Jackson must become a metropo lis of a vast area. There are six newspapres published in the city, and two of them are very ably conducted. CHAPTEE XLI.I. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF WISCONSIN. Madison — Milwaukee — Racine — Fond du Lac — Oshkosh — Janesville. Madison is the capital of the state of Wisconsin, and the seat of justice for Dane county. The spot selected for this twofold purpose is singularly beautiful, being an isthmus, all but sur- 512 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. rounded, by the four lakes, known as Mendota, Monona, Wau- besa and Kegonsa. The lakes are also known under a numer ical nomenclature, not nearly so euphonious as the native names given above. Fourth lake, or Mendota, is nine miles long by six wide, ranging in some parts from fifty to seventy feet in depth. This lake is by far the largest, and the shores are of white gravel, ¦ which can be seen through the translucent water at considerable distances from the beach. The lake next in size is the Third lake, or Monona, which is more than five miles long by about two miles in width. The other two lakes are each about three miles in length, by two in breadth, and the beauty of the scene which they enhance is not su.rpassed.by the site of any capital city in the union. The surroundings of the valley, in which the city stands well nigh encompassed by the several lakes, are distant hills, from which the capitol and the well formed streets which start from that point as a common center, and the university on an eminence to the west of the city, constitute a very charming picture, elegantly set in the framework of lakes and groves. The isthmus on which the city stands is only about three-quarters of a mile across, but it . has been so well covered by streets and buildings, that the space seems more considerable. The streets are broad and well formed, the sidewalks being mostly of wood, but in some portions of the city stone has been used for side walks, with much advantage in appearance as well as in durabil ity. The best view that can be obtained of the city is from the tower of the capitol, whence a series of panoramic views unfolds to the artistic eye a vision of loveliness which no dream of earth and water, tree and sky can possibly excel. The public build ings of the city are very fine, but of course the capitol is a long way ahead of all competitors, the court house being commodious rather than beautiful, and the post office, one of the type of buildings with which a general dispenser of such favors from Washington has very plentifully dotted the country, accommo dates the pursuit of letters below stairs, while the upper stories are devoted to the United States district court and to various offi ces connected with the general government. The court house is a county structure, and the first floor is devoted to the accommo dation of county officials, the second floor being appropriated for Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 513 eourt purposes and to the ante rooms and offices incidental to such business. The county jail forms part of the same inclosure, but of course there has been no attempt to make that institution an ornament to the capital of the state. The capitol is a very extensive, building, of Wisconsin limestone, standing in the cen ter of a park containing fourteen acres, around which are grouped the principal hotels and business houses of the city, with a sprink ling of churches thrown in to sweeten the general flavor. In this park there was an attempt made some years ago to find good water by artesian borings, but after descending about one thou sand feet, a stream of mineral water was tapped, from which thousands of the citizens have since been supplied with an excel lent substitue for the average contents of a drug store, and the water is still popular. With such bodies of water as the lakes offer to be improved by the Holly system of water works, there would be no difficulty and but little expense in perfecting a sup ply for the whole city, which within one day might be the means of saving from destruction buildings and property worth more than ten times their annual expense, but it has not yet been thought necessary to asssume the necessary expenditure. The citizens depend mainly on wells for supplies of drinking water, and on cisterns for other purposes. The water obtained usually at depths of from twenty to thirty feet, could hardly be surpassed for all culinary purposes. There are no indications in the forma tions around Madison which would lead one to anticipate success for an artesian well bore, but one bore more or less near the state capitol could hardly be a subject for regret. The base of the capitol is occupied for workshops and storehouses, and for other necessary purposes. The first floor is apportioned to the gov ernor and to the several departments of the state government, the rooms being elegant and commodious ; the next floor containing the chambers for the senate and for the assembly, is further de voted to the libraries of the state and to the records of the State Historical Society. The books and documents there available, and the museum of curiosities from the realms of nature and art, there offered for the delight of visitors, is rendered still more im teresting by a collection of oil paintings, "counterfeit present ments " of men more or less noted and useful in the early pio- 33 ' 514 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. neer days of the territory and state. Numerous apartments in the upper stories of the vast building are devoted to useful pur poses, but none more praiseworthy than the allotment of one suite of rooms to a lady artiste, who shines as a painter, having come of a long line of first class artists, and who is now elaborating very beautiful designs for sculpture. The building has a very imposing appearance, having four entrances, corresponding to the cardinal points of the compass, and the general style of the edi fice answers to the description which may be read everywhere of such erections, from the pillared porticos to the vast overshadow ing dome. The state lunatic asylum stands on the far side of lake Mendota, and is a very handsome structure, but not suffi ciently commodious to accommodate all the cases which crave the care of the public, and in consequence another asylum has been recently erected in the city of Oshkosh, concerning which we shall have something to say at the proper time. The man agement of the asylum in this city deserves very high commen dation for efficiency and humanity, in attending to a class of cases which, until of late years had little or no help from professional skill. The state university is controlled by the faculty in con junction with a board nominated by the state, and the number and efficiency of the professors engaged in the work of training, indi cates the generosity with which the state and the general govern ment have aided the institution. Customarily there are about four hundred and fifty students in the institution, but of course the number varies. Both sexes recite in the same classes, but there is one college specially devoted to the ladies, and the bright countenances of " the sweet girl graduates with golden hair," or indeed with auburn, or raven locks, if Tennyson will permit the change, testify to the high order of intelligence which will be contributed to the state at large from the labors of the university. The principal structure stands on an eminence overlooking the lakes, the subordinate buildings occupying rather lower positions, and one college is still in process of erection. The grove of forty acres in which the university buildings stand is about one mile west of the capitol, approached by the broad avenue known as State street. The university has an income of about thirty thou sand dollars per year, and its library and apparatus are perfect Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 515 up to the latest requirements for a thorough mastery of the arts and sciences. The State Historical Society is in every respect a success, and the historian in future days will find rich stores of material wherewith to construct the philosophy of the history of Wisconsin, among the curious records preserved by this institu tion. The population of the city is now probably a little over ten thousand; in the year 1870, there were 9,176 souls in Madi son, having increased to that number from 6,611 within ten years. The population in 1850, was 1,525. There are several churches in the city, some of them very beautiful edifices. The schools are well attended, and graded to perfection. There are eight newspapers in Madison. The city is lit with gas, except a few streets where oil is used. The water powers of the city are excellent but there are few manufactories. The com merce of the locality is well cared for by two railroad compa nies, and communications are perfect with all parts of the state. There are three fire engines in Madison. The Capitol park is a very beautiful enclosure surrounded by an iron palisade which, with the formation of the walks and the erection of ornaments at the main gateways, cost $38,759. The high school building is very handsome, and it cost, exclu sive of the furniture now in use, $20,000. It is two stories high, with a basement, the main edifice being sixty-three feet by forty- four, and the wing thirty-five feet by thirty-six. In the year 1873, the salaries paid to teachers aggregated $12,105. In a former paragraph the artesian well in the capitol reserve has been referred to, and it may not be amiss to add some partic ulars concerning that most interesting work. The well was bored to a depth of one thousand feet, and then abandoned as a failure, because, although water had been reached, it did not overflow as some wells of the kind are known to do, throwing out millions of gallons per day. This expenditure was incurred by the state of Wisconsin in the year 1867, a sum of $8,000 being spent in the work. In the year 1873, the legislature appropriated a sum of $5,000 to procure a permanent supply of water for the capitol ; the idea which then obtained being that a steam pump might be employed to draw the required body of water from Lake Monona and force it into a reservoir, at such an elevation as would enable 516 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. its own gravitation to carry the stream where it was wanted. Gov. Washburn, who was then in office, having had his attention called to the subject, caused a series' of experiments to be made, and the result was that all parties concerned were convinced that the necessary supply was already at hand in the abandoned well. A shaft was sunk to the level of the water, which stood perman ently at about sixty feet from the surface, and a powerful steam pump was set to work through the shaft, connecting the unlimited supply below with the boilers in the vault of the capitol ; the product being a stream which, upon analysis by Gustave Bode, analytical chemist of Milwaukee, shows the following ingredients in the proportions set forth by the several figures : Chloride of sodium, 0.671; Sulphate of soda, 1.538; Bi-carbonate of soda, 1.956; Bi-carbonate of lime, 8.120; Bi-carbonate of magnesia, 6.937; Bi-carbonate of iron, 0.555; Silica, 1.456. The well has been in constant use from that time to the present, and up to this time there has been no failure, and certainly no occasion to regret the later expenditure. Milwaukee — Is known almost all over the union as the Cream City, and the singular appearance of the place as ap proached by railroad or lake fully justifies the appellation; the major portion of all the principal residences being built of pale straw colored bricks, which closely resemble the rich product of the dairy in appearance. This peculiarity of tint arises from the fact that the chemical changes which incorporate with or remove from a locality the iron which customarily gives redness to clay has in the clay deposits of Milwaukee been especially operative in pre serving the clay from mixture with that mineral. The bricks of which the city is so largely built are of excellent quality, and are exported to all the principal cities of the union, where fashion and their fine texture have made them acceptable. Perhaps it would have been more in order to have commenced by giving the bearings of the city, but the name which it bears would still have required elucidation at a later stage, unless an item of history so interesting was to be overlooked entirely. We come now to treat of the general features of the metropolis of Wisconsin, the largest city in the state by an immense disparity, and the nineteenth city Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 517 in the union. Milwaukee is built on both sides of the river of the same name, which runs for a considerable distance, almost parallel with the lake shore on the western side of Lake Michigan, the river coming in from the north, and being joined by the Menomonee river about half a mile from the point where it pours its waters into the lake. The embouchure of the river, with the aids afforded by engineering skill, has given to Milwaukee one of the best, if not the best altogether, of all the harbors on the system of lakes, and in consequence Milwaukee is the best primary wheat market in the world. A member of the board of trade in the Cream City who has seen the board room crowded day after day by an excited mass of men while the operations of a " corner " have been worked out, says that " for courage and foresight, the men who form that body can compare favorably with their wealthier fellow gamblers, the gold board in New York city." The amounts moved and the accruing profits are not so large as in the gold board of course, but the sums involved are very con siderable ; and Milwaukee owes much of its wealth to the move ments of the capitalists who at high noon and at three P. M. every day, save Sundays and holidays, assemble in their spacious premises to handle the staff of life, and to deal in every other of the staple products of the soil. Large fortunes have been made and lost by individuals in the transactions under the regis of that institution, but the general result is on the whole good for society. In connection with this brief reference to "longs" and "shorts," and without glancing further at the mysteries of " seller the month," it will be well to mention here that Milwaukee is es pecially endowed with "elevators," those ungraceful but very valuable aids of commerce, of which we appended a description to our sketch of Chicago. The Milwaukee and St. Paul Bailway Co. have an elevator, one among many in the city, which will hold one million five hundred thousand bushels ; and many of the other buildings of the same kind in private hands are immense. New York allows herself to be beaten in such matters, not only by Chicago but by the cities which are competing with her as points of shipment for Europe ; but the city of Milwaukee maintains a steady course which will not be distanced by the general run of competitors. In the year 1862, the receipts of wheat and flour, 518 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. calculated as wheat, amounted to 18,000,000 bushels; and three "years later the exports from the city and port aggregated 13,250,- 000 bushels. The storage provided is ample to deal with much greater quantities. During the year 1872, the imports to Mil waukee from foreign ports amounted in value to $130,063, and the money value of the exports during the same year reached the vast aggregate of $1,464,972. Facilities for shipment in Milwau kee are as good as can be desired for the present, and the expan sive power which exists among the quiet, easy going citizens of the half German metropolis, will suffice to meet all the contin gencies of growth. The city is eighty-five miles from Chicago, lying north by west from the vaster metropolis with which it is connected by first class railroads. The city is the terminus of the Milwaukee and Northern Eailroad ; of the La Crosse Division, and the Prairie du Chien Division, of the Milwaukee and St. Paul ; of the Western Union ; and of the Detroit and Milwaukee Eailroad ; besides being the head quarters of numerous powerful and commodious steamers, which, as long as the lakes are open, convey passengers and freight to all the principal ports. The harbors are commodious as well as safe, and accidents are com paratively rare among vessels which have made their way from the bosom of the vast lake into the more sheltered waters of the estuary and river. Milwaukee is the port of entry, and the county seat for the county of the same name ; but in the broad interests of its commercial importance, local politics are relegated to very small circles, during the greater portion of the year. Milwaukee was first settled in the year 1835, and its name very properly was taken from the native appellation nearly similar in sound, signifying " fertile or beautiful land." For very many years it was very slow in development, but those who came into the locality remained. Men could live in plenty upon very small earnings, and put by something for the future. Lumber came in abundantly, and where the spacious and elegant opera house now stands near the river in Oneida street were numerous workshops, in which cabinet makers were busily engaged in preparing furni ture for the citizens. Numbers of the workmen so engaged had for their ultimate purpose, settlement upon the beautiful lands which were waiting only " to be tickled with a hoe, to laugh with a har- Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 519 vest." When the workmen had earned a few hundred dollars, they would carry their purpose so far into effect that they would locate a farm, build a log hut for their wives and fam ilies, lay in a small store of necessaries, fence and plant their holding, or part of it, as the case might be, and then return alone to the city to earn the means for the further prosecution of their design, divid ing their labors thus until the time came when their toilfully acquired and improved farms would profitably occupy all their time, and the labor of their families. Many of the best farms near the city of Milwaukee were procured by just such safe and praise worthy operations. When settlers came west, bent upon agricul tural pursuits only, they were ready to give high valuations for the lands cleared, fenced and planted, by the mechanic farmers, and thereupon they cleared out at a considerable profit, moved fur ther afield, took up larger farms with better capital and increased experience, and became men of property, a kind of landed aristoc racy on a small scale, or still better, " A hold peasantry their country's pride, Which once destroyed can never be supplied." In that way Milwaukee increased its own importance, by spread ing its resources in reproductive labor over the surrounding coun try, but the growth of the city was so slow, that it was not until the year 1846, eleven years after the first settlement, that the place had become sufficiently great to warrant incorporation. Col. Juneau, who was identified with the earliest movements of settlers, is still borne in mind by surviving pioneers, for the gen erous and liberal aid which he gave to every step which promised to increase the importance of the town, long before it was sup posed that Milwaukee would become such a metropolitan city as it now is. The fine water powers of the rivers were improved by the establishment of flouring mills, saw mills and manufactories, ferries were made available, connecting the two sides of the settle ment, where there were yet no bridges over the river, and some of the best families in the modern city owe the foundations of their wealth to such enterprise. In four years from the date of incorpor ation, that is to say in- the year 1850, the population had increased to nearly twenty thousand persons, and from that time growth 520 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. became more rapid. The ten years which elapsed before the cen sus of 1860 was taken, witnessed an increase to more than forty- five thousand, and in the year 1870, the latest authentic record showed a total of 71,450 souls. Considering how rapid has been the growth of Milwaukee since that date, it is safe to assume that it now contains one hundred thousand inhabitants, with as fair pros pects of continued prosperity as any other city in the union. It is generally settled among casual talkers, that Milwaukee is half Ger man ; but in reality, the proportion of that element of the popula tion is not so great, unless the consumption of lager is the test of na tionality, in which case it would be safe to say that three-fourths of the families are very German indeed. Figures are said to be the most deceptive factors in any calculation, except facts ; hut when all that has been said, figures alone can help us to master the items in a census, so that we are entitled to give them some atten tion. Figures show that in the year 1870, the native born ele ments in the population of Milwaukee, aggregated 37,667, and the sum total of foreigners of every nationality, including Eng lish, Irish, Welsh, Scotch, French, German, Sclavonian and Dutch, among others too numerous to be particularized, only amounted to 33,773, of which the German element numbered 22,599. The Germans are good colonists ; when they come, they come to stay, and they find themselves surrounded by institu tions which are in many respects an improvement upon the older forms and customs which they have left behind them, in every sense. They are readers and thinkers, with a very high regard for scholarship and learning ; they love music even better than pretzels, lager and sauer kraut; they are law abiding and hospit able, and only those who have lived among them for years can appreciate the extent to which the domestic virtues are cultivated in their families. Even when under the influence of lager, just en route from the bier garten, Franz or Carl is a good fellow, and a pleasant companion, as compared with his neighbor who has filled himself with bad whisky, and other such violent intoxicants. It would be folly to pretend that men who are soaked through with lager are pleasant people ; but, on the other hand, it will be re membered that civilization, while it is increasing the power of the poorer classes to procure such indulgences as the use of liquor, is Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 521 also enlightning the minds of the better informed, until it has be come unfashionable to drink to excess, and many of the foremost intellects of the age are identified with the belief that the use of alcoholic stimulants in any form can be dispensed with by the whole human family, with manifest advantage. Lager, in that aspect, is a doomed item of consumption. It will die out like that abominable snuff which used to discolor the noses of our an cestors until within the last half century, and we may hope that it will carry with it to oblivion, all forms of nicotian abomination, such as we find ruining digestion, poisoning breath, and making roadways barely passable, for those who think that God's foot stool was not primarily meant to be a spittoon. The bluffs which overlook the rivers and the lake are the sites of very elegant and luxurious dwellings, which are adorned by all the arts of the landscape gardener, in the spacious lawns and shrubberies which intervene between the traveled roads and the residences of the wealthy ; and within those homes can be found copies of the best masters interspersed with the productions of the best artists of our own time, articles of vertu which might have adorned Ver sailles, cultured tastes which can appreciate the best contributions to literature and music, and collections of books which only great wealth can compass, and enlightenment desire. The homes in Milwaukee are not stiff and formal abodes, in which women talk "ologies," and men become every day more pedantic ;. the music of the evening is a feast which renders still more piquant the con versation, in which most can participate without trouble or em barrassment, on the leading questions in art journals, scientific magazines, and advanced literature, and in that way better than in any other, Milwaukee is shaping the minds of thousands who will be heard from in their day and generation. The foreign ele ment contributes very largely to such results, and the population of the city is homogeneous to a greater than usual degree, where the two elements are so nearly equal in proportion. It is not pre tended that all the leading families are intellectual, hospitable, musical, and capable of pleasant conversation, but as a whole the population of the city is high toned and amiable. There are twenty-seven newspapers and periodicals published in the city, several of them being old established and very mfluential. First 522 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. class talent is employed on the leading journals in furnishing matter for the editorial columns, which varies from discussions as to the site of ancient Troy, to the minutest items of general and local politics, and personal peccadilloes, dealt with in the lightest style of persiflage. The musical criticisms in the Milwaukee press are usually very good, and customarily the writers have sufficient exercise in that vocation to keep well up to their work. Thea trical notices are also very well considered as a rule, and we know of no place where a mere pretender would be more likely to pro cure his quietus than in the columns devoted to dramatic art in the journals of Milwaukee. Many of the publications which make up the aggregate are published in the German tongue, but so good is the quality of Teutonic lucubration, that one of the English dailies employs an editor in translating special articles into nervous Anglo-Saxon. There are many small publications which are " specialist" in design.and execution ; but even among these there are some which might do honor to the press of any city in the union. The bluffs already mentioned vary from twenty to one hun dred feet in height, some of them being very nearly perpendicu lar. In some cases these bluffs have been adorned by the forma tion of walks which are graded along the face of the descent, con ducting visitors down the well grassed city front to the lake shore, and trees have also been planted at intervals where they are most likely to flourish and increase. The views upon and over the lake where the mighty vessels of commerce form the imposing background of a picture, in which the sailing boat and the skiff fill the foreground with parties of pleasure, are very in teresting. The river Milwaukee and the Menomonee are both navigable for about two miles from the point where the first named river flows into the lake, and the banks of the stream through the heart of the city are covered with immense build ings to the river's brink. The traffic of the streets passes over the river by means of swing bridges, which turn upon pivots to permit of the vessels which ply upon the lake coming into and passing out from the center of the populous city. Everyr second street running down to the river has its bridge, and the number of street cars running on both sides of the stream, from the lake Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 523 front to the extreme points on the south side, bears evidence of the value which time has for the population, and as to the vast extent of the concourse of people whose convenience it is profit able to consider and secure. The city has contributed from its own resources $400,000 toward improving the river and harbor, in addition to the moneys expended under the direction of con gress, to secure the same objects, so that on the principle recog nized by the French aphorism, " Heaven helps those who help themselves," congress and all such inferior, because mundane institutions, should be proud to assist Milwaukee. The streets in the city cross each other at right angles, and the grading is sufficiently cared for to secure moderately good drainage, besides which a large amount is annually expended in procuring under ground drainage, which eventually will be brought to perfection. The business houses are as fine in their way as the handsomest private residences and churches , some of the soft goods firms especially, have incurred immense expenditures in making their , emporiums worthy to be compared with the best known on this continent. Parks have engaged the attention of the citizens to some purpose, but there are sections of the population which would have every cent of public money utilized in works which promise an immediate return in cash, refusing to recognize the excellent value which is procured when a small percentage of outlay in pleasure grounds removes an area of population in a more than, corresponding ratio, out of the hands of the medical profession. The position of the city, with the grand inland sea for its lungs, makes the people less dependent on parks than the residents of strictly inland towns, but it is still a matter of con siderable importance that attractions should be multiplied every where on this continent, to wean the people from their indoor lives and make them familiar with the blessings, fresh air and wholesome exercise. Tlie tendency of public opinion is towards the increase of parks and pleasure grounds, and during the sum mer, croquet mallets are in request on most of the handsome lawns within the city limits. Milwaukee has good gas works, but the price of gas is far too high, considering the moderate cost of all the materials and machinery, and in course of time that inconvenience will be obviated by force of competition. Water 524 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. supply is procured from the lake surface, far out beyond the plash and impurities of the shore, and customarily the inhabit ants are well served in that particular. With such a body of fresh water from which to draw, there is no stint in the quantity available for domestic purposes, for watering lawns and gardens, and for the extinguishment of fires. Milwaukee has been singu larly fortunate in escaping great conflagrations, partly in conse quence of the habits of the people, and in part because the maxim which rules in many cities : " The devil takes the hind most," has not prevented the city fathers observing due caution in regard to the class of buildings erected within the corporate limits. The fire company is very efficient, and the system of signals by telegraphs and bells, such as permits of a fire being announced and dealt with without that fatal loss of time which has condemned many cities to semi-destruction. Then again the use of brick and stone in most of the busy centers has tended to make Milwaukee fire proof to a very considerable extent. The city is governed by a mayor and council, and the police force is moderately efficient, although there is too much scope given to political favoritism in a service in which, especially, everything should depend upon good behavior and efficiency. Still in this respect it must be admitted that the city is better circumstanced than many of its neighboring communities, and its government altogether compares in a very favorable way with Chicago, al though the annual production of lager is said to exceed three million gallons. Much of the lager is doubtless intended for exportation, figuring in the shipments for Grand Haven and the other lake ports, where Milwaukee lager is a "specialty" much in request. Lumber, which is still one of the main exports from Milwaukee, was for a long time the principal feature in its trade; it now wears more subdued proportions in comparing with its surroundings, but the quantity exported is very large, so that it ranks with flour, iron, ironware and beer among the principal items. The flour now manufactured in Milwaukee deserves spe cial mention, for the excellence which distinguishes the higher qualities.^ The damming of the river has been made subservient to milling purposes beyond the point of traffic, but the best flour ing mills are now run by steam machinery. Milwaukee leads Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 525 the whole northwest in the extent of her rolling mills, and in consequence the quantity of iron and ironware exported and supplied for home use is immense. The site of Milwaukee at tracted attention in the latter part of the last century, when in the year 1785, a Frenchman named Alexandre La Framboise, came to this point from Mackinaw and established a trading post, in which quite a large business was done with the Indians, but the Frenchman did not induce his countrymen to join him in making a settlement, and it was half a century later when the first white men came to the spot to make a home for themselves and their families. The opera house in Milwaukee is a very fine theatre, and when companies of actors or lyric artistes visit the city from Chicago or St. Louis, a very fair average of business is customarily done, but large as the city is, the population has never succeeded in sustaining a regular company for more than a passing visit. The academy of music is also adapted for theatrical and operatic performances, but it is only occupied by occasional visitors, at rare intervals. The musical societies among the Ger mans hold their reunions in this building, and it is also used for lectures and for church services every Sunday. The hall is very handsome and commodious, and the front of the building is devoted to the Y. M. A., who have an excellent library and reading room for the accommodation of members. The lectures in the academy of music are among the most successful agencies for the improvement of Milwaukee, as audiences of from fifteen to eighteen hundred are assembled in this magnificent room to hear the soundest philosophy of the day applied to the business of the hour, and the number always anxious to share in the feast makes the cost a bagatelle to all participants. The building is very handsome within and without, and it is deservedly popular among all classes. Milwaukee is very well endowed with public buildings. The post office is a fine structure of the kind com monly seen in the great cities of the union, in which the in terests of letters occupy the lower portion of the structure, and the United States courts and offices the upper floor. The custom house is also a fine building, constructed on the design favored at Washington for some years past, the material being Athens stone. The court house stands fronting Jackson street 526 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. and Oneida, at the junction of Biddle with Jefferson, and a huge open ground is devoted to park purposes between the structure and Oneida street. The building itself is very imposing, and the courts, council chamber and offices of the city and county are provided for in elegant halls, which are good testimonials to the taste of the projectors. The Sentinel newspaper office is a very handsome and commodious building, adapted to all the purposes of an extensive, wealthy and prosperous company, engaged in every branch of printing and publishing, as well as running an admirable journal. The public schools of the city are numerous and well graded, so that the talents of the teachers can be well applied to the work of tuition with good results. Many of the schools contain full machinery for teaching German as well as English, an ad vantage which will be highly appreciated a few years hence, but against which some sections of the small politicians loudly pro test. In connection with some of the schools there are societies in which the more advanced pupils participate in the ktellectual delight of reading and hearing essays on set topics, and discuss ing the facts and conclusions set forth by the writers. The public schools number seventeen in all, and many of the build ings are massive and well proportioned, adapted to secure the comfort and the health of pupils, while supplying every facility for the development of their minds. The number of private schools is steadily increasing, and the efficiency of the principal establishments is a fact thoroughly admitted by all who are ac quainted with their appliances and modes of operation, but our already lengthened notice will not allow of more detailed men tion. There is a female college in Milwaukee which is doing ex cellent work under professors whose attainments command the respect of every scholar. The churches in the city are very nu merous. There were sixty edifices of the kind in 1872, and since that time others have been erected. Emanuel Church, on Astor street, is one of the handsomest buildings in the northwest, and, when crowded, as it sometimes is, by an immense congregation, the auditorium is perfect in its acoustic properties. The building is of stone with lofty square towers, and the interior is somewhat fantastically colored and ornamented, but the general effect is Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 527 very good, and the organ is by far the finest in the state of Wis consin. The Cathedral of St John is also a very fine building, in which the Eoman Catholic Bishop officiates, and the number of other churches which would demand attention if we moved outside the limits already reached, obliges us to bring our re marks on church architecture to a close. There are now over seventy-five ministers of the Gospel, of various denominations, in the city, and nearly all of them have commodious and suitable buildings^ some of which will soon be replaced by more durable and handsome structures. One of the churches, having no church building in which to conduct religious services, has for some months past rented the Academy of Music, and, in that splendid hall every Sunday from fifteen to eighteen hundred worshipers assemble to hear the Word of God expounded by one of the best beloved pastors in the city. The singing of the congregation is led by an able player of the cornet, and, submit ting to the direction thus easily assumed, the great host pours forth a flood of melody which carries the song of praise far and wide into the hearts of thousands in the busy city who might otherwise seldom participate in sabbath observances. Benevolent institutions abound in Milwaukee, the Catholics having established many of their agencies of mercy, by the aid of Protestants, as well as by the liberal contributions of their own flock. There are two orphan asylums under their direction, housing, clothing, feeding and educating many hundreds of the otherwise homeless little ones, and so excellent is the system of moral training that the boys and girls taught in these establish ments can readily be provided with situations when they arrive at the proper age for being sent out into the world. It would be a sin for any person to regret the multiplication of such noble works, and it is gratifying beyond measure to have the statement from the lips of the most prominent upholders of these charities, that the largest donations obtained within the fold have been equalled, sometimes even surpassed, by the munificence of well known and energetic Protestants. The Protestant Orphan Asylum stands on Division street, on the high bluff fronting lake Michi gan, and the institution is in excellent hands. Children of all ages are cared for by the painstaking matron, but infants are cus- 528 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tomarily provided for by engaging wet nurses to attend to their wants until they can safely be weaned. The dormitories are large and high ; the ventilation of the building is very carefully preserved, even in winter, when the exposed position renders an immense consumption of fuel necessary to maintain warmth, There are excellent bath rooms and wash houses which are con tinually in use, and the salle a manger is cheerful as well as com modious. The expenditure of the committee is but small, but every cent is made to afford full value in the work of benevo lence, and the pleasantest feature in the whole affair is the child like love with which every little boy and girl comes up to win the smile and the kind word which the worthy matron is always ready to bestow. There is a school which forms part of the ma chinery of the asylum, and it is excellently administered. There are several hospitals in the city, all excellent institutions, from which much good has been gained by the community, and the Soldiers' Home in the suburb of the city has been visited by thousands from all parts of the union. The public library is an institution much frequented. Eacine is one of the leading cities in the state of Wisconsin, and it is the seat of justice for Eacine county. The city stands on the western shore of Lake Michigan, whereby it commands unrivalled facilities for transport of its products by water to a vast area of country. Eoot river forms a very fine estuary at this point and advantage has been taken of that feature to make a very commodious harbor, one of the best within a wide range of coast. The city has railroad facilities as well as the chance of traffic over the lake, as the Chicago and Northwestern Eailroad has a station here, and the eastern terminus of the Eacine branch of the Western Union Eailroad is located at this point Eacine is twenty-three miles south from Milwaukee and sixty-two miles north from Chicago, consequently in the race for greatness it has formidable rivals to contend with, but notwithstanding, the growth of the city is steady and sure. There are five newspapers pub lished in this locality and they are well managed organs of public opinion, supported in a very satisfactory way by readers and ad vertisers. In the year 1860, the population was 7,751, and when Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 529 .the census was last taken the number had increased nearly one- .third in the course of ten years, the inhabitants at that enumera tion being 9,880. Probably there are now nearly twelve thou sand people in Eacine. The city is backed by very fine agricul tural land, which has been for many years past in the hands of very enterprising and capable men, consequently the area of which Eacine is the center is one of the best cultivated and most fertile counties in the state, and the commerce from this port over the lake consists in a very considerable degree of the farm pro duce of Eacine county. The city is justly famous for the excep tional care which is bestowed upon the management of its schools, and several private establishments run a close race with the pub lic schools in efficiency and attendance. The public schools are graded and the system of inspection resorted to throughout the state displays an exemplary spirit among those to whom is en trusted the educational charge of the rising generation. Besides the schools there is a collegiate institution in this city, known as Eacine college, and very widely known as one of the most active schools of learning in the northwest, under the direction of the Episcopal Church. Eecent events have called so much attention to some of the leading minds in the establishment that it is use less to say more on a subject so well worn than merely to affirm the admirable qualities of training and scholarship which are conferred upon painstaking students here. The city is built on an elevated plateau, about forty feet above the level of the lake, which is at this point seventy miles across, and the streets are laid off at right angles, every roadway being wide enough to permit of the planting of shade trees. The public buildings are very handsome and the private residences of the wealthiest citizens are well placed in beautiful grounds which have had all the advantages of wealth and position to make them elegant and attractive. The churches in the city contribute much to the beauty and aesthetic charm of the place, which is exceptionally favored in the tone and culture of the people, and latterly much attention has been bestowed on literature by the establishment of societies to pro mote lectures on the prominent questions of the day. Hundreds in every city can be induced to attend lectures on historical and scientific subjects, who could not be allured to read one volume 84 530 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. under such headings, but once their minds are engaged in the in teresting pursuit of knowledge, by the eloquence, or the persua sive style of the lecturer, they will follow the trail to any dis tance and from that time every subject becomes important to the omnivorous student of men and things. Lecturers, even when they are not first class, are very useful men in their day and gen eration. They may diffuse wrong information sometimes, but even then they do good, as almost inevitably there are men among their hearers who can set them right to the smallest item of fact and date, and the antagonism roused by one error may be the starting point for hundreds towards the attainment of truth ; or what is even of more value, to the realization of an intense de sire to attain the truth. Eacine is lighted with gas and well sup plied with water, and there are many indications that the best days of the community are yet to come. The lake trade is al ready large and it is rapidly increasing as the large shipments of grain and produce incidentally cause a large local trade, which is still further magnified- by the capital employed in manufactures, increasing the market for the farmer and making every descrip tion of business more profitable. Grain and lumber were for some years the main items of export, but many works which have since been established have changed the aspect of affairs. Flouring mills are now in active operation and the results of their industry fetch good prices after employing an increased amount. of labor, more than repaying all the outlay incurred. The city is connected with the Mississippi trade by a line of railroad which runs to Savannah, Illinois, and in that direction new markets are being opened for the several manufactures which flourish in Ea cine. Steam engines are among the articles manufactured here, and the engineering interests are attracting very much attention, the people having engrossed to their aid in building up this busi ness, some of the soundest heads, and most reliable men of capi tal that have been induced to take a hand anywhere in industrial development. Agriculture being the first love of the city, it is but natural that the manufacture of agricultural implements should engage a large share of the capital available for enterprises of that kind. There are several establishments, all busily em ployed at nearly all seasons of the year in producing the very Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 531 latest improvements for the better and more economical cultiva tion of the soil, and for the purpose of harvesting its fruits. Leather and leather ware are also among the lines of, industry which employ the sons of toil in Eacine, giving a liberal contri bution to the wages fund upon which the prosperity of cities and nations must long continue largely to depend. The first settle ment made at this point dates from the year 1835, when numbers were spreading out over the territory from Milwaukee and land speculations were rife. The growth of the young settlement was not rapid, times of speculation are not usually days of solid growth, but in the year 1848 the city was incorporated, and there are few places in the state where a better average of prosperity may be found than in Eacine. Fond du Lao city stands where, many years ago, there was a French trading post to supply the Indians, and to receive from them their peltry in payment, but the distance of the post from any considerable settlement made it simply an impossibility in the then condition of affairs to establish a colony. Near Peoria, in Illinois, where a colony was formed, it degenerated in the course of a few years into an Indian village, with a horde of de moralized squaws, Canadian voyageurs, and half-castes. It was not until the year 1835, that a settlement was attempted, but since then the very eligible site at the southern end of Lake Win nebago has increased with great rapidity. Winnebago is one of the largest inland lakes in Wisconsin, and it connects the citv of Fond du Lac with the whole lake and river system of this conti nent It is a fine sheet of water thirty miles long by ten miles wide, and has been made the channel of a very extensive trade with Lake Michigan on the one hand, and with the Father of Waters on the other, commanding a traffic to the Gulf of Mexico and New Orleans. Through the Fox river the lake empties its waters into Green Bay, and the channel having been made navi gable for steamers, a large traffic is carried on in that direction. The canal from the Fox river to the Wisconsin river opens up a still more extensive region for home commerce, and much lumber and grain come from all these sources into the city of Fond du Lac for market and shipment. The large number of elevators in 532 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. the city testifies to the large business in cereals which is effected here. Saw mills abound in all directions, and the quantity of lumber shipped from this point over the lakes is simply prodi gious. Agricultural implements are manufactured here by many companies and firms, and the number of hands employed in this branch of industry alone forms a large item in the sum total of the prosperity of the city. Flouring mills are numerous, and they are generally kept busy by the demand for flour instead of grain for shipment. There are soap factories here which produce good articles of commerce, and that branch of labor must steadily ad vance. The railways have also found the advantages which are concentrated here, and there is a large workshop established for the manufacture of railroad cars, from which some of the most graceful carriages that ever ran on the iron road have been turned out. The Chicago & Northwestern Eailroad runs through the heart of Fond du Lac, sixteen miles south of Oshkosh, and one hundred and seventy-seven miles from Chicago, and all points in the west are in communication more or less direct with this city. The land on which the city is built gradually rises as it recedes from Lake Winnebago, and almost every residence has its clump of forest trees, which give to the city almost a park-like appear ance. The people take quite a pride in their shrubberies and the foliage of their shade trees, which adorn every street in the plat on which the city is built. Fifteen years ago there was only one dwelling, worthy of the name, where now stands a thronged city, with a population of at least twenty thousand souls, and so many enterprises crowding into notice that within the next decade that number will be doubled. When the census was taken in 1860, there were but a little more than five thousand persons chiefly engaged in the lumber trade and in flouring mills, but when the next enumeration was made in 1870, the population was 17,764, with every sign of still more rapid growth in the. near future. The fact of the city sustaining seven newspapers, shows that the people are of an enterprising spirit, and that there is some avidity for intellectual food. The site of the city was, in the old days, part prairie and part woodland, the stream being the line of demarcation very naturally, as when the fires came down year after year, destroying every green thing, and leaving Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 533 the trees merely blackened skeletons of the once lovely forest, the river said to the flames, what Canute said to the sea, " Thus far and no farther, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed ; " with this difference, moreover, that the river meant just what was said, while Canute, the Dane, only said his tittle say in order to bring the blush of wholesome shame to the cheeks of his fulsome flat terers. Up to the banks of the river the fire came again and again, but that was the end of its ravages, and as a consequence the woodlands on the other side remained safe and beautiful, waiting for the time when men should come to turn that beauty and wealth to account in building up a prosperous and enlight ened community ; some acres of trees being converted into schools and churches, some into mills and newspapers, others into amuse ments more or less beneficial, and not a small area, touched by the magic wand of the manufacturer, changing into greenbacks or specie, became houses, clothes, food, furniture, and all the thou sand and one things which make homes pleasant, where the hearts of youth may be attuned to sing the praises of the living God for all the glories of earth, water, forest, and sky, by which we are surrounded. The men who came first to settle this pretty spot were not very wealthy, but they had courage, and they saw their opportunity to make comfortable homes and a competency for their families and themselves. There were some hard cases in the original settlement, but they removed or died out very speed ily, after having for a few months or years played their role as "frightful examples." The majority were men who meant to coin their thews and sinews as well as to carry their brains to the mint which always exists where nature and commerce strike hands for a partnership, and they have proved that they were " right men in the right place." They have persevered, and now they are surrounded by all the comforts and elegancies which make up the foundation and concomitants of civilization. The little cab ins, in which a few necessaries were sold, have been replaced by rows of magnificent stores and counting houses, in which mer chants of the wealthiest order transact the affairs of a prosperous community. The shanty in which poor whisky ran to waste, washing away the bodies and souls of men in the same stream, has amplified into many saloons, gorgeous ib appearance, but still 534 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. engrossed in the like traffic with similar results, only suffering some diminution in the fact that as the people have grown wealthier, many have-become more wise than were their fathers in reference to the " Ten thousand casks, forever dribbling out their base contents," concerning which the poet Cowper became sadly eloquent in the last century. The meeting house of slabs, in which a faithful few assembled day by day to comfort and aid each other with advice and prayers, has grown almost beyond recognition, into " steeple houses," which plaintively raise to the sky, as a monument for Christian worshipers, the emblem of flame, which has descended to us from the fire worshipers in Persia, through the Baal frenzy and the beltane towers, which long preserved in Europe the mystery of the adoration of the sun. The simple meeting house is now rep resented by, almost a score of churches, with as many varieties of teaching, but all leading to the one Father, and, perhaps there is, on the whole, as large an average of earnestness and utility in the ministrations now carried on as there was in the days of primitive zeal. Turning from the churches and the gay assemblages which may be found within their walls every Sunday, let us examine the homes in Fond du Lac, which have replaced the rude dwell ings by lake and river in which the pioneers delighted to dwell. There are comparatively few splendid dwellings, no palaces, cer tainly, although some of the wealthier class have surrounded themselves with art treasures and fine architecture, for the sake of the educating influence thus exerted. The bulk of the houses in the city are comfortable habitations, nothing more, most of the better class owning their homesteads, and being happily so placed as that they have no occasion to grudge themselves and their families the little elegancies and improvements which lengthen the day by economizing its minutes, and by affording to every second \some aesthetic charm. The tables are spread with the sub stantial viands which give power, as well as with the cleanness and felicitous neatness which make a spotless table cloth a de light, and when the cloth has been removed, the lamps lighted, and the curtains drawn, so that the family may shut out the in- Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 535 clemency of the season, the sounds which come forth from the walnut grand piano in the corner of the handsome drawing room could hardly be much better, though the keys were touched by one of the high born " F. F. Vs." The people enjoy life more than they did ; they have pleasures of which their ancestors could not afford even to dream, and the staple pleasures of eating, drinking and sleeping have not materially abated in these latter days. Outside many of those houses there are fine shrubberies and forest trees in the grounds, and occasionally a fountain is seen during the summer, throwing its tiny stream upwards toward the sun, to return like gentle dews from heaven. Altogether the scene is very charming indeed, and those who have not seen Fond du Lac will do well to see for themselves that the people, blessed by fortune, have tried to make themselves worthy of its benefi cence. One of the finest blocks in the city is surmounted by a hall, which is capable of accommodating three thousand people, and on rare occasions the vast auditorium is crowded by a living mass, which can give an intelligent verdict on the best opera, the best theatrical performance and the best lecture that the most advanced cities of the northwest can send hither from their abund ance. The center of the hall has a dome of stained glass, in which the colors of the rainbow are linked together as we some times see them in the ravishing combinations of the kaleidoscope. The German population in Fond du Lac is, as usual, quiet, indus trious and law-abiding, fond of innocent amusements, and just a little more than their average neighbors, inclined to think deeply about life and its ineffable mysteries. The scenery around Fond du Lac, as seen from the tops of the highest buildings, is more than beautiful, it is grand, and it is easy to imagine that a people reared amid so many advantages must, in the course of years, produce good fruit for the commonwealth. Artesian wells, which in other localities are phenomenal and rare, are in this city quite common place affairs. Men bore into the earth from ninety to one hundred and thirty feet, and the answering stream gushes forth abundantly from the underground river which rejoices to come into the sunlight. There are numerous artesian wells, and in that respect, as well as many others, the city is happily circum stanced. Fond du Lac is the county seat of the county of the 536 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. same name. The city has good schools, which are well graded and excellently managed, the buildings being very creditable to the community, and the attendance such as to warrant the as sumption that the children and their teachers are on the best pos sible terms. Oshkosh owes her greatness to the lumber trade which first called attention to the unrivalled facilities offered in this location for building up an industrial center. The vitality of the city has been pretty severely tested of late years, by two desolating con flagrations, which left the sawdust covered roads, blackened path ways, intersecting the funeral pyres of an apparently ruined peo ple, but on both occasions the people, hardly pausing to consider the force of their calamities, have lifted their sails aloft to the winds of commerce, and Oshkosh is now more prosperous than ever before. Winnebago county has its seat of administration in Oshkosh, and there are many public buildings which contribute to the architectural beauty of the spot. The city is growing very rapidly and the location is very beautiful, as it occupies both sides of the Fox river, at the point where that stream enters lake Winnebago, which gives it much value as a shipping place for the agricultural produce of an extensive and fertile country. The streets cross each other at right angles on a rising ground, which slopes gradually to the banks of the river and the lake, hence the drainage of the inhabited area falls toward the water level con tinually. The frontage of water is further improved just above the town, by the river expanding into the dimensions of a lake known as lake Butte des Mortes. The orphans of soldiers of this state whose lives were spent in the service of the coun try are, since the abandonment of the home at Madison, main ly cared for in Oshkosh, under the supervision of trustees, who are customarily military men, and thus deeply interested in the furtherance of the objects of their trust. Many, who have come to ages in which they can shift for themselves, have found profitable avocations under the auspices of the institution, and over the others a fatherly care is being exercised, which reflects credit upon the state, and upon the gentlemen who have distin guished themselves by their faithfulness. From personal observe Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 537 ation, it- becomes our duty to say what is here noted in regard to this work of justice, mercy and sound policy, in an age when it is too much the custom of politicians to seek for themselves, and to confer upon their friends offices of trust, the duties of which are neglected from the first, and the titles worn as a merely hon orary badge which carries with it no responsibility. The second lunatic asylum built by the state of Wisconsin is located here, and the surgeon superintendent, Dr. Kemper, is one of the ablest young men in the state, in his particular line of study. In the prosecution of his analyses of manifestations of mania, seeking to connect such facts with the physical features of the brain, the painstaking student has accumulated a wonderful mass of evi dence, which will enable him, when future years have multiplied the foundations of theory, to construct sound and rational ex planations of the phenomena of insanity, and by such works, to help toward devising means of cure. The doctor has procured apparatus for photographing the brain, where post mortem exam inations are possible, under a large magnifying power, without distorting in any respect, the lesions and ulcerations of brain cells, which accompany, if they do not produce frenzy, and all the eccentricities which have too often been manifest in the lives of men of genius ; and such an application of science and art to the best work possible for humanity deserves high encomium. Madness or insanity was, among some of the eastern nations, an evidence of favor from on high, and the men who were by such an affliction prevented from caring for themselves, found in the reverent care of the sane and healthy, abundant compensation, so far as mere physical necessaries were concerned, and their words, where any sense at all could be made out of them, were read by the light of subsequent events, until they seemed prophetic. Among other races, insanity was ascribed to possession by evil spirits and daemons, sometimes evil and sometimes good — only of late years has demon been made to carry a signification entirely evil and devilish — and in that case also madness secured exceptional at tention. The value which was attached by the people to the tes timonies of men so afflicted has attracted the notice of every student of the scriptures. When civilization spread throughout Europe, it became the custom, possibly learned in part from the 538 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. customs in Palestine during the crusades, to pet and pamper the more harmless lunatics, in the castles and houses of the great, where they were accustomed to amuse their masters and the guests that came to share the hospitalities of the day. The poor creatures were privileged to say what they pleased, none taking offense at the vagaries of the insane, and sometimes where the mania was only temporary, very shrewd censures were launched against the vices of the day, by the insane plaything of the hour. Fools who wore the guise of insanity were next in vogue, and Shakspere has made the whole world intimate with their modes of operation, in the picture that Hamlet drew of the amuseur of his father's court, when taking in his hand the skull of the ancient favorite who had " carried him upon his back," and " whose lips he had kissed he knew not how oft," he said : " Alas poor Yorick! I knew him well, Horatio ; He was a fellow of infinite jest, Fitted to keep the table in a roar." The profession became so lucrative and pleasant, that as we have seen in the world admired picture of Touchstone, "the mel ancholy Jacques " in " the forest of Ardennes " cried " Motley's the only wear," and petitioned to be made court fool, that he might purge the world of its faults and vices. In actual legisla tion we find the Scotch parliament, in the fifteenth century, mak ing it a penal offense for any man to feign madness and folly as a means of livelihood. In England, at that time, " poor Tom's a cold," when heard in the streets, meant that some of the least vio lent of the insane class were allowed to roam the streets, begging in that and similar ways, for the poor demented creatures confined in bedlam. Further on, there was a series of attempts to scourge the devil out of the insane by floggings and other inhuman torments, which were commonly resorted to in dealing with violent cases of dementia, and the heart sickens at the record which leads us up to the wiser and more christian methods of our own time. When we reflect that such genius as that which shone in the " Drapier Letters," in " Gulliver's Travels," and in the other works of Dean Swift, ended in the asylum for the insane ; and that the gentle Charles Lamb was once an inmate of such an establishment, to Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 539 which he had so often to escort his sister Mary, it makes us specially tender toward those who suffer in illustrating the narrow limits which lie between the brightest manifestations of intellect, and the worst vagaries of the insane. " Great wits to madness nearly are allied, And thin partitions do their bounds divide." Dr. Walter Kemper, to whom we are indebted for much valu able information on the subject of the brain in health and in de mentia, will yet be heard from as ranking among the ablest men in his noble profession, and Oshkosh is honored in the retention of such a man in the asylum, which gives good care to the insane and suffering. The county court house and jail in Oshkosh can hardly be said to be charming, but the building is very fine,- and the eloquence of the city fathers can sometimes be heard to good effect within the walls devoted to county government. In the city proper this is the principal building, and it shows to great advantage, sur rounded as it is by so many edifices of wood. Nearly all the business premises and residences in Oshkosh are built of lumber, in the production of which the city amasses fortunes for busy cap italists and adventurers every year. The river and lakes, by which the city stands connected with the ocean and the whole world, are not the only means of transport available here, as this place has a very busy station on the Wisconsin division of the Chicago and Northwestern Bailroad, and the northern terminus of the Oshkosh and Mississippi branch of the Milwaukee and St. Paul Eailroad is here located. The distance from Fond du Lac is but small, yet the two cities are not rivals ; they rather flourish side by side than compete with each other. There are no less than thirty steam saw lumber, lath and shingle- mills in Oshkosh, and other manufactories which increase in magnitude continually, and there is an intention manifest to make the city consist of stone buildings instead of wood, in the developments of the next few years. The change will be in every sense wise and econom ical. Lines of steamers start from this point during the season when the lakes are open, and an extensive shipyard is located here to furnish vessels for that service. The work is already as- 540 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Burning large proportions, and many hands are employed, but there can be no doubt that in the course of the next decade, such enterprises will be much more numerous and extensive. The city has many other industries which should be enumerated, but we must content ourselves by naming only a few of the principal, among which we find planing mills, sash, door and fence factories, foundries, machine shops, agricultural implement works, flouring mills, breweries and tanneries. Immense shipments of grain are made from this port annually, and still it is evident that the ca pacity of the surrounding country for production has not been ex hausted. The farms which were under the old system, supposed to have been brought up to the highest points of excellence, have, in many cases, passed into the hands of men possessed of much greater capital than the original owners, and in their hands high farming has proved an admirable speculation, beneficial to the parties concerned and to the state at large. The population of Oshkosh, in the year 1860, was a little more than six thousand souls ; but within the ten years next ensuing, that number more than doubled, as in the year 1870. when the last census was taken, there were 12,663 inhabitants. It is a noteworthy fact that after each conflagration, there has been a rush of builders in stone and wood toward the burnt district from all parts of the state, and as a rule, the men so attracted remain, in a very large proportion, transformed from transient to permanent residents, by the pros pect of remunerative labor. The city has a mayor and council governing the place under the provisions of the city charter, and as a whole the administration is economical and effective. The school system is well managed, there are many public schools well graded, and the teachers are able and efficient. Many of the most respected citizens are men to whom the advantages of early training were not extended, and they are naturally very desirous that their sons and daughters should escape from the disqualifica tions under which they have been conscious of laboring all their lives. Oshkosh generally is sound on all such matters, and the people are very fond of the innocent amusements of the day, con sequently most of the shows and theatrical companies that travel through the state find their advantage in visiting this city of the river and lake. When Oshkosh makes her contribution to the Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 541 great centennial show in Philadelphia, she will figure as a city of twenty thousand inhabitants, and worthy both by courage and inventive skill to double her population in every decade. There are many churches in Oshkosh, and some of them are very fine; but the prevalence of wooden buildings detracts from the splen dor of such edifices. Immediately before the last conflagration, one of the churches had just caused to be erected a magnificent organ, to lead and train the voices of the people, in their songs of adoration to the Most High, and there is much willingness on the part of the wealthier class to contribute toward such objects. Many of the preachers are men of exceptional talent, and their congregations bear testimony to their usefulness. There are seven newspapers published in the city, and it is worthy of mention that the best of them come out all the more brilliantly after every bapteme defcu, but the proprietors are not anxious for a baptism of fire too often. The water supply of the city is good, and the citizens have all the advantages of gas in their streets and build ings. There are some very handsome residences in Oshkosh. Janesville is the seat of justice for Eock county, and, as seen by the traveler when approaching the place on the Chicago and Northwestern Eailroad, the beauty of the site cannot fail to make a favorable impression. The city stands on both sides of Eock river, rising by gradual ascents from the banks, until the bluffs are reached, which in sorne places tower above the river fully one hundred feet. The city is the point of intersection for the Monroe branch of the Milwaukee and St Baul Eailway with the Chicago and Northwestern, and the depot is quite an exten sive affair, including all the buildings, accommodations and stor age incidental to division stations. Eock county is largely agri cultural, and although there are many stations upon the several lines within distances of a few miles, the average of shipments from Janesville is very considerable. The Corn Exchange, in the market place is not spacious, and it certainly is not orna mental, but it is well attended, and the members are very influen tial men, able to assume the full responsibilities of large transac tions, and swaying the affairs of the city by their counsels and deliberations. The members of the exchange are among the 542 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. most hospitable people in the state, and they extend the ad vantages of their institution to every person whose appearance, or whose introduotions warrant the belief that he is worthy of attention. The quantity of grain shipped from this point is very considerable, and live stock secures a fair share of attention. Some of the residents in the city and suburbs have given much care to the development of a first-class trade in horses, and hun dreds of high steppers are shipped from this place to Chicago and the east. The local and general trade of Janesville aggre gate immensely, and for many years the growth of the city was very rapid, but, after the rebellion had been quelled, things were for a long time very slow, properties could hardly be- sold at any price, and rents fell almost to zero. Notwithstanding all these discouragements, the pioneers of earlier progress did not despair, and when an opportunity occurred to launch out into manufac tures on a considerable scale, the requisite capital was contributed to establish a cotton mill and a shoe factory which have com pletely changed the aspect of the place. House properties will now sell at very fair figures, buildings are once more in progress, and rents bear a fair proportion to the capital invested. The tone of society in Janesville is very good, and the degree of musical cultivation displayed in many of the evening parties, for which the place has become noted, shows that the men who mould the mind of a community have used their powers with good effect here. The spectacular opera of Esther was produced in Janes ville by local talent only, and the performance commanded and deserved high praise. Other pieces are produced every year by similar means, and in that way the musical taste of the popula tion goes on improving. Places of amusement are well frequented in the city, Myers' Opera House being a place of fashionable re sort, well adapted for theatrical performances, and Lappin's Hall and, thc Apollo being much used for the social parties in connec tion with the churches, and for lectures which claim the attention of the literary public. The men whose names are identified with the places of recreation mentioned were among the earliest to build handsome and substantial blocks on the town site, and their investments are almost certain to make fortunes for their descendants. The population of Janesville in the year 1860 was Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 543 7,703, and the war record of the succeeding years was very cred itable to the city, hundreds being sent to the front upon every call for help, and very many leaving their whitened bones on southern battle-fields, as a mute protest against the wrong which they had fought and died to efface. When the census was last taken, in 1870, there were 8,739 souls; and, considering the pro gress made since- that time, it may be fairly assumed that the population approaches twelve thousand. Many of the private residences in Janesville are very fine, and the hospitalities of the city are proverbial. Politics -are fought out to the bitter end every time among the contending parties, but, with the exception of a few marked characters on either side who have the malison of all good men, the bitterest contests end in the lion lying down with the lamb, and, before the typographical rooster has done crowing, conquered and conquerors have shaken hands across the sanguinary chasm, agreeing to be good friends and neighbors until the next time. Speaking of politics and roosters, triumphs and defeats, leads us, almost necessarily, to speak of newspapers, of which there are six published in the city — one daily, the rest semi-weekly and weekly. These represent all shades of political opinion with much vigor and effect, and the average contributions to their several columns will bear comparison with similar effu sions in most papers, not actually metropolitan. Most of the great lecturers that visit the Northwest, visit Janesville, and upon such occasions the beauty and fashion of the city come out in force, filling the capacious Opera House with audiences seldom demonstrative, but always full of appreciation for the best points made by the, best writers and thinkers of the day. There are many lectures delivered in the city every season, and the North western Lyceum Bureau, under whose direction Horace Greeley made his grand lecturing tour in the -Northwest, has its head quarters here under first-class management. Some of the churches are occasionally thrown open for lectures, but, customarily, there is one evening in each week appropriated by each of the princi pal churches for church socials, which, when added to the regu lar congregational and business meetings in that connection, leave but little time for anything besides. The social gatherings of the several churches are prodigious affairs, full of hilarity, and con.- 544 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tributing in various ways to the funds of the institutions with which they are connected. The best possible feeling subsists be tween the several congregations, and occasionally all the churches, except the Catholic and the Episcopal, join in what are known as Union services for some common aim. Many of the churches are handsome, probably the best, with the exception of the Catholic, was the Congregational church, which was destroyed by fire in 1875, but it is being rapidly rehabilitated. The second M. E. church stood next in point of beauty and commodious- ness, and happily it still remains. The church came near being lost to the congregation in consequence of the decline in the value of city property, and the consequent paucity of funds in hands willing to assist; but the pastor of the church, a young man of earnestness and power, made special appeals to men of every shade of religious thought, and, before his pastorate came to an end, the building stood clear of debt, in first-class repair, and better fitted for the work of the Gospel than at any previous time in its history. The Baptist church is a very handsome building, and it has a very rich congregation. The Catholic church is a very fine structure, having in connection therewith a seminary for young ladies, but the progress of the institution is not published to the world. Closely related to the operations of the churches, the Y. M. A.- have a flourishing society in Janes ville, connected with which, in addition to devotional services, there is a good library and reading room, where books of refer ence may be consulted, and current literature exchanged for the delight of fireside circles, during the long evenings of winter. The men who run the institution deserve much praise for the energy with which they keep their little society abreast of the times, and persistently offer to young men inducements which must have the effect, in many cases, of preserving youth from the evil consequences of bad company. A telegraph institute in this city attracts large numbers of young men as students, and most of these are identified with the Y. M. A. during their term of study until ready to go out on duty. The schools of Janesville have had the advantage of first class teachers in all grades, although very many of the young men and women who have served in that capacity could have earned Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 545 more money by the same amount of attention and skill in almost any other profession. The high school is a very commanding structure surmounted by a dome on the highest land within the city limits. The several floors of the massive edifice are devoted to the several grades of tuition to which the high school is devoted, and until lately the head master was one who had obtained his own education in the same institution. The man agement is certainly first class, and the school board is composed of men whose hearts are entirely in their work. There are several ward schools which are run in connection with the high school, and the system of grading applies to all alike. Some few men object to expenditure for the purpose of educating the children of the poor, but the majority can, of course, see that there is no object in which money can be more wisely spent than in training the rising generation to make the best of their God given faculties. But for the education of Watt the steam engine might even now be only an interesting model for a polytechnic, and all the millions that owe their bread to that aid to industrj^ must have been erased, humanly speaking, by the constantly recurring famines and plagues which told of a population that had passed the limits of subsistence. The steam engine drains our mines, improves marshes and morasses into farms, and plows the earth as well as the ocean, drawing nations closer together, exchanging products, so that wealth is practically increased, and in ten thousand ways the great civilizer makes room and pro vision for additional millions on the globe, and all these grand results come from the operations of science and education ; who then shall say, that the money expended in training and expand ing the minds of youth is not the very best outlay in which we can indulge. There are several private schools in the city, but they are not of any great extent. The city is governed by a mayor and council, and on the whole the affairs of the community are very well managed, although there are suspicions of log rolling occasionally, but practically the taxpayers have no reason to complain. The city is lighted with gas of very fair quality, but the water supply of a place so populous must very soon demand attention. The Holly system of water works has been advocated by some of the fore- 35 546 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. most citizens, and may be carried out eventually, but a con siderable outlay and much time were lost in boring on the agri cultural society's fair ground for water, and some persons have not lost faith in artesian operations for the city even now. The water of Eock river is very good when it is secured at some dis tance above the center of population, and it is evident that the Holly system will be eventually resorted, to, if such disasters as that which destroyed the Congregational church are to be avoided in the future. " Letting well alone" is very good policy some times, but not when the water supply of a populous city ia involved in the operation. The destruction of the asylum for the blind at Janesville, two years since, was an event which no supply of water in the city could have prevented, and as it was, the two efficient fire companies, with first class steam engines, did their best, but it is necessary always to be prepared to make the best fight possible, where nothing but a supply of water may be required to extinguish the destroyer. The asylum is now being rebuilt by the state under local supervision, and when finished, the edifice will be a great ornament to the locality. The number-of children and youths of both sexes taught in the institution, and the methods used by tutors, some of whom are blind, make the asylum at all times worthy of a visit. Among other public buildings, the county court house takes high rank ; it stands in a very large enclosure fronting Main street aud Court street, where trees are planted from time to time, and in which a grove, from the earliest days of the settlement, has been the scene of fourth of July celebrations, and the pyrotechnic display that is considered an indispensable incident on such occa sions. The park is quite a spacious affair, and the court house is a very handsome building of stone with balustraded steps leading up to the suites of rooms devoted to the county treasurer, recorder and all other officials. The upper story is apportioned to judiciary proceedings, and the vast hall is used for all political gatherings which discuss the affairs of the public from any stand point of party. Sbme very exciting scenes have been witnessed in that hall, but usually, even the politicians of Janesville are philosophers and philanthropists, so that nobody gets hurt. The cotton mill, recently erected at Janesville, is a large pile of Principal Cities of Wisconsin. 547 building adapted for extensive operations, and the machinery and workmanship employed are so good that one firm in Chicago has bargained to take all the cotton cloth that can be made in the mill. The hands have been at work full time from the first start, and the, capitalists, who went into the speculation to benefit the city only, are happy in discovering that they made a good investment for the benefit of their own funds. So mote it be to the end of the chapter. A woolen mill was established in Janes ville many years ago, but for some cause the management never succeeded in making the works pay until they were so fortunate as to employ a Scotchman who had had experience in Australia, and from that time until now the works have stood upon a paying basis, employing a large number of hands at good wages, buying largely in the wool market and sending cloth of a cheap grade all over the union. There is a woolen mill devoted exclusively to the manufacture of tweeds and shirtings, mainly of wool, in the heart of the city, using the water power of Eock river, and the goods manufactured there will bear comparison with the best of their kind anywhere, considering prices, but the dyeing operations of the establishment are open to improvement. It is very prob able that what is now an individual enterprise will be converted into a larger work under the auspices of a company, in which case, the reputation of the Wheeler mills will go far and wide through the union. There is a shoe factory recently established in Janesville and large numbers of both sexes are employed in attending to the wants of men, women and children so far as their understandings are concerned. The institution has been a success from the beginning. There are other important works which stamp a manufacturing character upon Janesville. In the Harris and Doty works the wants of the agricultural community are the basis upon which the companies work. The Harris works, as they are called, are run by a wealthy company upon a founda tion made by a working man whose name is given to the works. His ingenuity and perseverance attracted the attention of capi talists elsewhere, and he was invited to transfer his skill and industry to other centers, but the people were too wise to allow the charming of other cities to stand between them and their opportunity. Lands were given, capital was subscribed and the 548 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. works daily increasing in efficiency are always working full time to supply local demands which are supplemented by orders from Europe occasionally, so excellent are the productions of the com pany. The Doty works are great employers of labor also, and Janesville occupies a very good position as a manufacturing center. The business men of the city are courageous and intelli gent, their city is beautiful, they deserve success, and they are very likely to secure their deserts. CHAPTEE XLIII. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF MINNESOTA. St. Paul — Minneapolis — Winona — Du Luth. St. Paul stands on the north bank of the Mississippi river, six miles below the point where the Minnesota empties itself into the mightier stream, almost at the head of navigation, and about two thousand and eighty miles from the Gulf of Mexico. From this point vessels of small tonnage ply upon the Mississippi, but the larger steamers seldom pass beyond this city. The site of St. Paul was probably visited in 1680, by Father Hennepin, a Jes uit priest, who accompanied Baron La Salle in his voyage into Illinois in 1679, and then placing himself and party under the guidance of some friendly Indians, accompanied them to their lodges, one hundred and eighty miles above the rapids, now known as St. Anthony's Falls. The Saint was honored by the worthy Pere, when his name was thus conferred upon the natural beauty which had no counterpart in his career, as St. Anthony could not be tempted to a fall, even when Satan assumed the guise of a lovely woman ; the anchorite was too much engrossed in his literary studies to be allured by such vanities, and lyrical history says that " The good Saint Anthony kept his eyes Firmly fixed upon his book." Principal Cities of Minnesota. 549 Settlement did not result from the visit of Pere Hennepin ; his ideas went far beyond material possession of the soil, and at that era it is not easy to imagine how a colony could have been sup ported, in a military sense, if the attempt had been made. The area now embodied in the state of Minnesota was first visited by a Canadian Frenchman named Du Luth, in the year 1678, and his name is borne by the city at the western extremity of lake Superior. The name of the state, Minnesota, signifies in the In dian tongue, "Sky Colored Water." The French king claimed possession of the whole territory in 1689, but it does not appear that any material change was worked in soil or productions by that brilliant exploit. Seventy-seven years later one Jonathan Carver visited this spot, and made a treaty with the Indians, which sought the advantages of trade rather than those of colo nization, and from that time a natural cave, which was made use ful by the white man and his assistants, has been known as Car ver's Cave, but the cave dweller was not properly a settler. After the date of Carver's treaty, it is probable that trading operations were carried on regularly for many years, but nothing is definite ly known on the subject. The men who established a trade in those days were not solicitous of competition ; they fitted out their own vessels, hired their own voyageurs, were their own bankers, and kept their own counsel. The newspaper press of the day, with such men as Benjamin Franklin, and James, his brother, for printers and editors, were too apt to be at war with the Mather family, for the right of free speech, to comprehend that the furtherance of commercial growth formed part of the duty of the printed sheet; but in any case they would have obtained no information as to his commercial relations from Mr. Carver ; he was carving his own fortune in his own way. M. Perrault, who took possession of the country for the king of France in 1689, built a fort on the west shore of lake Pepin, but there are no better records concerning him and his operations which throw any further light upon St. Paul city historically. After the priests and the military and the traders had each in turn examined, and in some degrees possessed the land, the set tlers very slowly came upon their tracks, for society, except in rare cases, will extend her attennm with great caution. In the 550 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. year 1837, Pierre Parent bought the area upon which the first settlement was afterwards laid out, but people were moving up the Mississippi very slowly. Had John Law's Mississippi Com pany, which was incorporated in France in 1717, been carried into vigorous work, it is possible that he, resuming the task which Colbert and Sully had initiated, woflld have directed the energies of the nation toward colonies, manufactures and com merce, with corresponding developments among courtiers, kings and people, which would have saved Europe from the era of rev olution inaugurated in 1789, in France, and never yet concluded. The will of the great financier was thwarted by the ignorance and frenzy of all classes, and what should have been develop ment proved to be bankruptcy, hence the slow movements and tentative experiments of France on the Mississippi and Missouri, which continued far into the eighteenth century, came to nothing in.the end ; and the thirty-eighth year of the nineteenth century was far advanced before there were more than three white resi dents on the site of St. Paul. Two years later there must have been more people, as in 1840, Pere Gaultier built a church which gave to the site on which it stands, and to the city which now flourishes around that spot, its present appellation, St. Paul. In the year intervening, the purchaser of the location had laid off a town and offered it for sale. There were fifty people in the local ity in 1848, and in one year after the town lots were sold, in 1849, the population had increased to five hundred, one year had multiplied the population by ten, reckoning all accretions, as well as the nararal increase. The next year changed the num bers to eleven hundred, the next decade to ten thousand four hundred, the next to twenty thousand, and at this moment there cannot be less than thirty thousand souls in St. Paul.. In the year 1849, the capital of the state of Minnesota was located at St. Paul, but the incorporation as a city was not reached until 1854. The city is the seat of justice for Eamsay county, and the port of entry for a yearly extending commerce. The situation of the city is very charming ; looked at from the river, it appears to climb the bluffs which gradually rise from the banks of the Mississippi to the level of the prairie beyond, but upon further inspection it is found that the city is built upon three terraces, Principal Cities of Minnesota. 551 the first being the levee, which confines the great stream to its adopted channel ; the second, a plateau, was at one time the bot tom of the stream, and is now the second bottom ; the third is the prairie, crowning bluffs of limestone and white sand, upon which are built a number of private residences which complete the adornment of a site naturally beautiful. The white limestone which is seen in the bluffs in some places, supplies an excellent building stone, which hardens upon exposure, although quite soft when first quarried, and the use of that material in many of the business blocks and private houses, gives to St. Paul a pecu liarly handsome appearance architecturally. The city shows every feature in its construction to the best advantage in the vast amphitheatre formed by the terraced bluffs, which it is gradually filling, so that it runs over at the top. The largest and the old est settlement in Minnesota is quite a charming place, apart from the business attractions which it possesses, for men who want to sit in the very lap of fortune. The streets have their lines of shade trees, which give to some portions of the area an air of forest like seclusion, and the residences of the wealthy are em bowered in living green during the vernal seasons. The streets cross each other at right angles, and the several terraces are graded in a manner which secures good drainage and easy com munication between the various planes of the city. The amount of business done in St. Paul may be estimated in part from the fact that during the season there are fifty steamers passing and repassing between this port and Dubuque, La Crosse and St. Louis, and that in addition to such means of transit there are perfect railroad connections with all parts of the union. The city is the northwestern terminus of the Saint Pauhand Chicago railroad, the northern terminus of the Milwaukee and St. Paul, the north eastern terminus of the St. Paul and Sioux City, the eastern termi-, nus of the St. Paul and Pacific, the southeastern terminus of the St Paul branch of the Northern Pacific, the southern terminus of the Lake Superior and Mississippi, and the western terminus of the West Wisconsin railroad. With such facilities for travel and traffic, the city forming the center of a very fertile country, in which the first fruitf ulness of the soil is not yet exhausted, yet in which large capital is being employed, to develop the latent qualities 552 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of the earth ; the merely agricultural resources of the country would justify the expectation of much more considerable growth than is yet found in the.beautiful city. Added to the advantages of situa tion which have been hinted at, which make St. Paul one of the busiest ports on the upper Mississippi, the manufactories already established in the locality are numerous and extensive, but yet evidently only the beginnings of more considerable prosperity. Among the works which we find in full operation, employing a number of hands which goes on increasing every year, there are many steam saw mills and flouring mills, planing mills, brass and iron foundries, and establishments of great extent for the manu facture of boots and shoes for the million, which consume im mense quantities of native leather. There are numerous other industries which employ thousands in the aggregate, but it would require a directory to give each deserving person and company an adequate notice. The main portion of the business of the city is transacted on the first terrace above the levee, the second bot tom of the river, and the staff employed in maintaining the com mercial relations of this rising metropolis represents a large aggre gate of salaried people contributing in no small degree to the gen eral and local business of St. Paul. Schools have commanded much attention from the city, the county, and the state. The gen eral interests of education were committed to the charge of the secretary of state, until the year 1867, when a state superinten dent of instruction was appointed, and since that time, the system has been administered by county superintendents acting under the supervision of the chief, and cooperating with boards of trustees in every school district. There are 2,626 school districts, and 4,111 teachers, providing for the educational wants of 110,590 pupils, besides which there are fifty private schools with fair aver age attendances. The appropriation for school purposes in the state of Minnesota in the year 1870 amounted to $857,816. The collegiate institutions of Minnesota are fairly represented in this city, and there is some expectation that the wants of the farming community will be provided for by the establishment of an agri cultural college similar to that in Lansing, Michigan, in which every pupil must work his own grounds, earn his own keep, and live upon the results of his labors, so that he becomes practically Principal Cities of Minnesota. 553 as well as theoretically an agriculturist. Many of the colleges established to aid in forming and instructing the farming class have failed to render practical service, although the least efficient must do some good. The developments of agriculture during the last fifty years have owed to science and to mechanical improve ments a complete revolution, as may be gathered from the fact that the implements and machines used in husbandry at the present time have cost no less than $500,000,000, merely to sup ply the demand in the United States. There was a time when machinery was thought to be the enemy of man ; when steam en gines were first manufactured by Boulton and Watt in Birming ham, English workmen destroyed both engines and manufactories by fire on many occasions, and when agricultural machinery was introduced, the rustic population in the same country combined to burn up the ricks, granaries and residences of the innovating class, but the progress of events has proved that the machinery which aids human labor lifts the laborer and the workman into comparative affluence. Within the last twenty years in this coun try, the quantity of manual labor requisite for producing and at tending to crops of the same extent and greater value has been reduced one-third, and at the same time the wages paid to men employed have been doubled in nearly every case, as a consequence of the superior facilities acquired by the modern agriculturist It has been asserted that but for the introduction of machinery to the harvest fields during the rebellion, it would have been impos sible for the north to have sent into the field the millions of men who were demanded to settle that terrible strife, without absolute ruin to the agricultural interests of this continent, so that it would appear that the invention of improved reapers, mowers and rakers, assisted materially in putting an end to negro slavery. The num ber of hands dispensed with from the farms all over the union, must find more lucrative employments elsewhere, or else there would be a decrease of the sums paid for wages, instead of such an increase as we have seen, and all the time, thousands who were laborers only and under the old regime must have remained laborers to the end of the chapter are now becoming owners of estates, farming the illimitable prairies, and making food for the millions that will come to build cities, mine our coals, and our 554 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. iron ores, and carry manufacturing industries and inventive skill to their furthest limit. The men who are to run our agricultural colleges must come to their work with tlie full knowledge that the lads whom they are to make into first class, energetic, prac tical, scientific farmers, will be called upon in addition to all their other labors, to hold the balance of justice between all classes in this community, and to cleanse the Augean stable at Washing ton, which might well seem a labor demanding Hercules. The farmer class, joining with the intelligent handicraftsmen' in the cities, have it in their power to mould afresh the lax public opinion of the day, and to make it impossible for a class of men to live in luxury in Washington and elsewhere, as factors of bribery and improper influences, in the lobbies of congress, and of every legislature. The function of the agricultural college is more important than that which belongs for the present to any other educational institution, and it is well that in St. Paul, as well as in other large cities, the matter is being considered by good men and true. The public buildings of St. Paul are not splendid, especially the capitol, which is an edifice of brick, very plain and unattractive, but sufficiently commodious for all purposes, its di mensions being one hundred and forty-three feet by fifty. The state arsenal is much more showy and effective ; the opera house gives evidence that the pleasure loving people of St. Paul have fully digested the old saw : " All work and no play, Makes Jack a dull boy." The interests of learning are also cared for among the adult pop ulace of the city as may be seen upon a visit to the athasneum which has a fair library available for the use of members and makes some provision to supply the popular demand for lectures of an amusing, attractive and instructive kind. The material il lumination and cleansing of the city and its people have been cared for by the establishment of gas works and water works which answer every demand admirably. Newspapers are numer ous and good, there being in all twenty-one published in the city, the major portion in English, but the German and Swedish sec tions of the population are also considered in the supply. Hotels Principal Cities of Minnesota. 555 in St. Paul are luxurious and well managed, quite a large section of the people preferring hotel life to 'the cares of housekeeping. Churches are plentiful, and some of them very handsome indeed. There are two asylums in the city, and they are exceptionally well managed, and the same must be said of the fine hospital which is in every sense a credit to the community. The State Beform School is located in St. Paul in which all the failures that have misused or avoided their chances in every other way are taken hold of by the strong hand of authority to be made useful in some degree during the terms for which they are com mitted to duress, and it is said that some good is being effected by such means. There are very many fine carriage drives in and around the city of St. Paul. Minneapolis. — The second city in the state of Minnesota oc cupies both banks of the Mississippi river, is the seat of justice for Hennepin county, which was named in remembrance of the missionary who was probably the first white man to see the falls of St. Anthony. The part of Minneapolis which stands on the east bank of the river was once known as the town of St An thony ; but there are bridges now uniting the eastern and western sections of a city which- will become much more extensive. The city stands abreast of the falls about ten miles northwest from St. Paul, and is a manufacturing center of very great importance, as the water power available as driving power for mills and factories is immense. The manufactures of the city are estimated to ex ceed eleven million dollars annually, and it is claimed that since the returns were made upon which those figures are founded, very considerable additions and improvements have been made. Mouldings, doors, sashes and lumber are among the largest items in the manufactures of the city ; and besides these there are cast ings, woolen goods, flour, paper, agricultural implements, and a host of items which defy emuneration. The- saw mills alone are said to produce over eighty thousand feet of lumber per year, and they employ a large average of labor. The population in the year 1860 was 5,821, and at the last census, the result of ten years' growth showed an increase of 18,079 ; consequently it is probable that at the present time the population of Minneapolis is . about 558 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. 25,000 souls. There are no less than fourteen newspapers pub lished in the city, the major part being devoted to the English speaking population, but the German and Norwegian citizens have each their organs in the press. There are some very fine hotels in Minneapolis, and the public buildings, chiefly those be longing to the county, are decidedly ornamental. The schools are well managed by boards of trustees, and the attendance of children is decidedly good ; but still a large average of children are never seen in any institution of the kind. There are many private schools well conducted. The bridges across the river are very fine structures. The churches are numerous, elegant, and well attended. The private residences of the citizens, the orna mentation of the city, and the excellent grading of the streets, make the city a very desirable residence. The railroad connec tions of the city are with the St. Paul and Minneapolis ; the St. Paul and Pacific ; the Minneapolis and St. Louis, and the Min neapolis and Duluth Bailroads. The surrounding country is very fertile, the farming class enterprising and intelligent, and the ship ments of produce from this point are considerable, and annually on the increase. Winona city is the county seat of Winona county, and is lo cated on the southwestern bank of the Mississippi river, one hundred and three miles southeast of St. Paul, and three hun dred and seven miles west of Chicago, having excellent railroad communications, by which it is connected with those cities and nearly the whole of the union. Winona contains the western terminus of the La Crosse, Trempealeau and Prescott Eailroad, and the eastern terminus of the Winona and St. Peter Eailroad ; and the city represents so vast an area of agricultural land, that its shipments of farm produce are very large. Usually, when land is first settled in this country, the new comers having no stock, nor other facilities for enriching the soil, pursue an ex haustive system, which leaves the land completely impoverished in the course of a few years, especially where the proper rota tions of crops are not followed ; but around Winona that system does not obtain, exclusively, and there are some very beautiful estates which are farmed as well as any land in the world, conse- Principal Cities of Minnesota. 557 quently the city will long continue to be the largest wheat mar ket in the state of Minnesota. The shipping of cereals will of course only continue in and from any city — unless it is metro politan like Chicago, Newr York, and other such vast congregations of humanity — until the population can divert the stream to the maintenance of its own busy hive, engaged in lucrative manu factures, and every year the necessity to employ manual labor on the farm is being confined within narrower limits, by improve ments in machinery. Twenty years ago many persons thought that the ultima thule of inventive skill had been reached, aud many of the old school protested vigorously against such revolutionary innovptions; but if any first class farmer of the present day should be offered a complete set of the agricultural implements then in use, free of cost, on condition that he would use them exclusively on his farm, he would decline the offer with thanks, or if he persisted in their use, he would be beaten out of the market by the better machinery of competitors. Winona has already entered upon its manufacturing stage of growth, and will increase very rapidly within the next ten years without special effort. The site was first settled in the year 1851, and in the sixth year after its birth, in the year 1857, it was incorporated as a city. When the first census was taken, in the year 1860, there were 2,464 persons congregated in the infant city, and ten years later, when the last census was taken, in 1870, the number had in creased to 7,192. The present population of Winona cannot be less than from ten to eleven thousand, and the city has the aspect of a busy aud prosperous center. Lumber, timber and limestone are among the shipments from the city. The factories established in the place consist of planing mills, saw mills, iron works, car riage making establishments and plow manufactories, besides numerous smaller branches of great importance in the aggregate. There are three newspapers published in Winona, and they enjoy a good circulation throughout the county, being tolerably well supported by advertisers and readers. The average of the mat ter published is good family reading. The state normal school is located at Winona, and as a rule the attainments of students therein will bear comparison with the best schools in the union, however long established. The management of the institution 558 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. has been very much improved within the last five years, and the good feeling which subsists between professors and pupils is an augury of still better results. The public school system in Wi nona is of course a part of the larger scheme provided for the whole state, and the graded schools answer admirably. The high school is quite a handsome building, and the management of the schools is very good. The state normal school deserves mention as one of the public buildings in Winona. There are some very creditable private schools in the city, and the attendance of chil dren in the several establishments brings the population fully up to the average in that regard. The county buildings are located in Winona, and there are numerous churches, well supported in nearly every instance, many of the structures being ornaments to the rapidly growing city. Du Luth was named after the first white man known to have entered the state of Minnesota, or rather the area now comprised in that state. M. DuLuth, a Frenchman, was in this territory the' year before Pere Hennepin visited and named the falls of St. Anthony, in company with the friendly Indians, whom he had accepted as his guides, from the area now known as the state of Illinois. Du Luth js the seat of justice for St. Louis county, and it is located at the western extremity of lake Superior, twelve hundred and thirty five miles, by the lakes, west of the city of Buffalo, N. Y. The Jesuits deserved much praise for their cour age and constancy, in isolating themselves from civilized society, more than two hundred years ago, when only to cross the ocean was an act of heroism in a Frenchman, with his constitutional horror of the maladi du mer, in pursuing the forlorn hope of converting the Indian races. The worthy fathers were geographers as well as missionaries, as their contributions ' in the form of good maps amply prove, and altogether in that era they were valuable mem bers of the community. The city of Du Luth is picturesquely situated on a hill, whence a beautiful view of lake Superior can be obtained, and the mouth of the St. Louis river helps to'make the outlook more charming. The growth of the city has been. and still is extraordinary. Seven years ago a dense forest cover ed the ground, where the busy hive of industry is now planted, Principal Cities of Iowa. 559 and in one year from that time when the census was compiled in 1870, there were 3,131 inhabitants in the place, and their intel lectual vitality was attested by the flourishing condition of four newspapers. The centennial year will probably close on a popu lation of nearly ten thousand souls, in the rapidly developing city. The eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific Eailroad is located in Du Luth, and the Lake Superior and Mississippi Eailroad has here a thriving station. Mining enterprise in the Lake Superior coun try will tend to develop Du Luth for very many years to come, as there are never ending stores of mineral wealth to be unearthed in almost every section of that grand looking coast There are many churches in active operation here, some of them quite hand some, and several schools have been established almost from the beginning, but more are required. CHAPTEE XLIV. PRINCIPAL CITIES OF IOWA. Des Moines — Davenport — Dubuque — Burlington — Keokuk. — Council Bluffs. Des Moines was orginally famous as a fort, and was long known as Fort Des Moines, having been selected by officers of the United States army, as an eligible site on which to establish a permanent military post, to preserve peace among the Indian tribes, and to prevent incursions of white settlers into their terri tory. After the Black Hawk war and the contingent purchase, from the Indians of part of their claims in what is now known as the state of Iowa, had been supplemented by additional pur chases to the extent of $1,000,000, the red man was cleared from the territory, and at the time fixed for entering upon and settling the country, the scene around Fort Des Moines was exciting in the extreme. The signal gun fired at Fort Des Moines at midnight preceding the 11th day of Oct. 1845, was repeated by hun dreds of signal men, stationed in a cordon along the frontier 560 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of the land of promise, and thereupon every man within reach of the sound started on foot, on horseback or in whatever con veyance he possessed, to stake out, mark, blaze, or in some other way indicate the lot upon which it was his intention to locate a claim. Most of the settlers were provided with pitch pine and other torches, and the work was accomplished in a very sys tematic way, so that in the end when the lands were regularly surveyed and legal titles could be obtained by the population so hastily spread over the land, very few disputes arose as to. pre emptions and in the only case in which one settler attempted to take advantage of another, the primitive claim committee made it so warm for the intruder that he was compelled to come to terms and foreswear coveting the property that was not his own. The steamer lone, with Capt. James Allen in command, was the first steamer that ever ascended the Des Moines river, and the captain made his debarkation at the mouth of the Baccoon river, on the site of Des Moines, in May, 1843. The troops built a fort there, and for more than two years were " monarchs of all they surveyed " in the newly purchased territory. In the year 1850, there were only five hundred and fifty-two people on the ground, but the advantages of the situation were beginning to be appreciated, and in 1860, the census showed an increase to nearly. four thousand. The last census, in 1870, enumerated over twelve thousand, and more than twice that number will soon be the estimated population ¦ of the city. ' Brooklyn, now a beautiful suburb of Des Moines, was, in 1846, a vigorous rival for the honor of being the county seat, butPolk county went for Des Moines by a considerable majority, and nine years later, in 1855, the state capital was located at this point, the geographical center of the state. The Des Moines river would have been made navigable by improvements to the point where the city stands but for the rapid development. of railroads immediately after the city rose into notice, and now the accommodation in that respect is so complete that the river can be given up to the furtherance' of manufactures without loss. There are no less than six lines' of railroad competing for the carrying trade of the city : the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific ; the Des Moines and Fort Dodge'; the Keokuk and Des Moines; the Des Moines, Indianola and Mis-' Principal Cities of Iowa. 561 souri; the Des Moines and Minnesota ; and the Des Moines, Winterset and Southwestern. Besides these lines, all of which are in full working order, there are other lines which are now ready or which soon will be ready to commence operations. " The situation of Des Moines is picturesque, ' occupying chiefly the valley and slopes of the hills on both the east and west sides of the river, the hills swelling into a grand semicircle of bluffs, which sweep the horizon on nearly all sides. From these bluffs fine views are obtained, and on their sides and summits are many of the most costly and elegant residences of the city. From the western extremity to Capitol Hill on the east, the sweep is grand and imposing, and is best witnessed from the elevations of Park Hill, south of the Baccoon river — a point commanding a view of the entire city. The city is not compact except in its business por tion, but scattered over considerable territory, the corporation limits extending two and a half miles from north to south, and four and a half miles from east to west. The traveler is apt to be deceived in the number of inhabitants, as many of the residences are scattered far back on the wooded hills, where they are invisible frorh the business part of the city." The level portion of the town plat suffices for all the business requirements of the present day, and there will be space enough to accommodate the demands of commerce when the city and the state possess ten times their present population. The distance of Des Moines from Chicago by railroad is just 357 miles; from Council Bluffs and the city of Omaha, 142 miles ; and from Keokuk, 161 ; Davenport is just 174 miles from this city; thus, "the situation of Des Moines, as to commercial advantages, compares favorably with any city in Iowa. Although it has not the river navigation, like the cities along the eastern border, yet, its location is central, in the midst of a large area unoccupied by any rival city, and in one of the richest agricultural districts in the country. Besides its railroad system — becoming more and more the rival of water navigation every year, and destined at no very distant day to supersede it almost entirely — gives it great commercial advantages, the roads centering here and radiating into all parts of the country east, west, north and south. While Des Moines has a just pride in being the seat of government of a state which, in comparatively 36 562 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. , few years, has attained to the rank of third in agricultural im portance in the union, yet her growth and stability by no means depend upon the location of the capital, and the advantages derived from the business which it creates and fosters. She has resources of her own, derived from the rich surrounding country, the agricultural and mineral wealth of the vicinity, and her facilities and advantages for manufacturing." The public buildings of Des Moines are very fine ; the United States court house, post office, opera house and many of the busi ness blocks are very handsome, the hotels of the city being special features of which the people are justly proud. The streets are well laid out, and the aspects of the business thoroughfares testify to a very large amount of. trade. The river flows through the heart of the city, the rivals of earlier days having become one by com mercial and manufacturing extension, and the beautiful stream is crossed upon four costly bridges, 600 feet in length, while the Eaccoon river has two bridges, affording to South Des Moines and the rich prairies beyond easy communication with the various parts of the city. " Owing to the location of the capitol, the east side is scarely less important than that west of the river, and in the future development and growth of the city, it will all become one compact mass, with its continuous streets joined by bridges on both sides. The principal streets running east and west are laid ont in this manner, and are numbered from the river each way, east of the river being East Court avenue, East Walnut street, etc., and vice versa." Des Moines is divided into two dis tricts for school purposes, east and west, and each district has its independent school board. The western district, that is to say the site of Fort Des Moines, has four school buildings in all, con taining twenty-eight rooms, and seats for 1,716 pupils. The number of children of school age is 2,728. The enrolled is 1,750, or 64 1-5 per cent, of the whole number eligible, a considerably larger per cent, than is found in most of the cities of the United States, except Boston and San Francisco, where the per centage is 95 and 81 respectively. The value of school property in the west district is $219,290. The number of schools is twenty-four, viz. : one ungraded school, thirteen primary schools, nine gram mar schools, and one high school. The teachers employed are Principal Cities of Iowa. 563 twenty-seven — four males and twenty- three females. The course of study in all grades is thorough and progressive, and in the high school extends through four years, embracing the languages, natural philosophy and the higher mathematics. Brooklyn, or East Des Moines District, has two brick school buildings, and a third is about to be erected. The schools are graded, embracing primary, intermediate, grammar and high schools. The building containing the high school is an elegant three-story brick struc ture, and cost the district about $30,000, inclusive of furniture. Tbe number of children of school age in the district is 1,570. Des Moines is the center of a fine farming country, and ship ments are very large from that source; but manufactures are the chief reliance of the capital. There are three immense packing houses in the city, eighteen hotels, six banks, one woolen mill, one oil mill, two stoneware factories, two large establishments for the manufacture of school furniture, five machine shops and foun dries, three plow manufactories, one of which manufactures fifteen hundred plows every year, a brass foundry, two boiler factories, several planing mills, four carriage manufactories, two extensive marble works, a weight and scale factory, a paper mill, a spice mill, and flouring mills in abundance. The Holly system of water works is operated in Des Moines, and the people are well served ; the city is lighted with gas, and the railroad corporations ate expected to make great improvements in their depot accom modations very soon. Many of the private residences in Des Moines are very elegant. The capitol building is estimated to have cost considerably more than $3,000,000. The old state house was a very plain but commodious structure, and the wealth of the state could well ex pend itself in such an edifice to adorn a capital on which nature had been so lavish. There are twenty-three churches in Des Moines, and almost every great variety of Christian denomina tion is represented in the host of worshipers. The number of newspapers and publications in the city is legion, and many of the papers are above the average in point of merit and beauty in production. There are fourteen standard newspapers, besides a number of periodicals and occasional publications. The Des Moines university is an institution under the auspices of the 564 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Baptists, although it was first built and conducted by the Luther ans. It is a very flourishing establishment. There is- a literary association in Des Moines, which opens its library and reading rooms to the public on every working day, and the building is much frequented. The citizens have opened an office, under the title of the "Citizens' Association," for, the purpose of affording information to new comers, and to serve as a kind of registry of wants, which has been found very useful already, and will be still more so. The public at a distance, desirous to procure relia ble information as to the city, can procure the fullest detail on any topic under that heading from the officers of the association. There is also a society of old settlers, who desire to preserve the memories of the earlier days, when the grounds around Fort Des Moines were still warm with the council fires of the red men, and only a few special favorites among white men were permitted to enter the much cherished region. Where the city now sits in beauty, was for a long time the council ground of the tribe of Iowa Indians who have left their name and their ashes as almost their only mementoes in the land. Coal is one of the products of Iowa, which will help still further to enlarge the dimensions of the cap ital, and the exposures of stone in many cases have led to the opening of quarries, which can hardly be excelled on this conti nent for beauty and fineness of texture. The water powers of the Des Moines river are almost without limit, and the farming community on both sides of that delightful stream have an extent of country which can hardly be surpassed for fertility and variety of soil. Davenport is the principal city in the state of Iowa, and the seat of justice for Scott county. It stands on the right bank of the Mississippi river, opposite to Eock Island, two hundred and thirty miles from St. Louis. There is a very fine- bridge connect ing the city with Eock Island. Back of the city a very hand some bluff rises into majestic proportions, giving a remarkable back ground to Davenport. The upper rapids of the Mississippi are near the city, and the water power thus offered for the use of mankind is stupendous. The city stands on a plain inclined toward the river sufficiently for drainage, on which forests of Principal Cities of Iowa. 565 timber used to stand, and to which other forests of masts may yet come, unless railways, in course of time, banish all desire for river navigation. The bottom lands between the bluffs and the river vary from one to two miles in breadth. " At a point about three miles above the city the bluffs open out into a beautiful prairie called Pleasant Valley. Immediately back of the city of Davenport, the slope from the top of the bluffs to Duck creek is one of uncommon beauty and richness, being a rolling prairie covered with gardens, orchards and fields, in the highest state of cultivation. Duck creek, rising in Blue Grass, about ten miles distant from the city, passes through the whole length of Daven port township, and running east empties into the Mississippi about five miles above the city. Its course is up stream, parallel with the Mississippi for a considerable portion of its length, and only one or two miles back from the river." The underlying forma tion of Davenport is white or light gray limestone, which crops out on the river bank in many places, and, near East Davenport, presents to view perpendicular cliffs from 'fifteen to twenty :five feet in height. Cornelians, agates and porphyry in various forms are found in and mixed with the debris of this formation. Look ing at the amphitheater of hills enclosing the city, and contem plating the city itself with its immense business houses, tall chimneys and busy thoroughfares, it presents every aspect of a prosperous commercial and manufacturing city. It is regularly laid out, with broad, ornamental streets, and, besides the county buildings and the city hall, contains many substantial and ele gant edifices, among which is one of the finest opera houses in the west. The population of Davenport in 1840 was 600 ; in 1850, 1,848; in 1860, 11,267; in 1870, 20,038; and is now about 28,000. The Chicago, Bock Island and Pacific and the Daven port and St. Paul Bailroads pass through the city. The old bridge connecting Davenport with Eock Island has recently been replaced by one of wrought iron, resting on massive piers of stone, which, besides a rail track, has accommodations for carriages and pedestrians. It was built partly by the United States and partly' by the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific Eailroad Company, at a cost of $1,000,000. Davenport has all the improvements of a modern city — gaslight, water works, and several miles of street 566 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. railway. She has an immense water power, and is one of the largest grain depots of the upper Mississippi. Where Davenport now stands a claim was made in the year 1833, but the partners in the venture quarreled and eventually sold their joint interests to a third party for a mere bagatelle. The purchaser having in duced others to take an interest in his venture, a town was pro jected on the site, and in the following year, 1836, the town was laid out, but the first four years of its life only found and at tracted a little population of four hundred. Col. Davenport, whose name is perpetuated in the appellation of the city, was an Englishman who very early in life identified himself with this country, and rose to military rank in actual service, fighting the battles of the union. He was a man much respected by all good citizens, but his death was tragic in its features, as in his old age he was murdered in his own house on Eock Island by several desperadoes, whose designs he had frustrated some time before. " From 1805 to 1815 he was attached to the army. He was with Gen. Wilkinson at the Sabine during the trouble with Aaron Burr, and in the war of 1812, in the defense of Fort Erie and at the battle of Lundy's Lane. He accompanied the first expedi tion (1805) which ascended the Mississippi to pacificate the hostile Indians, and assisted in founding Fort Armstrong on Eock Isl and. In 1818, he settled upon the island, where he resided till his death. He was a partner in the American Fur Company till its withdrawal from the Mississippi, after which, till he retired from business, he carried on the trade alone with the Indians. He was a man of excellent character, generous and whole-souled, and had an eventful experience in frontier life." The town of Daven port was incorporated by a special act of the legislature in the year 1838, and in the same year the first brick house in the city was erected. In the .year 1840, the place had become of suffi cient importance to be nominated for the assembly of the first whig convention, and the bands of music present on that occasion did not all of them contribute harmony to the scene. Four years later the first steam mill was erected at this point, and in the year 1853, express and telegraph offices were in full work in the busy, thriving town. One firm, in 1854, in the city of Davenport, ran a business which aggregated over $700,000 within the year. Their Principal Cities of Iowa. 567 flour mills turned out 540 barrels in a day, and, in the preceding year, the proprietors of the Albion mills, being multifarious in their operations, packed 19,000 hogs. Thus the city was built up by first-class energy from almost the beginning, and it has never gone back upon its record. Davenport has eight public school houses, many of which are costly and commodious build ings, supplied with able and efficient teachers. The schools are under the management of a city superintendent and a board of education, and are graded in primary, intermediate, grammar and high school departments. In no city west of the Mississippi, are the public schools in a better condition than in Davenport. Pains have been taken to elect men to regulate the schools who are in telligent and of high moral character. There are many deservedly popular select schools, yet the interest in the common schools of the city has gradually increased in proportion to the efficiency of their management, and experience demonstrates the advantages of a free school system, open to all classes, in which the rich and the poor alike have the opportunities of an education. The newspaper interest in Davenport is very strong, as there are sev eral really excellent journals representing the views of their re spective parties with that smartness and admirable effect which belongs specially to the press of the union. The city has many important manufactories, and, a fine quality of stone coal having been found here, many of the works are run by steam in prefer ence to water power. Cotton cloth, and a very fine quality of woolens are manufactured here. The rapids, which extend along the Mississippi for about twenty miles above Davenport, seriously impede the navigation of the river during the season of low wa ter. There are many churches in Davenport, some of them occu pying beautiful edifices and representing every shade of religious thought, from the Catholic and Episcopalian to the Swedenborgian and Unitarian. Griswold college is one of the most flourishing institutions here,'and the Catholic college is also a success. Dubuque is a very flourishing city, and commercially it takes the lead of the whole state. The first settlement at this point was made by a colony of miners from Prairie du Chien under Ju- lien Dubuque in 1788 — -one hundred and fifteen years after the 568 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. discovery during the famous voyage by Marquette and Joliet The territory now belonging to Iowa was a part of the Spanish prov ince of Louisiana, and the northern portion of the present state was occupied by the Fox Indians. From the chiefs and braves of these Indians, in council at Prairie du Chien, September 22, 1788, Julien Dubuque obtained a permit to work the lead mines, and in that year sent here nine Frenchmen as miners. The mining territory claimed by Dubuque, as shown by a petition to Baron Carondelet, governor of Louisiana, for a confirmation of his purchase from the Indians, in 1795, was about seven leagues along the Mississippi, extending from the Little Maquoketa, several miles north of the city, to the mouth of the Tetes des Morts, then known as the Mesquabysnonques, several miles below. The dis tance between these points is about sixteen miles. The claim ex tended " three leagues " in width from the river, including the prairie and bluffs on which the city is situated, and nearly all the lead bearing land in the vicinity. On the petition, a mining priv ilege was granted to Dubuque, September 10, 1796, which, how ever, was never confirmed by the Spanish government. Dubuque lived on good terms with the Indians, acquired great influence over them, was a patriarchal chief in his colony, collected a num ber of French and half-breeds, built a furnace for smelting lead, a horse power mill, and carried on trade with the Indians in the sale of goods obtained in exchange for lead at St. Louis. Julien Dubuque died in the year 1810, at the early age of 45, and the inscription on his tombstone described him as "a miner of the mines of Spain." Before his death he had deeded about twenty thousand acres of his grant to M. Auguste Choteau, of St. Louis, with whom probably he had long been in business relations, but there was no immediately beneficial result for the grantee. For the next fifteen years little was clone by the French miners, although many remained in the vicinity nearly twenty years. The settlement was broken up in the fierce Indian wars. But the Indian owners, sometimes driven away by their enemies, the Sioux, at length gained strength enough to maintain their posi tion, and carried on mining to a considerable extent. They claimed that Dubuque had only a life interest in the privilege they had granted him. In mining circles the operations of Du- Principal Cities of Iowa. 569 buque had not been forgotten, but the Indians guarded the mines with such scrupulosity, that white men could hardly effect a land ing to examine the old workings, which were for a long time cov ered with grass. The Great Spirit was said to have cautioned them against allowing the mines to be worked, and the general government did not encourage incursions into Indian territoiy. In the year 1830, the Langworthys crossed the Mississippi to Du buque in canoes, swimming their horses, and they found the region abandoned by the Indians, whose tracks were yet fresh. Indian traders were the only white men near them on this side of the Mississippi between Des Moines, and Astoria on the Colum bus river. The last vestige of the Dubuque party had departed some time before. The stalks of the last year's corn waved over the present site of Dubuque, and for miles on either side. The village of Indians, which had subsisted for many years at the mouth of Catfish creek, had been broken up for some mysterious reason, and the remains of the old wigwams alone told of the' gen erations of red men that had come and gone. There were the wrecks of furnaces in which the feasts of the tribes had been pre pared on great occasions, and in a council room which had wit nessed many gatherings to discuss the relative merits of war and peace, there were rude paintings intended to delineate and immor talize the deeds of their braves. Such a memento of the pictured literature of the tribes should have been preserved, but unfortu nately some Goths who visited the place in the year of the Lang worthys arrival, either by accident or design, destroyed the coun cil house by fire. The miners assembled at Dubuque were out side the territory of the United States in 1830, and they formed a commonwealth for mutual protection, under which the rights of individuals were defined and protected, and an arbitrator ap pointed to determine all matters in dispute. The mines proved very remunerative, but the adventurers were not allowed to en joy the results of their enterprise, as the lands on which they were trespassing belonged to the Sac and Fox Indians under treaty, and complaints having been made to the government, the war department issued orders to Col. Zachary Taylor, then sta tioned with a force at Prairie du Chien, to drive off the intruders. Col. Taylor had no option but to obey, and after a notice cour- 570 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. teously sent had been found inoperative, the troops crossed the river, and the miners of course retreated, leaving the main results of their labors to be appropriated by the Indians, who continued to work the mines under the protection of a military force. It is estimated that the red men carried away about $20,000 worth of lead from the reopened workings, being assisted in their opera tions by settlers and traders on the Wisconsin side of the river. This continued until the end of 1831, but in June, 1832, the troops were required for other and more congenial work, being recalled into Illinois and Wisconsin to fight the Indians, and pro tect the settlements which were menaced by the Black Hawk war. After the close of that campaign the Black Hawk purchase opened up part of Iowa to settlement, but a remote day was named for taking possession, and pending that time the Langworthys and some others, having resumed their work, were once more dispos sessed by the military. When at length the government permit ted the mines to be worked, an agent was appointed to inspect the operations of the miners, and to collect a royalty or tax upon their winnings. The unfairness of a special tax upon an industry so full of risk and toil, the men engaged in which industry were also bearing the same burdens as the rest of the community in addition, caused so much dissatisfaction that after about ten years agitation the royalty was abandoned. Permanent settlement commenced in 1833, when five hundred persons came to Dubuque, about one-third of the number coming from Galena, and in the following year the name now borne by the city was adopted in honor of the first comer in 1788. Many of the settlers first attracted to Dubuque were men accustomed, to kill at sight, and for some time lynch law prevailed. Gam bling and drinking were the amusements for Sunday, and the quarrels arising over dice and cards were settled by pistol bullets. Offenders were dealt with by vigilance committees, and these self- constituted courts of justice apportioned punishments from flog ging for minor misdeeds, to hanging for assaults on life, doing, on the whole, a work necessary for the safety of the citizens, until more regular authority could be established ; but in the year 1836, when the territorial government of Wisconsin was inaugurated, the more distant and less vigorous administration of Michigan was Principal Cities of Iowa. 57L replaced by effective rule. The first term of court in Dubuque was held in May, 1837, and a silver quarter was the seal used on the occasion. The fourth of July, 1836, was celebrated in Du buque with great eclat, because it commemorated the political birth of Wisconsin territory, as well as the grand declaration, and twelve days later a public dinner was given to Gov. Dodge, in the same city. Dubuque, the commercial metropolis of Iowa, was, in those days, ambitious to be made the capital of Wisconsin. The site on which Dubuque is built is a plateau or table-land, which rises gradually from the river, and at the average distance of half a mile, swells into a semi-circular range of bluffs, which rise about two hundred and fifty feet above the river. While the business portion of the city is situated on the plateau, and is com pactly and substantially built, containing costly and elegant blocks and one of the finest streets in the state, the most attractive part, fine residences, gardens and ornamented grounds, extend up the sides and over the bluffs, presenting a picturesque and beautiful appearance. Improvements in the way of decoration and grading have not only enlarged the area of land in front of the city, but have added an artistic effect to the general aspect of the place. The low lands near the river have been raised at considerable cost, a large portion of which has been borne by the railroad com panies, making room for a suitable location for their business and buildings. The principal streets of the city are nearly in line with the cardinal points of the compass. Dubuque contains about twenty-five thousand inhabitants, and possesses the institu tions, comforts, social appliances and business facilities which characterize any city of similar dimensions. The growth and progress of Dubuque city from the efforts of a few lead miners scarcely more than forty years ago, to its present status among the flourishing commercial centers of the west, must be a matter of interest, not on7y to the present population, but to the public generally. We can not of course go into details. The most that we can do is to give a brief outline of important facts. Dubuque, the seat of justice for Dubuque county, was not able in 1850 to provide food enough for its own population, nor was the county self-sustaining in that respect. Now the shipments from Dubuque are over 100,000 barrels of flour, 2,000,000 bushels of wheat, 500,- 572 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. 000 bushels of oats, and nearly 100,000 bushels of barley per an num. The immense corn crop is converted into animal products at greater profit than by shipment of grain. Twenty million pounds of dressed pork, 30,000 live hogs, and 10,000 head of cat tle, are about average yearly shipments of these products. The financial revulsion of 1837 did not affect Dubuque. Its resource was lead, produced steadily by the miners and the smelting fur naces. This product commanded cash in the markets of St. Louis or New Orleans. In American mining districts paper money is received cautiously, and the depreciated bank note currency of the eastern states was despised. Gold and silver were the prin cipal forms of money, and so continued for twenty' years. The financial crisis of 1857 had a more disastrous effect. The west at that time was flooded with nearly worthless paper money. Du buque, in 1835, had one wagon shop ; but so great was- the subse quent development, that in 1869, eighteen wagon and carriage manufactories employed 150 men, and sold over 5,000 vehicles. The mill of thirty years ago has been succeeded by a dozen lum ber mills, flouring mills, manufactories of wooden ware, planing mills, iron foundries, machine shops and other branches, to such an extent that Dubuque now ships, with few exceptions, all the articles required in practical agriculture, household economy, and other practical industries ; and the manufacturing interests of Du buque amount by assessment to $4,000,000. There is a fine packing house in the city, in which four hundred hogs can be dressed daily. The city has been much aided by the extension of the iron roads over the country. The first railroad which reached the shore opposite Dubuque was the Illinois Central, in 1855; but the Illinois Central railroad company did not bridge the river in accordance with the terms on which the munificent land grant of 1850 was accepted, and the building of the bridge was delayed ten years, until another corporation, the Dubuque and Dunleith bridge company assumed the work. The bridge was completed in 1865. The main bridge, 1,760 feet long, cost $750,000, and is built entirely of iron and stone. The first railroad westward was the Dubuque and Sioux City, commenced in 1856, and since ex tended to the Missouri river. The Dubuque and Southwestern Principal Cities of Iowa. 573 now connects Dubuque with Cedar Eapids. The Chicago, Clin ton and Dubuque road, and the Chicago, Dubuque and Minnesota, center in this city, and give it railroad facilities equal to the demands of its large and increasing business. The citizens are agitating the subject of building a. narrow gauge road from Dubuque to Mil waukee. By the appropriation of a series of springs, issuing from a tunnel dug to drain a lead mine, Dubuque has a system of water works unsurpassed by any in the country. The water is clear as crystal and abundant. The stream, nearly a hundred feet above the level of Main street, has been enclosed, a reservoir con structed to supply water for extra occasions, ancl pipes laid to every part of the city. The head is such that the water is used as a motive power, being applied to a turbine water wheel, about six inches in diameter, and several printing presses are run in this manner. The supply is sufficient for other works, in addition to the de mands already made upon it. In 1857, the free school system of the city was inaugurated ; buildings were erected for twenty-four teachers and twelve hundred pupils. In 1858, a third building was added, and since that time, the free high school. The num ber of pupils enrolled is about 4,000, and the public school prop erty is worth about $250,000. The schools are graded, culminat ing in a high school department. This has a cabinet of geological and other specimens. There are several private and parochial schools, receiving a large share of discriminating patronage. Among these are St. Joseph's and St Mary's Academies, under the auspices of the Catholic church ; the German Theological Seminary. The ehurches of the city are numerous and handsome, and the press exceedingly high toned. The principal public buildings of Dubuque are the City Hall, the United States Cus tom House, the Episcopal Seminary, and the Market House. Tbe public schools are very handsome buildings. Burlington is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi river, about 250 miles above St. Louis, 210 miles from Chicago. It occupies the valley and slopes of the hills at the mouth of Hawkeye creek, the bluffs rising in some places two hundred feet. In 1837, the town was incorporated. During the last few years, Burlington has made rapid growth. The Mississippi river is 574 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. spanned by a railroad bridge ; and the city has railroad connec tions north, south, east and west. An extensive section of coun try, well improved, must remain tributary to Burlington. By the census of 1873, the city had a population of 20,156. Its estimated population now is 25,000. Burlington is naturally well situated for becoming a commercial and manufacturing city. With lines of railroad in every direction, bringing the products of near and distant portions of the country; with the Mississippi ready to float such products as seek a southern or northern market; with a wealth of timber suited to manufacturing purposes ; with inex haustible coal deposits within easy reach, and the great south and west as unfailing markets for manufactured articles or general merchandise, a promising future is opened before the city ; and it is not unreasonable to expect great progress. The city is well supplied with schools, under the management of well qualified teachers. Burlington University, under the control of the Baptist Church, occupies a handsome range of buildings on the hill rising in the western part of the city. The city has twenty churches, some of them beautiful buildings. This is the seat of justice for Des Moines county ; and the railroads which serve the city are the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; the Burlington and Mis souri Eiver; and the Burlington and Cedar Eapids. Burlington ranks as the third city in Iowa, looking at its commercial import ance ; and for beauty of appearance and position it is hardly sur passed in the state. The country which surrounds Burlington is called the " Garden of Iowa." The city is illuminated with gas, and many excellent newspapers, besides a mayor and council. The first settlement dates from 1833, and three years later it was made the capital of Wisconsin territory. When Iowa was organ ized in the year 1838, the seat of government was located here, and so continued until the following year, when Iowa City be came the capital, and held it until the superior attractions of Des Moines City prevailed. The county buildings, the churches, the university and the schools, with many very handsome business blocks, make up a very fine architectural appearance for Burling ton. Keokuk is partially the seat of justice for Lee county, Iowa, Principal Cities of Iowa. 575 sharing that honor with Fort Madison, and is considered the fourth city in the state. Keokuk lies on the western bank of the Mississippi river, about two miles above the mouth of the Des Moines, at the foot of the lower rapids, which, during the seasons of low water, interfere very materially with river navigation be yond the site of the city. The construction of a canal, at the ex pense of the general government, will almost entirely remedy the inconvenience and loss incidental to the rapids, and open an im mense area of country to navigation by the larger class of steam vessels. The rapids are twelve miles in extent, the descent with in that area being no less than twenty-five feet over successive ledges of limestone rock, which will afford unrivalled water power for almost any number of mills and factories along the banks of the mighty stream. The rapids are not, in a commercial sense, an unmixed evil for Keokuk, as the city is now the head of navi gation for large vessels, and all the cargoes thus brought are un shipped here for land transport and distribution ; but when tran sit shall become possible without disturbing cargoes, and the vessels on the upper Mississippi can come to the port without difficulty, the commerce of this little center of trade and manu factures must become more widely beneficial. Lee county has its commercial center in Keokuk, and that area is exceedingly fertile, hence there is a large quantity of produce annually shipped by river and railroad. The money value of the farms of the county in the year 1870, amounted to $7,750,725. In the same year, the farm products of the county, including additions to stock, were estimated as closely approximating to $2,000,000, and the manu facturing wealth produced in the same area during the same time amounted to $2,623,135. Fort Madison, the county seat proper, is twenty-four miles from Keokuk, but its population is not nearly so large as that of the commercial center, although it has much commerce and some manufactures. The county is well settled, and agriculture commands first class skill in every department ; the increase of stock within the last few years has been very con siderable, and much care is bestowed by stock raisers on the most valuable breeds of animals. The Keokuk Medical College, estab lished many years since in this city, has been alma mater to some of the ablest physicians and surgeons in Iowa and the neighbor- 576 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ing states, the library and museum in connection therewith are very complete and valuable aids to the mastery of physiology and pathology, and the faculty comprises several , of the brightest lights of the medical profession. The college is very well sus tained, and its growing reputation will increase the average of its attendants. The influence of the college is very perceptible in the intellectual vitality of Keokuk, and it conduces very materi ally to the improvement of school training in every branch. In the year ,1847, ten years after-the city had been first laid out, there were just 640 inhabitants ; but soon after that time there was a very rapid increase in numbers and importance, so that, in the year 1860, the population numbered 8,136, and in 1870, when the last census was taken, there were 12,766 inhabitants in Keokuk. There are now probably about 18,000. The city occupies the southeast corner of the state, and it is built at the foot and on the summit of a beautiful limestone bluff, which affords excellent building stone, of the sort which hardens after being, quarried, and is found exceedingly durable. The streets are broad and regular, containing many handsome residences and business blocks. • The medical college is quite an ornament and attraction to the lo cality. Keokuk contains a seminary for ladies, which deserves high commendation ; there are also many private academies, and the public school building cost $13,500. There are twelve churches in the city, some of them conspicuously handsome. The name Keokuk, signifying " the watchful fox," was adopted in honor of a distinguished Indian chief, who was the friend of white settlers during the Black Hawk war, and who deposed the rash and treacherous Black Hawk from his leadership of the braves aftef his ill omened hostilities came to an end. He ranks among the most extraordinary men that have come to the front among the Indian tribes, and the Sac Indians gave him great rev erence. The trade of Keokuk extends along the Des Moines, as well as along the Mississippi, and the manufactures of the city are making rapid advances. There are now steam flouring mills in constant work, foundries that employ numerous workmen in all departments of that avocation, lumber yards, planing mills, brick yards and valuable quarries, in addition to numerous industries^ small in themselves, but large in the aggregate. Pork packing is. Principal Cities of Iowa. 511 •being extensively carried on in Keokuk, and breweries are nu merous. The state university deserves praise, if only for its med ical department ; but apart from that feature, it is a very admir able establishment. Keokuk is sometimes mentioned as " the Gate City of Iowa," from its position commanding the great rivers of the state. The water powers of the city are largely used, but that wondrous aid to man's exertions will be still more largely availed of in the future as the capital employed in manufactures is increased. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a _ mayor and council. The public schools are graded and well taught, under a board which has displayed an intellectual interest in tuition. There are six newspapers published in the city, and their tone on the great questions of the day bespeaks the high character of the city and county in which they circulate. Many of the editorials would do honor to metropolitan journals, and the advertising columns show that they are in great favor with the trading, manufacturing and commercial public. A very fine . bridge crosses the . Mississippi at this point, for railroad and high way use, 2,300 feet in length. Council Bluffs was long known as -Kanesville, and is the capital of Pottawattamie county, Iowa. The city lies in the val ley of the Missouri river, about three miles east of the stream, at the foot of very high, precipitous bluffs which arrest the atten tion of the traveler coming east from the Golden Gate or bound for California. The railroad facilities of this city are unbounded, and the authorities of the city and of the county have at various times displayed great enterprise in contributing to the capital stock of railroad companies which have appeared likely to facili: tate the advancement of their locality in a commercial sense. In the summer of 1804, the year after the Louisiana purchase had been completed with Napoleon, the explorers Lewis and Clarke ascended the Missouri river and held a council with the Indians on the Nebraska side of the river, about twenty miles above the site of Omaha. That point was known as Council Bluffs for- many years after Fort Calhoun was established there, but the* name of Council Bluffs was adopted by the settlement which had1 been known as Kanesville, quite late in the history of this cen- 87 578 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tury. In the year 1824, there was a trading post on the bluffs where the city stands, near the large spring now known as the "Mynster," and the spot was designated as Hart's Bluff, in com pliment to the trader. The voyageurs then trafficking on the river were the employes of the American Fur Company, and were in no way interested in permanent settlement. Hart fixed his trad ing post at the point named because of the water privileges 'af forded by the excellent spring already mentioned. The same at tractions, and the great variety of game which could be procured on the spot, seem to have induced a permanent settlement before the year 1827, and near the foot of the bluffs, where the splendid business blocks of Broadway now stand, the Frenchman, Francis Gnittar, used to find his breakfast without troubling the butcher. Deer, elk and Buffalo were then common on the prairies, and In dians remained in the territory until the winter of 1846-7, when they were removed to reservations, supposed to be permanent, in Kansas. The first family of white settlers came here in 1838, when Mr. Hardin, who had been appointed as government farmer among the Pottawattamie Indians, occupied the spot now known as Hardin's Bend. The farmer was preparing the way for the Pottawattamies, who were to follow him from the Platte purchase in Missouri. This gentleman with his sons remained as' settlers when the Indians went towards the setting sun, and many agents and traders who had accompanied the red men from Missouri state remained in this locality. Two companies of troops came to this point in 1839 and built a block house on the bluff in the eastern section of the city, where the Catholic priests soon after wards built a mission house. There were no other white settlers until the year 1846, when the place was suddenly overrun by Mormons, who had been driven out of Nauvoo upon the death of their prophet, Joe Smith, by violence at the hands of a Gentile mob, in the year 1844. Some of the saints endured much suffer ing in Iowa and elsewhere on their way from Nauvoo, and Brig- ham Young made his way to the spot now known as Florence, Nebraska, but then called Winter Quarters by the saints. This city site was for a long time the headquarters of the Mormons, Orson Hyde being in command of the fettlement after Brother Brigham had gone off with other leaders towards Salt Lake. The Mormons carried things with a high hand, for some timei Principal Cities of Iowa. 579 over the Gentiles who came to settle among them, and when later in their career at this point a Methodist preacher denounced some of their practices and doctrines, Brother Hyde cursed him from the altar, and expressed an opinion that the man would lose his life. The Methodist, not appalled in the slightest, called on Mr. Hyde and told him that he (the prophet) should be held re sponsible should his words be verified by the action of any of his deluded followers. The statement looked so much like business that Brother Hyde took off the curse, withdrew the prophecy, and the rival preacher survived. The Mormon settle ment here was visited by Col. Kane of Pennsylvania, and, in memory of that event, the saints called the place Kanesville during all the years that they ruled in the land. The name con tinued long after they were gone. Some of the Mormons made up a battalion of five hundred men for the Mexican war. and it is claimed that members of that warlike array found the first gold in Sacramento. Tlie Mormon population moved off slowly after 1848, but there were six thousand five hundred here in 1849, and in the following year nearly eight thousand, as num bers were coming in from nearly all parts of Iowa en route to Salt Lake City. In 1852, orders came for all the faithful to as- ' semble in Utah, and, as the time drew near for the final exodus, the Gentiles came in by the hundred to buy the farms and im provements of the departing saints. Some of the Mormons ab jured Brigham Young and held on to their improvements, others, following the son of the first prophet, held on to the Mormon bible, but foreswore polygamy, but the bulk of the settlement went on to Salt Lake. City. Kanesville was in the course of travel when the gold fields of California were opened up in 1849, and some of the roughest specimens of humanity that ever swung from the branch of a tree made their abode in the settle ment, plying their trade as gamblers, until vigilance committees were organized to rid the city of their presence. Some of the wildest scenes ever witnessed on earth were the outcome of the orgies of such desperadoes, and their excesses, with brief inter vals of quiet," were spread over some years, and had not come to a conclusion when the saints made an end of their tarrying. The organization of the county took place in 1848, and all the officials were Mormons, from the postmaster of Kanesville to the 580 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. judges for the district. From that time the Gentile population went on improving, and the gold mania increased the rush of merchants and traders to this spot. During the years 1851-2-3,- the lands were surveyed here, and a land office was opened tc expedite settlement, after which time a feverish era of land spec ulation followed, continuing and increasing until 1857, when the grand crash came, and many who had never dreamed of specu lating were involved in the general ruin. Settlement had become general throughout Pottawattamie county during the years when the Mormons ruled, and the next hope of the people, after the crash of 1857, was that railways would repair all damages. That expectation has been more than realized, as since that era of dis may the various railroad companies desirous to reach the trade beyond the plains in Oregon, Texas, and California, have multi plied their lines of communication, converging to this point from all parts of the union until Council Bluffs seems to be a plexus of iron nerves upon which the welfare of the whole world depends. Gradually a scheme was matured for carrying railroad enterprise over into Nebraska ; a trestle bridge was constructed over the Missouri, and a locomotive ' engine, thus conveyed across the mighty stream, was the forerunner of the Union Pacific Bailroad, which has since made the whole world more than wise about con gressional doings. With the multiplication of iron roads, the city has increased in wealth and population, and manufactories of various kinds have risen into immense business and exemplary profit. The name was changed to Council Bluffs when the city was incorporated, and the wealth of the community has been testified by many operations since then known to all the world, more especially in reference to railroads. The bridge over the Missouri at this point is a very fine structure, and it' is traversed by millions of passengers annually. The railroads that serve Council Bluffs are the Iowa Division of the Chicago and North western ; the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific ; the Kansas City, St. Joseph's and Council Bluffs ; the Burlington and Missouri ; and the Union Pacific Bailroad, having its terminus in Omaha, is connected with Council Bluffs by the fine bridge before men tioned. There are other roads which serve to increase the pros perity of the evergrowing city, but the principal only have been Principal Cities of Kansas. 581 mentioned. Bricks and lumber were the first articles of mer chandise that engaged the attention of the people of Kanesville, and that branch of industry is still prosecuted with success in the suburbs of the city of Council Bluffs, but so many other import ant works have been added that these lines scarcely challenge attention. In the year 1860, the population of the city had fallen from Morman totals to 2,011, and in 1870, the census only revealed an enumeration of 10,020, but the number must now be very much larger. The school system is excellent, the churches are numerous and well supported, and many of the buildings are very fine. The city is lighted with gas, and well governed ; the press is influential and very well deserves its success. The state institution for the deaf and dumb is located here, and is a beauti ful building, and the court house, a county structure, is very- handsome indeed. The city, once rioted over by some of the worst specimens of border ruffianism, is now one of the most orderly and prosperous cities of the union. CHAPTEE XLV. PRINCIPAL CITIES OP KANSAS. Topeka — Leavenworth — Lawrence —Atchison — Wyandotte. Topeka, signifies in the Indian tongue, " Wild Potatoe," and of course that valuable article of food is not very large before cultivation brings improvements, hence, when in thc early days of the settlement, in the year 1855, the free state convention was held there, the proslavery leaders hoped to overwhelm the nas cent capital, and the cause which for the time it represented, in one torrent of ridicule, by rendering the name into " Small Po tatoes." The witty effervescence died out, but the city remained, and the cause of justice and freedom flourished, so that Topeka is now the capital of a free and prosperous state which has a pop ulation of six hundred thousand, with abundance of fertile land and manufacturing and commercial facilities for " millions yet to 582 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. be." Besides being the capital of Kansas, Topeka is the county seat of Shawnee, and is situated on the Kansas river, 67 miles west of Wyandotte and 29 miles west of Lawrence. The site is very fine, occupying the south side of the river, with rectangular streets, along which are planted handsome business blocks, de voted to the service of commerce, and beautiful private resi dences embowered in groves, which attest the sound judgment of the citizens. Kansas is not a treeless region, nor is it generally decimated by droughts and grasshoppers, but the long continu ance of prairie fires during the incumbency of the Indians, who were lords of the soil until 1854-5, and in some parts of the ter ritory much later, has to a considerable extent denuded the coun try of forests and groves, and therefore it was at one time much drier and more subject to desolating storms than it has been of late years. When settlement commenced, tree planting followed in a measurable degree, and would have been prosecuted on a much larger scale but for the strife on the question, " Bond or Free? " which for many years combined nearly the whole of the residents to drive back the marauders from western Missouri. Even then, although the work of tree planting was temporarily omitted by man, nature bountifully supplied his place, and in thousands of places self planted groves came into existence, as they had been trying all along to do, whenever the often recur ring fires would intermit. The trees thus springing up in con sequence of settlement offering a defense against conflagrations, and in consequence also of the wise energies of the settlers, have modified the climate of Kansas to such an extent, that the rains which come are better distributed throughout the year, and much more moderate. Mesquit and buffalo grasses are giving way slowly to blue grass, timothy and clover, the buffalo wallows are being broken up for cultivation, springs bubble forth by the hundred, in districts once comparatively waterless, the creeks which seldom ran more than a few months of the year, are now seldom dry, and the rivers, once intermittent to a degree which made them valueless for mills and factories, are gradually becom ing constant aids to human enterprise. With so many incentives to plant trees, we need not wonder that the residents of Topeka have beautified their city by cultivating in many spots eloquent Principal Cities of Kansas. 583 reminders of "the forest primeval," and certainly their location is well worthy of all the' pains they have bestowed upon its orna mentation. Until the year 1854, when the Kansas-Nebraska act passed into law, this territory was devoted to Indian reservations, upon which no white man could settle without permission ex pressly given by the red men, and only a few Indian traders and missionaries cared to examine the beauties of the soil, climate and position. When that bill became law there was a rush to pos sess the country, Missouri and the south on the one part, demand ing the territory whereon to erect a slave state, the Missouri com promise having been repealed, and the eastern and middle states for the other part contending, irrespective of abolition sentiment, that Kansas should be admitted to the union as a free state only. A colony from the free state settlement at Lawrence first settled Topeka, in 1854, and an offshoot of a place pronounced " Pestife rous," by the proslavery party was naturally inclined in the same direction. From the first moment the Topeka men looked to empire as their destiny, and their expectations have been fully realized. The state house, built of magesian limestone, is the most beautiful object in the charming city, and the money ex pended in its erection has been very well bestowed. There is no building of its kind in the west with which the capitol at Topeka may not compare advantageously. The wants of the state for many years to come will find ample accommodation in its fair proportions, and it seems to have especial loveliness in the fact that it crowns the triumph of right principles which attained victory through manful and heroic efforts. The city rises gradu ally from the river, and is well drained, the roads being graded specially to secure that end. Lincoln College, one of the lead ing educational institutions of the state, will hand down to a remote and grateful posterity, the name of a truly great man, and assist to develop in successive generations, wealth of mind, the highest form, and the most enduring which can be assumed by riches. The Episcopal church has established here a college, known as the Topeka Female Institute, which is very highly valued and much availed of, irrespective of the religious views favored by the founders, as with the exception of only a few bigots, the men and women of to-day would not send their oppo- 584 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. nents to Tophet for opinion sake, nor neglect the opportunity for intellectual and moral growth, because they cannot swallow a particular dogma. The value of manhood and effort is being read in the spirit of that catholic line written by Alexander Pope: " He can't be wrong, whose life is in the right." The United States land office is located in Topeka, and there are many important mills and manufactories, which exercise an important influence in the development of the city. Foundries, railroad machine shops and flouring mills are among the princi pal industries, but there are hundreds of profitable avocations which are building up the wealth of this prosperous commercial center. There is a large inland trade conducted here, and the fine qualities of the agricultural land in Kansas, much in advance of the average of fertile regions throughout the union, bring vast quan tities of produce to Topeka for shipment. Coal and choice build ing stone, with deposits of kaolin and gypsum, are items in the wealth producing exports of this city and the surrounding coun try. The railroad lines which serve the city and district are the Kansas Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, by which the other side of the continent is made conducive to the prosper ity of Kansas. The Santa Fe trade is a very large item in the ag gregate of business. As we have seen the first settlement was made in the year 1854, and when the free state battle had been won in 1860, the census revealed a population of only 750 in the city just resting from its labors. The census of 1870 showed a seven fold increase within ten years, the numbers then being 5,790, and at the present time there cannot be less than ten thousand souls in Topeka. There are numerous churches in the city, some of them beautiful, and the practical exemplifications of Christian ity afforded by their pastors during the great struggle have en deared congregations and ministers to each other. The school system is good and well sustained, and there are eight newspapers in the city, all bearing evidence of mental labor and devotion to the interests of the commonwealth. Leavenworth was a fort long before the country in which it stands was thrown open for settlement, and when the territory was Principal Cities of Kansas. 585 first organized a portion of the military quarters was allotted for the use of the governor, Hon. A. H. Eeeder. This city, or rather this fort, for at the time it was a fort only, was the base of supply from which the forces marched into Mexico during the Polk ad ministration, and the traders bound for Santa Fe whose caravans often numbered quite an army, devoted to commerce, found at this point a good bye and a welcome. The first band of emi grants that passed over the Bocky Mountains into Oregon hr.d many friends iri Fort Leavenworth, and Mormons and gold find ers, who in succession passed over the so called " Great American Desert," could recall the civilities and aids which for the sake of humanity they had in many instances found at the fort. When the Nebraska-Kansas act came into operation and the tide of set tlement began to flow this way, the commandant and officers of the fort laid out a town, on what was practically an Indian reser vation as well as a military reserve, and the irregularity was not fatal to their enterprise ; although a similar movement by the offi cers at Fort Scott, when the city of Pawnee was founded, was treated as a gross infraction of right, and the settlement was de stroyed by a thousand dragoons, brought from Texas for that especial work. The site was well chosen for a fort in the first piace, and as a city afterwards, as there is a natural levee of rock which forms the bank of the river Missouri at this point, and along the whole of the city front, and the surrounding country, now one of the best settled regions in the state, is remarkably fer tile and productive. This region was travelled over by the French, and also by Spanish troops, long before there was any prospect of civilization, invading and possessing the land, and at several times within this century there were expeditions over the ground and the river, as well as trading ventures which kept alive the interest of all classes in the locality, but there were comparatively few persons in the eastern and middle states who knew that the country, described in the maps as a desert, was gener ally the most fertile area on the continent, and could easily be made one of the best watered, without further hydraulic works than tree planting. When Mr. Eeeder came to Leavenworth to inaugurate civil government, he found the people about Fort Leavenworth mostly Missourians in their instincts, and they, 586 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. knowing that he was a democrat, who had been appointed to office by their friend, president Pierce, concluded that they could run the government, using the Pennsylvania appointee as their stalking horse merely. The governor could not be used in that way, and in Consequence he was very badly abused by his obtru sive friends, who assaulted him in his office, threatened him with assassination, and eventually procured his removal from the terri torial dignity on a trumped up charge of irregularities. The character of Leavenworth is now very much changed for the. bet ter, and it ranks deservingly as the first city in the state. The county seat of Leavenworth is located in the city and the county buildings are noticeable for their neatness. The railroads which serve the city and county are, the Kansas Pacific, the Leavenworth, Atchison and Northwestern, and the Chicago and Southwestern. The distance from this point to Kansas City, Missouri, is just thirty-nine miles. The quantity of shipping effected here by the railroads and by steamers on the river, is very great indeed, and must go on increasing for many years, as the mineral qualities of the soil cannot readily be exhausted, and the intelligence of the agricultural population in Kansas cannot be satisfied with less than the highest degree of success. The old fame of the fort as a base of supplies stands the city in good stead, and large areas of the west depend upon shipments of all kinds from this commercial metropolis. The schools of Leaven worth are famous for exceptional excellence, being- graded in a manner calculated to procure the best results from teachers and pupils, and in every respect well managed by an efficient board. Besides the public schools which are located in excellent build ings, there are numerous private schools which are deserving of note, two commercial colleges, and a female seminary" from which some of the brightest ornaments of the west have received their highest polish. There is also a medical college in Leaven worth, which reckons among its professors the best talent procur able in the west, for the work that is here undertaken. There is a fine theatre here, but the population is not large enough to maintain a dramatic company regularly, and the citizens are am ply served with amusements by occasional visitors. The regu lar settlement of Leavenworth only dates from 1854, but in the Principal Cities of Kansas. 587 year 1860, there were 7,429 persons living in the city, and dur ing the next decade that number increased to 17,873 ; the present population is probably little short of twenty-five thousand. The city carries on a very prosperous trade on the Mississippi, as well as on the Missouri river, and there is almost an illimitable field for further growth. The city has flouring mills, saw mills, lum ber yards, brick yards, breweries, a machine shop, and iron furnaces. Very good samples of brown hematite ore have been found in the territory, but although coal is quite abundant, the location of iron smelting works has not yet been thought advis able. Old lead workings have also been found, but the mineral has not been obtained in quantities to pay for working. The churches of Leavenworth are very noticeable features, as well for their beauty of design in many cases as for the more val uable adornment which makes the pulpit and reading desk the cynosure of all eyes. Many of the preachers in Leavenworth would be still more highly valued by the larger populations far ther east, but they seem to have cast in their lot with the terri tory, and as Horace Greeley used to advise young men, to be con tent to "grow up with the place." The city is not narrow and bigoted, but the wide philanthropic spirit which pervades the sects and churches here gives to the clergy a very excellent opening for their exertions, and, as a rule, the opportunity is well improved. There is a mercantile library in Leavenworth, and, of course, it is not exclusively mercantile. The realms of fiction and philosophy, the domains of history and science, the choicest spoils from the literature of the world can be found on the spa cious book shelves of this excellent retreat, redolent of Eussia leather and the still better aroma of the treasured knowledge of the world. A man, desirous to enjoy life wisely and well, could hardly find a more likely location than the city of Leavenworth, where the river and the railroads offer him facilities for business and pleasure, where the vast stores of books are open to cultivate his literary proclivities, where the hygienic conditions could hardly be improved, where the churches develop his aesthetic nature, the theatre and halls offer him amusement, and the gen eral tone of society is such as to forbid the possibility of his re calling that twenty years ago this site was often- the scene of such 588 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. ruffianism as Hades only could surpass. There are sixteen newspapers published in Leavenworth, circulating through the county, and in many cases far beyond the state in which thev are produced. The territory was at one time disgraced by a censor ship of the press, which would have rendered progress impossi ble, could the evil system have been sustained, but the pressof Leavenworth is to a large extent master of the situation, exer cising a censorship over morals and manners which, in the main, is highly beneficial. The city is about forty-five miles north east of Topeka, seventy miles south of St. Joseph, Missouri, and nearly five hundred miles from St. Louis. The city is well lighted with gas, and its municipal affairs are regulated by a mayor and council. Among the finest work, noticeable in this part of the country, is the admirable cast iron suspension bridge which crosses the Missouri at Leavenworth and carries the line of the Chicago, Eock Island and Pacific Eailroad. The bridge, completed, cost the company $1,000,000. There are four miles of street railways in the city. The state normal school is one of the ornaments of Leavenworth, and the military prison, in the Fort Leavenworth reserve,, adjoining the city, is also a very noticeable feature; the two orphan asylums and St. Mary's academy, added to the twenty-seven churches and nine school buildings, give a splendid appearance to this prosperous locality. Iawrence was the first colony planted by the New England Emigrants' Aid Association, in 1854, in the territory, just opened to settlement by the Kansas-Nebraska act, and one of the earliest experiences of the settlers, while they were still occupying their tents on the site of the present city, was a demand from about one hundred and fifty roughs, who had come to the spot, in wagons, from the Missouri border, accompanied by a band, and carrying banners, that the settlers should remove their tents from ground which it was contended had been taken up by one of their party. The demand was amplified afterwards into a claim that the whole of the party should leave the territory, never more to return. Before the emigrants arrived the ground had been occupied by other settlers, but the new comers bought out their predecessors, Principal Cities of Kansas. 589 and there was literally nothing in the claim of the border ruffians but a pretext for an assault on a peaceful set of men. Much to the surprise of the assailants the little colony could not be scared, and the Missourians waited until their own ranks were consider ably reinforced, extending the time, considerately, within which the intruders must retire, or endure the terrible consequences, in being ground to powder as between the upper and the nether millstone. "Eashly importunate," the Lawrence men would not take warning in spite of all the messages that their invaders sent, and at last, their tempers tried beyond endurance, the Missouri ans went away in their wagons for fear somebody might get hurt ; but they left word that they would come again, sometime within a week, and wipe out the colony altogether. They did come again after the lapse of a few months, when the legislature was to be elected, and nearly five thousand of the Missourians elected all the members of both houses of the legislative assembly, all over Kansas, in every precinct except one. Lawrence was on that occasion the scene of most disreputable conduct, the judges of election would have been hanged or shot, if they had not been called away by their friends, and pandemonium reigned for fully twenty-four hours among people generally accustomed to direct their thoughts elsewhere. Lawrence is the county seat of Douglas, and is situated on the Kansas river, thirty-eight miles from Leav enworth. The river is crossed by a very handsome bridge, which cost $45,000, and the city is supplied with first-class rail road accommodation by the Kansas Pacific, and the Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston roads, which form a junction at this point, multiplying the facilities for travel and traffic possessed by the inhabitants. The city suffered severely during the Kansas embroilment in consequence of the hatred of the Missourians who looked upon the settlement there as the headquarters of the abolitionists, and consequently omitted no opportunity to injure the people and the place. The proslavery men from the neighboring state carried the city by assault in 1856, and inflicted injuries to the extent of $150,000 to property alone ; and it is probable that the same party which did the damage in '56 inspired a still more abomin able outrage in 1863, when the guerilla leader Quantrell with a 590 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. band of desperadoes surprised the defenseless city, massacred one hundred and fifty persons in cold blood, burned more than one hundred houses, sacked the wealthier habitations and escaped with their plunder. In spite of all its disasters the people have kept up their courage and the city still ranks as the second in the state: Its houses and business blocks are very handsome and substantial, and the city, built on rising ground which slopes to ward the river, is excellently drained. The streets are macada mized, with fine sidewalks, and are shaded by fine rows of trees which add much to the beauty as well as to the comfort of the site. There are many important works in operation here, includ ing iron foundries, machine shops, planing mills, and tanneries, besides an immense variety of smaller establishments which pay a large aggregate of, wages. The population in the year 1870, when the last census was taken only amounted to 8,320, but at the present time there cannot be less than twelve thousand inhab itants in Lawrence. The city has commercial relations with all the great cities in Kansas and the neighboring states and the agri cultural population in Douglas county may be said to contain the very cream of the farming community in Kansas. Lawrence is the location of the state university and the interests of learning are safe in the hands of that high toned community. There are many churches, some of them very handsome indeed, but when the ruffians sacked the place in 1856, and again in 1863, they showed the hatred of Vandals for everything that was most beautiful. All the earlier meetings which led the way toward the establishment of free government in the territory and state were held in Lawrence, hence the antipathy of Missouri was not without good grounds. The school system in Lawrence is very efficient, and the buildings are fine. There are eight newspapers in the city, and they are well supported but not an iota better than they deserve, as their tone intellectually, morally and politi cally is beyond praise. The dam, recently constructed across Kansas river here and now completed, gives a motive force for machinery equal to three thousand horse power. Six railroads center in Lawrence, and there are seventeen churches. The public library is a fine building and the woolen mill is by many thought even more important. The pork packing estab- Principal Cities of Kansas. 591 lishment in Lawrence will add materially to the business of the city. Atchison is the county seat of Atchison, and was named in remembrance of one of the Missourian leaders, Gen. Atchison, who was for some years United States senator for Missouri, and by accident became vice president of the union for a short time. The general never saw service, except in the guerilla war which was prosecuted against free state men in Kansas territory, but he was in great hope at one time that his labors in that field would secure him the vote of the south for the presidency, in which case that section of the union would have been perfectly safe against the liberation of their human chattels. The city lies on the left bank of the Missouri, surrounded by bluffs and hills which give the place quite a picturesque appearance. Kansas city in Mis souri is just forty-eight miles southeast from Atchison ; Topeka, eighty-nine miles southwest, and St. Joseph twenty miles above on the river. In the troubles incidental to the struggle for su premacy between free state men and proslavery men, Atchison, be ing the headquarters of many friends of the border party, escaped spoliation. There are many manufactories established in the city employing large numbers of people, and the local trade is consid erable in consequence of the large agricultural area which makes Atchison its center. The town makes very extensive shipments by the river as well as by the Missouri Pacific railroad ; by the central branch of the Union Pacific, which has its terminus here ; by the Atchison, Topeka and Sante Fe railroad ; and by the Atchison and Nebraska railroad. The population in 1870 wh the last census was collected was 7,051, and is now probably very nearly ten thousand. There are four newspapers published here representing the public opinion of Atchison county and city, and they are all tolerably well conducted. The area of the county is about 415 square miles, and it contains a population of about twenty thousand souls. The schools in Atchison are well con ducted and tolerably well attended, but their system of grading will admit of some improvements, which there is every disposi tion to provide for. The average attainments of the teachers stand very high indeed. Churches are tolerably represented in Atchi- 592 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. son, but some of the buildings must soon be removed to give place to more elegant structures, such as the wealth of the city can very well afford to erect. The tone of Atchison at the present day is sound to the core, and the city deserves all the prosperity which it so well enjoys. Wyandotte takes its name from a tribe of Indians once located in the territory of Kansas, but long since removed to hap pier hunting grounds. The city stands near the mouth of the Kansas river where that stream ends its course of four hundred miles by emptying its volume into the Missouri, just at the point where the Kansas river becomes the boundary line between the two states, which were so long and so disastrously engaged in internecine strife. Wyandotte is the county seat of Wyandotte, but it does not increase very rapidly, being too near to Kansas City, Mo., for rapid progression in commercial importance. It is the eastern terminus of the Kansas Pacific Eailroad ; and has a station on the Atlantic and Pacific Eailroad, four miles west of Kansas City. There is a very fine bridge over the Kansas river at this point. Vessels have ascended the river from the Mis souri, to beyond the point where the Solomon and the Smoky Hill combine to form the main stream, but the parties that effect ed the passage were, not encouraged to attempt further exploits in the same line, and the Kansas can hardly be included in the list of navigable rivers in the union. The population of the city at the time of the latest census was nearly three thousand, and is now, probably over four thousand, the local trade being considerable. There are two newspapers published in Wyan dotte, but the courage of the people, which would suffice to build up a fine commerce elsewhere, is spent at a great disadvantage, in a position where the city figures as little other than a railway suburb of Kansas City. Principal Cities of Nebraska. 593 CHAPTEE XLVI. PRINCIPAL CITIES OP NEBRASKA. ' Lincoln— Omaha — Nebraska City. Lincoln is the capital of Nebraska and the county seat of Lancaster, fifty-seven miles from Nebraska City, in a very fertile district, which is becoming populated by a very enterprising class of farmers. Nebraska was a part of the territory which was purchased from Napoleon in 1803, known as the Louisiana purchase. There may be said to have been no emigration into Nebraska until the territory was thrown open to the competitive efforts of north and south by the Nebraska-Kansas act of 1854, and at that time the main attention of both parties having been concentrated on Kansas, Nebraska escaped the pestilent operations of the ruffians over the border. Emigration became very rapid after the struggle in Kansas turned attention from the region more favored by nature, until the financial crisis of 1857, the result of over speculation in land and in everything that offered chances for legitimate gambling, when Nebraska was severely checked, but in the year 1864, the act enabling the citizens to form a state government was passed, and a constitution having been formed before June 1866, and ratified in due course, the state was admitted to the union in February, 1867. Lincoln city sprang up very rapidly in the summer of 1867, and towards the end of the following year, the seat of government was transferred from Omaha, which, until then, had been the capital, to the fair and promising young rival, eighty miles to the southwest. The elegant residences and business premises of Lincoln sprang up with wondrous speed, and the location of the city is certainly very advantageous. The legislature first met in Lincoln in Jan uary, 1869, but the present state house was not erected until later. The capitol cost $100,000, and is a very fine structure. The university in Lincoln promises well, and the state agricul- 38 594 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tural college is also located here. There are several. manufac tories, and very extensive salines, the salt works being very suc cessful in procuring an article of commerce from the salt springs in this neighborhood. There are eight newspapers published in Lincoln, the churches are already ornamental to the 'city, the schools are well organized, and when the census was taken in 1870, the population was two thousand four hundred and forty- one ; the present population is nearly four thousand. Omaha has been well advertised all over the world as the city which was located, or invented, or liberally endowed, or other wise benefited by the celebrated George Francis Train, but the city is a flourishing place notwithstanding, and it appears that the property of its benefactor in Omaha has been sold for unpaid taxes. Such is the gratitude of republics ; they won't thank any one for doing nothing. Omaha is the county seat of Douglas,. standing on the western bank of the Missouri river, opposite Council Bluffs, and it is the eastern terminus of the Union Pacific Eailroad. The city contains other termini : the Omaha and Northwestern, the Omaha and Southwestern, and by the bridge which spans the river at this point it may be said also to possess a terminal station for the railroads which center at Council Bluffs. When the river is high, Omaha has steady communi cation with St. Louis, 820 miles below, and with various cities en route. The city stands on a plateau fifty feet above the Mis souri level and is well built. In the- yesCr 1860, its population was 1,861 ; before the next census, in 1871, it numbered 16,083, and the population still increases rapidly. Its commerce and its manufacturing interests are being developed with great suc cess; the schools are excellent, its churches well attended, and its fourteen newspapers remarkably well supported. At some seasons of the year the Missouri can be navigated far above Omaha. The city is fourteen miles from the mouth of Platte river. The bluffs rising beyond the business area will, in course of time, become the sites of innumerable handsome residences, adding considerably to the beauty of the scene which is now presented. The trade from this point to the mines, frontier posts and across the plains, is large. The city was first settled in 1854, St. Louis and Kansas City, Mo. 595 after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska act, and its name is bor rowed from an Indian tribe. Nebraska City is the second city in the state of Nebraska, and is the seat of justice for Otoe county. It is placed on the right or western bank of the river Missouri, twenty-eight miles below the mouth of river Platte. The city is built on ground which rises as it recedes from the river, and is thus well situated for drainage. Most of the buildings are of wood, but the general aspect of the place is decidedly fine, and better materials will come into use as the present structures require renewal. The county buildings are commodious, and the several churches are very attractive specimens of architecture. There are public halls for amusements, several schools well graded and the teachers are quite up to their work. In the year 1870, when the last census was taken, there were 6,050 inhabitants, but since that time there has been a large increase. There are several newspapers all well supported. Nebraska City does a good share of river trade, and also with the frontier towns. The Pacific railroads have very greatly injured the business which used to be effected with emi grants crossing the plains. In the western section of Otoe county are valuable salt springs which will contribute very materially to enrich Nebraska City, as the salt works are extended. The salt manufactured is excellent. CHAPTEE XLVII. CITIES OP ST. LOUIS AND KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI. St. Louis was founded in 1764, by M. Laclade, a Frenchman, who established a fur company there under a charter of the French governor general of Louisiana, and named the place in honor of Louis XV, then king of France. In 1768, a Spanish officer by the name of Eeous, with a company of Spanish troops, took possession of St. Louis and upper Louisiana (as it was 596 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. termed), in the name of his Catholic majesty, and it remained under that sway until March, 1804. The first brick house was erected in 1813, and in 1817, the first steamboat arrived. The city is located on the west bank of the Mississippi, 1,194 miles above New Orleans, 774 miles below Minneapolis or the Falls of St. Anthony, 128 miles east of Jefferson City, 174 miles above the mouth of the Ohio and 20 miles below the mouth of the Missouri river, and is the metropolis of Missouri, the largest city of the western states, and the third city, in regard to population, in the United States. The city rises in three successive terraces of limestone formation, the first twenty, the second sixty and the third two hundred feet above the floods of the Mississippi. The ascent to the first plateau or bottom, as it may be termed, is somewhat abrupt ; the second and third rise more gradually and spread out into an extensive plain, affording fine views of the city and river. The city extends fourteen miles along the river and nine miles inland, covering 35,000 acres or nearly fifty-five square miles ; the thickly populated portion, however, is only four or four and a half miles in length, following the river, and about two miles in breadth. The city is well laid out, the streets being for the most part sixty feet wide and with few exceptions ¦intersecting each other at right angles. Front street, extending along the levee, is upwards of one hundred feet wide, and built up on the side facing the river with a range of massive stone warehouses, which make an imposing appearance as the city is approached by water. Fourth street, called "the fashionable promenade," contains the finest retail stores ; but Front, Main and Second streets, parallel to each other and to the river, are the seat of the largest and principal wholesale business. The streets back from the river and parallel to it, are known as Front, Main, Second, Third and so on to Fortieth street ; and those on ¦ the right and left of Market street, extending at right angles with the river, are mostly named from various forest tress, similar to the streets of Philidelphia, and large expenditures have been made from time to time, in grading and other improvements. Within the last ten years, the style of building in the city has so improved as to make it now one of the most beautifully and sub stantially constructed cities in the country. Brick is the princi- St. Louis and Kansas City, Mo. 597 pal building material, and yet marble, iron and stone are much used. Very many of the private residences are fine, indeed, and as the wealth of the city has increased, the citizens, with a noble and commendable spirit, have lavishly given their gold to enlarge and to beautify the city. The public bnildings are very fine, indeed, and stand well in a comparison with any in the union. The city hall and court house is a magnificient structure (finished in 1860), and cost over a million of dollars. It is constructed of limestone, the front being ornamented with porticoes, while from the center of the building rises a finely proportioned dome, which in form and beauty greatly resembles that of the capitol at Washington. The custom house, built of Missouri marble and occupying the site upon which one of the first theaters erected in St. Louis was located, stands upon piles of great length and is occupied also as city postoffice and for United States courts. The United States arsenal is a massive building, and the mer chants' exchange is a costly and beautiful one. The marine hospital, the insane asylum, the mercantile library hall, the poly technic institute and the St. Louis life insurance buildings, all exhibit fine artistic taste and do lasting credit to their founders and builders. The city also contains many large and beautiful churches (over eighty of all descriptions), and among the most costly may be named the Eoman Catholic cathedral, the church of the Messiah (Unitarian), and St. George's church (Episcopal). It has also numerous charitable and benevolent institutions, such as the city hospital, the sisters' hospital, the home for the friend less, the home of refuge, the reform school and ten orphan asy lums ; also the marine hospital, located three miles below the city. Its public school system is large and well arranged, under the care of twenty-six citizens, and the school fund is about three and one half millions. There are fifty-eight school houses, con taining 482 rooms, 34,431 pupils and 603 teachers — one normal school, four branch high schools, forty-eight district schools, six colore! schools and seventeen evening schools. The school property with furniture exceeds two and a half millions of dol lars, and the annual expenses are about 200,000 dollars. The educational institutions of a higher class are ample and generally well sustained, such as the Washington university, the St. Louis 598 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. university, the college of the' Christian brothers, the St. Patrick's academy (the last three Eoman Catholic), the St. Louis medical college, and the St. Louis law school, and the academy of sci ences. We find also a scientific and literary association, the engineer's club, the historical society, the institute of architects, the agricultural and mechanical society, the medical society, the union literary association, the university club and the art society. The city has several fine libraries, among which may be noticed the mercantile library of nearly 50,000 volumes, the public school library of 30,000 volumes, the St. Louis library of 25,000 volumes, the court house library of 8,000 volumes, the library of the Washington university of 7,000 volumes. The city has several parks and pleasure grounds which cover a large area. La Fayette park is a fine square, containing 30 acres, surrounded by elegant residences, signifying taste, wealth and energy. Shaw's garden, the largest of the parks, has 330 acrea, including an herb and flower garden of 10 acres, several hothouses, and a fruit garden of 6 acres. Also the St. Louis " fair grounds ' contain 85 acres, beautifully laid out and amply furnished. Thus when the red summer's sun is sinking to his pillow in the west ; when the beautiful birds are singing their vesper hymns, these parks offer a resort, a ramble or a rest to scores and hundreds of men who have been confined to the din and dust of the crowd ed streets through all the bustling business hours — offer a stroll to the aged and young, to friend with friend, as the welcome eve ning softly lays her veil over the city — thus there is humanity and health in a park. The new bridge which spans the Mississippi here connecting St. Louis, Missouri, with St. Louis, Illinois (or east St. Louis), is a grand triumph of art — a thing to study, use and admire. It is 2,230 feet long, 50 feet wide, and cost $7,043,603, is built in two stories, the upper for carriages and foot passengers, and the lower for vehicles of burden and transit ; all resting on deep laid and solid mason work, connected by three arches constructed of two tier of hollow cast steel cylinders, supporting the" two stories of the bridge. The central span is 525 feet, and the other two 515 feet each, and the arches are 50 feet above high water. And it is this bridge which opens up a mart for thousands in southwest- St. Louis and Kansas City, Mo. 599 ern Illinois, and thus connects the interests of St. Louis, Missouri, to the great interests and luxuries of the "prairie state." The press of St. Louis is represented by 73 papers and periodical pub lications ; including 8 dailies and 5 journals. Many of these are ably edited and managed, and show the power of the pen to lead, lift and mould society ; thus making themselves a praise and a power through the length and breadth of the land. The manufacturing interests of St. Louis are large and very important to the life and growth of the city, as well as to a very great area of country surrounding it in every direction. Among these are extensive iron works, flouring mills (which in 1870 turned out 1,351,733 barrels of flour), sugar refineries, manufactories of hemp, rope and bagging, and tobacco and oil mills. In 1870, the cap ital invested in manufacture in the city was $41,761,688; the number of hands employed, 33,551 ; the wages paid, $15,906,131 ; while the material used was worth $60,541,012 ; and the total value of the articles manufactured, $131,192,670. These figures occupy but little space on paper, and naturally will fail to convey any adequate idea of the vast interests and industries they refer to, and yet they may partially indicate the fact that millions of wheels are turned in St Louis by the touch of steam or other wise, and thus give bread, shelter and clothing to thousands of workmen and their happy families, as well as gold in abundance to proprietors and employes. The commerce of the city is large, both by its railways and by the river, the latter being shown by the fact that there were 2,768 steamboat arrivals at its wharves in 1872. The population in 1873 was 450,000, nearly one-third of which was of foreign birth. Much more might be said of this busy spot, but we will close this brief sketch by simply stating that in 1780, St Louis numbered 687 inhabitants, and in 1872, 1,559 new buildings were erected within its limits. Kansas City. --Kansas City, situated on the right bank of the Missouri river, in Jackson county, Missouri, is one mile from the boundary line between Missouri and Kansas, and 235 miles west of St. Louis. It is the second city in the state, in respect to pop ulation, and is actively engaged in manufactures and commerce, tradino- heavily with* the Bocky Mountain settlements, and also 600 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. along the upper Missouri. The site of the city was originally rough, being partly on the bluff and partly on the river bottom ; but by a well arranged system of grading, a vast improvement has been effected. It has 9 railroads, and 4 others in construc tion ; has 4 lines of street railway, which also connect with the adjoining town of Westport, in Missouri, and also with Wyan dotte, in Kansas. The city is lit with gas, and to obtain an ample supply of pure water, the standpipe and Holly system were being constructed in 1874, and to cost from $750,000 to $1,000,000; contemplating 20 miles of supply pipe, 300 fire hydrants, and the two reservoirs were to have a holding capacity of 20,000,000 gal lons. The city is surrounded by a very large tract of rich and valuable land abounding in coal, lead, iron, and other minerals, and is the center of a vast trade in live stock, and does a large business in the packing of -pork : 13,000 hogs having been packed in 1868, and 200,000 in 1873. Also the cattle trade in 1873 was 227,669 head, valued at $3,415,035. The city was incorporated in 1853, but so slow was its growth, that in 1860, it had only 4,418 inhabitants. But through the stimulus of railroad enterprise dur ing the last ten years, the business and population have rapidly increased, and in 1870 its inhabitants numbered 32,260. A board of trade was organized in 1872, and a metropolitan telegraph com pany was formed in 1873. The press is well represented here and ably manned ; there being 6 daily papers printed, 2 tri-weekly, 6 weekly and 1 bi-monthly. There are 1.2 banks, 28 churches and 14 public schools. Also 2 medical colleges (with a medical jour nal), 1 seminary, 2 hospitals,* an orphan's asylum, a workhouse and woman's home, 2 theatres and opera house. The valuation of real estate in 1872 was $ll,993-,060, and in 1873 $12,687,875. Thus, where but yesterday the wildlings of nature had their home, and the red man danced, roamed, hunted and pitched his simple tent, now rise the halls of art, with domes of beauty — now stand the shrines of worship 'mid homes of peace and palaces of plenty. Surely civilization has a magic power — a touch etherial and grand, for "it speaks, and it is done" — it lifts its peaceful, gold en wand, and the forest melts away like frost in the red rays of the morning beam, the rough places change to gardens, and the sea-like prairie groans under its load of precious grain. The Sioux Massacre. 601 •CHAPTER XLVIII. (APPENDITOKY.) THE SIOUX MASSACRE. The record of this thrilling event, which was left out of all preceding references to Minnesota, for convenience, and in order that it might be presented by itself, will appear to merit the prominence we give it; for, probably, few events in the last twenty years have so stirred, shocked and saddened the people of the northwest as the Sioux massacre in the state of Minnesota in 1862. Like the Indian massacre which occured in the valley of the James river, two hundred and forty years before, it came to add another horrid chapter to the long and terrible record of In dian cruelty, and to tell the white man, that he has no security for the life of his wife and children in the frontier settlements whenever the red man chances or chooses to take the " war path." It would seem, and it is undoubtedly true, that the labored light which Christianity has thrown upon the savage tribes has had a great influence upon many of them and upon many indi vidual Indians in various tribes ; but the savages who committed the Sioux massacre really seem to have had all that dark and heartless hate which in other and early days made the tomahawk and scalping knife such a torment and terror to the early settlers of the new world. Indeed, who ever heard of barbarities more revolting or of cruelty more studied and bloody than was wit nessed in this heartless and terrible tragedy of August 18, 1S62 ? Not that it was as wide or continued as long as many other Indian outrages; that is not the question, but the idea — the question is, was it not as fiendish, brutal and bloody, considering its extent, as most (if not as any) in all the long and weeping list of such stealthy and treacherous transactions? And as to extent, this scene or savage dash at helpless humanity would have been much more so had it not been for the influence and exertions of a converted Indian, Paul Mazakutamami, a member 602 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. of the Presbyterian mission church. By the way, at the time of the outbreak there was, at the lower agency, a small Presbyterian church composed of Indians, and also a like church at Payutazee, and one with an Indian boarding school at Hazelwood, which all together numbered sixty-five members. As respects the cause of the Sioux outbreak a multitude of theories have been presented aud a mass of conjecture proffered ; but, evidently, the most of all this conjecture and theorizing is mere dreaming — sheer fancy. Little Crow (in his written com munication to Col. Sibley), attempting to explain the causes which led to the outbreak or provoked hostilities, makes no allusion to particular treaties, but states that his people had been " driven to acts of violence by the suffering brought upon them by delay in the payment of their annuities, and by the bad treatment they had received from their traders." It seems that at the time the bands first assembled at the agency in 1862, there was nothing unusual in their feelings — nothing more than the common and chronic discontent usually manifested among them, and more generally superinduced by the failure of government agents to faithfully carry out the stipulations of the different treaties. Now, whether Little Crow adduces the real cause of the outbreak is not so certain, for during the trial of the prisoners before the military tribunal, to which they were brought, a great and prolonged effort was made to elicit testimony in respect to the outbreak and the motives which actuated the leaders in inaugurating the fearful scene. And the only consistent infer ence which we can draw from all the sources of information is, that the movement was not premeditated — that it was not deliberate ; but was the result of various causes which heaped themselves upon the hour. 1st. The annuities were not paid until they had been assembled a long time. 2d. The want of a proper supply of food in the meantime. 3d. Dissatisfaction with the traders. 4th. The ill feeling of the pagan Indians against the missionaries and their converts. 5th. The alleged encroach ments of settlers upon the Indian reservation ; and 6th, and per haps more than all else, the prediction of the medicine- men that the Sioux would defeat the Americans in battle, and then reoc cupy the whole country after clearing it of the whites. And The Sioux Massacre. 603 then it was well known to the Indians that thousands upon thousands of young and able bodied men had gone at the call of the government to aid in suppressing the rebellion, and that but few men were then in Forls Bidgely and Abercrombie, which were the only military posts near their country, and hence it was easy for them to presume that they could act as they pleased — could act Indian again. It is possible, too, that the idea or temp tation to try and regain their former possessions was stronger and urged them much further than it otherwise would, had it not been fresh' in their minds that the government had taken no steps to puhish Ink-pah-du-tah and his small band, who had committed so many murders and other terrible acts, in utter contempt of au thority, on citizens of the United States at Spirit Lake, in 1856. And yet all these circumstances put together do not prove that the Indians would have struck a blow or taken a life, but for the fact that the slow but sure bolt of death in the form of the ac cursed " fire-water" had figured in the drama — had dropped into the scale. And this came about in this way, as stated in the his tory of that transaction by E. D. Neill : * " Five or six young warriors, wearied of the inaction of a stationary camp life, made an excursion along the outer line of the big woods in a northern direction, with the avowed intention' of securing the scalp of a Chippewa, if practicable. Being unsuccessful in their search, they retraced their steps to Acton, a small settlement in Meeker county, on the 17th of August, 1862, and through some means they obtained whisky, and drank freely. They made a demand for more liquor from a man named Jones, and were refused, whereupon the infuriated savages fired upon and killed not only him but two other men, Webster and Baker by name, and an elderly lady and a young girl. Terrified at their own violence, and fearful of the punishment due to their crimes, these wretches made their way back to the camp at the Lower Hgency, confessed their guilt to their friends, and implored their protection from the vengeance of the outraged laws. They all belonged to influential and powerful families, and when the whole affair had been dis cussed in solemn conclave in the "soldier's lodge," it was deter mined that the bands should make common cause with the crim- * We draw freely from that history in this narrative. 604 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. inals, and the following morning was fixed upon for the extermi- 1 nation of the unsuspecting white settlers within reach. How secretly and how faithfully the orders of the " soldiers " were ex ecuted, remains to be told. About six o'clock A. M., on the 18th day of August, 1862, a large number of Sioux warriors, armed and in their war paint, assembled about the buildings at the Lower Agency. It had been rumored purposely in advance that a war party was to take the field against the Chippewas, but no sooner had the Indians assumed their several positions according to the programme, than an onslaught was made indiscriminately upon the whites, and with the exception of two or three men who concealed themselves, and a few of the women and children who were kept as captives, no whites escaped destruction but George H. Spencer, a respectable and intelligent young man, who, al though twice seriously wounded, was saved from instant death by the heroic intervention of his Indian comrade,- named ' Wak-ke- an-da-tah,' or the ' Eed Lightning.' A number of the persons were also slaughtered at the Upper Agency, but through the help and guidance of ' Other Day,' a Christian Indian, the missionaries and others, including Eevs. Messrs. Eiggs and Williamson, and their families (in all about sixty persons), were saved, being conducted safely through the Indian country to the white settlements." This was a happy and providential escape indeed, and was simply a race for life. For these excited and bloody savages, when all the whites in that vicinity had been massacred, the stores and dwellings pillaged and the buildings burned, went abroad to fall like a bolt of lightning upon the settlers on farms and in villages along the frontier line for nearly two hundred miles. And the scenes then enacted were fearfully horrid and tragic — were dread ful in the extreme, and so much so, that if they can be imagined, they cannot be described. Whoever, in all that doomed line was struck dead at once, and thereby spared the agony of suspense and' the sight of savage cruelty and obscenity practiced toward their dear ones, were the favored few among the hundreds swept into the pool of death by those brutal hands. With the ingenu ity of lost spirits, and in the temper of perdition itself, the plan was laid, and with the dexterity of demons burning mad with rage and hate, its fearful parts were scrupulously and hurriedly The Sioux Massacre. 605 executed. In other words, the fiends of hell could not invent atrocities more fearful than those savages perpetrated upon their helpless and hapless victims. The bullet, the tomahawk and the scalping knife spared neither age nor sex, the only prisoners tak en being the young and comely women, to minister to the brutal lusts of their captors, and a few children." Thus in a little less than forty hours, as near as can be known, eight hundred whites were wantonly and cruelly slaughtered, and their homes made a black and smoking desolation ; and in many cases the torch was applied and the maimed and crippled sufferers, unable to escape, were burned in the flames of their own habitations. And when the sun went down on that scene of fright, suffering and blood — when the sweet dew wept itself to sleep over the wide ruin wrought, ancl the pale moon looked out on the hushed and grave like stillness of the hour, it was a fitting moment for the nation to contemplate the propriety of putting a stop to such tragic scenes, such wanton, reckless sacrifices of life and treasure, by a class of wild beings to whom treaty and treachery mean the same thing — a fitting moment in which to decide whether it would not be wisdom to give the red men some portion of our territory which can be easily and readily guarded, like Florida, rather than to at tempt to guard a wide and wild frontier against his torch, his restless tomahawk, and the keen edge of his unfeeling scalping knife. It may be said that in this massacre a few gills of whisky set the train on fire and awakened the dire spirits of mischief and misery, which culminated in a ruin so wide and horrid. Well, be it so, if it must, and let the alarm and the remedy be in keeping with the conclusion reached. All this we leave to the wise coun cils of the nation, and return to our narrative. " The alarm com municated to the adjacent settlements by refugees flying from these sorrowful scenes filled the roads leading to St. Paul with thousands of men, women and children in the wild confusion of a sudden flight. Domestic animals, including hundreds and even thousands of cattle, were abandoned, and only those taken which would expedite the movements of the terror stricken settlers. The savages, after accomplishing their mission of death, assem bled in force and attempted to take Fort Eidgely by a coup de main. In this they were foiled by the vigilance and determina- 606 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. tion of the garrison, aided by volunteers who had escaped from the surroundinar settlements. The attack was continued at inter- vals for several days, but without success. The town of New Ulm was also assailed by a strong force of the savages, but was gallantly defended by volunteers from the neighboring counties, under the command of Col. C. H. Flandrau. Capt. Dodd, an old and respectable citizen of St. Peter, was among the killed at this point. Fort Abercrombie, on the Bed river, also suffered a long and tedious siege by the bands of Sioux from Sacqui Parle, until relieved by a force dispatched by Gov. Eamsey from St. Paul. The first advices of the outbreak reached St. Paul on the day succeeding the massacre at the Lower Agency. Instant prepara tions were made by Gov. Eamsay to arrest the progress of the savages. At his personal solicitation, Henry H. Sibley, a resi dent of Mendota, whose long and intimate acquaintance with In dian character and habits was supposed to render him peculiarly fitted for the position, consented to take charge of military oper ations. He was accordingly commissioned by the governor, colonel commanding, and upon him devolved the conduct of the cam paign in person. Unfortunately, the state of Minnesota was. lamentably deficient in means and appliances requisite to carry on successfully a war of the formidable character which this threatened to assume. The Sioux allied bands could bring into the field from eight hun dred to a thousand warriors, and they might be indefinitely rein forced by the powerful divisions of the prairie Sioux. Those actually engaged in hostilities were good marksmen, splendidly armed, and abundantly supplied with ammunition. They had been victorious in several encounters with detachments of troops, and had overwhelming confidence in their own skill. -"On the other hand the state had already despatched five thousand, more or less, of her choicest young men to the south, her arsenal was stripped of all the arms that were effective, and there was little ammunition on hand, and no rations. There was no government transportation to be had, and the prospect was not by any means favorable. Gov. Eamsey, notwithstanding, acted with prompt ness and vigor. He telegraphed for arms and ammunition to the The Sioux Massacre. 607 war department, and to the governors of the adjoining states. He authorized also the appropriation for the public use of the teams belonging to individual citizens and adopted such other measures as the emergency demanded. There were at Fort Snelling, hap pily, the nuclei of regiments that had been called into service. Col. Sibley left Fort Snelling with four hundred men of the 6th regiment, Minnesota volunteers, early on the morning of August 20th. Upon an inspection of the arms and cartridges furnished, it was found that the former comprised worthless Austrian rifles, and the ammunition was for guns of a different and larger caliber. The command was detained several days at St. Peter, engaged in swedging the balls so as to fit the arms and in preparing canis ter shot for the six pounders. Meantime arms' of a better quality were received, reinforcement of troops arrived, and the little army marched rapidly toward Fort Eidgely, which it reached without interruption, and the troops went into camp a short distance from the post, to await the reception of rations and to make final prep arations for an advance on the hostile Indians who had drawn in their detached parties and were concentrating for a decisive battle." " Scouts were despatched to ascertain the location of the main Indian camp, and upon their return they reported no Indians be low Yellow Medicine river. A burial party of twenty men, un der the escort of one company of infantry and the available mounted force, in all about two hundred men, under the com mand 'of Maj. J. B. Brown, was detailed to proceed and inter the remains of the murdered at the Lower Agency and vicinity. This duty was performed, fifty-four bodies buried and the de tachment was en route to the settlements of Beaver Eiver and had encamped for the night near Birch coolie, a long and wooded ra vine debouching into the Minnesota river, when about dawn the following morning the camp was attacked by a large force of In dians, twenty-five men killed or mortally wounded and nearly all the horses, ninety in number, shot down." But the firing was heard at the main camp although 18 miles away, and Col. Sibley marched to the relief of the suffering detachment and dis persed the Indians at once, and after burying the dead, the whole column returned to camp. 608 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Here, waiting supplies and drilling and disciplining the men, day after day passed away until ten days' rations had arrived, when Col. Sibley marched in "Search of the savages; and in a brief but hard fought battle, on the 23d of September, 1862, the Indians were fully defeated, broke and fled. It was called the battle of Wood Lake, commenced by the Indians and lasting two hours. Immediately after the action the Indians sent a flag of truce, asking permission to remove their dead and wounded. This was- refused, and a message was sent to Little Crow, the leader of the hostile Indians, informing him that " if any of the white prisoners held by him received any injury at the hands of the savages, no mercy would be shown to the latter, but they would be pursued and destroyed without regard to age or sex." In the action at Wood Lake, Maj. Welch, of the 3d Minnesota volunteers, was severely wounded, and Capt. Wilson also, of the 6th regiment, and nearly forty noncommissioned officers and pri vates were killed or wounded. . Col. Sibley had reason to be proud of the brave band of men under his command, and especially of Lieut. Col. Marshall, and, Maj. Bradley, of the 7th regiment, who distinguished themselves, the former leading a charge of seyen companies, which dislodged a portion of the enemy from a ravine where they had taken shelter. Lieut. Col. Averill and Maj. McLaren, of the tfth regi ment, also performed signal service, as did all the officers and men of both these regiments, and also the portion of the 3d, which formed a part of the detachment and made- for itself so bright a record. But one great object of the campaign was not yet accomplished and required great skill ; this was the recovery of the white cap-. tives. Fears were entertained lest the savages in their rage over their great defeat might revengefully take the lives of the cap-, tives. Therefore Col. Sibley waited until the second day after the battle before marching toward the great Indian camp. But on the 25th of September, with drums beating and colors flying, the column filed past the Indian encampment, and formed their camp within a few hundred yards. With his staff and field officers, Col. Sibley then proceeded to the lodges of the Indians, and directed that all the captives should be delivered up to him, The Sioux Massacre. 609 which was readily done. " A sight was then presented which filled all eyes with tears. Young and beautiful women, who had for weeks endured the extremity of outrage from their brutal cap tors, followed by a crowd of children of all ages, came forth from the lodges, hardly realizing that the day of their deliver ance had arrived. Convulsive sobbings were heard on every side, and the poor creatures clung to tbe men who had come to their relief, as if they feared some savage would drag them away. They were all escorted tenderly to the tents prepared for their re ception and made as comfortable as the circumstances would ad mit. The number of pure whites thus released amounted to about one hundred and fifty, including one man only, Mr. Spen cer. The latter expressed his gratitude to Col. Sibley, that he had not made a forced march upon the camp after the battle, stating that if such a course had been pursued, it was the deter mination of the hostile Indians to cut the throats of the captives and then disperse in the prairies. There were delivered also nearly two hundred and fifty half-breeds, who had been held as ¦prisoners." Two of the principal objects of the campaign, the defeat of the savages and the release of the captives, having now been consum mated, there remained but to punish the guilty. Many of these, with Little Crow, had ma'de their escape, and could not be over taken, but some of the small camps of the refugees were sur rounded and their inmates brought back. The locality where these events transpired was appropriately called Camp Belease, and the name should be perpetuated. " At a proper time, the Indian camp was surrounded by a cor don of troops and four hundred of the warriors were arrested, chained together in pairs and placed in an enclosure of logs made by the troops, under strong guard. Others who were known to be innocent were not interfered with. Col. Sibley constituted a military commission, with Col. Crooks, commanding 6th regiment, as president, for the trial of the prisoners. A fair and impartial hearing was accorded to each and the result was, the finding of three hundred and three guilty of participation in the murder of the whites, and the sentence of death, by hanging, was passed upon them. Others were convicted of robbery and pillage and 39 610 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. condemned to various terms of imprisonment, and a few were acquitted. The witnesses were composed of the released cap tives, including mixed bloods, and of Christian Indians who had refused to join Little Crow in the war. A full record was kept of each case that was tried." " The preparations for the execution of the guilty Indians were brought to a summary close, by an order from President Lincoln prohibiting the hanging of any of the convicted men without his previous sanction." This interference of the president produced an indignanti clamor in the state, and through the representatives in Washington was energetically protested against. Finally on the 26th day of December, 1862, thirty-eight of the criminals specified by the president were executed on the same scaffold, at Mankato, under the direction of Col. Miller, commandant at that post. " The remainder of the condemned were sent to Daven port, Iowa, early in the spring, where they were kept in confine ment for more than a year, a large number dying of disease in the meantime. " Those that remained were eventually dispatched to a reser vation on the upper Missouri, where the large number of prison ers taken by Col. Sibley, principally women and children, had already been placed. The president testified his approbation of the conduct of Col. Sibley, by conferring upon him, unasked, the commission of brigadier general of volunteers, and the ap pointment was subsequently confirmed by the senate." Thus the Indian campaign of 1862 termirated; having done its work faithfully and successfully, although of necessity it entered upon that work without due preparation and equipment. And it is a matter of great credit to Col. Sibley and to the offi cers and men under his command, that with so much careful skill and yet with such manly promptness, these boasting and reckless savages were subdued and their black and bloody pro gramme thwarted. For it is easy to see that it was no common hour with the youthful state of Minnesota, and that this Indian outbreak had an intimate relation to the stirring scenes which were crowding themselves in multitude upon the nation at that moment of rebellion, treason and war. For, it was then sus pected, and has since been confirmed, that if this campaign of The Sioux Massacre. 611 Col. Sibley had failed — if the column of troops under his com mand had met with a reverse, there would undoubtedly have been a rising of the Chippewas and Winnebagoes against the whites, and many of the counties west of the Mississippi would have been entirely depopulated. Indeed, it seems that the dream that the nation was growing weak — bleeding to dqath — was running through the brains of savages as well as through the heads of men and nations which claim to be civilized ; and that Little Crow, in a speech to his warriors, on the night previous to the battle of Wood Lake, stated the programme to be, " first, the defeat and destruction of the old men and boys composing (as he said) the command of Col. Sibley ; and second, the immediate descent thereafter of himself and his people to St. Paul, there to dispose summarily of the whites, and there establish themselves comfortably in winter quarters." Surely this was a grand pro ject — a sublime plan of blood, pillage and triumph; but for tunately for civilization, the people of St. Paul, the infant state of Minnesota, and her noble governor, it was not to be consum mated. No, no, thank Heaven ! but the reverse in every im portant particular. The raven's wing was broken — the trem bling dove (the captives) released, succored and solaced ; and the enterprising, young and spunky state of Minnesota saw her foes at her feet, without the aid of men from abroad, and without withholding her share of men needed to put down a mammoth rebellion. The military authorities at Washington, and also Maj. Gen. Pope, commanding the Department of the Northwest, deemed it proper that a second campaign should be entered upon against the refugees who had been concerned in the massacres, and had fled to the bands of Sioux in the upper prairies, and found harbor and hospitality. In accordance with this idea, Gen. Sully, com manding the district of Upper Missouri, and Gen. Sibley, com manding the district of Minnesota, were summoned to the head quarters of the department at Milwaukee, Wis., to confer with Gen. Pope. There it- was decided that these two commanders with a large force should, in the early spring of 1863, march from Sioux City, on the Missouri, and from a designated point on the Minnesota river, respectively, and that the two columns should 612 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. join at Devil's Lake, where it was supposed the main body of the Indians would be encountered. The force under Gen. Sully was to be cavalry, and that of Gen. Sibley three regiments of infantry, one regiment of cavalry, and two sections of light artillery. This programme was carried out in part, or in the following manner : " The Minnesota column reached the point of rendezvous after a • most weary and, indeed, distressing march, the summer being ex ceedingly warm, and the prairies parched with the excessive drought. Learning from the Eed river half-breeds that the large Indian camps were to be found on the Missouri coteau, in the direc tion from which Gen. Sully was expected, Gen. Sibley left the sore footed and weary of his men and animals in an entrenched camp on the upper Cheyenne river, and set out to find the refugees. He succeeded in falling in with a camp in which were many of the refugees, and several hundred warriors, whom he attacked and defeated with considerable loss, and followed them as they retreated upon other and stronger camps, the tenants of which were driven back in confusion successively, until the Missouri river was interposed as a barrier to the advance of the pursuing column." The command of Gen. Sully, delayed by unexpected obstacles, was not fallen in with, and the Minnesota troops 'having accom plished more than was allotted to them in the cooperative move ment, and having secured their own frontier from apprehension of further serious raids on the part of hostile Sioux, returned to their quarters in their own state. The same year (1863) Little Crow was shot in the Big Woods by a man named Lamson, while with a party of Indians he made a descent upon the frontier with the object of stealing horses. And his son, who was with him. was subsequently taken prisoner, near Devil's Lake, by a portion of Gen. Sibley's men, and condemned to die, by military com mission ; but was afterward pardoned on account of his extreme youth. Thus ends this brief but bloody chapter of war and Indian plotting, and barbarity — thus died away the wild war songs of those brown and boasting sons of the forest ; and their graves and their war path are to day overgrown with grass or planted to orchards, gardens and grain. The Great Centennial Exposition. 613 CHAPTEB XL1X. FAIRMOUNT EXPOSITION — THE GREAT CENTENNIAL. It has been the custom with foreigners for many years past, to speak disparagingly of our Fourth of July celebrations, as occa sions of individual and national self glorification, not warranted, or at any rate not demanded, by the facts of our origin and devel opment as an independent people. There will be a still better op portunity for such reflections in connection with the grand display in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, which will celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of our Declaration of Independence ; but only the most empty, and therefore most sonorous of declaimers, will have the folly to continue that role in view of the great results which can be chronicled, as the outc. ne of our progress. It is not pretended for one moment that we owe all the blessings which are now being enjoyed by more than forty millions of free and prosperous people, to the Declaration of Independence, which dates from 1776, nor to the constitution and laws which have succeeded that enunciation of human rights ; our history is an answer to all such unfounded claims, and universal history has been written to little purpose, if we have not been taught that laws are powerless to render a population wise, prosperous and happy, unless the people carry in their own hearts and intellects the capacity with which sound legislation can cooperate for worthy ends. Two cities may be contrasted with some advantage in determining the power that resides in individuals, as factors of their own advancement and in the march of national progression. The same declaration of independence that was received with plaudits in Faneuil Hall, "the cradle of liberty " in Boston, the metropolis of Massachusetts, was welcomed in Charleston, the metropolis of South Carolina, with like enthusiasm when the Con tinental congress and the people therein represented, were com pelled to submit their just demands to the hazards of a sanguinary 614 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. contest, between scattered colonies not absolutely unanimous in their views, and containing in the aggregate less than three mil lion souls, and the then most powerful nation in the world, di rected with the rage almost bordering on insanity, of the autocrat George III. The two communities were sufficiently near to each other in age and in material advantages to give free scope for per sonal influences to operate in securing for one city or the other de cided preeminence, and they started fairly on the same race assist ed by all the power that resided in the declaration, the constitution and the laws of the federation. Let us see what were the results so far as Charleston was concerned until the year 1860, that we may the more readily comprehend the problem which has been solved in blood since that eventful period. The settlement dates from the year 1680, and the confluence of the Cooper and Ashley rivers afforded abundant facilities not only for the commerce of that time, but for whatever increase human energy and ingenuity may succeed in bringing to that spot, exquisitely favored by nature and position, only eight miles from the Atlantic ocean. The colony of Port Eoyal, founded in 1670 by the English, had by two re moves determined their appreciation of the value of the site of Charleston and the population was made up of contributions from the Swiss mountaineers, the Huguenots of France, the impulsive Celt from Ireland, and the Teutons sturdy in war as in industry, added to the English stock already mentioned. The state consti tution was adopted in March, 1776, consequently there was fixity as to the institutions -under which the people were to expand into their natural proportions. The constitution of the union was duly ratified in 1798 ; but the state inherited from the evil cus toms insisted upon by England in its earlier days, the blighting influence of negro slavery, casting odium upon labor ; and in consequence, the white population in the state did not increase one hundred per cent, in sixty years, and in the year 1870 there were 26 negroes in Charleston for every 22 of the superior race. The population of Charleston in 1800 was 18,711, twenty years brought up the number to 24,780, and the following decades up to 1860, showed increasing aggregates, with an occasional retro gression of 30,289 ; 29,261 ; 42,985 and 40,467. Carrying on the enumeration to the next ten years, the population amounted to The u-reat Centennial Exposition. 615 only 48,956 ; and although it might be argued that the terrible events which transpired from the first shot fired at Fort Sumter, to the final evacuation of Charleston in 1865, were the inevitable results of a policy long pursued ; yet every purpose of compari son can be served by carrying the statement no further than 1860. The siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two years, until the rebellion approached its end could not be called to account for the stunted development which was manifest before the interne cine war began. There were nearly fifty-four miles of streets prior to that time, and the banking capital of the city amounted to $3,000,000, besides five savings banks. There were colleges and educational establishments, a public library of 24,000 vol umes, besides similar institutions on a smaller scale ; there were benevolent asylums for various purposes and hospitals and chari ties for the sick and infirm ; but in every department there was a diminutive aspect suited to the status of the people, hardly to be compared with for development elsewhere. Trade, manufactures and commerce were striving to push the community ahead, but the .drag upon every wheel was the luxurious idleness in which the better class indulged while they spent upon their creature com forts the wealth which further east would have been invested in, remunerative undertakings. There were good men and true in every walk of life, striving to carry into practice the maxims of the founders of our liberty ; but the wrong start made every step a further departure from the true principles of growth ; so that notwithstanding all the drawbacks incidental to the war, it may be hoped that the actual cautery and rough surgery of con flict will in the end materially assist Charleston to realize its proper place among the cities of the union. Turning now to Boston, a very brief survey will enable us to summarize a widely differing fortune. The fifty-four miles of made streets in Charleston find a set off in three hundred and sixty miles of roadway well macadamized, and at every step the visitor is reminded of the daily increasing wealth of the popula tion. The capitol may be passed as a contribution due. to the state, although an undoubted ornament to the city, and the cus tom house, built at a cost of $1,000,000, is only in an inferential way a proof of the greater advance made by Boston ; but the city 616 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. hall, the banks, libraries, colleges, universities, schools, are testi monies which no criticism can gainsay. The spirit which filled Faneuil Hall on every great occasion when the liberties of the people were endangered, has also built the wharves, docks, rail roads, and bridges, which on every side attest the greatness of the commerce which they help towards fuller development. - Here labor has been under no artificial ban, and the workman has seen nothing mean or unworthy in his avocation, provided it brought gain and comfort to his family as the return for assisting the gen eral advancement. Therein consisted the essential difference be tween north and south, ancl with all proper deference to an author ity so great as Daniel Webster, the isothermal line cannot be quoted to render that mean and unworthy which stands now as ordained by God, the only safeguard for the liberties and wealth of nations, and for the health and happiness of mankind. Com merce grows where labor meets with honor and reward as the ex ponent of true dignity, and without its aid science and the arts must fall into decay. The trial has been made fully and com pletely, and for all the future it may be hoped that our record will be the unfailing arsenal and magazine for the philosopher and historian who may desire to determine the relative values of industry and idleness, of caste and unconstrained, intelligent man hood. Look only at the gain in numbers, and the argument for freedom seems irresistible, but the momentum increases with every step. Boston was founded on the site known as Shawmut, in 1630, the first settlement being called Tremont; from three hills which distinguished the situation ; but the progress of the com munity was not very rapid for many years, and its incorporation as a city only dates from 1822. The first census was taken in 1790, but we will commence as in dealing with Charleston with the present century. In the year 1800 there were 24,937 people, and in 1820, 43,298 ; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1840, 93,383 ; in 1850, 136,881 ; in 1860, 177,840 ; and in 1870, 250,526. Four years later it was estimated on bases which may be accepted, that Bos ton numbered 320,000 while its suburbs contained 100,000 more The public library contained 275,000 volumes, having branches for the convenience of readers in numerous city districts, and many libraries of smaller extent excelled the sum total of the The Great Centennial Exposition. 617 book lore available for the citizens of Charleston. The Massa chusetts Historical Society constitutes an aid to the literature of the future, such as no city of the size has ever excelled ; the Hor ticultural Society ; the Medical College connected with Harvard University ; the Lowell Institute, with its "bequest of $250,000 to provide free lectures on chemistry, physics and cognate subjects, in which the poorest man or woman may participate on the same footing with the wealthiest student ; each and all give to Boston material as well as aesthetic aids toward the great eminences which may be scaled by culture. The banking capital of Charleston stood at $3,000,000 ; suppose it doubled by way of allowance for the drawback incidental to war; make it even $9,000,000, and still it shows but poorly beside the $49,000,000 similarly invested in the great free city of Boston, with its sixty national banks, and nineteen savings banks. There are greater cities than Boston in the union which might be cited were it desirable to increasethe disparity in numbers ; Philadelphia, New York, or even Chicago would serve to illustrate that phase of the question, but Boston and Charleston made their start in the same century, were identi fied in the same early struggles, and the advantages of position are not overwhelmingly in favor of the "Hub of the Universe." The well graded schools and broadly diffused educational advan tages, which make science, art and literature handmaidens of the poorer classes, form the best foundation upon which the enduring greatness of a truly enlightened people can be upreared ; and all these have been thoroughly embraced by the citizens of Boston. The comparison has been carried far enough to establish the fact that the progress realized by this nation is not ascribed to " the day we celebrate," nor to the declaration and laws to which we conform our lives, but to the spirit which has been evolved in the brave hearts and capacious intellects which have been concurrent with the other blessings for which we are thankful. The Centennial celebration which will commence in Fairmount Park on the Fourth of July, will not be narrow and sectional ; the subjects of the grand daughter of George III, Queen Victoria, will assist to make the occasion " international and universal," as the directors and commissioners propose that it shall be : and from every civilized nation on the globe there will be numerous con- 618 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Iribu tions. The British colonies in far away Australia have long since intimated their desire to attest their blood relationship with America, in such rejoicings; as well might be the case, seeing that from the struggle which commenced on this continent iu 1776, has sprung up a* more liberal and manly policy on the part of the British government for all her possessions and dependen cies ; such as we find evidenced in the powers of complete self government enjoyed by the Australian colonies at this moment, tied to England only by the nomination of powerless governors, while the laws are framed and enforced entirely by the people. The extent to which that fact must be considered as a result of our War for Independence is broadly recognized by the commu nities on the other side of the Pacific in New Zealand, Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia, Queensland, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia, and from the four first named at least there will be substantial additions to the world's show which will supplement the " comprehensive display of the industrial, intellectual and moral progress of this nation during the first cen tury of its existence." There will come embassies from Japan, from India, and from China, from Eussia, Greece and Turkey, and the Khedive of Egypt will be present by his ministers among the many hundreds of distinguished statesmen and diplo matists who will act as the European contingent of representative men, apart from the busy throng impersonating the industries and manufactures which more than kings and courtiers and even par liaments are hastening the day when "the lion shall lie down with the lamb." The World's Great Exhibition in Hyde Park in 1851, in which Prince Albert figured as chief promoter, came many years after the system had been adopted in this country, and had grown into remarkable dimensions, as may be seen by reference to the rec ord of the American Institute. There had been exhibitions of arts * and of industrial productions in various lines of enterprise prior to that organization, but the institute carries the palm because of its success from the first show, and because of the rare quality of permanency which has distinguished its operations. A few prominent business men in the city of New York met on the 19th of February, 1828, and concluded to organize an association The Great Centennial Exposition. 619 for the purpose of fostering American manufactures by a public display. The prospect before them was not brilliant, but they possessed the energy and tact of which substantial successes are made, and the first show opened in October of the same yrear under excellent auspices. The exhibition in Masonic Hall lasted three days, commencing Oct. 28, 1828. $1,000 was the sum expended in premiums. There were about one hundred articles exhibited, but the management had been so efficient that there remained a fair margin after all the expenses had been covered. Thus was laid in the minds of the business men in that metropo lis the germ of the American Institute of to-day, and in May, 1829, the legislature of the state passed an act providing for per manent organization. There have been in the interval, between forty and fifty exhibitions, always remarkable for the genuine merit and hearty appreciation which from the first have attended upon the movements of the society. In the year 1872, the an nual display lasted three months, or nearly so ; there were four teen hundred entries, and more than five thousand articles on exhibition ; the returns being such as to more than repay the vast expenditure found necessary in carrying on the business. Many other associations have been in operation in different parts of the states, but it would be tedious to enumerate their names and merits ; it is enough to have vindicated the claims of this coun try to have led in a beneficent work, now recognized everywhere as a means for the stimulation of inventions and improvements in the mechanic arts, for the promotion of industries, and for the diffusion of invaluable knowledge. Before passing from. this branch of the subject, having adverted to the working of the American Institute, it is only fair to say that the managers are not mere showmen, offering an attractive resort for a greater or less term to the idle and luxurious ; from the very beginning, there has been a practical and well defined purpose in the associ ation, and each succeeding show has been made conducive to a material success of the highest order. Machinery sent for exhi bition must be worked at the proper times, so that the men in terested in procuring the best article of whatever kind, may see the machine or implement in motion, and ascertain by practical experiment the amount of power that must be expended in pro- 620 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. curing the desired results. In that way hundreds of thousands of dollars have been saved to tradesmen, mechanics and agricul turists, who but for such crucial tests might have purchased the least valuable, because the most showy and least efficient of the aids offered to their industry. Many an ingenious man has found in the trials thus made, valuable hints for improvements after wards perfected, for his own benefit and for the good of the com munity. Nor does the society stop at that point. There are over three thousand members, with a property now in their possession worth more than $300,000, and a reputation entirely beyond price ; all these are committed to the fullest realization of pro gress. There are weekly meetings held in the rooms of the asso ciation, in which the Farmers' Club debate every question perti nent to their enterprise, and their discussions, reported fully in the leading journals of New York, carry the information inci dental to such action throughout the state, and in great degree throughout the union also. Besides this admirable branch of usefulness, the club organization distributes valuable but rare seeds and suggestions among persons most likely to be benefited, and in one year there were twelve thousand packets thus distrib uted gratuitously. When it is remembered that a Shawnee mis sionary, who for some years during his ministrations among the tribes took occasional opportunities to scatter blue grass seed on the plains and prairies of Kansas, has thereby materially changed the aspect of that country for stock raising pursuits, it will be seen that an immense service is being rendered to all concerned by the action of the club, in sending seeds to every section of the union wherever peculiarities of soil and climate render eventual gain most likely. Farmers do not stand alone in such perma nent advantages. The Polytechnic Institute branch is open to all classes, and in the halls of the association models of every kind can be seen at rest or at work at all seasons, together with rec ords of their action under specific tests. Men qualified to ex plain all that does not appear upon careful examination, are nearly always ready to supplement the exhibition by viva voce illustrations. There is also every winter a first class course of lectures to which members and their families are admitted free of cost; and in such interchanges of thought scientific truth' see The Great Centennial Exposition. 621 assisted to become familiar as household words to the mass. The library contains more than ten thousand volumes, and a recently adopted rule excludes mere works of fiction from the shelves of this supremely practical institution. The annual reports of the institute, which since the year 1841 have averaged over one thousand pages, contain first class data upon which the reader may build a knowledge of the progress of the arts and sciences as they apply to the business of every day life ; and many parts of the later volumes are distinguished by their excellent precis of literary culture and advancement, always avoiding the deba table land of theology and political action. The building now in use will probably be superseded before long by a structure much more vast and as nearly fire proof as the builder's art will permit in a city surrounded by more or less inflammable edifices ; but the position extending from the Second to the Third avenue, and from Sixty-Third to Sixty-Fourth street, New York, could hardly be improved, when it is considered that the vast museum is to be an embodiment for all time, of the inventions and im provements which will assist and are aiding to develop agricul ture, manufactures, the arts, progressive science, a living litera ture, continuous invention and mechanical skill. The name of Horace Greeley was associated with the institute for five years as president, and before that time Gen. Tallmadge had filled the same position for twenty years. Such movements assist to make our nation great, and they are reproductive to an astounding degree. So much experience in the work of exhibition, as this brief retrospect makes manifest, seeing that the American Institute is but one of many associations engaged in the great business of adult training, by similar shows and fairs on scales more or less vast and continuous, leaves no room for doubt as to the spec tacular and commercial success of the Great Centennial which will be inaugurated in Philadelphia on the 19th of April, and will close on the 19th of October, after six months shall have been spent in the work of inspection by the picked men and women from the foremost circles of every nation on the globe. The progress of science, art and invention, during the hundred years now ending, may well challenge comparison for its record, 622 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. with the advances made in any previous thousand years within historic times, since man stood upon this footstool, with no me chanical aids save his hands, arms, teeth, nails and other facilities of physical organization. There is a coronal splendor in the achievements of industry belonging to this time, which dims the escutcheon of all former ages, and there is a promise for the fu ture which will tame down the tendency to self-gratulation, in the knowledge that our best showing will be but a speck by com parison with the grander results which the coming generations will see, thanking God and taking courage in their progress. This nation may justly claim credit for the ingenuity and invent ive skill of her citizens ; but, in the larger thought of what sci ence has done for the great commonwealth of humanity every where, the special and particular may well be swallowed up. The advancement which is being realized by all mankind will be the theme of our Great Centennial, and, in view of that fact, it will amply repay our labor to glance for a few moments at some, only, of the myriad modifications by which the workman is being changed from a toiling serf into a skillful adapter of scientific truths ; and the dweller in a mud hovel in Europe is giving place to a more happily circumstanced generation on this continent, for whose benefit palaces of industry and delight are being reared. Before starting out upon our broader view of progress, it will be well to consider one item which comes nearer home, the culture of cotton in this country, which will illustrate especially the in fluence exerted by invention in broadening the base upon which the welfare of society at large is builded. It would not be pos sible, in a lifetime, to follow every invention to its ultimate bene ficial result ; hence, it is more desirable that some one stroke of skill should be fully observed, in order that the rest' may come in for better general appreciation. Cotton which, prior to the War for Independence, had been cultivated in gardens as an orna mental and curious growth in many parts of the colonies, was, in the year 1786, introduced into Georgia in the hope that it would become in time one of the staple industries of that state, but the necessity to clean the cotton by hand was an almost insuperable obstacle in the way of the producer. There had been some eight or ten bags of cotton shipped in 1784, but that quantity was The Great Centennial Exposition. 623 seized by the authorities, because it was considered incredible that the United States could have raised so much. India had long been the home of the cotton plant, and, for many centuries, the cloth produced therefrom had been treated as an especial luxury for the wealthy. Hand processes did not seem likely to make American growths formidable in competition with the earlier producers; but, in the year 1793, Whitney invented the Cotton Engine — almost immediately shortened into Cotton Gin — to cleanse the fiber from the seed ; and, in the second year following (1795) 1,000,000 pounds of cotton were exported from Charles ton, the metropolis of South Carolina. Science and invention had begun to widen the domain of labor. The entire growth of cotton in the United States only amounted to two million pounds in 1791, the export being only 190,000 pounds; but, in the year 1860, the total crop amounted to 4,675,000 bales, and our own consumption had increased to 978,000 bales, as in our day, thanks to Whitney and other inventors, almost every one uses that ma terial which was once the especial privilege of the rich. The civil war, which desolated a wide range of territory, arrested the culture of cotton as well as of other crops, but, in 1870, the grow.th had once again risen into respectable figures, three mill ion bales being raised, and two million exported. Steam en gines, used as cultivators, will soon increase the supply beyond comparison with the largest quantities ever yet produced, not only on this continent, but in the whole of the cotton fields all over the world. The manufacture of cotton, as at present conducted, is almost entirely dependent upon machinery invented and im proved within our centennial term. In the year 1776 there was no cotton mill in this country, and, in England, hand spinning was very slowly giving way before the spinning jenny, invented by Hargreaves in the year 1767, which permitted 120 threads to be made with the same time and labor which, under the old sys tem, could produce only one. Immediately after the war came to an end, in 1785, Arkwright invented the spinning frame, a still greater mechanical wonder than the work of Hargreaves ; and, al most at the same time, the power-loom, invented by the Eev. Dr. Cartwright, may be said to have superseded hand weaving almost entirely. The groanings of the men and women who were imme- 624 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. diately affected by the new inventions were doleful enough, but the new regime was coming and there can' be no new birth with out pain and travail. Still the round of invention was not com plete unless an advantageous substitute for human force could be applied. The Watt & Boulton Steam Engine Works, which were established in Soho, London, in 1765, had been the scene of many ingenious adaptations and improvements since the skillful optician first tamed the force of steam and made it available as the servitor of man. He had contrived pumping apparatus for mines which had drowned out the miners nearly a century before and had never since been fit for working ; he had applied his in vention to the draining of fen country which has, since that time, become the homes of successful agriculturists ; and there was but little difficulty, with the aid of his latest additions, in making steam engines applicable as the motive power for all the machin ery which we have seen made ready for the manufacture of cotton. Without the cheapened raw material made possible by Whitney's Gin, the improved machinery for manufacture would have been out of joint ; but all things were working toward the great end of human development. Our first cotton mill was established in Ehode Island in 1790, although prior to that time there had been a cotton manufacturing company. There were, in 1870, no less than 958 cotton mills in the union, with a steam power equal to 47,117 horses, and water wheels of 100,000 horse-power, employ ing 135,369 persons, of whom over 70,000 were women and girls, the wages paid being nearly $40,000,000, anH the value of the product $477,489,739. A thousand indications on every hand tell us that the work done in the past but tamely shadows forth the wealth of production possible for the future of our race. Hav ing thus seen the good resultant from machinery in only one branch of industry, and even that but lightly sketched, we shall the better understand' how largely the welfare of society is to be built up from the numerous discoveries and applications of scien tific truth during the era with which our centennial celebration especially deals. The steam engine, long since invented by Newcomen, proceed ing upon the jumbled mass of contrivances possessed by the Mar quis of Worcester, in the latter part of the sixteenth century, had The Great Centennial Exposition. 625 been improved and utilized by Watt in successive stages, until it came to the plane upon which it offered aid to mankind for sta tionary works ; but it was not to end there. A Cornish engineer named Trevethick was just being ushered on the stage of life, from whom was to come the application of this power to traveling upon common roads, illustrated by his own journey to London from the extreme west of England, his native county, upon an engine which remains as a model of ingenuity, in a polytechnic institute in London. One of the Boulton & Watt engines, sta tioned at the mouth of a coal pit near Newcastle upon Tyne, was to stimulate the faculties of an uneducated youth named Stephen son, and to set him planning improvements of its structure, until as he tended the machine, his mind expanded into a conception of the system of iron roads which now spans the earth in every direction, and brings to our doors millions of people, with whom, but for such aids, we must have been distant strangers. Difficul ties without number imposed upon the new inventor the delight ful task of mental culture for himself, and many a journey to the institute at Newcastle to examine the models there, before he arrived at the discovery of the hot blast, which made the wonders of modern travel a possibility. While civil engineers, full of the knowledge of the schools, and blessed with the advantages of pro longed culture, were still debating whether it would be possible to make an iron wheel bite upon an iron road unless the wheels and the roadways were toothed, the whole mystery was being solved by the practical wisdom of the ex-coal miner, now recog nized among the world's benefactors. The triumph of his genius, which carried the iron road across the quaking waste of Chatmoss, was local in its operation, but the major conception has revolution ized society, even in China, India and Japan. The first steamboat by Fitch, the better adaptation by Fulton, and all the facilities for travel that have since rendered our rivers vast highways of com munication, which, under some circumstances, will compete with the speed, and in almost every case more than eclipse the economy of communication by means of the iron ribbon, were all poten tially represented in the discoveries and invention by Watt, and in comparatively a few years the several wonders were to find evolution : the Fulton experiments at New York in 1806 ; the 40 626 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. first adaptation of the same power to like purposes in England, six years later; steam carriages struggling through their infantine ail ments from 1814 to 1829, and from that day until our own time developing an always sturdier manhood, are all due — with a thousand other ameliorating powers, which will not now be enu merated — to the cardinal suggestion of means whereby steam shall lift men forever beyond the necessities of ignorance and brutalizing labor ; and although the great initiatory undertaking was effected before our centennial period commenced, the grand appliances of that force are due to our era. The inventions by Arkwright and by Cartwright are emphati cally due to this epoch, and their power is experienced by hun dreds of millions who could not name the inventors nor specify their works ; while the populations of many nations are fed, clothed, educated and lodged with an approach to luxury, in large part, in consequence of the increased consumption of raw material, arid the reduced price of manufactures consequent upon such benefi cent labors. In great things as in small, science has been increas ing human happiness ever since its professors and students with drew from the impracticable pursuit of the elixir vitce, to seek for the more available blessings of mechanical invention, combined with the discoveries of the savant. The superb ideas of Eoger Bacon cost him an imprisonment which probably ended only with his existence. The life work of Faraday lifted him from the bookbinder's bench to the status of a prince and a philoso pher, who could claim kindred with the greatest souls of antiq uity ; so vastly changed is the area of labor within the past six centuries. Looking back upon the Argand lamp from the supe rior illuminating powers enjoyed by this generation, it seems but a small thing that an improved lamp was offered to the reader and the student, but if we could turn back the wheels of time for a hundred years, to the darkness visible which was due to the candle, enclosed or not enclosed in a lantern, little improved since the age of Alfred the Great, we could more highly appre ciate the boon conferred by that costly production, compared with which, our kerosene lamp of to-day is almost as the sun it self for brilliancy and cheapness. Science had barely attempted to apply steam to river navigation, before the air itself promised The Great Centennial Exposition. 627 to become a medium for successful travel, and the Montgolfier balloon soared toward the heavens, leading the thoughts of scien tists and mechanicians onward to a myriad schemes for aerosta tion, which have already been utilized to some degree, and which may at any moment develop into aerial charioteering on a scale which would make the atmosphere a new realm for our dwelling place. While the treasures of mental effort were thus slowly unfolding, the idea of educating the children of poverty by schools held on Sundays, and in villages where idle youth had too long been neglected, prepared the way for a wider dominion to be possessed by literature; and we see the results around us, multiplying daily.as the momentum of intellectual progression increases. Brain culture, which had been the luxury of the few, has already become the necessity of the many; and in a propor tionate degree, the once all pervading superstition has been rele gated to a narrower field ; the pretensions of quackery have been submitted to a closer scrutiny, and the maxims of despotism have been narrowed in operation. The old system of signalling by beacon fires has been superseded many times within the century that we call our own, because through its vista we look back to the heroes and veterans of '76; but the first advance to the wooden semaphore with its moveable arms and dumb alphabet of limited range, is due to the mental activity of the last quarter of the last century, almost to its last decade. From that feeble step to our grander exploits with the subject lightnings, what an em pire has been conquered ! Mesmerism, which had been the quackery of the court and the people in France, began to find scientific equivalents in galvanism and voltaic electricity, and to approach the modern aspects of the like fields of wonder, con cerning which the best thinkers are still in doubt. The rocks from which our ancestors quarried palaces, monuments and homes were found to be possessed of higher claims upon the world's regard, as the art of lithography offered its aid to the modern distributor of pictured wealth among the masses; and it would be interesting to inquire how many millions of souls have since found their bread in the prosecution of industries thence made available. Soon afterwards we find the foundry at Bir mingham, in which Boulton, the partner of Watt, carried on his 628 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. numerous enterprises, illuminated by the aid of gas. Priestley, and the little school of advanced thought which he represented in England, until the ignorant multitude drove him out and de stroyed his library and apparatus, were carrying on the work of discovery as to gases into practical application,, and in that re gion of labor it would be curious beyond measure, if we could see drawn up the millions that live by the manufacture of illu minating gas, by its distribution in the homes of the poor ancl the palaces of the wealthy, and by all the myriad occupations which but for that invention might never have been placed with in the reach of the toiling masses. Long before that light could be brought into general operation, before gas had been brought into London streets — and that event dates from 1804 — Dr. Jen- ner had discovered the system of vaccination, and had proffered to suffering humanity the means to ward off the ravages of small pox. We know but little of the extent to which that worse than plague, that continuous scourge, decimated and disfigured the race ; the worst evidences of its abhorrent influence have passed away, thanks to the scheme offered by the benevolent physician, but before that end could be attained he had been well nigh howled to death by blasphemous opponents, who declared that it was irreligious on his part to avert an evil which the Supreme Being had appointed for wise but inscrutable purposes. Volta was busily constructing at the same time the Voltaic pile, with which his name is forever associated, and perhaps he sometimes paused to reflect that a similar work two hundred years before might have cost him his life as a wizard. Thus, the stately march of time went on to an always improv ing music; the men who had for many years been accustomed on certain inhospitable coasts to exhibit false lights, luring vessels to destruction, that they might with the greater certainty procure the abominable gains of the wrecker, were, perhaps, disgusted when they learned that the practices of " the good old times " were being discounted by the invention of life boats and apparatus to preserve life and property ; but upon the coasts of Cornwall and elsewhere, where such ghastly vocations were followed, the sons and grand sons of the old regime are now among the bravest to adventure their lives to save the distressed. Congreve rockets The Great Centennial Exposition. 629 fall into rank near this point, and as we know they have since then often warned the lookout upon the shore of the dangerous proximity of the doomed vessel to the rocks, often also the same means have carried the life line from shore to ship, or the reverse, establishing communications by which the weak and ailing have been conveyed from out of the very maelstrom and hurricane of ruin to the protecting arms of family and friends. The science of mind, which was at the commencement of our century a study entirely metaphysical, has become very largely a question in which physical construction supplies the answer within our time. The mania which at one period' lowered phre nology to the status of fortune telling by bumps or little better, has given place to a more slowly moving science of observation, which has already helped us in some degree to a comprehension of mental phenomena, and which may yet do more in that direc tion. It is not pretended that the whole mystery of psycho logical action can be solved by the study of brain cells and grey matter, by the convolutions of the brain fiber, by the investiga tion of temperaments, and by measurement of the crania, inas much as the mystery of mysteries lies far beyond line and rule, " deeper than ever plummet sounded ; " but it is something that we are able to find always in physical forms, the basis upon which the sublimest of all earthly marvels are elaborated, and for that advance we are indebted to the labors of this century. Then the toils of tbe miner and his peculiar dangers down in the deep interstices of the earth, whence foul gases burst forth to overwhelm and destroy him with choke damp, fire damp and their awful explosions, commanded thc aid of science in the " safety lamp" offered to the workman by Sir Humphrey Davy, an invention based upon a discovery which, humanly speaking, has saved unnumbered thousands of lives. Miry streets which came near in many cases to make locomotion impossible, were in the year 1819, first placed in good form by Macadam's system, which is now found operating in all parts of the world. Then Oersted was completing his experiments to demonstrate the power of the electro magnet, which eleven years later, in 1831, Faraday completed by the discovery of magnetic electricity, the reverse of the former proposition, submitting to the service of the 630 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. world the current which now carries our messages to the realms of "far Cathay," and may hereafter convey them to the pole. While such works were being prosecuted on the other side of the Atlantic, it must not be supposed for one moment that this nation sat idby looking on. The little fringe of population, of less than four millions upon an area of country washed by the Atlantic, had grown steadily in importance, spreading every year over a wider range and increasing the wealth which has since been applied to arts and science as well as to increase reproductive works of a more material description. In the year 1817, the great Hudson and Erie canal was commenced, which we have seen completed and in operation since 1825, an immense undertak ing worthy^ of the energies of a great people. Since that date we have transferred to our own roads the steam horse which Eng land began to break into harness in 1814, although Bucephalus was not properly tamed and set to work until 1829. Before the first railroad was operated on the other side of the Atlantic in 1832, connecting Liverpool with Manchester, the McCormick reaper gave a new aspect to agricultural enterprise on this side of the ocean, and from that time to the present inventions and improve ments have been almost unceasing, until, as we have said, there has been seen a reduction of manual labor, unprecedented in any former era, without a reduction of one dollar's worth in the yearly proceeds of that branch of industry ; yet while the demand for farm laborers has diminished by one-third, the wages for competent men in farm work has simply doubled within twenty years. Men who can look back forty years to the time when the tin der box was in full bloom, when Benedict, rising in the night was obliged to grope round for flint and steel, before his darkness could be illuminated, and then proceeded at peril of his knuckles to strike sparks from the awkward instrument at his disposal, can appreciate better than the more modern growths of men the ad vantages which in 1834 were provided for household economy, in the lucifer match box. It seems hardly possible now to look back upon the old times, with their Eembrandt like effects of flame glowing up from the tinder box, into the face of the anx ious seeker after light, without expressing one's thanks to chem- The Great Centennial Exposition. 631 istry for the match named after the father of mischief, worthy to have been invented by Prometheus himself, who brought down fire from above. Bail ways were now being rapidly multiplied in France, Belgium and elsewhere, as well as in their first home, and in 183.7, the first electric telegraph was operated by the inventive genius of Wheatstone, giving birth to a system of interchange, compared with which, the fleetest couriers and their facilities for communi cation, such as provoked the world's wonder in England and in France, in the fifteenth century when the postal scheme was in augurated in Europe, seems as though the tortoise should challenge the eagle to a race. ' Men had reached a frame of mind in which slowness could not be endured. Pinizon's caravel "Pinta" might have been speedy- enough for the companions of Columbus, who feared their ap proach to the declivitous sides of the world; but men living in the age which had given birth to the Electric Telegraph, must have speedier means of crossing the Atlantic to enable Europe to take hold of the New World, and be lifted into better conditions of life ; hence we find, in 1838, the Great Western steamer cross ing the Atlantic, from Bristol to New York, in fifteen days, and the good people declaring that wonders would never cease. Dr. Johnson used to say that "a voyage was a term of imprisonment, with a chance of being drowned ; " there were now added further chances by no means pleasant, however problematical ; but the imprisonment was shortened from months to days, and the sur roundings were so much improved that men forgot the confine ment in the splendor of their floating palace. In the same year, Nasmyth's Steam Hammer was brought into action, exerting such a force as had never been known in any former mechanical experience, which could be controlled with such precision that the petals of a rose would not be bruised in its descent, or could be propelled with such fury that an iron-shod pile would be driven into the earth's crust as though it had been an aerolite, coming from remote space to find a home and refuge in the center of the globe. Still, side by side with the strong, came the beau tiful, as the two should ever be mated ; and, just while the steam hammer was being perfected ready for work, Daguerre was com- 632 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. pelling the sun to become our portrait painter, commencing an art industry to which every household is now indebted for some form of loveliness, or some long remembered features, which would be cheaply purchased at ten times their weight in gold, yet such as even kings could not command in the last century. The death-like correctness of Daguerre has given place to higher art in pictures which almost seem to breathe ; but, so rapidly do the changes come from some good process to other and better means, that it is not too much to anticipate that, in the progress of art and scientific culture, the presentation of the living char acteristics of the human face divine will, in the future, excel the paintings of the old masters. Europe commenced its career as an exhibiter of the products of art and industry, in 1844, at Berlin, and, of course, an immediate result followed in the acceleration of all the processes by which improvements might be attained in manufactures and artistic labors, but the rapid flow of discovery more and more dwarfs the capacity of the running pencil to note what is worthy of being admired. The discovery of the planet Neptune, verifying the calculations of Adams and Le Verrier, serves us to illustrate the exactitude with which scientific calcu lations are carried out, not only in astronomical observations and speculations, but in all branches of inquiry in the century in which we live. But while the distant planets and the perturba tions which mark their presence are interesting the thoughtful student in one department, in another, human suffering com mands all the energies of the sympathetic soul ; hence we find ^Ether as an anaesthetic, introduced, in 1846, by Dr. Jackson, of Boston, Mass., to be soon followed by Chloroform and other such agents, and, under its shelter, bodies and minds debilitated by long suffering and sickness are protected from the pangs of pain while operations essential to the saving of life are carried through by skillful surgeons. Ambrose Pare could not have dreamed of such an exquisite helper for the strong, swift hand that could re move a limb with the minimum of suffering for the patient; yet this is only one of the many means by which agony can be re duced to its lowest plane ; and for this boon the world is indebt ed to the professional labors of a Massachusetts practitioner. The Union had served its apprenciship to the grand career which The Great Centennial Exposition. 633 she has since illustrated ; and, from the close of the first half century of national growth, there has been visible a succession of inventions exceeding all that the world had seen as the outcome of the ingenuity of one nation in any period of industry. The Sewing Machine, invented by Elias Howe, represents an endless line of patents for improved construction, one maker following another in the same line of labor, until it seems as though there must come a time when mere. volition will suffice to procure the elaboration of manufactures which once depended entirely upon the dexterity of the human hand and its powers of endurance. The dreams of France and Spain as to the auriferous character of this continent, seemed on the point of realization in 1847", when the goldfields of California were first made known to the world. The wealth that was captured by Drake, Frobisher, Raleigh, and Hawkins, from the Spaniard on its way from South America, and the yet larger quantities that reached Spain to sustain the extrav agance of Charles V and Phillip II, was hardly an atom by com parison with the Pactolean stream, which flowed over this coun try and the world, after the first discoveries in Sacramento Valley ; but the enervating influence which ruined Castile, never for one moment appeared in our history ; and the only noticeable effect seems to have been that with the treasure which came from the New Eldorado, the banks and valleys of the Mississippi were made more valuable than would have realized the proudest anti cipations of the hope elated, all but bankrupt France with its Mississippi scheme of the beginning of the eighteenth century. Nor was there in all that time of excitement the least indication of supineness as to discovery and invention. The men who rushed to the placers and gulches of California were as full of inventive capacity as they were of courage. Every process in the new field of labor was as it were by intuition carried back to first principles, and from that point upwards; mere brute force was discounted by scientific appliances, such as are now copied on every goldfield on this footstool. Electric telegraph lines soon connected the remote camps in the Sierras, wherever a settled community could be found, with the more settled districts and through these with the whole round of civilization. Commerce and government followed where enterprise had led the way, and 634 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. while the California mines were still quite young, the adventur ous diggers learned from the occasional issues of the metropolitan press that reached their tents, that the world from wliich they had temporarily fled was still continuing its wonderful career of new inventions. The Long Tom, the Chilian mill, and the rows of stampers engaged with them in preparing the fine particles of precious metal to be caught in the ripple, or made ready to be in corporated in the amalgam could not close their ears to the afar off echoes which told them of the achievements of telegraphy on land, and that already, in 1849, it had been successfully tested by submarine experiments at Folkstone, opposite to Boulogne. By successive steps, while still pursuing the ignis faluus wealth, they learned, in 1853, that the first submarine telegraph had been laid down, to raise the hopes of humanity to the topmost pin nacle, and then suddenly, with the words half spoken, to dash them down again ; but only that the work better done might deserve a better and more enduring triumph. The greater plenty of gold was giving new courage to the settlers in remote Iowa and in other newly settled territories, who could see markets for their produce at fair prices, and the wave of prosperity surged for a time over the whole land, giving an additional impulse to every form of industry and research. Enterprises of great pith and moment depend upon the price of grain all the world over, and the union was rapidly massing the sinews of war for the grandest struggle known in history. Vast reproductive works were being projected daily and as speedily as they were launched upon the money market there were means found for their prosecution. The Niagara suspension bridge was crossed by its first locomo tive in 1855, and it is not easy to compute the number of such titanic forces that have since drawn the traffic and the travel of the world across that vibrating roadway. When that item of news was transmitted to the kingdoms of the old world, there came back word that a light nearly as bright as the sun had been exhibited to the observing multitude in Paris, as the latest product of electricity. Ericcson's caloric engine dates from 1855, and although no great results in that direction have yet followed, we cannot doubt that results will come; when the motors of to-day will be to the competent looker on, as far behind The Great Centennial Exposition. 635 the possibility of the future, as we now are beyond the old coach ing experiences, which were familiar to the early travelers across the plains. The builder of our iron clad monitor was not a man that would waste his energies upon a scheme which had not a capacity to succeed. Still onward has been the motto of our century, the time which we propose to celebrate by an effort to exhibit in the mass, the monuments of God's goodness to the race. With the discovery of our wealth of iron and coal came natural ly a desire to improve our hematite ore, into the best product of the iron makers industry, and the process patented by Bessemer for converting iron into steel supplied the want of the time. The vast expansion of our iron and steel works in Indianapolis, as well as in Pittsburgh, and in intermediate localities beyond num ber, tells of the always increasing wealth of the world at large, as well as of comfortable homes, made happy, by the rewards of industry. The puddlers' energy is the starting point for an un ending succession of industries which raise the human race by every step, beyond the reach of such want, as used in the olden times to decimate all nations, when there were none to help. Famines come now, but they are partial and slight by comparison and as they fall upon one community, the rest of civilization comes to the rescue with a love entirely modern, and an ability to relieve, such as the old world never knew. The weights to be raised and transported grew heavier with every year under the new growth, and additional facilities must be found to meet the demand for mechanical aid. The derrick invented in 1857 was the answer, possessing a strength which could be calculated with entire precision, and by the aid of the new giant, ponderous blocks of metal were immediately being lifted and transferred with less noise and racket than a baggage clerk often makes in the transfer of a trunk filled with clothing. With the attribute of irresistible strength there came also the gentleness which not seldom is found conjoined with power. Swiftness was wanted in some departments, as much as deliberation in others, and while these ponderous weights being set down with the ease which might mark the deposit of a feather, winged words of eloquence were being transmitted with a speed equal to two thousand words per hour, under the combination system which took its rise in 1859. 636 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Safety for the traveler found care and consideration in the estab lishment of the electro magnetic light at Dover, in the same year, and from the Pharos streamed a warning compared with which the light of that Pharos at Alexandria in its palmiest days was dark ness, when its school embodied all the philosophy, ancl its library all the learning of the older civilizations, of which Archimedes was one only of the exemplars. The dresses of the women of our age owe the beauty of color, the softness of texture, and the enduring quality of fiber, where such are found existing, to the improved processes which have been made possible by science and art. That exquisite mauve, that brilliant magenta, that red which would bear comparison with the richest dyes of Tyre, are all the results of just such labor as will be furthered by our great centennial. Science certainly does not pause to inquire as to the good and evil in the intentions and aims of its votaries. It is a powerful, but an irresponsible agent, in the hands of all men who are capa ble of wielding its mysteries ; as potent in the hands of the pois oner, as in the grasp of the philanthropist ; and as dangerous when misapplied as the devices of Satan. For many years scientists were of the opinion that tbe bottom of the sea could not be reached; that there was in fact a line beyond which even a can non ball would cease to descend, remaining in equipoise because of the increased density of the ocean at such depths ; that idea is now finally set at rest, and not only can we bring up the tiniest shells from the bed of the ocean, but we have succeeded in pro curing photographs of that locality at various points, which under the microscope can give the fullest insight to the unknown land. Science, which has carried us to the uppermost realms of air, has also enabled us to probe and inspect the vast depths of the mighty waters, and it ¦ is still our servant, to extend our realm into all regions save that in which religious thought takes up the strain, and the chain of causation falls from our hands in the immediate forecourts of the Great Cause and Architect of the universe. Tyndall's masterly production on " The Correlation of Forces," illustrates the limits within which science and its laborers may work, in ascertaining the economies of nature, whereby heat may become light, or either of these manifestations develop into force ; The Great Centennial Exposition. 637 so that nothing shall be wasted, in the feast to which we are bid den, but beyond that area of effort the darkness cannot be illu mined, save to the eye of faith, which refuses to submit itself to blind material direction. One of the best features of the progress of this century, may be seen in the fact that our foremost think ers no longer dogmatize as to matters which remain unknown to science, until the gates open which will reveal every mystery ; and it is well for us that the antagonism once all powerful be tween the inquirer and the worshipper, the savant and the church, have terminated in the broader perceptions due to mutual culture. There will be many evidences of that better condition of things, while the congress of free thought continues in the industrial tem ples at Fairmount Park. Mountainous heights were at one time barriers more absolute than the ocean against international com merce and intercourse ; but the railroad over Mont Cenis termi nated that era, and while we were still rejoicing and thankful for the wondrous achievement, it was suddenly put into the back ground by the tunnel through the heart of the same mountain range. Science and mechanical invention, tired of the slow work of the excavator's pick, shovel, and tamping iron, set up a new power in the boring machine, which may some day answer like demands by piercing our vast mountain chains in as many direc tions as there are lines of road and cities to be served. Mountains are our servants, not our masters, opening to us at every point avenues toward mineral, commercial and social wealth, such as would have been incomprehensible to the people of the last cen tury. The old means fail us in the presence of our larger oppor- tunies for expansion, but the new powers come at every call. The thirteen states with which we commenced our national life are already thirty-eight, and there are ten territories waiting at our portals for admission ; but the progressive action of our people is not expressed by the mere facts of organization, under institutions and forms of government; the great reality consists in the added power which makes every well trained man a greater force to assist the onward march of the race. Our original territory of 820,680 square miles has become 3,559,091 square miles ; but the knowledge which makes the soil more productive ; the skill which bridges our rivers, as rivers were never bridged before ; the genius 638 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. which can traverse our vast rivers with floating palaces swift as the wind ; which brings together our distant cities, connecting them by bands of iron; the science which enables thought to speak with thought around the world, before the momentary im pulse has been forgotten ; the force which annihilates space and time, while still using both to advantage, are in their conjoined effects more potent tnan even the added population which before the next census will bring up our enumeration to fifty millions. Numbers alone do not make greatness, or the celestial empire should rule the world ; but the congregation of cultured minds, directing the engines of science ; compelling the adoption of sound rules in the furtherance of education, making every man and woman wiser, better, and stronger ; raising up children that shall occupy still more advantageous planes for exertion ; these are the forces by which mankind in the aggregate must be ruled. Our great centennial will tell us something of the school system by which we are striving to discharge our most important duty, and although it cannot flatter us with the conclusion that we have done enough, it will undoubtedly show that we are moving in the right direction, by every act that multiplies the facilities and in ducements toward studious lives, without converting our young men into monkish bookworms and copyists, lacking the physique and the morale of manhood. Adult thought has long since as sumed self control, in the support which is given to and withheld from portions of the press, as well the diurnal issue of influential journals, as the more refined periodical literature of the day, and the books which seek admission to our libraries. It seems but a few years since Caxton and Wenkyn De Werde submitted the book press to the will of our ancestors, and now there is not a topic possessing human interest, whichis without its organ and its volume, disseminating knowledge among the mass by the means of the printed page, which permeates society almost as surely as light fills our horizon. The illustrated volume of to-day, which supplies the student with the knowledge commonly found in an encyclopedia, will compare in a singularly complete way with the limited information and the poor presswork of old Caxton's age; but the main feature of our advancement will be found in the daily newspaper which for an infinitely small amount, consider- The Great Centennial Exposition. 639 ing the service, places upon the table of the subscriber news from earth, sea and sky, and from the regions under the sea ; tells him what is being done in courts and cottages all over the world ; de scribes the congress of savants in Paris, or New York, as certainly as the movements of armies ; reveals the doings of barbarism in the heart of Africa, as well as the designs of civilization in Eu rope ; explains the latest modes in dress, the dentifrice by which the teeth of beauty may be improved; the best forms of food with which they may be employed ; the accidents that endanger life, and the amusements by which it is made enjoyable ; debating in the interests of the whole community every item of progressive thought, every movement in science, art, manufactures and gov ernment ; and increasing in a more than geometrical ratio, the facilities by which information can be made common to every reader. The daily newspaper, in its best form, does all this, and even more than the broadest description could convey, while it ministers to the mental and material improvement of the genera tion for which it lives. The files of the press upon which Frank lin, Paine, Jefferson, Adams and Otis, and 'a little host besides, were engaged as professionals and amateurs, will present a very puny appearance by comparison with the "New York Herald," and the " Tribune " that Greeley has left us ; but it may be doubted whether the whole of the presses in the Union to-day are exerting a more beneficial influence in political life, than did the few and small issues of the newspapers which heralded in the war of independence and free thought. American newspapers, in many respects, take the lead of journalism throughout the world. The largest daily circulation known, has been attained by an Eng lish newspaper published in London, which sells 160,000 ; but the New York Herald, on one occasion, reached 156,000, and in the aggregate it may be asserted with absolute safety, that the Union prints and circulates more copies than all the world besides. When the Declaration of Independence was signed, our popula tion was small, and our means more limited, so that the newspa per was higher in price and less efficient in every commercial and social aspect, except in the relation of political freedom; but if the population, small as it then was, had required full supplies of journalistic matter, the demand would have exceeded the limited 640 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. powers of the presses then employed. The lever hand press worked by Benjamin Franklin may stand as the best exponent of the mechanical means then used on this side of the Atlantic for the diffusion of knowledge; and the perfecting press of Hoe, which operates upon miles of uncut paper, and throws out fifteen thousand copies printed on both sides within an hour, will ex plain to the millions who will assemble in Philadelphia, why the modern newspaper can be made so much more efficient than its predecessor sheets ; and why the responsibilities of journalism have increased in a ratio unexampled by any other branch of the forces of civilization. Carlyle said very truly that for the man of our age the best university is the collection of books ; but there are millions who scarcely know how to discriminate between the science of Jules Verne and the Munchausenisms in which the grains of truth are embalmed unless they are assisted by their familiar counsellors of the daily paper to make the distinction. The student that can read discriminatingly, and remember what he has perused, is the learned man in our encyclopaedic era. For the vast majority the newspaper is almost the only book that time and inclination will make available ; so that it is an advant age in most senses that there are six thousand such aids to culture published in various forms throughout the union. Steam in journalism as in most of the more prominent and progressive oc cupations of the day is the great motor. Sixty-one years have passed since the London Times was first printed by steam, and now that great power has taken upon itself the labor of the press for all the principal newspapers in the world, making a revolution in the development of literature and the increase of the reading public from which we may expect the most stupendous results. Without such increase as we have endeavored to portray in a few instances pervading the whole mass of civilized society, leavening the whole lump, the Helots of the southern states could not have been relieved from bondage as we have seen them in the interval between 1861 and 1865 ; nor could the community, have so gallantly endured the heavy burden of emancipation, which gave heroic souls, the blood of hundreds of thousands of her bravest sons, and golden treasure such as the ancients might have considered a world's ransom. The mechanical progress 1 The Great Centennial Exposition. ,641 of the union, the millions of minds instructed in the mysteries of science, looking with bolder insight at all the difficulties which in former times were the means of cramping the energies of labor, and lifting the burden from human shoulders to the ponderous beams of numberless steam engines, have given to philanthropy and justice an unlimited capacity to combat with the woes inci dental to ignorance, want and oppression. The mechanical and scientific inventors and discoverers who widened the domain of the manufacturing and commercial classes supplied the sinews of war for the grandest upheaval of the race anywhere recorded in history, and although one generation may pass away before there will be complete acquiesence on all sides in the new Evangel, yet already there are evidences that even the south will become eventually richer and better for the terrible act of retribution with which for a time it was prostrated. The fields will become more steadily and continuously productive. The intellect of the south, once sluggish and restful, will not fail to be stimulated by a new emulation, into more active exercise of its faculties in manufactur ing enterprises ; and in those concurrent pursuits which create the wealth of nations. The rivers will be made productive in the same manner as the water courses in other parts of the union, wherever motive power can be made available. Mineral wealth now slumbering undisturbed, or at any rate but half recognized, will restore to the depleted classes the potentiality of riches ; steam will increasingly supply the demand for force, to be applied to every industrial undertaking ; population, multiplying beyond the former experiences of that section of the union, will render available the money that is required to give the new impetus ; and as " the sleep of the laboring man is sweet, whether he eat little or much," so the healthier and happier south relieved of its incubus, or nightmare, although the process of depletion is severe, will find better blood flowing in its commercial arteries ; more active recuperation in progress, and vastly improved opportuni ties in every walk of life. Year after year the example of the wealthier class taught an evil lesson to youth iu the best cities of the south, where luxury and not effort was the summum bonum ; that time has almost entirely passed away, and the new Psalm of Life is being better appreciated, as a natural consequence : 41 642 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. " Not enjoyment and not sorrow, is our destined end ancl way, But to live that.eaeh to-morrow, find us farther than to-day." The resources of the southern population have been multiplied, and the beneficent process still goes on with every new discovery in science, every new application of mechanic force, every new insight to the soil, and to the means by which it may be fertilized for different growths ; so that men are no longer obliged to look upon the occupation of the planter as the be all of life ; nor is that branch of industry narrowed down to manual labor, as of yore. None but the fossils that may soon be forgotten are now found associating the idea of meanness, with the prosecution of daily toil ; and to have assisted in such a revolution is no slight honor to our age and nation. It was necessary to commence at the very base of the social structure, for the edifice had been raised upon quicksands, and it could not endure. The assump tion of a wrork so important might well make the judicious states man pause, but there was no other way to attain success ; and therefore we see it now advancing toward completion. The dig nity of effort had never on this earth a broader and more effective illustration than the history of the United States has given to the world, since the attack on Fort Sumter. The new philosophy which recognizes in the mechanic a faculty greater and more beneficent than that which commonly resides in the activities of the king, sees also that the operation of tyrannic power by the white race, over the black, was an injury to both parties in the unholy system ; and the reconstruction which is being slowly evolved will stand square upon the earth, undisturbed by false hypotheses as to the special favoritism of God for one complexion of manhood. Herein is a triumph for humanity, compared with which all the other signs of advancement by which we are sur rounded might be put aside for a while, to be called forth again by the resistless energy and foresight which have achieved so many and such glorious victories. Abraham Lincoln, waiting for the momentous message, which told the Springfield lawyer that he had been chosen president of this union, was nervous and de pressed, full of vague anxieties, because of the great task that lay before him ; but could he have seen how vast, beyond the utmost stretch of his imagination at that hour, were to be the The Great Centennial Exposition. 643 duties then devolving upon his pure soul and unclouded intellect ; how terrible the trials through which the nation and himself must pass to the land of promise, that nervous energy which never failed in his extraordinary career might have raised him by its reaction to a plane of thought akin to madness ; and there is no reason to believe that he would have grudged the life which was taken from him in the supreme hour of his existence. That proclamation so long poised, so prayerfully considered, so anx iously debated when alone in "the sweet sessions of silent thought," when man communes not with his fellows, but with God the Father, is for this age a work infinitely greater than " Peter's Dome," upon which the genius of Michael Angelo was expended. Eome has given many boons to the race, but not one that will compare with the life work of Abraham Lincoln ; and when we assemble to rejoice over the completion of our first hundred years of national history, there will be no brighter chronicle in all our record than that which has been left to us by the man whose action freed the slave and established a new plat form for American liberty. The " Centennial Northwest" has tried to submit to its readers a brief resume of our century of progression, not only as it has been represented in the states with which it specially deals, but throughout the union, and in some degree throughout the world, since 1776; when the Mississippi and the Missouri were but par tially explored ; when the great northwest was, in the main, an uninhabited wild, through which the nomadic tribes roamed at will ; and when the largest part of what is now the union had not been claimed by civilization. The work has been accomplished under difficulties which precluded the possibility of completeness, but it has been carried through with zeal and faithfulness, in a manner which may enable it to be used as a stepping stone to future and higher effort. It was no slight task to trace the growth of the northwest from the day when the first stake was driven, and the first rude fortress erected to repel the savage ; from before De troit was founded on the spot which became afterwards known as the metropolis of Michigan, and to carry the eventful record" through to the eminence since attained by such cities as St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati and Indianapolis, any one of which series 644 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. might well task the powers of an able historian, devoting his en ergies to the preparation of a book intended to commemorate the successes of but one community ; but there are advantages in the presentation of what may be called a miniature of history, inas much as the student finds therein a digest of the more ample scope which lies open to his hands in other directions. The northwest will provide homes for a very large section of the best populations in Europe, and in regard alike to climate, to tone of thought, and to the various occupations which will employ the coming millions, this portion of the union has claims upon attention which the more thickly populated east, and the more enervating south can not offer ; hence it was desirable that the whole northwest should be reviewed in one compendious volume. We are more happily placed than any other nation has ever been, in the fact that there is among us no embargo on free thought, in any relation of life ; that politics, social life, law and religion are committed, in this country alone, to the volition of the people, untrammeled by estab lishments and prescriptive rights ; that no priesthood, and no auto crat, can overshadow the freedom which determines what forms of government shall pass away and what forms remain, awaiting the resolve of future generations. This condition of liberty has been enjoyed long enough to determine the question which has for thousands of years been debated by thinkers, whether the popular mind can partake of liberty without degenerating into license. The time-honored boundaries have not been crossed, the ties which held society together have not been severed, the sacrament of mar riage, the observances of religion, the solemn obligations to educate the young, have not lost their hold upon the human mind. All these, and more than these, have become greater and stronger in their grasp, as every individual mind has risen to an appreciation of the duties which social life imposes, and the advantages which it is capacitated to confer. Government is not in one sense so strong in this nation as we may see it exemplified in Eussia, in which it is said to consist of " tyranny tempered by assassination ; " but for all good purposes the government of the people, by the people, and for the people, is as strong as the commonwealth by which the power is exerted, and in which every man is a sovereign in his own right. The Great Centennial Exposition. 645 The handsome buildings which have been raised by personal munificence and by public funds to meet the several demands of justice, charity and culture within the century which has now nearly elapsed since the issuing of our famous declaration, can only be represented in our Centennial Exposition by paintings, photography and books of engravings ; but the advances which have been made in that respect would write the history of our era if there were no story to be told beyond the representation of the homes in which the heroes of '76 were born, the meeting houses in which they assembled, the schools in which they were taught, the books and maps by aid of which they were instructed, and the furniture by which they were surrounded all their lives. Beyond all mere display, there is a suggestive influence exerted upon every mind by the stiff and cumbrous furniture which in some homes cramp the body, varying, in anything but a beneficial sense, from that which arises from elegant and convenient appli ances such as are common in the homes of the comparatively poor in our community. It would be well, in some respects, to show in a few nooks and corners of the exposition the angular inconveniences which were used as furniture, one hundred years ago, in the hamlets scattered along the coast from Maine to Georgia, in order that the contrast might the more readily be made between the point from which we started and that at which we have arrived in that particular regard ; but, for our buildings, of course the pencil of the artist must be our only resource. The union is especially the home of collegiate institutions and universities. We do not pretend that our colleges are generally of such a character as will compare with those at Cambridge and at Oxford in Great Britain, but on the other hand we may chal lenge the world to show us an institution elsewhere than in the United States, which will take rank with Vassar College, in making provision for the education of woman — a branch of training especially important — and the number of collegiate establishments and universities which may be found dotting our prairies and our cities, providing for the education of both sexes, in greater or less proportion, number over three hundred and thirty, without reckoning the large contingent of such institu tions, seventy in number, which is being administered by the 646 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. Eoman Catholic church. There is no country that can show so determined an effort to supply educational facilities for all classes, as we find evidenced in that one fact, and if we lack some of the recherche features that make the old world universi ties completer than our own, it remains to be said that our founts of learning are not rigidly protected for the use of the wealthy and titled few ; they have been built and endowed for the mil lion, and will go on improving their every feature until there shall be no particular save the rime of hoar antiquity in which they will fall behind their predecessors in Europe. It will not be easy to make this department of our growth apparent to our European visitors, except in so far as the press and the camera may assist us ; and possibly also in some measure the illustration of our advantage will be found in the cultured manners of our men and women trained in such establishments. Two centuries and four years have passed since Governor Berkeley boasted in Virginia that the colony had neither " printing presses, colleges nor schools," but that gentleman, could he rise from his last rest ing place during our centennial, would find that his misplaced congratulation had been long since out of date, and perhaps would reasonably assume that the departure from the rule of ignorance which he upheld, had been one of the main causes why the authority of Great ""Britain had been successfully re sisted. The eloquence of the revolutionary period, which still lives in the language of John Adams and Patrick Henry, might never have been heard had the press remained as idle as Berkeley desired that it should be ; and could the schools and colleges have continued under "taboo," it is clear that there would have been none to write our Declaration of Independence, nor any to comprehend the unmanliness of submitting to foreign oppression. Mementoes of our struggle will be many and varied in the Great Temple devoted to art and industry, but it would be a work of supererogation to attempt to name them here. Other nations have been despoiled of their heroes by the sharp investigations of in quiring minds. William Tell has taken his place with many others among myths and fables, but no caustic search can rob this nation and the world of the glorious examples of patriotism which live now and will endure forever in the history of the union. The Great Centennial Exposition. 647 Within our century of development we have created an army and a navy, commencing our race in those directions with, for our army, the minute men that disputed the march to Lexington, and the " embattled farmers " who fought on Bunker Hill ; and for our navy, little more than the Flag Ship Alfred, in which John Paul Jones was second in command. Our arsenals and our navy to-day will bear comparison with that of any European power, and if our army is not large, it is because we know that in the experience of our forefathers, a standing army has always been found operating as a menace to freedom ; because every citi zen upon this continent, being entitled to bear arms, is, in himself, a portion of the only armament that can suffice to defend this soil from the desecration of the invader ; and because it is hoped and believed that the spirit which inspired our forefathers, when a little handful of men dared the strength of the mightiest nation, will not fail us in any conflict which may arise with our contem poraries, not one of whom can claim to be superior to ourselves. Our cities which numbered their population by hundreds, slowly mounting towards thousands, now teem with hundreds of thous ands, rapidly nearing millions, and should the step of an armed enemy disturb the repose of our shore line, a whole nation in arms could be concentrated on that spot by the iron road and the locomotive, before the intruder would have time to reflect upon his audacity. When our heroes of '76 were contending for the liberties which we have only to defend, the soldier was compelled to march with much toil, from one scene of peril to another, find ing more weariness in his long journies than in his battles ; his successor, should the sad necessity ever arise, will land upon the battle field, without the needless tension of one muscle, prepared to find his work in the combat for liberty ; in which it would be madness to doubt that he, giving battle for all that is dearest, loveliest and best, must1 remain upon the field a victor. The New York city of one hundred years ago had only a population of about twenty thousand souls, and the people of Philadelphia were about as numerous, while Boston lingered at least two thous and behind the other cities mentioned; and communication with New York from Boston was a long week's journey by stage-coach. The wonder is that with such paucity of contact there had not 648 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. grown up a sentiment of isolation with all the jealousies which belong to that narrow feeling. The steps of progress by which we utilized the railroad were slow enough. The steam engine was not used in that connection until two years after the first railway locomotive was employed to convey passengers in England ; but using the means of trac tion now employed on street railroads, we ran our horse cars by rail from Milton to Quincy in 1826. The Baltimore and Ohio line began its passenger operations in 1830, and in the following year the locomotive came into action on that road. Albany and Schenectady were next joined together by the iron ribbon of com merce, and the steam horse came speedily there to relieve its quad rupedal predecessors from the work of traction. So we have con tinued our advances until it has been claimed that a speed of almost eighty miles per hour has been reached with safety. Trav eling at half that speed, with the arms of precision now at our command, and with the ability to mass our artillery at whatever point may be threatened, as soon as the electric signal warns us of danger, it would be the task of an insane host merely to draw down upon itself the swift destruction which could not fail to be hurled against foreign aggression. The great Earl of Chatham de clared once in the English house of lords that he would not per mit America " to manufacture as much as a horse shoe nail ; " but happily the colonists took the decision of all such questions into their own hands one hundred years ago, and already there are nearly three million persons engaged in manufactures in this country, more than five millions occupied in agricultural pur suits, and above one million employed in commerce. With such immense armies of industry daily helping in the production and diffusion of wealth, with four hundred colleges and unnumbered schools laboring in the work of tuition, with six thousand news papers and periodicals stimulating adult intellect to more effective labor, with lecturers simplifying the road to knowledge in a thou sand ways, and the churches ever becoming more efficient in the duty of awakening the conscience of the race, our first centennial jubilee may well be recognized as one of the eras in history from which new reckonings may be made on all lines that can be indi cated by mechanical, artistic, scientific and national progress. Biographical Sketches. 649 CHAPTEE L. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Hon. Elijah M. Haines was horn in the town of Deerfield, Oneida county, New York, and was the fourth of" a family of six children; a sister and two brothers being older, and two sis ters younger than himself. His father died when the subject of this sketch was six years old, leaving the family no means of support; hence, the chil dren were soon separated and placed in different families where they might do something in the way of earning a subsistence. Mr. Haines lived with a farmer and labored on the farm the most of the time he remained in his native state, and had no home that he could call his own until, in mature years, he provided one for himself. In the spring of 1835, while still quite a small boy, he and his brother set out for Chicago, hoping to find better advantages for themselves than in their native place. They came by canal to Buffalo, thence by railroad to Detroit, and then walked across the territory of Michigan to Chicago. At this time Chicago was supposed to contain about six or eight hundred in habitants and as many or more Indi ans might be seen on the streets than white men. Elijah soon went into the country, about forty miles south of Chicago, worked on a farm in sum mer, and attended school thc next winter. This was his last schooling. In the spring of 1836, he went north to what is now called Lake county, and remained there until August, when he returned to Chicago, and hired out as clerk in a store until the spring of 1837. Went into a survey or's office for a while, and then re-. turned to Lake county and began to' make a farm for himself on land as yet unsurveyed. After he left school, he supplied himself with books to use in unoccupied hours, and soon became a proficient in the common branches. Taught school, at the age of 20, in Waukegan, where he now re sides. He also soon acquired a fail- knowledge of the Latin and German languages, and at length studied law, ancl, in 1851, was admitted to the bar. He resided on his farm in the central part of Lake county (now the village of Hainesville), from 1837 to 1851, when he removed to Waukegan, in the same county. Here, in 1855, he compiled the laws of Illinois which had reference to town organization, adding notes and forms, making a complete book of instructions for town officers, which became very pop ular, and is now in general use. In the same year he made a similar work for Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan and Missouri — the first two by state authority. He also prepared a treatise on the Duties of Justices of the Peace, which is still the standard authority on the subject in Illinois. He also wrote a work called the "Probate Manual." He early took a leading- part in matters of education around him, and acted as school committee and superintendent for Lake county. For fifteen years he has published a monthly paper in Chicago called the Legal Adviser. In 1860, he opened a law office in Chicago, to which he goes in the morning, returning at night. In 1858, he was elected repre sentative in the legislature, and con tinued thus, by reelections, for six years. In 1869, he was elected a mem ber of the censtitutional convention to revise the constitution of the state, and, in 1870, was again elected repre sentative and continued two years. In 1874, was again elected representa tive, made speaker of the house, an office he still holds, and, by the laws of Illinois, in case of the death of the governor and lieutenant governor, the speaker of the house becomes govern- 650 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. or. In character he is upright, and in disposition plain and outspoken, despising all shams and deceptions, and seldom going with the current in society. Has never joined any church, and yet has great respect for the churches which have religion in them ; joined the Masonic order in 1849; has been Master, and afterward was Junior Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of the state. He married Miss Melin- da G. Wright, a relative of Gov. Silas Wright of New York. They have two children — a son and a daughter; have a beautiful home, sightly, finely surrounded ancl nicely furnished. He has been successful, indeed, in busi ness, and has given the children large educational advantages which have been improved. Hon. Alexander W. Randall was born in Cooperstown, New York state, about the year 1819. After passing through his school days, he read law. Soon after his admission to the bar, he removed to Wisconsin and located at Prairieville, now Waukesha. He commenced the practice of his pro fession with a fair show ot success ; but his love of political life was so great, ancl he devoted so much time to lhat subject as to interfere consider ably with his legal practice. In poli tics Gov. Randall was originally a Democrat. In 1846, he made his first appearance at the capital, as a mem ber of the First Constitutional Con vention, ancl took a prominent posi tion in that body. In 1848, Gov. Ran dall was prominent in the great Free Soil State Convention. In 1854, he was elected as an independent Demo crat, a member of the next assembly, and was made chairman of the judi ciary committee ; and as the journal of that session will show, he was a very laborious and able member. In 1855, Mr. Randall was placed upon the Republican State ticket for attor ney general. He made a gallant can vass, but was defeated/t as were the others upon Ihe ticket, with the ex ception of governor. In the guberna torial contest between Bashford and Barstow, Mr. Randall displayed marked ability as a lawer. In 1856, Gov. Bashford appointed Mr. Randall judge of the second judicial circuit, composed of the counties of Milwau kee ancl Waukesha. He displayed much ability, and was considered an excellent judge. In 1857, he was nominated- as the Republican candi date for governor, and was elected. In 1858, he entered upon his duties ancl discharged them with such abil ity and satisfaction to the people that he was reelected in 1859. He was one of the very best of war governors in • the country. The energy ancl bold- ,ness with which he labored gave him a National reputation as an able ancl patriotic man. In 1861, Gov. Randall 'was a candidate for United States Sen ator. The contest was a sharp one, and after several ballots were taken in the nominating caucus, Gov. Ran dall withdrew from the contest; ana most of his friends gave their votes for Mr. Howe, who was nominated and elected. At the close of his term as governor, President Lincoln ap pointed Gov. Randall, Minister to Rome. In 1865, he was appointed assistant Postmaster General of the United States, under the Hon. Wil liam Dennison, of Ohio, who was at the head of the Postoffice Department. On the resignation of Mr. Dennison, he became Postmaster General, which position he held until the end of Mr. Johnson's term. In following the for tunes of Mr. Johnson, Gov. Randall naturally drifted into the Democratic party, with which organization he acted until his death. He died at his residence in Elmira, N. Y., July 26, 1872. Hon. John Cofer, son of Wm. Cofer and Sarah Winn Griffin Cofer,was born near Cane Spring, Bullett Co., Ky., July 9th, 1804. And on the 1st day of December, 1825, he married Miss Mary Eleanor Macgill, who was the daughter of Robert Macgill and Helen Stockett Macgill, and born in Annapo lis, Md., Feb. 7, 1807. They have had ten children, two of which died in infancy, and two after they were grown up, leaving them now three sons and three daughters, with twenty-four grand children ancl two great grand children. Col. Cofer's early education was limited; but his thirst for knowl edge made him a good student, ancl he soon became a profound thinker, a logical reasoner, and a ready writer. As a whig, he represented Hardin county in the lower house of the legis lature of Kentucky in 1838, 1839, 1840 Biographical Sketches. 651 and 1841, and Hardin, Meade and Larne counties in the senate of that state from 1848 to 1850. Being a farmer, he became the champion of the great interests of labor and pro duction, and an advocate of economy in public expenditures. He also ad vocated a system of general education, internal improvements, ancl of charit able institutions. As a member of the committee on internal improvements, he originated aud aided in drafting and passing the charter of the Louis ville & Nashville Railroad Company, now the most prosperous and useful corporation in Kentucky. He was also the active, eloquent and efficienf friend of the other railroad interests of that state. In 1854, he removed to Illinois; was postmaster at Rural Retreat; was elector on the Filmore ticket in 1856, ancl on the Bell and Everett ticket in 1860. Since then he has been independent in politics, though generally acting with the dem ocratic party. Devoted to the union of the states, he opposed with manly firmness nullification, secession ancl emancipation (unless gradual and ac companied by colonization). In 1871 and 1872, he represented Douglas county in the general assembly, with his accustomed zeal and ability. Through strictly temperate habits and indomitable energy, he has been suc cessful in business, and after provid ing homos for all his children, he yet retains a competency for himself and wife in their old age. He has been a consistent member of the Methodist church for more than fifty years, and has the proud satisfaction now, in old age (while remembering that he has been the architect of his own fortuue), to know that he has so lived as not on ly to win, but to deserve the confidence and esteem of all who have known him, a pleasant instance of which was seen at his golden wedding, which may be briefly stated as follows: On the 1st clay of December, 1875, this loving, aged and honored couple, with their six children, and all their grand children, and a large number of neigh bors and friends, celebrated their gold en wedding, at the old homestead, now the hospitable mansion of Mr. Thos. and Mrs. Henrietta M. Midwinter (in the home of one of the daughters). The day was beautiful, indeed, befit- ing the joy of the occasion, the pre parations of the table munificent, lav ish and full, the presents rich, useful, and eminently appropriate, and the several speeches of the honored pail were touching and tender indeed. Es pecially interesting and thankful were the brief reminiscences of their lives, such as the simplicity and scantiness of their house and outfit, fifty years before; their planting corn together while the first born lay in the fence corner; the mice of gold the loom and wheel had been to the household, and what a chorus of industrious mu sic his shoe hammer and her spinning wheel had made during the winter evenings of tlie long ago. All of which was told in that loving and ap preciative manner well becoming those who have stood nobly side by side through the storms ancl cares of half a century. And then the other dear ones, the four children (gone to the mystic shore), were referred to so tenderly, through a beautiful poem re peated by Mr. and Mrs. Midwinter that day (which represented them as " not there," and yet as " there"), that the full family group seemed present, ancl thus a monument of affectionate memory, richer by far than any mere device in marble could possibly be, was reared in thought over the dear and departed ones. And it was meet, indeed, that the 'father should have a gold headed cane from the children, and a gold pencil, glasses, etc., from different parties, and a fit tribute to gentle and self forgetting worth, for the father to present to the honored mother a beautiful gold watch and chain, to count out for her the remain ing hours of life, ancl also that a pair of gold glasses, a pencil, etc., should be hers from other parties ; but one of the richest events of the occasion was a warm and tender embrace which the mother gave Mrs. Martin, the lady who had taken and filled so happily the place of a departed daughter. Rich because so uncommon, ancl then so pleasant and^grateful when so real ly due. Thus under a canopy of smiles ancl love, the happy group re viewed the past, and in hope, Christian hope, glanced onward along the path of coming months and years. Hon. James T. Lewis was born in Clarendon, Orleans county, N. Y., Oct. 30, 1819. He received his aca. 652 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. demical education at Clarkson and Clinton, N. Y., and read law with Gov. Seldon, at the former place. He came to Wisconsin in- July, 1845 ; was admitted to the bar of the supreme court; and commenced the practice of law at Columbus, where he has since resided. He has held eight different offices in the state, com mencing with that of district attor ney, and closing with that of governor. When elected secretary of state, he received every vote cast in his own city. When elected governor, his ma jority was nearly twenty-five thou sand, — a very large majority for Wis consin. For his record as governor of the state of Wisconsin, we have only to refer to the history of that stirring period of sacrifice and blood, to show that, preeminently, he was a successful war governor; and not withstanding the fact that he made but little diplay, he accomplished great things for "the state. Although he has retired from public life, at his beautiful home in Columbus, his unanimous call to the chairmanship of the recent Republican State Con vention shows that his great popular ity is still alive. Should he consent to again enter pnblic life, his career would, no doubt, be marked with suc cess. He is wealthy, and enjoys life as only a man with a clear conscience can. David Preston, of Detroit, Mich., was born in Harmony, Chautauqua county, N. Y., September 20, 1826. He received a common school edu cation in the schools of this county, and emigrated to Michigan in 1848, arriving in Detroit on the 4th of No vember of that year. Upon his arri val in that city Mr. Preston was with out money and friends-, having bor rowed twelve dollars to pay his fare. During the first year of his residence in Detroit he received a salary, of $150 ; the second year it was increased to $200, and the third* found him get ting $250, while the fourth brought a further advance to $350. Mr. Preston commenced the banking business in Detroit in May, 1852, with a capital of but $450, ancl out of which he fur nished his house, having been mar ried but a short time previous. In May, 1854, through industry, honesty and strict attention to business, with a few fortunate purchases, Mr. Preston found that the small capital with which he had commenced banking two years previous had increased to the snug little sum of $5,000. With this amount he opened another bank ing house in Chicago, ancl, directly following this adventure, came the failure of A. Klemm, of New York, who had $6,000 of Mr. Preston's money in his possession. Although by this misfortune he lost his entire capita], still he was not discouraged, and going to work with renewed vigor, he soon placed himself on a firmer foundation than ever. His banking houses both here and in Chi cago are widely known, and have en joyed the confidence of the moneyed men of the country for a long term of years. ' During the money panic of September, 1873, the banking house of D. Preston & Co., in Detroit, was obliged to suspend for a few clays, not because they had sustained any loss, or of the defalcation of any person con nected with the firm, but entirely on account of their not being able to con vert their securities into currency fast enough to supply the demand of their depositors. This suspension was only temporary, ancl within a very short time the doors were thrown open again and business proceeded with as usual. The Chicago firm of Pres ton, Kean & Co., of which Mr. Preston has been a member for the past ten years, were able to pass through the above mentioned finan cial trouble without any serious diffi culty. Mr. Preston is best known, however, to the people of Michigan for his unbounded generosity. No object of a charitable nature is ever presented to him for his aid, with out receiving substantial assistance. Within the last ten years he has given away over $75,000 to forward various charitable enterprises, and has thus engrafted himself into the affections of the people of the whole northwest. John H. Shaffer. The subject of this sketch was born in Albany coun ty, N. Y., March 17, 1829. His early advantages for education were good"; but being married at 17, his school clays were few, ancl the books were re linquished and the implements of hired husbandry taken up for the fam ily support until 1856, when he re- Biographical Sketches. 653 moved to Broome Co., N. Y., and en gaged in lumbering as well as farming on his own account. In 1862, he re moved to Boone Co., 111., and bought a farm, which he added to, worked and improved until 1867, when he left the farm and engaged in the sale of the McCormick Reaper and Mower. In this business he was so successful that he opened an agricultural store in the city of Kankakee, 111., in 1869, and built a very fine ancl large store there for his trade (in all kinds of farming implements, and the sale of field, flow er ancl garden seeds), in 1872, thus exhibiting fine business talents ancl a commendable energy in whatever- he has undertaken. In April, 1875. he was elected mayor of the city of Kan kakee, being also one of the largest shareholders in the Northwestern But ton Company, which has a paid up capital of $100,000, for the purpose of manufacturing cloth buttons in the city of Kankakee ; the only factory of the kind west of the Hudson river. In character Mr. Shaffer is honest, posi tive and straight forward ; in disposi tion, frank, social and generous, and in his religious preferences an old school Calvanistic Presbyterian. He is also a member and a worker in the masonic lodge of his city. His wife's maiden name was Elizabeth Winne. They have a neat and well furnished dwelling, finely situated and outward ly adorned, ancl are blessed with one living child, one having gone to a sol dier's grave in our late national strug gle. Hon. James McCoy was born in Gambier Co., Va , September 22, 1817. Studied law with Johnson Reynolds, of Lewisburg, Va., for some time ; re moved to Illinois in 1839, and was ad mitted to practice law by the supreme court of Illinois in 1843. In 1851 he originated the idea of constructing a railroad from Chicago to California, and for this end lobbied the legisla ture of Iowa and Illinois in February, 1851, ancl procured charters for that purpose across the state of Illinois to Fulton City, and from Lyons, Iowa, to Council Bluffs. The first charter ob tained of that part across the state of Illinois was " The Mississippi & Rock River Junction Railroad Company," and of that company he was president and a director for three years. As pres ident he signed the first four hundred thousand bonds and the coupons that were used in the construction of the road. He was attorney for the same company under its present name un til January, 1874 ; was mayor of Ful ton City four years; was a judge two years, and master in chancery from 1857 to 1874; he was also a member of the constitutional committee that formed the present constitution of the state of Illinois.; he was delegate to the Baltimore convention, and aided in the nomination of Lincoln; was one of the first presidential electors of Grant ancl Colfax for president ancl vice president; is now practicing law and stands at the head of his profes sion. He has been a mason since 1851; is not a church member, yet is a believer in the truths held and taught by the orthodox churches; is temperate indeed, but does not belong to any temperance order ; is very firm in his purposes, ancl does not yield until he must; never holds what is called a grudge, but aims to cancel all such things at the moment and on the ground. He has an active ancl en terprising family of children, one daughter and five sons ; two of whom are lawyers, one a physician, ancl two still at home. He has a fine property ; a good home, with ample and pleas ant surroundings. Hon. James G. Strong was born at Lebanon, Boone county, Indiana, March 4, 1836. He received a good common school education, and after ward attended the Indiana University at Bloomington in that state in 1857 and 1858, and in the spring of 1859, at the Cincinnati law school. Re moved to Dwight, State of Illinois, in the month of May, 1859, ancl com menced the practice of law. He also took an active part in the political ancl social interests of the community. Was school treasurer, school director, town clerk, president of the board of trustees of the corporation, and town supervisor at various times while he filled some of these positions for a long time. In 1870 he was elected to the state legislature, which place he filled for two years. In 1872 he was elected to the state senate from the counties of Ford and Livingston for four years, and was engaged in the business of real estate, banking, law 654 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. and grain. Was appointed by the government as u director of the Ply mouth, Kankakee & Pacific Railroad, which place he held for several years. He is very humane, social ancl benevo lent, as his splendid subscription to the new M. E. Church in Dwight, and his open hand in all needy directions will readily show. Was an outspoken abolitionist in his school days when three out of 300 students were all that his side, on that question, could count ; and when the torch of civil war had been lit in our nation, ancl the storm of strife and blood had made crippled soldiers and many sad widows ancl orphans, he made scores of appli cations for pensions, back pay and bounty for these poor ones with a ready and cheerful hand, charging them not a dime. He is an active member of the Methodist Episcopal Church ; belongs to a lodge of Free Masons ancl was for years master of his lodge. In April, 1859, hewas mar ried to Miss Rebecca M. Witt, who has cheerfully shared with him the toils of his active life, ancl now re joices with him in their three child ren which bless their tasty ancl happy home. They are not wealthy (as one may say) but successful in business — "well off" — ancl so benevolent ancl ready to help the sad and the suffering, that want and care go smiling from their door. Hon. Thos. Ballenger was born in Logan county, Ohio, December 21, 18 l7. His parents were natives of New Jersey — were Quakers, and he attributes his first inclinations to re ligion to the candor ancl consistency of their exemplary lives. His early advantages for education were few ancl meager indeed, and yet constitut ed an important factor in his future aspirations and attainments. His younger years were mainly spent in agricultural pursuits, and the most of his life has been passed on the farm. In June, 1837, he married Miss Mary Devora, of Champaign county, Ohio; but in about seven years Mary died, leaving him two daughters, Elizabeth and Emma, but he was soon left alone with Elizabeth, for Emma went away with the angels, directly after her mother's death. In September, 1845, he married Mrs. Lydia A. Hildreth, of Knox county, Ohio, where he rebidecl until 1850, when they removed to Os kaloosa, Mahaska county, Iowa. For several years after his arrival in Iowa, he was constantly engaged as a Univer- salist minister; but at length he moved onto a farm and preached a part of the time. He was elected to the legisla ture and served through the twelfth general assembly as member of the house. In this position he was, as usual, independent, conscientious and prompt. In disposition he is gener ous, social ancl upright, and in busi ness, active and reliable. They now reside on their farm six miles north of Oskaloosa, where they buried a young, yet active, beloved and dutiful son. Hon. John B. Sanborn was born at Epsom, Merrimack county, N. H., Dec. 5, 1826. His early clays were spent on a farm which had been the homestead of his ancestors for four generations, and which is still in the family name. He attended the com mon school and also the academy in the vicinity of his home until 1850, when he entered Dartmouth College. In 1851, he commenced the study of law with Hon. Asa Lawlor, of Con cord, N. H., ancl was admitted to prac tice in the supreme court of the state in July, 1853. In December, 1853, he removed to St. Paul, Minn., where he has since resided. He was a member of the house of representa tives in 1860, and of the senate in 1861. Was adjutant general ancl act ing quartermaster general of the state from April 23, 1861 to Jan. 1, 1862, and colonel of the 4th regiment Min nesota volunteer infantry thereafter until Aug. 4, 1863, when he was made brigadier general of volunteers, ancl continued such until Feb. 10, 1865, when he was made brevet major gen eral, ancl occupied that position until May 31, 1866. He was special com missioner to the Indians in the vicin ity of Philip Kearney, from Feb. 11, 1887 to July 20, 1867, ancl by act of congress he was appointed (with Gen. ¦ Sherman and others) general commis sioners in the state from July 20, 1867 to Oct. 12, 1868. Has been the attor ney of the St. Paul, Stillwater ancl Taylor's Falls Railway Co., and aided otherwise in the construction of that road, and for two years has been vice president of the German American Bank at St. Paul. Mr. Sanborn is Biographical Sketches. 655 naturally affable and quiet, ancl so much so that he creates the impres sion that he lacks decision ancl firm ness; but notwithstanding this, he is decided and firm in all matters of im portance, as well as energetic ancl industrious. He is inclined to the Presbyterian faith, ancl is a trustee of the Central Presbyterian church, St. Paul ; is not a member of the church,. ancl yet is a liberal and active member of the society. He has no communi cation with any secret society. His former wife (Miss Catharine Hall, of Newton, Sussex county, N. J.), died in 1860, leaving a daughter, now liv ing with her father. The present wife (formerly Miss Anna E. Nixon, of New Jersey, and sister of the U. S. Dist. Judge of the New Jersey Dist.), himself and daughter make up the family group and enjoy the beautiful home and comforts his eminent suc cess' in business has furnished. Dr. John J. Lescher was born in Berks Co., Penn., March 14, 1821, of Swiss parentage, and the fourth of a family of ten children, five sons and five daughters. His father was an eminent physician of fifty years suc cessful practice. When John was eleven, the family removed to Dayton, Ohio, making the entire journey with teams, bringing with them a large ancl very valuable library. One year after ward (1833) tbe family removed to Mt. Carmel, where the "father died in 1854, being 71 years old. In the libra ry, consisting of 994 volumes, was a " Martiniere's Geographisch and Crit- isch Lexicon," a German work con-, sisting of 13 volumes, folio, each con taining 1,700 pages, furnished with brass clasps, and printed in the early part of the 18th century — a work of great value, ancl gotten up in the high est style of the art, of printing and binding, of that day. It was once the property of the monastery of St. Michael, Switzerland, but by some means fell into the hands of a rene gade priest, who brought it to Amer ica and sold it for a trifle to the old doc tor. It was the only copy in the coun try, ancl in 1861, at the earnest request of Rev. Mr. Everett, secretary of the " Chicago Historical Society," the sub ject of this sketch donated the work to the Society; and together with the 40,000 volumes of the society, it was swallowed up by the fire of 1871. Being one of so large a family, and his father having but a limited amount of means, Dr. Lescher had only mod erate school advantages, yet attended the "High School " and the "Acad emy " of his village, ancl, in 1838, be gan the study of medicine, ancl in 1839, began to practice as a partner. In October, 1843, he entered the " Ohio Medical College," and returned to his practice in the following spring. In 1847, he obtained his degree of M. D., in the " Washington University," Baltimore, Md. During the winter of 1850 ancl 1851, he attended a full course in the "Jefferson Medical College," Philadelphia, and also obtained a cer tificate of attendance upon the Clinics of the "Pennsylvania" and "Wells" hospitals, the latter devoted to diseases of the eyes ancl ears. In 1849, he asso ciated with him his brother in prac tice, ancl, two j'ears after, his brother in law, Dr. C. J. Miller. Having for some time suffered from a laryngeal difficulty, his health gradually failed, until, in 1855, he was obliged, for five years, to turn over to his partners the general practice, ancl to atterfd to the office calls, and to consultations in difficult cases. During these years, he used vast quantities of cod liver oil, the laryngeal trouble having ex tended down to his left lung, ancl formed an abscess which was healed by cicatrization. The cure he attrib utes to the persistent and plentiful use of the oil. In 1846, he joined with a number of the physicians of the neighboring counties in organiz ing the "Lawrenceville Medical Soci. ety," which was granted a charter, with authority through its " Board of Censors " (of which he was a mem ber) to issue diplomas. Iu 1853, he was elected a member of "The Illi nois State Medical Society." In 1860 and 1861, he lost both his partners in practice by death, and thereupon re sumed a more active practice, which has been continued until now. And his age and experience have made his services especially valuable in con sultations in difficult cases. During tlie late war he was offered several important positions as surgeon, but, on account of health, saw best to de cline. In 1864, he was commissioned United States Pension Examining Sur geon, in which capacity he still acts. 656 Tuttle's Centennial Northwest. He has an enviable reputation as a physician, and in surgery has shown himself a very skillful workman, in deed, having performed various critical and special operations with great suc cess. Probably much of his success has been due to his habits of constant study and research into the nature of disease, the combination of remedies and the possibilities] of this "heaven descended art," the medical practice. He was born a Lutheran, but for the last twenty years has been an active and efficient member of the Presbyte rian church. Became an Odd Feliow in his native village, and in 1846, was one of the charter members of a lodge of Odd Fellows in Mt. Carmel, 111. During the winter of 1848 and 1849, he was acting Grand Master of the state of Illinois (the Grand Master being absent), and he having accom- panied tlie Grand Master in a tour of western Illinois in the interest of the order during the summer of 1849. This same year he was elected Grand Warden of "the Grand Lodge, and ap pointed District Deputy Grand Master over several subordinate lodges. He aided in organizing the Grand En campment of Illinois, being a mem ber of a subordinate encampment in Mt. Carmel. He also united with the order of Free Masons years since. Nov. 12, 1851, he was married to Miss Eliza E. Smith, of Litchfield, Conn. They have three children living, two sons, Lyell Jacob and Jesse Lee, and one daughter, Ada. They have also three little ones which one after an other went away with the angels. They have a beautiful residence, fine ly furnished, where mutual love, ac tive benevolence and Christian hope have each a happy home. Eliza Emeline (Smith) Lescher (eldest born of Lyman J. ancl Julia B. Smith), was born Dec. 10, 1825, at Litchfield, Litchfield county, Conn. Her early advantages for education were fine indeed, and were grandly improved. In 1835, with her parents, she removed to Alabama, where, in the crisis of 1837 ancl 1838, her father lost heavily, ancl, in 1838, he and his family removed to Mount Carmel, 111., where they remained until 1840 whence, in consequence of the failing health of her mother, they all returned to Litchfield, Conn. In the winter of very trivial and yet very novel and happy circumstance, connected with a single newspaper sent her by Dr. John J. Lescher (then connected with the Medical Hospital at Philadelphia, Penn.), the future fortunes of her life were shaped. They were married Nov. 12, 1851, and removed to Mount Carmel, Wabash county, 111., where he was then engaged in the practice of medicine. ' After a few years, through a pulmonary affection, his health was very much impaired, and so much so that he feared he must quit the practice of mecicine. She, like a noble and resolute wife, volunteered to be his "Jehu" or carriage servant; ancl, for five long years, through all weathers, and at all hours of, night, and day, she attended faithfully to the duties of the position. And yet she did not neglect to act the part of mother and teacher to the three little ones which at that time blessed their home. Her presence in those long and exposed journeys it seems, by af ter revealments, unvuttingly, but for tunately, saved him from being as sassinated (because of his advocacy of anti-slavery principles), by some of the pro-slavery party in southern Illi nois, i. e., by men who lay in wait for his life, but were intimidated by her womanhood, which was a credit even to bad men. Early in life she united with Dr. Lyman Beecher's church (Congregational), and has been an ac tive and an exemplary member of that branch of the Christian Charch until now. Boing genial in disposition and tender, warm and benevolent in her sympathies, she. has ever been the friend of the poor, the outcasts ancl the suffering; and her home is the common resort of the orphaned, the distressed and the homeless; and so much so, that she has acquired among her acquaintances the blessed and honored title of "The Orphan's Friend." Ancl a well-earned title it really is, too. She wields a fine pen in prose, and before me lie several beautiful specimens of her poetry, which would grace a place herein had they reached us before our space was so nearly occupied. She has a nice home, indeed, ancl her ardent and joyous nature makes even the cloudy days cheerful and pleasant about it and sheds contentment and peace along 1850-'51, through what would seem a J her own and her family's pathway, YALE UNIVERSITY a39002 002906551b