ADDER'S HISTORY! OF THE ITFD STATFS cfs:// ¦C£j.< <'n/<>rcceDe& 6p a i^anratitoe OF THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA AND OF THE EVENTS WHICH LED TO THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES BY HORACE E. SCUDDER WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS SHELDON & COMPANY NEW YORK AND CHICAGO Copyright, 1884, By Horace E. Scudder. John Wilson and Son, Cambridge, PREFACE. It has seemed to me that the most desirable qualities in a text book history of the United States — or, for that matter, in any history — are clearness, reasonableness, and attractiveness. I have tried to use terms which have only one meaning, to avoid involved sentences, and to state facts with precision. It is im possible in such a book to introduce no words which have not before come into the reading of an ordinary pupil ; but tables of definition and pronunciation, at the head of each chapter, provide for the understanding of all novel words in the chap ter. The maps, in like manner, are kept free from confusing detail ; and while they accompany and explain the text, they form a basis for that geographic treatment of history which is essential to a clear understanding of the physical conditions of human society. I have tried also to avoid the error which makes history only a succession of unrelated facts. There is a logic in events which it is the business of historians to unfold, and it has been my chief thought to show the growth of our national life. The analyses which interrupt the narrative are designed to aid in a logical interpretation of the facts ; but the secret of success in any history must lie in the power of the author to conceive the development of life, and to discover the critical passages, the transition periods, the great epochs. I hope I have helped young people to understand the movements which I see from the time when America was first disclosed to the eyes of Europe IV PREFACE. down to the present day. I will not here attempt to justify the divisions of our history which I have made, for if my narrative has not done it, nothing which I could say in a preface would make it clearer ; but I wish to emphasize my sense of the im portance to American children of connecting the history of their country with the changes which have been taking place in Europe during the period of our growth, — changes of the utmost consequence in the development of our own national life, an understanding of which is essential to an intelligent reading of American history. Therefore I have never lost sight of the fact that down to the close of the last war with England, America faced the Atlantic ; and any one who would read her history aright must often take his stand upon the European shore. Finally, I have tried to make this book attractive. I believe with all my heart in the attractiveness of historical study, and I have sought to make my own interest in our history pass into my narrative ; but the restrictions of such a book forbid that full illustration from biography, local history, and descriptions of manners and customs, which one naturally desires to use in teaching the subject. The omission is partly supplied by the suggestions of illustrative reading which will be found in the Appendix ; but I leave my task with a weighty conviction that the most which a text-book maker can do is to furnish a clear outline for a wise teacher to fill with details. I have written in the thought that our country is a land which was reserved until the new birth of Europe; that it was peopled by men and women who crossed the seas in faith ; that its foundations have been laid deep in a divine order ; that the nation has been trusted with liberty. A trust carries with it grave duties ; the enlargement of liberty and justice is in the victory of the people over the forces of evil. So I bid God speed to all teachers of those who are to receive the trust of citizenship. H. E. S. Cambridge, Mass., August, I884. TABLE OF CONTENTS. $art I. THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. Chapter Page L Europe before the Discovery of America i II. Spain and Portugal 6 III. Christopher Columbus 10 IV. The First Voyage of Columbus 15 V. The Fate of Columbus 19 VI. Further Voyages of Discovery 23 VII. French Voyages , ... ... 27 VIII. The Spanish'Conquest in America . 30 IX. Spanish Failures in America 34 X. The First Emigration 38 XI. England in the Sixteenth Century 42 XII. First Ventures of England in America 47 XIII. The Foundations of New France. ........ 51 XIV. The Dutch Traders ....... 54 Topical Analysis for Review 59 Chronological Table 64 XV. Jamestown 65 XVI. Virginia ' 69 XVII. Plymouth 72 XVIII. The Puritan Migration 77 XIX. The Colony of Massachusetts Bay , 81 XX. The Other New England Colonies 85 XXI. The Indians of North America 89 XXII. The English and the Indians 94 XXIII. England and New England 98 XXIV. The Loss of the Charters 101 XXV. The Quakers and New Jersey . 106 XXVI. William Penn and his Colony no XXVII. The Old Dominion , 115 XXVIII. Maryland 120 XXIX. The Carolinas and Georgia 123 Topical Analysis for Review , 128 Chronological Table 134 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter Page XXX. France in America 135 XXXI. Conflict between the French and the English . . 138 XXXII. The Beginning of the War 143 XXXIII. The French and Indian War 147 XXXIV. The Fall of France in America 151 XXXV. Pontiac's War 156 Topical Analysis for Review 158 Chronological Table. 160 Part II. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. The Thirteen English Colonies. —I 161 The Thirteen English Colonies. — II. ....... 166 England and the Colonies . 173 The Beginning of the Quarrel 177 The First Resistance ..... 182 The First Fighting , 188 Open War »....,.,. 193 The Declaration of Independence 198 The States and Congress 202 The War for Independence. — I 207 The War for Independence. — II. . . ' 212 The War for Independence. — III 218 The War for Independence. — IV 223 The End of the War 229 Topical Analysis for Review 233 Chronological Table 237 What the War cost 239 After the War 243 The United States of America 246 The Beginning of the Government 250 The People of the United States. — 1 254 The People of the United States. — II 259 The United States and Europe . ....... 266 Dealings with Foreign Countries ........ 270 Difficulties with France . 274 Growth of the Union .... 278 The United States entangled with Europe . . . 282 Destruction of American Commerce 286 War with Great Britain 290 The United States independent of Europe .... 296 Topical Analysis for Review 301 Chronological Table . 304 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VU Part III. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Chapter pAGE I. The Union and its Neighbors 305 II. The Business of the Country 309 III. Invention and Enterprise 313 IV. The System of Slavery 319 V. Slavery and Politics 324 VI. Administration of Andrew Jackson 329 VII. Annexation of Texas 334 VIII. The War with Mexico 340 IX. Oregon 345 X. California 350 Topical Analysis for Review 355 Chronological Table .............. 358 XI. The Middle of the Century. — 1 359 XII. The Middle of the Century. — II 363 XIII. The Approaching Conflict 369 XIV. Secession 375 XV. The First Attack 379 XVI. The War for the Union. —1 384 XVII. The War for the Union. — II 390 XVIII. The War for the Union. — Ill 398 XIX. Fall of the Confederacy 405 XX. Reconstruction 411 XXI. After the Centennial Year 417 XXII. Signs of Progress 423 XXIII. The Present Nation 427 Topical Analysis for Review 435 Chronological Table 437 APPENDIX. The Declaration of Independence i The Constitution of the United States v The States and Territories, with their Areas and Popula tion, Census of 1880 xxii Questions for Examination xxiii General Index xxxix MAPS. [DRAWN BY JACOB WELLS.] COLORED. Page Physical Basis of the United States Frontispiece Routes of Navigators to India and America in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 27 New Spain and the We«t Indies 35 English and French Possessions in North America at the time of the French and Indian War ; also Colonial Charter Claims 135 New England and New Netherland 135 The New England States during the War for Independence 193 The Middle States during the War for Independence 207 The Southern States during the War for Independence 223 Territorial Acquisitions of the United States . 279 Mexico. — To illustrate the War, 1846-48 341 To illustrate the War for the Union 375 Note. — Red indicates non-seceding Slave States. Pink indicates Free States. The United States of America 411 Divisions of the Country made by the United States Signal Service .... 425 UNCOLORED. Page iV'estem Coast of Africa, Spain, and Portugal 7 St. Lawrence River and Gulf . . 29 Coast visited by Raleigh's Vessels 49 Explorations of Champlain and Hudson 56 First settlements in Virginia ... 66 The New England Coast .... 80 Braddock's Route ...... 146 Acadia 148 Capture of Quebec 155 Vicinity of Boston 184 Arnold's Route 197 Vicinity of Quebec 197 Picinity of New York ..... 209 Vicinity of Philadelphia . . . . 212 The Country between Montreal and New York 215 Page Crown Point and Ticonderoga . . 217 The Siege of Yorktown .... 227 Western Movement of Centre of Population 256 The Canadian Frontier and Vicinity of Washington ....... 290 The Creek War 295 Niagara River 297 Campaign of General. Taylor . . 341 Charleston Harbor and its Ap proaches . . 378 Washington and Vicinity . . . 386 The Operations of the Army of the Potomac, etc 396 Vicinity of Vicksburg 401 The Peninsula, etc., between Nor folk and Richmond 403 ILLUSTRATIONS. IX SEALS IN COLORS FROM OFFICIAL AUTHORITIES. Page Of the United States and of the Thirteen Original States 161 Of the States admitted into the Union, 1 791-1860 305 Of the States admitted into the Union 1861-18S4, and of the Territories . . 359 Note. — The dates given on these pages are the years of the adoption of the Constitu tion, admission into the Union, and organization as Territories. LISTS OF PRESIDENTS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR ADMINISTRATIONS. Page From 1789 to 1829 ..... 328 From 1829 to 1849 338 Page From 1849 to 1861 372 From 1861 to 1885 ...... 420 ILLUSTRATIONS. The World as known to civilized Europe before the discovery of America . . 2 A Ship of the Vikings 3 A Monk illuminating a Book 5 Planting the Cross upon the Island ..17 Coat-of-Arms of Columbus 20 An Ancient Printing Press 24 The Valley of Mexico ... 32 St. Augustine 41 a. The Town — looking South, b. Old Gateway, — Fort San Marco. £.• Spanish Coat-of-Arms. The Great Harry, the first famous ship of the English Navy 44 Flag of the Dutch West-India Company 57 Dutch and Indians Trading 58 The Mayflower 74 Roger Williams in Exile 87 Various Scenes in Indian Life 91 a. Pueblo Building, b. War Dance, c. Disposition of the dead. d. Head of chief, e. Mode of travel. A Stockade 95 Pine-tree Shilling 103 The Charter Oak 104 The Treaty Elm in 1800 113/ X ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Philadelphia in 1682 114 a. Site of the Town. b. Penn's House. Old Charleston 125 Colonial Currency 133 a. Virginia Halfpenny, b. Lord Baltimore Shilling. The Attack on Schenectady 141 Indians sheltering Acadians 149 Quebec 153 a. The Rock of Quebec. *. Wolfe's Cove. Faneuil Hall, 1763 165 A Tobacco Plantation 171 Stamp 179 Carpenters' Hall, where the First Congress met 189 The Retreat from Lexington 191 Washington at Cambridge 196 a. The Elm under which he took command of the Army. b. His Head- Quarters, afterwards Longfellow's House. Independence Hall, 1776 201 A Soldier in the Continental Army 207 Execution of Nathan Hale 210 Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga 216 Death of a Sentinel at Valley Forge 220 Capture of Major Andre1 225 Surrrender of Cornwallis 228 Liberty Bell 238 Continental Currency 240 Interior of Independence Hall 246 United States Mint 24? a. Exterior, b. Smelting-room. The " Clermont," Fulton's first Steamboat 260 The Indian and the Pioneer 262 Mount Vernon 273 The Guerriere and the Constitution 292 Battle of Lake Erie 294 Attack of the Highlanders — Battle of New Orleans 299 A Cotton Field 311 A Western Farm 314 The first Passenger Locomotive built in the United States 317 A Western Emigrant Train 318 Scenes in Plantation Life 321 a. Corn Shucking, b. " Christmas, Missis ? " Dr. Whitman starting for Washington 348 City of San Francisco , . ... 350 Scenes in Western River Life 364 a. Fort and Trading Post. b. Cordelling up the Mackinaw, c. Floating down the Mackinaw, d. Flat-boating, e. "Between Decks." /. Steam- boating — " Wooding up." Harper's Ferry .... 374 Attack on Fort Sumter 382 Farragut's Fleet passing Forts Jackson and St. Philip 392 The Merrimac sinking the Cumberland 393 ILLUSTRATIONS. xi Page Battle of Gettysburg — Defence of the Cemetery 400 Battle of Missionary Ridge 402 Liberty Enlightening the World 424 Great South Dome — Valley of the Yosemite 428 Laying the first Atlantic Cable , 429 The City of Washington 432 ARTISTS. Page Barber (Miss) 165, 179 Cary, W. M 149, 364 Church, F. S 5 Cooper, C. C, Jr.. . 20, 24, 57, 189, 201, 238, 240 Craig, T. B "3,246 Davidson, J. O. . 292, 294, 382, 392, 393 Famy, H. F 91 Fenn, Harry . 216, 273 Frost, A. B. ... 192, 210, 225, 318 Gibson, W. Hamilton . . 171,311,314 Harper, W. St. J. ... 41, 299 Page Moran, Peter . 141,196, 374, 429,432 Moran, Thomas .... 32, 351, 428 Parrish, Stephen . . -3, 17, 44> 74 Pyle, Howard .... 58, 87, 262, 349 Redwood, A. C 321, 400 Schell, F. B 95, 114, 153 Shelton, W. H 228 Shirlaw, Walter 220 Stephens, C. H. . . 125, 249, 260, 317 Taylor, W. L 104 Wells, Jacob 2 Zogbaum, R. F. ..... . 207, 402 ENGRAVERS. Andrew, Geo. T. . . 104, 165, 299, 374 Collins, R. C 44, 400 Faber, L. E. 2,24,57,113,189,238, 240, 246, 382 French, Frank ., . . . . 3, 74, 428 Harley, J. S 314 Heard, T. H 311 Heinemann, E. , , . 5, 41, 216, 273 Held, E. C 171 Juengling, Fred 220 Kingsley, Elbridge 32, 351 Marsh, Henry . . . 91, 210, 262, 349 Nichols, David 228 Reed, C. H. . . . 196, 364, 429,432 SharpJ.E.95, 114, 153,249,292,392,393 Snyder, H. M. ... 125, 201, 294 Wellington, F. H 58, 321 Whitney, J. H. E. . . 17, 207, 402 Williams, G. P. 87, 141, 149, 192, 225,318 Willoughby (Miss) . . 20, 179, 260, 31? Xll ILLUSTRATIONS. PORTRAITS. Christopher Columbus. After an engraving by Mercuri (1843), from a picture of the times ....... William Penn. From the painting in Independence Hall, Philadelphia Benjamin Franklin. After an engraving by Chevillet from the painting by Duplessis . George Washington. From the painting by Gilbert Stuart Daniel Webster. From a photograph from a painting by Chester Harding Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. From a photograph from life Abraham Lincoln. From a photograph taken March, 1865 Engraver. Page Thomas Johnson 1 1 G. Kruell 109 G. Kruell 169 W. B. Closson 195 Thomas Johnson 333 W. B. Closson 367 Thomas Johnson 409 THE FOLLOWING PORTRAITS ARE ENGRAVED FROM AUTHENTIC SOURCES BY THE PHOTO-ENGRAVING COMPANY. Page Queen Isabella 14 Hernando Cortez 30 Sir Walter Raleigh 48 Captain John Smith 68 Governor John Winthrop ... 84 Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore . . 121 General Oglethorpe 127 Patrick Henry 180 Samuel Adams 185 Marquis de la Fayette 206 General Burgoyne . . , . . . 213 General Anthony Wayne .... 223 General Nathanael Greene . . . 226 Alexander Hamilton 252 Eli Whitney 258 Robert Fulton . 261 Daniel Boone 263 Thomas Jefferson 269 Chief-Justice Marshall .... 275 John C. Calhoun 327 Presidents Adams, Madison, Mon roe, J. Q. Adams 328 President Andrew Jackson . . . 330 Page Henry Clay 331 Presidents Van Buren, Harrison, Tyler, Polk 338 Samuel F. B. Morse 360 Commodore Perry 361 Washington Irving 366 William Cullen Bryant .... 368 Presidents Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan 372 Jefferson Davis 377 General Winfield Scott .... 385 General Robert E. Lee .... 387 General U. S. Grant 390 General Joseph E. Johnston . . . 394 General T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson 395 General George B. McClellan . . 397 Admiral David G. Farragut . . . 404 General George H. Thomas . . . 406 General W. T. Sherman .... 407 Presidents Johnson, Hayes, Gar field, Arthur 420 President Grover Cleveland . . . 422 President Benjamin Harrison . . 426 HINTS TO TEACHERS. The three parts into which this history is divided correspond with the three great epochs of the country's life, and it will be found of great advantage to give to each part a thorough review before proceeding to the next. The Topical Analyses, which occur at convenient intervals, are designed to aid in such a review. They break up the narrative into natural groups of related facts, and enable one to get cross-sections of the history ; they furnish good subjects for compositions and discussions ; they give starting-points for new inquiries ; and they help to test the student's knowledge of the text, by compelling him to follow a new order, and to use his own language in stating facts and causes. The study of history affords, incidentally, the best opportunity for the cultivation of the faculty of expression. Care has been taken to keep the text free from a multiplicity of dates. Those only have been given which it is desirable for the scholar to carry in his mind as pegs from which to hang im portant facts or movements. Many others, however, have been given as marginal notes. These will be found of service in fix ing the exact progress of events ; they are primarily mile-posts for the teacher's use. The Chronological Tables, besides their use for reference, can be made to suggest topics, by showing the nearness in time of events which at first sight appear to have nothing to do with one another, but really are very closely connected, like the three facts grouped under the date 1609. The full index, also, at the end of the volume, affords a means for bringing together scat- xiv HINTS TO TEACHERS. tered references to a single topic which may run through the book, or a large portion of it. One may, for example, by means of the article " France," trace the relation of that country to the New World from its first possession to its final exclusion. The groundwork, however, is in acquiring a thorough and accurate knowledge of the text, and questions J have been pre pared, not as exhausting the subject, — for any skilful teacher can vary and multiply questions indefinitely, — but as offering a fair trial of a scholar's knowledge of any chapter. They are ques tions which cannot be answered by yes or no ; they require the pupil to know what he has studied, and very often to have thought carefully about the. lesson. Indeed, the best questions are those which grow out of the recitations of a pupil, and the series given in this book should be taken as containing rather suggestions than a hard and fast set of questions. Some have been introduced, — distinguished by being printed in italic, — which cannot be answered directly from the text, but require reasoning or fuller information ; they will aid in exciting that independent research which is the life of historic study. In connection with the questions, titles have been given of books which it is desirable to read. They are often stories, for the purpose has been to select those which make history a liv ing stream to the imagination. In each case the book named relates to the subject under consideration in the questions which follow. It would be worth while for schools, in districts which are remote from libraries and large towns, to club together to buy these books and keep them as a library of reference and reading in American history. All words which are difficult of pronunciation are analyzed by sound at the head of the chapter in which they first occur ; in the same place definitions are given of new terms, and these definitions frequently add material knowledge. If a teacher is at a loss at any time for the explanation of a word, a reference to the index will show where the word was first used, and the head 1 See Appendix, pp. xxiii-xxxviii. HINTS TO TEACHERS. XV of the chapter will contain the explanation. The teacher is recommended to make liberal use of the pictures in exciting the interest of the pupil and in testing his knowledge. They have been carefully prepared with a view to accuracy and sug- gestiveness. For example, suppose the picture to be that on page 196, the following questions could easily be asked, those in italic requiring a knowledge beyond what the book gives. 1. Why is the elm called the Washington elm? 2. Where does it stand? 3. How long, at least, has it stood there ? 4. What is the ring round the trunk 1 5. Why is it there? 6. What are the people looking at who stand in front of it 7 7. What does it say on the stone'? 8. Is there any one word which could be spared from the inscription? 9. Why? 10. Whence did the army come of which Wash. ington took charge ? 11. Had it been in any action before he took-charge of it ? 12. Why did it gather at Cambridge? 13. What is there in Cambridge which makes the place famous ? 14. How did Cambridge get its name? 15. What was it at first called? 16. Whose headquarters was the house ? 17. How near to the elm is it ? 18. Who has since occupied it ? 19. Name his principal poem. These questions could, of course, be indefinitely extended to take in the military movements about Boston, and the lives of Washington and Longfellow. Finally, the maps, large and small, afford the teacher admirable opportunities for special examination and review. To show more explicitly how they can be used, two illustrative exercises are here given. The first is based on the little map on page 56. 1 . What names are-near the middle of the map ? 2. At what time did Hudson discover the river that bears his name ? 3. In whose service was he at the time ? 4. What was he in search of ? 5. What people based their claim to this territory on Hudson's discovery ? 6. In those days what constituted ownership in newly- discovered lands ? 7. What city is situated near the place marked on the map ? 8. Of what was it the centre in old times ? 9. What name did the Dutch give to the place ? to the country ? 10. What were the Dutch farmers called who obtained the land near this spot ? 11. When did the English obtain possession of this ter ritory ? 12. On what did they base their claims to ownership ? 13. Who was the Dutch governor at the time of the seizure ? 14. Why does the name of Champlain appear here ? 15. By what waters had he come ? 16. What was he in search of? 17. What Indians came with him? 18. With what Indians did he have a battle ? 19. Why were the Iroquois always enemies of the French ? 20. What city did Champlain found ? 21. How far south did the French possessions ex tend ? 22. What forts were established near this place in the French and Indian War ? 23. When the French wished to invade English territory what route did they take ? the English, French territory ? 24. In what other war did this locality become important ? 25. On what occasion, and by whom, was it said, " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress " ? XVI HINTS TO TEACHERS. The next exercise is based on the map to be found between pages 278 and 279. This map is, in a sense, an epitome of the civil and military history of the country down to the close of the Mexican War. 1. Locate the places where the first settlements were made. 2. Name the thirteen original States. 3. Was Vermont one of them ? if not, when admitted ? 4. Locate the various nationalities that settled on the Atlantic coast. 5. Name some of the most distinguished men connected with the history of these colonies, and mention some interesting incidents in their lives. 6. In what colonies were there struggles with the Indians ? 7. What Indians were always friendly to the whites ? 8. Who has written five good books on the Indians ? 9. Who is the hero in all of them ? 10. What was the last severe Indian war ? 11. Whatman that was afterwards President took part in it ? 12. What range of mountains separated the thirteen colonies from the Mississippi Valley? 13. Who owned that valley? 14. On what ground did they claim it? 15. On what grounds did the English base their claims ? 16. What war grew out of these rival claims ? 17. What general was killed while marching to attack an important fort ? 18. What city is there now ? 19. Point out its place on the map. 20. At what time did England become possessed of a large portion of what is now the United States? 21. How extensive was our territory by the treaty of 1783? 22. Why did we not obtain Canada? 23. Was any effort made to get it? 24. Who were the commanders of the forces, and what routes did they take? 25. Give the circumstances under which we obtained the Louisiana cession ; the States of Texas, California, and Oregon. In reviews of this kind, it is not necessary to draw the map upon the board. Let the pupil have the map before him. By a little practice he will become very expert in the needed prep aration for such exercises as the above. The author desires to make his acknowledgments to Mr. L. W. Anderson for his aid in preparing these illustrative map- exercises and the questions for examination at the end of the book. A HISTORY UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PART I. THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NOETH AMEEIOA, CHAPTER I. EUROPE BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. Norse'men. Inhabitants of an cient Norway and Sweden. Fjord (f'yord). An arm of the sea, = firth, ox frith, in Scotland. Viking ( Veek'ing). A sea robber ; from vii, a Norse word meaning a "creek" or "bay." The word has nothing to do with king. Skald (skahld). A reciter or singer of ballads among the Norsemen. Saga (sah'gah). A story or song among the Norsemen. Saga means "saying." Vinland (= vineland) ; so called from the wild grapes that were found there. l. There once was a time when the people living in Europe did not know that there was a continent lying between two great oceans, the Atlantic and the Pa cific. Their ships had sailed along the western coast of Europe, and had crept a little way down the western coast of Africa ; but they dared not go far out of sight of land. 2. In the far north, in the ninth century after Christ, the hardy Norsemen found Iceland, when their vessels were blown across to it by fierce winds ; and later, by a 2 THE. DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. like chance, they came upon Greenland. They occu pied Iceland, and made a few settlements in Greenland, The World as known to Civilized Europe before the Discovery of America. 3. The coast of Norway is broken by long arms of the sea, called " fjords," which stretch far inland and branch into lesser creeks and inlets. The mountains which cover the greater part of Norway end sharply by the side of these waters ; and in the sheltered coves vikings kept their vessels, which were long boats, driven partly by sails and partly by oars. 4. The vikings were sea robbers, who came out to plunder by sea and by land; and when they returned EUROPE BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 3' to their mountain homes and gathered about their hall fires and at their feasts, some of their number would sing the wonderful deeds of the vikings. 5. These singers were called " skalds," and the songs and stories which they told were called "sagas." The sagas were repeated by one and another, and at last were written down. In some of these sagas we read of the voyages of the vikings to Vinland. & Ship of the Vlkinga 6. And where is Vinland? Many believe that about the year 1000, these bold rovers of the sea, passing from Norway to Iceland, and thence to Greenland, pushed on still farther to what is now the coast of New England, and gave to this country the name of Vinland. 4 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 7. They made no long stay in Vinland, and left no settlements there; but when they went home they told of their adventures, and of the strange people they had seen. These stories were told to their friends and neighbors, but were not known in southern Europe. 8. When the vikings were making these voyages, there was very little travel from one part of Europe to another. There were no large kingdoms, but the country was ruled over by a great number of kings, princes, dukes, counts, and chiefs, who were continually fighting with one an other. The one bond of union for all these peoples was the Church, whose head was the Pope at Rome. 9. Five hundred years later, Europe was in a very different condition. People lived more at peace with one another. Cities were growing rich and strong. Trade was carried on by merchants who travelled between dis tant parts of the country and into Asia, and by sailors who went from one port to another, or pushed from headland to headland along the coast of Africa. 10. It was as if the world had waked from a long sleep. Learned men were eagerly asking what had happened and what had been written centuries before in Greece and Rome. They were busy, too, with questions about the world in which they lived, — how large it was, and what was its shape. 11. They asked the merchants who travelled into Asia, and the sailors who coasted along Africa, about the coun tries which they had seen ; and they wrote books from their accounts, and made maps, and tried to reckon how far it was from the west of Europe to the east of Asia. 12. The art of printing had just been invented,1 and 1 The first printing from movable type appears to have been done in the years between 1440 and 1450. EUROPE BEFORE THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. since books could now be made more easily and rapidly than when each was slowly written out with pen and ink, there were more people eager to learn to read and write ; the new knowledge which men had was spread more widely, and the more people knew, the more they wished to know. 13. Instead of a great many petty states, there were now a few strong kingdoms, such as England, France, and Spain. Instead of a king ruling by means of an army, the people were beginning — especially in Eng land — to have much to do with making the laws under which they were governed. A Monk illuminating a Book. 14. The Church throughout Europe was at the height of its power. The Pope was the head of the Church, and bishops and priests in all the countries looked up to him. They were also the teachers and learned 6 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. men ; and the colleges and universities were the homes of priests, and of members of religious orders. 15. They copied the Bible and books of prayer, and stories of religious men and women, often making beautiful pictures as they wrote. The people depended upon them for lessons in knowledge and duty. CHAPTER II. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Mediterra'nean. From a Latin word meaning "in the midst of the lands." When the name was first given, there were scarcely any other lands known to the people living on its shores, except those surrounding it. Fenin'sular. Belonging to a peninsula, which is here that of Spain and Portugal. Genoa (Jen). A French word meaning " heat." Stadac'ona.Hochelaga (HSk-a-lah'gah). 1. Magellan's voyage round the world gave new ardor to the Spaniards and Portuguese. It quickened the French and English also, who were unwilling that the southern nations should have all the new land . or all the trade with India. 2. At this time, by the rules of the Church, nearly two-thirds of the days in the year were fast days, on which no meat could be eaten, and in consequence the fisheries had become of great importance. On both sides of the English Channel, and on the western coast of France, a large part of the population was engaged in this business. 3. The fishing-grounds near at hand became so ex hausted that the hardy fishermen ventured farther each year, until at last they came to the coasts of Newfound land and Nova Scotia, and fished on the Banks which still furnish a yearly harvest to thousands of fishermen ; but they troubled themselves very little about the land which lay near. 4. A few captains, indeed, explored the coast a little. Cape Breton owes its name to the fishermen from Bre ton in France. John Denys explored the St. Lawrence Gulf as early as 1506; but the stories of adventure here which were carried home to the fishing villages of 28 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. France went little further than the stories of the vikings had gone five hundred years before. 5. When the French king resolved to have a share in the New World, these fishermen became his best helpers. The explorers whom he sent out naturally gathered their crews in the ports of Brittany, and found that the men already knew something of the coast. 6. Verrazano, an Italian sailor, was sent out by Francis I., King of France. He reached the American 1524. coast near what is now called Cape Fear, and cruised northward, visiting probably the bay of New York and Narragansett Bay. Like other explorers, he was searching for a passage to India. 7. His voyage convinced him that the land which he had visited was part of a great continent; and when he took into account the southern voyages of the Spaniards and Portuguese, he came to the belief that a short passage to India was impossible, since there must be land all the way from the Straits of Magellan to Labrador. 8. The French were eager to know more ot the new country, but wars followed, and it was ten years before the king took further action. Then he sent 1534. two ships to America under the command of Jacques Cartier, to make further explorations, and still, if possible, to find a way to India. 9. Cartier cruised about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to which he gave that name. He entered a bay, which, on account of the heat, he named the Bay of Chaleur. There he landed and took possession of the country in the name of the King of France. This ceremony con sisted in setting up a cross and fastening upon it the king's coat-of-arms. FRENCH VOYAGES. 29 10. This was a summer voyage only; but Cartier car ried back such good reports that the next year he was sent out again with a larger company. This time he went cautiously up the river St. Lawrence, ^ * si'--^ iwu^^y« 0 */?v~ > SABLE I. v > 5 St Lawrence River and Gulf. saw for the first time the mighty rock Stadacona, on which Quebec now stands, and pushed as far as to Hochelaga, now Montreal. 11. Cartier spent a winter on the St. Lawrence, but returned to France with all his party in the spring. Further expeditions were sent out, but, though colonies were talked of, no lasting settlements were made at this time. Still the French, because of these discoveries, regarded the region of the St. Lawrence as belonging to them. 30 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA CHAPTER VIII. THE SPANISH CONQUEST IN AMERICA. Yucatan ( Yoo-ka-tdn1). Hernando Cortez (Hair-nan'do Cort'dth, or Cortfez). Vera Cruz ( Vd'rah Kroos), mean ing "true cross." Montezuma (Mon-te-zoolmah). Nicaragua (Neek-ah-raUgwah). Pamphilo de Narvaez (Pa&t*/- fee-lo da Nar^vah' eth), Guatemala VGwah-te-mah!lah). Honduras (Hon-doo'ras). Vice'roy. The governor of a coun try who rules in the king's name, and with the king's authority. l. It is but a short distance from the western ex tremity of the island of Cuba to Yucatan upon the mainland. The first Spaniards who crossed the chan nel brought back word that they had found men dressed better than those on the islands, and living in buildings made of stone and mortar, and in every way more civilized. 2. The governor of Cuba sent an exploring expedi tion under command of his sec- , rj IMS retary, Her nando Cortez, who sailed along the coast until he came to a favorable point, where he established a fortified camp, and named the place Vera Cruz. , Hernando Cortez. THE SPANISH CONQUEST IN AMERICA. 3 1 3. Here he made ready to march into Mexico, of which country wonderful stories had been told him, especially of its great king, Montezuma. He destroyed his fleet to prevent his men from thinking they could return, and formed his soldiers and sailors into an army of conquest, less than five hundred strong. 4. The people whom he met were much more like Europeans in intelligence than the Indians of the isl ands were. They had armor for defence, and weapons for attack ; they had temples, and a religion with priests and sacrifices ; they had towns and government, and were brave and spirited men. 5. Cortez was courageous and far-sighted. He had with him artillery and fire-arms and trained soldiers, but he did not depend wholly on these. When he won a victory, he made friends of the tribe he conquered; he even tried to turn the religion of the people into the way of the Church, and everywhere he set up the authority of the King of Spain. 6. He was three months on the march from the sea-coast to the valley of Mexico. He drew to him self allies from the tribes through which he passed, and announced his coming to Montezuma. That chieftain tried by the arts of magic to prevent Cortez from com- • ing to Mexico, but did not oppose him with an army. 7. The city of Mexico and the valley in which it was placed were the finest sights that the Spaniards had seen. The city was built in the midst of a lake, connected by causeways with the land, and, as seen from the hills about, its temples and houses were reflected in the water as in a mirror. 8. Cortez and his followers were the guests of Monte zuma and his chieftains, and received the best that the 32 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. city had to give. They were led through its streets, and shown its houses and temples. They were feasted and honored, and given places where they could live. 9. For all that, Cortez and his followers were in a perilous position; they were in the midst of a remote The Valley uf Mexico. country, and surrounded by a multitude of strong men. Cortez did not hesitate. He saw that Montezuma was feared by the other chiefs and by the people; and he determined to show the Mexicans that he was mightier than Montezuma, 10. A slight outbreak occurred between the Spaniards and some of the people, and Cortez made it an excuse to seize Montezuma and hold him prisoner. He re quired the king and his chiefs to declare themselves THE SPANISH CONQUEST IN AMERICA. 33 subjects of the King of Spain; but he still held Monte zuma prisoner, though he treated him with a show of respect. 11. Meanwhile a new danger arose. The Governor of Cuba had taken offence at something Cortez had done when he left the island, and now sent another expedi tion, under Pamphilo de Narvaez, to bring him back. Cortez heard of the arrival of Narvaez and his vessels at Vera Cruz, and, leaving most of his men in the city, marched out with a small band. 12. He met Narvaez, defeated him, and then won over the soldiers to his side. He divided the force, which was larger than his own, and sent some to Vera Cruz to hold the ships, and some to fortify another place. While thus engaged, news came that the- Mexicans had attacked the garrison which he had left behind. 13. Cortez, mustering his forces, turned quickly back and re-entered the city. But the Mexicans were now thoroughly aroused, and he was obliged to retreat. He fought his way to the tribe which had been friendly to him before, and persuaded them to join him in a war against their old enemies the Mexicans. 14. He besieged the city for seventy-five days. There was terrible fighting on both sides, but the Aug. 13 Spaniards and their allies were victorious. Cor- 152L tez re-entered the city, of which he was now master. He found it in ruins, and its people dead or dying. 15. He began at once to rebuild the city, which now became no longer an Indian, but rather a Spanish city. From that day the rule of the Mexicans ceased, and the country became a Spanish province. Guatemala, Nica ragua, and Honduras were subdued, and expeditions were sent into the north. 3 34 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 16. Other Spaniards conquered Peru and all the western coast of South America, while the Portuguese held Brazil. In Mexico a vice roy ruled in the name of the King of Spain, and Spaniards held great estates there; for many gentlemen and soldiers came from Spain to better their fortunes in the rich new land. 17. The Indians submitted to the Spaniards, obeyed their laws, and adopted their religion. They tilled the ground, herded cattle, and worked in the mines. They were not slaves in name, and many laws were made to prevent them from being sold into slavery; neverthe less they were in one form or other bound in service. 18. In the West Indies the Indians were less robust than those of Mexico, and they died out rapidly under the cruelty of the Spaniards. Negroes were brought from the coast of Africa, and, though at first few in number, their labor was found so profitable that the number was constantly increased. At last the Indian disappeared: the hardier negro slave had taken his place. CHAPTER IX. SPANISH FAILURES IN AMERICA. Fizarro (Pe-zar'ro or Pe-t/iar'rd Hernando de Soto (Hair do da So' to). Mississip'pi, An Indian word meaning " great and long river." Arkansas {Ar'kan-saw). 1. The name Florida is applied now only to the penin sula occupied by the State of Florida; but the Spaniards, who had no exact knowledge of the boundaries of the country, thought of Florida as a vast tract, extending OS w u yfi ^1 £j=? yp Ji'&N rti 3.f h < * *&. -"§-* o« lO H N / O £ / 1 '=/ Z P Mlfi'- ^ 50 W7?-0 ¦•* §--¦* -m u SPANISH FAILURES IN AMERICA. 35 from the Atlantic Ocean to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to remote regions in the north. 2. Soon after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, and of Peru by Pizarro, the Spaniards began to send expe ditions into Florida, expecting to find there just such people and riches as they had found in Mexico and Peru. The rapid wasting away of the Indians on the islands led them to look to the mainland for captives to serve as slaves. 3. Narvaez set out with an army from Tampa Bay. He found no cities or temples, but dense forests 1528 and swamps and rivers, which made the march slow and difficult. He asked the Indians in these woods where gold was to be found, and they pointed north ward to the mountains of what is now Georgia, where gold is still found. 4. The Spaniards struggled on, exhausted by the jour ney and by constant fights with the Indians. At last they gave up when on the sea-coast, near what is now St. Mark's Bay. Here they built boats as well as they could, and pushed out into the Gulf. Of the three hun dred men who set out with Narvaez, only four came back. 5. These, wrecked on a distant coast, wandered from tribe to tribe for six years, leading a wretched life. They crossed what we know as Texas, and finally reached the Pacific coast, where they fell in with Span iards and were cared for. They returned to Spain, and told the story of their terrible adventures. 6. Such a journey gave hints of the almost boundless country which the Spaniards called Florida, and, in spite of the misery the explorers had undergone, their coun trymen were filled with desire to possess the land. The stories of Cortez and Pizarro made every one think 36 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. that he would have the fortune of these, and not the misfortune of Narvaez. 7. Hernando de Soto, a companion of Pizarro, deter mined to conquer Florida, as Peru had been conquered. He took nearly a thousand men and great store 1539. J & of arms and provisions, landed at Tampa Bay, and set out on the track of Narvaez. His ships he sent back to Cuba for fresh stores. 8. When he reached the bay where Narvaez had built his boats, many of De Soto's followers, dismayed by the hardships they had suffered, begged him to desist. He would not give up, and, after spending the winter, pushed on westward and northward. 9. On the march, De Soto now and then received from the Indians presents of pearls or ornaments of gold, and thus he always seemed to be nearing a place of riches. But for the most part the Indians were savage and poor, and De Soto's army seized them and made them beasts of burden. 10. The advance of the army spread terror among the tribes, but it also enraged them, and the march was a continual fight with savages. De Soto's course lay at first along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, until the southeast point of what we know as the State of Mis sissippi was reached, when he led his diminished com pany to the northwestern corner of that State. 11. Not far from where the city of Memphis now stands, De Soto saw the great river Mississippi, which lay across his path. He crossed it, and the army 1541. wandered about the country on the west side. They spent the winter among buffaloes and Indians; and when the spring opened, they asked only to be led by the nearest way to the sea, that they might go home. SPANISH FAILURES IN AMERICA. 37 12. While parties were searching vainly for the ocean, De Soto died. His companions feared that if the Indians knew him to be buried, they would fall upon the little army with increased fury ; and so in the dead of night they bore him to the middle of the great river, and sank his body to the bottom of the flood. 13. They told the Indians that he had ascended into the skies for a little while, and would soon be back. But their great leader, whose zeal had carried them for ward, was gone ; and now their only thought was to get back to Cuba. They encamped near the mouth of the Arkansas River, and with great toil built boats from the timber on the banks. 14. For seventeen days they were borne by the cur rent of the Mississippi to its mouth, harassed all the way by the Indians ; and for fifty days more they cruised about the Gulf of Mexico, until at last, a gaunt, fam ished remnant, they came upon a small Spanish settle ment, and from that place were sent back to Cuba. 15. They had set out with splendid hopes and had come back in misery ; but the tales they told of the great river and of the rich country through which they had passed were remembered, and their sufferings were for gotten. Again and again expeditions were sent out, but they all failed. They never found the rich cities or mines for which they looked. 3§ THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER X. THE FIRST EMIGRATION. Netherlands means "low lands," and formerly included Holland and BeJgium, but now the name refers to Holland alone. Huguenot (Hu'ghe-not). Gaspar de Coligny ( Gas-par" deh Co-ledn'ye). Jean Ribaut (ZhSn Ree-bo1). Port Roy'al. The King's harbor. Menendez (Md-nen'deth). Lu'theran. A follower of Martin Luther, the German leader of the Protestant revolution ; the name was often applied to all Protes tants, whether German, French, or English. Dominique de Gourgues (D8m- e-?ieek' deh Goorg). 1R19. 1. WHEN Cortez was conquering Mexico, Spain was at the height of her power in Europe. Her king, Charles, was elected Emperor of Ger many; and that meant that besides being King of Spain, Charles V. held sway over the Netherlands, Ger many, Austria, and parts of Italy and France. Now a great American domain was added, and he was the most powerful of earthly sovereigns. 2. A great change was to take place in Europe, and it was to come chiefly through religion. It was a change which not only caused wars between different kingdoms, but made trouble between people of the same nation, sometimes even dividing families. 3. In the north of Germany, in the Netherlands, in England, and in some towns of France there was a rebellion against the authority of the Pope, and the people who rebelled began to be called " Protestants," because they protested against the right of the Church to- control the civil government. 4. In the south of Germany, in Austria, in Italy, in most of France, and in Spain and Portugal, rulers and THE FIRST EMIGRATION. 39 people held the Pope to be the head of the Church, and gave their obedience to the bishops and priests who were under him. 5. England, where the king and people were on the same side, became a strong Protestant country. The Netherlands revolted from Philip II., son of Charles V, and set up a republic. In Germany the rule of the Em peror was^ broken, but the little States which made up that country did not become united; some remained faithful to Rome, others became Protestant 6. In France the Protestants were called "Huguenots." They were strong in the towns of the south, and many of the nobility took their part. The royal family was sometimes with them and sometimes against them. These dissensions gave rise to a civil war which lasted forty years. 7. The head of the Protestant party in France was an Admiral, Gaspar de Coligny. He saw that the Hu guenots were in great peril, and he believed that by transplanting them to America he might give them an asylum in the new country and also extend the power of France. 8. He sent out an expedition which landed in Brazil, but the Portuguese already had possession of that country, and the colony failed. He sent out a second under Jean Ribaut, which landed on the coast of Florida, sailed a little way up the river ^^ St. John, then explored the coast farther to the north, and entered a spacious harbor which they named Port Royal, — the name which it still bears. 9. While Ribaut was in France, the colony at Port Royal perished miserably, and Coligny made a new effort to establish a colony on the shores of the St. John. Here 40 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. they built a fort to which they gave the name Fort Caroline. The company was composed of gentlemen, soldiers, tradesmen, and artisans, for very few of the farmers of France were Huguenots. 10. Then the old history was repeated. They looked for gold ; they fought the Indians ; they starved when no new provisions came from France, for they did not till the ground ; they quarrelled with one another, and some, taking vessels, turned pirates, and cruised among the Spanish settlements. 11. An expedition was fitting out in Spain for the conquest of Florida, when news came that French Hu guenots had built a fort on the east coast. At once the Spaniards were fired with new zeal, for they were called upon, not only to hold a country to which they laid claim, but to carry on a war against religious enemies. 12. Menendez, the leader of the expedition, first laid the foundation of St. Augustine, the oldest 1565. & ' town built by wmtes within the bounds of the United States, and then marched his soldiers through the woods and swamps to the French settlement at Fort Caroline. 13. He fell upon the miserable people and put them to the sword. A few fled to the woods and escaped. Menendez hanged those whom he captured, placing over them the inscription : "I do this, not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans." 14. When the news reached France, a cry of indigna tion rose, but not from the king. There was peace between Spain and France ; yet this act of war was not resented, because the King of France, who was a weak man, was bound to the King of Spain by religious ties rather than to his own people by the ties of country. THE FIRST EMIGRATION. 41 15. The man who avenged the wrongs of his country men was a soldier, Dominique de Gourgues. He was not a Huguenot, but he was a Frenchman. Keeping his design secret, he mustered a company and sailed from Old Gateway, Fort San Marco France for America. Not until he had crossed the Atlantic did he reveal his purpose to his followers. 16. The Spaniards were occupying both St. Au gustine and Fort Caroline. Gourgues landed on the coast and, making a secret march, fell suddenly upon Fort Caroline, destroyed the fort, and put the Spaniards to death. He hanged the prisoners whom he took, where the French had been hung, and placed above them the inscription : " Not as to Spaniards, but as to Traitors, Robbers, and Murderers." jpaniah Coat-of- Arms. 42 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 17. Thus the fearful wars, which in the name of re ligion were changing the face of Europe, were carried also to the new country. The first emigration of men who sought an asylum in America failed utterly. The French never renewed their attempt on the St. John, and the country remained in the hands of the Spaniards. CHAPTER XL ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Farliament (parUe-ment). The body in English government which is like our Congress. The word is from the French, and means " the talking body." Monasteries. Houses occupied by companies of men, called monks, who were united for re ligious purposes. Flan'ders. A portion of the pres ent kingdom of Belgium. Its people were called Flemish or Flem'ings. Frob'isher.Behring (BeerHng). Behring was a Danish captain, who sailed through the strait which bears his name, in 1729. Armada (Ar-mahidah). A fleet of armed vessels. 1534. 1. WHILE France was divided by civil war, England was coming to the front as a great power. Her king and parliament acted together, and the people were not so divided in religious faith as they were in France. England had revolted from the Pope, and her king, Henry VIII., was made head of the Church of England. 2. There had been before this a double rule in Eng land. The clergy, the monks, and the colleges had in most ways been under the government of the Pope at Rome, and the king and parliament had not had full authority over them, or over the great wealth which they possessed. ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 43 3. But now the king and parliament, when they no longer acknowledged the Pope as head of the Church in England, made laws by which these men and insti tutions, and this property, came under their control. The monasteries were closed, and the estates given to the king; the colleges and clergy were to obey only the laws of the land. Jk. Since the king and parliament were of one mind, there was no power in the land to resist them. The people had often been at variance with the clergy, and were glad to be less under their authority. 1529—1536. Thus a revolution was carried through in England almost peaceably in comparison with the bit ter wars which were waged in other parts of Europe. 5. The religion of the country was for a time the religion which the monks and the clergy had taught; but with the change in the government came changes also in ways of thinking. The Bible was translated into English and read in all the churches ; and the prayers, which formerly were in Latin, now were given in the language of the people. 6. These things helped to make Henry more secure on his throne, because the loyalty which before had been given partly to the Pope and partly to the King, now centred in him. At the same time, parliament grew stronger, and it began to be said that the king could make no laws without the consent of parliament. 7. In the wars of Europe, English fishing-vessels were constantly seized, and the English coast was in danger. Henry began a line of defences for the harbors, and laid the foundation of a navy. He founded schools in which seamen were trained; but England was still, as she long had been, an agricultural and grazing country. 44 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 8. So much of her wealth was in wool, that farms were turned into pasture-land to make room for sheep, and multitudes of men and women wandered homeless. The wool was sent to Flanders to be manufactured. But now a change came, for when Spain was at war with The Great Harry, —the first famous Ship jt the English Navy Flanders, great numbers of Flemish weavers fled from their country, took refuge in England, and set up their looms there. 9. With the increase of manufactures came a growth of commerce. England, which had lived largely apart from the rest of Europe, now concerned herself with what was going on there, and the affairs of greatest im portance were the religious struggles, the discoveries in America, and the trade with India. 10. England was at the head of the Protestant nations, ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 45 and Spain at the head of the countries which obeyed the Pope. Since therefore America was the great prize which Spain had secured, England attacked her enemy in that quarter. 11. The English at first paid little heed to the dis coveries which Cabot had made for them. They were intent on finding a way to India by the northeast ; and only after repeated failures to get through the Arctic Ocean north of Asia, did they turn their attention to the northwest passage. 12. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, an Englishman who took great interest in discoveries, was persuaded that America was a vast island, which could be sailed round as well by the north as by the south. He wrote a book to show this ; and Martin Frobisher, a sea-captain who read the book, set out in his vessel to prove it. 13. His name remains in Frobisher's Strait, through which he passed. After him came John Davis, who went far up through the strait which bears his name, and was sure, like some others, that if it were not for the ice and storms, he could make his way to India.1 But the ice was always there, and the perils of the voyage never grew less. 14. One reason why the English made these efforts was to avoid the Spanish, who were so strong in the south ; but now, when England was growing more pow erful at sea, English merchants and captains boldly attacked Spanish vessels and settlements, and grew rich over the prizes they captured. 1 The Northwest Passage has never been made by any vessel. The first party of Europeans to make the journey between Behring Strait and Baffin's Bay was Captain M'Clure's in 1852-53, which went DartJy by water, partly over ice. 46 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 15. The south and west coast of England contained the harbors from which most of the vessels sailed, and the busiest of these was the harbor of Plymouth. In the neighborhood lived Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and near by Sir Francis Drake who, like Balboa, had seen the Pacific from Darien, and could not rest till he had sailed upon it. 16. So, in the autumn of 1577, Drake set sail with a fleet of five vessels. Three years later, he sailed 1580. into Plymouth harbor with a single vessel. He had visited the coast of what is now California, and, crossing the Pacific Ocean, had rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and thus sailed round the globe. All England rang with his fame. 17. Spain determined to put down the English power, and sent a great fleet, called the Armada, to invade Eng land. The English came out in their ships and boats and fought the Armada in the English Channel. They were victorious, and a mighty storm which followed destroyed what was left of the Spanish fleet. 18. From this time the Spanish power began to de cline, and the English power to rise. The whole nation was full of life ; and because Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., was now queen, the time is called in English history the Age of Elizabeth. In her reign lived William Shakespeare, the greatest of Englishmen. FIRST VENTURES OF ENGLAND IN AMERICA. 47 CHAPTER XII. FIRST VENTURES OF ENGLAND IN AMERICA Pat'ent. A legal paper giving special rights. The term is now used of inventions, but at first it covered the right to plant colo nies and hold land. Raleigh (Raw'le). Newfoundland (Nw fund-land). The name was first applied to all the countries newly found by Cabot, but afterwards was used only for the island so called. Pam'lico. Ro'anoke. Knighthood (nite'hood). A rank in nobility given by a king or queen to a subject, and entitling him to be called Sir, — as, Sir Walter Raleigh. 1583. 1. In the Age of Elizabeth there were rich and power ful families in England, but there was also a swarm of poor and idle people ; those who ruled in the State were perplexed with the question what to do with these poor people, and some asked if it would not be possible to send them to America. 2. Sir "Humphrey Gilbert obtained a patent from the queen, giving him authority to inhabit and fortify all land in America not yet occupied by Christian nations. He gathered a company, chiefly of people out of work, and set sail with a fleet of five vessels, intending to occupy some part of America lying be tween the French possessions on the St. Lawrence and the Spanish possessions in Florida. 3. The way to the Banks was well known, and he reached Newfoundland, where he landed in order to make repairs, and start afresh. He took possession of the land/ in the name of the queen ; but when he set sail again, he was overtaken by a storm, and perished at sea, only one vessel finding its way back to England with the story of the disaster. 48 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 1584. 4. Gilbert's half-brother, Walter Raleigh, had a share in this venture, and he, nothing daunted, made a fresh attempt. He obtained a new patent from the queen, and sent out two vessels to explore, which sailed by way of the Canaries and West Indies; and coming upon the shore of what is now North Carolina, anchored in Pamlico Sound, and visited Roanoke Island. 5. The explorers brought back glow ing accounts of the land and the people, and Raleigh obtain ed consent from the virgin Queen Eliza beth to name the country after her, Virginia. This name yas at first applied to all the country lying between the French possessions and the Spanish, and extending no one knew how far to the west. 6. The queen rewarded Raleigh with knighthood, and Sir Walter at once laid plans for a great colony. In the spring of 1585 he sent out seven ships, which carried a hundred colonists, several of whom were men of learn ing and fame. They captured some Spanish ships on the way, and reached Roanoke Island in safety and in good spirits. Sir Walter Raleigh. FIRST VENTURES OF ENGLAND IN AMERICA. 4g 7. The ships sailed back to England, and Ralph Lane governor of the little colony, began to explore the mainland. The In dians had treated them as friends, but when the English punished a single theft by burning an Indian village, the colony found itself surrounded by ene mies, and waited anxiously for help from England. 8. Before the ves sels which they had sent away could return, Sir Francis Drake, who had been plundering the Spaniards, ap peared off the coast, and the rem nant of the colony eagerly returned to England in one of his ships. They carried with them the first tobacco which was ever seen in Europe. 9. Raleigh was not discouraged. The next summer he sent out a fresh expedition, which for the first time included women. A child, named Vir ginia Dare, was born in the colony, — the first born in America of English parentage. She was the grand daughter of John White, the governor of the colony. The Coast visited by Raleigh's Vessels. 1587. 50 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 10. White returned to England for further help ; he found the country engaged in a new war with Spain, and it was three years before he could get back to Vir ginia. When he did return, not a colonist was to be found, nor any trace of the company beyond a few letters cut in the bark of' a tree. 11. Sir Walter sent vessel after vessel in a vain search for the lost colony. He himself fell into trouble at home, and at last could do nothing more in Virginia. He said, " I shall yet live to see it an English nation." But he did not live to see this. He was a victim of the troublous times which were coming upon Eng- 1618. b f t> land, and was put to death by King James I. 12. He had intended his colony to bear the name of Raleigh, and that name was afterwards given to the capital of the State formed from the region in which he sought to plant his colony. It is a famous name in English history, and the story of Raleigh's attempt shows how the greatest Englishmen were thinking of the New World. 13. In the year in which Raleigh sent out his last vessel to search for the lost colony, the Earl of 1602. J ' Southampton sent Bartholomew Gosnold, with a small vessel, to plant a colony in Virginia. Gosnold reached the coast near Casco Bay, sailed south, and landed on the extreme point of a cape, to which he gave the name of Cape Cod, which it has ever since borne. 14. He cruised about Vineyard Sound, and decided to settle on an island there ; but when the time came for the vessel to return, there was so little provision for the colony that it was thought most prudent for all to go back to England. The chief gain was in the discovery of new lands, and of a more direct route to Virginia, THE FOUNDATIONS OF NEW FRANCE. SI CHAPTER XIII. THE FOUNDATIONS OF NEW FRANCE. Champlain (Sham-plane'). De Monts (Deh Monh). St. Croix (San Krwah). Acadie (Ah-kah-dee1). The Eng lish form is Acd'dia. The Indian form from which the name is derived appears in the ending quoddy, — as Passamaquoddy. Igna'tius Loyo'la. 1 491-1566. Jesuit (Jlz'u-it). Iroquois (Ee'rd-kwah). Ottawa (Ot'ta-wah). Algonquin (Al-g8n'kin). Tributaries. Streams flowing into, and thus increasing, larger streams. l. France had never lost her hold upon the borders of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Cartier had taken posses sion of the country in the name of the King of France, but its real occupation was by the hardy men who fished in the waters of the Gulf, and sometimes car ried back to Europe furs and skins which they obtained from the natives. 2. The fur-trade at last began to tempt adventurers and explorers. The greatest of these explorers was a French gentleman, Samuel de Champlain, who made his first voyage to Canada in 1603. He ascended the St. Lawrence River as far as the site of Montreal, and carried back to France maps of the country which he had seen, and many interesting notes concerning the people, animals, and plants. 3. The next year a Huguenot, De Monts, who was in favor at court, received authority to plant a ,. i-i 1604, colony in Acadie, the name then given to the; country claimed by the French, extending from the Delaware River to the St. Lawrence. De Monts took 52 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. Champlain with him, and established a fur trading-post on an island at the mouth of the St. Croix River, but afterwards removed it across the Bay of Fundy and named the .place Port Royal. [See map, p. 148.] 4. Champlain was persuaded that the banks of the river St. Lawrence offered the best site for a colony, and four years later he ascended the river again and founded Quebec, which became the centre of trade, of missions, and of military operations. From this point Champlain made bold excursions, and pene trated the wilderness as far as Lake Huron. 5. The most important of his associates were not sol' diers or fur-traders, but priests. During the religious conflicts which had stirred Europe, a Spanish soldier, Ignatius Loyola, had founded the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, who claimed to be special champions of the Pope. They were like soldiers in an army, bound to one another and to their officers by the strictest rules and by loyalty to their order. 6. The Jesuits had more than a military courage and zeal. They were missionaries of the faith, and^were among the first to plunge into the wilderness of Canada. They went there to convert the savage Indian, and endured, hardships which no common soldier would have had the courage to meet. 7. The Indian of the north was a stern, silent man, who knew the rigors of a northern winter and the perils of the wilderness. His highest idea of courage was to suffer without complaining. He was a different being from the Indian whom the Spaniard met on the islands of the Gulf, or even in the highlands of Mexico. 8. When, therefore, the Jesuits and other priests came without weapons, shared the life of the Indians, and were THE FOUNDATIONS OF NEW FRANCE. 53 ready to go beyond their bravest men in endurance, the Indians learned to respect the new-comers, and in many cases to submit to them and accept the religion which they taught. 9. The French soldiers also were willing to live much as the Indians did, and thus easily made friends with them. The Indians themselves were divided into tribes, which were often at war with one another ; and the French, by taking sides with a tribe and going with it to fight its enemies, won it over to strong friendship . 10. The most powerful people were the Iroquois, who had their home within the borders of what is now the State of New York. On the northern lakes and on the Ottawa River were the Hurons and Algonquins, and these persuaded Champlain to join them in an attack upon the Iroquois. 11. Champlain, like other explorers of his day, was bent on finding a way to China; and since the Iroquois lay in his path, he determined to fight his way through them with the -help of his Huron and Algonquin allies. He gained a victory over the Iroquois, which im made them the lasting enemies of the French, but he returned after discovering the lake which bears his name. [See map, p. 56.] 12. The soldier and the priest went side by side, establishing military posts and missions. To these posts the Indians came once or twice a year with furs and game, for which the traders gave them trink ets, cloth, arms, and ammunition. Little was done in the way of tilling farms or occupying the land with homesteads. 13. Thus it was that though France took possession 54 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. of the vast country watered by the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, and showed her right to it by forts, mission stations, and trading-posts, she did not plant the seeds of a new France which should grow up into a nation like the old France. 14. There were always adventurous men to go into new lands or to brave the seas, but for the most part Frenchmen stayed by the land where they were born and bred. One reason for this was that the land of France was divided into a great number of small farms, where the same families lived, generation after genera tion. CHAPTER XIV. THE DUTCH TRADERS. Hol'land is a short form of " Hol low-land" or "low land." Nav'igable rivers. Rivers upon which vessels can sail. Henry Hudson. The Dutch called him Hendrik Hudson. Walloons (Wbl-loons*). The name survives in Wallabout Bay (Dutch Waal-bogt, meaning " Wal loons' Bay"), where they had a settlement. Patroon (pa-troon1). l. THE revolt of the Netherlands from Spanish rule had led to the establishment of a vigorous Protestant state, known as the Dutch Republic. The land which it occupied, now called Holland, was protected from the ocean by great dikes, and crossed by a net-work of canals which connected with arms of the sea and with navigable rivers. 2. The land lying between the canals was very rich, and was cultivated with great industry ; the canals were the roadways for boats which plied between different THE DUTCH TRADERS. 55 parts of the country, and made all the towns busy with trade and commerce. 3. The Dutch were also famous fishermen. Their vessels swarmed about the coast and in the North Sea ; and, since this sea was a dangerous one, the Dutch sailors became brave and daring, skilful in managing their vessels and in acting as pilots. 4. They were the merchants for all the neighboring countries, carrying their vessels into the ports and rivers of Europe, and sending out fleets to the East Indies, whence they brought back spices and other products of the tropics. Their enterprise and courage made the Dutch, with their little territory, able to resist the power of the great kingdom of Spain. 5. In consequence of this trade and industry, great cities sprang up in Holland. The merchants formed companies, the better to carry on their trade; of these one of the most important was the East-India Company, which was very anxious to find a shorter route to the East Indies than by the long and perilous passage round the Cape of Good Hope. 6. In 1609 they engaged an English captain, Henry Hudson, to find such a passage. He first tried the northeastern route; but when he was blocked by the ice, he turned back and determined to find some open ing in the land which lay to the west. He crossed the Atlantic, and came upon the opening which is now the harbor of New York. 7. He discovered the great river flowing into it, and sailed slowly up its stream in his ship, the Half-Moon. He went to the head of navigation, and then sent out parties to explore. They returned with reports which showed that the river lessened as they went up higher, 56 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. and he sailed down the river again, crossed the Atlantic, and entered an English port. 8. Hudson sent to the East-India Company at Am sterdam an account of what he had discovered ; but the English would not let him return to Holland. He sailed again the next year for an English company, and discovered a great bay in the frozen north. The. river and the bay both bear his name, though the river has also always been known as the North River. 9. The East-India Company was disappointed that Hudson had not found a new route to India, and paid little attention to his discov ery of a great river and a noble country. Some Amsterdam mer chants, however, saw an opportu nity for trade, and sent out vessels to obtain furs. 10. The traders established themselves at the mouth of the Hudson River, on the island which was called by the Indians Man hattan. They made explorations up and down the coast, and soon found how rich the country was, and how easy it was to obtain valuable furs in exchange for a few paltry trinkets. 11. A company was formed, called the New Nether- land Company, which had the sole right for 1615-1618. c J • ^ & three years to occupy this territory and trade Explorations of Champlain and Hudson. THE DUTCH TRADERS. 57 there. It erected forts on Manhattan Island, and on the site of Albany, then called Fort Orange, and gave the name of New Netherland to the country. [See map, p. 135.J 12. When the rights of the company ceased, a new and more powerful company was formed in Holland in 1621, called the West-India Company, with full control of New Netherland. It was a trad ing company like the others, but it was intended also to dispute the Spanish power in America. The Dutch captains, like the Eng lish, found a profitable business in capturing Spanish vessels. 13. The West-India Company encouraged people to settle on its lands, and villages grew up about Fort Orange, and at New Amster dam, as the Dutch called the settlement on Manhattan Island. Among the early comers were Walloons, — Protestants who had escaped into Holland from the Spanish rule in Flanders. 14. In order to induce men to occupy New Nethef land, the company gave to any of its mem bers who should buy land of the Indians and form a colony of fifty persons the right to almost absolute power over land and colonists. These owners were called " patroons," and they acquired very large estates. 15. The patroons sent out farmers, cattle, and tools. They began to occupy the country on both sides of Hag of the Dutch West- India Company. 58 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. the Hudson, and took possession of tracts of country as far south as Delaware Bay. They established trading- posts also on the Connecticut River. 16. The chief occupation of the Dutch, in the early days of the colony, was trade with the Indians, especially for furs; and the colony was composed, for the most Dutch and Indians Trading. part, of persons who were engaged in this business, They were on good terms with the Indians, and kept up frequent intercourse with their mother-country. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 59 TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. 1. The Condition of Europe before the Discovery of America. 1. The extent of the knowledge of the globe by civilized Eu rope, I. 1 (see illustration, p. 2). 2. The voyages of the Norsemen, and the methods used to keep them in memory, I. 2-7. 3. The condition of Europe when the Norsemen were making , their voyages. a. Character of the vikings, I. 4. b. State of society in southern Europe, I. 8. c. The bond of union, I. 8. 4. Condition of Europe just before the discovery of America. a. Change in the life of the people, I. 9. b. Revival of learning, I. 10-12. c. Rise of great kingdoms, I. 13. d. Power of the Church, I. 14, 15. e. Eminence of the Peninsula, II. I, 7, 13; III. 13. f. The great trade highways, II. 1-3. g. Course of discovery, II. 4-7 ; I. 10, 11. h. Motives for discovery, II. 4, 9, 13-15. i. Modes of discovery, II. 8-12. II. The Great Discoverers (see map, p. 27). 1. Prince Henry of Portugal and the Portuguese, II. 7, 8. 2. Christopher Columbus. a. Nativity and early education, III. 1, 2. b. Causes of his interest in exploration, III. 3, 4. c. His belief as to the globe and its shape, III. 5, 6. d. His means of proving his belief, III. 7, 8. e. The measures which he took to prove it, III. 8, 9. f. The persons of influence whom he tried to convince, III. 8, 9, 12-14. g. The reception given to his ideas, III. 8-15. h. The cause of his success in persuading persons, III. 9, 12, 14; IV. 6. i. The means which he took to carry out his plans, III. 16-20. j. His resources, III. 19, 20. 60 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. k. The most important persons connected with him in his enterprise, III. 17. /. His voyage across the Atlantic, IV. 1-9. m. The signs which encouraged him, IV. 1, 3, 8. n. The difficulties with which he had to contend, IV. I, 2, 4-7. o. The land first seen, IV. 9, 15. p. What he supposed he had found, IV. 16 ; V. 4. q. The number of his voyages, and what he really found, IV. 15; V. 5, 12, 15. r. Reception on his first return to Spain, V. 1-3. s. Treatment by his associates, V. 1, 10, 11, 13, 14 t. His death and burial, V. 16. u. Character of his greatness, III. 9, 11, 14; IV. 6, 11 ; V. 11, 14, 17, 18. 3. Vasco da Gama, V. 12. 4. John Cabot, VI. 2. 5. Amerigo Vespucci, VI. 3. 6. Ponce de Leon, VI. 6, 7. 7. Balboa,. VI. 9-1 1. 8. Magellan. a. What he set out to do, VI. 12. b. His discovery of the Pacific, VI. 13. c. The course of his expedition, VI. 12-15. d. What the expedition proved, VI. 15. 9. John Denys, VII. 4. 10. Verrazano, VII. 6, 7. 11. Jacques Cartier, VII. 8-11. 12. Hernando de Soto. a. The motive which impelled him, IX. 7. b. The track which he followed, IX. 7, 8, 10, il. c. What he expected to find, IX. 2, 9. d. His treatment of the natives, IX. 9, 10. e. His fate, IX. 12. f. The fate of his companions, IX. 13-15. 13. Jean Ribaut, X. 8. 14. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, XI. 12; XII. 2, 3. 15. Martin Frobisher, XI. 12, 13. 16. Sir Francis Drake. a. His home, XI. 15. b. The course of his voyage, XI. 16. c. His connection with Virginia, XII. 8- TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 6l 17. Expeditions sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh. a. The causes which impelled him, XII. 1. b. His first expedition, XII. 4. c. The plans to which it led, XII. 6. 18. Bartholomew Gosnold, XII. 13, 14. 19. Samuel de Champlain. a. His first voyage, XIII. 2. b. His western explorations, XIII. 4. c. His ambition, XIII. 11. 20. Henry Hudson. XIV. 5-8. III. Norse Discoveries and Settlements. 1. Discovery of Iceland and Greenland, I. 2. 2. Voyages to Vinland, I. 5-7. IV. Portuguese Explorations and Discoveries. 1. Advantages of Portugal for making voyages, II. 1. 2. Impelling causes, II. 2-4, 13. 3. Gradual exploration of the coast of Africa, II. 5-7 (see map, p. 7). 4. Failure to find the Atlantic passage to India, III. 9-1 1. 5. Discovery of the Cape passage to India, V. 12. 6. The use made of this discovery, VI. 1. 7. The farthest eastern journey, VI. 14. 8. The Portuguese share in America, X. 8. V. Spanish Discoveries and Conquests. I. Interest taken in the plans of Columbus, III. 12-17. 2. First possession of the new world, IV. 10, 11, 15. 3. Treatment of the natives of the West Indies, V. 7-10. 4. Occupation of the West Indies, V. 13; VI. 6; VIII. 1. 5. Discovery of the Pacific, VI. 9-1 1. 6. Conquest of Mexico (see map, p. 35). a. The exploration from Cuba, VIII. 2. b. Cortez's march to the city of Mexico, VIII. 3-6. c. The valley and city of Mexico, VIII. 7, 8. d. The character of the king and people, VIII. 4, 6, 9. e. Treatment of the Mexicans by Cortez, VIII. 9, 10. f. Cortez's difficulty with his own countrymen, VIII. 11, 12. g. The revolt and overthrow of Mexico, VIII. 12-14. h. The new Mexico, VIII. 15. 62 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. 7. Conquests in Central and South America, VIII. 15, 16. 8. Attempts at conquest in Florida. a. Extent of Spanish Florida, IX. 1. b. Reasons for expeditions to Florida, IX. 2. C. The expedition of Ponce de Leon, VI. 6-8. d. The expedition of Narvaez, IX. 3-6. e. The expedition of De Soto, IX. 7-15 (see map, P- 35)- /. The expedition of Menendez, X. 11. VI. French Discoveries and Settlements. 1. The first impulse given to French voyages, VII. 1-3, 5. 2. Explorations of John Denys, VII. 4. 3. Voyage of Verrazano, VII. 6, 7. 4. Cartier's voyages, VII. 8-1 1 ; XIII. 1. 5. Religious causes of French settlements in America, X. 2-7. 6. Expeditions sent out by Coligny, X. 7-9. 7. Fate of the Huguenots in Florida, X. 10-13. 8. The revenge by De Gourgues, X. 14-16. 9. Champlain's voyages and journeys, XIII. 2-4, 10, 11. 10. The part played by the Jesuits, XIII. 5-8, 12. 11. Character of the French occupation, XIII. 1, 2, 9, 12-14. VII. English Adventures. 1. Character of England before the discovery of America, I. 13- 2. Cabot's voyage, VI. 2. 3. Influence of Spanish and Portuguese discoveries, VII. 1. 4. Religious and political changes in England, X. 3, 5 ; XI. 1-6. 5. Social and industrial changes, XI. 7-9; XII. 1. 6. Conflicts with Spain, XI. 10, 14, 17, 18; XII. 6, 8. 7. The Plymouth men, XI. 12, 15. 8. Gilbert and Frobisher, XI. 12, 13. 9. Drake's voyages, XI. 15, 16; XII. 8. 10. Gilbert's attempts at colonization, XII. 2, 3. 11. Raleigh's attempts, XII. 4-12. 12. The Earl of Southampton and Gosnold, XII. 13, 14. VIII. Dutch Voyages and Trading-Posts. I. Character and condition of the Netherlands, X. 1, 3, 5 ; XI. 8; XIV. 1-4. 2. Impelling causes of exploration, XIV. 4, 5. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 63 3. Hudson's voyage, XIV. 6, 7. 4. Practical results of his report of discoveries, XIV. 9, 10. 5. The Dutch method of carrying on great enterprises, XIV. 5, 11, 12. 6. Settlement of New Netherland, XIV. 11-16. !X. North America as known at the Beginning of the Seventeenth Century. 1. The regions claimed by Spain. a. Extent of country (see map, p. 35). b. Character of the natives, IV. 12-14; V. 9; VIII. 1.4, 17, 18; IX. 9. c. Treatment of the natives by the Spaniards, IV. 12 ; V. 1, 5, 7-10; VIII. 5, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18; IX. 2, 4, 9- 2. The region claimed by France. a. Extent of country, VII. 4, 9-11 ; XIII. 1-4, 13 (see map, p. 29). b. Character of the natives, XIII. 7. c. Treatment of the natives by the French, XIII. 6, 8-12. 3. The region claimed by England, VI. 2; XI. 13 : XII. 3-5, 13, 14; XIV. 8 (see map, p. 49). 4. The region claimed by the Dutch. a. Extent of country, XIV. 6, 7, 9-13, 16 (see map, p. 56). b. Character and mode of settlement, XIV. 11, 13, 14- c. Dealings with the Indians, XIV. 14, 15. 5. Mode of taking possession of the country, II. 10; IV. 10, 11; VI. 10, 11; VII. 9. 6. Spread of the knowledge of America in Europe, I. 4, 5 ; V. 2; VI. 3-5; VII. 1, 5. 7; IX. 5, IS! XI. 12; XIII. 2. 64 THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. iMorsemen in Iceland 86x Norsemen in America about iooo Discovery of Canary Islands I344 Application of mariner's compass to navigation .... about 1400 Discovery of Madeira Islands 141^ Discovery of Cape Verde Islands 1445 Invention of printing 1440-1450 Columbus set sail from Palos Aug. 3, 1492 Columbus landed on San Salvador Oct. 12, 1492 Vasco da Gama rounded Cape of Good Hope '497 John Cabot visited the coast of America 1497 Death of Columbus 1506 St. Lawrence Gulf explored by the French 1506 The name America first printed 1507 Ponce de Leon in Florida 1512 Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean 1513 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez 1518-1521 Magellan's ship sailed round the world . . 1519-1522 Verrazano visited the coast of North America . . 1524 Cartier took possession of the St. Lawrence .... 1534, 1535 De Soto discovered the Mississippi ... 1541 Persecution of Huguenots in France 1551 First Huguenot emigration to America 1555 Elizabeth Queen of England ... 1558-1603 Ribaut's colony at Port Royal planted 1562 Colony of Huguenots on St. John's River planted 1564 Its destruction by the Spaniards r565 St. Augustine founded 1565 Drake's voyage around the world 1577-1580 Sir Humphrey Gilbert's voyage to Newfoundland 1583 Raleigh's expedition to Roanoke Island 1584 Spanish Armada destroyed 1588 Gosnold's visit to Cape Cod 1602 Champlain's visit to Montreal 1603 De Monts planted a colony in Acadie 1604 Quebec founded by Champlain 1608 Champlain discovered Lake Champlain i6og Henry Hudson ascended Hudson River 1609 Independence of the Netherlands conceded by Spain ... . i6og The Dutch began to occupy New Netherland 1615 JAMESTOWN. 65 CHAPTER XV. JAMESTOWN. Ken-ne-bec'. Pop'ham. New'port News. A cape at the entrance of the James River. Powhatan (Pow-ha-tan1). Pocahontas (Poc-a-honHas). Pyrites (py-rVtez). A yellowish mineral of no value, but from its likeness to gold, sometimes mis taken for it. 1. WHEN Bartholomew Gosnold returned to England with accounts of the country which he had visited, he persuaded a number of men of influence to fo>-m the Virginia Company, after the manner of the Dutch companies. This company received the right to hold all the land from Cape Fear to the St. Croix River. 2. King James I., who succeeded Queen Elizabeth, was anxious to increase his own power, and so make the royal family more independent of parliament and the people. The patent which he gave the Vir ginia Company, therefore, provided carefully for the government of such colonies as the company might form. The king was to appoint the managing council. 3. The Virginia Company was in two divisions, called the London Company and the Plymouth Company. The former, composed chiefly of men living in London, was to trade and form colonies in the southern part of the territory. The latter, composed of members living about Plymouth, was to control the northern part. 4. After Gosnold's return another party was sent out, which reported a favorable site for a colony tt 1 t» • 1 1605. near the mouih of the Kennebec River, and a settlement was begun in 1607, but soon abandoned. 5 66 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 1607. It is called the Popham Colony, from the chief justice of England, who helped to organize it, and from his brother, who was its governor. 5. In the same year the first permanent settlement by Englishmen in America was made. The Lon don Company sent out about a hundred men ir a fleet of three vessels, commanded by Captain Chris topher Newport who was instructec to land on Ro anoke Island. A storm arose off the coast, and drove the fleet into Ches apeake Bay, which they entered for shelter. 6. They were sc attracted by the beauty of the place that they deter mined to settle there; and after ex ploring the shores of a river, which they named James from the King of England, they chose a low penin sula for their set tlement. There they landed M'Jy They had named First Settlement in Virgin!*. 13, and called the place Jamestown. JAMESTOWN. 67 the two capes at the entrance of the bay, Cape Henry and Cape Charles, for the sons of the king. 7. The king had placed in a sealed box a paper containing the names of the seven men who were to be the governing council, and the box was now opened. The president of the council was found to be Edward Maria Wingfield. Newport was a member (his name remains in Newport News) ; Bartholomew Gosnold, also ; and Captain John Smith. 8. Not half of the colony had ever worked with their hands. Most of the members were gentlemen who hoped to find gold at once, and make their fortunes; but they fell to work in the pleasant weather, cut down trees, built huts, and made rude clapboards, with which they loaded two of the vessels, and sent Captain New port back with them to England. He was to return with supplies. 9. A terrible summer followed. The peninsula, which they had chosen for security against the Indians, v/as an unhealthy spot, and a pestilence swept away half the colony. If it had not been for some Indians, who brought them corn, the rest would' have died of starva tion. The frosts of autumn stayed the pestilence, and the colony then found an abundance of game. 10. The Indians, for the most part, were friendly, but they had not forgotten the wrongs which they had suffered from the parties sent out by Raleigh; and the English were too ready to use their guns whenever they fancied the Indians meant to attack them. 11. The most powerful chief in the neighborhood was Powhatan, who had his principal village, Werowoco- moco, on the banks of what is now York River. Captain John Smith, the real leader of the colony, was exploring 6S THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. the country with two men, when the Indians fell upon them, killed the two men, and carried Smith captive to Powhatan, who determined to put him to death. 12. Smith tells the story that, at the moment when his head was laid upon a stone, and Powhatan stood with an uplifted club ready to dash out his brains, Pocahontas, a young daughter of the chief, rushed in and begged her fa ther to spare the white man's life ; whereupon Smith was released. 13. Certain it is that Powhatan, after this, treated the Eng lish kindly; and Poc ahontas, who was a lively Indian girl, made friends with them, visited James town, and finally married one of the colonists named John Rolfe, with whom she went to England. She was greatly admired there as an Indian princess, but died before she could return to Virginia. 14. The company in England still believed that Vir ginia was near India ; and when they heard stories about Powhatan, they imagined him to be a king of great importance, and sent a crown to be placed on his head. They bade the colonists also hunt for gold, and for the South Sea, as the Pacific Ocean was called. Captain John Smith. VIRGINIA. 69 15. Captain Smith had sailed up the rivers and about the bays without finding any way through to India. Some people had discovered glittering dust, which they imagined to be gold. They loaded a ship with it, and sent it back to England ; but it proved to be iron pyrites, or fool's gold. CHAPTER XVI. VIRGINIA. Bermu'da. The wreck of the ves sel on these islands is said to have suggested to Shakespeare his play of the " Tempest." Del'aware. The old form is " de la Warr." Varina ( Va-ree'nah). Yeardley ( Yard'le). Burgess (Bur1 jess). A representa tive of a borough. Bor'ough. In England, a town that has the right to send mem bers to parliament. The use passed over into Virginia. l. THE settlement at Jamestown had not prospered thus far. There were too many idlers. The company owned everything, and whatever was raised was brought to a common store. Thus the few industrious people provided for the lazy. The real government also was too far away, in London, and the company was disappointed at getting so little return for the money it had spent. 2. Nevertheless there were many in England, both in and out of the company, who were anxious to make the colony a success. They were troubled by the great numbers of poor people in the kingdom, and they began to see the value of the new country. So a new charter was obtained by which the company could manage its affairs better, and sermons were preached in churches advising the poor to go to Virginia. 3. Five hundred men and women were gathered and 70 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. sent out in 1609. On their way one of the vessels was wrecked upon the Bermuda Islands, where a settlement was begun ; and the islands for a while formed part of the Virginia Colony. 4. But the vessel which was wrecked had on board the leaders of the expedition ; and when the other vessels reached Jamestown, Smith had left Virginia. and there was no one able to manage the colonists. In the winter that followed, the Indians fell upon them, their provisions were exhausted, and in the spring scarce sixty out of five hundred of the people remained. 5. These wretched people, famished and at the mercy of the Indians, determined to abandon Virginia alto gether. They were sailing down the river when suddenly vessels appeared coming toward them. It was a fleet commanded by Lord Delaware, who had been appointed Governor of Virginia, and had come out with supplies and colonists, intending to rule in person. 6. A change at once came over the colony. Lord Delaware was the first of a succession of governors who managed Virginia very much as if they were kings with absolute power over their subj'ects. They made very severe laws, and compelled every one to work for the company. They built forts, and on the slightest pretext attacked the Indians and burned their villages. 7. Sir Thomas Dale, High Marshal of Virginia, hea ing that the French had settled in the north, sent ai, expedition which laid waste a fishing village on the coast of Maine. The commander of the expedition, on his way back, discovered the Dutch at Fort Orange and Manhattan Island, and ordered them to pull down their flag, which they did ; but they hoisted it again as soon as he left VIRGINIA. 7 8. The English claimed that all the coast was part of Virginia, and that no one had any right there but them selves. It was more to the point that the settlements on the James River began to thrive, and ex tended from Varina to the sea-coast, and that 1616' now the more industrious were able to own their plan tations. 9. It was at this time also that the settlers began to plant tobacco, after the custom of the Indians about them, and to export it to England. In vain did the King of England write a tract against the use of the weed. It became at once popular in Eng land, and the chief source of wealth in Virginia. 10. While the colony was growing more independent and prosperous, a change came over the company at home. New men obtained control, — men who belonged to the party in England which opposed the king and his corrupt court, and sought to secure for Englishmen greater liberty. 11. The company sent out a new governor to Virginia, Governor Yeardley, and bade him call a meeting of the planters and landholders, who were to consult together and make laws for the government of the colony. The old laws and government had been too much like those in which King James believed. 12. Thus was held, in 1619, the first Virginia As sembly, or House of Burgesses as it came to be called, because the members were representatives sent from the various plantations or boroughs in Virginia. It was the beginning in America of government by the people. 13. In the same year a Dutch ship sailed up the James River with twenty negroes who had been captured in Africa and were now offered for sale to the planters. 72 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. The planters readily bought them to work on their to bacco plantations; and thus a beginning was made of slavery in the English colonies in America. CHAPTER XVII. PLYMOUTH. 'Delft-Ha'ven. The harbor of Delft, in Holland, is eight miles from Delft, and near the city of Rotterdam. May 'flower. The English may- flower was the hawthorn; but the name in America was applied very early to the trailing arbu tus, which is abundant in the woods near Plymouth. 1. One year after the first English colony was planted at Jamestown, a number of families from the northeast ern part of England made their way secretly to Holland, where they settled, at first in Amsterdam and afterward in Leyden. They belonged to a class of religious per sons known as Separatists, because they had separated from the Church of England. 2. The Church of England had separated from the church of the Pope ; but these Separatists declared that the teachings of the one church were but little different from those of the other. They believed that true re ligion was simple, and that when a few people came together with their Bibles, they could teach one another all that was needed for a religious life. 3. The Church of England demanded obedience ; and since it was a part of the government of the land, it could enforce this obedience by fines and imprisonment. The Separatists had few noble or rich men in their number ; therefore they were not influential, But they PLYMOUTH. 73 believed devoutly that right was on their side, and for ten years past they had been leaving the country rather than submit to the laws of the Church of England. 4. In Holland they were among a crowded people, speaking a different language and having different man ners. As their children grew up, it became clear to the parents that they would learn the Dutch language, marry, settle in Holland, and cease to be English. The wiser among them looked earnestly, therefore, for some coun try where they could keep their English ways. 5. They could not go to Jamestown, because the Church of England ruled there; they thought of going to New Netherland, but they would be subject there to a trading-company. So their friends in England formed a company and agreed to send them to the northern part of the territory claimed by the London Company. 6. A part of the Separatists set out first, to prepare the way. They sailed in the Speedwell from Delft-Haven, in Holland, to Southampton, in England. There they were joined by the Mayflower ; but after putting out to sea, the Speedwell was found to be unsafe, and they turned back to the harbor of Plymouth. 7. Here they decided to abandon the Speedwell. A few gave up going altogether, and the rest, a hundred and two in number, crowded with their goods into the little Mayflower. They tried to -ach the Jersey coast, but wer-e. driven off by storms; at last the - cast anchor in the harbor of what is now Provincetown, at the end of Cape Cod. 8. As soon as they had landed they fell upon their knees and blessed God for having brought them safe across the ocean. And since they had been moved chiefly by religious reasons, and had wandered far from 74 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. their first home, these men and women have come to be known in history as the Pilgrims. 9. The spot on which they had landed was not suit able for a settlement, especially as there was no good The Mayflower. water to be had. Parties were sent out to explore the coast and the bay. The reports which they brought back led the whole company to return to the May flower, and sail across the bay to a sheltered harbor, where they cast anchor. 10. They were pleased to find a brook of pure water which flowed down a hill-side opposite the harbor ; and there were fields which had been cleared by the Indians for planting. The place had been marked " Plymouth" on a map which Captain John Smith had made of the coast; that was the name, too, of the last place they PLYMOUTH. 75 had left in England, where they had many friends. Plymouth, therefore, was the name which they gave to the settlement now formed. 11. A large rock, the only one in the neighborhood, is pointed out as the spot upon which the exploring party that discovered the place is said to have landed. The twenty-first day of December is observed as the Landing of the Pilgrims, although the Mayflower did not arrive till five days later. The year of the land ing was 1620. 12. The first thing which the Pilgrims did was to build a house, twenty feet square, to hold their goods and serve as a temporary shelter. They laid out a town with one broad street, and another crossing it, and marked out house-lots according to the size of each family. They built also a platform on the hill, upon which they mounted some guns. 13. The village was enclosed by palings, with gates at the ends of the streets. Outside of the village were fields to be cultivated. All the families were to have right in common to woodland and pasture-land. All their earn ings were to go into one common stock, to be paid to the company of merchants which had sent out the Pilgrims. 14. While the Mayflower lay in Provincetown Harbor the Pilgrims signed a compact for government, for they supposed themselves in a region not held by any Eng lish company. By this compact they agreed to stand by one another, and to obey the laws which they might make for the rule of the colony. They elected officers, and the first governor was John Carver. 15. Not much government was required, for nearly all were of one mind. They were chiefly anxious to have among them those of the same faith ; for they had 76 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. braved the seas because they hoped in this new land to keep what they valued most, — their religion. 16. During the first winter some of the Pilgrims lived in the rude huts which they had built, and some re mained on board the Mayflower. Half of the company died before the winter was over. They buried the dead on a bluff by the water-side, and carefully removed all marks of burial. 17. They had seen a few Indians, who had shot at them with arrows, and they feared to let it be known how the little colony had been weakened. They divided the able-bodied men into military companies, who kept watch by turn over the little town. Their military leader was Captain Miles Standish. 18. They need not have feared the Indians. They learned afterward that great numbers of the natives had died from a pestilence the year before. In the spring a friendly Indian came, who showed them how to raise the native corn, and now they began to hunt and fish, and to send out parties to explore the country. 19.. Although they had suffered so much, not one went back to England when the Mayflower sailed in April. New companies were sent out from England to Plymouth and its neighborhood, but all were not of the same spirit as the Pilgrims. Since Plymouth proved to be in a part of the country held by the Plymouth Company, the col ony came under its control. 20. After three years they gave up the plan by which all the property was owned by the trading company. Each colonist received a part of the common land to own and cultivate. The woodland and pasture-land were still held, for the most part, for the benefit of the whole settlement. THE PURITAN MIGRATION. 77 CHAPTER XVIII. THE PURITAN MIGRATION. Presbyte'rian. Pres'by-ter is a Greek word, meaning " elder ; " the Presbyterians are so called because they hold that the church should be governed by elders chosen by the churches, and not, as in the Episcopal church, by bishops. " Episcopal " is from another Greek word, Efis'ko-pils, meaning " overseer " or " bishop." Char'ter. A charter differed from a patent. A patent gave rights to hold property or to trade. A charter gave, besides, certain rights of government. Dep'uty. A deputy acts in the place of the regular officer when that officer cannot be present. Civ'il lib'erty- Liberty of the citizen. Massachusetts. From the name of a tribe of Indians found there. 1. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the number of people in England who still acknowledged the Pope at Rome to be the head of the Church was greater than the number of those who adhered to the Church of England. But the Church of England was established by law; it was part of the government of the land, and therefore was much the stronger. 2. The difference between the two churches, in ce^e mony and doctrine, was not always very marked. In the Church of England itself there was a division of feeling : some persons leaned toward the ways of the Roman Catholics, and some agreed more nearly with the. Separatists. 3. The queen tried to compel a uniform practice; but as this practice seemed in some respects to favor the Roman Catholics, those who opposed the Roman Catholics grew more- earnest, and increased in number and influence. They were nicknamed Puritans, because they claimed to be seeking purer church ways ; but they were still members of the Church of England. 78 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 4. When King James I. came to the throne, after Elizabeth, the Puritans hoped that their party would rule ; for Tames had been King of Scotland, 1603. ' J s> > where the church was under Presbyterian and not under Episcopal government. The Presbyterians were in many ways like the Puritans. 5. The Puritans were disappointed ; for James, as soon as he became King of England, put himself at the head of the party which was most bitterly opposed to the Puritans. He claimed that he was the real owner of the soil of England and that there was no power above him but God. He ruled, it was said, by the divine right of kings. 6. On the other hand, parliament denied this right of the king. It said that he was not the owner of Eng land, but the chief officer of the country. His right to rule depended on the will of the nation. Many Puritans also, both in and out of parliament, believed that the congregation should rule in the church, and not bishops and priests. 7. Many people were uneasy at the state of affairs in England. Some began to consider if it would not be well to leave the country, and thus get rid of their dif ficulties. Others foresaw grave troubles between king and parliament, and feared that in the coming conflict true liberty might be lost. 8. A Puritan minister living at Dorchester, near Ply mouth, England, — the Rev. John White, — was inter ested in the Pilgrims ; and he planned a settlement at Cape Ann, in Massachusetts Bay. He wished to make a home in America for the many Dorchester fishermen who crossed the Atlantic. 9. Mr. White's plans were taken up by some London THE PURITAN MIGRATION. 79 merchants, who formed a corporation under the title of " The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England." They obtained a charter from King Charles I., who had succeeded his father, King James I., and they made John Endicott governor of the colony at Salem. 10. The charter gave power to the members of the company to choose annually, from their own number, a governor, deputy-governor, and eighteen assistants. They could make laws for the government of the terri tory which they owned, but these laws must not oppose the laws of England. The territory given them was described as extending from the Atlantic to the Western Ocean, and from three miles above the Merrimac River to three miles below the Charles and their branches. 11. There was nothing novel in such a charter. Other companies had been formed before, and had received similar charters. But just at this time events were hap pening in England which made this particular trading company one of very great consequence to America. 12. King Charles had dissolved parliament. He meant to rule in his own name, and most of the bishops of the church were on his side. The Puritans were greatly alarmed. They thought that there would be no civil liberty in England when the king ruled without consulting parliament. They feared that the bishops would lead the people back to the Church of Rome. 13. A great many wished to escape from England, and they began to think of the country beyond the seas as a place of refuge. The old England was going to ruin ; they would set up a new England there. The members of the Massachusetts Bay Company were Pu ritans, and here was the opportunity for escape. -\ ^%ape hiz, THE NEW ENGLAND COAST SCALE OF MILES yJ%y^^my:y: « « r> r-w...?,v, .' lte r^> V* :4%£ , twit , *. CAPE COD BA Y THE COLONY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 8l 14. So the company was suddenly enlarged. Many English gentlemen of education and rank sold their property in England and joined the company. They determined to go over to America, carry the charter with them, and take possession themselves of the ter ritory belonging to the company. 15. This was a bold step. Before, the company in England had sent out colonists, and had managed the affairs of the colony in London. The king and his court were close at hand to interfere. Now, the company would itself be in America, at a distance from the king, and managing its own affairs on the spot. 16. This action was of the greatest consequence in the history of both England and America. In the spring of 1630 not far from a thousand persons left England and sailed for the shores of Massachusetts Bay. They were well supplied with means to make a settlement. They carried with them the king's charter, and so undertook to govern themselves in the name of the king. CHAPTER XIX. THE COLONY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Harvard University, at Cam bridge, Massachusetts, takes its name from John Harvard, a min ister of Charlestown, who left his library and half of his property to the college, which had been founded two years before his death. G-roton (Graw'ton). Suffolk (SuffXk) = South Folk. j.. THE settlers at Salem advised the Puritan colonists who joined them that there were better places for the chief settlement. Charlestown was first chosen; then 6 82 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. the most crossed the Charles River to a peninsula. It could be easily defended ; it had good springs of water, and before it lay a wide harbor. — 2. Since many of the colonists came from Boston in England, that name was given to the place. Others who came from Dorchester in England gave that name to a place near by. The English very often gave the names of their old homes to new settlements in America, just as in Western States to-day we find names of towns copied from those in the East from which their first settlers came. 3. The peninsula of Boston was then connected with the mainland by a narrow neck over which the sea washed at times. This peninsula was uneven in surface, having high hills and marshy hollows, and was bare of wood. No Indians lived upon it, and there were very few signs of any Indians in the neighborhood. Three or four Englishmen only had made clearings about the lower Bay. 4. The people who took possession of this territory had come to stay, and did not mean to be dependent upon England. All, from the governor down, applied themselves to some useful occupation. They began at once to cultivate the land, both on the peninsula and in the farms which they laid out in the surrounding country. 5. They had brought with them from England seeds and fruits, which they planted. They found in the woods and fields many herbs and berries which they had never seen before. They shot and trapped game, and found the river and bay well stocked with fish. 6. They brought with them such clothing and house hold stuff as they needed ; but very soon they began to THE COLONY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 83 spin and weave, and to make leather from the skins of beasts which they killed. This was chiefly for the plainer people. There was a marked distinction in dress, according to the rank of the wearer. The people kept the same distinction that existed in England. 7. The mechanic arts were well represented in the colony. There were carpenters to build houses ; brick layers for cellars and chimneys ; thatchers to work on roofs ; wheelwrights and blacksmiths to make carts and tools ; millers to grind corn ; chandlers to make candles ; and tailors, shoemakers, and tanners. 8. Since the colony was by the water side, the busi ness of fishing early became important. Within a year ship-building began. The governor built a bark of thirty tons burden, called the Blessing of the Bay. Soon a fleet of vessels, large and small, built in the colony, were sailing out of Boston and Salem harbors, and smaller ports, to New Amsterdam, to Virginia and Bermuda, and across the ocean to England. 9. While this bustling life was adding strength and wealth to the colony, the people were showing in other ways that they meant to establish a State. They set up schools for their children, and they laid the foundation of a college, which has grown into the great and prosperous Harvard University. 10. In England the Puritans had tried to strip the church of all forms and ceremonies which seemed to them to ma"ke it like the Church of Rome. Thus it was easy for them, when they came to America and were left to themselves, to carry out their ideas. They formed churches upon the plan of a mutual covenant or agreement, and chose their own pastors and teachers. 11. The Puritans in England had also been unwKiing 84 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. that the king should have the power to rule the people without giving them a voice in the government. In Massachusetts they meant to manage their own affairs ; and they agreed that none should vote but those who were members of the churches which they formed. 12. Their first governor had been chosen in England before the fleet sailed. He was John Winthrop, a gentle man from Groton, in Suffolk County, a part of England where there were many Puritans. At first all the voters met in Boston in the meeting-house. There they made laws and chose of ficers. 13. As the num ber of inhabitants in the colony in creased, and towns were established at distances from one Governor John winthrop. another, it became impossible for all the voters to meet together. But it was desirable that each town should have its affairs considered by the whole colony. Thus it came about that the voters in each town chose persons to represent them at a general court of the whole colony. 14 This General Court met in Boston, and made laws and settled the disputes which arose. Each town had its church. Only the members of the church voted; THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 85 and in the General Court the affairs of both church and town were settled. The Puritans seemed thus to be having things their own way in at least one place. 15. For ten years the colony grew rapidly. Within those years about twenty thousand persons crossed the Atlantic to New England. It was the first great migra tion of Englishmen, and it was mainly a migration of Puritans. 16. They left England because the contest there between the king and parliament was growing more bitter. They came to New England because they saw in the new country a better land in which to live than England was to them. Here were churches without bishops and priests, and here was a government in which the people ruled themselves. CHAPTER XX. THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. Connecticut (Kon-net'i-cut). An Indian name, meaning the " long river." Gorges (Gor'jez). Saco (Satidco). Piscafaqua.Maine is said to derive its name from the use of the term to dis. tinguish the mainland from the islands on the coast. 1. The larger part of the people who came from Eng land in the great Puritan migration joined the colony of Massachusetts Bay. At the same time many found it more expedient to seek other parts of New England. Not only did new-comers thus try new places, but the older settlements began to send out companies. 2. Thus the Blessing of the Bay made a cruise in 86 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. Long Island Sound, and came back with reports of the Connecticut River. Some people of Plymouth, who heard of the richness of the river valley, made a settlement on its banks at what is now Windsor. The Dutch from New Amsterdam had already built a fort and trading-post six miles below, at the place where Hartford now stands. 3. Then a number of people from towns in the neigh borhood of Boston moved to the same river, with all their goods and cattle. A whole church with its minis ter went through the woods into the new country; and three towns were formed, — Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. In 1637 these towns united to form a general court for the government of the colony of Connecticut. 4. Meanwhile a patent had been given to two English noblemen, Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook. This patent gave them the land bordering upon the Connec ticut River; and in 1635 John Winthrop, son of the Governor of Massachusetts, came from England with a colony to take possession. He drove the Dutch away from the mouth of the river, where they had built a fort, and he planted there the town of Saybrook. 5. Another colony of English Puritans was established at New Haven. It bought its land from the Indians. Thus there were three colonies within the bor ders of what is now the State of Connecticut. Saybrook afterward became a part of the Connecticut Colony, which had its seat of government at Hartford. 6. Rhode Island was formed partly by colonists from Massachusetts Bay and partly by companies from Eng land. But the colonists from Massachusetts Bay did not go to Rhode Island of their own will. They differed from the rulers at Boston, and were compelled to find some THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 87 other home. They went to Narragansett Bay, which was claimed by the other colonies. 7. The Puritans had come to Massachusetts Bay to be free from the Church of England and to govern themselves. But they were not all of the same way of thinking; hence the leaders took alarm. They thought Roger Williams in Exile. the colony was in danger from those who differed from them; and they either banished them or made it too uncomfortable for them to stay. 8. A minister named Roger Williams said, for one thing, 88 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. that the magistrates ought not to declare what a man's religion should be. He asserted also that the Massa chusetts people had no title to their land. The magis trates said that Williams was a dangerous man, and they drove him out of the colony. 9. He went into the wilderness, where he was befriended by the Indians. At last, with five companions, he made his home at a place which he called Providence, because God had provided for him. In 1638 and the year following, settlements were made at Ports mouth and Newport on the island of Rhode Island, and other towns sprang up. 10. These various settlements sent Roger Williams to England to obtain a charter for the government. It was full of his ideas, and gave the people great freedom, es pecially in religious matters. The settlements were constantly troubled by the Massachusetts and Plymouth people in regard to boundaries, and Mas sachusetts tried to bring the colony under her rule. 11. Sir Ferdinando Gorges, a man of great ambition, who had dreams of founding a great kingdom in Amer ica, obtained a grant of land in New England. He began settlements at Portsmouth and Dover, and in 1623 joined with him Captain John Mason. Seven years later, Saco and Biddeford were founded. 12. Immediately after this, Gorges and Mason divided their claims. Gorges took the country to the east of the Piscataqua River. Mason took the remainder of the grant and named it New Hampshire, because at the time he was governor of the county of Hampshire in England. 13. Mason died, and the settlements in New Hamp shire were left to themselves. Other people came from Massachusetts, and for a while the towns were under THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. 89 the rule of that colony. The little fishing villages in Maine were also left much to themselves, for Gorges never came over to look after his estate. 14. These scattered settlements stretched along the extent of what was known as New England. Except in the immediate neighborhood of Boston there were no roads. Only trails extended through the woods from one point to another; or, the people made their way along the coast in small vessels. 15. The land which they occupied had been granted to one company after another, and sometimes to single persons. There were constant disputes about the own ership ; but there were very few who did not believe that all the land belonged to England, by right of discovery and settlement. Once in a while a colony or a single person would buy land of the Indians. CHAPTER XXI. THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. Sa'chem, A chief. [ Chick'a-saw. 1. When the Spanish, the French, and the English began to take possession of the continent of North America, they found people already living here. They called them Indians. Where did the Indians come from? Did they live in cities? Did they all speak the same language? 2. We do not know how this continent was first peo pled. In various parts of the West, especially in the Ohio valley, are great mounds of earth. These mounds were sometimes burial-places. Sometimes they show 90 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. that they were sites of villages, and must have been built long before the first Europeans saw them. 3. In digging into these mounds, many relics have been found, — pieces of pottery, ornaments, and carved images, wholly different from anything used by Indians who lived in the neighborhood at the time of the first discovery of the country. Some think that an ancient people more civilized than the Indians — more like the Mexicans, in fact — once lived there. 4. The Indians whom the French and the English saw were copper-colored, had high cheek bones, straight black hair, and small black eyes. They lived upon the fruit they found, the roots they dug, the fish they caught, the animals they killed, and some lived upon maize or Indian corn which they planted. 5. They had bows and arrows for use in hunting. The arrows had flint heads, and they made hatchets out of flint. They cooked their food by roasting it over a fire, or stewing it in unglazed earthenware pots. But since these pots would have been cracked in a fire, they heated the water by putting in red-hot stones. 6. They wore as little clothing as they could in warm weather, and when winter came, they dressed themselves in skins from the animals which they killed. " On great occasions they used ornaments of claws and feathers; When they went to war, they smeared themselves with colored clay. 7. Their houses were made by driving poles into the ground in a circle and drawing their tops together. Then they covered the poles with bark or skins, and the wigwam, as it was called, was finished. Inside, there was a hole in the ground for a fire ; and the family slept on skins or bushes. THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. 91 Various Scenes in Indian Life. 8. The women, who were called squaws, did the work not only of cooking, but of planting the corn and gath ering it, of dressing the skins, and of making the wigwams 92 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. They bore the burdens when moving from one place to another. Until Europeans came, there were no horses in the country. 9. As the game upon which they depended moved about the country, so the Indians roved in search of it. They made canoes from the bark of trees, and paddled along the rivers and lakes. By looking at a map which has no State lines upon it, one can see what a net-work of water-ways covers the country now occupied by the United States.1 10. Living thus out of doors, the Indians learned the ways of bird and beast. They became swift of foot, quick of eye, cunning, and ready. They learned to endure hardships; to go a long while without food. They could find their way through the woods by signs which white people never saw. 11. They had names for all the places which they visited. Every waterfall, river, lake, mountain, valley, and cape was named by them, and very many of these names were taken up by white settlers and remain to this day. Some of the names of our States are Indian names. 12. A number of Indians living together and hunting together formed a tribe, and these tribes had their own names. Each tribe had a sachem, who was chief; and the right to be chief often continued in the same family. , But if a sachem lost the respect of the tribe, the war riors would choose another, who was usually one of his relatives. 13. There were three principal groups of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi. In the north the most powerful were those which went by the name of the Iroquois. 1 See map preceding title-page. THE INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. 93 The English called them at first the Five and afterward the Six Nations, because they were made up of distinct tribes, at first five, afterward six, banded together in a league, with laws and government. 14. The Iroquois were found in the region south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and on the peninsula east of Lake Huron. The Algonquins, the other great norttv ern group, covered nearly all the rest of the country east of the Mississippi and north of what is now North Carolina. In the south were the Mobilians, comprising Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. 15. These various groups had each its own language and customs. War was constantly carried on between the Iroquois and the Algonquins. They did not meet each other in the open field. The Indian mode of wa>- fare was to steal through the woods and come suddenly at night upon a camp of the enemy. 16. While the tribes differed from one another, ah the Indians were in some points alike. They were brave, but they were also treacherous. They never forgave an injury. They could bear hunger and torture in silence, but they were cruel in the treatment of their captives. They were a silent race, but often in their councils some of their number would be very eloquent. 17. They had many legends about the world in which they lived, and they believed in spirits who lived around them in the water and the air. In each tribe there were " medicine men," so called, who were regarded as ma gicians. The brave Indian believed that after death he would go to the Happy Hunting Grounds. 18. It is not possible to say how many Indians there were when Europeans first came to this continent. It is supposed that, through wars with one another and 94 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. with the whites, the race has been fast disappearing; but it is known that during the past twenty years the number has increased. 19. These people believed that this country, where they hunted, and fished, and planted corn, belonged to them. They knew nothing of kings and parliaments and companies across the great sea, who were parcelling out this land as if no one else had any right to it. But at first they welcomed the strange white men who came among them. CHAPTER XXII. THE ENGLISH AND THE INDIANS. Pal'isade. A high paling or fence, usually with sharp pickets. Stockade'. An enclosure of build ings by a palisade. Tom'ahawk. An Indian hatchet, at first made of stone, afterward of iron. Pequot (Peelkwot). 1. As the colonies increased in number, and sent out their members farther and farther into the wilderness, the Indian saw that the land over which he had freely roamed was closing against him. He saw that it was impossible to live by hunting where the white man was tilling the soil. 2. The English showed little wisdom in their treat ment of the Indians. They disliked them for their degraded ways. They could not understand them, and tried to make them obey laws which it was impossible for an Indian to understand. They thought they might make servants of the Indians ; but to do this was like taming wild animals. THE ENGLISH AND THE INDIANS. 95 3 The Puritans, indeed, regarded the Indians as heathen. Many treated them harshly, and wished them out of the way. A few sought to make Christians of them; and one holy man in particular, the Rev. John Eliot, was so faithful in his efforts for them that he came to be known as the Apostle to the Indians. 4. -He. wished to separate those who became Christians from their old associates, and to have them live in vil lages by themselves. Such were called Praying Indians, and Eliot translated into their language the Bible and various religious books and primers. A hall for Indians, eyen, was built, in connection with Harvard College. •5. There were few Indians, however, who would give up their wild ways. The rest hovered about the Eng lish settlements, or re treated into the woods and talked over schemes for ridding the country of the new-comers. Both in New England "and in New Netherland the whites and the Indians began to irritate each other more and more. A Stockade. 96 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 6. Those settlers who lived outside of Boston and the few seaport villages built palisades about their houses and farm buildings. Sometimes they made the houses themselves into rude forts, in which they could defend themselves in case of need. All the towns and villages had train-bands, — companies of men ready to march at a moment's notice. 7. In any fight with the Indians the whites at first had the advantage of fire-arms ; but the Indians soon learned the use of these. The English forbade the sale of arms to the Indians, but the Dutch traders sold them freely. The Indians, however, depended chiefly upon their tomahawks when they suddenly appeared from the woods and attacked farms and villages. 8. The first severe war with the Indians began in 1636, and is known as the Pequot War. The Pequots were a fierce tribe living in the eastern part of what is now Connecticut. They did not much mind the Dutch, who came only to trade ; but they saw with alarm the English villages on the banks of the Connecticut River. 9. The murder of two white men by the Pequots was followed by an attack upon the Indians of the same tribe living on Block Island, off the coast of Rhode Island. The English killed many, destroyed their wigwams and food, and left a number to starve. The Indians on the mainland at once made general war on the English. 10. The Connecticut Colony was the most exposed, and suffered most. Soldiers were sent from Massachu setts; but the man who did most for the English was Roger Williams. He used his friendship with the Narra gansett Indians to keep them from joining the Pequots ; and he went among the Pequots themselves, at the risk of his life, to persuade them to keep the peace. THE ENGLISH AND THE INDIANS. 97 11. The English showed little mercy. With the help of the Narragansetts they almost utterly destroyed the Pequot tribe. The punishment was so severe that it was many years before another Indian war broke out. But the Indian hate was deepened. 12. The first effect of the Pequot War upon the New England colonies was to cause them to seek a closer union. In the peril, each had helped the other. Now Rhode Island proposed that the colonies should unite as a safeguard against Indian attacks. It urged also that justice should be shown to the Indian. 13. Connecticut and New Haven were especially anx ious to have such a league, because they were most exposed to danger from the Dutch and the Indians. They were willing to admit Rhode Island ; but Massa chusetts would not consent to that, — she would not admit into such a league people whom she had driven out from her borders. 14. The- league, finally, was formed in 1643. It was called the United Colonies of New England, and embraced Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut. It was not proposed to unite these colo nies under one government. Each was to continue in dependent ; but they formed the league for mutual advice and aid. 15. Each colony was to appoint two commissioners. These commissioners were to meet from time to time in different towns, and consult together about those things which concerned all the colonies. Their special busi ness was to make plans for defence in case any part of New England should be attacked by an enemy 98 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER XXIII. ENGLAND AND NEW ENGLAND. Com'monwealth. The name by which England was called when under the rule of parliament and Cromwell. The name remains in America in the Common wealths of Massachusetts, Penn sylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky. Stuyvesant (Sti've-zant). 1642. 1. One of the reasons which the people of New Eng-, land gave for forming a closer union among themselves was the condition of England itself. That country was " distracted," and the colonies in New England declared that they must trust more to themselves and less to the mother-country. 2. The conflict between the king and parliament had become open war, and with the war emigration to Amer ica ceased. There was so much excitement in England, and the Puritan party was coming to have so much power, that few wished to go to the new land. 3. The Puritans in England Watched with great in terest the fortunes of their friends across the water. They saw colonies there governing themselves, and churches prospering without bishop or priest. They saw the New England people making laws much simpler and juster than those of England, and they asked why all this could not be done at home. 4. The Puritans in New England were constantly sending back letters to England, and going thither to consult their countrymen. They had not lost their love of England, and they felt it all the more when England •seemed likely to adopt the ways of government and the church forms of New England. ENGLAND AND NEW ENGLAND. 99 5. The war between the king and parliament contin ued for seven years, when King Charles I. was tried and executed. England was now declared to be 1649 a Commonwealth. The people were to rule through their representatives in parliament, and Oliver Cromwell became chief magistrate, with the title of Lord Protector. 6. Although this success of the Puritans in England was welcome to their friends in New England, great care was taken by the colonies not to join either party openly. They had been really governing themselves, -and they wished to keep clear of the control of England, whether that control was exercised by the king or by parliament. 7. The charter by which the Massachusetts people claimed the right to govern themselves had come from the king. He never meant that they should move the whole government to America; and as soon as he saw what had been done, he tried to recall the charter and to bring the colony more directly under his power. 8. It was a long voyage across the Atlantic. When letters came from the king, the Massachusetts magis trates took a long time to consider them and answer them. They did not openly oppose the king's will, but they made excuses and delayed. The king, besides, was in such difficulty at home that he could not attend to Massachusetts as fully as he wished. 9. When the king was put to death, parliament ap pointed a commission which was to have the same authority over all the colonies in America that the king had claimed to have. But the colonies took just as much care not to give up their right of self-government to parliament. IOO THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 10. The laws which parliament made fot the regu lation of trade were of great importance to America. The first of a series of acts, called the Naviga tion Acts, was now passed. It declared that no goods should be carried to the colonies or brought from them except in English ships. 11. This act was followed by others forbidding the colonies to send their products to any ports except such as belonged to England. These laws were intended to increase the shipping and benefit the merchants of Eng land. The colonies were treated as if they existed only to make England rich. 12. One effect of these laws was to make ill-feeling between England and other commercial coun tries of Europe. Holland was the great rival of England, and war broke out between the two countries, which ended in breaking down Holland. Eng land also went to war with Spain, and took from her the island of Jamaica, which she still holds. 13. The Puritan Commonwealth of England did not last after Cromwell's death. The monarchy was restored, and King Charles II. came to the throne. The 1660. Navigation Act, however, and other laws which Cromwell's parliament had made, continued to be the law of the land ; and the country sought to get rich through its colonies. 14. There had always been a dispute as to the first discovery of the coast of New Netherland. The king took advantage of this dispute to set up his claim ; and he made a formal deed of all the country between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers to his brother, the Duke of York. 15. The New England colonies were well pleased at THE LOSS OF THE CHARTERS. IOI this. They had been crowding the Dutch out of Connecticut, and had been claiming one piece of land after another. They were quite ready, therefore, to take sides with the king when he sent an English fleet across the Atlantic and took possession of New Netherland. 16. The Dutch were in no position to resist. The governor, Peter Stuyvesant, a brave man, urged his countrymen to stand by him and attack the fleet; but it was a hopeless endeavor. The English set up the king's standard, changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York, and that of Fort Orange to Albany. 17. This act, and others similar to it on the coast of Africa, led to another war with Holland. Dur- 1673. ing the war New York for a short time was 167i again under Dutch rule. But at the end of the war New Netherland was ceded to England. CHAPTER XXIV. THE LOSS OF THE CHARTERS. Commis'sioners. Persons sent out by a government with power to act for it. Rev'enue. The money received from taxes and custom-house dues. 1. THE fleet which took possession of New Nether land brought over four commissioners from the king. They came empowered to inquire into the state of af fairs in New England. They were to hear complaints against the government, to settle disputes between the 102 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. colonies, and by all means to increase the king's authority. 2. They effected a union of the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut. They secured from Plymouth a renewal of allegiance to the king. They settled the disputes in Rhode Island, and united all the 1665. r plantations into one province. But in Massa chusetts they failed of their chief object, which was to make the king's authority take the place of the charter. 3. The commissioners returned to England with their work only half done. Massachusetts still kept her char ter. But as this and the other colonies increased in wealth and numbers, they ceased to" be all of one way of thinking. There was now in New England, as in England, a party for and a party against the king. 4. In the midst of prosperity a sudden and terrible blow fell. An Indian chieftain, named Philip, who was much above the common Indians in character and power of mind, brooded over the wrongs which his race had. suffered from the strangers. He formed the purpose of uniting all the Indians into one body and sweeping the English from the country. 5. His plans were laid with great skill. Never before had the various tribes been brought so completely under the control of one man. The Indians fell upon the set tlements lying about Plymouth, and upon those in the valley of the Connecticut. For more than a year the war raged, carrying desolation through the country. 6. Almost every man who could handle a musket took part in the war, which came to an end when 16Y6 Philip was killed near Mt. Hope, R. I. The popu lation of Massachusetts at the time was about twenty-five THE LOSS OF THE CHARTERS. 103 thousand, and it was estimated that a tenth of the fighting men of the colony had been killed. 7. This war, called King Philip's War, was the last conflict with the Indians in the settled parts of New England. The tribes were broken up. Many Indians were miserably sold into slavery in the West Indies; others fled farther west. The Praying Indians had saved the lives of many of the people. 8. While the war lasted, the colonies were bound together by the common peril. When the war was over, each colony found itself weak, through loss of men and money. The confederation had gradually failed in authority, and in each colony there were divisions and parties. 9. Every year it became more difficult to keep un broken the early Puritan plan of a religious State. In Massachusetts the government was obliged to yield to the king's de mand, and give men who were not members of the church a right to vote. Complaint was made to the king that Massachusetts was coining money, — the right to do which be longed to the king only. » , , , . , . Fine-Tree Shilling. 10. At last the king lost patience-, the courts declared the charter of Massachusetts void. Henceforth the king would rule the colony 1684. himself, through a council and president whom he would appoint. There was to be no General Court. The people were to have no voice in the government. 11. It was the act of Charles II. ; but just as it was announced, he died, and left the throne to his brother, James H This king now held all the northern colonies 104 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. as a part of the possession of the crown. He claimed all the land as his ; he was to make all the laws and lay all the taxes, without asking any one's consent. 12. Accordingly, he sent over Sir Edmund Andros to be governor of the Province of New England and New York. All the separate charters were to be revoked. The separate colonial governments were to be abolished where they interfered with the authority of Andros. 13. A murmur arose throughout the country. For more than fifty years the people had been governing themselves ; now they were bidden to give up this right. The new governor named persons in each col ony who were to assist him in the government. They were men of the king's party. The people, used to obeying the law, made no active resistance. The Charter Oak. 14. m Hartford the colonial government met to de liver up the charter. It was evening, and the charter lay on the table. Suddenly the candles were blown out THE LOSS OF THE CHARTERS. IO5 When they were relighted, the charter had disappeared. One of the members had carried it off; and the story is that he hid it in the hollow trunk of an oak which long stood, and bore the name of the Charter Oak. 15. Sir Edmund Andros was using in New England the despotic power which his master, King James II., was using in England. But in neither country was lib erty dead. In England the king was driven from his throne. William and Mary ruled in his stead ; and parliament, which James had closed, again sat and made laws. 16. In New England rumors came of these changes. Before the overthrow of King James was positively known, the people of Boston rose, seized the r r 1689. king's officers, shut up the governor in a fort, and took possession of the government. Shortly after, the tidings came that William and Mary were king and queen of England. 17. The several colonies of New England again gov erned themselves. The governors of Massachusetts, and for a time those of New Hampshire, indeed, were appointed by the crown, and the officers of the reve nue were the king's officers. But the towns elected representatives to the different assemblies, and made their own laws, which were not to oppose the laws of England. 106 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER XXV. THE QUAKERS AND NEW JERSEY. Dissent'ers. The name applied in I separated from the Church of England to all who dissented or | England. 1. WHEN the Puritans were coming into power in England, a man named George Fox went about the country, preaching to the people. He interrupted the preacher in the pulpit and the magistrate on the bench. He rebuked them for their sins. He spoke like one of the ancient prophets, and was without fear of man. 2. He taught that there was no church except in the meeting together of friends, who spoke as each thought himself or herself moved by the spirit of God. Thus there would be no bishops, or priests, no taxes for their support, and no sacraments. The only law was to be the law of love in their hearts. 3. He taught, also, that there was no difference between men in rank ; and thus he would not take off his hat to another, — no, not if it were Cromwell him self, because that would be a sign that he was a ser vant of Cromwell. Neither would he call any man by a title. Other men might address Cromwell as " Your Highness ; " he would use the plain " Oliver." 4. In like manner he dressed himself with great plain ness. He would not, by his clothes, seem to be richer or greater than other men. Since each man was to do what was right, as God might tell him, it would be wrong to force any one to obey ; and that would make an end of all wars and armies and prisons. 5. These doctrines seemed to many like light let in THE QUAKERS AND NEW JERSEY. 107 pon the confusion of the time. They declared that Fox was right, and began to adopt his way of dress and speech. They called themselves Friends ; but others called them Quakers, because, in his preaching, Fox was wont to bid the people quake and tremble at the word of God. 6. There were many Friends, like Fox, of great goodness of life. Others were carried away by the excitement, and found it easier to rebuke other people for their sins than to lead blameless lives themselves. Such grew very violent in their conduct and preaching, and were sometimes called Ranters. 7. Neither the Church-of-England men nor the Dis senters could tolerate the Friends. If the Friends were right, they were all wrong ; and so they persecuted Fox and his associates, shutting them up in prison, or driving them from the country. When the Friends came to New England, the magistrates and ministers imprisoned them, beat them, drove them away, and even hanged some of them. 8. The more the Friends were persecuted, the more their number grew, and the more determined were they to bear witness to the truth. They never resisted the force which was used against them, and they constantly put themselves in the way of punishment. Wherever they believed the Lord sent them to preach their doctrines, thither they went fearlessly. 9. It was not poor and plain people alone who were Friends. Some were rich. Indeed, the very lives which the Friends led — lives of temperance and moderation and industry — kept them from being poor. Some even were of high rank; and among these he most notable was William Penn. 108 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 10. He was the son of an admiral in the English navy, and his early life was spent among noblemen and at court. But he became a convert to the doctrines of the Friends. He adopted their dress and ways, spoke in their meetings, and used his pen in their defence. Like Fox and others, he was fined and imprisoned. 11. He was, however, a rich man, for his father had died and left him a great estate. He had many friends at court and in places of power. Thus he was of more importance than most Quakers, and not so easily per secuted. He was, besides, very wise in his dealings with others, and, being very generous, he constantly befriended his poorer brethren. 12. An opportunity occurred by which he became interested in affairs in America. The Dutch from New Netherland had made a few settlements to the south ward. When the Duke of York took possession of their country, he gave this southern district to two English men, who named it New Jersey, since one of them had defended the island of Jersey, in the English Channel, in a recent war. 13. A number of people, both from New England and from England, settled there. Among them were some Quakers. Two of these, large land-owners, had a dispute, and agreed to lay the matter before William Penn. Penn settled the dispute, and when one of the parties got into debt, he bought out his rights, in com pany with other creditors. 14. The result of this purchase was that West New Jersey, or West Jersey, as it was commonly called, came into the hands of Penn and a few other influential Friends. In 1677 they began to send out colonies of Friends to occupy it. The colonists landed at New- THE QUAKERS AND NEW JERSEY. 109 William Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania. Born 1644; died 1718. castle on the Delaware, moved up the river, and made their first settlement at Burlington. -rs_-;J^-l^:_^rrW""tSK3l!2aBWJ»»*»V no THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 1682. 1688. 15. Five years later, when new difficulties arose, the West Jersey proprietors bought the territory of East Jersey. But when the King of England withdrew the charters from New England, and sent Sir Edmund Andros to be governor of New Eng land and New York, he took possession of New Jersey also. 16. In 1702 New Jersey and New York were formed into one province, under one governor, although each colony had its own assembly. This contin ued for thirty-six years, when New Jersey was separated from New York, and had its own governor. 1738. CHAPTER XXVI. WILLIAM PENN AND HIS COLONY. Del'aware. The river, and after ward the State, were named from Lord Delaware, in whose time the river and bay were explored. Schuylkill (Skool'ktt). A name given by the Dutch. Kill, which frequently is found in the ending of names in New York, as Cats- kill, means "creek." Schuyl finds its nearest English word in " skulk ; " and Schuylkill means thus " hidden creek." Lenni Lenape (Lenhie LSn-ah'pe) = original men. 1. When William Penn inherited his father's estate, he came into possession of a claim for a large sum of money which his father held against the crown. Penn proposed to the government that he should be paid, not in money, but in a grant of land in America. He intended to send there colonies of Friends. 2. The English colonies in America were all having WILLIAM PENN AND HIS COLONY. m difficulties with the Indians, and some members of the government looked with great contempt upon the pro posal to send out these non-resisting Quakers to face the savage Indians. But Penn pre vailed, and obtained a charter and a large tract of land. 3. This tract consisted of forty thousand square miles lying west of the Delaware for five degrees of longitude, and extending north and south for three degrees of lati tude. Penn wished to call it Sylvania, or Woodland ; but the king insisted on calling it Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn's father. 4. The owner of this vast farm at once set about his experiments in government. He invited the aid of all who were ready to work with him. He offered to sell portions of his land to families who should emigrate, and he advertised his purpose far and wide. He was known beyond the borders of England ; and, among others, a company of Germans bought a large tract. One of their first settlements was called Germantown. 5. The Friends in England could only preach their doctrines. Here they meant to put them all in practice. Penn declared that every peaceful citizen was to be free to come and go, to worship God as he thought right, and to have a part in making the laws. When a person was tried for an offence, he was to be tried by a jury ; and if the offender were an Indian, he was to have six of his race on the jury. 6. There was to be no punishment by death except for murder or treason. Lying was to be punished. As far as possible, disputes were to be settled by laying the matter before friends, and not by going into a court of justice. Penn meant himself to live there and manage his great property. He was to be governor, with the 112 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. right to appoint a deputy-governor. But the people were to choose delegates to an Assembly and Council. 7. The rights of Indians were to be respected; and they had, Penn said, rights to the land. King Charles had granted Pennsylvania to Penn. In return he was to give the king each year two beaver skins, and one fifth of all the gold and silver that was mined. But Penn declared that the savages who roamed over the country were the real owners of the land, and he meant to pay them also. 8. In 1 68 1 three vessels left England with emigrants who were the first to take advantage of Penn's offer. The next year, Penn himself sailed to his new estate in the ship Welcome. , One hundred Friends were with him, nearly all of whom were old neighbors. They sailed up the Delaware and landed at Newcastle, Oc tober 27, 1682. 9. There were already some Dutch and Swedes living upon the banks of the Delaware. The country which they occupied had been a part of the possession of the Duke of York. The king had included it within the grant made to Penn ; and the duke, to whom Penn's father had once done a great service, gave up his own rights. 10. Penn at once received these earlier settlers. He confirmed their titles to land and office, and adopted them into his colony. Then he went up the river to Upland, now Chester, and there held his first Assembly. He had expected to make this place the site of his chief town, but, going farther up the river, he found a more convenient spot. 11. There was a broad tongue of land lying between two rivers, the Delaware and the Schuylkill. Upon this WILLIAM PENN AND HIS COLONY. 1^3 plain Penn laid out Philadelphia in broad squares, shaded by trees, and ordered a house to be built for his own use. The town, as first laid out, extended from river to river, and was between what are now Vine and South Streets. 12. For two years Penn remained in the country, to look after his colony. His special business was to make friends with the Indians. A monument in Philadelphia marks the spot, called by the Indians Shackamaxon, where, under a spreading elm, Penn is said to have made a formal treaty with the Indians. 13. By this treaty he paid them for the land which he had taken, and made them presents. Neither Penn nor his companions carried any weapons, and the Indians laid aside their arms. It was a treaty of peace, and was honorably kept on both sides for sixty years. 14. The Indians of that region were the Delawares, or the Lenni Lenape, as they called themselves. They 114 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. had recently been conquered by the savage Iroquois, and were thus better disposed toward the new-comers. The Friends on their side, by their peaceful ways and honest dealings, were able to live in harmony with the red men. 15. The country about Philadelphia was exceedingly fertile. This fact, with the wise laws and liberal policy Philadelphia, 1682, with Penn's Honse. of Penn, made che colony very popular ; so that when Penn returned to England fifty townships had been settled, and Philadelphia had between three hundred and four hundred houses. 16. When Penn visited England he expected to set his affairs in order there and return to America 1684- r ¦ for the rest of his. life. But it was fifteen years before he could get away- He had enemies in England, THE OLD DOMINION. "5 1699. and he was kept busy looking out for the interests of his colony and defending persecuted Friends. 17. He had enemies also in Pennsylvania. The col ony was without a real head, and many disorders arose. The people were slow to pay what was due on their lands. But when Penn returned, he recovered the authority which his deputy had lost. He found it necessary, however, to lessen the authority of the governor and to increase that of the Assembly. 18. Penn went to England again shortly after, and .died there at last in trouble, having lost much 1701. property. But the colony grew and prospered. 1718" In 1703 the people occupying the district known as the Territories and comprising what is now known as Dela ware, separated from Pennsylvania, and had their own Assembly. The two colonies had, howeyer, the same governor. CHAPTER XXVII. THE OLD DOMINION. Indent'ed. Bound out to service. We speak of the indentures of an apprentice. Roy'alist. Attached to, and fol lowing the fortunes of, a king or royal family. 1619. l. When Virginia held its first Assembly, the colony was still under the government of the London Company for Virginia. That company vras composed largely of Englishmen who apposed the king. As they demanded a free parliai, ent for Eng land, so they insisted that Virginia sh uld have its regular Assembly. Il6 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 2. In the struggle which followed, the king took away the charter from the company, and after that he himself appointed the governor of Virginia. But since the colony still had its Assembly, it was better off than before. The company, when the colony was fairly established, was more likely to be a hindrance than a help. No body of men, however upright, could govern wisely a growing colony across the ocean. 3. Virginia was growing rapidly. The settlements were at first confined to the peninsula between the James and the York. Here the planters lived in comfort in roomy wooden houses, surrounded, for pro tection against the Indians, by palisades. Their chief business was to raise tobacco to send to London ; for this they employed indented servants and African slaves. 4. The indented servants were men and boys sent out from England by the company. They were bound out to the planters for a term of years to repay the expense of sending them In 1619 twenty African slaves were brought into the colony ; thirty years later, there were three hundred. 5. There were no large towns in Virginia. Each planter had his estate, and lived there as English gen tlemen lived in England. He had a warehouse in which he stored his tobacco, and a wharf to which once a year a ship came to be loaded. The ship carried tobacco to London, and brought back whatever the planter needed. 6. Not only was tobacco the staple product of the country, it served as currency in mercantile transac tions. The planters kept their accounts in it; salaries and taxes were paid with it. The chief value of Vir- THE OLD DOMINION. 117 ginia, in the eyes of England, was that she could furnish the mother-country with tobacco. 7. Unlike the people of New England, the planters of Virginia were mostly Church-of-England men, and partisans of the king. When Charles I. was executed, great numbers of his friends came over to Virginia and began life again there. Yet there were many also in the colony who sympathized with Cromwell and the Commonwealth ; some of these had come to Virginia from New England. 8. Living as these Englishmen did, each on his sepa rate estate, with servants and slaves, and having their own Assembly, they governed themselves, and were very jealous of their rights. But they were so loyal to the king that when Charles I. was executed, they declared it was treason to question the right of Charles II. to the throne. 9. Parliament therefore sent a force to subdue the colony. There were some who favored resistance ; but wiser counsels prevailed, and the colony was governed by the Puritans so long as England was a Common wealth. The royalist party, however, was strong, and it was even proposed at one time to set up there the ban ner of King Charles II., before England recalled him. 10. The formal name of Virginia was the Colony and Dominion of Virginia. When England called itself a Commonwealth, the royalists in Virginia spoke proudly and affectionately of their country as the Old Dominion of the king. There was great rejoicing among them when Charles II. was crowned, and Vir ginia came again under a royalist governor, Sir William Berkeley. 11. For a time the king's party had things very much Il8 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. their own way. The Assembly, instead of being re elected every two years, continued to sit without change. The same persons held office and controlled the colony. They came to regard the offices as belonging to them, and used them as a means of getting rich. 12. The laws which England made to regulate trade with Virginia were very severe upon the planters. Every ship laden with tobacco had to pay a heavy duty before it left Virginia, and another when it reached England. By the Navigation Act the planter could send his to bacco to none but English ports. 13. When the people had borne these evils until they seemed intolerable, a new danger arose. The Indians on the Potomac River were drawn into a quarrel with the English. What at first was a petty dispute became rapidly a general outbreak. The In dians invaded the settlements, and killed more than three hundred of the settlers. 14. Twice before there had been serious trouble with the Indians, but for thirty years there had been peace. This outbreak on the frontier might have left little mark on the colony if it had not been for the general state of affairs. The people, already discontented with Sir Wil liam Berkeley and his associates, found fresh cause for complaint ; they said that the government did not protect them. 15. A young planter, Nathaniel Bacon, demanded a commission to raise troops against the Indians. The governor refused to give it, and Bacon put himself at the head of a company without the governor's consent. A great number of planters joined him, not so much to fight the Indians as to demand that their wrongs should be redressed. THE OLD DOMINION. 1 19 16. Bacon's support was so powerful that the governor was forced to yield. He promised to relieve the colony of some of its burdens, and he gave Bacon a commis sion. But no sooner had Bacon gone off to fight the Indians than Berkeley proclaimed him and his friends traitors and rebels, and took the field against him. 17. For a summer Virginia was engaged in civil war, with Berkeley, representing the king, at the head of one party, and Bacon, representing the people, at the head of the other. There was some fighting, and Jamestown was burned. But the death of Bacon deprived- the opposition of their leader, and the rebellion faded out. 18. The governor, meanwhile, had sent to England for troops, and when they arrived he used his power cruelly. The Assembly at last insisted that he should cease trying and executing Bacon's men. The rebellion had apparently accomplished nothing, but it showed the temper of the Virginia people. 19. In spite of the severity of the English laws, Vir ginia steadily grew stronger and richer. The plantations spread farther into the interior. Each planter was like a governor upon his own plantation ; and the habit of ruling servants and slaves made him resolute and inde pendent. All the planters together formed a class like the nobles in other countries. 20. Thus in the Assembly the planters often found themselves upon one side, and the governor and king's officers on the other. The planters learned more and more to act together, and to resist whatever threatened to injure their prosperity or lessen their rights. 120 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER XXVIII. MARYLAND. Cal'vert. Cecil (Sess'il). Leonard (LUn'ard). l. At the time when the Puritans were flocking to Massachusetts Bay to escape from evils in England, England was scarcely a more comfortable place for Roman Catholics, who were feared by some and hated by others. One of their number, George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, determined to plant a colony in America which should serve as a refuge for his brethren. 2. He tried Newfoundland, but found the country bleak, and sailed farther south, to Virginia. The Assem bly was sitting at Jamestown when he arrived, but it did not welcome him ; for in Virginia, as in England, Puritans and Roman Catholics were equally disliked. He sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and was so delighted with the country that he resolved to plant his colony there. 3. King Charles I. granted him and his heirs a charter, in 1632, with authority to occupy what is now Maryland and part of Delaware. The name " Maryland " was in honor of the Queen of England. He was to rule there much as the king ruled in England, with an assembly like parliament. The laws were to agree with the laws of England, and nothing was to be done offensive to the Church of England. 4. George Calvert died while the charter was in the king's hands ; but his son Cecil succeeded him, and car ried out his plans. In the autumn of 1633 Cecil sent out, under his brother Leonard, the first company, of MARYLAND. 121 about three hundred people, who made a settlement, called St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac River. 5. The Calverts were wise and far-sighted men. They wished to have a prosperous and peaceful col ony, and they knew this could not be if they favored one re ligious party above another. They sent out both Protestants and Roman Catho lics, and they caused laws to be passed forbidding persecu tion for religious faith. Quakers, even, were to have all the rights of other Eng lishmen. 6. In this way only could the rul ing family hope to protect people of their own faith. The colony con tained many who sustained the Calverts in this policy, and the governor was careful not to offend the ruling powers in England. When Crom well was in power, Lord Baltimore appointed a Puritan governor, William Stone. 7. It was not all harmony. From the first there were troubles with Virginia about the boundaries of the two colonies, and the dispute was heightened by relig ious quarrels. The isle of Kent, in Chesapeake Bay, was the occasion of much of the trouble. It lay within Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore. 1649. 122 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. the borders of Maryland, according to the charter; but it was occupied by Virginians as a trading-post. 8. William Clayborne, the chief trader, denied Cal vert's claim, and for more than ten years there was a struggle for possession. Clayborne was the leader of the Puritans, and used the enmity between them and the Church of England and the Roman Catholics to secure control of Maryland. 9. He did at one time succeed in driving Leonard Calvert out of the country into Virginia, and in 1645. getting possession of the government. It was only when Charles II. came to the throne that these quarrels ceased, and the Calvert family recov- 1660. . . , ered their authority. But whenever they were at the head, there was toleration for all forms of religion. 10. The Calverts continued to hold proprietorship, except for the period from 1691 to 1715, when the col ony was a royal province. The long rule of the family was due to the interest which it felt in the affairs of the people, the care it took not to quarrel with the people, and its residence in the country. 11. The mode of life in Maryland was similar to that in Virginia. There were large plantations upon which tobacco was grown. Whatever the planter needed, be yond food and shelter, was brought from England. But after the beginning of 1700 the people began also to raise wheat, like their Northern neighbors. 12. The country back of the sea-coast was more suited to grain than to tobacco, and tobacco impoverished the soil very fast. Then the Susquehanna River offered a natural water-way from Pennsylvania; so commerce sprang up. There was a greater variety of occupations and trades, and towns began to be formed. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. 123 13. Providence was the name of a settlement which was the centre of the Puritan population. Afterward, when Maryland was under royal government, the name was changed to Annapolis and the place made the capital. In 1729 Baltimore was founded, and speedily became one of the most important towns in the country. 14. The boundaries of Maryland were long a matter of dispute. The Dutch and Swedes had upon the Delaware River settlements which belonged to Maryland, by the charter given to Calvert. When the Dutch lost New Netherland, they lost also this part of their territory. 15. Then Penn claimed the same portion under his charter, and afterward Delaware was set off as a sepa rate colony. It was not till 1760 that the boundary dis pute between Maryland and Pennsylvania was settled, and a careful survey begun. The northern boundary line of Maryland has ever since been knov/n, from its surveyors, as Mason and Dixon's Line. CHAPTER XXIX. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. Barbadoes (Bar-bS doz). | Whitefield ( Whtt'field). Prederica (Fred-e-ree'ka). l. To the south of Virginia lay a country which ex tended to the Spanish settlements in Florida. Now and then an adventurous Virginian planter pushed his way southward and settled on the shores of Albemarle Sound. The Virginia Assembly made grants of land 124 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA.- there to emigrants ; they did not pay much attention to the fact that Charles I. had already given away 1643-1653. . „ ,. , , . the country to some English noblemen. 2. These noblemen had done nothing for the territory except to name it Carolina, after the king. Some New England men had settled on the Cape Fear 1660, 1661. _. . , , , , , . , , River, but had become discouraged and gone away, leaving the clearing to some people from the Bar badoes Islands. When Charles II. came to the 1663. , throne he made a fresh grant of the country to certain gentlemen of his court. 3. The Proprietors, as they were called, appointed a governor and called an Assembly. They encouraged emigration ; and the two colonies, the Albemarle and Cape Fear, became the chief centres of population. For the most part, a scattered population cultivated small farms in a rude way. The people were sturdy and independent. 4. In the southern part of Carolina the Proprietors wished to gather the settlers about some chief town. After ten years of experimenting, they fixed upon the site of the present city of Charleston. The 1680. , , , , , planters who had estates on the sea-coast or in the back country made their home in Charleston, and left their estates in charge of overseers. 5. In the immediate neighborhood there were also plantations where the planters themselves lived, while the huts of their slaves formed villages about the great houses. Thus in Charleston and its neighborhood there was a rich class, enjoying one another's society and having abundant leisure. Half of the population of Charleston was made up of slaves, who performed all the manual labor. They were the mechanics also. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. 125 6. The chief product of the colony was rice ; but it was not sent direct from each plantation to England, as was the case with tobacco in Virginia. The rice was sold to merchants in Charleston, who shipped it and brought back English goods and luxuries, which they sold in turn to the planters. Old Charleston. 7. The nearness of the Spanish possessions led to many conflicts. Pirates, too, infested the coast, making use of the harbors and inlets. There were frequent wars with the Indians ; and many of the captives, especially in the early years of the colony, were sold into slavery. 8. The troubles with Spaniards and with pirates led the English government to interfere with the govern ment conducted by the Proprietors. The crown bought the rights of the Proprietors, and divided Carolina into two provinces, North Carolina and South Carolina, in 1729. After this the governor of each province was appointed by the king, while each had its assembly chosen by the people. 126 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 9. Early in the history of South Carolina, French Hu guenots, driven from their own country, formed settle ments in the colony. At first the English distrusted them, and refused to give them the rights they them selves enjoyed. Afterward the colony was more liberal. It invited men of all religious faiths ; and many Germans came, as well as men from Scotland and the north of Ireland. These last settled also in North Carolina. 10. The difficulties which South Carolina had with the Spaniards in Florida were lessened when the coun try between began to be settled. When the Carolinas became provinces of the king, this country was not in cluded in South Carolina. It was named Georgia from George II., who was King of England at the time. 11. It was in his reign that the first settlement of Georgia was made. James Oglethorpe, a humane Eng lishman, was distressed by the miserable condition of many of his countrymen. He pitied especially those who were oppressed by the harsh laws against debtors ; and he determined to make a colony in America, where they could begin life anew. 12. He formed an association which was to be gov erned by a Board of Trustees, and obtained from the king a charter, which gave them possession of Georgia for twenty-one years. He selected the best colonists he could find, and sailed for Charleston. Thence 1733 he carried his company to the Savannah River, and laid the foundations of the city of Savannah. 13. He returned to England for more colonists ; and with him, when he came back, were Charles Wesley, who was his secretary, and John Wesley, who came as mis sionary to the Indians. Afterward George Whitefield came for a time. These were famous preachers, with THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. J 27 whom the Methodist movement began in England. They did not stay long in Georgia, but they attracted attention to the colony. 14. Large numbers of people joined the colony from England and from Germany. Oglethorpe was gov ernor, and showed the greatest energy in planning for the welfare of the set tlements. He was especially desirous of bringing out emi grants who were familiar with differ ent forms of indus try. He occupied new points at Da rien, Augusta, and Frederica, on an island at the mouth of the Altamaha. 15. In 1739 war broke out between England and Spain, and the American settlements at the South were in great danger. A fleet of Spanish vessels with five thousand men appeared off the coast and threat ened Frederica. General Oglethorpe, with only eight hun dred men, attacked the invaders and saved the colony. 16. At the end of twenty-one years the Trustees found themselves beset with difficulties in governing a distant' colony. They gave up their possessions to the crown, and Georgia was ruled like other parts of America, — by a governor appointed by the king, and an assembly chosen by the people. General Oglethorpe. 1754. 128 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. I. The English Settlements in North America. i. Affairs in England which induced emigration. a. The formation of commercial companies, XV. I, 3; XVIII. 9. b. The poverty in England, XVI. 2 ; XXIX. II. c. Difficulties 'in the Church, XVII. 1-3; XVIII. 1-4; XXV. 1-12; XXVIII. 1. d. Political dissensions, XVIII. 5-7, 12, 13. e. Interests of fishermen, XVIII. 8. 2. The companies which formed plantations. a. The Virginia Company, XV. 1, 2. b. The Virginia Company (London). i. Its members and domain, XV. 3. ii. Its first venture, XV. 5. iii. Its expectations, XV. 14. iv. Its new efforts to colonize Virginia, XVI. 1-3. v. Change of membership, XVI. 10; XXVII. I. vi. Loss of its charier, XXVII. 2. c. The Virginia Company (Plymouth). i. Its members and domain, XV. 3. ii. The Popham Colony established, XV. 4. iii. Controls Plymouth, XVIL 19. d. The London Adventurers, XVII. 5. e. The Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay. i. Charter obtained, XVIII. 9. ii. Character of the charter, XVIII. 10, 11. iii. Enlargement of the company, XVIII. 14. iv. The charter carried to America, XVIII. 15, 16. v. Attempts of the king to recover the charter, XXIII. 7, 8; XXIV. 3. vi. The charter withdrawn, XXIV. 10. f. The Board of Trustees for Georgia. i. Occasion of its formation, XXIX. 11. ii. Length of its government, XXIX. 12. iii. Expiration of its power, XXIX. 16. 3. Founders of settlements. a. Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook, XX. 4. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 1 29 b. Roger Williams, XX. 8-1 1. c. Sir Ferdinando Gorges, XX. 11, (3. d. Captain John Mason, XX. 11-13. e. William Penn. i. Birth and training, XXV. 10. ii. Position among the Friends, XXV. 1 1-13. iii. Immediate occasion of founding Pennsylvania, XXVI. 1. iv. Obtains a charter and grant of land, XXVI. 2, 3. v. Invitation to emigrants, XXVI. 4. vi. Character of the proposed government, XXVI. 5,6. vii. His treatment of the Indians, XXVI. 7, 12, 13. viii. His first venture, XXVI. 8. ix. His attitude toward previous settlers, XXVI. 10. x. He founds Philadelphia, XXVI. 11. xi. His return to England, XXVI. 15, 16. xii. His difficulties and death, XXVI. 17, 18. /. George and Cecil Calvert. i. George Calvert's religious and political posi tion, XXVIII. 1. ii. His attempts in Newfoundland and Virginia, XXVIII. 2. iii. Charter securing Maryland, XXVIII. 3. iv. Cecil's enterprise, XXVIII. 4. v. The political wisdom of the Calverts, XXVIII. S, 6, 10. g. James Oglethorpe, XXIX. 11-15. II. The English Colonies in North America. 1. Virginia. a. Formation of the Virginia Company, XV. 1-3. b. First company sent out, XV. 5. c. Settlement at Jamestown, XV. 5, 6. d. Government of the colony, XV. 7; XVI. I, J, 6, 10- 12; XXVII. 1,2. e. The men who made up the colony, XV. 8 ; XVI. 1-3. f. Relations with the Indians. i. Friendly relations, XV. 9, 10, 13, 14. ii. Hostile relations, XV. 10-12; XVI. 4-6; XXVII. 13-16. g. Industrial life. i. False industries, XV. 14, 15. 130 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. ii. Chief productive industry, XVI. 9; XXVII. 5,6. iii. Laws of trade, XXVII. 12. h. Social life. i. Indented servants, XXVII. 3, 4. ii. Slavery, XVI. 13 ; XXVII. 4. iii. The planters and their character, XVI. 8; XXVII. 3, 5, 7, 19- i. Political life. i. The Assembly, XVI. 11, 12; XXVII. 1, 7. ii. For the king and against the king, XXVII, 7-1 1, 20. iii. Bacon's rebellion, XXVII. 15-18. j. Relations with other colonies, XVI. 3, 7. 2. Plymouth. a. Origin of the colony, XVII. 1-5. b. The first company, XVII. 6-8. c. The place chosen for settlement, XVII. 9-13. d. Government of the colony, XVII. 14, 15. e. The first winter, XVII. 16. / Relations with Indians, XVII. 17, 18. g. Change of character and plans, XVII. 19, 20. h. Colonizing movement, XX. 2. z. Member of the United Colonies of New England, XXII. 14. j. Indian depredations, XXIV. 5. k. Becomes a part of the province of New England, XXIV. 12. 3. Massachusetts. a. Causes which led to the establishment of the colony, XVIII. 1-7, 12, 13. b. Origin of the Massachusetts Bay Company, XVIII. 8,9. c. First settlement made by the company, XVIII. 9. d. Character of the charter, XVIII. 10, 11. e. Removal of the charter to America, XVIII. 14-16. f. First great migration, XVIII. 16. g. Founding of Boston and neighboring towns, XIX. 1-3- h. Character and occupations of the colony, XIX. 4-9, i. Religious life, XIX. 10, 16. /. Government of the colony, XIX. 11-14, 16. k. First growth of the colony, XIX. 15 ; XX. 14. /. Colonization of other places, XX. 1-3, 6. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. x^ j m. Dealings with Indians, XIX. 3; XX. 15; XXI. 19: XXII. 1-7. n. The Pequot War, XXII. 8-1 1. o. King Philip's War, XXIV. 4-7. 4. Connecticut. a. Settlements of Plymouth people, XX. 2. b. Settlements of Dutch people, XX. 2. c. Settlements from Massachusetts, XX. 3. d. The English patent, XX. 4. e. Troubles with the Indians, XXII. 8-10. /. Expulsion of the Dutch, XX. 4; XXIII. 15. g. Fortune of the charter, XXIV. 14. 5. New Haven. a. Establishment, XX. 5. b. United with Connecticut, XXIV. 2. 6. Rhode Island. a. Establishment, XX. 6. b. The influence of Roger Williams, XX. 9, 10. 7. New Hampshire, XX. 11-14. 6. New York. a. Ground of the English claim, XXIII. 14 (see VI. 2; XII. 5; XVI. 7). b. Presented to the Duke of York, XXIII. 14. c. Taken possession of, XXIII. 15, 16. d. Temporary recovery by the Dutch, XXIII. 17. 9. The Jerseys. a. Occupied first by the Dutch, XXV. 12. b. The English proprietors, XXV. 12. c. Character of the settlers, XXV. 13, 14. d. United with New York and then separated, XXV. v.. 16. 10. Pennsylvania. a. Origin of the name, XXVI. 3. b. The first settlers, XXVI. 9, 4, 8. c. Character of the government, XXVI. 5, 6. d. Form of the government, XXVI. 6. e. Dealings with Indians, XXVI. 2, 7, 12-14. 11. Delaware. a. A part of Pennsylvania at first, XXVI. 3, 9. b. A part also of Maryland, XXVIII. 3, 14, 15. c. Its separation, XXVI. 18. 12. Maryland. a. Origin of the colony, XXVIII. 1-3. 132 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. b. The first settlement, XXVIII. 4. c. Character of the government, XXVIII. 3, 5, 6, 10. d. Difficulties of the colony. i. With Virginia, XXVIII. 7-9. ii. Internal troubles, XXVIII. 7-10. iii. As to its boundaries, XXVIII. 14, 15. e. Character of the life in Maryland, XXVIII. 11-13. 13. The Carolinas. a. The first settlements, XXIX. 1, 2. b. The government, XXIX. 2, 3, 8. c. The character of the settlements, XXIX. 3. i. In the northern parts, XXIX. 3, 9. ii. In the southern parts, XXIX. 4, 5, 9. d. Products of the southern parts, XXIX. 6. e. Difficulties of the colony. i. With Indians, XXIX. 7. ii. With Spaniards, XXIX. 7, 8, 10. 14. Georgia. a. Origin of the name, XXIX. 10. b. Origin of the first settlement, XXIX. 11. c. Government of the colony, XXIX. 12, 16. d. Eminent visitors, XXIX. 13. e. Oglethorpe's plans, XXIX. 11, 14. /. The struggle with Spai:i, XXIX. 15. III. The New England Confederation, XXII. 12-15 ? XXIII. 1 ; XXIV. 8. IV. The Puritans. 1. Origin of the party in England, XVIII. 2, 3. 2. Their religious preferences, XVIII. 2. 3. Their political aims, XVIII. 6; XXIII. 2, 3. 4. Their fears for England, XVIII. 7, 12, 13. 5. Their plan of escape, XVIII. 13-15. 6. The great migration to America, XVIII. 16; XIX. 15, 16. 7. The Puritan policy in New England, XIX. 10-14; XX. 8, 9; XXIII. 3. 8. Relations between Puritans in England and Puritans in New England, XXIII. 2-4, 6. 9. Treatment of Friends by Puritans, XXV. 7. 10. Their connection with Virginia, XXVII. 7, 9. II. Their connection with Maryland, XXVIII. 2, 5, 6, 8, 13. V. The Quakers. 1. Origin of the society, XXV. 1-5. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 133 2. Characteristics of the society, XXV. 2-4, 6, 8, 9 ; XXVI. 2, 5> 6, 14- 3. Persecutions, XXV. 7, 8. 4. Treatment of Indians, XXVI. 5, 7, 12-14. 2.3- 4- VI. The Indians. 1. Origin of the people, XXI. 1-3. Origin of the name, XXI. 1 (see V. 4). Appearance of the people, XXI. 4. Their mode of life. a. In obtaining food, XXI. 5, 9. b. In dress, XXI. 6. c. In shelter, XXI. 7. 5. Their family life, XXI. 8. 6. Their tribal life, XXI. 12-14. 7. The differences between tribes, XXI. 15 (see XIII. 7). 8. Their general likeness, XXI. 10, 16. 9. Their legends, XXI. 17. 10. Number of Indians, XXI. 18; XVII. 16 ; XIX. 3. 11. What they thought of the whites, XXI. 19 ; XXII. I. 12. Their relations with the English. a. In Virginia, XV. 9-14. b. In Plymouth Colony, XVII. 16. c. In New England at large, XXII. 2, 5. 13. Conversion to Christianity, XXII. 3-5. 14. Jndian wars. a. In Virginia, XXVII. 13-16. b. In New England. i. Pequot War, XXII. 8-1 1. ii. King Philip's War, XXIV. 4-7. Virginia Halfpenny. ftord Baltimore Shilling. COLONIAL CURRENCY. 134 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Popham Colony founded . , 1605 Founding of Jamestown May 13, 1607 Captain John Smith explored the New England coast .... 1614 Exportation of tobacco to England ... 1616 First Colonial Assembly at Jamestown ... i6ig First cargo of slaves brought to Virginia . . 1619 Plymouth Colony begun . . . . ... Dec. 21, 1620 Massacre by Indians in Virginia . 1620 Settlement of New Hampshire at Portsmouth and Dover . . . 1623 Virginia deprived of her charter and made a royal province . . 1624 Massachusetts Bay Company founded 1628 First settlement at Salem . . 1628 Settlement of Boston 1630 Settlement at Saco and Biddeford . . 1630 Settlement of York 1631 Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore ... 1632 Connecticut settled at Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield 1633-1636 Settlement of Maryland ... 1634 Harvard College founded . . . 1636 Providence founded by Roger Williams . 1636 General Court of Connecticut begun . 1637 Pequot War 1636, 1637 New Haven Colony founded . 1638 Settlement of the Swedes on the Delaware 1638 War between king and parliament 1642 Confederation of the New England Colonies ... . 1643 England became a Commonwealth 1649 First of the Navigation Acts 1650 First settlements in North Carolina 1653 New Amsterdam taken by the English 1664 King Philip's War 1675 Settlement of Burlington, New Jersey 1677 Philadelphia founded 1682 The Massachusetts Charter revoked 1684 Seizure of Andros in Boston 1689 Death of Penn 1718 Baltimore founded 1729 The Carolinas divided , 1729 Georgia settled by General Oglethorpe 1733 ENGLISH AN! IN NOF TIME OF THE FEENCH POSSESSIONS NORTH AMERICA AT THE Quelc, IfRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. ^Colonial Charter Claims. ***¦ 100 Miles ^-r 4 /?y^S> *)\¥ $ NEW ENGLAND NEW NETHERLAND 7 S Ifcwislowtf* Cape May Twice the Scale of the large Map. FRANCE IN AMERICA. 135 CHAPTER XXX. FRANCE IN AMERICA. Chevalier de la Salle (Skev-ah- .'e'er deh lah Sahl'). La Chine (Lah Sheen), China. Frontenac [Fron-te-nahi' ). Louis (Loo'ee or Loo'is). Beaujeu (Bo-zher1, but without sounding the r). DTberville (Dee-ber-veeP). 1. The English were thus planting their colonies along the Atlantic sea-board, and gradually pushing their way into the interior. At the same time the French were following the steps of their early explorers, Cartier, Champlain, and others; they were penetrating the continent by way of the St. Lawrence. 2. The two great pioneers of French occupation were the fur-trader and the missionary. Among the soldiers, also, who came out to New France, were men fired with an ambition to add to the domain of the king. Such men, too, often engaged in enterprise with the fur-traders, and shared the zeal of the missionaries. 3. Like the Spanish and the English, the French were possessed with the idea that they could find a passage to the South Sea, and thus to India and China. What was more likely than that the great water-ways of which they knew something would lead them thither? Those who went farthest into the wilderness brought back stories from the Indians which seemed to confirm this belief. 4. One of the greatest of the French explorers was the Chevalier de la Salle. He came out to Canada to seek his fortune, and was granted a tract of land a few miles beyond Montreal. There he gathered men about him, and made a fortified settle ment, which he named La Chine. 1666. 136 THE ^SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 5. The name which La Salle gave to this place shows what was on his mind ; he was filled with a de sire to find the South Sea. He determined, also, that the French should occupy the great West before the English and Spaniards could make their way thither. 6. To carry out his plans, La Salle secured the aid of rich men, and of Count Frontenac, Governor of Canada. He built a strongly fortified place on Lake Ontario, near the present town of Kingston. This was to be the starting-point of his expeditions ; and from here, in 1678, he made the first of a series of journeys which lasted nearly ten years. 7. He built vessels and explored the upper lakes ; he made his way to the Illinois River, and erected a fort where Peoria now stands; he sent out other men to explore; he had terrible encounters with the Indians. His own men sometimes mutinied, but he did not flinch from his purpose. 8. At last La Salle made the great journey for which he had been planning. With a party of Frenchmen and Indians he set out from Fort Miamis, on the Maumee River. He carried his canoes from stream to stream, until he reached the Mississippi and floated down its current. 9. He passed from winter into spring, and at every stage of his progress he felt his great dreams to be turning into realities. He came among people who had never seen a white man. Everywhere he took posses sion of the country in the name of Louis XIV., King of France, while the Indians looked on in ignorant wonder. 10. Upon the marshy borders of the Delta, La Salle formally claimed for his master the vast territory drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and named it FRANCE IN AMERICA. 1 37 Louisiana. It was now the king's by title, and he meant to make it the actual property of France. 11. He retraced his course, and laid plans for a fortified settlement upon a great rock on the Illinois River. Here he meant to have a trading-post, and a defence against hostile Indians. It was to be one of the links in a great chain of fortified posts between the lakes and the gulf. He named the place St. Louis, but it is now known as Starved Rock. 12. He hastened back to France, where his wonderful journey made him a hero. A man who could add an empire to France was not likely to be denied what he asked for. When, therefore, La Salle laid before the king his wish to build a fort at the mouth of the Missis sippi, and establish a colony there, the king at once aided him, and placed four ships under his command. 13. The king was more ready to do this because he was at war with Spain, and hoped by this means to attack the Spanish possessions in America. ryt 1 - • • 1 • 1684. The expedition sailed with great expectations, but failed miserably. The naval commander, Beaujeu, differed in judgment from La Salle ; and when they landed at Matagorda Bay, in Texas, which La Salle sup posed at first to be a mouth of the Mississippi, Beaujeu sailed back, and left La Salle and his followers alone. 14. They built a fort, and La Salle bent his energies to finding the Mississippi. After severe disasters, he divided the few men who remained, leaving one party in possession of the fort, while with the rest he resolved to force his way to Canada and there obtain relief. La Salle never reached Canada. He was treacherously killed by some of his companions when on the way. 138 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 15. A few of the party succeeded in reaching Fort St. Louis, and bore the news of disaster to Canada and France. A relief party was 3ent to Texas, but only a1 ruin was found ; the Spaniards had discovered the miserable remnant and put them to death. La Salle's discoveries, however, led the French to send 1699. out an expedition under D'Iberville, and to make a settlement near the mouth of the Mississippi. 16. A communication was kept up with Canada by means of the great river. Military posts were planted at intervals along the way. There were settlements about them, to which the Indians came to trade. At each, also, was a mission of the church. Indeed, the priest often came before the soldier, and the mission- house and chapel rose before the barracks. 17. The more the French came to know the land, the more they valued it. They saw with alarm the approach of the English from the Atlantic ; and in 1748 they even formed the plan of bringing over ten thousand peasants, and settling them on the borders of the lakes and in the valley of the Ohio. CHAPTER XXXI. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND THE ENGLISH. Alleghany (Al-le-gd'ne). Monongahela (Mo-non-ga-k?la). Presque Isle (Pressed). Venango (Ve-nangfgo). Cor'don. A chain. Schenectady (Ske-nek'ta-de). 1. The two principal streams which unite in the Ohio are the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers. The French had built a series of forts along the course of CONFLICT BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 1 39 the northern branch, from Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, to Fort Venango, and were planning to build another at the junction of the streams. 2. Thus, by the natural boundaries, and by a cordon of military posts, the French country of Canada and the Great West was separated from the northern English possessions. The Alleghany and Cumberland Moun tains and the Blue Ridge formed another barrier, extending far down toward the Gulf of Mexico. 3. The southern English colonies kept close to the sea-coast, and there was little to tempt them away from their plantations into the wild interior. The nature of their industry and the character of their society were unfavorable to western migration ; and the water-courses did not offer easy modes of transportation. 4. It was different at the North. There, commerce increased the wealth of the towns and made the country near them more valuable; so that many families went in search of new lands farther from the coast. Ships constantly brought over emigrants, who landed usually at the northern ports, since the most active trade was with the northern colonies. 5. England was at war with France at different periods down to the early part of this century. Whenever, after the settlement of America, there was war between the two countries in Europe, a part of the fighting was between the French and the English on this side of the Atlantic. 6. Besides the antagonism which arose from differ ences in race, in politics, and in trade, the two nations were on opposite sides in religious questions. England was at the head of Protestant nations; and she both hated and feared the Roman Catholicism of France. I40 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 7. In America the English colonies, especially the Puritan ones of the North, were very suspicious of the French settlements. They had an English and a Prot estant dislike of the Roman Catholic French ; besides, they wanted the country which the French were holding, and the entire control of the fishing grounds off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 8. The Indians, although they were opposed to all Europeans, feared and hated the English most. The English treated them with contempt. The farms of the colonists spoiled the hunting-grounds of the In dians, and as fast as a colony grew it crowded out the Indians. 9. The French, with their scattered forts and tradings- posts, did not interfere so much with the Indians, and they used the Indian hatred of the English for their own purposes. They incited them to ravage the fron tier settlements. Whenever there was war between the French and the English, many Indians fought, after their own fashion, on one side or the other. 10. The first considerable outbreak occurred in the colony of New York. When the Dutch held the coun try, the principal enterprise was trade with the Indians for fur. The English, when they took New York, brought in more farmers, but they continued the fur-trade. But the French came down from the north on the same business, and the interests of the two clashed. 11, The most powerful of the Indian tribes were the Iroquois, who obtained their guns, powder, and other supplies from the Dutch and English. They were bent on controlling all the fur-trade of the North and West, and kept out the French and the Illinois Indians until Canada was reduced to a condition of great distress. CONFLICT BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 141 1689. 12. The Iroquois outwitted their rivals, and fought them from time to time. At last they fell suddenly upon La Chine, and committed the most terrible massacre that Canada had ever known. They burned houses, slew men, women, and children, and then returned to the wilderness. 13. The English were not known to have encouraged the Iroquois to this deed ; but the French, when they struck back, aimed their blow at their great enemy. England and France were then at war, and Count Frontenac, the Governor of Canada, laid his plans for an attack on the English colonies. 14. A company of French and Indians, marching swiftly and silently in the dead of winter, came to Schenectady, the most northern outpost of New York. So little did the garrison within fear an 142 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. attack, that they had posted two snow images for sen tinels at the gate. The French and Indians surrounded the settlement in the night, and put it to the 1 *"' sword. Other bands fell upon the settlements of New Hampshire and Maine. 15. It was the frontier only that had suffered; but these lonely settlements were parts of New York and New England. Instantly, throughout the colonies, there sprang up a determination to punish the invaders. A congress of delegates was held in New York, and plans were formed for an expedition by land from Albany against Montreal, and one by sea from Boston against Quebec. 16. Neither expedition succeeded; but the wac — commonly called King William's War — was kept up until 1697. All this time the French never lost sight of the great prize which they coveted in the possession of the unbounded West. To secure this, Frontenac pursued the policy of attaching more closely to himself the friendly tribes. With them he attacked their ene mies, the Iroquois, while the English only partly kept the friendship of these powerful Indians. 17. There was peace then for five years, when Eng land declared war against France and Spain. Anne was queen of England, and the war is called Queen Anne's War. It lasted eleven years, and in America was carried on by the colonists of England and of France. New England suffered most on account of her nearness to Canada. A party of French and Indians attacked Deerfield, in Massachusetts. After killing many men, women, and children, and burning the village, they carried the remaining inhabitants into captivity. THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR. 143 CHAPTER XXXII. THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR. Kanawha (Ka-naiv1 ' wah). Du Quesne (Dem-kdne1). Armistice (arm'is-tis). A cessa tion from fighting by agreement of the parties in conflict. Le Bceuf (Burf, the r silent). l. With each war between France and England, the contest for supremacy in America grew more intense. To the English colonies it was not a matter of European politics, but of the safety of their homes. The danger from Indian attacks was greater when the savages were led and encouraged by French soldiers. 2. The French, with their military organization, had a great advantage over the English in any campaign. They were soldiers, bred to fighting. The English, for the most part, were farmers, who fought only when the war was brought close to them, and then with little military organization or discipline. 3. In 1744 began a series of conflicts which lasted for nearly twenty years, until the great question whether the French or the English were to be masters of the conti nent was settled. The first important movement was against Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. The French had made this strongly fortified place a means of con trolling the fishing-grounds in the neighborhood. 4. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, planned a se cret expedition to capture the place, and placed it undef the command of Colonel William Pepperell, who himself gave a large sum toward meeting the expense. The fleet sailed out of Boston Harbor in March, 1745 ; and so well had the secret been kept, that the arrival of the 144 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. fleet was the first news that the garrison at Louisburg had of the expedition. 5. The army landed on the island, and laid siege to the place. The fleet bombarded the fort. For two months these untrained soldiers kept hard at work, and at last the French surrendered. The achievement was received with enthusiasm by the colonies and with as tonishment in Europe. 6. The war of which this action was a part is known as King George's War, and came to an end in 1748. In the treaty of peace, Louisburg was restored to the French, to the bitter disappointment of New England. The colonies seemed to have gained nothing by the victory except a heavy debt, the remembrance of glory, and an increased confidence in their soldiers. 7. The peace was of short duration. It was rather an armistice, during which both parties were making ready for a final contest. The English sent out a large colony to Acadia, and founded the town of Halifax. The French strengthened their settlements in the same country. 8. The English power lay in its occupation of the land by people rather than by forts. While the French were thinking to fence off the western country by a line of forts, the English were slowly moving their frontier line by an irregular march of settlers. They were organizing emigration companies also. 9. The Ohio Company was formed in 1748 by gentle men in Virginia and Maryland. They obtained from the king a grant of five hundred thousand acres, chiefly on the south side of the Ohio River, between the Mononga hela and the Kanawha. It was their intention to connect this country by roads with the two colonies. 10. In the years immediately following they made THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR. 1 45 surveys and established a few settlements. One of the surveyors was a Virginian, named George Washington. When rumors came that the French were encroaching on this territory with their forts, Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent him to look into the matter. 11. Washington brought back such a report of the activity of the French that the Virginia Assembly at once took measures to build a fort at the junction of the Mo nongahela and Alleghany. Suddenly the French appeared upon the scene, drove away the Eng lish, and finished for themselves the fort, which they named Fort Du Quesne. 12. This was just before war was again formally de clared between England and France, and the colonies were at once aroused. They sent delegates to Albany, to a congress called to consult upon the best way of resisting the French. Here they met also representa tives from the Indians of the Six Nations, as the Iroquois were sometimes called. They urged these Indians to join them against their old enemy the French. 13. The English government sent out troops and ves sels to America, and appointed a commander-in-chief, General Edward Braddock. Governor Shirley and Sir William Pepperell were to carry on the campaign with him, and by a series of attacks in different quarters they were to conquer the French. 14. The forts in Acadia were to be captured. An expedition was to be sent against Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, where the French had intrenched them selves. Another was to move along the Mohawk River and take Fort Niagara. Braddock himself was to cap ture Fort Du Quesne, reduce the remaining forts on the Alleghany, and join the other forces at Niagara. 146 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 15. Braddock set out from Fort Cumberland, in Maryland. He had with him English regulars, some colonial troops, and a few friend ly Indians. Washington was on his staff. Braddock marched slowly, stopping to make better roads and erect earthworks. He followed the methods of march ing and fighting to which he was used, and paid no attention to the advice of Washington and others who knew the ways of the country. 16. The French, with their In dian allies, kept themselves in formed of every movement that Braddock made. The English general was cautiously moving along and preparing to lay siege to the fort, according to the regular rules. Sud denly, soon after crossing a ford, his army was surprised by Indians, and by French who fought in the manner of Indians. 17. The English were utterly defeated. Braddock was mortally wound- juiy 9 ec*- He transferred his command to Washing- 1755. ton, and died overwhelmed with remorse. Washington led back the broken army; and the iC4 Braddock's Route. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 14? French and Indians followed up their victory by lay ing waste the back country of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. CHAPTER XXXIII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Minas (Mee'nas). Militia (me-lish'ah). A body of citizen soldiery, trained to bear arms, but called out for service only in special emergencies. Dis tinguished from professional sol diers, called regulars. Montcalm (Mdng-kahm1). 1. THE disaster to Braddock's army was terrible, but it had an important influence for good. It taught the colonies to rely on their own soldiers rather than on regular British troops. They began at once to organize a militia, which was under training upon the battle-field during the remainder of the war. This war is known in America as the French and Indian War. 2. While Braddock was marching against Fort Du Quesne, another force was engaged in reducing the French forts in Acadia. That name was then applied to what is now Nova Scotia and a large part of New Brunswick. The forts guarded the neck of land which connects the two portions. 3. The English held Nova Scotia, but they also claimed part of the rest of Acadia. The peninsula was occupied partly by French and partly by English farmers, but the French were more numerous. There were prosper ous French settlements about the Bay of Minas, under English law, but not far from the French forts. 4. Most of the French Acadians were simple-minded, 148 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. peaceable people, who desired only to live undisturbed upon their farms. But among them were some who were bitterly hostile to the English, and took every op portunity to favor the French and menace the English settlement at Halifax. G ULF OF ST. LAW RUN CM aJ*"«. s r% *¦* t. <-> VV /vr< U 1. .¦s**' 7:J -7- ^f'Jjjk ¦y^^f Atf >- _. -o^nseioui >r\ Jy>-e„ «?/„„;( i -f 2?^- ^^kir!i«' aV^ «3ew*p' ;(.;,,pj'. "ffflH . 1 ^ ^lo«»"' "Sb \JOjT »™nmoffu u—# (iy „-¦ - %- 6T. 0) yM^ef&oi-A ( ™°$^ ^Oj-O k>3 ' r, H ^*^ roWW T I C «^/ . fl If r A ,Vjj^ « C.Sabte ^ o Map of Acadia. 5. When the war broke out, the danger from these increased. At last the English authorities determined to solve the difficulty by removing all the French fam ilies out of the country. They made no distinction between the peaceable settlers and those who caused disturbance. 6. They called all the men and boys to assemble in Sept. 5, their churches to heai a notice read. Then, 1755. when the churches were full, companies of soldiers surrounded them. The people within the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 149 churches were prisoners, and were told that they and their wives and children were all to be sent away. 7. The poor French had no arms, and could make no resistance. The Englisn made haste and crowded them into ships to send them away to the other colonies. Families were separated, and great misery fell on all the people. The villages were laid waste, and about six thousand persons were homeless. 8. Tlie ships carried them to the southward, scattering them in the I colonies as far south as North Carolina. Many made their way to the French settle ments on the Lower Mississippi. Some escaped when the English were sending them away, and found a refuge Tnriiftrm sheltering AcadiariR 150 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. among the Indians, who showed them kindness. A few remained in the neighborhood to vex the English. 9. The English also captured the forts in Acadia; but a more important part of the campaign was the movement from Albany northward. The French were fortified at Crown Point, and the English with their In dian allies made an attempt to dislodge them. The Indians were led by General William Johnson, an Eng lishman who had married into their tribe. 10. The French did not wait for the English. They marched quickly forward, surprised them near Lake George and defeated them. But the English recovered, and in their turn routed the French so com- 1755. pletely that the victory in the second battle of Lake George was held to atone for Braddock's defeat two months before. [See map, p. 2 17. J 11. The news of that defeat had so discouraged the army which was to have marched against Fort Niagara, that the plan was given up for the time. The next year the plan was resumed, but the French were more active. The Marquis of Montcalm, an experienced general, laid siege to the English fort at Oswego, from which the English had expected to march upon Niagara. 12. The English delayed sending reinforcements, and Montcalm captured the fort. He destroyed it in the Aug. 14, presence of the Indians, many of whom were 1756. friendly to the English. By this act he meant to teach them that they were to fear the French and not the English. 13. At the end of 1757 it seemed as if the French had the advantage everywhere, except in Acadia. There, too, the English were in great peril, for a powerful fleet was gathering at Louisburg. This fleet threatened, not THE FALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA. 151 Halifax alone, but New England itself. All along the frontier of the middle colonies, the English settlers were flyingbefore the French and Indians. CHAPTER XXXIV. THE FALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA. Rendezvous (rb'n'dch/oo) . A meeting-place 1. Although France seemed to have the advantage, the two great powers were very differently situated, and the French and English in America were very unequally matched. In the long run it is not armies that conquer, but the people behind the armies. 2. The French had this disadvantage, that almost all their men and supplies had to be brought from France. They had no great farms in America, and no flourishing colonies. They had soldiers and generals, but these had to be fed and supported. The English, on the other hand, while sending over troops from England, de pended most on the strong colonies in America. These colonies had for a hundred years been growing rich., independent, and self-supporting. 3. The English, moreover, were reinforced at this time by one man. William Pitt was a great statesman, and saw more clearly than the king and other English men what was needed in America. He was Secretary of State, and the foremost man in the kingdom ; it was his genius that directed the war to a brilliant close. 4. He had faith in the colonies, and his policy was a generous one. England was to furnish arms and ammu- 152 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. nition. The colonies were to enlist the men, clothe them, and pay them. England was to provide the generals and division officers ; but the colonial troops might choose their own colonels and subordinate officers. 5. The generals and naval commanders whom Pitt appointed were abler men than those who had here tofore been sent to America. A new campaign was planned ; but the points of attack were the same, for the strong points of the French position were Louisburg, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Fort Du Quesne. 6. The first move was by a combined naval and land attack under Sir Jeffrey Amherst against Louisburg. In Juiv 26 ^ess than two months this important place was 17B8- captured, and six thousand prisoners taken. New England was overjoyed that her prize was again in her possession. 7. The movement against Ticonderoga at the same time resulted in a serious defeat of the Eng lish; but Fort Du Quesne was taken, and re named Fort Pitt. Fort Frontenac was destroyed and Fort Niagara captured. Then Amherst took 1759 the field at Lake George, and drove the French from Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 8. This brilliant series of successes was due partly to the energy of Pitt, partly to the steady decrease of the French resources. France was becoming nerveless un der a corrupt government, and gave its American settle ments but little substantial aid. 9. The French had been crowded back into Canada, and the next summer the English prepared to advance upon Quebec, the stronghold of the country. From Louisburg, as a rendezvous, a fleet bearing eight thou sand men moved up the St. Lawrence and dropped THE FALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA. 153 anchor before Quebec. I Behind the fortifica- Itions on that great I rock, Montcalm lay I with his army. 10. The commander I of the English forces I was a brave young I general, James Wolfe, I who had taken part in I the siege of Louisburg. He was the idol of his I soldiers, but he was of feeble frame, wasted j by disease. He saw TheBockofQne'iec, and Wolfe's Cove. before him the frown- ing cliff of Quebec, and he knew that every point was guarded by the enemy. XI. He made one desperate and disastrous attempt to 154 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. storm the heights. The failure proved how impossible it was to gain the city from the front. The only chance lay in surprising the enemy and reaching the heights from the rear of the city. 12. Accordingly, Wolfe divided his army. He left a portion to make a feint of attacking Quebec upon the north side, where the St. Charles River separates the rock from the mainland. Then he sent his ships and transports up the St. Lawrence, while he marched the remainder of his army along the southern bank out of reach of the enemy's guns. 13. When he had passed the town, he re-embarked his soldiers on board the vessels, and waited his oppor tunity. About two hours before daybreak, thirty barges, bearing sixteen hundred soldiers, dropped silently down the stream to a cove where a narrow path led up a wooded defile in the steep hill-side. 14. A sentinel challenged the boats as they came toward the cove ; but he was answered in French, and made to believe that they were boats which were ex pected with provisions for the besieged town. Some of the men sprang ashore and seized the sentinel at the foot of the pass. Then they scrambled up the height and captured the guard which was posted at the head. 15. The rest of the troops climbed rapidly up the pass, which was now in their possession. The ships dropped down the stream with reinforcements ; and sept. 13, when the sun rose the British army was drawn 1759- up in line upon the Plains of Abraham behind the town, and partly intrenched. The French looking out from the walls could scarcely believe their eyes. 16. Most of Montcalm's men were upon the other side of the St. Charles River, where they had been sta- THE FALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA. 155 tioned to prevent the English from approaching the town from that quarter. He brought them hastily over, led them through the town to the plain, and at once attacked the English. 17. The English met the attack with coolness ; they waited until the French were within forty yards, then -they fired. The ranks of the French were at once broken, and Wolfe, dashing to the front, led his men in a fierce charge. The French, exhausted by their long march, turned and fled, and the English drove them behind the walls of the town. 18. Almost at the same moment both Wolfe and Montcalm fell, mortally wounded. Wolfe lived to hear that the French were everywhere giving way, and to. issue his final orders. Montcalm, borne to the hospital, sank into despair, comforted only by the thought that he should not live to see the surrender of Quebec. He died of a broken heart as well as of his wounds. 19. The French, shut up in the town, their brave commander gone, laid down their arms and the English took possession of Quebec. The diminished French army gathered at Montreal. Some fighting followed ; but the English brought their forces from Oswego, from Crown Point, and from Quebec; and in September, £760, Montreal surrendered. 156 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER . not make Braddock's mistakes. He met the 1763- Indians at Bushy Run, and completely defeated them. 8. The English had been surprised at the first at tacks; but as soon as the extent of the danger was known, they met it promptly. At last, so completely did they break the power of the tribes, that Pontiac and other chiefs met Johnson at Oswe go, and entered into a treaty of peace with the English. 9. The English now held undisputed sway over all that was known of North America east of the Missis sippi, excepting the Spanish possessions at the mouth of that river. An unexplored wilderness stretched beyond the Mississippi, and only a few trappers had penetrated Canada north of the St. Lawrence. 158 THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. I. France in America. 1. Extent of the country occupied, XXX. 1, 7, 8, 13 ; XXXI. 1, 2 (see map, p. 135). 2. Principal forts and trading-posts, XXX. 4, 6-8, 11, 13- 15 ; XXXI. 1 (see map, p. 135). 3. Character of the occupation of the country, XXX. 2, 9, 11, 16, 17; XXXI. 9; XXXII. 2,3; XXXIII. 3,4; XXXIV. 2. 4. Leaders of New France, XXX. 4, 6. 5. Aims of the leaders of New France, XXX. 3, 5, 12, 17. 6. La Salle's adventures, XXX. 4-14. 7. Relations of the French to the Ind'ans a- Friendly relations, XXX. 3, 5, 9, 16; XXXI. 10, 14, 16, 17; XXXII. 1, 16; XXXIII. 12. b. Hostile relations, XXX. 7, 11 ; XXXI. 9, 11-13, 16; XXXII. 12; XXXIII. 9, 12. II. England in America. I. Extent of the country occupied, XXX. I ; XXXIII. 3 (see map, p. 135). 2. Character of the occupation of the country, XXXI. 3, 4 ; XXXII. 8, 9, 10; XXXIV. 2. 3. Relations of the English to the Indians. a. Friendly relations, XXXI. 9, 10, 11, 16; XXXIII. 9, 12. b. Hostile relations, XXXI. 8, 9; XXXII. I, 16, 17; XXXIII. 13. III. Conflict between the French and English in America. I. Grounds of antagonism, XXX. 1, 17 ; XXXI. 5-7, 9. 2. Comparative strength of the two antagonists, XXXII. 2, 7, 8 ; XXXIV. 1, 2, 8. 3. The first outbreak, XXXI. 10-14. 4. King William's War, XXXI. 15, 16. 5. Queen Anne's War, XXXI. 17. 6. King George's War, XXXII. 3-6. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 1 59 7. The use of the armistice, XXXII. 7-10. 8. Preparations for the final war, XXXII. 11-14. 9. Braddock's campaign, XXXII. 14-17. 10. The French and Indian War. a. The lesson of defeat, XXXIII. I. b. Expulsion of the Acadians, XXXIII. 2-9. c. Campaign in New York, XXXIII. 9-12. d. Position of the combatants at the end of 1757, XXXIII. 13; XXXIV. 1,2. e. William Pitt and his plans, XXXIV. 3-5. / Capture of Louisburg, XXXIV. 6. g. Movement against the French forts, XXXIV. 7. k. Capture f Quebec, XXXIV. 9-19. 11. The part played by the colonists, XXXI. 4, 7, 8, 15 ; XXXII. 2,4, ,8,9-12,15; XXXIII. 1 ; XXXIV. 2,4. 12. The first appearance of George Washington, XXXII. 9-1 1, 15-17. 13. The result of the conflict, XXXV. 1, 2. 14. The possessions of England in North America in 1763, XXXV. 1, 9. IV. Pontiac's War. I. Relations of the Indians to the English and the Frencft after the treaty of Paris, XXXV. 3. 2. The designs of Pontiac, XXXV. 4, 5. 3. The points of attack, XXXV. 6. 4. The English leaders, XXXV. 7- 5. The conflict between the English and the Indians, XXXV. 6, 7, 8. IOO THE SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Marquette's discovery of the Upper Mississippi 1673 La Salle's first voyage of exploration 1678 His descent of the Mississippi . 16S1, 1682 His expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi 1684 Death of La Salle 1687 The Iroquois attack on La Chine 1689 Destruction of Schenectady 1690 End of King William's War 1697 O'Iberville's settlement t i6gg Queen Anne's War 1702 Massacre at Deerfield 1704 End of Queen Anne's War 1713 Beginning of King George's War ... 1744 First capture of Louisburg 1745 Formation of the Ohio Company 1748 End of King George's War ... 1748 Erection of Fort Du Quesne . . . 1754 Congress at Albany 1754 Braddock's defeat July 9, 1755 Expulsion of the Acadians June-November, 1755 Battles at Lake George Sept. 8, 1755 Montcalm captured Fort Oswego Aug. 14, 1756 Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga July 8, 1758 Second capture of Louisburg July 26, 1758 Capture of Fort Frontenac . Aug. 27, 1758 Capture of Fort Du Quesne Nov. 25, 1758 Surrender of Niagara to the English .... . . July 25, 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham Sept. 13, 1759 Surrender of Montreal to the English . . . . Sept. 8, 1760 Peace of Paris signed Feb. 10, 1763 Battle of Bushy Run Aug. 5, 6, 1763 Treaty of peace with Pontiac July 24, 1766 THE UNITED STATES. DELAWAF GEORGIA, 1788. CONNECTICUT, 1788. MASSACHUSt NEW HAMPSHIRE, 1788. VIRGINIA, 1788. NEW YOR E, 1787. PENNSYLVANIA, 1787. NEW JERSEY, 1787. TTS, 1788. MARYLAND, 1788. SOUTH CAROLINA, 1788. NORTH CAROLINA, 1789. RHODE ISLAND, 1790. ^^^ lmmm mi maamoKamm m ¦¦ ":'¦¦..•' *¦»».': PART II. TEE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER I. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. — I. Dress'er. A cupboard, or set of shelves for holding plates and dishes. Faneuil (Fan'el, or sometimes in Boston F&n'el). Peter Faneuil was of a Huguenot family. Qullt'ing-Bee. A company of neighbors who meet to make a bedquilt for the family inviting them. Grist'-Mill. A mill for grinding grain brought by farmers. 1763. 1. WHEN the French lost their share of North Amer ica, there were thirteen separate English colonies, which lay along the Atlantic coast. The bounda ries between them were not always clearly marked, and several of the colonies claimed that por tion of the continent which lay west of them. 2. The people of these colonies were mainly English, Scotch, and Irish. But there were people of Dutch descent in New York and New Jersey; Germans in Pennsylvania and on the frontiers of Maryland and Virginia; French Huguenots in small numbers in most of the colonies, and notably in the Carolinas. 3. There were African slaves in all the colonies ; but in the North they were few in number, and were chiefly household servants. In the South they formed the great 1 62 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. working-class. Besides being household servants, they tilled the fields and were mechanics. There were many free negroes both in the South and in the North. 4. The colonies were not all alike. Each had its own character. This character was determined by the kind of soil on which the colony was planted, and by the people who formed it. The people in the different parts of the country differed in the occupations they followed, and in their ways of thinking about religion and government. 5. Massachusetts was the most northern and eastern colony. It then included what is now the State of Maine. It had a long sea-coast with many excellent harbors, while dense forests were in the interior. The soil was not very productive ; but the land was divided into small farms, which by hard labor were made to yield an abundance. 6. The people of the colony were descendants mainly of Englishmen who had come over in the first ten years after Winthrop and his company landed. They were farmers, who raised, besides what they needed them selves, hay, grain, and cattle. They exported these to the southern colonies and to the West Indies. 7. They were fishermen. A figure of a codfish hangs in the hall of the Massachusetts House of Represen tatives. It is a sign of what, with the whale-fishery, was once the greatest source of wealth in the colony. They were ship-builders and sailors. Their ships carried goods back and forth between the colonies and between Europe and America; they even carried goods from one port of Europe to another. 8. They were mechanics, also. They built saw-mills and grist-mills by the banks of streams. They set up THE THIRTEEN -ENGLISH COLONIES. 163 blacksmiths' forges, not only to shoe their hwrses, but to make tires for wagon-wheels. They were coopers, and made barrels in which to pack fish. They made rope for their vessels. They had tan-yards where they dressed leather. On all sides was the busy hum of industry. 9. The ports of the colony were at first the chief towns. A brisk trade was carried on in them, and their merchants grew rich. In the country, people bought few things and hired very little labor. The new settler cleared a place in the forest, and built his house of logs, stopping the chinks with clay; by and by, as he grew more prosperous, he built a frame house. 10. The two principal rooms in his house were the kitchen and the best room. In the kitchen was a great chimney, with a fireplace so large that there was room within it for seats, where the family gathered in the cold winter evenings. They burned huge logs which had been cut in the woods and hauled on sleds. 11. The cooking was done over a wood fire. An iron crane swung in the fireplace, and pot-hooks hung from the crane. The pots which hung from the hooks held the vegetables and the salt pork which were boiled for the dinner. It was seldom that the family had fresh meat, except when they shot or trapped game. 12. They baked bannocks — flat cakes of rye or Indian meal — over the hot ashes on the hearth, and in the better houses a brick oven was built in the chimney. This was filled with hot wood coals ; and when it was thoroughly heated, the coals were swept out, and bread or beans set to bake. 13. They used wooden platters for the most part, with a few pewter dishes which stood in a shining row 1 64 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. on the dresser. In the kitchen stood the spinning- wheel, with which the women spun the wool and flax for family use. The loom for weaving was usually kept in another room. 14. The best room was rarely used by the family. It was kept for company and special occasions. The floor was sprinkled with fine white sand, and figures were traced on it like the figures in a modern carpet. Brass andirons shone in the fireplace, which in summer was filled with the green tops of asparagus. 15. Where all worked with their hands there was little difference in social rank. People came together for a house-raising or harvest, for corn-husking or a quilting-bee. The family at whose house they met provided good things to eat and drink, and the day ended with a frolic, — blind-man's buff, fox and geese, and other sports. People knew each other familiarly in bcth work and play. 16. There were some distinctions made. The min ister was the great man of the place. He had his farm, like others, and worked with his hands; but he was looked up to as a man of learning and piety. He was a college-bred man, and often prepared the boys of his parish for college. He was the leader of the church ; and the church was the highest institution in the colony. 17. In the church, people were placed according to their dignity. The deacons sat in front near the pulpit. The minister's family, the magistrates, and the chief farmers had the best seats given them. Often families were angry because they were not given seats as good as they thought they ought to have. 18. However lonely separate farms might be, each THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. I65 was included in some town. The meeting-house was at the centre of the town, and there also were the country store and the blacksmith's shop. The school-house was sometimes there ; but that was built in the place most convenient to the families whose children went to it. 19 Once a year, at least, a town-meeting was held. The men chose the officers of the town for the next Faneuil Hall, 1763 year, and decided all questions which came up about the affairs of the town, such as schools, roads, and taxes. They also chose persons to represent the town in the Gieat and General Court, which met at Boston. 20. Thus the people discussed the affairs of the whole colony as well as 4hose of the town. Their representatives, when they went to Boston, knew how their neighbors felt and thought about public affairs i66 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. The town-meetings of Boston were especially important, because that was the chief town and the seat of govern ment. They were held in Faneuil Hall, — a building given by Peter Faneuil, a citizen of Boston. 21. In the town-meeting the people learned to govern themselves. Every voter used his vote. He knew the rules of debate, and he made his opinion known. There was free discussion, and the people were quick to learn the meaning of every law which was passed. 22. What was true of Massachusetts was true also, in the main, of the other colonies of New England, — New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Away from the sea the people were farmers ; near the sea they were' fishermen, sailors, and traders. But every where they were interested in the affairs of the town and the colony. CHAPTER II. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. — II. Sher'iff. An officer of the shire, or county, who executes the orders of the court. Back'woodsmen. People living in the wilderness, away from set tlements. l. In New York the population lived mainly near the great rivers. There was a cluster of towns about New York Bay; then settlements followed the course of the Hudson to Albany ; and along the valley of the Mohawk westward, descendants of the Dutch and of the English occupied the country. 2. The Dutch language was very generally used, and the old Dutch customs were still followed. The houses THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 1 67 were built after the pattern of houses in Holland, and usually of brick. Within they were kept scoured, so that no spot of dirt could be seen. The wide chimneys had tiles surrounding the fireplaces, with pictures on them of Bible scenes. 3. Great chests of drawers held piles of linen, woven by the mothers and daughters. Behind glass cupboards were shining silver and pewter ware and delicate china. There was an air of comfort and ease. In the shops at Albany, one would see furs and skins brought by the Indians, and silks and satins brought by vessels from the East Indies for the rich Dutch families. 4. The large grants of land originally made by the Dutch West India Company had led to the establish ment of great estates. The patroon lived in a great house, with many servants about him. He did not sell his land, but let it out in farms. These great land owners formed a class like the English aristocracy. 5. It was hard for the farmers who cleared away the forests and broke up the new soil on these great estates not to believe that they made the land their own. They rarely saw the patroon, and they began to ask what right he had to their rent in the wilderness. Many refused to pay rent, and drove off the sheriff who came to de mand it. 6. The Dutch had not the eagerness for liberty and self-government which the English had. The great estates also interfered with the growth of towns. Thus, "though there were towns in New York, and the govern ment was much the same as in New England, each per son did not, as there, feel an interest in the whole colony. The people lacked the town-meeting in its best form. 7. The town of New York was a military post of Great 168 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Britain. It was also a busy commercial port. The English officers and the rich merchants lived in better style than other people. Throughout the colony there were more who were very rich and more who were very poor than in New England. 8. New Jersey, enclosed by New York and Pennsyl vania, was protected by both from Indian disturbances. It was a farming country, with a sea-coast which had few harbors. Thus there was little trade. Small vil lages and small farms covered the country more closely than in other colonies, and the people were nearly all of one class in life. 9. The Friends were still the most important people both in New Jersey and in Pennsylvania. They were' prosperous and charitable, and lived mainly on the rich farms and in the thriving towns of the eastern settlements. There were many Germans in the middle and eastern parts of Pennsylvania. 10. The Germans agreed well with the Friends, but were frequently engaged in quarrels with the Irish, who lived chiefly on the western frontier. These back^ woodsmen were constantly in difficulty with the In dians. When they demanded military help, they were opposed by the Friends, and all these quarrels were carried into the Assembly. 11. The most thickly settled part of America was the country about the shores of Delaware Bay and River. Three colonies bordered on this water, — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The last two were under the same governor, but had separate legislatures. Phila delphia, the centre of this population, was the largest town in the country, and numbered about twenty-five thousand inhabitants in 1763. THE THLRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 169 Benjamin Franklin, Philosopher. Born January 6, 1706 ; died April 17, 1790. 12. It was laid out in regular squares, lined with trees. The houses were mainly of brick, sometimes of stone, 170 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. rarely of wood. There were side-walks to the streets, — an unusual thing in those days. There were gardens and orchards about many of the houses, and there was an excellent market. 13. A trading community occupied the town. There were many rich merchants who lived handsomely, and a large number of prosperous mechanics. One of these was Benjamin Franklin, who had come to Philadelphia from Boston when a young man, had. set up as a printer, and was now the foremost man in Pennsylvania. 14. Franklin was a hard-working, clear-headed man, who took the liveliest interest in the affairs of the people. He persuaded the Philadelphians to keep their city clean, to light it with lamps, to protect it from fire, and to give it a good police. Through his influence, largely, the city was the most orderly and the most flourishing in the country. 15. He was a man of science. He discovered protec tion against lightning by the use of iron rods. He in vented the Franklin stove, which increased the comfort of houses and economized fuel. He printed every year " Poor Richard's Almanac," in which he gave good ad vice to his countrymen about habits of prudence. His advice was so sensible, and given in such homely lan guage, that everybody read and remembered it. 16. He was one of the most active in raising supplies to aid in carrying on the war with the French and In dians. His townsmen sent him to the Assembly, where he became a leader of the people in opposition to the Penn family; for this family, which was still in power, was unwilling to bear its share of expenses in protecting the colony against the enemy. 17. The colonies lying to the south of Mason and THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 171 Dixon's line were more like one another than those of the north. The chief products were tobacco in the ^ northern parts ; rice, indigo, and cotton, in the southern. These crops were raised upon large es tates by gangs of slaves directed by overseers. Ships carried the crops to England, and brought back al- ^3 -:'::^" fllpfi At ¦6fg"*"\ A Tobacco Plantation. •y O 18. most everything which the planters used. The towns of importance were the ports of Baltimore, Charles ton, and Savannah. The planters went to these towns for society and amusement, but great hospitality was shown on the estates. The masters, and mistresses occupied themselves with the oversight of their servants, and with paying and receiving visits. 3 172 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 19. Since almost all manual labor was done by slaves, the free men felt it to be beneath them to work with their hands. The better class, who owned the slaves, had no need to labor ; the poorer sort were unwilling to do what slaves did. Thus, between the planters and the blacks, there came to be a class of poor whites who lived from hand to mouth and learned no habits of in dustry and saving. 20. The planters often sent their sons to Europe to be educated, and they had teachers for their younger children at home. There were, therefore, not many schools, and the poorer people grew up in ignorance. The rich had books and pictures, and were a courteous, generous class, high-spirited and well educated. 21. In Maryland the proprietary government con tinued. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, the governors and other officers were appointed by the king, while the members of assemblies were chosen by the people.- The people who chose the members were the land-holders and slave-owners, and they naturally took a great interest in politics. 22. Throughout the colonies the people were a cnosen people ; that is, they were in large part the descendants of men and women who had left England and Scotland and France because they wished for greater freedom. They had kept the habit, which their fathers brought, of discussing religious and political questions, and this habit made them very quick to distinguish between right and wrong. ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 173 CHAPTER III. ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. Ex'ports. Goods sent out of the ports of a country. Im'ports. Goods brought into the ports of a country. Rev'enue. Money received by a government from taxes. Smug'gle. To import goods se cretly, to escape payment of duties. l. The thirteen colonies were thirteen distinct gov ernments, but they had also a great deal in common They were English colonies; they obeyed English laws; they called the King of England their king; they traded with one another, both by land and by water; families moved from one colony to another; letters and newspapers were sent back and forth. 2. There was no such quick movement as is now possible. The roads were rudely made and ill kept. People travelled chiefly by their own conveyances. In 1756 the first stage ran between New York and Phila delphia, and was three days making the journey. Those who travelled by sloop-packets were dependent on the winds. They might be three days in going from New York to Providence, Rhode Island, and they might be three times as long. 3. The mails were carried mainly on horseback, and connected the line of settlements regularly from Ports mouth, New Hampshire, to Philadelphia. South of Philadelphia the rider went only when he had collected what he thought enough matter. In North Carolina the mail passed through the coast towns only about once a month. The different colonies had also their separate postal arrangements within their own borders. I74 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 4. The people in different parts of the country de pended for news chiefly on the letters which they received. The newspapers did not at first tell much of what was going- on in the places where they were published. They contained advertisements and news about European affairs, copied from the London papers. The first newspaper was the " Boston News Letter," established in 1704. In 1763 there were only between thirty and forty newspapers in the entire country. 5. The printer, who was often the postmaster, did not usually write many articles himself. He printed letters written to him by his fellow-townsmen, and these letters told what the writers thought of the government or of public affairs. Thus, when the colonies began to have common interests, the newspaper came to be of importance. 6. The dangers which threatened the colonies had more than once led them to seek some union among themselves. This is seen in the confederation of the New England colonies, in the congress held in New York after the destruction of Schenectady, and in the congress held at Albany in 1754. These all arose from difficulties with the Indians. 7. Franklin, who was a delegate from Pennsylvania to this last congress, drew up a plan on his way to Albany for a more perfect union of all the colonies under one government. When he met the other delegates he found that some of them had drawn up similar plans. There was a growing belief that some union was necessary. 8. The congress at Albany discussed the matter, and agreed upon a plan which was mainly that of Franklin. This plan was rejected both by the English govern- ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 175 ment and by the separate colonies. England thought it gave too much power to the people; the colonies thought it gave too much power to the President, who was to be an officer of the crown. 9. After all, there was too much difference in the size and importance of the different colonies to permit them to agree upon any union. The small colonies were jealous of the great ones ; there were many quarrels over boundaries; they were not all in equal danger from the Indians. It was only when they were all in danger that they could forget their differences and unite in a common cause. 10. They were all a part of the British Empire, and they had the independence and love of liberty which belonged to Englishmen. Twice since America began to be settled by English men and women, the people of England had resisted the government because it was unjust and was taking away their liberty. More than once in the American colonies the people had risen when they thought their liberties in danger. 11. The people in America had so long made their own laws and, for the most part, chosen their own rulers, that they had grown more independent and more free. Yet very few ever thought of an entire independence. They might have continued long in this way but for the course which England herself pursued. It was England that drove the American colonies into independence. 12. In the first place, the English did not know much about America, or understand the people there- They knew there was a vast country beyond the sea which belonged to England, and that it was growing rich. They were like landlords* who own distant farms, and only care to get as much profit as possible out of 176 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. them. They regarded the colonies simply as a market for their goods. 13. The laws made by England to govern the trade of the American colonies were made to increase the wealth of England. The furs brought in by the hunters, the fish caught by the fishermen, the pitch, tar, turpentine, and ship timbers from the forest, must all go to Eng land. In the wild woods of Maine no tree, of more than twenty-four inches diameter at a foot above the ground, could be cut down except for a mast for one of the king's ships. 14. The laws also laid a duty upon exports and im ports. The colonists could trade only with England, and they were required to pay a tax to the government upon all that they bought and all that they sold. If other countries wanted their goods, they must buy them of English merchants. The colonies could not even sell freely to one another. 15. Besides this, England forbade the colonies to carry on manufacturing except in a small way. They might take iron from the mine, but they must send it to England to be manufactured. They paid a tax when they sent their iron ore to England. They paid Eng lish merchants for carrying it, English manufacturers for working it, English merchants for bringing it back, and then another tax to the English government. 16. Thus English merchants and manufacturers grew rich, and were very careful to keep the colonies from trading with other countries. A host of officers were stationed in the American ports to collect the revenue and see that the laws were enforced. The colonists were impatient under these restraints; but they were prosperous, and paid the taxes out of their abundance. f HE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL 177 17. The long extent of sea-coast and the scattered population made it easy to smuggle goods into the country. In New England, especially, a great trade was carried on in this way and large fortunes were made, so that the complaints against the revenue laws were not so loud as they might otherwise have been. CHAPTER IV. THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL. Ad'vocate-Gen'eral. An officer of the government who repre sents it in cases brought before the courts. Effigy. A figure in imitation of a person. To hang or burn in effigy is to hang or burn a stuffed figure intended to represent the hated person. Direct Tax. A tax collected di rectly from a person, as a poll tax, or a percentage upon his property. An indirect tax is one which is collected on the value of goods, and thus is usually added to the price of the goods by the owner. A duty on importations is an indirect tax. l. The French and Indian War was a part of the Seven Years' War between England and France. When peace came, England was mistress of America, but she was also heavily in debt. She looked around for means to pay the debt, and to lessen the burdens which Englishmen were bearing in England. The American colonies offered the easiest means. 2. The colonies had taxed themselves to meet the expenses of the war in America. The English govern ment declared that the war had been fought mainly to benefit the colonies, and that the colonies ought to pay still more. It determined to enforce more strictly those laws of trade which had hitherto brought in so much revenue. 1?$ THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 3 The authority of the king's officers in the ports was increased, and they were armed with Writs of Assist ance. These were legal papers which gave those who held them power to enter any warehouses or dwellings, to search for smuggled goods which they might suspect to be hidden there. 4. There is a saying in English law, " An English man's house is his castle ; " that is, he has rights there which the king is bound to respect. If these writs were given, the people knew that their houses would be entered by the king's officers on the merest suspicion. They said that the writs were illegal, and they deter mined to prove this in the courts. 5. In 1 76 1 the collector of the port of Boston ordered his deputy in Salem to procure a Writ of Assistance from the court, to enable him to search for smuggled goods. Objection was raised that it was against the law to give the writ, and the judge decided to hear arguments be fore he issued it. 6. James Otis, Jr., was advocate-general of the prov ince. It was his duty to defend the legality of the Writ of Assistance. He resigned his office rather than take that side, and appeared in behalf of the people. It was a famous trial ; and Otis in his speech used the words, " Taxation without representation is tyranny." 7. This sentence became a watchword in America during the exciting times which followed. The people meant by the phrase that they were as much English men as those who lived in England. They said that for England to tax them without giving them a voice in making the laws, either in parliament or in their assem blies, was to treat them as if they were a subject people. They were willing to grant money to the crown. That THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL. m was a different thing from being compelled to pay what the crown demanded. 8. But England was determined to tax the colonies. The king's chief adviser proposed to parliament to pass an act by which all deeds, contracts, bills of sale, wills, and the like, made in America, should not be legal unless they bore stamps upon them. These stamps were to be sold by the government through its officers. 9. The Stamp Act, as it is called, was passed by parlia ment in March, 1765, against the remonstrance of the best friends of the colonies, both in and out of parliament. At that time it was the custom of the different colonies to employ agents, who lived in London and looked out for the inter ests of the colonies which sent them. Benjamin Franklin was one of these agents, and his words had great weight with the wiser Englishmen. 10. As soon as it was known that the Stamp Act was passed, the colonies, from one end of the land to the other, were full of indignation. Parliament, they said, might make laws to regulate the commerce of the em pire, and so draw revenue from America ; but it had no right to lay a direct tax like this. Only the colonial governments, elected by the people, could lay such a tax. 11. In the Virginia legislature a famous orator, Pat- stamp 180 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. rick Henry, introduced resolutions, which declared that the people, and the people only, had the right to tax the people. They had this right, not as colonists, but as Englishmen. They had their own assemblies, where they could vote the taxes. 12. Many of the members objected to the resolutions, fearing that they were too emphatic. Patrick Henry replied with a pow erful speech. In the midst of it he exclaimed: "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third" — " Treason ! trea son ! " cried some of the excited mem bers. Henry waited a moment, then added solemnly - — " may profit by . their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." 13. The Massachusetts legislature proposed a general convention of all the colonies, which met at New York in October, 1765. Nine colonies took part in it, and sent their most distinguished men. For the first time the whole country had a common cause, and there was need that the people should consult together. 14. Congress, as the convention was called, drew up Patrick Henry. THE BEGINNING OF THE QUARREL. 181 a declaration of rights. The people of the colonies, it said, had the same rights as the people of England. It was the right of Englishmen to be taxed only by their own consent. This consent was given through represen tatives. Englishmen had their parliament ; the people in the different colonies had their assemblies. The assem blies had the sole power to lay taxes in America. 15. Congress demanded the repeal of the Stamp Act ; and the people everywhere showed their determination to support this demand. They declared that until the act was repealed, they would not import English goods. They held fairs to encourage home manufactures. They would not eat mutton, so that they might have more wool to spin. They would not wear mourning, because all mourning goods came from England. 16. When the stamps were received in America it was impossible to compel the people to use them. The officers who were to supply them were sometimes made to resign, sometimes hung or burned in effigy; copies of the Stamp Act were publicly burned, bells were tolled, flags hung at half-mast; and in some towns mobs de stroyed the houses of the revenue officers. 17. The effect was felt in England, where a small party in parliament upheld the colonists. In the House of Commons William Pitt uttered the memorable words : " The gentleman tells us that America is obstinate, America is" almost in open rebellion. Sir, I rejoice that America has resisted ! Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to sub mit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest." 18. The British ministry had before asked Franklin how the people in America would regard the Stamp 182 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Act He told them that the people would never submit to it. Now the ministry sent for Franklin again, and asked him if he thought the people would pay for the damage done in the destruction of the stamped paper if parliament would repeal the Stamp Act. 19. Franklin replied with a characteristic story. A Frenchman, he said, rushed into the street once with a red-hot poker in his hand, and met an Englishman. " Will you let me run this poker a foot into you ? " screamed the Frenchman. " What ! " said the English man. "Well, six inches, then?" "Never!" "Then will you pay me for the trouble and expense of heating the poker? " The Englishman walked off. 20. The Stamp Act was repealed; for the English government saw that it was impossible to enforce it. Mara, At the same time parliament took care to say 1766. t^at jt fad the right to tax the colonies. In America people were overjoyed at the repeal of the act, and did not trouble themselves much about the claims which parliament might set up in words CHAPTER V. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. East India Company. A cor poration in England, formed like thp Dutch companies, for trading with the East Indies. It laid the foundation of English rule in India. Quar'tered. Given quarters or house-room among the people. 1. In England discussion about America was chiefly in parliament, which was made up of members chosen by a few persons in the different boroughs. Govern- THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 183 ment in England was then in the hands of a small class only. The people at large were not supposed to have anything tc do with the laws except to obey them. Thus there were very few in England who knew much or cared much about the colonies. 2. It was different in America. The Stamp Act and similar laws affected the liberty and property of the whole people. Everybody was interested in discussing them. These matters were talked over in the legisla ture of each colony, in town-meetings, in newspapers, in private correspondence, at every village tavern and country store. 3. Scarcely had the excitement over the Stamp Act passed away, when another cause for complaint arose. Parliament passed an act by which the colonies r J 1767. were to support the troops quartered upon them. It also imposed certain duties on colonial trade, and declared that the revenue from these duties should be used to pay the salaries of officers of the crown in America. 4. To compel the colonies to maintain troops quar tered upon them was to treat them as if they were a conquered people. To pay the salaries of officers of the crown out of the money received from duties was to make these officers independent of the colonial govern ment. But the colonies insisted upon having full con trol of their affairs, and of all persons who carried on the government among them. 5. The principal places affected by these acts were New York and Boston. The Assembly of New York refused to make provision for the troops, and parlia ment ordered the Assembly to close. Massachusetts sent a circular letter to the other colonies, proposing a 1 84 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. petition to the king. This petition protested against acts of parliament which taxed them without their consent. 6. The answer of the king's ministers was to send four regiments of soldiers to Boston. The people there, both in town-meeting and in the legislature, demanded VICINITY OF BOSTON CnARLESTOWN.ETC on an enlarged scale. that the troops should be withdrawn. They were a constant cause of irrita tion; and the petty -quar rels between the soldiers and townspeople broke out March 5, finally into a fight in which some of the towns- irro- people were killed. 7. This fight, which goes by the name of the Boston Massacre, produced an intense feeling of anger. For several years the 5th of March was a day for a great THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 185 town-meeting and an oration by some Boston patriot. By such meetings and addresses the people kept alive the memory of a wrong, and encouraged one another to resist tyranny. 8. Samuel Adams, a patriot who had great influence, especially among the plain working-men of Boston, headed the citizens in a demand for the removal of the troops. The gover nor, Thomas Hut chinson, seeing the entire community aroused, was wise enough to order the troops to be re moved to the fort in the harbor, called the Castle. But the people were fast coming to look up on the English gov ernment as hostile. 9. England now committed a blunder which brought affairs to a crisis. The colonies, by their firmness, had compelled parlia ment to remove one tax after another; that on tea alone remained. The people accordingly refused to buy tea, although formerly they had bought large quantities. The East India Company found itself with seventeen million pounds of tea in its English warehouses, which it could not sell. 10. The failure of the company would greatly im- Samuel Adams. 1 86 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. poverish the king, who owned shares in it. It became necessary to do something to relieve the company. Accordingly Lord North, the king's chief adviser, per suaded parliament to pass an act taking off the tax of sixpence a pound which the tea paid in England. 11. It was supposed this would so reduce the price of tea that the Americans would not mind the tax of three pence per pound which was still to be paid in America, and would buy largely. The company was shrewder than Lord North, and asked to be allowed to pay the English tax, but to land the tea, free of duty, in America. " No," said the king, " there must be one tax, to keep up the right." 12. As soon as the colonies learned of the act of par liament, there was great indignation. It was not cheap tea that they wanted, but untaxed tea. They saw the English government taking off the tax in England, but keeping it on in America. They knew that this was intended by the king as a declaration of his right to tax the colonies. When the vessels bringing the tea reached America, the citizens in many of the ports compelled the captains to sail back with their cargoes to England. 13. In Boston the royalist governor attempted to enforce the landing of the tea. The citizens, under the lead of Sam Adams, as he was popularly called, would not permit it. For twenty days the committee of the people strove to compel the governor to send back the vessels. Faneuil Hall, where the t jwn-meetings were held, was crowded day after day with people who met to consult. 14. At last, in the twilight of a December day, when the people were gathered in the Old South Church, because Faneuil Hall was not large enough, a messenger ¦ THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 1 87 came from the governor with his final refusal. Sam Adams stood up and declared, "This meeting Dec. 16, can do nothing more to save the country." A 1773' voice in the gallery called out, " Hurrah for Griffin's Wharf! " 15. It was at Griffin's Wharf that the tea-ships lay. Immediately the people poured out of the church and hurried after a party of young men disguised as Indians, who set up a war-whoop. These men took possession of the vessels, seized the tea-chests, broke them open, and poured the contents into the harbor. 16. As soon as the news reached England, Lord North brought into parliament a bill, which was passed, order ing that after the 1st of June no person should load or unload any ship in the port of Boston until the town apologized, and paid for the tea which had been de stroyed. The Boston Port Bill, as it was called, was the punishment which the British government inflicted on the rebellious town. 17. To close the port of Boston was to strike a severe blow at the prosperity of the town and of the entire colony. When the act went into operation, the bells were tolled and the people hung out mourning. Jimel Throughout the country there was the great- 1Tr4: est sympathy shown for Massachusetts. The other colonies urged the Bostonians to remain steadfast, and showed their sympathy by gifts of money and provisions. 188 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER VI. THE FIRST FIGHTING. Outskirts. The border of a town. Com'mon. A piece of ground in a town, left unenclosed for the common use of all the people in the town. l. When the port of Boston was closed, a British fleet lay at the entrance, and regiments of British soldiers oc cupied the town. A still severer blow was struck at the liberties of the people. Parliament had passed two acts for the regulation of the government of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 2. By these acts nearly all the power was lodged in the hands of the governor and of officers appointed by the king or governor. The people could hold town- meetings only once a year. The courts had power to send prisoners to England or to other colonies for trial, instead of being required to try them before juries of their neighbors. 3. The people now knew that they had something more to struggle for than freedom from taxation. They were to contend for rights dear to every free English man, and they proceeded at once to take measures to assert those rights. Since parliament chose to take from them their customary government, they would make a new government. 4. The people in Massachusetts, as in the other col onies, had been used to acting according to law. So now, when they rebelled against the government, they went about the business, not as if they were breaking laws, but as if they were keeping them. They were THE FIRST FIGHTING. 189 forbidden to have more than one town-meeting a year. In Boston, accordingly, they had only one, but by ad journing from time to time they made it last all the year. 5. The colonies all had committees of correspond ence, and kept one another informed by letter of what was going on. Massachusetts now invited the other colonies to send delegates to a congress at Philadelphia. This is known as the First Continental Con- sept. gress. All the colonies were represented ex- im cept Georgia. They drew up an address to the king, set ting forth their griev ances, and formed an agreement to refuse to carry on any trade with Great Britain until their wrongs should be righted. 6. Meanwhile, in Massachusetts, General Gage, the governor, re fused to recognize the legislature chosen by the people. There- 1 upon the legislature formed itself into the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, and withdrew from Boston to Concord. This Congress was regarded by the people of the colony as the real government ^ im It appointed a Committee of Safety, who met frequently and had power to act in any emergency. 7. The towns had always had their militia companies. Now these were newly organized, under patriotic cap- Carpenters' Hall, where the First Congress met. 190 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. tains, and everywhere was seen an active training and drill. General Gage, on the other hand, began to move his soldiers back and forth, to fortify Boston, and to secure the cannon and powder which might be in the province. 8. The Provincial Congress had collected military stores in Concord. General Gage, who had made un successful attempts in other directions, planned a secret night excursion to Concord to destroy the stores. But he was in the midst of a hostile and vigilant people, and his plans were discovered in season to warn the Committee of Safety. 9. Among the means taken by the patriots to warn the country was a signal of lanterns hung from a church tower in Boston. Messengers rode by night through the country, carrying the news that British soldiers were marching to Concord, and people took down their mus kets and hurried to join their neighbors. 10. Thus, when the British troops, early in the morn ing of the 19th of April, reached Lexington, two-thirds April 19, of the way to Concord, they found a small body 1775. 0f countrymen, under Captain Parker, drawn up on the common to dispute the way. Captain Parker had given orders not to fire unless they were fired upon. The British troops rushed upon them, firing, and calling upon the rebels to disperse. 11. The little band of patriots retreated slowly, return ing the fire as they went ; and the British kept on to Con cord, where they began to destroy the military stores. They were interrupted by the sound of firing near Con cord bridge. A portion of the troops had been stationed there ; and those who had been sent beyond the river now left their work of destruction and turned back. 12. They found there had been a fight going on at the THE FIRST FIGHTING. IQI bridge. The whole country-side had been roused. The news of the attack at Lexington had spread like wildfire. Companies of minute-men, so called because they were to be ready for movement at a minute's notice, had poured into Concord and met the British at the bridge. The colonial militia had attacked the king's troops. 13. The British forces began a retreat toward Boston, bearing their dead and wounded with them. All the way, from behind stone walls and from houses, the angry -rYSfr&ST-. The Retreat from Lexington. farmers harassed them with shot. They did not desist until the troops had crossed Charlestown Neck at sunset and were safe under the guns of the British vessels. 14. The news of the fight travelled swiftly. There were no railways or telegraphs in those days, but every 192 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. man sent word to his neighbor, and one town rallied the next. The farmers left their ploughs, and the artisans their tools. They took their guns and horses, and marched straight to Boston. 15. The women were full of patriotism. A mother had two boys, one nineteen, the other sixteen years of age. Her husband was at sea. She gave her eldest boy his fowling-piece; and since the duck and goose shot were too small, she cut up her pewter spoons and hammered the pieces into slugs. She had only a rusty sword for the younger boy, but she sent them both off to join the men. 16. All through the 19th of April and the night that followed, the tramp of men and horses was heard on the roads. They came from every quarter; and on the morning of the 20th a great company had gathered at Cambridge, upon the outskirts of Charlestown, and at Roxbury. Boston was surrounded by camps of patriots. 17. Every day their numbers were swelled by new comers. Each company of soldiers chose its own offi cers, and was under the general orders of the colony to which it belonged. The oldest-commissioned and most experienced officer was Artemas Ward, who commanded the Massachusetts troops at Cambridge. 18. Upon a monument which stands near the scene of the little battle of Concord, are four lines from a poem written by the American poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson, to commemorate the event: — " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world." OPEN WAR. I Q3 CHAPTER VII. OPEN WAR. Par'apet. A fortification, breast-high. 1. THE Continental Congress, which had sat for six weeks the previous autumn, now met again at Phila delphia. It is called the Second Continental MaTi0] Congress. The Provincial Congress of Massa- m5- chusetts sent a letter recounting the affair at Lexington and Concord. It asked the Continental Congress to take charge of the army which was gathering about Boston, for troops were there from other colonies. 2. Thereupon the Continental Congress assumed con trol of the military operations of all the colonies. It unanimously elected George Washington, of Junel5 Virginia, General and Commander-in-Chief of 1775- the Army of the United Colonies. On the 17th of June it was agreed to raise two million dollars in the different colonies to meet the expense of the army. 3. The delegates to the Congress were by no means ready to separate the colonies from England. They were bent only on maintaining the resistance which had been made, until England should right the wrongs of the colonies. Washington immediately set out for Cambridge. When on his way to tiiyt place he heard an important piece of news. 4. On the evening of the 16th of June the ComrmrAe ••! of Safety had sent troops to Charlestown, for they had heard that the British meant to occupy that place, '3 194 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. There they had thrown up fortifications upon a hill com manding Boston. The part of the hill nearest Boston was called Breed's Hill; behind it rose Bunker Hill. 5. The British had been unwilling to make an attack upon the camps about Boston, for that meant open war; but such a movement as this could not be overlooked. As soon as they espied the Americans intrenched, they sent troops across the river from Boston to dislodge them. 6. Three times the British regulars rushed up the hill. Twice they were driven back by the countrymen, who from behind a rude parapet and a rail fence coolly fired upon the redcoats. Then the Americans' ammu nition gave out; and when the third attack came, they fired stones from their guns and slowly retreated, leaving the British in possession. 7. The battle of Bunker Hill had been fought. The Americans, led by Prescott and Putnam, had lost their June 17, brave General Warren ; and about four hundred m5" and fifty men had been killed, wounded, or cap tured. The British loss was more than twice as great. It was a bold movement of the Americans, and the colo nial militia had stood the fire of the British regulars. When Washington heard this, he took fresh courage. 8. On the 3d of July Washington took command of the American army, beneath an elm still standing by July 3, Cambridge Common. He found a crowd of 1775. brave, undisciplined soldiers, ill provided with arms, ammunition, and provisions. His first business was to organize them into an army, while he kept watch of the British in Boston. ^ a The Brfnsh army^sid,not come out from the town; ' Oct. 17, hut some of the vessels which blockaded the im- harbor were sent down the coast and burned OPEN WAR. I9S George Washington, Father of his Country. j Born February 22, 1732 ; died December 14, 1799. the town of Falmouth, now Portland. This was a direct act of war. It did much to weaken the lingering hope 196 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. of some Americans that the trouble was confined to Boston, and that there would be no general war. 10. Meantime the Americans had not been idle else- The Washington Elm and Headquarters where. Ethan Allen, at the head of a party of moun- Mayio,i& taineers, surprised the British garrison at Fort 1775- Ticonderoga, and captured that fort, as well as Crown Point. These were on the old route to Canada ; and men who had fought in the French and Indian War were eager to get possession of that country. 11. Two expeditions were planned. General Mont gomery moved down Lake Champlain and captured Fov. 12. Montreal. Benedict Arnold secured Washing ton's approval, and with some of the forces 1775. which were besieging Boston, made a terrible march OPEN WAR. 197 through the wilderness of Maine to the St. Lawrence. He followed the plan Wolfe had adopted, and occupied the Plains of Abraham. 12. Arnold reached Quebec just as Montgomery entered Montreal. It was intended that the two armies should unite; but Arnold could not hold his position, and retreated to a less exposed place. After Montgomery arrived from Montreal, an attack was made upon Quebec ; but it was disastrous. Montgomery was killed, the British army was reinforced, and the Ameri cans were obliged to abandon Canada. 13. At the beginning of 1776 Washington, by the help of Congress, had succeeded in getting the army into shape. It was no longer a collection of little co lonial armies. On the 1st of January he hoisted the Union flag, in compliment to the United Colonies. The present flag was adopted June 14, 1777. Arnold's Route. I98 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 14. If any still hoped that England would yield, they were convinced that the hope was vain when they heard how the address of Congress to the king had been re ceived. The king returned no answer, but notified par liament that the colonies were in a state of rebellion. He announced that he should at once increase his forces in America and crush the rebellion. 15. Early in March, Washington was ready to drive the British out of Boston. He now had cannon, which had been dragged over the snow from Ticonderoga, and he proceeded to cccupy Dorchester Heights, overlook ing the harbor. General Howe, who had succeeded General Gage, saw that he must fight at a great dis advantage or abandon the town. 16. He gathered his forces, took to the fleet, and sailed away. With him went those families which had remained loyal to the king. The siege of Boston was raised. There was now open war between the two countries ; but after this Massachusetts scarcely knew the presence of soldiers. It became the policy of England to strike at the heart of the colonies. CHAPTER VIII. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Moultrie (Moo'trl1). I on one side only. Such sheets often Broad'side. A large sheet printed | took the place of newspapers. 1. When General Howe left Boston he carried his army to Halifax; but it was well understood that his plan was to take possession of New York. The patriots there had been busy, ever since the fight at Concord, THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 1 99 raising an army and throwing up fortifications. Wash ington hurried forward his troops, and prepared to defend the town and the mouth of the Hudson. 2. Meanwhile the British had sent an expedition to secure the Southern colonies. The fleet appeared off the harbor of Charleston, but the people erected de fences with great energy. When the British made their attack, Colonel Moultrie, commanding at Sulli- June 28, van's Island, gallantly repulsed them. They 1776- could not capture the town, and so sailed away for New York, where they were to join Howe. 3. All this time the Second Continental Congress was in session at Philadelphia. Every fresh attack by the British, and every new sign that the king meant to crush out the rebellion, increased the ardor of those who believed that the Americans should not stop short of independence. 4. The colonies had a Congress ; they had raised an army, and even started a navy ; they had a flag ; they had fought battles. Still there were many who clung to the hope that difficulties might yet be settled and the old relations with England restored. 5. At last Congress agreed to consider definitely the question of independence. Then it took a recess of four weeks ; this was to give the delegates an opportu nity to go back to the people and learn what was the general judgment. When the members returned to their seats, there was no longer any doubt what course should be pursued. 6. In different parts of the country, in town-meetings, county meetings, and provincial congresses, resolutions were passed declaring that the time had come for the colonies to separate from Great Britain. The people 200 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. were already organizing new governments in the differ ent colonies, and they called for a general government of the whole country. 7. On the second day of July, 1776, therefore, the resolution was passed in Congress, " that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." 8. Two days later, Congress adopted a Declaration of Independence, written mainly by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. It declared what were the natural rights of all men; it recited the acts of George III., King of Great Britain, by which he had abused his authority over the colonies and deprived them of their rights and liberty. 9. It reminded the world how patiently the colonies had borne their injuries. It told of the petitions they had addressed to the king, which had no answer except new injuries. It showed that the colonies had appealed, not to the king only, but to their brethren, the people of England ; but that all had been in vain. 10. Therefore, as representatives of the UNITED States of America, in general congress assembled, the delegates published this declaration of the inde pendence of the States. They appealed to the Supreme Judge of the world, and ended with these words : " With a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." [See Appendix.] 11. The Declaration was agreed to on the 4th of July. Later in the session it was signed by John Hancock of Massachusetts, President of Congress, and by fifty-five THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 20 1 delegates from the thirteen colonies. Every man who signed it knew that if independence were not secured he would be in peril of being hanged as a rebel and traitor. 12. A great crowd was gathered before the State House in Philadelphia, where Congress held its ses- Independence Hall, 1776. sions. From the balcony the Declaration of Indepen dence was read, and the bell in the tower rang out the news. From that time the State House began to be called Independence Hall. The 4th of July has ever since been celebrated as the birthday of the nation. 13. The Declaration was proclaimed also at the head of the army and in each of the States. It was printed as a broadside, and scattered everywhere. Wherever it was read the people showed their approval. They tore down the king's arms from the public offices, and. in New York pulled down a leaden statue of King George. 202 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER IX. THE STATES AND CONGRESS. Kosciusko (Kos-si-Hs'ko). Kalb. Sometimes De Kalb. Steuben (StoVben). Marquis de la Fayette (Mar-kec1 deh lah Fah-yeD). But the Eng lish form (Mar'kwis) is commonly used, and the French name writ ten as one word, Lafayette. l. HERETOFORE each colony had been governed in the name of the king; courts were held and the laws were executed in his name. Now that there was open rebellion against the king's authority, all this must be changed. The people had their legislatures ; they had all the machinery of government; and the colonies quickly formed themselves into states. 2. South Carolina was the first to adopt a constitution for its government. It did this with the distinct purpose March, °f carrying on the government only until there 1776- should be reconciliation with England, for which it still hoped. Rhode Island was the first publicly to declare its absolute independence of the crown. Im- Mayi6, mediately afterwards the Continental Congress OT6- advised all the colonies to set up their own governments. 3. Before the close of 1776, six of the colonies had adopted state constitutions. Three others did the same in 1777. Two only, Connecticut and Rhode Island, continued into the present century to carry on their governments under the old royal charters. 4. The constitutions which the States formed were afterward revised from time to time ; but they all had one feature in common ; ¦ — whereas the charters of the THE STATES AND CONGRESS. 203 colonies derived their authority from the king, the con stitutions of the States recognized the supreme authority of the people ; the people were to elect their own rulers and make their own laws. 5. The States proceeded to manage their own affairs very much as the colonies had done, each indepen dently of the others. But they needed a common power in dealing with the enemy, and a common authority in treating with other nations. The Continental Congress was the most convenient means at first. It had, by com mon consent, brought all the colonial troops into one army, and it had made a declaration of independence in the name of all the colonies. 6. It was clear that Congress could act and speak with power only when all the States were agreed. If they disagreed, there was no higher authority which could keep them together. The war and a common enemy now held them in union ; but that could not last, and Congress recommended that the States should form a confederation. 7. It drew up thirteen articles of confederation, which, when accepted by all, were to be the rules by which the States should be governed in what related to Nov. 15, their common interests. It did not propose 1Tn' that the Confederation should have anything to do with the management of those affairs in each State which concerned only the citizens of that State. 8- To the Confederation they gave the name of the United States of America. The United States was to treat with foreign powers ; declare war; appoint officers in the army and navy; direct military operations ; levy taxes ; fix the standard of money, weights, and measures ; manage Indian affairs, and establish post-offices- 204 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 9. This was in name very much the same authority which the king and parliament of Great Britain had for merly exercised in the colonies ; but it was not the same in power. The States which had just rebelled against the tyranny of the king were very careful not to give the Confederation or Congress too much power; all the States together should not compel any one State to act against its will. 10. Thus, though they called these articles the Arti cles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, they had really formed only a league of friendship. It was the first and most important step toward real union; and the name which they chose, the United States of America, came at last to have a full meaning. At first it meant only that the several States in America were united in a common cause against a common enemy. n. The articles were accepted by eleven of the States in 1778, and by the thirteenth in 1781. Attempts were made to persuade Canada to join the Confederation. But the Canadian people were chiefly Frenchmen, who had little in common with their English neighbors. They had never governed themselves, and made no great objection now to being governed by England. 12. Before the declaration of independence had been made, there had been in Congress what was known as the Committee of Secret Correspondence. Its business was to seek the friendly aid of foreign nations, espe cially of France and Holland: — of France, because she was the enemy of England ; of Holland, because the merchants of that country were rich and might lend money to the United States. 13. This committee had sent agents to Europe. Now that the United States professed to be one of the THE STATES AND CONGRESS. 205 nations of the world, Congress determined to send com missioners to form alliances and make treaties. The States were indeed still a part of Europe. Their com merce was with that country; their manufactured articles came from there. Though they had a country and began to call themselves Americans, the world to them was on the other side of the Atlantic. 14. The one man to whom everybody looked as the representative of America in Europe was Benjamin Franklin. He was now seventy years of age. He was the only American whose name was universally known and honored in Eurcpe. Besides, he had long been an agent for American colonies in England, and he knew, better than any one else," the ways of kings and courts. 15. Franklin was sent to France at the end of 1776. The King of France and his counsellors were not ready to aid the new republic openly, for to do that would be to run the risk of war with England. But the French people were stirred with enthusiasm. Many of their own nation had written of liberty; here was a nation in America fighting for liberty. The Declaration of Independence was read everywhere, and Franklin was received as a hero. 16. There was peace throughout Europe now, after a period of war. Thus there were many soldiers and officers without employment. Great numbers flocked to America to join the army. Some went from love of adventure, some from a sincere enthusiasm for liberty. Among the most notable of the officers were Kosci usko, Pulaski, Kalb, Steuben, and Lafayette. 17. Kosciusko and Pulaski were Poles, who had fought in vain for the freedom of Poland. Kalb was a German, who had recently been a secret agent of France sent to 2o6 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. America to inquire into the condition of affairs there. Steuben was a German, a soldier by profession. He had learned the art of war under the great est of European generals, Frederick the Great, King of Prussia. 18. The Marquis de la Fayette was a young French no bleman, full of fiery zeal for freedom. He gave his money and, though his friends and the court tried to dis suade him, he gave himself; he crossed the Atlantic, and from the first made himself the warm friend of Wash ington. He was a brave, cheerful leader of men. 19. Congress found it hard work to give a place to every French and German officer who applied for service. There was much jealousy shown by Ameri cans. But the best of these foreigners were of great value; they helped in training an army of courageous but unskilled men, and in leading them against the regular troops brought into the field by Great Britain. Marquis de la Fayette. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 207 CHAPTER X. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. — I. Hesse-Cassel (Hess Cds'sel). A principality in the western part of Germany Staten (Statl'en). A Dutch word for " States." Its original form was " Staaten." 1. The people had declared that they were independent of Great Britain. Now they must make good their words by hard fighting. But there were many who did not wish for independence. Some left the country and went to Halifax and to England. Others remained, and either silently or openly took sides with the king. They were called Tories, from the name given in England to the king's party. 2. The party in England opposed to the king's party was called Whig. It grew stronger year by year. In it were men who saw that if the king subdued the Americans he would increase his own personal power. Then Englishmen might lose their liberty, as they had come near losing it under Charles I.t. and again under Charles II. 3. King George III. was a very stubborn man. He refused to listen to wise counsellors, and sent armies to conquer America. He did not care where his soldiers A Soldier In the Continental Army, 208 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. came from, so long as they fought for him; and he. hired whole regiments of men from German princes, especially from the Prince of Hesse-Cassel, whose. subjects were called Hessians. 4. Such was the miserable condition of the common people in many parts of Europe, that these Hessian soldiers were almost as much the property of the prince as if they had been his slaves. He gave them to King George in return for money. The Americans, fighting for their liberty, were made angry by the sight of armies filled with men who had been hired to fight them. 5. When the British expedition failed to get posses sion of South Carolina in the early summer of 1776, it joined the main army near New York. The American army was intrenched on Long Island and the heights overlooking New York when the British fleet entered the harbor and landed troops on Staten Island. 6. Here they lay for a while ; and General Howe and his brother Admiral Howe, who were in command, held negotiations with Washington. They had been instructed to propose conditions of peace, but they had no author ity to grant independence, arid Washington refused any other terms. The whole British army then crossed the bay, and landed on Long Island, south of Brooklyn. 7. The larger part of the American army was posted in what is now the heart of Brooklyn. Earthworks ex tended from Wallabout Bay, the site of the present Navy- Yard, to near the site of the South Ferry. General Israel Putnam was in command ; but his army was much inferior in number and equipment to the British army. 8. A line of low hills served as a natural fortification for the American camp ; but a division of the British army by a circuitous march gained the rear of the Amer THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 209 icans and defeated them in the battle of Long Island, August 27. Rain then fell heavily, and on the night of the 29th Washington, under cover of the fog, skilfully withdrew his men to the New York side. 9. It was impossible to hold New York against the fleet as well as the army. For more than a fortnight Washington, as he retreated slowly up the island of New York, kept the enemy at bay. It was during this retreat that an event occurred which ¦ showed how much Americans were willing to ven ture, and how bravely they could die for the cause in which they had engaged. 10. A young Connecticut soldier, Captain Nathan Hale, had volunteered to go within the British lines on 14 2IO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Long Island, that he might learn the position of the enemy. On the way back he was arrested. No trial was allowed him. He was not shot like a soldier, but was hanged. " I only regret," he said, as he was about to die, " that I have but one life to give for my country." 11. General Howe was now in possession of New Vork; and the place remained in the enemy's hands Execution of Nathan Hate during the rest of the war. Washington first took up his Oct. 28, position at Harlem, and then retreated to White 1776. piajnSi where were some military stores. Howe attacked him here and forced him back, but did not pursue his advantage. Washington withdrew across the Hudson River, knowing that the enemy would aim for Philadelphia. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 21 1 12. In this retreat it became necessary to a6andon Fort Lee on the west bank of the Hudson, as Fort Washington on the east bank had been attacked, and its garrison of twenty-five hundred men compelled Nov. 15 to surrender. This gave the British control of 1776- the river. Washington retreated slowly through New Jersey, followed by the enemy, until early in Decem ber he crossed the Delaware River near Trenton. Howe now thought the campaign over, and went into winter quarters. 13. The succession of disasters, beginning with the battle of Long Island, greatly discouraged the Ameri cans. The army was very imperfectly clad and equipped. Many of the soldiers marched with bare, bleeding feet along the frozen roads. The people in New Jersey were in a panic, and in many cases accepted the pardon offered by Howe. 14. Washington had made a series of masterly re treats. Now he revived the spirits of his countrymen by a brilliant advance. Suddenly, on Christmas Dec. 2e, night, he recrossed the Delaware, surprised the 1776, enemy in their camp at Trenton, and took a thousand prisoners. 15. This bold stroke annoyed and alarmed the British. Cornwallis was sent to capture the American army, but Washington made a forced march, and defeated Jan, 3| and scattered the British forces at Princeton. imr- There were only eight days between the two battles. Washington then went into winter quarters at Morris- town, a controlling position. Howe, instead of occupy ing all New Jersey, as he had supposed he should, found himself cooped up at Brunswick and Amboy. The whole country was cheered by these successes. 212 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XI. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. — II. St. Leger (Saint Led' jer). Oris'kany. Schuyler (Sk/ler). Her'kimer. l. WHEN the spring of 1777 opened, Howe tried to draw Washington into battle and to force his way to Philadelphia. The American general stopped him at every turn, and at last found himself with no enemy VICINITY OF PHILADELPHIA SCALE OF MILES in front. Howe had withdrawn to New York, em barked his troops on the fleet, and sailed out of the harbor. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 213 2. The Americans had now two dangers to meet. They did not know at what point on the coast General Howe would land his army. They did know that Gen eral Burgoyne had been forming an army in Canada ; and they knew that he would move down the old route into the valley of the Hudson. 3. Washington thought it most likely that Howe would aim at Phil adelphia, the chief place in the coun try, and the seat of Congress. So it proved ; for news came that Howe's fleet had sailed up the Chesapeake, and had landed the army at the head of the Elk River. The enemy was already on the march. 4. Washington, who was encamped near Newtown, twenty miles above Philadelphia, immediately marched his forces southward. He passed through the city, and came face to face with the enemy near Chadd's sept. 11, Ford, on the Brandywine. Here a battle was 1Trr- fought, which resulted in the defeat of the Americans, who retreated toward Chester. 5. Congress was alarmed, and hastily left Philadel phia for Lancaster and afterward for York. The British Gensral Bnrgoyne. 214 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. entered the city; but the main army lay near German- Oct. 4, town. Washington made an unexpected attack 1Trr- upon them, and for a while the Americans were victorious; but a fog confused them, and they were forced to retreat to the hills above Whitemarsh. 6. Howe held Philadelphia, but his fleet could not come up to the city. The Americans had placed obstructions in the river, and manned two forts on the opposite banks. The British bombarded Fort Mifflin furiously for six days, but the little garrison did not desert it until it was knocked to pieces. Then it was impossible to hold Fort Mercer on the Jersey side, and that was abandoned. 7. The British now held Philadelphia and the river approaches. Washington was in camp at Whitemarsh, twelve miles from the city, and Howe tried to draw him into battle. But the American general was too prudent to leave his strong position, and Howe dared not attack him in it. The country was greatly de pressed by the loss of Philadelphia ; but soon a gleam of hope appeared. 8. It was the purpose of the British to cut off New England from the rest of the Confederation. The great highway between the two parts of the country was that narrow belt which lies between the waters of Lake George and the navigable waters of the Hudson. To hold this belt was to hold the gate-way of the north. 9. General Burgoyne left the northern point of Lake Champlain, on his southward way, early in June. He had with him an army of eight thousand men, half of whom were Germans. He was accompanied by Indian allies, and he had forty pieces of artillery. He expected to be met by another British army from New York. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 215 16. His first movement was against Fort Ticon deroga. The Americans had failed to secure a hill which commanded it ; and when Burgoyne took possession of the hill, the garrison evacuated the fort. Burgoyne fol lowed up his success, and General Schuyler, at the head of the American forces, finally made a stand, at Fort Edward. 11. Meanwhile a di vision of the British army had gone up the St. Law rence, and by Lake On tario to Fort Oswego. It was under the command of Colonel St. Leger, and its purpose was to move down the Mohawk valley and join Burgoyne at Albany. Thus all west ern New York was to be subdued to English rule. 12. St. Leger reached Fort Schuyler, formerly called Fort Stanwix, and demanded its surrender. The commander refused. The patriots in the valley MAP OF THE COUNTRY ('. BETWEEN //' MONTREAL ajd NEW Y0tt|g :S> Scale 2l6 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, had already risen, and were marching under General Herkimer to the relief of the fort. At the battle of Oris- kany, Herkimer was killed, but the Americans won the day. St. Leger was stopped, and com pelled shortly afterward to retreat by the way he came. 13. Burgoyne himself met with a check. He sent a Aug. 6, 1777. Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga. detachment to secure some stores ' which the Americans had at Ben nington. The New Hampshire militia and the Green Aug. 16, Mountain men met and defeated the expedition. 1777. They were led by General John Stark, of New Hampshire, who cheered his troops on, when they met the British, with the shout, "There are the red-coats! Before night they 're ours, or Molly Stark 's a widow ! " 14. These successes of the Americans filled them with enthusiasm, and quickened their efforts. The New England States feared that Burgoyne intended to march eastward from the Hudson, and companies from the towns of Connecticut and Massachusetts hurried to join the army. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 217 15. General Schuyler was removed from the head of the army just as all things were ripe for final victory. He was succeeded by Gen eral Horatio Gates, an ambitious, scheming man, who secured the appointment at the right time for his own glory. Burgoyne was defeated in a series of engagements, and sur rendered to Gates at Saratoga, October 17, 1777. 16. General Howe did not send an army up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne, as Burgoyne expected. It was part of the plan formed in London by the king's ministers ; but, by a blunder, orders were sent to Bur goyne to move south to meet Howe, -while Howe re ceived no orders to move north to meet Burgoyne. Of his own accord, indeed, he sent General Clinton up the river, when he heard of Burgoyne's movements. The British forces, however, only went as far as Kingston, destroyed some property, drove the Americans back, and then returned to New York. co»rtT"'y Crown Point and Ticonderoga. 218 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XIL THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. — III. Cabal (ca-baV). A number of per sons joined in a secret plot for their own advancement. Court-MartialfwaMj/fo/). A court within the army for the trial of offences against military disci pline. Marque (mark). Pri-va-teer'. A private vessel fitted out for war purposes. Bon Homme Richard (Bon dm Ree-shar1). Sera'pis. The name of an Egyp tian deity. l. The surrender of Burgoyne proved to be the turn ing-point of the war. It gave artillery and arms to the American army, it encouraged the soldiers, and it made a great impression in Europe. In England the opposition party was strengthened, and men began to Feb. 6, talk loudly of making peace. In France the ms- government no longer held back. A formal alliance was entered into with the United States. 2. While this was going on in Europe, the winter was passing in America and bringing with it severe trials to the American army. The British army was comfortably quartered in New York and Philadelphia. Washington with the principal American forces had gone into winter quarters at Valley Forge, a place chosen as the best point from which to watch the move ments of the British in Philadelphia. 3. The first enthusiasm of the war had been spent. The great men who had sat in Congress were no longer there. Some had been sent on missions to Europe; some were busy in their States. The Confederation had no money. No revenue was coming in, for there 1777-1778. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 219 was but little commerce. Each State needed all the money it could raise from its own citizens. 4. Congress therefore borrowed money abroad and at home. It could only give its promises to pay when peace should come, and these promises seemed to peo ple worth less and less. How could Congress redeem its promises even if peace should come? Congress had no power ; it was only a committee of the States. 5. It was the army, and not Congress, which was to win peace. But there was no money to pay the sol diers or to buy food and clothing for them. The country-people were tempted by the gold of the British, and turned away from the paper money of Congress. Their provisions found their way into Philadelphia, and not to the bleak camp at Valley Forge. 6. In this time of general discouragement, meaner spirits came to the front, and murmurs arose against Washington. A plot was formed by some of the offi cers, which was called from the name of one of them the Conway Cabal. The design was to displace Washington, and put Gates at the head of the army. It was a plot of officers only; the common soldiers took no part in it. 7, The Continental army, half clad, half fed, housed only in canvas tents and a few log huts, wore through the terrible winter in the bleak country. The blood from their naked feet stained the snow. To overcome such misery was to gain fresh courage. 8. The soldiers bore their privations more bravely be cause they saw their great general and his officers. share the same fortune. A few potatoes and some salted her ring made the dinner that Washington ate, and for dessert he had a plate of hickory nuts. Mrs. Washington stayed in camp, and her hope and courage helped the others. 220 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 9. It was at Valley Forge, rather than in great battles, that American patriotism showed most clearly. In the lonely country, too, there was patriotism. The women were doing men's work, because the men were in the army. The letters which travelled between the camp and the country farms are records of patient endurance. Death of a Sentinel at Valley Forge 10. It was then that Steuben came, and with wonder ful skill trained and drilled the ragged regiments. He turned the camp into a great military school. Before the winter was over he had made a solid, well-disciplined May6( army. Lafayette also was there ; and at spring- 1778- time a joyful celebration was held when the news arrived that Congress had ratified a treaty with France. 11. The whole country was cheered by the news. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 221 Fast upon it followed tidings that a French fleet had sailed for America. England, finding herself at war with France, sent to Congress commissioners offering terms of peace. She was willing to forego the right of taxation. But Congress would accept no terms short of absolute independence. 12. The commissioners brought instructions to the British general to concentrate his forces in New York ; and the army under Clinton, who had succeeded juueig, Howe, left Philadelphia. Washington immedi- im ately set his own army in motion to intercept the British. They were marching through New Jersey, when june28, he fell upon them at Monmouth Court House. 1778- 13. The battle of Monmouth was a disastrous one for both sides. It might have been a victorious one for the Americans, but for the failure of Lee, one of the gen erals engaged in the cabal against the commander-in- chief. Washington saved the day, and his army kept the field. From that time his supremacy was unques tioned. Lee was tried by court-martial for disobedience to orders, and was deprived of his command for a year. 14. The British were now concentrated at New York and at Newport, in Rhode Island. Washington took up his position again at White Plains. A fleet ar- Julyi rived from France, and people hoped that it 1778- would blockade New York Harbor. Instead of that it went to Newport, where the English destroyed their vessels to prevent them from falling into the hands of the French. 15. General Sullivan, in command of some American forces in Rhode Island, planned to attack the British at Newport, and depended upon the French fleet to aid him. But a British fleet came from New York, and the 222 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION.. French went outside the harbor to attack it. A great Aug. 29, storm arose which scattered all the vessels. The 1778. British fleet retired to New York, and the French fleet returned to Newport, but afterward put into Boston for repairs ; and General Sullivan, after a gallant fight, was compelled to retreat. 16. At sea there were some remarkable engagements. The Americans had little that could be called a navy; but Congress issued letters of marque to merchant ves sels. Under these letters the captains had authority to make war upon the enemy wherever found. There was of course little commerce possible, and many vessels were thus turned into privateers. 17. The most famous of the captains of such vessels was John Paul Jones. He hovered about the English coast, and wrought such mischief among the merchant men that he diminished the commerce of some ports one-half. Benjamin Franklin, in his familiar papers on frugality, used to begin with the words " Poor Richard says." So when the King of France gave Jones a ship, Jones named it the Bon Homme Richard, which was the French way of saying " Poor Richard." 18. The Bon Homme Richard had a great fight with Sept. 23, the English frigate Serapis off the east coast of 1779. England. The two vessels lay alongside of each other, with the muzzles of the cannon almost touching. Both crews fought bravely ; and so terrible was the fire that when at last the Serapis surrendered, the Bon Homme Richard was just ready to sink. k W C^yy > -^'?vvx CrfSP^ P& -ft Svlsr" 7o""\s- v~>OTilroIugt THE SOUTHERN STATES DURING THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. Scale of ¦ — — . ¦ ¦¦ — mn JIUes THE WAR FOR -INDEPENDENCE. 223 CHAPTER XIII. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE.— IV. Andre1 (An'dreh). De Grasse (Deh Grass). Rochambeau (Ro-sham-bb'). Gloucester (Gigs' ter). l. The British had failed to separate New England from the rest of the Confederation. They now sought to gain a foothold in the Southern States. An expedition was sent by sea, and Savannah was taken at the end of the year 1778. The following year an unsuccessful at tempt to recapture Savannah was made by General Lincoln, aided by a French fleet. In an assault the Americans lost nearly a thousand men, including the brave Pulaski. 2. General Clinton sent an expedition up the Hudson, which captured the half-finished fort at Stony Point. Washington determined to recapture it, and placed General Anthony Wayne, popularly called, for his General Anthony Wayne. 224 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. daring, "Mad Anthony Wayne," at the head of the party. Wayne led his men in the night-time up the July 16, steep, and, in half an hour after the first shot im was fired, captured the fort and all its stores. 3. The seat of war was now mainly in the South. The people there were nearly equally divided in alle giance. Every plantation was an armed camp, and neighbor fought neighbor. It was only so long as an army on either side occupied a district that the district could be said to be for the king or for Congress. 4. In the spring of 1780 the British, after a two months' siege, took Charleston ; they were also in possession of Savannah, and had a large army in the field. At first it was opposed by no American army. But the patriotic planters gathered in companies, and rode here and there under the leadership of daring men like Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. They har assed the enemy, who might be in force, but who could do nothing toward suppressing the patriotic spirit of half the people. 5. At last an American army came down from the North, headed by Kalb. Later Congress sent Gates to take command of all the forces in the South. Gates met Aug. 16, the British under Cornwallis, and was disastrously 1780. defeated at Camden, in South Carolina, where the brave Kalb fell, mortally wounded. The country was greatly depressed ; but worse was to come. 6. Benedict Arnold, a general in the American army, was a man of great courage; but he was a selfish, cruel, and covetous man, and had come under censure for misconduct while in command at Philadelphia. At his request he was transferred to West Point, on the Hudson, a post of great importance. It was strongly THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 225 fortified, and had a great deposit of military stores. Here were gathered some three thousand men. 7. Arnold had long been in secret communication with the British, and now agreed to betray West Point into their hands. He made the final arrangements with Major John Andre, a British officer ; but September. Andre, on his way back to the British camp, 178a was stopped by some patriots. They searched him, Capture of Major Andrfi and found hidden in his stockings papers which revealed Arnold's treachery. 8. Andre" was tried as a spy, condemned, and exe cuted. He was engaged in a detestable busi- 0cfc 2, ness; but the feeling that he was the victim im of a mean man has made Americans generous to his 5. 226 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. memory. Arnold fled before he could be arrested. The British government paid him a large sum of money and gave him a command, but he was despised by the men who had bought him. 9. Arnold's treachery came to nothing, and affairs in the South took a turn for the better. Washington ob tained the appoint ment of General Nathanael Greene in the place of Gates. Greene showed at once the qualities of a great general. He secured addi tions to the weak ened Southern army, and began opera tions against Corn- wallis. 10. In December, 1780, Greene was at Charlotte, North Carolina, and Corn- wallis was in South Greene divided his forces was to hover about the General Kathanael Greene. Carolina, moving northward. into two bodies. His plan British army, and, while avoiding a general battle, to harass the enemy continually. 11. General Greene was in command of one division ; General Morgan, of the other. In front of Morgan was Jan. 17, the British officer, Tarleton, known as a cruel 1781- fighter, who had laid waste much of the country. Morgan chose his position well, fought the battle of THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 227 Cowpens with splendid bravery, put to rout a fourth part of Cornwallis's army, and joined Greene. 12. Now followed a series of masterly movements by Greene, lasting through the winter, the spring, and the following summer. With a small, ill-clad, and ill-fur nished army, he pushed the British from post to post. His final battle with Cornwallis was fought at March 15 Guilford Court House. Although Greene was l78L defeated, Cornwallis retired to Wilmington, North Caro lina, and finally to Virginia. There he was skilfully kept at bay by Lafayette. 13. Meanwhile Washington was threatening New York. He meant to make General Clin ton believe that he intended to attack him from the land, while Count de Grasse, in command of the French fleet, attacked him by sea. This was to prevent Clin ton from sending any troops to Cornwallis. The feint succeeded me siege of Torttown. so well that Clinton instead sent to Cornwallis for troops to aid in the defence of New York. 14. Suddenly the French fleet sailed away for Vir ginia, and Washington with his army made forced marches to Yorktown. Before Clinton knew what was done, the French fleet and the American army held Cornwallis in a trap. Cornwallis now begged Clinton to come to his rescue with ships and men. 228 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 15. The British had thrown up fortifications at York- town and Gloucester, on opposite sides of the York River. The French troops under Rochambeau and the American troops under Washington surrounded the British works, while the French fleet held the entrance to the bay. Surrender of Cornwallis. 16. The disposition of the troops was completed by the end of September, and the siege of Yorktown was begun. Every day there was an advance, and brilliant attacks were made upon the British works. The situa tion of Cornwallis was getting desperate. His ships were on fire ; great numbers of his men were in hos pital; Clinton had not arrived, though he had sent word that he was coming. THE END OF THE WAR 229 17. Cornwallis determined to leave his sick behind him, and remove across the river to Gloucester. Then he meant to break through the small French force stationed behind Gloucester, in the hope of joining Clinton. He began his movement the night of October 1 5 ; but when a portion of his troops had crossed, a storm arose which scattered his boats. 18. It was no longer possible to hold Yorktown, and on the 19th of October, 1781, General Cornwallis sur rendered his whole army to General Washington. On that day Clinton left New York to join Cornwallis. A week later, when off the Virginia capes, he heard the news of the surrender. It was too late for him to be of any service, and he returned to New York. CHAPTER XIV. THE END OF THE WAR. Anon'ymous. With no name signed. 1. The surrender of Cornwallis was accepted both by the Americans and by the English in America as the end of the war. Congress recommended the States to observe a day of thanksgiving for the victory, and everywhere the people were full of joy. They waited impatiently for the two governments to agree upon terms of peace. 2. There were after this a few encounters between the two armies, but there was no general battle. The British still held possession of New York Harbor and 23O THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. the surrounding country. General Washington went into camp with his army at Newburgh, on the Hudson. There he could keep open the communication between New England and the rest of the country. 3. In the South the French allies remained in Vir ginia. General Greene and General Wayne drove such portions of the British army as remained in the Caro- linas and Georgia down to the sea-coast, and shut them up in Savannah and Charleston. There they were protected by their vessels. 4. It was nearly two years before the treaty of peace was finally signed, and they were years of great anxiety to the leaders in America. The army, which had fought so bravely and suffered so nobly, was very ill cared for by Congress. The supplies were insufficient, and the wages neither of officers nor of men were paid. 5. Murmurs arose in camp, and the discontent threat ened to become mutiny. An anonymous letter ap peared, calling the officers to a meeting. With the letter an address was scattered which recited the wrongs suffered by the army. It proposed that if there was to be peace, the army should not disband until it was paid. 6. There was talk of marching to Philadelphia and forcing Congress to provide means to pay the army. The address showed how indignant many were; and Washington knew that if the feeling grew it might March 15, bring serious peril. He made a speech to the im army, and by his wise words persuaded them to address Congress in milder terms. 7. A few days later, Washington was able to announce to the soldiers that the representatives of the United States, France, and England had agreed that hostil- THE END OF THE WAR. 23 1 ities should cease. As a matter of fact, the war for independence had not come to an end at Yorktown. It had been carried on ever since in the British Parlia ment and in Paris. 8. When the news of the surrender of Cornwallis reached England, parliament was just reassembling. The king's friends tried hard to make parliament vote to prosecute the war vigorously, but the opposing party increased in strength and resolution. They compelled the king to dismiss his ministers and take the advice of those who favored the independence of the United States. 9. The king was willing to have peace with his colo nies; he was ready to yield the points which were in dispute when the war broke out, but he was very loath to grant independence. The American commissioners who had been sent to Paris were John Adams, Benja min Franklin, and' John Jay. They declared that they would consider no treaty until independence was ac knowledged. 10. The king was obliged to yield. Then one ques tion after another was raised. The question of boundary was one ; the English wished to keep the Ohio valley and part of Maine. The property of the Tories had been confiscated; England wished it restored. The right to fish off the Banks of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia was a valuable right; England tried to exclude New England fishermen. 11. ,These and other questions caused delay. The delay was increased by the efforts of France and Spain to postpone the final settlement until they should get what they wanted from Great Britain. At last, how ever, by the wisdom and patience of the American 232 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. commissioners, the treaty of peace between England and the United States was signed in Paris, September 3, I783- 12. The English government had already withdrawn its troops from Savannah and Charleston. On 1782 the 25th of November, 1783, the British army evacuated New York. Washington and his officers, and George piinton, Governor of the State of New York, marched into the town with a few companies of soldiers. 13. General Washington had made a farewell address to his army at Newburgh. Now he parted, with deep feeling, from the officers who had been close to him through all the years of the war. Then he returned his commission to Con- Doc 23. gress, which was sitting at Annapolis, and went back, a private citizen, to his estate at Mount Vernon, in Virginia. 14. The army had been breaking up all through the summer, and now it was entirely disbanded. The offi cers and soldiers who had homes returned to them ; but many had no homes. They wandered destitute for weeks and months about the country. Everywhere they found the people restless and uncertain of what was to come. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 233 TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. • I. Condition of the English Colonies at the Close of the French and Indian War. I. Their number and position, I. 1. 2. The derivation of their inhabitants, I. 2, 3; II. 20. 3. Character of the several colonies. a. Massachusetts and New England generally. i. Its location and natural features, I. 5. ii. The occupations of its inhabitants, I. 6-8. iii. The domestic life of a country settler, I. 9-14. iv. The social life, I. 15-18. v. The political life, I. 19-22. b. New York. i. The course of settlement, II. 1. ii. Patroons and tenants, II. 2, 3. iii. Political life, II. 4. iv. The town of New York, II. 5. c. New Jersey, II. 6. d. Pennsylvania. i. The various classes of settlers, II. 7, 8. ii. Philadelphia, its location and character, II. 9-1 1. e. The Southern colonies, II. 17-19. 4. The colonies considered as one country. a. Modes of communication, III. 2-5. b. The common bond of union, III. 1, 6, 9. c. The attempts at organized union, III. 6-8. d. Difficulties in the way, III. 8, 9. II. Causes of the Separation of the Colonies from Great Britain. I. The American training in self-government, I. 19-22; II. 19, 20; III. 10, n ; V. 2. 2. The English ignorance of America, III. 12. 3. The laws of Great Britain affecting America, III. 13-17. 4. The French and Indian War in its effect on the relation between England and the colonies, IV. 1-3. 5. The attempted exercise of unconstitutional authority. a. Writs of Assistance, IV. 3-6. 234 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. b. Taxation without the consent of the people, IV. 6, 7, ;o, 11, 14. c. The Stamp Act, IV. 8-20. d. Quartering of troops in towns, V. 3-8. e. The Tea Taa, V. 9-15. f. The withdrawal of the right of self-government, VI. 1-3- 6. The punishment inflicted by England upon the colonies for their remonstrance, V. 5, 6, 16, 17. III. The Thirteen United Colonies. 1. The first Congress. a. Its call, IV. 13. b. Its declaration of rights, IV. 14. c. The measures taken by it, IV. 15. d. Reception of its action by the king, VII. 14. 2. The English reception of American protests, IV. 17-20. 3. The setting up of independent colonial government. a. Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, VI. 3, 4, 6,8. b. Town-meetings, VI. 4. c. Committees of correspondence and safety, VI. 5, 6. d. Military companies, VI. 7. 4. The Continental Congress. a. Its formation and first session, VI. 5. b. Assumption of general authority, VII. 1-3. c. Appointment of Washington, VII. 3. d. Declaration of Independence, VIII. 5-13. e. Action toward the separate colonies, IX. 2. /. Action toward Europe, IX. 12, 13; XII. 10, 11. g. Its flight from Philadelphia, XI. 3, 5. 5. Formation of State governments. a. Action taken by the colonies, VIII. 6; IX. 1-3. b. Difference between colonies and states, IX. 4, 5. 6. The Confederation. a. Need for an organization of all the colonies, IX. 5, ( b. Character of the Confederation, IX. 7-10. c. Its dealings with foreign countries, IX. 13-15. 7. Aid given by foreign countries, IX. 16-19. IV. The War for Independence. 1. British aggressions before war was declared. a. Attempt to destroy stores at Concord, VI. 8-1 1. b. Burning of Falmouth, VII. 9. c. Movement against the Southern colonies, VII? 2. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 23 5 2. Colonial attacks upon the British power. a. Attack at Concord and on the road to Boston, VI. 11-13, 18. b. The siege of Boston, VI. 16, 17; VII. 8. c. Bunker Hill, VII. 4-7. d. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, VII. 10. 3. The formation of an army, VII. 2, 8. 4, The adoption of a flag, VII. 13. 5. Attempts on Canada, VII. 11, 12. 6. Close of the siege of Boston, VII. 15, 16. 7. Defence of New York, VIII. 1. 8. Preparations made by Great Britain to subdue the rebel lious colonies, X. 3-5. 9. The loss of New York, X. 6-1 1. 10. The campaign in the Jerseys, X. 12-15. 11. The loss of Philadelphia, XI. 1-7. 12. The Northern campaign. a. Object of the British, XI. 8. b. Burgoyne's plan, XI. 9, 10. c. St. Leger and his defeat, XI. 11, 12. d. Defeat of Burgoyne, XI. 13-16. e. Effect of Burgoyne's failure, XII. 1. 13. The winter of 1777-1778. a. The general depression of the country, XII. 2-4. b. The Tory element, X. 1 ; XII. 4. c. The Conway Cabal, XII. 6, 13. d. The sufferings at Valley Forge, XII. 7-9. e. Discipline of the army, XII. 10. 14. The French alliance, XII. 10, 11. 15. Second campaign in the Jerseys, XII. 12, 13. 16. Summer of 1778. a. Action before New York, XII. 14. b. Action at Newport, XII. 15. c. Naval movements, XII. 16-18. 17. English change of operations, XIII. I. 18. Summer of 1779, XIII. 2. 19. The Southern campaign, XIII. 3-5, 10-12. 20. Arnold's treason, XIII. 6-9. 21. Final campaign against Cornwallis, XIII. 13-18. 22. Operations after surrender of Cornwallis, XIV. 1-3, 12. 23. Condition of the army, XIV. 4-6. 24. The transfer of the contest to Europe, XIV. 7-9. 236 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 25. The terms of peace and separation, XIV. 10, 11. 26. The army disbanded, XIV. 13, 14. V. English Support of America. 1. Friends in Parliament, IV. 9, 17; XIV. 8. 2. The Whig party, X. 2. VI. The Foreign Element in the War. 1. On the English side. a. The Hessians, X. 3, 4; XI. 9. b. The Indians, XI. 9. 2. On the American side. a. Volunteer officers from Europe, IX. 16-19. b. The French alliance, XII. 1, 10, 11, 14, 15 ; XIII. 13-15; XIV. 3, 11. VII. The Men of America. 1. Leaders in State. a. Benjamin Franklin, II. 11-14; III. 7, 8; IV. 9, 18, 19; IX. 14, 15. b. James Otis, IV. 6. c. Patrick Henry, IV. 11, 12. d. Samuel Adams, V. 8, 13, 14. e. Thomas Jefferson, VIII. 8. /. John Hancock, VIII. 11. 2. Leaders in Battle. a. George Washington, VII. 2, 3, 8, 15; VIII. 1 ; X. 9, 11-12, 14, 15; XI. 2, 4, 5, 7; XII. 8, 12- 14; XIII. 13, 15 ; XIV. 2, 6, 12, 13. b. Joseph Warren, VII. 7. c. Ethan Allen, VII. 10. d. William Moultrie, VII. 2. e. Israel Putnam, X. 7. /. Nathan Hale, X. 10. g'. John Stark, XI. 13. h. Philip Schuyler, XI. 10, 15. i. Horatio Gates, XI. 15 ; XIII. 5. j. John Sullivan, XII. 15. k. Nathanael Greene, XIII. 9-12 ; XIV. 3. /. John Paul Jones, XII. 17, 18. m. Anthony Wayne, XIII. 2; XIV. 3. 3. The plain people, VI. 14, 15 ; XII. 6-9. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 237 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Writs of Assistance argued by James Otis 1761 Passage of the Stamp Act March, 1765 Convention of the colonies October, 1765 Repeal of the Stamp Act March, 1766 Parliament passed an act establishing military garrisons .... 1767 The Boston Massacre March 5, 1770 Removal of troops from Boston March 10, 11, 1770 Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor . Dec. 16, 1773 Boston Port Bill went into operation . June I, 1774 First Continental Congress met September, 1774 Provincial Congress of Massachusetts met in Concord October, _ 1774 Fight at Lexington and Concord April 19, 1775" Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point .... May 10, 12, 1775 Second Continental Congress met ... ... May 10, 1775 Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief .... June 15, 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill June 17, 1775 Washington took command of the American army . . July 3, 1775 , Falmouth burned by the British Oct. 17, 1775 Montreal captured by Montgomery Nov. 12, 17755 Attack upon Quebec Dec. 31, 1775' Union flag hoisted . Jan. 1 , 1776 Siege of Boston raised March 17, 1776 ' South Carolina adopted a State Constitution .... March, 1776 The colonies advised to set up State governments . . May 16, 1776 Attack on Fort Sullivan June 28, 1776 < Declaration of Independence adopted July \ T77fi Battle of Long Island Aug. 27, 1776 ; Battle of White Plains Oct. 28, 1776 Fort Washington abandoned Nov. 16, 1776; Battle of Trenton . Dec. 26, 1776 Battle of Princeton Jan. 3, 1777 Flag of stars and stripes adopted by Congress . . . June 14, 1777 < Capture of Ticonderoga by Burgoyne July 6, 1777 Howe's fleet left New York July 23, 1777 Battle of Oriskany Aug. 6, 1777 .; Battle of Bennington . Aug. 16. 1777 , Battle of the Brandywine .......... . Sept. ii, 1777 238 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Battle of Germantown Oct 4, 1777 Surrender of Burgoyne . . . Oct. 17, 1777 Ratification of Treaty with France May 4, 1778 British left Philadelphia June 18, 1778 Battle of Monmouth Court House June 28, 1778 Arrival of French fleet .July, 1778 Savannah taken by the British Dec. 29, 177S Capture of Stony Point by the Americans .... July 16, 1779 Fight between the Bon Homme Richard and Serapi? Sept. 23, 1779 Capture of Charleston by the British May 12, 1780 Battle of Camden Aug. 16, 1780 Arnold's treason September, 1780 Execution of Andre . Oct. 2, 1780 Battle of Cowpens Jan. 17, 1781 Meeting of Congress under Articles of Confederation . March 2, 1781 Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown ... ... Oct. 19, 1781 Savannah evacuated by the British July 1 1, 1782 Charleston evacuated by the British .... . Dec. 14, 1782 Treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States signed at Paris ... . Sept. 3, 1783 New York evacuated by the British Nov. 25, 1783 Liberty Bell. Independence HaU WHAT THE WAR COST 239 CHAPTER XV. WHAT THE WAR COST. l. THE war was over, and there were thirteen States in America, independent of Great Britain. There was a general government also. The whole country was called the United States of America. There was a Congress, in which all the States were united. But, after all, the people were not one people. 2. They came from the most stubborn races in Eu rope, and they brought with them the dislikes which they had in the Old World. The Germans hated the Yankees and the Irish; the Scotch despised the Eng lish ; the English distrusted the French ; the Dutch wished to be left to themselves. Each class thought itself the most important, and always in the right. 3. The seven years' war had done something to bring people together from different parts of the country, and to make them acquainted with one another. The com mon danger had made them for a time forget their jealousies and their differences. Now, however, as they went back to their several States, they found everything at home in confusion. Each began to look out for himself, and to forget his neighbors in other States. 4. The army of the United States during the war for independence was called the Continental army. It was under the authority of the Continental Congress. It was paid, when paid at all, in Continental currency. These two words were printed upon the paper money which Congress issued to meet the expense of carrying on the war. 240 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 5. When Congress first issued the Continental cur rency, it seemed to be the only thing it could do. It was what the separate colonies had done before; and how else was it to get money to pay the expenses of the war? It had passed resolutions to have no trade with Great Britain; and if the country sold no goods and bought none, there would be no revenue from duties. 6. A promise to pay is good if the person who prom ises can give security for payment. When Congress issued its bills, the colonies represented in Congress" agreed to redeem the bills, just as they had each been accustomed to redeem their own bills. Nearly every one thought the war would soon be over, and all found the money very useful. 7. By the time independence had been declared, Congress had been obliged to issue bills to the amount of twenty million dollars. It was clear now that every thing depended upon the ability of the people to win independence. The first excitement was passed; the country was poor; it was not certain that the Confed eration would last. Men began to refuse to take the money at the value printed upon it. 8. Congress tried to borrow money in Europe, and succeeded in getting some at high rates of interest. Foreigners were slow to lend, for they were not sure they would ever get their money again. They knew Continental Currency. WHAT THE WAR COST. 24 1 they would not if Great Britain should succeed in sub duing her rebellious colonies. Besides, could they be sure that the United States would pay if -peace came? 9. Here was the great difficulty. The, several States could raise money to meet their promises to pay by taxing their citizens; they could lay duties also on articles of trade. The United States could do neither of these things ; it could only apportion to the several States their share of the public expenses. If the States should refuse to pay, the United States had no power to compel them. 10. The war had been brought on, in part, by the refusal of the people to submit to taxation. True, the watchword was, " No taxation without representation," and they were represented in Congress ; but the idea of taxation was so odious that members of Congress shrank from asking the States to raise money by taxing their citizens. 11. Thus both Congress and the States struggled on, making more paper money and borrowing at high rates of interest. They passed laws requiring people to take the paper money in payment of debts. But the money became less and less valuable; midway in the war it was worth so little that sixteen hundred dollars of it was asked for a suit of clothes. 12. The alliance with France brought more money into the country. It was easier now to borrow in Eu rope, because people there had more confidence that the United States would succeed. Then, too, a man was appointed Superintendent of Finance who had a clear understanding of the mistakes which had been made. This was Robert Morris, of Philadelphia. 13. He accepted the office only on condition that 16 242 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Congress should abandon the attempt to compel the people by law to take the paper money in payment of debts. Congress passed a resolution that it would pay all its debts in solid coin, and recommended 1781. the States to do the same. It chartered the Bank of North America, and this bank lent money both to the government and to people. 14. At the close of the war the debt of the Confed eration was seventy million dollars. The debts of the separate States amounted to nearly twenty-six millions more. Part of this money was due to foreigners, and part to the people of the country. How was the Con federation to pay its debts? 15. One way was through the sale of unoccupied lands. When the Confederation was forming, there was much uncertainty about the western boundaries of the different colonies. Virginia, for example, clajmed country now occupied by Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. It was proposed that the States should give up their western lands to the United States. 16. Virginia was the first to do this; other States followed her example. Congress used this property to pay the debts of the Confederation. It gave lands to officers and soldiers in payment of their claims. Many of these moved out to their lands ; and companies were formed for colonizing, especially in the Ohio valley. 17. Congress could not go much farther. It could say what taxes needed to be laid, and could recommend a uniform rate of duties throughout the country ; but it was obliged to ask the States to lay the taxes, to levy the duties, and then to pay the money thus raised into the treasury of Congress. AFTER THE WAR. 243 CHAPTER XVI. AFTER THE WAR. Quo'rum. Such a number of per- I necessary under its rules to trans- sons present at a meeting as is | act business. 1. WHILE Congress was thus powerless, each State had its regular government and courts of justice, and each had seaports. Its legislature could raise money by taxing its citizens and by imposing duties upon the commerce which came to its ports. The courts could decide what debts were legal, and then it became the business of the sheriff and constables to see that these debts were paid. 2. There were debts everywhere. Not only did the State owe foreign money-lenders and its own citizens, but the people owed one another and foreign merchants. For seven years business had been broken up ; seaports had been closed; there had been scarcely any com merce; a large part of the working people had been serving in the armies. 3. When the ports were again open, England treated the States very much as she had treated the colonies. She sent great quantities of goods over the sea, but required that all produce from America should be brought to her in one of two ways, — it must come either in a British ship or in a ship belonging to the State from which the goods came. 4. England also forbade the British colonies from trading directly with the United States. This was in tended especially to govern the West Indies trade. By 244 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. these various regulations England tried to keep the commerce of the United States in her own hands. 5. The great influx of English goods carried off much of the coin left in the States, for English mer chants would not take paper money. It broke down the feeble manufactories which had been set up when no goods could be had from England. It brought a great many merchants in the States into debt to Eng lish merchants. 6. England made this an excuse for keeping her sol diers in the western military posts. She said it was necessary to do so until the claims of English merchants were paid. There were some in England who believed that the States would yet be brought back to a depen dence upon England, and there were some in America who doubted if the United States could hold together. 7. The separate States tried to get away the Euro pean trade from one another. One State would bid for the trade by offering to receive goods at lower rates of duties. Then two States which were neighbors would make an agreement to secure for themselves trade which might otherwise go to another part of the country. 8. Disorders arose within the separate States. When the courts decided against debtors, the creditors would call on the State authorities to help them collect the debts. The people who owed money and had none to pay saw their goods and cattle taken from them. This enraged them so that they rose in riots against the courts and sheriff. 9. In Massachusetts, Daniel Shays, a captain in the Continental army, headed a body of men who for six months resisted the authority of the State. The western counties of North Carolina undertook AFTER THE WAR. 245 to set themselves up into a State of their own, called Franklin. The part of Virginia which afterward be came Kentucky made a similar attempt. 10. The whole country seemed to be falling to pieces. Congress could with difficulty bring enough members together to form a quorum. Scarcely any one outside paid attention to what it did. Least of all was it re spected by foreign governments. John Adams, who had been sent as minister to England, could hardly get a hearing there. 11. The one act of authority which the Confederation could exercise was in providing for the government of the country which had been ceded to it by the States. This led to the passage of the important Ordinance of 1787. 12. By this ordinance Congress erected all the district northwest of the Ohio into one territory. It appointed a governor and council and judges. The people resid ing in the territory were to choose their own Assembly and make their own laws. The most important pro vision of the ordinance was that by which slavery was forever excluded from the Northwest Territory. 13. It was impossible for the country to go on as it was. The States were separating from one another and from Congress. Yet all the while the people were busy. They were crossing the mountains into the western country. The very attempt of the western counties of North Carolina to make a new State showed that the people insisted upon governing themselves. 14. Just as the people before the war had met in convention, so now they resolved to hold a new one. Virginia spoke earnestly through its legislature, and a convention was called " to take into consideration the situation of the United States." 246 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XVII. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Rat'i-fy. To give assent to. 1. THE convention met in Independence Hall, Phil adelphia, May 14, 1787- and sat four months. The States sent their ablest men. Many of the delegates had been members of the first Congress. Washington Interior of Independence Han. was chairman ; Franklin and Morris were members ; and there were two young men whom the convention was to make famous, — Alexander Hamilton, of New York, and James Madison, of Virginia. 2. There was great difference of opinion among the delegates, but all agreed that it was necessary to give the Confederation greater authority. After long dis- THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 247 cussion the convention drew up a Constitution of the United States, which was to take the place of the Articles of Confederation. [See Appendix, p. v.J 3. The convention reported its work to Congress, and Congress submitted it to the several States. By the terms of the Constitution it must be ratified by nine States before it could become the law of the land. It was to be voted on by conventions of the people called expressly for this purpose. 4. By this means every voter in the country would have a voice in accepting or rejecting the Constitution. At once the Constitution began to be discussed. Every where, in conventions, in assemblies, in town-meetings, in country stores, by firesides, in newspapers and let ters, every article was debated. 5. Hamilton, Madison, and John Jay of New York, wrote a series of essays which went over all the ques tions with great thoroughness. They showed the rea sons for adopting the Constitution, and did much to convince people. These essays were published at the time in newspapers, and afterward were collected into a volume called " The Federalist." 6. Delaware was the first to ratify the Constitution, which it did unanimously. Pennsylvania followed, five days afterward, with a two-thirds vote in Deceml)er( favor. The fight was hardest in Virginia and im- New York ; but these States accepted the Constitution, and then the question was settled. North Carolina . and Rhode Island did not ratify until after the new government was in operation. 7. The change from a confederation to a union was a great step forward. Like the separate States, the Union was to have three great departments of government: 248 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. the legislature, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives, was to make the laws; the President was to execute them ; the courts with their judges were to decide questions about them. 8. Each State in the Union has its own affairs, but the United States has rights and duties which do not belong to the separate States. It has the right to make treaties with other nations, to send ambassadors to them and receive ambassadors from them, to declare war and to make peace ; but no State has these rights. 9. Every right carries with it a duty. The United States has the duty of defending the whole country, or any part of it, against a foreign enemy; it must pro tect its citizens when they are abroad. Therefore it keeps an army and a navy ; it plants forts in its harbors ; it makes rules for the admission of foreigners and for eign goods into the country. These duties belong to no State. 10. The United States has the right to coin and issue money, and to adopt standards of weight and measure. It has the duty of keeping the money of the nation at its declared value; it must prevent all counterfeits of its coin. This right and duty belong to no State. 11. The United States has a supreme right to all the land included within the boundaries of the nation. It has the right to add to the territory by purchase or by conquest. It controls the rivers and harbors ; it occu pies certain places required by the general government, and. places of defence, like forts and military posts. 12. It has the duty, therefore, of providing for the government of territory not occupied by States. It sur veys the coast and explores the territories ; it maintains light-houses ; it keeps navigable rivers free ; it im- THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 249 proves harbors, and keeps order in its capital, forts, ar senals, and navy-yards. No State is charged with these duties. The Mississippi belongs to the nation, and the harbor of New York is not the exclusive property of the State or city of New York. 13. The United States has also a power which belongs to no one State, and it fulfils duties which no one State could fulfil. In its courts a citizen of one State can obtain justice if he has been wronged by a citizen of another State. It also establishes 2 postal service throughout United States Mint. 250 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. the entire country. This is beyond the control of the separate States. 14. Finally, the United States as a nation, formed by the wholepeople; has a right to continue unbroken. It can call upon any or all of its citizens to defend it against any enemy. It has the duty of securing free dom and justice for all its citizens, and of guarantee ing to every State in the Union a republican form of government. 15. Thus the people, when they formed and adopted the Constitution of the United States, established a na tion which was to give the strength of the whole to every part. Every citizen, every family, and every State was to be obedient to the laws of the entire nation; and the nation was to secure freedom and right to every State, every family, and every citizen within its borders. CHAPTER XVIII. THE BEGINNING OF THE GOVERNMENT. 1. As soon as the Constitution had become the law, of the land, the people elected those who were to carry on the government. There could be no doubt who was the first man of the nation, and George Washington was unanimously chosen President; John Adams was chosen Vice-President. 2. Congress met in New York, March 4, 1789. When the different State conventions had discussed the Con stitution, many fears were expressed lest it should make THE BEGINNING OF THE GOVERNMENT. 251 the general government too strong. Some thought the people in danger of losing their liberties, just as they had been in danger when under the king. 3. Congress, therefore, as soon as it got to work, adopted twelve amendments to the Constitution. Ten of these were ratified by the States. They were in tended to guard the freedom of the people against the perils which had beset them just before the war for independence. 4. The most pressing business before Congress, how ever, was to get money to pay the debt of the Con federation. Until arrangements were made for paying it, no one at home or abroad would have much faith in the new nation. 5. Washington had appointed Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton saw in the pay ment of the debt an opportunity to give strength to the United States in the eyes of foreign nations. He saw also that it gave an opportunity to bind the States together in a more perfect union. 6. He proposed that the debt which the Confedera tion owed to foreigners should be paid in full by the Union ; that the Continental currency, which had be come almost worthless, should be received by the gov ernment, and good money given in exchange. The first proposition was adopted unanimously ; the second was adopted after debate. 7. Hamilton proposed also that the debts incurred by the several States in behalf of the common welfare should be assumed by the Union. This proposition caused great debate; for every one saw that if the Union were to pay the State debts, it would, make friends at once of all those whom the States owed. 252 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 8. There were already two parties in the country. The Federalists were those who desired a strong general government. They had from the first urged the people to accept the Consti tution. The party opposed to them was called the Anti- Federalist party. It wished to give more strength to the State governments, and less to the general government. 9 . The Federal ists in Congress were fewer in number, but they had a bril liant leader in Ham ilton, and they acted in harmony. The Anti-Federalists were more numerous, but they were broken up into groups that looked after the interest of this or that State. On this question, however, they were united, and at first they defeated Hamilton's proposition. 10. Hamilton was bent on carrying his point, and took advantage of a dispute about the location of the capital of the country. He persuaded two Virginia Congressmen to change their votes and support his measure. In return he promised to use his influence to have the capital upon the banks of the Potomac River, instead of at some northern point. This change of votes gave him the requisite majority. Alexander Hamilton. THE BEGINNING OF THE GOVERNMENT. 253 11. Hamilton now proposed a bank, of which the government should be a principal owner and by means of which it could borrow money. There were then but three banks in the country. One was in Philadelphia, one in New York, and one in Boston. They were all State institutions. In establishing a bank under 1791 charter from the United States, Hamilton again met opposition from the Anti-Federalists ; but he carried his point. 12. The next step was to raise a revenue. This was done in two ways, -— by imposing duties on goods im ported into the country, and by laying a tax upon the manufacture of spirituous liquors. By the first, the United States declared its right to tax foreigners; by the second, to tax its own citizens. 13. A long step forward had been taken. The people in the colonies had resisted the English government when it had undertaken to tax them. The people of the States, though there was much grumbling, acknowl edged the right of the United States to tax them. This was a government which they had themselves estab lished. 14. One step more was to be taken. The thirteen colonies had become thirteen States, and had now all accepted the Constitution of the United States. Each had its own boundaries and its own government. But the boundaries of the United States extended beyond the boundaries of the States. Out of this territory, stretching to the Mississippi, new States were to be formed. 15. Yet the first new State was formed out of terri tory which was within the boundaries of the old States. It was formed by the United States in the exercise of 254 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. the power which the nation had to determine member ship in the Union. 16. The territory now occupied by Vermont was claimed in part by New York, in part by New Hamp shire. The people living there had fought bravely in the war, under the name of the Green Mountain Boys. They had set up an independent government during the war, and now desired to enter the Union. They settled their disputes with the neigh boring States, and Vermont was admitted as the four teenth State. CHAPTER XIX. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. — I. Cabinet. The President's Coun- I Gin (Jin). The word is probably cil. ! a short form of "engine." 1. WHEN Washington was inaugurated first President of the new nation, Congress held a discussion as to what title should be given him. There were some who thought the title His Excellency was not dignified enough. There were others who did not believe the President would seem any greater if he had such a title as the Old World governments would choose. 2. It was a time when old forms and customs were still patterned after those of England, but when the new habits of a people governing themselves were rapidly changing these forms. Washington and other leaders wore three-cornered cocked hats, and coats with short capes and long backs, the silver, buttons upon which were marked with the owner's name. They wore waist- THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 255 coats with long flaps loaded with lead, knee-breeches, and pointed shoes with great buckles. 3. The ladies wore brocades over stiff hoops and tall hats adorned with still taller feathers, and stepped slowly along in boots with very high heels. When a gentleman met a lady in walking, he made a very low bow, and the lady returned the salutation with a deep courtesy. All the fashions among the upper classes were marked by formality and etiquette. 4. The people in the older parts of the country were used to these things, and the persons first chosen by them to be their rulers were usually those who were called gentlemen. The leaders indeed expected this; they did not fully trust the people. They showed this by the care they took to have an electoral college to choose the President. 5. At first the President's cabinet consisted of four officers. There was a Secretary of State, who had charge of affairs with foreign nations, a Secretary of the Treasury, a Secretary of War, and an Attorney- General. There was another department of the gov ernment, the Post-Office; but the Postmaster-General was not then a member of the cabinet. 6. Nevertheless, the Post-Office was that part of the government with which the people would have most to do. To-day, every village in the land has its post- office, with a postmaster who is an officer of the United States; then, only the chief towns and villages had post-offices. In 1790 there were but seventy-five in the whole United States; in 1880 there were about forty three thousand; in 1885, more than fifty thousand. 7. There were but three mails each week in summer between New York and Boston, and only two in winter. 256 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. There were five mails a week between New York and Philadelphia, and it took two days for the mail to be carried between these places, 8. The first census of the United States was taken in 1790, and showed a population of a little less than four millions. The most populous State was Virginia. After that came Pennsylvania, then North Carolina, Massa- Western Movement of Centre of Population chusetts, New York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Connecticut. 9. These four millions, of whom a little more than one-fifth were slaves, occupied a belt of country which lay chiefly between the Alleghanies and the sea. The most thickly settled parts were along river-courses and about commodious harbors. So close to the sea-coast did most of the people live that the centre of population was twenty-three miles east of Baltimore. 10. In all this Atlantic territory there were but five towns which had a population of more than ten thou sand. They were Philadelphia, New York, Boston, THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 257 Charleston, and Baltimore. By far the greatest number of people dwelt on their farms, and lived by what they raised from the soil. They had no labor-saving ma chines, but on the banks of streams they had mills for grinding corn or sawing wood. 11. The farmer at the North ploughed his field with a horse or ox plough, dropped his seed by hand, and used the hoe and rake. When harvest time came, he cut his grass with a scythe, reaped his grain with a sickle, and threshed it with a flail. Sometimes, if he had a large crop, he used his horses to tread out the grain. 12. The planter at the South raised tobacco in a field until he had drawn all the life out of the soil. Then he left the ruined land and planted another field. He raised rice in the marsh-land. He found that cotton would grow well, but to get it ready for spinning was slow work. The Northern farmer also planted cotton ; but he found it would not grow well, and so he gave it up. 13. The cotton plant is a native of India. It has pods, which open when ripe and show a soft, downy substance containing seeds. The woolly fibre is sep arated from the seeds, and then is ready to be cleaned and carded for spinning and weaving. But the work of separating the fibre by hand is so slow that a laborer can prepare only a single pound in a day. 14. While, therefore, the planter was shipping large cargoes of tobacco and rice, he sent but little cotton. In 1792 only about a hundred and forty thousand pounds of cotton were exported from the entire South. Three years later, over six million pounds were ex ported. This sudden increase was due to the ingenuity of one man. 258 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 15. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, was teaching in Georgia while he studied law. He lived in the family of the widow of General Greene, and one day was asked if he could not con trive a machine which would separate the fibre from the seed. He set his wits to work, and invented the cotton-gin. 16. It was not a very complicated ma chine, and it was adopted at once wherever cotton was raised. The planters now sowed more fields, and it was not long before cotton be came the chief crop of the South. It was easily planted and picked by the slaves. The cotton-gin got it ready to be made into bales, and then it was sent out of the country. 17. The people of India have always made cloth out of the cotton which they raised. When England began to get control of India, English merchants brought the cotton to England and set Englishmen at work spinning and weaving it. At first they worked by hand, as the people in India did ; but soon they invented machines and built factories. 18. In the Southern States of the Union the slaves were not trained to work which required skill. Thus, Eli Whitney. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 259 while a little cotton was spun or woven by hand for coarser clothes used on the plantations, the greater part was sent to England to be made up into cloth. Then English merchants sold this cloth in the United States. 19. In the Northern States almost everybody worked ¦ with his hands. The men on the farms made and mended tools and built buildings. The women spun and wove chiefly flax and wool. So it came about that when New England ships sailed to Southern ports, they brought some of the cotton back to the North. 20. The English manufacturers wished to retain the business in their own hands. But it was not long before Americans were making machinery like that in use in England. The first machinery capable of spinning cotton yarn equal to that made in England was set up by Samuel Slater, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1790. CHAPTER XX. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. — IT. l. Besides the crops which the farms and planta tions yielded, there were forests which gave wood for building and for fuel. Beneath the ground was a rich store of iron, lead, coal, and other minerals. Very little was yet known of all this hidden wealth, and there were very few contrivances for turning the ore into manufactured articles. 2. The laws of Great Britain had required the people of the colonies to send their iron ore to England to be manufactured. The war put an end to this, and people 260 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. set up iron-works in the districts in which the ore was found. These works began to multiply, but the best articles still came from England. 3. The use of steam had been successfully applied to manufacturing in England shortly before the war. The English had no such water-power as existed in America. In America, on the other hand, where there were great rivers and a long coast, men were very eager to use steam in driving boats. 4. In 1788 John Fitch was running a steamboat be tween Philadelphia, Burlington, Bristol, and other points The Clermont, Fulton's first Steamboat. on the Delaware River. He had not discovered, how ever, the true way to apply steam. It was not until 1807 that Robert Fulton contrived a steamboat with side paddle-wheels. It ran from New York to Albany, and its success gave a great start to steamboat navi gation. 5. There was need of quick communication between different parts of the country. If the people would act THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 26l together as one people, they must meet one another and know what was needed by the whole people. It was difficult to do this even in the more settled parts of the country. It was still more difficult, as people left the At lantic sea-board and moved westward in to the wilderness. 6. There were three main lines of movement to the West. One followed the valley of the Mohawk to the great lakes ; that was the road taken by people in the New England States and New York. A second followed the river-courses of Pennsylvania, passed through gaps in the Alleghanies, and came upon the eastern branches of the Ohio River. The third crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains and struck the Cumberland, Tennessee, and other rivers which flow into the Ohio. 7. At first those who crossed the mountains were hunters and trappers, who shared the woods and streams with the Indians. Sometimes the Indian guide would lead the white man up some steep height and show him the fair Valleys and fertile plains which lay to the westward. He little thought what visions of farms and towns this prospect framed for his companion. Robert Fulton. 262 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 8. When these hunters found what a country lay be yond the mountains, they came back for their families, and moved into the new land, cleared the forest and The Indian and the Pioneer. built log-houses in the midst of the fields. The Indian was now in the way. He saw that the white man had come to stay. Thus the roving tribes were constantly struggling with the white settlers for possession. 9. This movement into the valleys of the Cumberland and Kentucky began as early as the beginning of the war for independence. One of the most famous of THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 263 1775. the early pioneers was Daniel Boone, of Nofth Caro lina. He went on long hunting excursions over the mountains, and was so in love with the banks of the Kentucky River that he moved his family to the new land and persuaded his neighbors to follow. 10. He made a settlement which took the name of Boonesborough. Other men followed from Virginia and North Carolina. The Kentucky coun try was first settled and made a State in 1792. The South western Territory was still governed by Congress, through a territorial legisla ture and governor. When the census of 1 795 showed that there were over sev enty-seven thousand persons !n the terri tory, a convention was railed to organ ize a State. 11. The people who had their homes in the new country were used to governing themselves. They came from States where they had been trained to vote, to hold meetings, and to make laws. They did not want a governor appointed by the President. They wanted to choose their own governor. They were uneasy until they could have a State, on an equality with all the other States. Daniel Boone. 264 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 12. So, upon the call of the governor of the territory, fifty-five delegates from the eleven counties met at Knoxville. They were each to be allowed two dollars and a half a day for their services. They discovered that no provision had been made for a secretary, door keeper, and printer. So the convention passed the following preamble and resolution : — 13. "Whereas economy is an amiable trait in any government, and, in fixing the salaries of the officers thereof, the resources and situation of the country should be attended to : therefore one dollar and a half per diem is enough for us, and no more will a man of us take ; and the rest shall go to the payment of the secretary, printer, doorkeeper, and other officers." 14. The delegates were rude farmers and back woodsmen, but they were also men who loved law and true liberty. So the great State of Ten nessee was born, not with pomp and parade, but with the real dignity which belongs to people who respect one another. 15. These Western pioneers carried with them laws, government, and courts ; but they had little opportunity for anything beyond hard work. In the East it was different. There the people, with no fear of Indians, lived securely in towns and villages, and could have schools and churches. 16. They were still poor, but they began to plan for schools for their children, and even for new colleges. In 1795 Governor Clinton, of New York, recommended the legislature to establish common schools throughout the State. It was many years, however, before there was anything like a public-school system throughout the country. THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED STATES. 265 17. There was very little paper made in the country, and books were dear. School books were few in num ber ; but a young schoolmaster, Noah Webster, had just made a speller, and was at work upon a dictionary. There were only three or four libraries in the entire country, and but forty-three newspapers, in I783- 18. There were churches in all the older communities. Before the war for independence some of these had been partly supported by the government. But when ihe State governments were formed, and when the Federal Constitution was adopted, taxes for the support of ministers were abolished in most of the States. The system disappeared last in New England. 19. It was provided in the Constitution that " no re ligious tests should ever be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the United States." The first amendment to the Constitution also had the words : " Congress shall make no law respecting an es tablishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." 20. The churches were supported by the free-will offerings of the people who attended them. But the people believed so firmly that religion and education were necessary to freedom, that they laid no taxes upon property devoted to religious and charitable purposes, nor upon property used for schools and colleges. 21. This separation of the churches from the State was one of the greatest points of difference between the New World and the Old. No sooner was the new nation fairly established, than religious societies began to grow, as plants grow to which are given free air, sunshine, shower, and favorable soil. 266 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXI. THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. l. The United States did not then possess all the territory which now belongs to it. It was bounded on the north by country belonging to Great Britain ; upon the west and south, by country belonging to Spain, The Mississippi was its western boundary. Its south ern line was one drawn from the north of Florida due west to the Mississippi. 2. There were therefore two great European powers which shared the continent with the United States. But there were only a few settlements in Canada, and a great wilderness separated the States from Spanish America. Europe was really nearer, for the Atlantic Ocean was a highway upon which ships travelled back and forth. 3. The New World was still a part of the Old. It was indeed no longer a political part of it; the people living on the western shore of the Atlantic had declared and won their independence as a nation ; but they were still very dependent on Europe. Many lived by the commerce which they carried on with European ports. All were deeply interested in what was going on in the Old World. 4 Because the country had once been a part of Great Britain, the people were still largely English in their ideas and tastes. The alliance with France brought a great many Frenchmen to America, and increased the THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 267 trade with France. It also had interested the people of the United States in the affairs of that kingdom, 5. On the other hand, the United States was an object of great interest to Europe. It was now one of the nations of the earth. In extent of territory it was greater than any nation except Russia. Its people were few in number, but it had been victorious against a powerful kingdom. With a long sea-coast and a fertile country, it gave great promise of wealth. 6. It was in its form of government, however, that it was most remarkable. In Europe there was one little republic, Switzerland; all the rest of the country was occupied by states ruled over by families. The people nowhere elected their rulers ; in England, only, did they have much voice in making the laws by which they were governed. 7. In America there were thirteen republican States united in one republican federation. The people chose their own rulers ; they agreed concerning the govern ment under which they were to live ; their representa tives made the laws by which they were governed. It was a sight very interesting to Europeans, and many crossed the ocean to get a nearer view. 8. No European country took so much interest in the United States as France. The French officers and sol diers who had helped the new nation to acquire its independence returned home, and everywhere spread accounts of the republic. The Federal Constitution and the constitutions of the States were translated into French. A great number of books, pamphlets, and papers about America were scattered through the country. 9. The reason for all this lay in the condition of the 268 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. French people. For generations they had been under rulers who gave them no liberty. When the French, therefore, saw a people like that of the United States rise against the government and become free and inde pendent, they thought of their own wretched condition. 10. It is not strange that when a revolution in France broke forth, there should have been a strong sympathy between France and the United States. The French republic was formed shortly after the establishment of the Union. There was an enthusiasm among the French people for America. There was an eagerness in America for the success of the French people. 11. Many of the officers who had been in America took part in the French Revolution. Lafayette was vice-president of the National Assembly; and when the people destroyed the Bastile, the old prison-house of Paris, he sent its key to General Washington. It was a sign that France, too, was free. 12. Clubs sprang up all over the United States in imi tation of French republican clubs. French fashions of speech and dress were imitated. The newspapers printed everything that could be learned about the progress of the Revolution. Celebrations of victories by the French people were held, at which speeches were made by Americans who were in sympathy with France. 13. The Secretary of State in Washington's adminis tration was Thomas Jefferson. He had lately returned from France, to which country he had been sent as com missioner. He came back full of sympathy with the French people, and with an intimate knowledge of their affairs. From his position he was naturally the leader of the party in America which favored France. THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE. 269 14. This party was composed mainly of the Anti- Federalists. Those who opposed a strong central gov ernment in America were most likely to make common cause with a people who were hostile to a central government in France. 15. Hamilton was at the head of the Federalist party. In common with other American patriots, he was at first in sympathy with the French in their estab lishment of a repub lic. But he quickly drew back when that republic threw off re straint and seemed to aim at a liberty which was governed by personal feeling rather than by law. 16. The breach between the two great parties in the United States was made wider by these European affairs. The Republicans, as Jefferson and his party called them selves, charged the Federalists with desiring a monarchy like that of England. The Federalists accused the Re publicans of being ready to sacrifice their own country to help the French revolutionists. Thomas Jefferson, 270 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXIL DEALINGS WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Neu'tral. Belonging to neither party. Genet (Zhe-na1). En'voy Extraordinary. An ambassador sent by one nation to another on a special mission. 1787. l. The commerce of the United States was with England more than with France. The merchants and business men generally were thus inclined to the Fed eralist side. But England took no pains to cultivate the friendship of the Americans. On the contrary, she followed a course which made it difficult for the United States to keep at peace with her. 2. The French government sought to strengthen its connection with the United States. As soon as the republic was established it issued a decree by which American citizens were to have the same rights of trade as Frenchmen. It took off the duties on American produce. This increased the trade between the two countries. 3. When war broke out between England and France in 1793, the commerce of the United States increased very rapidly. Her ships carried goods from one Euro pean port to another, and thus it was for her advantage to remain neutral. But this was almost impossible. Each of the countries at war threatened to drag her into the conflict, and it took all the wisdom of Washing ton and his advisers to prevent this. 4. England issued a series of orders which bore hard upon American merchants and sailors. She claimed the right to lay hold of any provision for the enemy DEALINGS WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 27 1 which she might find in a neutral vessel; to seize the produce of French colonies wherever found;' and to board any vessel, make search for seamen of British birth, and carry them off for her own service. 5. France, meanwhile, relying upon the loud speeches of the French party in America, tried to make the Amer ican people fight for her. She sent out an agent, named Genet, who began issuing commissions to privateers, and told them to bring their prizes into ports of the United States. The French consuls in those ports were to act as judges. 6. This would quickly have made the United States an ally of France. Washington at once issued a proclama tion of neutrality, and put forth every effort to make the neutrality real. When Genet tried to persuade the people to take his side against their government, Wash ington compelled France to recall the imprudent agent. 7. The action of England was more directly an at tack upon the United States. So bitter was the feeling against her, held by men of both parties, that Congress began at once to take measures to raise an army, to equip a navy, and to stop all commerce with her. War was imminent, and Washington was determined to avert it. 8. He appointed John Jay, who was then Chief Jus tice, to be Envoy Extraordinary to England. Jay was instructed to form a treaty, in which the points in dis pute between the two countries should be set- 1795 tied. He carried out his instructions, and returned to the United States, where the treaty was ratified by the Senate. 9. It was not an entirely satisfactory treaty. It pro vided for the removal of the English garrisons which 272 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. still held the western posts ; it made rules for the regu lation of the commerce of the two countries ; but it left to England the right to search American vessels for British seamen, and it put difficulties in the way of trade with the West Indies. 10. The terms of the treaty became known after the Senate ratified it. An outcry was at once raised against it. The newspapers were filled with discussions. Ham ilton and others defended it by speeches and letters. Washington deliberated long, but finally signed it. His act was followed by the bitterest attacks upon his patriotism and character. 11. He signed the treaty because, imperfect though it was, it was better than none. It was the first substantial recognition which England had made of the sovereign rights of the United States. The result proved his wis dom; war was averted, commerce revived, and many who had denounced the treaty became its friends. 12. The removal of the English garrisons from the western posts was a great point gained. So long as they remained, the Indians were constantly incited by them to annoy the settlers on the frontier. Companies of American soldiers were sent out to fight the Indians ; but they failed, and the Indians vexed the settlements still more. 13. At last the chief command in the West was given to General Anthony Wayne. Washington, who was well acquainted with Indian warfare, gave him minute instructions. Wayne took the field in 1793, built forts in exposed places, and by a series' of brilliant rnanceu- vres gained complete victory over the Indians. They signed a treaty of peace in 1795, in which they aban doned their claim to a large territory. DEALINGS WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 273 1794. 14. There were other disturbances within the more settled country. In the western counties of Pennsyl vania the rough settlers resisted the collection of the tax on distilled spirits. President Wash ington called for troops from the neighboring States, and put down the Whiskey Insurrection, as it was called. People began to have more confidence in the Union when the government showed its power. 15. After serving two terms as President, George Washington returned to private life at Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon. He had been for more than twenty years the foremost man of the country in the eyes of the world. Sept. t7i When he left the Presidency he made a Fare- im well Address to the People of the United States. 16 In that address, which is weighty with wisdom, he urged the people to prize the Union which they had formed. He bade them remember that each part of 274 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. the country had free intercourse with all the other parts, and that each could help the other. He begged them to suffer no parties to rise within the Union which should weaken its strength, and he called on them to glory in the name of American. 17. He reminded them that Europe had interests with which America had little concern. " Extend your business relations with Europe," he said in effect, " but do not be dragged into her politics. Do not suffer your selves to have passionate attachments for other nations. Be strong in yourselves, and you will be independent of the Old World." CHAPTER XXIII. DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE. Alien' (dl'yen). Belonging to another country. l. THE successor of Washington was John Adams, who was President for four years. Thomas Jefferson was Vice-President, but they belonged to differ- 1797-1801 ent political parties. Adams was a Federalist, and Jefferson was the leader of the Democratic-Repub lican party, as the Anti-Federalists were now called. 2. The two parties were still opposed to each other, almost wholly as friends of England and friends of France. The European nations which were at war with each other were still drawing the United States into the quarrel. Neither was willing that one country should be the friend of the other. 3. Jay's treaty, which prevented war with England, almost caused war with France. That country sent the DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE. 275 American minister out of the land. French cruisers seized in a few months as many as a thousand American vessels. They pretended that the captains were giving aid to the enemy, and they condemned the vessels to be sold. 4. The President was anxious to avoid war with France, and he took somewhat the same course which Washington had followed with England. He sent a special commission of three envoys to France, — John Marshall, afterward Chief Justice, Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, and Elbridge Gerry. But France was then in the hands of wild revolutionists, who treated the en voys with the great est indignity. 5. They employed secret agents to deal with the envoys. These agents told the envoys that they must pay a sum of money to the government before they could be received at all. After that the United States must lend money to France to enable her to carry on her war. When this was done, France would repeal some of the acts which injured American commerce. 6. The envoys indignantly refused to accept such Chief Justice Marshall 276 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. terms, and were ordered to leave France. The United States government at once published the report of the envoys, including the correspondence which they had with the agents. The names of the agents were con cealed under the letters X, Y, Z. 7. So great was the indignation in America that Con gress made ready for a war with France. Washington was called from Mount Vernon, and placed at the head of a new army. The navy was strengthened, privateers were fitted out, and a French privateer and frigate were captured in the West Indies. 8. Pinckney had declared, " Millions for defence, but not pne cent for tribute ; " the words were taken up as a popular cry. The country was on the side of the government The Federalists, who had been losing ground, were now stronger than before. They at tempted to strengthen the government still further by passing in Congress two acts called the Alien and Sedition laws. 9. The Alien laws gave the President power to send out of the country any alien whom he might regard as dangerous to the peace of the country. The Sedition laws gave him power to fine and imprison persons who might be found guilty of conspiring against the govern ment or maliciously attacking it. 10. These laws placed a power in the hands of the government which alarmed the Democratic- Republicans. They said the laws were aimed against them. They opposed the action, not as friends of France, but as Americans. They believed that less power should be given to the Federal government, and more to the separate States. 11. This belief, which so nearly prevented the adop- DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE. 277 tion of the Constitution, had never disappeared. It showed itself on every occasion, and helped to shape the course of the Democratic-Republican party. This party came to be called the State-rights party, because it was jealous lest the States should not have all their rights under the Constitution. 12. Thus, when the Federalists forced through Congress the Alien and Sedition laws, the Democratic-Republicans passed certain resolutions in the State legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky. These resolutions declared that the action of the Federal government was unconstitu tional, and that it was the duty of the States to combine and refuse obedience. 13. Meanwhile, though there was open hostility be tween the United States and France, war was not actu ally declared. The President sent a new em- 1799. bassy to France. Napoleon Bonaparte, then at the head of affairs in that country, was wiser than those who had driven away the former envoys. 14. In his plans the conquest of England had a large place. He saw the importance of a friendship with the American republic, and welcomed the embassy. He ordered the French cruisers to cease vexing American vessels. A treaty followed, which was received with great favor by both countries. 15. On the 14th of December, 1799, died George Washington, " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." The people of the land mourned for him whom they had learned to call the Father of his Country. In the year following, the seat of government was moved to the site chosen on the banks of the Potomac. The city there laid out received the name of Washington. 278 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXIV. GROWTH OF THE UNION. 1. WASHINGTON had made his first venture in the world as a surveyor of land. The early exploits which had brought him into notice had been his journeys to the head-waters of the Ohio. He had engaged in the operations of the Ohio Company. Ever since the end of the war for independence, he had looked to the farther West as containing the hopes of the country. 2. The settlers in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys had a long and toilsome journey over the mountains to reach the Atlantic States, but the broad rivers offered them easy access to the Gulf of Mexico. By the terms of the Jay treaty, both England and the United States were to have free use of the Mississippi, but neither country controlled the mouths of that river. 3. The Spanish had a fortified post where New Or leans now stands. They controlled all the trade which came down the Mississippi to the Gulf, and so to Europe. They laid a heavy tax upon all merchandise which passed New Orleans. The settlers in the West were rendered very angry by this, and were bitter against Spain. 4. At this time Spain was closely allied with France. When, therefore, the United States was about to go to war with France, many saw the opportunity to get pos session of New Orleans. The Kentuckians were ready to send men to take it by force, even before war was declared Hamilton was eager for an alliance between GROWTH OF THE UNION. 279 the United States, England, and the people of the Spanish provinces in America, to drive Spain alto gether out of America. 5. These schemes fell through for two reasons. The policy of Napoleon Bonaparte removed the grounds of complaint against France, and the Federalists were defeated in a political contest by the Demo cratic-Republicans. Hamilton no longer had influence in the government. Jefferson became Presi dent, and Aaron Burr Vice-President. 6. What was not done by force of arms was now done by peaceable purchase. Spain had made a secret treaty with France by which she ceded the terri- 1800. tory of Louisiana. Jefferson, learning of this, sent a commission to France to buy the island on which New Orleans stood, and also the right of pas- 1802. sage to the sea. He did this at the urgent demand of Western men, who saw its importance. 7. Bonaparte was at this time expecting a war between France and England. He knew that in case of war an English fleet would be sent to the Gulf to take posses sion of Louisiana. It would be impossible for the French to hold the post of New Orleans ; but he was determined that the place should not fall into the hands of his great enemy. 8. While the American commissioners were consider ing the purchase of New Orleans, he came forward with a proposition to sell not only what they wanted, but all Louisiana. The commissioners had been instructed to offer two and a half million dollars for the island. Bonaparte named the price of twenty million dollars for the whole country. 9, He would not give the commissioners time to con- 280 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. suit with the American government. England might declare war at any moment. So, after some bargaining, it was agreed that France should make over to the United States all the territory which she had lately re ceived from Spain. The United States was to pay France fifteen million dollars. 10. Bonaparte was delighted with the sale. He had received a large sum for a country which he would shortly have had to surrender to England; he had increased the friendliness of France and the United States ; he had aimed a heavy blow at England. " This accession of territory," he said, "strengthens forever the power of the United States. I have given England a maritime rival, which will sooner or later humble her pride." 11. The United States took formal possession of the territory December 20, 1803. Very few people had any idea of the worth of the purchase, and many abused Jefferson for making it. The settlers at the West, however, were overjoyed. Jefferson's popularity was increased by this and other measures, so that he was re-elected President. 12. Jefferson sent two officers of the army, Meri wether Lewis and William Clarke, with a party to explore the vast country of Louisiana. They spent nearly three years in the journey. They ascended the Missouri and crossed the Rocky Mountains. They discovered the two rivers now called Lewis River and Clarke River, followed them to the Columbia, and thus reached the Pacific. 13. It was a wonderful journey, and gave the Ameri can people their first knowledge of a great country which lay even beyond their new boundaries. Mean- GROWTH OF THE UNION. 28 1 while the Northwest Territory was filling with settlers, People from Connecticut moved out to the land which originally was claimed by that State. People from Vir ginia and others occupied the valley of the Ohio. In 1802 a new State was formed from the territory, and named Ohio. 14. The founders of Ohio encouraged settlers by laying no taxes for four years upon land bought of the United States. The United States in return gave to the State one section in each township for the support of common schools. Thus it was made easy for men to settle there, and they were encouraged to provide education for their children. 15. When Jefferson was re-elected President, Aaron Burr was not re-elected Vice-President. He was a rest less, scheming man, and was distrusted by the better men of the country. While Vice-President he had 1804. killed Hamilton in a duel. Duelling was not then felt to be a disgrace, as it is now, and Burr continued to hold office ; but when his term ended, he left the Atlantic States to seek his fortune in the West. 16. Although Louisiana was now United States soil, the whole country bordering the Mississippi was remote from the older settlements, and offered great tempta tions to a bold, adventurous leader like Burr. He gathered a company of daring men, and after two years of preparation began to descend the Mississippi. 17. Exactly what his purpose was no one seemed to know. Apparently he intended to seize the Spanish possessions in Mexico, and to establish himself and his followers in power there, as Cortez had done before 282 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. him. At any rate, his expedition was hostile to Spain, and the United States was at peace with that country. 18. The President suffered him to make all his prep arations ; but when he was actually on the march, Jeffer son issued a proclamation denouncing him. One who was in Burr's confidence is said to have betrayed him. The movement was stopped at Natchez, and Burr was arrested. He was tried for treason, but was not convicted, owing to an error in the form of the legal proceedings. CHAPTER XXV. THE UNITED STATES ENTANGLED WITH EUROPE. Algiers {Al-jeerz'). Tunis ( Todnis). Trip'o-li. Mo-ham'me-dans. Followers of the Arabian prophet Moham med, who lived about the year 600. Dey (Day). The name given to the governor of one of the Bar- bary States. De-ca'tur. Derne (Durn). Blook-ade'. The closing of the ports of a country against vessels going in or out. Order in Council. The name given to a decree pronounced by the King of England and his Council, and not issued by Par liament. 1. The United States was thus increasing in territory and building new States. Europe was one day to send great numbers of her people into this territory, and to depend upon it for her food. Now the United States was looking anxiously across the Atlantic, and watching affairs there ; for war in Europe meant peril to Ameri can ships and sailors. 2. Besides war between the great nations, there was another peril to American commerce. A great trade was carried on in the Mediterranean Sea. The coun- THE united states entangled WITH EUROPE 283 tries which bordered on it produced fruits and other articles not found elsewhere. The eastern ports, also, were depots for goods brought overland from Asia. 3. Upon the south shore of the Mediterranean Sea was a group of states called the Barbary States. They were Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, and Tripoli. The people of these countries were chiefly Moors, Turks, and Arabs, and they were Mohammedan in religion. The ports of the Barbary States were infested by pirates, who darted out upon the vessels which sailed up and down the Mediterranean. 4. These pirates were the terror of Europe. They not only plundered vessels and committed many mur ders, but they were also slave-dealers, and sold into slavery the sailors whom they captured. Some mer cantile countries of Europe paid a yearly tribute to the rulers of the Barbary States, that their vessels might be let alone. 5. England was the only nation which these pirates really feared. So long as American vessels were under the English flag, they were reasonably secure. But when the United States became an independent na tion, the pirates began to attack her merchant ves sels, and to demand tribute. At first the government paid tribute, as the easiest way to protect American commerce. 6. This went on until it became a humiliation not to be endured. The pirates grew more insolent, and in 1 801 the Dey of Tripoli declared war upon the United States because he was dissatisfied with the payments made to him. For four years a series of fights took place between the pirates and the few vessels which could be spared from the little American navy.. 284 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 7. The other Barbary States stole in and helped Tripoli when they could. When found out, they in vented excuses, and pretended great friendship for a country which proved to be stronger than they first thought. These engagements trained the American navy, somewhat as the French and Indian War had made officers and soldiers ready for the War of Inde pendence. 8. One of the American naval officers performed a famous exploit. The Philadelphia, an American frigate, struck a reef in the harbor of Tripoli, and the com mander was obliged to surrender the helpless vessel. A very high tide rose, floated her off, and gave the Tri- politans a fine addition to their navy. 9. Stephen Decatur, a young lieutenant, entered the harbor with a small vessel, and, pretending to have lost Feb. 15, his anchor, made fast to the Philadelphia. He 1804. nacj a number of men concealed in his vessel, and suddenly, at a signal, they all rushed aboard the Philadelphia. They set fire to it, returned without the loss of a man to their own vessel, and sailed away to the fleet outside. 10. The American navy in the Mediterranean was in creased in the autumn of 1804. A vigorous attack was made upon the pirates, and a land force aided in cap turing Derne, one of the ports of Tripoli. A treaty of peace was made, and prisoners were exchanged. This put an end for a while to the piracy. 11. The struggle meanwhile between France and England was growing more desperate. In 1804 Na poleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France. He was a general such as Europe had never before seen. He had behind him soldiers who would go wherever he THE UNITED STATES ENTANGLED WITH EUROPE. 285 might lead them. All France was flushed with victory, and eager for further conquest. 12. The countries of Europe were forced to take sides either with England or with France. In 1806 Napo-' leon fought a series of battles which left England and Russia alone unconquered ; he planned to subdue those countries also. England's power was in her commerce and manufactures ; Napoleon aimed to destroy these. 13. He issued from Berlin a decree, declaring that England was in a state of blockade. He claimed the right to seize all vessels trading with England Nov. 21, or her colonies. England replied with an Order 1806' in Council, which forbade all commerce with the ports of Europe which were within the French dominion or in countries allied with France. 14. By these two proclamations American ships were forbidden to sail into any port in Europe except the few belonging to Russia. Napoleon's decree was of less importance than England's Order in Council ; for he had but a small navy, while England had a powerful one. The United States could do little to protect her own vessels, for her navy was insignificant. 15. Jefferson had abandoned the policy which Adams had adopted of building a strong navy. He imagined it possible to protect American harbors by means of gunboats, each carrying one gun. He thought it pos sible to compel foreign nations to come to terms by refusing to trade with them. 286 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXVI. DESTRUCTION OF AMERICAN COMMERCE. Xm-press'. Force into service. I Em-bar'go. An order forbidding To strike the flag is to lower it. ships to sail. This is done in case of surrender. | Tippecanoe ( Tip-pi-ca-noo>). l. While the United States was thus weak at sea, England had a powerful navy, and was using it vigor ously in the great fight with Napoleon. When her ships needed men and could get no volunteers, the officers impressed men into the service. When these deserted, they were followed and brought back, and sometimes were hanged. 2. England claimed that a man once an Englishman was always an Englishman. .. Her naval officers were in structed to seize deserters wherever they were found. The officers were not very particular; they wanted good seamen, and it was not always easy for a sailor to prove that he was an American and not an Englishman. 3. For. years the United States had complained that English officers had thus boarded American vessels, and impressed sailors under pretence that they were Eng lishmen. Jay's treaty had left this question unsettled, and the increasing needs of the English service made the impressment of American seamen more and more common. 4. The English insolently claimed the right to treat the American navy in the same way. The Chesapeake, an American frigate, had orders from the government to leave Norfolk, Virginia, for the Mediterranean. When DESTRUCTION OF AMERICAN COMMERCE. 287 she sailed, the British ship Leopard also sailed. As soon as they were out of the harbor the Leopard hailed the Chesapeake, and sent a boat with despatches. 5. These despatches stated that there were deserters from the British navy on board the Chesapeake, and the captain of the Leopard demanded their return. jime22j When Commander Barron, of the Chesapeake, 1807- refused to give the men up, the Leopard opened fire. The Chesapeake had made no preparations for fighting, and was obliged to strike her flag and give up the men. 6. This affair excited the greatest indignation in the United States. The British government made a half apology for what was really an act of war. The United States could only protest. She had no navy strong enough to enable her to demand satisfaction. President Jefferson issued a proclamation forbidding British armed vessels to enter American ports. 7. He then persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Bill. By this bill all American vessels were forbidden to leave American ports for Europe. Foreign y>eo. 22, vessels were forbidden to land cargoes. The 1807- purpose of the embargo was to cripple European, and especially English, trade; but England did not need our trade nearly so much as we needed hers. 8. The chief effect of the embargo was therefore to impoverish American merchants, and to stop business in the ports from which their vessels sailed. Next it cut off farmers and planters from sending their produce abroad. It soon appeared that the United States could not get along without Europe. 9. As months went on, the Embargo Act became so unpopular that before the close of Jefferson's second 288 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. term many of his friends forsook him. A great pressure was brought to bear, and Congress repealed the act. It passed, in its place, a Non-Intercourse Act, which con tinued the embargo with England and France, but left commerce free with other European countries. 10. The Non-Intercourse Act went into operation March 4, 1809, when James Madison succeeded to the Presidency. He belonged to Jefferson's party, and con tinued the same policy. Party feeling had grown very bitter. New England, which suffered most from the breaking up of trade, was the stronghold of the Fed eralists. They complained loudly that if it were not for the Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts there would be no trouble. 11. The Southern and Western people, who were principally Democratic-Republicans, retorted that they had evidence of negotiations between the New England Federalists and England; that the Federalists were planning for a separation of New England from the Union. This charge was indignantly denied, but it helped to increase political hostility. 12. On the Western frontier was another enemy, the ever-watchful Indian. The Indians were wont to fight in scattered parties, but now and then a great chief arose who had the skill to combine many tribes into one army. Such a chief was Philip in the early days, and Pontiac later. Now appeared another, Tecumseh, who was aided by his brother, the Prophet, a man of great influence among the Indians. 13. When Ohio became a State, the rest of the North west Territory was named Indiana Territory. In 1805 it was again divided into Indiana Territory and Michigan Territory. William Henry Harrison was the Governor DESTRUCTION OF AMERICAN COMMERCE. 289 of Indiana Territory. He had persuaded some of the tribes to give up their lands in return for presents. Tecumseh and the Prophet declared that these tribes had no right to give up what belonged to all. Nov, 7> A sharp contest followed, which ended with the 18U- battle of Tippecanoe, when Harrison defeated Tecumseh. 14. All this while, France and England continued at war. Napoleon was studying how he might get the better of England, and he withdrew his decrees pro hibiting commerce with England so far as the United States was concerned. Congress at once repealed the Non-Intercourse Act so far as it related to France. 15. England and the United States grew more irritated with each other. The English continued to seize vessels and men. More than nine hundred American vessels had been seized since 1803. Several thousand American seamen had been impressed into the British service. The people of the United States were exasperated at their losses, and at their inability to protect themselves. 16. Madison wished to continue the general peace policy of Jefferson, but his party now refused to follow his lead. New leaders sprang up, among whom were Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. They obeyed the demands of the country, and compelled Congress to raise an army and strengthen the navy. 17. On the 1 8th of June, 18 12, Congress formally declared war against England. It was by no means a unanimous movement. The New England Fed eralists bitterly opposed it. The chief support came from the South and West, which felt less keenly the effect upon their prosperity caused by the breaking up of commerce. , j-J 19 2Cp THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXVII. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. Gruerriere ( Geh-ree-air'). 1. THE nearest part of Great Britain which the United States army could reach was Canada. General Henry Daarborn was commander- in-chief, and General William Hull, Governor of Michigan, was commander of the forces in the West. As soon as war was declared, General Hull moved a small army across the Detroit River, and de manded the surrender of Fort Maiden. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 29 1 2. The British had moved first. They had surprised Fort Mackinaw, at the head of Lake Huron, and cap tured it. The Indians saw their opportunity to fight the people who were occupying their lands, and at once joined the British. Hull, fearing he could not hold his position, recrossed the river and occupied Detroit, which was a fortified place. 3. The British general, Isaac Brock, followed him, and demanded the surrender of Detroit. Hull had no con fidence that he could stand out against the larger force which was brought against him, and surrendered. Aug. 16, People were furious, and declared Hull to be 1812- another Benedict Arnold. He was tried by court- martial and sentenced to be shot; but the President pardoned him. 4. A fresh attempt was made to invade Canada. The Americans crossed Niagara River, and planned to take Queenstown Heights. [See map, p. 297. J Oct. ib, They gained some advantage at first, and drove 1812' the British before them. General Brock, who was at Fort George, hurried to the field, and was mortally wounded. The Americans were obliged to retreat, though they made a gallant stand under Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield Scott. The expedition was a failure. 5. While the Americans were thus defeated on the Canada border, they were winning victories on that battle-ground where the real grievance had been. The little American navy of twenty ships of war and a few gunboats had to encounter the English navy of more than a thousand vessels. But every American sailor was fighting for his rights as well as for his country. 6. Within an hour after the declaration of war was known, Commodore John Rodgers, of the President, 292 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. weighed anchor and was off to catch the nearest British ship. He chased a frigate, which escaped. He crossed the Atlantic, and captured a privateer and seven mer chantmen. He retook an American ship which had been captured by the enemy, returned with his prizes to America, and was off again. 7. Other American ships were equally active. The frigate Constitution, Captain Isaac Hull, fought the The Gnerrlere and Constitution. British frigate Guerriere, and in half an hour made her Aug. 19, strike her colors. He put back to Boston to 1812- land his prisoners. The whole town turned out to meet him, and people were wild with delight at the bravery of their sailors. 8. Stephen Decatur, who was now Commodore, and WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 293 fn command of the frigate United States, captured the frigate Macedonian, and brought his prize into New York on New Year's day. The Constitution, 0ot. 25 again, now under Commodore Bainbridge, at- lss2- tacked the British ship Java off the South American coast, and demolished it. People gave to the Constitu tion the name " Old Ironsides." 9. Besides the little navy, many merchantmen were turned into privateers, and went roving about the seas. Nearly three hundred British vessels, with three thou sand prisoners, were brought into United States ports before winter. There were occasional losses, but the advantage was decidedly with the Americans. 10. The disasters on land had led the government to collect a larger army, which was placed under command of General Harrison. The British and Indians, who were led by General Proctor and Tecumseh, Jan_ 22 made several attempts against Harrison's forces. 1813- They succeeded at Frenchtown, where a portion of Harrison's army was placed ; but they failed at Fort Meigs and Fort Stephenson. 11. So much of the frontier was occupied by thfc great lakes that it was of the greatest importance to get control of these. Captain Oliver H. Perry directed the building of a fleet on Lake Erie, and sailors were sent forward from the sea-coast. He had just completed nine vessels, which were at anchor in Put-in-Bay, when he saw the British approaching. 12. He at once moved out to meet the enemy, and in a little more than two hours was able to send Sept- 10 this despatch to General Harrison : " We have la3- met the enemy, and they are ours : two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 294 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 13. Harrison was anxious to recover possession of Michigan, which had been lost ^hen Hull surrendered Detroit. With the aid of Perry's fleet, which trans ported some of his troops, he moved upon Fort Maiden. Battle of Lake Erie. Proctor set fire to the fort and retreated with Tecumseh, meaning to join the other British forces at Niagara. 14. Harrison set out in pursuit, and Proctor halted on the river Thames, near Moravian Town, where a battle 0ct B was fought. The British were defeated ; Proctor 1813. escaped, but Tecumseh was killed. The Ameri can success restored Michigan to the country, and Harrison became very popular. 15. The war gave the Indians an opportunity which they were quick to seize. In the South the Americans WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 295 had taken possession of Mobile, which was held by a few Spaniards. It was in territory claimed both by Spain and by the United States. The Spaniards had no power to resist, but they in cited the Creek Indians tc take up arms against the Ameri cans. 16. The people of the Southwestern States raised companies to fight an enemy which was thus at their very doors. The Creeks were a vigorous tribe, and were partly supplied with arms and ammunition. They surprised Fort Mimms, and destroyed the gar rison. Then they marched into the interior, and up the Alabama River. Map muatratine **> *"* Wa?- 17. Tennessee was prompt in raising men, and placed Andrew Jackson in command. He was aided by pioneers, who were skilled in Indian warfare. Other forces also came from Georgia and Mississippi, and during the rest of the year and the beginning of 18 14 the Creeks were hard pushed. The whites, who hated the Indians, and were never sorry of an excuse to get rid of them, killed great numbers and showed no quarter. 296 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE UNITED STATES INDEPENDENT OF EUROPE. Borgne (Born). I Ghent (G hard, h silent). Cockburn (Ktfburn). I Pakenham (Pdk'en-dm). l. The British, after the defeat which they had suf fered from the American navy in 1812, strengthened their Atlantic squadron. During the summer of 18 13 they attempted to blockade the coast from Maine to Georgia. Congress, in turn, hastened to build new ships ; and the courageous privateers continued to fight pluckily, and to bring prizes into United States ports. 2. The Americans made a fresh effort to invade Canada in 18 14. They failed in an attempt to retake Fort Mackinaw, but a movement on the Niagara River July 5, was more successful. At the battle of Chip- 1814- pewa they put the British to rout, and then determined to move upon Kingston, at the other end of Lake Ontario. [See map, p. 290.] 3. To do this, it was necessary to have the co operation of the fleet; but the fleet was not ready. The British had been reinforced, and were strongly posted at Queenstown. General Scott was sent forward to make observations, and came upon the entire British force drawn up at Lundy's Lane, opposite Niagara Falls. 4. Here the Americans attacked the British, and- sent back for reinforcements. A terrible fight followed, in July 25, which both armies suffered severely. The Brit- 1814- ish were repulsed ; but the Americans were too exhausted to follow up their victory, and returned to THE UNITED STATES INDEPENDENT OF EUROPE. 297 Chippewa. Their principal officers were wounded, and Scott was unable to return to duty again during the war. 5. The Americans retreated to the defences of Fort Erie, and the British besieged the place. The siege lasted through the summer, and then rr A R I 0 the British aban doned it. The Amer icans destroyed the fort and returned to their side of the river. The campaign had cost many lives, and neither party had gained any real ad vantage. 6. The British, how ever, seemed to be gaining. In Europe Napoleon had been defeated, and Eng land was thus enabled to spare more men for the war in America. Her policy was to march two armies into the United States. One army was to descend from Canada, and the other was to land at New Orleans and march northward. 7. To divert attention, a fleet under Admiral Cock- burn sailed up the Potomac and attacked the capital, There was scarcely any resistance ; and to their Aug. 24, lasting disgrace, the British destroyed public 1814, buildings, books, and papers ; nothing was spared ex cept the Patent Office and the jail, NIAGARA RIVER 298 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 8. Another attack was made by a British fleet upon Baltimore. The enemy landed men a few miles below sept. 12, the town, but the Americans gallantly repulsed 1814- them. Then the fleet bombarded the forts which protected Baltimore, and tried to land men ta attack them in the rear. The forts could not reach the vessels, but they drove back the land forces. 9. Fort McHenry received the hottest fire from the fleet. It was upon seeing the flag still flying from the fort, when the smoke cleared away, that Francis S. Key wrote the national song, " The Star- Spangled Banner." The fleet finally abandoned the attempt, and sailed away. 10. The British undertook to bring their army from Canada to New York by the familiar Lake Champlain route. General Macomb, in command of a small force at Sept. 11, Plattsburgh, and Lieutenant Macdonough, with 1814, a little fleet, completely repulsed the British at the battle of Plattsburgh, and compelled them to returi, to Canada. 11. The army and fleet which were to take New Orleans made their rendezvous at Pensacola. Louisiana had been admitted to the Union in 18 12, and every one felt the importance of New Orleans. If the British should obtain possession of it, they would control the Mississippi and the western country. 12. Andrew Jackson was in command of the south western forces, and moved rapidly to the coast. The British had been prevented by Fort Bowyer from taking Mobile, and they abandoned Pensacola when Jackson approached. They were more intent on New Orleans, and moved their men and vessels to Lake Borgne. 13. Jackson hurried after them, and made vigorous THE UNITED STATES INDEPENDENT OF EUROPE. 299 preparations to defend New Orleans. He called upon everybody, white and black, to help build fortifications. He led his men out of the town, and attacked the enemy Attack of the Highlanders, Battle of New Orleans. in their camp at night. His energy inspired the greatest Enthusiasm. 14. General Sir Edward Pakenham and General Gibbs were in command of the British forces. Their men were miserably encamped in a marsh. They made defences of hogsheads of sugar, while Jackson used cotton bales. The guns on each side quickly destroyed these temporary barricades, and Jackson used the black mud of the river bank to make earthworks. 300 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. 15. After a fortnight's siege, the British determined to storm the American works. Early in the morning of January 8, 1815, they made the attack. Jackson's men, trained to rifle shooting and aided by artillery, met them" with coolness. A second attack was made, but in less than half an hour from the first assault the battle was over. 16. General Pakenham was killed ; General Gibbs was mortally wounded ; a Highland regiment which had made a brave and stubborn assault was cut to pieces. The British withdrew, completely disheartened. The fleet failed to pass the fort which guarded the town, and the whole expedition was abandoned. 17. The victory was a complete one for the Ameri cans; yet the battle was unnecessary. Fourteen days before it was fought, a treaty of peace between Dee. 24, the two countries had been signed at Ghent in 1814, Belgium. Neither army knew of it, nor did the news at once reach the scattered vessels of the navy. These continued their operations until one by one they learned that the war was over. 18. The independence of the United States was se curely fixed by the War of 18 12. England withdrew her last claim to sovereignty. The country was not only established in its own domain, but it had equal rights with Europe on the broad seas. It was hence forth to be one of the great powers of the world. 19. The last vestige of subjection to the Old World disappeared when Decatur sailed into the harbor of Al giers in June, 181 5. That country had again declared war upoj> fhe United States. Decatur compelled the Algerines to meet him on his own ship and give up forever all their demands. The other Barbary States signed similar treaties, and American commerce was free. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 30! « •fa TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. -1- > -f--4-f-^+A-<-^ I. The Country after the War for Independence. 1. The social condition, XV. 1-3. 2. The financial condition. a. Origin of the Continental currency, XV. 4-7. b. Causes of the depreciation of the currency, XV. 7-1 1. c. The efforts to restore credit, XV. 12-15. d. The debts of the country, XV. 14; XVI. 2. 3. The political condition. a. The power of the Confederation, XV. 17 ; XVI. ro-ia b. The power of the States, XVI. 1. 4. The relations with England, XVI. "-6. 5 The disorder of the country, XVI. 7-9. 6 The remedy for the disorder. -z. Through popular activity, XVI. 13. 0. Through reorganization, XVI. 14. II. The Constitution of the United States. 1. The convention which framed it, XVII. 1-3. 2. The question of adoption, XVII. 4-6. , 3. The departments of government, XVII. 7. 4. Rights and duties of the United States, XVII. 8-15. f II. The Government in Operation. ' ~~( 1. The first officers, XVIII. 1, 5; XIX. 5. 2. The work of Congress. a. Upon the Constitution, XVIII. 2, 3. b. In the payment of the debt, XVIII. 4-10. c. In establishing a bank, XVIII. 11. d. In raising revenue, XVIII. 12, 13. e. In enlarging the Union, XVIII. 14-16. 3 The rise qf parties, XVIII. 2, 8, la'12- y&' VIII. Relations with Europe during Jefferson's Admin- istration. 1. The purchase of Louisiana, XXIV. 6-10. 2. Perils to commerce from Barbary pirates, XXV. I-20. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 3©3 3. Disasters to commerce from the Napoleonic wars, XXV. 1, 11-14. 4. Jefferson's foreign policy, XXV. 15 ; XXVI. 6-9. 5. English treatment of American sailors, XXVI. 1-5. IX. Relations with Europe during Madison's Adminis tration. 1. The Non-Intercourse Act, XXVI. 10, 14. 2. Effect of foreign policy upon domestic parties, XXVI. 10, 11, 16, 17. 3. The break with England, XXVI. 15, 17. X. The War of 1812-1815. 1. Movements on the Canada border, XXVII. 1-4. 2. Naval victories in 1812, XXVII. 5-9. 3. The operations on and about the lakes, XXVII. 10-14. 4. Naval operations in 1813, XXVIIl. 1. 5. Operations on the Canada border in 1814, XXVIIL 2-5. 6. The plans of the British, XXVIIl. 6. 7. The raids on Washington and Baltimore, XXVIIl. 7-9. 8. The northern movement of the British, XXVIIl. 10. 9. The southern movement, XXVIIl. 11, 12. 10. The operations at New Orleans, XXVIIL 13-16. 11. The end of the war, XXVIIL 17, 18. 12. The United States independent of Europe, XXVIIl 18, 19. XI. Dealings with the Indians. 1. The pioneer and the Indian, XX. 7, 8. 2. Frontier difficulties, XXII. 12, 13; XXVI. 12, 13. 3. Fights growing out of the war with England. a. The Indians in alliance with the English, XXVII, 2, 10, 14. b. The Creek War, XXVII. 15-17. XII. Burr's Conspiracy, XXIV. 15-18. VIII. Enlargement of the Union. 1. The Northwest Territory, XVI. 11-13; XXIV. 13; XXVI. 13. 2. The admission of Vermont, XVIII. 15, 16. 3. Kentucky and Tennessee, XX. 9-14. 4. Occupation of the Western valleys, XXIV. 2-4. 5. Purchase of Louisiana, XXIV. 6-11. 6. Exploration of the farther West, XXIV. 12, 13. 7. Ohio, XXIV. 13, 14. , < 304 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Shays' Rebellion 1786-1787 Northwest Territory organized 1787 Constitutional Convention met May 14, 1787 Constitution ratified by Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey 1787 Constitution ratified by eight other States 1788 First Congress met in New York March 4, 1789 Washington inaugurated President April 30, 1789 Constitution ratified by North Carolina 1789 Constitution ratified by Rhode Island 1790 First United States census i7go First United States Bank 1791 Vermont admitted into the Union 1791 Kentucky admitted into the Union 1792 Cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney 1793- Wayne's campaign against the Indians 1793 The Whiskey Insurrection 1794 Jay's Treaty ratified 1795 Tennessee admitted into the Union June 1, 1796 Alien and Sedition laws enacted . 1798 Death of Washington Dec. 14, 1799 Capital established at Washington 1800 War with Tripoli 1801-1805 Ohio admitted into the Union Nov. 29, 1802 Louisiana purchased 1803 Aaron Burr's Conspiracy 1806 Berlin Decree issued 1806 Fulton ascended the Hudson River, in the Clermont 1807 Embargo Bill passed 1807 Battle of Tippecanoe Nov. 7, 1811 Louisiana admitted into the Union April 30, 1812 War declared against England June 18, 1812 Hull's surrender of Detroit Aug. 16, 1812 The Guerriere captured by the Constitution .... Aug. 19, 1812 Perry's victory on Lake Erie Sept. 10, 1813 Battle of Chippewa July 5, 1814 Battle of Lundy's Lane July 25, 1814 City of Washington burned by the British Aug. 24, 1814 Treaty of Peace signed at Ghent Dec. 24, 1814 Battle of New Orleans Jan. 8, 1815 War with Algiers 1815 PART III. THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE UNION. CHAPTER I. THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS. Seminole (Sem'i-nble). | Sabine (Sa-been'). 1. The War of 1812, as it is commonly called, came at the end of a long period of warfare which had been carried on upon both sides of the Atlantic. In 1755 England and France began a contest which lasted, with short cessations from fighting, for sixty years. In 181 5 the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at Waterloo ended the contest. 2. America was closely connected with this long war. It broke out on American soil. The first fight of seven years — the French and Indian War — left America in the hands of the English. When the English colonies fought,' for their independence, they drew the French into a fresh fight with England. 3. This last war had grown out of the close connec tion which the United States had with France and Eng land. The chief result of the war was to make the United States more independent of Europe. The long peace which now followed in Europe helped the United States to grow strong and self-reliant. 306 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 4. The Union of eighteen States had a great country which it was to occupy. The boundaries were not changed by the war. England still held Canada on the north. Spain possessed Florida on the south, and Mexico on the southwest. She also claimed all the western coast of North America, as far north as the British possessions. 5. England and Spain were not the only foreign neighbors of the United States. Within the boun daries of the country were peoples who made treaties with the United States, just as did foreign nations like England, France, or Spain. The United States acted i toward the Indians who lived within its territory as it acted toward the English or the Spaniards who occupied land lying outside of its territory. 6. That is, the United States did not deal with each separate Englishman who owned a strip of land in Canada, or with each separate Spaniard who owned a bit of Florida; it dealt with the nation of England or the nation of Spain. When the United States bought Louisiana, it bought it of France, and not of the dif ferent French or Spanish people who owned plantations in Louisiana. 7. Thus, when it came to deal with the Indians, it did not deal with each separate Indian. But, though there were many Indians in the country, there was no general Indian nation with a government. There were separate Indian tribes, and it was with each of these tribes that the United States had dealings. 8 Each tribe had a tract of country over which it roved. Here were its hunting-grounds, and here its few fields which the women planted and reaped from year to year. A bark hut was the most lasting building. THE UNION AND ITS NEIGHBORS. 307 When the game was gone from one place, the Indians moved to another. 9. It was not easy to say what were the exact boun daries of the country occupied by each tribe. The whites, as they cleared away the woods and planted their farms, were quite sure to be taking possession of land which the Indians claimed as their own. The pioneer whites were thus constantly getting into trouble with the Indians. 10. When fighting became general, the United States, or the State in which the trouble was, was called upon to defend the whites, and an Indian war followed. The Indians were certain to be defeated ; and then the United States would make a treaty with the tribe, buy the land which had been fought about, and compel the Indians to move farther away. 11. Thus, in 18 14, as we have seen, when the country was in arms against Great Britain, there was a fight going on with the Creek Indians in Georgia and Ala bama. The end of it was that the Creeks were obliged to give up a large portion of their territory and move west. Many of them, however, still remained, and there was bitter feeling between them and the settlers. 12. The difficulty was greater because the country in dispute lay next to the Spanish possessions in Florida, These possessions had but few Spanish villages or plan tations. A tribe of Indians, the Seminoles, was scat tered over the peninsula. Many Seminoles had been driven out of the Southern colonies before the War for Independence. 13. Now it was an easy matter for slaves in Georgia and Alabama, when they ran away from their masters, to plunge into the thickets and swamps of Florida. The THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION* Creeks and Seminoles were always ready to help them. A border war sprang up, in which the whites were con stantly crossing the Florida line to recapture slaves or to fight the Indians. 14. General Andrew Jackson was placed in command of an expedition in 1817, with instructions to carry on a campaign against the Seminoles. He was permitted to pursue them, if necessary, into Florida, but was not to attack any Spanish fort should the Indians take refuge in it. 15. Jackson was not a cautious man. He entered Florida, seized Indians and white traders, and hung men without a regular trial. He took possession of Span ish forts and built a fort of his own. So popular was he, however, and so eager were his friends and neigh bors to get possession of Florida, that instead of being reproved by Congress he was regarded as a great hero. 16. While he was thus really carrying on a war with the authorities in Florida, the government at Washing ton was trying to remove all difficulties by persuading Spain to sell Florida. Spain protested against Jackson's conduct; but the kingdom was weak and in no condition to go to war with the United States. 17. After long bargaining, Spain made a treaty with the United States, giving up all claims to-any territory east of the Mississippi River. West of the Mississippi, the Sabine River was to be the boundary with Mexico. The treaty was signed by the representatives of the two governments in 18 19. The United States now controlled the entire sea-board from the St. Croix to the Sabine. 18. The great success of the little American navy during the late war, and above all the growing faith which the people had in the Union, inspired the country THE BUSINESS OF THE COUNTRY. $°% with a strong desire to maintain its independence of Europe. Congress expended large sums of money in fortifying the coast and inland frontier. It established navy-yards and enlarged the navy. 19. James Madison was President during the War of 1812. He was followed in 1817 by James Monroe, of Virginia, who had been Minister to France when Lou isiana was bought. Now he signed the treaty which made Florida a part of the United States. His admin istration lasted from 1817 to 1825, and was called the " Era of Good Feeling." 20. People forgot the old quarrels in their joy at the end of the war and the revival of business. For a time the violent party feeling, which had flamed higher during the European strife, died down. New occasions for political contest had not yet come. Everywhere men were hopeful and busy with plans for the great country. CHAPTER II. THE BUSINESS OF THE COUNTRY. Custom-house. The office where duties are collected on goods imported into the country or exported from it. Tar'iff. A list of duties laid by government on goods imported into the country or exported from it. 1. The Union was growing so rapidly that for six years after the close of the War of 1812 a new State was added each yeai. Indiana was added in 18 16, Mississippi in 181 7, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 18 19, Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. The people were 310 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. busy cutting down forests ; ploughing the soil ; sailing the sea, rivers, and lakes; hunting; buying and selling; building houses, schools, and churches. 2. In order to aid the business men in their dealings with one another, Congress gave a charter to a new national bank. It also increased the duties on goods imported from Europe. It did this not so much to secure greater revenues for the government as to encourage the manufacture of a similar class of goods in this country. 3. The history of a piece of cotton cloth, for exam ple, was as follows. The cotton raised in the Southern States was sent chiefly to England to be manufactured. England had rich men who built mills and machines for working the cotton ; she had, also, a multitude of people who worked for low wages in these mills. 4. The English manufacturers made far more cotton cloth than could be used in England alone, and they sold it to other countries. They could make the cloth better and more cheaply than it could be made in the United States. The people in the United States, there fore, bought it of England rather than of the few American manufacturers. 5. Now England had established herself in India, and received at first most of her cotton from that country. She wished to favor her own merchants, who brought the cotton from India, and therefore she laid a tax upon the cotton from the Southern States. 6. The South said: Let us send our cotton to the North, where we can sell it without paying any du ties ; then let us lay a heavy duty on all cotton goods brought from England. By this means Northern manu facturers can make up our cotton into goods which will THE BUSINESS OF THE COUNTRY. 3*1 cost the buyer less than English goods of the same kind. 7. For if the cotton has to travel across the Atlantic, pay a tax there, be made into cloth, cross the Atlantic A Cotton Field. again, and then pay a heavy duty at the custom-house, it will cost the merchant who buys it so much that when he sells it in .his shop he must ask. a higher price than for the cloth made perhaps in the next town to him. So the customer will buy the native cloth. 8 This tariff on European goods, therefore, was called a protective tariff, because it was intended to protect the American planter and manufacturer. It did 312 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION not at first please the Northern people. Their business was much more in ships than in mills ; and if the tariff stopped European goods from coming over, of what use would their ships be ? 9. There was nothing new in the principle of the pro tective tariff. Hamilton had urged it at the beginning of the government, and it was the method used by all countries for the protection of their own industries. But the tariff of 1816 in the United States came at a time when it had a marked effect in the history of the people. 10. If the United States could manufacture its own goods from its own products, and sell them to its own citizens, then one part of the country would help another, and the whole Union would prosper together. Thus the tariff fell into its place as one of the plans adopted by the country when it settled down to the work of possessing the land and improving it. 11. The few manufactories which had been started during the period when America was breaking away from Europe now began to thrive, and new ones were established. Men who had before used their money in commerce turned their attention largely to manufac tures. This was especially true of New England, where the rivers which came down from the hill-country afforded good water-power. 12. The rise of manufacturing towns on the banks of these rivers changed the old New England life. It brought people together from different places ; there was more travel. The young read more and talked more with one another; they had societies and saw one another more frequently ; they had magazines and papers for which they wrote. INVENTION AND ENTERPRISE. 313 13. It does not at all follow that people stopped buying English and French goods; but every year there was more business in making, buying, and selling American goods. As people grew richer, they continued to get from England and France the better class of goods, while American manufacturers were constantly endeav oring to make their own products better, and thus to get the trade of their countrymen. CHAPTER III. INVENTION AND ENTERPRISE. Appalachian (Ap-pa-latch'i-an). The name applied to the moun tain range of which the Alle ghany Mountains are the prin cipal members. An'thracite. Hard coal. 1. Life in a new country like the United States was different from what it was in Europe. The farmers, the lumberers, the mechanics, often found in their work that the English manufacturers did not understand just what was needed. Americans therefore were con stantly contriving new machines and tools to do the work required. 2. Besides this, there were fewer men to do any piece of work than in England. Whenever in the United States a machine could be contrived to do the work of twenty men, it was eagerly adopted because the twenty men were not to be had. They were scattered about, whereas in England they were in crowds. 3. This was especially the case in farming. The broad fields of the West were very fruitful; but the 314 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. -A m y-'w® A Western Farm. f, ¦ ^ farmer who » ^flfei owned a great tract could not find men enough to help him cultivate the fields after the old fashion. He set his wits to work to invent machines which should do the work of men, should prepare the ground, sow the seed, and reap the crop. 4. Since 1790 the government has granted patents to inventors. There were not many granted before INVENTION AND ENTERPRISE. 315 the War of 1812, but after that the number increased rapidly. In 1836 the Patent Office was made a distinct bureau under the Secretary of State, and a Commis sioner of Patents was appointed to be at its head. 5. The great coal and iron regions lying in the Ap palachian range began to yield their riches. Charcoal was formerly used in smelting iron, but in 1820 the Pennsylvania iron-workers began to make experiments in mixing anthracite coal with charcoal. 6. When it was at last found that anthracite coal could be used alone, the manufacture of iron 1838 increased with great rapidity. The coal was close by the iron ore; and both coal and iron were so near the Atlantic sea-board that it cost little to get the product of mines to ports, and then to ship it to points up and down the coast. 7. With a country so large, and with population spreading in every direction, it became important to find means of getting quickly and easily from place to place. During Monroe's administration more than a million dollars — a large sum in those days — was spent by government in building a national road from Cumberland, in Maryland, to Wheeling, on the Ohio. 8. The people did not wait for the general govern ment, and indeed there were many who thought gov ernment ought not to spend the public money in this way. Sometimes private companies and sometimes the State built roads and canals. The money for building them and keeping them in repair was ob tained by charging tolls upon all who used them. 9. The greatest of these public works was the Erie Canal, which owed its execution chiefly to the energetic Governor of New York, De Witt Clinton. It was begun 316 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. in 1817 and opened for traffic in 1825. It extended across the State from Lake Erie to the Hudson River, and was longer than any canal in America or Europe. 10. The Erie Canal was thus the means by which the produce of the country bordering on the great lakes and of the rich farms in the Mohawk valley was car ried to the sea. It was one of the great means by which the city of New York became the chief commer cial city of the New World. 11. This was before the locomotive had been per fected, so that steam railroads were not yet in operation. Steamboats, however, were already beginning to ply on rivers and lakes. Just after the Erie Canal was begun, a steamboat was built which was the first to navigate Lake Erie. 12. The next year a still more important step was taken. The steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic, went as far as St. Petersburg, and returned. isi9. Six years later, when the Erie Canal was finished, the steamer Enterprise went from America to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Thus the beginning of steam navigation for America had been made. 13. A year after the Enterprise sailed for India, the first railroad in the United States was opened in Mas sachusetts, from the Quincy quarries to tide-water. It was only two miles long, and was used for hauling granite; the cars. were drawn by horses. It was the first use of rails in America. 14. In 1830 the first passenger railway in America was opened. It was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, of which fifteen miles had been built. The cars were at first drawn by horses, but a locomotive was used the INVENTION AND ENTERPRISE. 317 next year. Now began the construction of railroads in various directions ; in the next twenty years nearly ten thousand miles of road were built. 15. By the application of steam to industry, the dis covery of great tracts of coal and iron, the invention n JH_«JP-': " Si Wt m ¦- ^i--^i'' 1 ~-Z ,S^ i 'mmm^ssst^EMt ^jfefjrf^ife''^^'^ w¥ ¦ ¦ f; - ' '7 ...- ' •' : ¦../ !,:, ,, .,1 , ¦ The first Passenger Locomotive Built in (J» United States. ot machines for doing the work of men, the communi cation by steamboat and railroad, — by means of these, a people with free scope for its energy was rapidly changing the wilderness of the southern half of North America into a rich and prosperous country. 16. With every year the line of settlements was pushed farther westward. Along the great highways and by trails across the prairies, one might see long emigrant trains. Covered wagons contained the family goods and carried the women and children ; the men marched behind or rode on horseback ; they drove the sheep and cattle which they were taking to the new homes. 17. These emigrants often formed large parties for 3*8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. better protection against Indians and wild beasts. They camped at night by streams of water when they could. They built their camp fires and kept guard all night, for they could hear the howling of wolves and sometimes see Indians stealing toward them. A Western Emigrant Train. 18, As they moved on, they would meet men and wagons coming from the opposite direction. Already the great West was sending back produce and droves of cattle and pigs to the Eastern markets. They passed, too, many bones of men and animals; for the great Western trails had seen many weak ones fall by the way, unaK'~ to stand the hard journey. THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY, 319 CHAPTER IV. THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 1. THE country occupied by the United States stretched from a region in the North where there were long, cold winters and short summers, to a land in the South where winter meant only a few weeks of rest between the gathering of one crop and the planting of the next. In the North were grass-land, and wheat and corn fields; in the South, tobacco, cotton, rice, and sugar plantations. 2. The people who lived at the two extremes had come originally from the same English stock. But their ways of living, ever since they had occupied the country, were so different that now the people of the Southern States seemed to many travellers almost another people from those occupying the Northern States. 3. This difference was owing chiefly to the fact that in the South the great body of laborers was composed of African slaves, owned and directed in their work by white men. Except in some of the mountain regions, the white man and the black rarely worked together. Everywhere it was the black man or woman who did the work of the hand. 4. In the early years of the Republic many of the wisest men in the South were eager to get rid of slavery. All but three of the thirteen States which had made the Confederation forbade the importation of slaves. These three were North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia ; 320 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. and they insisted, when the Constitution was framed, that the right to import slaves should continue till 1808. 5. But though it became illegal to import slaves from Africa or other countries, it was permitted to sell them from one State to another. All children born of slave mothers became slaves, and the property of the master of the mother. The more slaves a man had, the richer he was thought to be ; and the number of slaves in the country increased rapidly, especially after the invention of the cotton-gin. 6. Thus there came gradually a change in the opinion of the people of the South. A few had freed their slaves, and a few slaves had bought their freedom by working for others in the extra time which their masters gave them. But while Jefferson and many others once deplored the system of slavery, most of the people now accepted it as right and desirable. 7. They were used to it. It freed them from the necessity of working with their hands. It gave them leisure to come and go among their friends. It gave them a sense of power; they were rulers over men; they gave orders and were obeyed. They thought also that they were growing rich as they saw their gangs of slaves tilling the fields without wages. 8. The masters cared for their slaves. They gave them clothing, and houses, and gardens in which to raise vegetables. They amused themselves with the little children who grew up in play with their own families. They took care of them when they were sick and old. 9. They encouraged the slaves also in going to church and religious meetings, and frequently gave THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 321 them religious instruction. But they carefully kept books and papers out of the hands of the blacks. Corn-Shacking at the South. They did not think it wise to give them schools. They treated them, so far as education went, like little children who were never to grow up. 10. Why, they asked, should the negro learn to read and write and keep accounts? He was not to be in business for himself; he could not vote ; he could not testify in courts of law; he was not a citizen of the State. To be most useful to his master, he must be contented. for what his master and other freemen had, he might himself try to break away from slavery. 11. For the most part, the slaves were an idle, easy- " Christmas, Missis?" If he began to care 322 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. going people. They were affectionate and warmly at tached to their masters and mistresses if these were kind to them. They had little thought of anything be yond eating and sleeping and playing. They had their holidays, and when Christmas came they flocked to the great house to receive their presents. 12. It was a mistake to think that the South was really becoming richer by means of slavery. A few planters seemed to be rich because they had large estates and a great body of servants, but the whole country was not growing richer; everywhere there was waste. 13. Instead of intelligent men working hard with their hands and their heads, improving the land, and getting larger crops to the acre, there was a race of ignorant laborers who worked as little as they could. They had nothing to gain by industry and economy. They laid by nothing, for they expected to be taken care of by their masters. 14. The South did not see that it was becoming poorer. It saw that it had more slaves every year, and must find a place for them. It perceived, also, that the North was increasing more rapidly in population ; the Northwest was filling up faster than the Southwest. The non- slaveholding States were growing more powerful every year. 15. The increasing prosperity of the free States was a constant menace to the slave States, for it seemed to say that States where labor was free had an immense advantage over States where labor was enslaved. The South began to fear that, as time went on, the free States might control the Union and then might even undertake to get rid of slavery. THE SYSTEM OF SLAVERY. 323 16. The States in which slavery existed were held to gether by this fact ; it gave them an interest in common which the other States had not. All were States of the Union, but the Southern States were also slavery States. They were ready to act together whenever the system which was so important to them seemed to be in danger. 17. There always was danger. Although there was often a strong attachment between the slaves and their masters, the laws of the slave States showed how little the masters trusted their slaves. These laws were very stringent ; the life as well as the liberty of the slave was in the power of the master. 18. Many slaves ran away into the swamps of Florida, Virginia, and Alabama; or they escaped to the free States, where they hid in cities or found friends among those who disliked slavery. When they were ill treated they would sometimes revenge themselves on their masters. More than once they attempted insurrection. 19. The greatest danger to slavery was in the growing belief that slavery was wrong, and that the nation ought not to permit men and women to be owned by others, to be bought and sold, and to have no other rights than those which belonged to horses and oxen. 20. But slavery existed under the laws, and the States where it did not exist were not at first disposed to interfere. They said that slavery was an affair of the States in which it was- found. For the most part, they were too busy with their growing industries to care about a matter which they said did not belong to them. 21. Besides, the Northern States were now engaged in a great variety of enterprises, while the Southern States were still chiefly employed in the few agricultural industries of tobacco, cotton, rice, and sugar, The 324 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. South thus looked to the North for clothing, tools, much of the food, and all the luxuries of life. The merchants of the North found a great market in the South for the sale of their goods ; they did not want anything to disturb it; they needed cotton from the South to keep their mills running. 22. Families from the different sections intermarried. Visitors passed from South to North and from North to South. The churches had their members and associa tions in both parts of the country. So most people agreed to let slavery alone ; and many at the North persuaded themselves, and tried to persuade others, that it was not so bad a thing after all. CHAPTER V. SLAVERY AND POLITICS. Compromise (compromize). An I in a dispute, by which each gives agreement between two parties | up a part of its demands. l. WHEN the Territories of the West applied for ad mission to the Union as States, those which were north of the Ohio River came in as free States. Not only were they settled almost wholly by emigrants from the older free States, but the Ordinance of 1787 forever excluded slavery from the Northwest Territory. 2. The States formed south of the Ohio came in as slave States. They were formed from territory which had been ceded to the Union by the older slave States. They were settled by families from those States, who carried their slaves with them, and observed the laws and ways to which they had been accustomed. SLAVERY AND POLITICS. 325 3. But when the Mississippi was crossed, and settle ments began to be made in the great territory originally called Louisiana, the question arose whether the States made from it were to be slave States or free. The first discussion was over the admission of the Territory of Missouri as a State. 4. It belonged to Congress to decide this question. Members from the free States said that Missouri should' not come in except under laws which forbade slavery. Theywere opposed by the members from the slave States. and the debate occupied two sessions of Congress. 5. At last an agreement was reached, called the Missouri Compromise. By this, slavery was to be per mitted in Missouri, but was to be prohibited , 1820. forever in all other territory west of the Missis sippi north of 360 30', the southern boundary of Mis souri. This result was largely brought about by Henry Clay, who was Speaker of the House. 6. One of the effects of the controversy had been to delay the admission of Maine, which wished to be set off from Massachusetts. The Southern members had refused to admit Maine until it should be agreed to admit Missouri as a slave State. The great debate showed clearly that the South was very much in ear nest, and that it was united in defence of slavery. 7. In spite of these dissensions, the Union was really growing stronger. One sign of its strength was in the influence which it had on its neighbors. The provinces of Spain in Mexico, Central America, and South Amer ica threw off the dominion of the mother-country, and Bet up republics after the pattern of the United States. 8. The great powers of Europe stood by Spain in her tttempt to recover these provinces. President Monroe 326 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION declared in a message to Congress that the United States would preserve a strict neutrality in the war between Spain and her provinces, but that when any province became independent, the United States would regard an attack upon it by a European power as an attack on herself. 9. This declaration has received the name of the Mon roe Doctrine. It was meant to assert that the United States had so great an interest in the prosperity of the whole American continent, that it never would permit Europe to recover any foothold in America which it once had lost. 10. Two years later, the South American States, which were now independent, proposed to hold a con gress at Panama to consult upon matters of common interest to all America. They invited the United States to send delegates. John Quincy Adams was President, and accepted the invitation, ir behalf of the nation. 11. Congress, however, after a stormy debate, refused to send delegates. These South American States had abolished slavery; they were near neighbors to the South ; they might include Cuba, which was still a part of Spain, make the island independent, and free the slaves there. The whole scheme held danger for the slave States, and was rejected. 12. The slave States were strong supporters of the doctrine that the States were independent of one another and of the Federal government. Each was a sovereign State. The doctrine had been held from the beginning of the Union. The power of the State was a protection against too great a power in the central government. 13. This doctrine was used with special force by the SLAVERY AND POLITICS. 327 people of the South, under .the leadership of John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. It was a safeguard for slavery, and was held so passionately that the State was put before the Union. "I am a Georgian," one would say, or "I am a South Carolinian," before he would say, " I am an Amer ican." 14. Georgia wished to get rid of the Creeks and Chero- kees remaining with in the State ; but they refused to go. The United States had made treaties with them, and these treaties acknowl edged the right of the Indians to the land which they held. They were more civilized than most Indians, and had farms which they cultivated 15. A few of their chiefs were persuaded to sign a new treaty with Georgia, giving, up their lands. The other Indians at once put them to death ; they declared that these chiefs had no authority to sign for the tribes, and that there was no treaty. Georgia would not wait for the Indians to yield. The State ordered a survey ; the territory was within her boundaries, but it also was distinctly under the control of the Indians by agreement with the United States. John C. CalhoTu 328 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. No Name. I. George Washington, Virginia, (Portrait, pagt 195.) 2. John Adams, 3. Thomas Jefferson, (Portrait, page 269.) 4. James Madison, 5. James Monroe, 6 John Quincy Adams. List of Presidents. 1.89-1829 State. April 30, Hon), Massachusetts, March 4, Virginia, March 4, Virginia, March 4, Virginia, March 4, Massachusetts, March 4. Term of Office. 1789 (day of inaugura to March 4, 1797. 1797. to March 4, 1801, 1801, to March 4, 1809, 1809, to March 4, 1817, 1817, to March 4, 1825. 1825, to March 4, 1829, ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON 329 16. The United States was very desirous of removing the Indians, and tried- every means to persuade them to leave. That was one reason why it suffered Georgia to crowd out the Indians. It was none the less true that a State was taking to itself a power which belonged only to the Union. 17. The wrangle over the Indians began in the admin istration of John Quincy Adams, and continued after Andrew Jackson was chosen President. Jackson had no love for the Indians ; he had fought them all his life, and he did not now interfere. Georgia had her own way, and the doctrine of State sovereignty was more firmly held than ever. CHAPTER VI. ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. Democratic. Derived from two Greek words meaning " the rule of the people." Null. Of no-force in law. Void. Empty. Null and void is a legal term. 1. Andrew Jackson was a different man from the Presidents who preceded him. They had lived in the older parts of the country and in Europe; they had been trained in the study of government, both at home and abroad. Jackson, on the other hand, had grown up on the frontier, where he had lived among rude men. 2. He had been known chiefly as a brave man who had defeated the English at New Orleans and had car ried on successful campaigns against the Indians. He was a man of strong will, who loved his friends and hated his enemies. He was greatly admired by the 53° THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. people, because, unlike most public men, he seemed not to belong to a separate class, but to be one of themselves. 3. In Europe one class of men was looked up to as having a right to govern. It was only gradually that this idea faded out in America, where every freeman had a vote. ' It faded out most quickly in the newer parts of the country, where all were very much on the same footing. People liked Jack son because he was an American and believed with all his heart in the Ameri can Union. 4. The party which followed Jackson's lead was called the name was intended to de- It maintained Andrew Jtetiuon. Democratic party. The clare that it was the party of the people. that the people should everywhere manage their own affairs, and that the general government should interfere as little as possible. 5. Opposed to it, under the leadership of Henry Clay, was the National Republican party, which maintained that the general government should have more to do with managing the affairs of the whole country. It was in favor of a protective tariff; it was in favor also of a ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON. 33 1 United States Bank, with branches, to be chartered by the government, instead of a great many local banks. 6. Jackson was devoted to the Union; but he had also a strong conviction that local affairs should be managed by the local government. It was 1 urged that the United States Bank was grow ing too powerful, was interfering with local banks, and was influ encing the general government. Jack son opposed the bank with all his might, and finally succeeded in closing it. 7. Such a man could not help having bitter enemies and ardent friends. It seemed as if govern ment had passed out of the hands of a set of men who had always ruled, and into the hands of the people. Jackson turned out of office the men who opposed him, and put in his friends. This custom has prevailed ever since. 8. Jackson had a powerful party behind him, and there were many in it who pushed to an extreme the doctrine of State sovereignty. The question whether the Constitution intended a Union superior to the States, or a compact between States where each was supreme, was debated in the United States Senate in 1830. 9. Robert Young Hayne, of South Carolina, defended Henry Clay. 332 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. the State-sovereignty doctrine, and Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, the doctrine of the supremacy of the Union. In the debate Webster earned the reputation of being the ablest constitutional defender of the Union. The closing words of one of his speeches, " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable," became a watchword of the people. 10. The Southera States had at first favored a protec tive tariff, because it had made a new market for cotton, where it would not be taxed. The Northern States, taking advantage of the tariff, had turned their energies to manufacturing. The tariff, by successive acts, had been made to cover a great many articles. 11. The North was thus growing rich, but the South seemed to be gaining nothing. The great articles of export, cotton and tobacco, went from the South; it was by selling these that the country was able to buy ~ goods from Europe. But when these goods came, a heavy tax was laid on them, and thus they had to be sold at a high price. 12. The South said : " If the tariff be made lower, these goods, which our tobacco and cotton have bought in England, will not cost us so much." The North said : " No. But the foreign goods will be so cheap that it 1 will be impossible for us to manufacture and sell them at the same or a lower pr|ce, and all our manufactories will have to stop." J 13. At last the State of "South Carolina declared that the tariff had become so oppressive to her citizens that it could no longer be borne. A convention was called in November, 1832, which passed an ordinance declaring the tariff" acts to be null and void so far as South Caro lina was concerned, ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON, 333 Daniel Webster, Statesman. Born January 18, 1782 ; died October 24, 1852. 14. The convention threatened that if the Federal government should attempt to enforce the tariff acts, 334 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. South Carolina, as a free and independent State, would withdraw from the Union. Nullification was the name given to the act by which the State declared certain laws to have no force in her territory. 15. Mr. Calhoun and his followers maintained that the State could refuse to obey laws made by Congress, when those laws were injurious to her, and that the Fed eral government could not force her to obey. But people saw instinctively that force might be used ; and all over the State military companies were formed, and preparations for resistance were made. 16. President Jackson believed that the States should manage their own affairs. He also believed that when laws were passed in Congress for the whole country, no one State had a right to refuse to obey those laws. He told South Carolina at once that, if she resisted, the whole force of the Union would be used against her. 17. For a while it looked as if there would be fight ing. But Clay, who was the leader of the protectionists, came forward and proposed a compromise by which the tariff was modified. South Carolina had won her point. The doctrine of Nullification had not been put to the test of arms ; but the doctrine of State sovereignty had established itself still more firmly at the South. CHAPTER VII. ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. Rio Grande (Ree'o Grakn'dd). | Houston (Hevtstun). 1. CALHOUN was steadily teaching the Southern States that their safety lay in the doctrine of State sovereignty. ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 335 The slave-holders were beginning to think that the Union was not worth much to them unless it protected the slave system. Meanwhile a very different belief was becoming common at the North, and largely through the influence of one man. 2. William Lloyd Garrison, of Massachusetts, — a poor man, who had been bred a printer, — established a weekly newspaper, called " The Liberator." It was de voted to the entire and immediate abolition of African slavery in America. For his part, he did not think the Union worth preserving if it protected the slave system. 3. He took the ground that for a man to. hold slaves at all was a sin. He was not the first to say this, but his openness of speech and his persistence made him and his paper conspicuous. Others, men and women, came forward to support him, and soon societies were formed for the abolition of slavery. The abolitionists did not constitute a political party, but they kept up an incessant attack upon the evil of slavery. 4. They were persecuted; their books and papers were destroyed ; but every attempt to stop them only gave a new opportunity for the discussion of the rights and wrongs of slavery. The slave-holders and their friends at the North declared that the abolitionists were destroying the peace of the country. They charged them with inciting the slaves to insurrection, and they called upon all friends of the Union to put them down. 5. In Congress they made rules to prevent the intro duction of any matter hostile to slavery. They tried to exclude petitions for the abolition of slavery in the Dis trict of Columbia and in the Territories, over which 336 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Congress had control. They took the ground that slavery was a matter which could not be touched by Congress. 6. The right of petition has been a right held sacred by the people ; and a champion for this right appeared in John Quincy Adams, who had been sent back to Washington as representative from his district in Mas sachusetts. He presented these petitions again and again. The slavery party refused to admit them ; and the consequence was that multitudes of people at the North were gained over to the anti-slavery side. 7. The political parties had not yet openly divided on the question of slavery. But the opposition to Jackson and the Democratic party became firmer, and took the name of the Whig party. The Democrats, however, elected the next President, Martin Van Buren, of New York. The Whigs were success ful in electing Van Buren's successor, William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. Harrison died a month after he entered office ; and the Vice-President, John Tyler, of Virginia, became President. 8. Since Missouri, two other States had been ad mitted to the Union, — Arkansas in 1836, and Michi gan in 1837. Half of the States were now free States, and half slave ; but in population the free States were lapidly gaining on the slave States. In 1830 the ex cess was over a million; in 1840 it was nearly two and a half millions. 9. Moreover, after the admission of Arkansas, Florida was the only Territory which could be admitted as a slave State. To the north and northwest of the line of 360 30' lay an apparently boundless country, out of which free States could be formed. It was in this ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 337 direction that the population of the country was moving. 10. Southern statesmen saw very clearly that by the natural growth of the country the free States would soon far exceed the slave States in territory, popula tion, wealth, and political power. They saw that they must in some v/ay enlarge the boundary of the slave States, and they looked for this to the great country of Texas. It lay south of 360 30', was suited to slavery, and was already occupied by many Southerners. 11. Texas was originally a part of the Spanish prov ince of Mexico. When the United States bought Lou isiana of France, there was a dispute with Spain whether the boundary of that province was the Sabine River or the Rio Grande. When, sixteen years later, the United States bought Florida of Spain, it was a part of the agreement that the line between Louisiana and Mexico should be the Sabine River. 12. In 1 82 1 Mexico revolted from Spain, and formed a republic modelled after the United States. Like other Spanish States in America, it abolished slavery. The South thus had for its neighbor a free country hemming it in on -the south and southwest. President John Quincy Adams and President Jackson each made the attempt to buy Texas of Mexico ; but Mexico re fused to sell. 13. Meanwhile, emigration from the Southwestern States had set in, and many Americans had made their home in Texas. The most noted of them was General Sam Houston, of Tennessee, who was the leader of an adventurous set of men. At his instigation Texas, in 1835, declared her independence of Mexico, and set up a government of her own, with Houston at the head. 338 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. List of Presidents, 1829-1849. Term of Office. Tennessee, March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1837. No. Name. 7. Andrew Jackson, {Portrait, page 330.) 8. Martin Van Buren, New York, March 4, 1837, to March 4, 1841, g. William Henry Harrison,1 Ohio, March 4, 1841, to April 4, 1841, 10. John Tyler,2 Virginia, April 6, 1841, to March 4, 1845. ?l. James Knox Polk, Tennessee, March 4, 1845, to March 4, 1849 * Died in office. * Elected as Vice-President ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 339 14. Texas then applied for annexation to the Union. The importance of such an addition was seen at once. Out of this vast territory five States could be formed. If slave States, they would greatly strengthen the slavery party. The Whigs, under Webster and Clay, opposed annexation. They said that to annex Texas was to go to war with Mexico ; for Mexico had not acknowledged the independence of Texas. 15. The question of annexation was hotly discussed in the Presidential election of 1844. Van Buren, who had opposed annexation, was rejected by the Demo cratic party, and James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, who favored annexation, was nominated. Henry 1844. Clay was nominated by the Whigs. A bitter contest followed. Polk was elected, and Texas was annexed by resolution of Congress. Two States were now admitted into the Union, — Florida in March, 1845, and Texas in December of the same year. 16. In spite of the strong opposition to the annexa tion by the anti-slavery party, there was a general feel ing of pride that the country had acquired so large an addition. Politicians in favor of annexation did their best to draw men's minds away from the question of slavery, and to persuade them to think only of the. splendid prospects of the United States. They began to say that it was the " manifest destiny " of the nation to possess the whole continent. 34° THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER VIII. THE WAR WITH MEXICO. Corpus Christi (Kor'pus Kr&te). Nueces (NhaWses). Palo Alto (Pch'lo Ahl'to). Resaca de la Palma (Rd-sah'kah dd lah PahVmah). Kearney (Kdr'ne). Santa F<5 (Sahn'tah Fd) = Holy Faith. Monterey (MSn-teh-rd1). Fuebla (Pwd'blah). Saltillo (Sahl-teel'yo). Buena Vista (Bwd'nah VeesHah = Fair View. Cerro Gordo (Ser'ro Gor'do). Jalapa (Hah-lah'pah). Contreras (Kbn-trd'ras). Churubusco (Choo-roo-boos'ko). Molino del Rey (Mb-lee'nb dll Rd) = King's Mill. Chapultepec ( Chd-pool-td-pek'). Gila (Jee'lah). Mesilla (Me-seeVyah), l. In anticipation of trouble with Mexico, a naval expedition had been sent to the Gulf. The greater part of the United States army, then numbering not more than five thousand men, was stationed in the neighbor hood of Corpus Christi, in Texas. The town stood at the mouth of the Nueces River, which the Mexicans asserted was the boundary of Texas. 2. General Zachary Taylor was in command of the United States troops. He called for volunteers from Louisiana and Texas, and moved his army to the banks of the Rio Grande, which was regarded by the Texans May 8-9, as their boundary. A Mexican force in the 1846. neighborhood attempted to intercept his move ments, and battles were fought at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, in which the Mexicans were defeated. 3. The United States government, before it could hear of these actions, declared war against Mexico, and May n, called for fifty thousand volunteers. Mexico 1846. likewise declared war upon the United States for interfering in her affairs with Texas. THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 341 4. The republic of Mexico had little strength or union. It was composed of a population partly pure Indian, partly pure Spanish, and partly of both races mingled by marriage. The people had had very lit tle training in self-government. The different states were jealous of one another, and the chief power was held by whatever military leader could command the largest force. 5. Soon after the declaration of war, Colonel Stephen W. Kearney was ordered to lead an expedition into New Mexico for the purpose of separating that province from Mexico. Leaving Fort Leavenworth, he followed what was known as the Santa F6 trail, to Bent's Fort, along the Arkansas River, across the Colorado moun tains to the Rio Grande, and down that river to Santa Fe. 6. Here he took possession of the country in the name of the United States. He declared New Aug 18| Mexico a Territory of the Union, and appointed 184fi- a governor. Leaving some troops there, he set off for California, to carry out the same design of separating a Mexican state frpm the republic of Mexico and attaching it to the United States. 7. Before war was declared, Captain John C. Fremont had been sent on an exploring expedition to California. 342 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Some vessels of the navy also were sent to the Pacific coast to be in readiness. The United States had reason to think that the English would make an excuse of the Mexican troubles to set up a claim to California. 8. Fremont and his men, aided by officers of the navy with marines, made no delay when they learned that war was in progress. They easily took possession of August, one vil'age after another; they expelled the 1846. Mexican soldiers, and finally seized Monterey, the capital of the province. There were a number of American settlers there, who proceeded to declare the independence of California and organize a government. 9. Meanwhile General Taylor began a movement upon the city of Mexico. As soon as he could pro cure light-draught steamers and an addition to his forces, he advanced up the Rio Grande to Monterey, Sept. 24, !n Mexico. He besieged the place, and made 1846, a succession of sharp attacks, which ended in its capture. An armistice of six weeks was then agreed upon between the two armies. 10. Just as General Taylor was opening his guns upon Monterey, General Santa Anna entered the city of Mexico. He was a Mexican leader who had been banished from the country the year before. Now he was recalled by some of his old troops, and declared President of the republic. He knew that the city of Mexico was the point toward which the Americans would move, and he prepared to defend it. 11. The government at Washington ordered General Winfield Scott to Mexico to assume chief command. His plan was to take Vera Cruz, and then, with that for a base, to march upon the capital. He arrived at the mouth of the Rio Grande in January, 1847, and THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 343 called upon General Taylor to send him ten thousand men. 12. Santa Anna learned of this order, and moved at once with a large force upon Taylor, hoping to crush him in his weakened condition. The American army was then at Saltillo, for it was slowly advancing into the interior. Taylor took up a strong position at a place called Buena Vista, and awaited the enemy's attack. 13. A desperate battle was fought February 23, 1847. The Americans remained in possession of the field ; the Mexicans withdrew and hurried to attack Scott, who was expected at Vera Cruz. Scott landed, be- Maich27. sieged Vera Cruz, compelled the place to sur- ' render, and in the middle of April began his march upon the city of Mexico. It was three hundred and twenty-eight years since Cortez had started from the same port on the same march. J.4. Scott fought his way to the city. At Cerro Gordo, fifty miles northwest of Vera Cruz, he found the Mexicans intrenched. He stormed the position April is, and carried it. Santa Anna retreated toward 1847- Jalapa- Scott followed him and took the place, but advanced to Puebla, where he lay till early in August, waiting for reinforcements. On the 10th of August the leading division of the army caught sight of the city of Mexico from the heights overlooking it. 15. When Cortez conquered Mexico the city was in the midst of a great lakei Since that time the Spaniards had drained the country about the city into three lakes. The city was approached by causeways crossing marshy land, and each causeway was defended by fortified rocky hills. It was at these points that the Mexicans made their final stand. 344 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 16. The first attack by the Americans was made on August 20, — the battle of Contreras. The battles of Churubusco and Molino del Rey followed. In each of these engagements the Americans were victorious, and came nearer and nearer to the city. Finally, the last defence of the capital, the rock of Chapultepec, was taken by storm; and the next day, September 14, 1847, Mexico surrendered. 17. This was the end of the war. A treaty was entered into with Mexico, by which the Rio Grande was made the Feb. 2, southwestern boundary of the United States, 1848. ancj t-jjg Qjia River the northern boundary of Mexico. The United States paid Mexico fifteen million dollars for the territory which was thus added to its domain, exclusive of Texas. 18. Five years later, the United States bought the Mesilla Valley, south of the Gila River, for ten million dollars. General James Gadsden was the agent in this purchase. By these two cessions Mexico transferred to the United States the country now comprised in Cali fornia, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico. 19. A few months after the Mexican war opened, the President asked Congress to vote money for the pur chase of territory from Mexico, that so he might end the war. David Wilmot, a Democratic member from Pennsylvania, moved that the provision of the Ordinance of 1787 which forbade slavery should be applied to any such territory. His motion was lost; but the Wilmot Proviso was a doctrine of the new Free-Soil party formed in 1848. This new party as well as the Democrats had a candidate for the presidency in 1848 ; but the Whigs, who had nominated General Taylor, carried the day. OREGON. 34S CHAPTER IX. OREGON. 1. TEXAS was the last slave-State added to the Union. The tide of emigration was moving steadily northwest ward. In 1846 Iowa was admitted into the Union, and in 1848 Wisconsin. While the representatives of the people in Congress were struggling with the question of free or slave territory, the people them selves were rapidly increasing the influence of the free States. 2. The limit of the country on the north was the boundary line which separated the United States from the British possessions. When a treaty of peace was made after the war for independence, this northern boundary was made to run from the St. Croix River to the Mississippi. The St. Lawrence River and the great lakes marked most of the boundary, but for a part of the way there was only an imaginary line which never had been laid down in a survey. 3. Thus there was a large tract of country which was claimed by the inhabitants of Maine and by those of Canada. The dispute ran high, and sometimes led to petty warfare, which threatened, at one time, to bring the two nations into open war. In 1842 the English government sent Lord Ashburton as special commis sioner to settle the dispute ; and he, with Mr. Webster, who was Secretary of State, established the north eastern boundary as it now stands. -4. The territory west of the Mississippi had originally 346 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. been claimed by Great Britain and by France. The dividing line was from the Lake of the Woods west to the Rocky Mountains on the forty-ninth parallel. When the great struggle between England and France was ended in 1763, France ceded to England all her terri tory east of the Mississippi, and to Spain all that she claimed west of that river. 5. When, therefore, in 1800, Spain ceded back to France what she had received in 1763, and the United States immediately bought the same of France, the boundary continued to be the forty-ninth parallel on the north and the Rocky Mountains on the west. But Spain still claimed the Pacific coast as far north as 540 40'. She then held Mexico and California, and her vessels sailed up and down, trading with the natives. 6 England, on the other hand, claimed on the Pacific coast as far south as the forty-second parallel, which was the northern boundary of California. When Spain sold Florida to the United States, in 18 19, she also re linquished all claim to the country north of the forty- second parallel and west of the Rocky Mountains. 7. Whatever claim, therefore, Spain once had to that country, the United States now received from Spain. It was bounded on the north by the parallel of 540 40', on the south by the parallel of 42°, and lay between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It went by the name of Oregon, and included the present States of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and part of Montana, as well as part of British Columbia. 8. The United States rested its claim to this territory on other grounds. In 1792 Captain Robert Gray, of Boston, discovered and partly explored the river which he named, after his vessel, the Columbia. According OREGON. 347 to usage, the country drained by the river became the possession of the nation to which the discoverer belonged. 9. Lewis and Clarke also had followed the Columbia down from its source in the mountains ; and after their return, John Jacob Astor, a New York fur merchant, sent out a company, and established near the mouth of the river a trading-post, to which the name Astoria was given. On the other hand, the Hudson Bay Company of England, which controlled the great west of Canada, had posts at the mouth of Fraser's River and along the mountain passes. 10. After the second war with England, when both countries claimed this region, it was agreed in 1818 that they should hold it jointly for ten years. The Hudson Bay Company, which was fully equipped for the fur trade, increased its stations. At the end of the ten years it seemed to have almost entire possession. In 1827, when the ten years were near an end, it was agreed to continue the joint occupation until notice of its termination should be given by one nation or the other. 11. When this agreement was thus renewed, St. Louis was the great centre of the fur trade of the West. Expe ditions from that point into the disputed territory soon became common. The hunters brought back word of the fine farming and grazing ground which they had seen, and parties of emigrants began to make their way in that direction. 12. The Hudson Bay Company put every possible obstacle in the way of immigration. They wished to keep the country for trapping and hunting; if settle ments were made, that would be the end of their busi ness. They managed to create the impression in the 348 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. United States that the Rocky Mountains could not be crossed by wagons, and that the country on the other side was a barren wilderness. 13. In 1836 a company of missionaries was sent out from the Eastern States to the Oregon Indians. One of them, Dr. Marcus Whitman, was a man of great energy and foresight. He saw that it was practicable for emigrant trains to cross the mountains by good passes, and he knew that if he could make this generally known, the people of the United States would soon occupy the country. 14. Now, when Lord Ashburton came in 1842 to settle with Mr. Webster the boundary line between the British possessions and the United States, the Hudson Bay Company had succeeded in keeping out almost all American immigrants. They had laid their plans also to bring in English settlers from the Red River country so as to strengthen the British claim to all Oregon. 15. In October of that year, Dr. Whitman was at one of the company's posts when the news came that a large body of English settlers was at hand. He saw at once what this meant. With only a few hours' preparation, he set off on horseback, determined to go to Washing ton. He meant to see Mr. Webster to tell him how possible it was for the United States to occupy Oregon, and so to prevent him from making any treaty which should surrender that country. 16. It was a terrible ride. With a companion and a guide he left the neighborhood of what is now Walla- Walla, October 3, 1842. Exactly three months after ward he was at Santa Fe\ having braved the snow and ice and wintry blasts of an almost trackless region. He OREGON. 349 pushed on to St. Louis, and thence to Washington. There he found that the treaty had been signed, but that Oregon had been left out of the settlement altogether. 17. Dr. Whitman's errand was to make clear to the administration at Washington the value of Oregon, and W human starting for Washington. then to organize companies of emigrants. He did both. In the following summer he carried a great body of settlers over the mountains, and at the close of 1844 there were three thousand Americans within Oregon. The people were fast deciding the question. 35° THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 18. Congress now took up the matter in earnest. There were some who called loudly for the whole country, and raised the cry of " Fifty-four forty or fight," meaning that the parallel of 54° 40' must be made the northern boundary. The wiser men were ready to compromise, and a treaty was made with Great Britain in 1846 by which the forty-ninth parallel was made the dividing line west of the Rocky Mountains. CHAPTER X. CALIFORNIA. Lar'a-mie. Wy-o'ming. El Dorado (Do-rah'do) = The Golden Region. The name given by the Spaniards to a fabulous region in America, supposed to be the richest spot in the world. San Joaquin (Wah-keen'). l. In 1848 California became the property of the United States by purchase from Mexico. In the same year gold was discovered in the valley of the Sacra mento River, at the mills of Colonel Sutter, a Swiss immigrant; and a very hasty exploration showed that there was a great deposit of the precious metal. 2. The news spread all over the world, and immedi ately there followed a rush to the gold region. The great body of the immigrants was at first made up of men only, who came chiefly from the Northern States of the Union. There were three modes of reaching Cali fornia: — by ship round Cape Horn; by ship to Pan ama, thence across the isthmus, and again by ship ; and finally by the overland route. 3. In two years there were a hundred thousand in- CALIFORNIA. 351 habitants in the v?lleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. The splendid harbor of San Fran cisco gave shelter to vessels which came from all parts of the world. The town of San Francisco, which in city of San FrandBco. 1840 had only five hundred inhabitants, now sprang into a city. 4. At first California was regarded as an El Dorado. It was occupied by a restless population searching for gold ; but the needs of the new country quickly attracted merchants, while the fruitful valleys induced farmers to settle. Many who had come to dig for gold found it more profitable to engage in business or agriculture. 5. The overland route to California was a perilous one. Beyond the settled country lay the " plains," a hundred days' journey from the California valleys. 352 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Great herds of buffalo were found on these plains, and were hunted by roving tribes of Indians. In 1848 Fort Laramie, in what is now Wyoming, was the extreme western limit of population. 6. At one spot, however, midway on the route to California, a singular settlement had been made. A man named Joseph Smith declared that he had received a revelation from God, which he published in 1830 in a book called the Book of Mormon. He formed a society of men and women, and they made a settlement in Ohio and afterward in Missouri. 7. In 1838 he was driven away with his followers to Nauvoo, in Illinois. Six years later, Smith was killed, and the Mormons, under Brigham Young, in 1847 made a new move ; this time they went far beyond the west ern frontier. The Mormons were a farming and grazing people, and on the broad plain about Great Salt Lake they led their lives apart from other men. 8. Their missionaries travelled in the older States and in Europe, making converts and bringing them to the new home. They offered to people who were discon tented and to the hard-worked poor a land of promise and plenty. They appealed to religious people, and declared that God was with them, as He had been with the Jews of old. 9. The Mormon State differed widely from the States of the Union. There was no real power in the hands of the people ; it was all in the hands of a few men, who chose their own successors, and taxed the people for their own profit. The Mormons had their own laws and customs, which were not those of the American people. They did not regard the sacredness of the family, but gave the rich more wives than one. CALIFORNIA. 353 10. This strange community could live only by sepa ration from other people. Yet it lay in the track of the overland migration to California. Hence the Mormon rulers did all they could to interfere with the passage of emigrant trains, and with settlements in the neigh borhood; they even made use of the Indians, and encouraged them to attack emigrants. 11. President Taylor was eager to bring California into the Union before the question of slavery in that Territory should be discussed in Congress. He urged the people of California to call a convention and or ganize a State. They did this ; and, since they 1849. were almost wholly from the North, they formed a constitution prohibiting slavery, and applied for ad mission into the Union. 12. At the time when California thus applied, Henry Clay had come forward with a new compromise, by which he hoped to settle the growing dissensions. He tried to satisfy the pro-slavery party by proposing to grant ten million dollars to Texas in return for territory given up, to organize the Territories of Utah and New Mexico without any provision regarding slavery, and especially to enact a more rigid Fugitive Slave Law. 13. The Constitution expressly gave to slave-holders the right to recover their slaves if they escaped into another State ; but the increasing hostility of the peo ple in the free States to the system of slavery made it extremely difficult for slave-holders to find and recover runaway slaves, when they escaped into the free States. 14. The matter was one of great irritation to slave owners. They complained that they were deprived of their rights, in direct opposition to the Constitution. The new Fugitive Slave Law was therefore so drawn »3 354 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. as to require United States commissioners to be more vigilant in hunting for runaway slaves. It gave new powers to the claimant in establishing the identity of the person claimed ; it also gave the officers the right to call upon any citizen to help them in the search and capture. 15. To satisfy the anti-slavery men, Clay proposed the admission of California as a free State, and the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. He took the ground that if Utah and New Mexico were organized as Territories, and left to settle the question of slavery themselves, both the pro-slavery and the anti> slavery men in those Territories would have equal rights. 16. Webster gave his support to the Compromise of 1850. Like others, he viewed with alarm, the growing dissension between the two sections of the country. He was a great public leader, and he worked with all his might to preserve the Union against the attacks of the extreme pro-slavery men and the attacks of the abolitionists. 17. California was admitted into the Union ; New Mexico and Utah were constituted Territories ; Texas received ten million dollars ; the slave trade in 185°- ^ the District of Columbia was abolished, and the Fugitive Slave Law was passed. There were many at the North who declared that this law interfered with the sacred rights of personal liberty. Some of the States passed Personal Liberty laws, designed to pro tect free negroes who were charged with being runaway slaves. Everywhere the hunters for slaves were active, and the people grew more restive at the sight. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 355 TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. The State of the Country after the War of 1812. 1. The place of the war in the history of Europe and Amer ica, I. 1-3, 18. 2. The English and Spanish neighbors of the United States, I.4. 3. The Indians within the country. a. Their political relations with the United States, I. 5-7- b. Their actual relations, I. 8-1 1. 4. The purchase of Florida, I. 12-17. 5. The addition of States, II. 1 ; VII. 8. 6. The spirit shown by the people, I. 18, 20; II. 1 ; III. 15 ; VI. 1-4. 7. The part played by government, II. 2, 10 ; III. 4, 7. 8. The reason of the' tariff, II. 3-8. 9. The influence of the tariff, II. 9, 10 ; VI. 5, 10-12. 10. The enterprise of the country. a. In manufactures, II. n-13; III. I, 2. b. In farming, III. 3. c. In invention, III. 1-4. d. In mining, III. 5, 6. e. In transportation. i. By roads, III. 7, 8. ii. By canals, III. 8-10. iii. By steamboats, III. 11, 12. iv. By railroads, III. 13, 14. f. In occupying new land, III. 16-18. 11. The Monroe Doctrine^. 1 7-9. II. The System of Slavery.^' 1. Its location, IV. 1-3. 2. Its early character, IV. 4. 3. Its acceptance by the people, IV. 5, 6, 4. The working of the system. a. As regards the masters, IV. 7-9. b. As regards the slaves, IV. 8-11, 17, 18. c. As regards the prosperity of the South, IV. 12-14. d. As regards the unity of the South, IV. 14-16. 356 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 5. The forces friendly to slavery. a. The political unity of the South, IV. 16. b. The commercial interest of the North, IV. 20, 21. c. The social forces, IV. 22. d. The doctrine of State sovereignty as used by the South, V. 12, 13. 6. The forces hostile to slavery. «. The restlessness of the slaves, IV. 17, 18. b. The increase of the power of free labor, IV. 14, 15. c. The moral sense, IV. 19; VIII. 19. 7. The early development of the conflict between free labor and slave labor. a. The competition for occupation of territory, V. 1-6 ; VII. 8-10, 13; IX. 1. b. The doctrines of the abolitionists, VII. 1-3. c. The attempted suppression of discussion, VII. 4-6. 8. Influence of the system on national policy, V. 10, 11. III. The Question between the Union and the States. 1. The doctrine of State sovereignty, V. 12, 13. 2. Its illustration in Georgia, V. 14-17. 3. Its influence on party, VI. 4. 4. Its influence on Jackson's administration, VI. 6. 5. The question debated in Congress, VI. 8, 9. 6. Illustration of the doctrine of State sovereignty in South Carolina, VI. 13-17. 7. Its firm hold on the South, V. 12, 13 ; VII. 1. IV. The Relation of the Union to other Nations. I. To Spain, I. 12-17. 2. To the revolting Spanish provinces in America, V. 7-1 r. 3. To Mexico, with reference to Texas, VII. 10-15. 4. To England, with reference to the northeastern boun dary, IX. 2, 3. V. The War with Mexico. 1. General Taylor's first campaign, VIII. I, 2. 2. Declaration of war, VIII. 3. 3. Condition of the Mexican Republic, VIII. 4, 10. 4. Kearney's expedition, VIII. 5, 6. 5. Frdmont's expedition, VIII. 7, 8. 6. General Taylor's second campaign, VIII. 9. 7. General Scott's campaign, VIII. 11-16. 8. Result of the war, VIII. 17, 18. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 357 VI. The Enlargement of the Union beyond the Missis sippi. I. The title held by the United States. a. As derived from France and Spain, IX. 4-7. b. As derived by discovery, IX. 8, 9. c. As derived by cession from Mexico, X. 1. 2. The claims of England, IX. 4, 6. 3. The joint occupation of Oregon, IX. 10. 4. The efforts made by the English to hold the country, IX, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15. 5. The movement made by Americans, IX. 9, 1 1, 13. 6. Dr. Whitman's influence in settling the question, IX. 13-17- 7. Settlement of the question, IX. 18. 8. Discovery of gold in California, X. 1. 9. Its eifect upon colonization, X. 2-4. 10. The routes to California, X. 5. 11. The Mormon movement, X. 6-10. 12. The slavery question and California, X. 11-17. VII. The Succession of Presidents [see also pp. 328, 338, 372, 420]. 1. James Madison, I. 19. 2. James Monroe, I 19 ; V. 8, 9. 3. John Quincy Adams, V. 10. 4. Andrew Jackson, V. 17; VI. 1-7, 16. 5. Martin Van Buren, VII. 7- 6. William Henry Harrison, VII. 7. 7. John Tyler, VII. 7. 8. James Knox Polk, VII. 15. 9. Zachary Taylor, VIII. 19; X. 15. 358 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. United States Bank chartered Indiana admitted into the Union Dec. ii, Seminole War Work on Erie Canal begun July 4, Mississippi admitted into the Union Dec. 10, First steamboat on Lake Erie Illinois admitted into the Union . Dec. 3, First steamship crossed the ocean .... Florida ceded to the United States by Spain . . . Feb. 22, Alabama admitted into the Union Dec. 14, Missouri Compromise Maine admitted into the Union March 15, Missouri admitted into the Union Aug. io, Independence of Mexico The Monroe Doctrine announced Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson July 4, First railroad built in the United States The " Book of Mormon " published First passenger railway opened . . Debate between Webster and Hayne Nullification in South Carolina ... Nov. 19, Removal of deposits from the United States Bank ' . Texas declared her independence of Mexico Arkansas admitted into the Union June 15, Michigan admitted into the Union . . ... . . Jan. 26, Maine Boundary question settled . . .... Aug. 9, Dr. Whitman started on his ride from Oregon .... Oct. 3, First telegraph in operation in the United States . . . May 27, Florida admitted into the Union March 3, Texas admitted into the Union Dec. 29, Battle of Palo Alto May 8, Oregon Treaty signed July 17, Santa Fe taken by Kearney Aug. 18, Monterey, Mexico, taken by Taylor Sept. 24, Iowa admitted into the Union . Dec. 28, Battle of Buena Vista Feb. 22, 23, Vera Cruz taken by Scott March 27, Battle of Cerro Gordo April 18, Surrender of the city of Mexico Sept. 14, Gold discovered in California January, Treaty of peace concluded with Mexico Feb. 2, Wisconsin admitted into the Union May 29, .California admitted into the Union Sept. 9, UTAH, 1850 NEW MEXICO, 1850. SEALS OF THE ST A THIS &J3MEEEEE WO grgE UNION, 1861-1890. THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 359 CHAPTER XI. THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. — I. 1. President Taylor died after he had been in office a little more than a year. He was succeeded J 1850. by Vice-President Fillmore, of New York, who made Daniel Webster Secretary of State. The adminis tration supported the Compromise of 1850, and was very earnest in its effort to make the Union powerful at home and respected abroad. 2. It was a time when the Union seemed full of pros perity. There were now so many States, and the popu lation had increased so much, that there was not room in the old Capitol at Washington for the Sena- r . & 1851. tors and Representatives. President Fillmore laid the corner-stone of the extension of the Capitol. 3. So various had the interests of the people become that a new department in the administration had been created. It was called the Department of the r 1849. Interior, and comprised a number of offices, like the Patent Office, Census Office, Land Office, and Bureau of Indian Affairs, all of which had formerly been scattered among the other departments. The Secretary of this department was made a member of the Cabinet. 4. It was in President Fillmore's administration that postage was reduced, so that an ordinary letter could be carried to any place in the country for three cents. Before that it had cost ten cents to send a letter from 360 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Philadelphia to Boston. At once the number of letters sent through the mails was immensely increased. 5. Joseph Henry, a distinguished Ameri can man of science, made important dis coveries in magnet ism and electricity. In 1840 Samuel F. B. Morse, an American artist, received a pa tent for an electric- telegraph apparatus, and four years later he sent his first de spatch over the wires from Baltimore to Washington. 6. Various expedi tions were sent out by government to secure a better knowledge of the national domain. In 1848, and again in 1852 and 1853, Captain Fremont was sent out at the head of exploring parties to the Rocky Mountains. He was an adventurous ex plorer, and people called him " the Pathfinder." 7. The discoveries which Fremont made, and the new importance of California since the finding of gold there, led the government to make more careful surveys. The War Department undertook one to determine the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. 8. It was in the middle of the century that the United States took an active part in explorations in other parts Samuel. F. B. Morse. THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 36l of the world. It sent Captain Wilkes to the Pacific Ocean, where he explored the Antarctic Continent; it sent Lieutenant Lynch to explore the valley of the Jor dan and the Dead Sea; it sent Commodore Perry with a fleet to Japan, — a country which had heretofore been almost unknown to Europe and to America. 9. It was in the middle of the cen tury that Europe and America began to come closer to gether. In 1848 at tempts were made by the people in different European countries to secure greater freedom, and governments more like that of the United States. These attempts failed for the most part; but the failure caused many of the leaders, who were men of ability and influence, to come to America. 10. The discovery of gold in California induced many people to come from Europe. The building of new railroads in the Western country made the land there more easily reached, and multitudes bought Western land in hopes of selling it at a higher price. These things encouraged immigration, which was further helped by a great misfortune in one of the countries of Europe. Commodore M. C. Perry. 362 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 11. There was a famine in Ireland in 1847, and people in the United States generously sent ship-loads of grain and made contributions of money in aid of the sufferers. The gift showed that America was the land of plenty, and a great emigration from Ireland began. Although many of the emigrants had worked on farms at home, they rarely went beyond the Atlantic cities. 12. The coming of such a body of foreigners made a great change in the life of the people, especially in New England. The young men and women who had been working in the factories and mills were eager to go to the West and to California. The Irish stepped in and took their places. They found higher wages than they had known ; they were strong and willing. 13. The increase in railways made it possible for the great farms in the West to send grain and other pro visions to the cities very cheaply. The lonely little farms in the hill country, nearer the sea-board, became less valuable, and were deserted, while the cities grew larger and larger. 14. This rapid growth of the cities made it difficult for them to govern themselves wisely. There were im portant matters, like the supply of the city with water, the public schools, the erection of public buildings, the police force, the care of the streets, which called for great sums of money and needed forethought and con stant care. The city was always likely to grow faster than the citizens expected. 15. Formerly the voters met in town-meeting, and every one had his say. This was almost impossible in cities. There was an increasing number of people who were in the city only for a short time ; there were many others who were intent on their private business and THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 363 gave little attention to public affairs ; and there was a large body of voters who had never been trained in popular government. 16. The government of the cities was in the hands of a few men, chosen by -the people, and they were left very much to themselves ; so it was often the case that shrewd and selfish men acquired power, and governed the cities for their own personal advantage rather than tor the best good of the whole. CHAPTER XII. THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. — II. Cor'deL From a French word meaning "to twist," adopted by the American pioneers, and ap plied to the process of hauling a boat from the bank up stream. Ly-ce'um. From a Greek word, the name of the place where an ancient philosopher taught his disciples; applied in America to courses of popular lectures. 1. In the middle of the century the United States was becoming rich very fast. This could be seen in the rapidly growing cities and in the multiplication of rail roads and routes of travel by land and by water. One travelling over the country could see everywhere the signs of energy. 2. In the West and South he could see how the great water-courses were used. In the remote settlements a fort and trading-post showed that the whites were still penetrating the Indian country. The pioneers some times travelled on the river steamers, and sometimes carried their goods in large boats, which they towed or cordelled along the banks. 36"4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION, 3. On the prin cipal streams im mense rafts or flat- boats were built, which were loaded, and then either drifted down the river or were towed Scenes In Western River Life, in company, espe cially against the current, by steamboats. Families fived on these flat-boats., moving from place to place. THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 365 4. Between the West and the East railroads were growing busier. Towns and cities sprang up along their routes ; and when a new and fertile district was found, the people who planted farms there were not contented until they had built a railway by which they could reach a large market. 5. Ships and steamers were constantly crossing and recrossing the Atlantic. American ship-builders be came famous for the improvements which they made in the construction of ships, so that clippers, as they were called, sailed with a good wind almost as swiftly as steamers. 6. The ocean vessels brought emigrants from Europe, — the best gift which they could bring, for men and women make a country. They brought also an abun dance of European goods ; the shops were filled with costlier articles than American workmen made. Pic tures were brought over for exhibition and sale ; singers found great audiences waiting to hear them; more books were bought every year. 7. It was of greater importance that the people them selves began to give attention to other matters than buying and selling, making money, and spending it on houses, food, and clothing. They had more leisure, and they busied themselves with politics, religion, and education, — matters for which they had always greatly cared. 8. The habit of meeting and acting together when political affairs required, made it natural for the people to form societies whenever they had anything to ac complish which needed the help of numbers. These associations brought together people otherwise widely separated. 366 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 9. There were publication societies formed by the churches, which multiplied books, papers, and tracts. These were carried by means of agents to remote villages and homes. Education societies helped to establish schools and colleges in the thinly settled parts of the country. There was a Colonization Society, which tried to answer some of the vexed questions of slavery by sending free blacks to Liberia, in Africa. 10. This was a time when the lyceum system became popular. In the cities and towns there were courses of lectures. As children went to school, older people went to the lyceum to hear lecturers who brought them the latest thought on science, literature, art, and philosophy. 11. The news paper had become a familiar visitor. There were daily pa pers in all the cities and towns. Even books were pub lished in papers. The public schools had taught every- washington irvins body to read; and the writings of popular English authors were printed in great newspapers, and sold so cheaply that large num bers were bought and read. 12. American authors were taking their place among the great men in literature. In 1849 Edgar Allan Poe, THE MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY. 367 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Poet. Born February 27, 1807 ; died March 24, 1882. most imaginative of American poets, had died. In 1850 Washington Irving had written all his books except 368 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. his Life of Washington. The poems by which William Cullen Bryant is best known had been written and pub lished. James Feni- more Cooper died the next year, leav ing behind him a long list of novels, the best of which were descriptive of American life. 13. In the middle of the century Na thaniel Hawthorne, the greatest of American roman cers, had written "The Scarlet Let ter," which made him famous. Henry Willi™ Ouuen Bryant. WadsWOrth Long- fellow had published " Evangeline," and many of his most popular poems. Ralph Waldo Emerson had be come known, by his Essays, as one of the great masters of English prose. 14. There were other writers whose books were eagerly read: John Greenleaf Whittier, poet; Oliver Wendell Holmes, poet and wit; William Gilmore Simms, novelist; James Russell Lowell, poet and satirist, whose " Biglow Papers " helped people to understand the meaning of the Mexican War, while they laughed over the verses ; and others by whom American literature became a distinct voice of the nation. 15. The more these means of making public opinion THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 369 increased, — churches, societies, lyceums, public meet ings, newspapers, and books, — the louder grew the dis cussion about slavery and anti-slavery. Now, when the Whig administration under Fillmore was coming to an end, a book appeared which was for. the time more widely read throughout the world than any other. 16. This book was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. It was a story written to show what slavery was, and what it meant in the lives of men and women, white and black, in the Southern States of the Union. It went home to the hearts and minds of people ; they laughed and cried over it by turns. 17. In vain the Southern people said that it was not a true picture of life at the South. It was a great story, and people believed it. Before this book appeared, slavery had come to be discussed publicly in Congress and in the newspapers. Now it was talked about in every home in the North, as well as in many in the South. CHAPTER XIII. THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. To-pe'ka. Os-sa-wat'o-mie. l, When the time came for electing a President to succeed Mr. Fillmore, the Whig party nominated Gen eral Scott. The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, who was elected. At once a contest arose in Congress over the organ ization into Territories of the country lying west of Missouri and Iowa. 2. Stephen Arnold Douglas, a Senator- from Illinois, 370 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. introduced a bill for organizing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska. This bill assumed that the Compromise of 1850 had repealed the Missouri Compromise. It gave to the Territories which were north of 36° 30' the right to decide, by vote of their inhabitants, whether they were to be slave or free States. 3. A sharp debate followed, and old party lines were broken up. The members who opposed the bill were called Anti-Nebraska men. The bill was passed, 1854 and the people at the North at once began organizing companies of emigrants. They meant to settle the question of slavery in Kansas and Nebraska by being on the ground beforehand. 4. The South wished to add the two Territories as slave States, but there was no wide-spread movement of emigration with slaves into the Territories. From the western borders of Missouri, however, came men who were determined to secure Kansas and Nebraska for slavery. The greatest conflict was naturally in Kansas, and the struggle lasted for six years. 5. It was at the polls that the contest began. The Missourians came in crowds across the border, voted down the free-State men, and returned in triumph to their homes in Missouri. The result was the election of a territorial legislature by more than twice the number pf voters in the Territory. This legislature met at Lecomp- ton, and proceeded to frame a pro-slavery constitution. 6. The free-State men replied by holding a conven tion at Topeka, and framing a constitution hostile to slavery, which was accepted by the people. There were now, therefore, two governments in the Territory. The authorities at Washington threw their weight on the side of the pro-slavery government. THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 371 7. A period of actual warfare followed. The Border Ruffians, as the free-State men called the Missourians, attacked and burned the town of Lawrence, which was the headquarters of the free-State men. Retaliation followed. One of the most conspicuous of the Aboli tionists, as the Missourians termed the free-State men, was John Brown of Ossawatomie, as he Was called, be cause of a famous fight at that place. 8. The Northern and Northwestern States continued to pour men into Kansas and Nebraska, and it soon be came clear that there was an overwhelming majority in favor of making the Territories free States. But the slavery party also sent armed men in from Missouri at every election, and the administration at Washington upheld the government which these set up. 9. The discussion in Congress grew more bitter, and the affairs in Kansas gave occasion for frequent debate. There was a contest, which lasted two months, over the choice of Speaker of the House of Representatives. It resulted in the election of N. P. Banks, an Anti-Nebraska man. It became clear that the one question of the day was the momentous one of slavery or anti-s'avery. 10. Yet it by no means follows that the party which was rising at the North wished to get rid of slavery altogether. There was a small body of men who de manded the abolition of slavery at any cost, but most of those who were opposed to slavery demanded only that it should not be extended beyond the old limits. 11. In the election of 1856 the Democratic party was again successful, and James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was chosen President. But John C. Fremont, the can didate of the Republican party, as the Anti-Nebraska men now called themselves, had nearly as many votes. 372 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. List of Presidents, 1849-1861. No. Name. State. Term ot Office. 12. Zachary Taylor,1 Louisiana, March 4, 1849, to July 9i l85°- 13. Millard Fillmore,2 New York, July 16, 1850, to March 4, 1853. 14. Franklin Pierce, New Hampshire, March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. 15. James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 4, 1857, to March 4, 1861. Died in office 1 Elected as Vice-President. THE APPROACHING CONFLICT. 373 There was so much enthusiasm over Fremont that the leaders at the South became more than ever convinced that power was passing from those who defended slavery to those who opposed it. 12. A decision by the Supreme Court of the United States gave them new confidence. It was in the case of a negro named Dred Scott, and declared in substance that slaves were not persons in the eyes of the law, but things; that Congress had no more right to prevent slave-holders from carrying their slaves into any State or Territory and holding them there, than it had to forbid them from carrying horses or any other property. 13. This decision seemed to place all the law and the Constitution on the side of slavery. But it was so start ling to those who had not been brought up in the slave States, that it deepened the anti-slavery feeling, and bound the Republican party more firmly together. 14. Minnesota became a State in 1858, and Oregon in 1859. In this year John Brown collected a small body of men, white and black, in the mountains of 0ot, 16j Maryland. He made a sudden attack upon 1859- Harper's Ferry, where there was a United States arsenal, which he seized and held for a few hours. 15. The attack was a direct assault upon slavery. Brown had resolved to carry the war into what he re garded as the enemy's country, and he expected to see the slaves flock to his standard. There were few at the North who knew of his purpose ; and the country, North and South, was amazed at the act. 16. John Brown was wounded and taken prisoner; some of his associates were killed, and some were taken with him. He was tried by the State of Virginia, sen tenced, and hanged. His action was condemned by the 374 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. people, but many declared him a martyr to freedom. Slavery was accused of provoking him to the deed. y':&y^- .. i'r.- ' .-itJMBBi Harper's Ferry. 17. The Democratic party was no longer united. At the next presidential election the i860 followers of Douglas nominated him, and the extreme pro-slavery faction nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, who had be come known by a famous debate which he had carried on with Douglas when both were candidates for the United States Senate. 18. A fourth party, calling itself the Constitutional Union party, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. An exciting canvass followed. The Republican party had been gathering confidence and enthusiasm; and when the election was over, it was found that every free State except New Jersey had chosen Republican electors. 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TJ: V) IJ t\Ben?^ • AthenTV^K^ ^ / C 1 A|l a V AveryslJoro)^e'«o0, ' Jj^^^=|^.-|{^.'CteirlotW^FayetteTille,v4 "cfiera^A \L Columbus i 5 AndersonVUIe %, £* •Smithville ^> Jusup > ^v,j iy^-o&e Waycn«s.»- '-., -"jgninawick V .Gaine.yAH.any ^tfaricn ' ^ftfe. «./ »„e waytroa... jgrunswica \ / rJf"rf ^C^r^^Femandinn JALLAHASSEE'^7; f" \y , J^kaonviUc TO ILLUSTRATE THE Oluste. .. ¦. = i*St Au^uatine tLJ& \ WAR FOR THE UNION (§ /j ^~f~~\*~. \ SCALE OF STATUTE MILE9 Wtiiia Iv.,;.,,'. -t '- \ 100 \V;i:.]-|)n:.-t.in r, SECESSION. 375 CHAPTER XIV. SECESSION. l. DURING the discussion which preceded the elec tion, the people at the North heard repeated threats from the South that if the Republican party were suc cessful, the slave-holding States would leave the Union. They refused to believe these threats. They thought them only the angry declamation of a few heated politicians. 2. Yet the threats were sincere. The voters at the South had learned to look upon the North as thor oughly hostile to the South. They made little distinc tion between the Republican party and the Abolitionists, and they felt instinctively that a government elected in a spirit of opposition to slavery would find many ways to injure it. 3. The political habits and the way of life at the South made it easier for Southern voters to believe in disunion as a cure for the evils which they were sure had come upon them. The doctrine of State independence had become familiar; it had been laid down in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, and had been upheld by Georgia in the difficulty with the Indians, and by South Carolina in its Nullification Act. 4. The concentration of political power in a compara tively small number of persons in each State, who acted together, made it still easier for them to think of the State by itself rather than as a part of the Union. In fact, the older Southern States kept the character which 376 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. they had when they were colonies of Great Britain more distinctly than the older Northern States. 5. They were still planting-States; they still had their own social life ; the same families lived upon the same estates. There was no such constant movement from one State to another as at the North, nor any such in troduction of immigrants from Europe. They were Carolinians or Virginians rather than Americans. 6. South Carolina took the lead in fulfilling the promise of secession. As soon as it was known that Mr. Lincoln was to be the next President, the Senators from South Carolina and all office-holders in the State Dec. 20, under the Federal government resigned. The i860, legislature called a State convention, and on the 20th of December the convention unanimously passed an ordinance of secession. 7. The ordinance bore the title : " An Ordinance to dissolve the union between the State of South Carolina and other States united with her in the compact entitled the Constitution of the United States." A copy of the ordinance was sent to each of the slave States, and com missioners were appointed to arrange with the Federal government the terms of dissolution. 8. The example of South Carolina was followed quickly by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas, all of which passed ordinances of secession. The question was not submitted to the people ; it was the action of the States, and was unani mous only in the case of South Carolina, and afterward of North Carolina. 9. In February, 1861, a convention of delegates from six seceding States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a government under the name of the Confederate SECESSION 377 States of America. The title thus declared that the States formed a Confederacy and not a Union. 10. The constitution adopted was mainly that of the United States, except that it made careful provision for slavery, and forbade a protective tariff. The government was a provisional one for a year, since only six of the South ern States were rep resented. Jefferson Davis, of Missis sippi, was chosen President, and Alex ander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice- President. 11. The seceding States at once took measures to obtain possession of the ar senals, forts, and other property of the United States within their borders. The United States army was scat tered at distant posts; but the larger part was in Texas, under General Twiggs, who obeyed the command of the Confederate States to surrender his forces. 12. The forts throughout the South were mainly in the hands of Southern men, who delivered them to the new authorities. The commanders of Fort Pickens, at Pen sacola, and of the forts at Key West and Tortugas re fused to give them up. The greatest interest attached to the forts within the borders of South Carolina. Jefferson Davis. 378 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 13. The harbor of Charleston was commanded by Forts Sumter and Moultrie and Castle Pinckney. Fort Sumter was not yet finished, but a garrison, under Major Robert Anderson, a Kentuckian, was occupying Fort Moultrie, which was a weaker work. In the night of the 26th of De cember, Major Anderson secretly transferred his men and supplies to Fort Sumter. 14. South Carolina de manded the evacuation of the fort. President Bu chanan refused the de mand, and determined to provision the fort; for this purpose he sent the steamer Star of the West with supplies and rein forcements. He intend ed the expedition to be a secret one; but it was known at once in Charleston, and when the steamer Jan. 9, appeared it was fired upon and driven back. 1861. 15, The South Carolinians had taken posses sion of the other forts in Charleston Harbor, and now erected additional works. They planned these for the defence of the harbor against United States vessels, but especially in order to attack Fort Sumter. They placed General P. G. T. Beauregard in command of the harbor defences. THE FIRST ATTACK. 379 CHAPTER XV. THE FIRST ATTACK. Beauregard (Bb're-gard). I terms agreed upon ; used of an Capit'ulate. To surrender upon I army or a garrison. l. Seven of the slave-holding States had seceded ; the rest hesitated. The North, and many in the South who loved the Union, clung desperately to the hope that disunion might yet be averted. Men of all parties joined in efforts to bring about a return to harmony. 2. President Buchanan was filled with perplexity. He could not execute the laws in the seceding States, and Congress gave him no help. He denied the right of the States to secede ; he also denied the right of the government to coerce them when they did secede. His Cabinet was divided. The Southern members dropped out as their States seceded. 3. In Congress, one measure after another was pro posed in hopes of staying the tide. Mr. Seward, a Senator from New York, and the most conspicuous of the Repub licans, was willing to give up congressional prohibition of slavery in the Territories, to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law, and to perpetuate slavery by a constitutional amendment. 4. The Southern Senators and Representatives left their seats in Congress as fast as their States seceded, and a Republican majority was thus obtained. Con gress now admitted Kansas as a State, and b . 1861. passed a protective tariff bill designed to en courage manufactures. Resolutions intended to pacify the South were passed by both houses. 380 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 5. Great meetings were held in the cities denouncing abolitionism and urging extreme concession to the South. Prominent journals of both parties declared that armed coercion was madness, and never would be permitted. A Peace Congress, called by Virginia, met at Washington, and tried to bring about harmony between the sections. 6. The people throughout the country were in a state of bewilderment. The men in authority seemed to have no power to direct affairs. The Union ap peared to be going to pieces, and already were heard plans of what would be done when the division came. The South had so often seen the North yield when the question of slavery was pressed that it stood firm ; it expected to have its own way. 7. The administration of Mr. Buchanan was to cease on the 4th of March. A President was then to come into office whose election had been made the occasion of the secession of seven States. Threats were uttered that he would not be allowed to take the oath of office, and he came to the capital secretly and in disguise. 8. Mr. Lincoln was a man who had not yet been tried, except in debate. He was born in Kentucky, not a hundred miles from the birthplace of Jefferson Davis. The President of the Confederacy was a wealthy slave-holder, who had for years been in public life. The President of the United States was a lawyer little known outside of his own State. 9. He was born in poverty, and had struggled hard for an education and a living. He was plain in his habits and without grace of manner or speech. He disappointed many persons of refinement when they first saw him. Many also thought that he had no de- THE FIRST ATTACK. 38 1 cision. He listened to what everybody said, but never seemed to have made up his mind. 10. Mr. Lincoln, upon taking the President's chair, found the government in great confusion. The treas ury was nearly empty. There were but few troops within call. The vessels of the navy were scattered in distant waters, and officers both of the army and of the navy were resigning their commissions on the ground that they owed allegiance first to the States from which they came. 11. The public offices were largely occupied by persons in sympathy with the secession movement, and every step taken by the new government was known at once to the leaders of the Confederacy. Mr. Lincoln, mean while, was beset by a vast horde of office-seekers eager to take advantage of the change of administration. 12. President Lincoln waited a month, and then no tified Governor Pickens, -of South Carolina, that he should send supplies to Fort Sumter at all hazards. Thereupon General Beauregard asked instructions from the government at Montgomery, and was ordered to open fire on the fort. 13. He first called on Major Anderson to surrender; but Anderson refused, and at daybreak on the morn ing of Friday, April 12, 1861, the Confederacy began its attack on the United States. The first shot was fired from the Cumming's Point battery. 14. Fort Sumter replied with a shot, and the bom bardment thus begun continued for thirty hours without loss of life on either side. The ammunition in Fort Sumter was then exhausted, and the fort was on fire. Thereupon the United States flag was lowered, and the garrison capitulated. The housetops in Charleston 382 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. were thronged with spectators, and the telegraph car ried the news of the engagement hourly over all the land. 15. On Sunday, April 14, the garrison marched out. On the morning of the 15th President Lincoln issued r Attack on Fort Sumter. a proclamation calling for severity-five thousand volun teers, and summoning Congress to an extra session. The response to the demand for troops was immediate ; distinctions of party were swept aside, and for a time there was but one party at the North, — the party for the Union. 16. Immediately the States of the South which had wavered were compelled to make their choice. Vir' THE FIRST ATTACK. 383 ginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy. There was a strong anti-Union ele ment in Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri ; but, though many men went from these States into the Confederate army, the States did not break away from the Union. 17. Virginia was the most important accession to the Confederacy. There was, however, in the western coun ties so strong an opposition to secession that these counties refused to obey the convention which passed^ the ordinance of secession; they chose a legislature which claimed to be the true government, and at last formed a new State, which was admitted into the Union in 1863 under the name of West Virginia. 18. Old Virginia at once" became the chief battle ground of the war. The Confederate government was moved from Montgomery to Richmond ; and since Wash« ington was separated from the Confederacy only by the Potomac, it was clear that the great contest would be fought in the country which lay between the two capitals. 19. Throughout the war which followed, the Southern people called the United States troops Federal soldiers ; they called themselves Confederates. The Northern people called their antagonists Rebels; they called themselves Unionists. These names are full of meaning. The contest was between the Confederacy and the Union. 384 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XVI. THE WAR FOR THE UNION. — I. Con'fia-cate. To take an enemy's I Clan-des'tine. Secret. goods for the public use. I San Ja-cln'to. 1. The people at the North were an unmilitary peo ple. They had a militia, but it was ill organized. The Mexican War had drawn few volunteers from this sec tion, and the United States army was very small and imperfectly equipped. The early action of the Confed erates also had weakened it. 2. There was, however, a greater population to draw from than at the South. There was also a wider range of industry to supply the necessary funds to carry on the war. The South relied largely upon the need which England had of her cotton. Her young men also had led lives more akin to a military life ; and she reasoned that they could all fight, while the slaves stayed at home to support them. 3. President Lincoln's call for troops was met by a corresponding call from Jefferson Davis ; and from North and South men hastened to the banks of the Potomac. Regiments were hurriedly equipped and sent forward. The first blood was shed in the streets of Baltimore, April 19, 1 861, when Northern troops were attacked by a mob which opposed their passage through the city. 4. General Scott was commander-in-chief of the Union forces, and General J. E. Johnston of the Con federate forces. The first military movements were in the mountains of Western Virginia, and the success of the Union army led people to fancy that there would THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 385 be a quick restoration of the Union. Mr. Seward, who was Secretary of State, was especially cheerful, and promised that the war should be over in ninety days. 5. The newspapers and people generally urged an immediate movement upon Richmond. Very few had any knowledge of the difficulties be fore them, and Gen eral Scott, pressed by public opinion, gave the order to ad vance. The result was the battle of Bull Run, July 2r, in which the Union forces were defeated, and retreated in a panic upon Wash ington. 6. The disaster opened the eyes of people, and the country settled down into a more serious temper. Congress took measures to raise money for the army and navy. It called for five hundred thousand volunteers; it ordered a block ade of the Southern ports, and pledged itself to vote any amount of money and any number of men to main tain the Union. 7. General Scott retired on account of his age and infirmity, and General George B. McClellan, who had been prominent in the Western Virginia operations, was placed in command. He immediately set about or- General Wlnfleld Scott. 386 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. ganizing the Army of the Potomac at Alexandria in preparation for a second advance. The Confederacy also spent the summer and autumn of 1861 in organ izing its Army of Northern Virginia, under General Beauregard. 8. Congress had passed an act confiscating property used in the insurrection, including any slaves employed WASHINGTON AND VICINITY Scale of 10 Miles in service hostile to the United States. General Fremont, who had been made commander of the forces in the West, issued a proclamation declaring the slaves of any person who had taken up arms against the Union to be thereby freed from slavery. 9. President Lincoln countermanded this order. He was unwilling to estrange those slave-holders, especially in Kentucky, who were still loyal to the Union, He was, besides, not ready, and he did not believe the THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 387 people were ready, to regard the war for the Union as a war to put down slavery. Some. of the Union com manders even went so far as to send back slaves who had left their masters and had come into the Union lines. 10. Congress had declared the South ern ports blockaded, but it could not at once bring together a navy large enough to keep vessels from entering or leaving those ports. The South not only sent out vessels laden with cotton to the West "Indies and to Europe, but received in return military supplies of all kinds. 11. Of course the great bulk of business between the North and the South had stopped, although much clandestine traffic and cor respondence went on across the borders. It was to Europe, however, that the South looked for help. She had never had manufactures to any extent, and had no variety of resources. Heretofore she had sold her cot ton, rice, tobacco, and sugar to the Northern States and Europe, and bought in return what she needed. - 12. The commercial and manufacturing countries of Europe saw the opportunity to increase their trade. English merchants, especially, were quick to take ad- General Robert E. Lee. 388 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. vantage of it, and the ports of English islands lying near the Southern States became at once very busy. Eng land and France issued proclamations of neutrality, and the Confederacy was very desirous of being recognized by them as an independent power. 13. Mr. Mason and Mr. Slidell, formerly United States Senators, were therefore sent by the Confederacy as commissioners to London and Paris. They made their way to Havana, and at that port embarked on the Eng lish mail-steamer Trent. After the Trent had left the Nov s harbor, Captain Charles Wilkes, of the United 1861 States steamship San Jacinto, who had been watching for them, stopped the steamer and carried off the commissioners. 14. This act caused great excitement in England, and for a while there .was danger that the United States would be at war with England as well as with the Confederacy. Such an event would have been full of peril. Moreover, Captain Wilkes had gone beyond his authority. The government therefore, without censuring him, admitted that he was in the wrong, and gave up the commissioners to England. 15. Englands did not recognize the independence of the Confederacy ; but English shipbuilders , and mer chants built cruisers which were manned chiefly by British sailors, while commissioned by the Confed eracy and commanded by Confederate officers. They often carried the British flag until they had come upon an unsuspecting vessel sailing from a Union port, when they made a prize of it. 16. Great numbers of American ships were thus cap tured or destroyed. The English government shut its eyes when the Confederate cruisers used the British flag THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 389 and sailed into and out of British ports. It was warned that one of these, the Alabama, which afterward did much mischief, had been built and equipped in Liver pool, and was about to sail. Everybody knew its pur pose, but the government took no pains to stop it.1 17. The promptness with which England prepared for war at the time of the Trent affair; the repeated expression of sympathy with the Confederacy given by the ruling classes there ; the indifference of the govern ment, by which Confederate cruisers were allowed to be supplied and sent out of English ports to attack Amer ican vessels, — all these things served to estrange the United States from England. 18. At the same time, not a few Englishmen had faith in the Union and advocated the unpopular Union cause. The cotton-spinners of England, though they were brought to great distress by the closing of Southern ports, were very generally in sympathy with the Union. There were a few men of influence, also, who believed that the best hopes of man, both in England and in America, were bound up in the success of the Union. By speeches, by newspaper articles, and by other means they aimed to keep England from recognizing the inde pendence of the Confederacy. 1 After the war the United States government asked the British gov ernment to make good the losses which American, commerce had sustained through the depredations by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers. The " Alabama Claims," as they were called, were submitted to a board of commissioners from five friendly nations, which met at Geneva, Switzer land, in 1872, and agreed that Great Britain should pay the United States the sum of fifteen and a half million dollars. Great Britain honorably and promptly paid the sum. 39° THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. CHAPTER XVII. THE WAR FOR THE UNION. — II. Rap-pa-hau'nock.Rap-i-dan'. Shen-an-do'ah. Antietam (An-lce* tarn). l. The people at the North had grown impatient over the long delay to make a forward movement, and in January, 1862, Pres ident Lincoln or dered a general ad vance of land and naval forces. The order was earliest obeyed at the West. The Confederates had built Fort Hen ry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland," to prevent access by river into the State of Tennessee. 2. The first at tacks were made Generalities. Grant. On these defences. General Ulysses S. Grant was in command of the land Feb. 6, forces, and Commodore Foote, of the gun-boats, 1862. wriich undertook to reduce these works. Fort Henry was first assailed and captured; the combined THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 391 forces then appeared before Fort Donelson, and after a succession of hard fights forced the commander to ask for terms. 3. General Grant replied : " No terms except un conditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." This terse declaration gave General Grant distinction, and caused the country, eager to find a great military leader, to follow his career closely. Fort Don- Felo, 16_ elson surrendered ; and the Confederate forces 1862, of the West, under General Albert Sidney Johnston, retired to Corinth, Mississippi. 4. Here General Johnston received reinforcements, and made a brilliant attack upon General Grant's army, which was lying at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, on the Tennessee River. A terrible battle April 6| 7> was fought, in which the Confederates were 1862- at first victorious but General Johnston was killed. When General Buell joined General Grant with fresh forces, the Union army attacked the Confederates and drove them back to Corinth. 5. The Confederates controlled the Mississippi by a series of fortified positions extending from Columbus, in Kentucky, to the Delta. When Fort Donel- Aprii7, son was captured, Columbus could no longer 1862- be held, and the Confederates retired to Island Number Ten. The last day of the battle of Shiloh, this junee, island was captured by Admiral Foote and Gen- 1862- eral Pope. Two months later, Fort Pillow was aban doned by the Confederates, and after a daring attack by the United States fleet of rams upon the Confederate river fleet, Memphis surrendered to the Union army. 6. Meanwhile a fleet and an army had been sent to 392 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. attack New Orleans. The fleet under Commodore David G. Farragut bombarded the forts at the entrance of the river, and passed them and the various obstructions which had been placed in the way. After running a April 28, gauntlet of rams and fire-rafts, the fleet ap- 1862- peared before New Orleans, which surrendered and was placed under control of General B. F. Butler. Farragnt'i Fleet passing Forts Jackson and St. Philip. 7. At the East no such success had followed the Union arms. The Confederates had taken the Merri- mac, a former frigate of the United States navy, which had fallen into their hands, and sheathed her with rail road iron, giving her also an iron prow. The curious monster, transformed thus into a ram, was ready for use, and came out of Gosport Navy Yard, accompanied by THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 393 three gun-boats, to attack the fleet which lay in Hamp ton Roads. 8. The Merrimac destroyed the Cumberland, and compelled the Congress to surrender, and with March 8, the gun-boats scattered the rest of the United 1862' States fleet. The greatest consternation followed at The Merrimac sinking the Cumberland the North. It was supposed that every seaport would be at the mercy of the Merrimac. Suddenly March 9, the Monitor, a turreted iron-clad vessel just 186B- finished for the United States, appeared and attacked the Merrimac, which then retired to Gosport. 9. These encounters were remarkable as the first great engagements between iron-clads and wooden ves sels, and between two iron-clads. The results caused 394 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. a revolution in the navies of the world, for all the great powers began at once the construction of iron and steel vessels. 10. The day after the fight of the Monitor and Mer rimac, General McClellan began to move his forces against the enemy. He advanced on the way to Ma« nassas, where the Confederate forces had been posted ; but General Joseph E. Johnston, who was in command, had fallen back toward Richmond. 11. It was not McClellan's purpose to move upon Rich mond across the country. He with drew his forces, and went by water to Fortress Monroe, in tending to advance up the peninsula. His march was arrested by the for tifications at York- town, behind which Johnston lay with his army. McClel lan laid siege to Yorktown; but Johnston only wished to gain time, and when McClellan was ready to attack the place, the Confederates retreated toward Richmond. 12. McClellan followed, and, the day after the evacua- KayB, tion of Yorktown, attacked the rear of John- 1862. ston's army at Williamsburg. Johnston rested his army behind the defences of the Chickahominy, and General Joseph E. Johnston. THE WAR FOR^HE UNION. 395 on the last day of May attacked McClellan at Fair Oaks. McClellan renewed the battle on the day fol lowing, and forced the Confederates to retire. Johnston was wounded, and was succeeded by General Lee. 13. While Johnston was holding McClellan in check, a brilliant Confederate commander, General T. J. Jack son, was making a series of rapid movements against divisions of the Union army which were in the valley of the Shenandoah. He was commonly known as Stonewall Jackson, because of the saying that his men would stand like a stone wall to meet the enemy's attack. 14. In quick suc cession Jackson met and repulsed Generals Fremont, joined Lee. The General T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson. Banks, and McDowell, and then Confederate army now fell upon the Union army, and in a series of battles at the end of June forced it back to Harrison's Landing, on the James River. 15. Lee and Jackson then turned their attention to ward Washington, which was defended by an army under General Pope. Pope's forces stretched along the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the first line of the Blue MAP TO ILLUSTRATE THE OPERATIONS OF THE ARMY OF THE POTOMAC, ETC. SCALE OF STATUTE MILES ,. ., g ¦SJj'VV^ 10 20 30 40 50 ,- .,¦•-¦ ^ <* fp; a ¦ Ts y ; § THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 397 Ridge. General Banks held a position at the western end of the line, and was attacked by Jackson at Cedar Mountain, August 9. 16. Lee followed close behind, and the two generals forced Banks back, and then attacked Pope. McClellan at Harrison's Landing was ordered to join Pope, Aug. 29)3o and a portion of his forces came up in time to 1862- take part in the second battle of Manassas, fought near the old battle-field of Bull Run. Pope's army was put to rout. 17. Lee now led his victorious army across the upper Potomac and en tered Maryland. McClellan, gather ing the remnants of the two defeated armies, followed, and confronted the Confederates at Antietam Creek. Here a desperate struggle took place, September 17. It left each army exhausted, but the victory remained with the Unionists. The Confederates recrossed the Potomac, and retired up the Shenandoah Valley. 18. McClellan's course had dissatisfied the admin istration, and his command was given to General Ambrose E. Burnside, who attempted to move upon General George B. McClellan. 398 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Richmond by way of Fredericksburg. Lee placed Dec. 13, himself upon the hills behind the town, and 1862- when Burnside crossed the river, met his attack and completely defeated him. CHAPTER XVIII. THE WAR FOR THE UNION. — III. Chick-a-mau'ga. I gunpowder, sometimes fastened Chat-ta-noo'ga. under water to a ship, for the Tor-pe'do. A machine, containing I purpose of destroying it. l. DURING the movements of the armies in 1862, the Congress of the United States was occupied in measures connected with the prosecution of the war. It also pro vided for the construction of a railway to the Pacific, and it passed the Homestead Bill, which assigned the public lands to such families as should establish homes upon them. 2. Its most far-reaching action was in the provision for a uniform national currency. When the war began, the government borrowed large sums of money to defray expenses, and it continued to borrow, as new demands arose. The result was similar to that which occurred in the War for Independence. 3. The promises to pay became less valuable, as compared with gold, which was the standard of value throughout the civilized world. The banks in the sev eral States could no longer obtain gold, except by pay ing a high price for it; and at the end of 1861 they suspended specie payments, — that is, they no longer THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 399 gave gold in return for the promises to pay, which they had issued. 4. In order to provide a currency for the people, Congress passed a bill, early in 1862, authorizing the issue of notes by the United States Treasury. From the green tint printed upon the back of the notes, they were popularly termed " greenbacks ; " and to insure their success, Congress declared that they were " legal tender," — that is, they would be regarded by the law as equally valid with gold in the payment of debts. 5. Early in 1863 Congress passed an act establishing national banks. Heretofore the States had incorporated all banks, and the bills of each local bank had been re ceived only in its own neighborhood. By the national banking system, all bills issued by the nationaf banks became current in every part of the country. These acts were largely the work of Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury. 6. The prospect looked gloomy for the country as the year 1862 drew to a close. President Lincoln, who watched anxiously every movement, was convinced that the time had come when the Union could no longer hope to conquer a peace and at the same time spare the system of slavery, which every one saw was at the foundation of the Confederacy. 7. He therefore announced, in September, that unless the seceding States returned to their allegiance within a hundred days, he should declare the slaves in those States to be free. It was a formal notice given out of respect to law; no one expected that it would be re garded by the South, which only grew more firm. a On the first day of January, 1863, in accordance with his notice, the President issued a Proclamation of 400 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Emancipation. One of the first results of this act was the formation of regiments of negro soldiers as a settled policy. An attack made by one of these regiments, under Colonel Robert G. Shaw, upon Fort Wagner, in Charleston Harbor, though unsuccessful, showed so much Battle of Gettysburg : Defence 11 the Cemetery. bravery that the prejudice against negro soldiers disap peared, and great numbers were enrolled. 9. General Joseph Hooker had succeeded General Burnside, and attempted to lead the army again to Richmond, but was met by General Lee at Chancellors- May 2, 3, ville, and disastrously defeated. The Confed- 1863- erates suffered heavily at this time in the death of their brave leader, Stonewall Jackson. THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 40 r 10. Lee followed up his success by crossing the Poto mac above Harper's Ferry, and marching into Pennsyl vania. The Union army, now under the command of General George G. Meade, hurried forward to meet him ; for Lee was concentrating his forces and threatening Baltimore and Washington. 11. The two armies met at Gettysburg, and a battle followed which occupied VICINITY OF VICKSBUBG. Scale of ,10 Miles the first three days of July, 1863. It was the most critical battle of the war. The Confederates were defeated, and retreated into Virginia. They never afterward came so near a filial success, and the bat tle of Gettysburg is thus regarded as the turning- point of the war. 12. In the West, Grant had made several ineffect ual attempts to capture Vicksburg by approaching it from the North. In April, 1863, moving his army from Milliken's Bend to a point opposite Bruinsburg, he crossed the river, and after "fighting several severe bat tles, received the surrender of Vicksburg on the fourth of July. Port Hudson, under siege at the same juiys, time, could no longer hold out; and the Mis- 1863- sissippi, as President Lincoln said, " ran unvexed to the sea." 13. General Rosecrans, in command of the army of the Cumberland, which had been in quarters Sept. 19,20 at Murfreesboro', moved southward upon the 1863- Confederate forces under General Bragg. At Chicka- 402 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. mauga a great battle was fought in September, in which the Confederate army was victorious. It turned, and Battle of Missionary Bidge : Ascent of the Ridge. drove General Rosecrans to Chattanooga, and laid siege to the place. 14. Rosecrans was reinforced by General W. T. Sher man with troops from Vicksburg, and by General Hooker with a portion of the army of the Potomac. General Grant was put in command of all the armies of the West. The Confederates were attacked, defeated in the THE WAR FOR THE UNION. 403 battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, and driven southward. 15. The success of Grant at the West made him the chief figure in the war, and he was raised to the grade of Lieutenant-General, the highest in the army ; the President, by the Constitution, being commander-in- chief. In the spring of 1864, Grant left Sherman at the head of the West ern armies, and took up his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, in order to direct Virginia. 16. For six weeks, in a series of rapid movements, General Grant attempted to get between Lee's army and Richmond. He did not succeed in this. He fought the terrible battle of the Wilderness, in which Mays, 6, both sides lost heavily, though the advantage at 1864- the end of the battle remained with the Unionists. Other battles followed, but Grant could not force Lee's lines, and now laid siege to Richmond and Petersburg. . 404 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. pp-pjpjBWi- 17. The siege was begun early in June. In July, to loosen Grant's hold on Petersburg, General Lee sent General Early upon a dashing raid into Maryland and juiy 30, Pennsylvania, with the hope even that he might 1864. get possession of Washington. The chief re sult was the burning of Chambersburg and the capture of a quantity of supplies* 18. When General Early retired up the Shenandoah Valley, he was followed by General Sheridan, who de- ________ feated him at Win- Chester, and drove him beyond Cedar Creek. General Ear ly then turned upon his adversary, and recovered his posi tion. Sheridan was absent when this battle was fought, but, getting intelli gence of it, rode rapidly up the val ley, rallied his men, and turned defeat into victory. 19. During the Admiral David G. Farragut. Summer of I 864 the navy was attempting to blockade the Southern ports more effectually, and to meet the cruisers which were inflicting great damage on American commerce. Great June relief was felt when the Kearsarge, Captain 1864. Winslow, attacked the Alabama, Captain Semmes, in the English Channel, and sank her. FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 405 20. Admiral Farragut, accompanied by land forces, captured the forts which commanded the entrance to Mobile Bay, and destroyed the Confederate iron-clad Tennessee. The Confederate ram Albemarle, also, which lay in Roanoke River, was blown up by a tor pedo which was affixed to it by a courageous sailor. Lieutenant Gushing. CHAPTER XIX. FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. Sic sem'per Tyraii'nis. A Latin phrase, meaning, " So be it ever to tyrants.'' 1. The Western campaign in 1864 began at the same time as Grant's movements in Virginia. General Sher man began to move from Chattanooga toward May 6, Atlanta. Before him lay a Confederate army 18M" under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston ; but Sherman, avoiding a direct engagement, gradually pressed his opponent back to the fortifications of Atlanta. 2. The Confederate government removed General Johnston, and gave the command to General Hood, ' who at once made an attack upon Sherman. But Sher man changed his position, and took Atlanta, which Hood had left. The two armies had, as it were, exchanged places ; and Hood, instead of assaulting the city, under took to cut off Sherman from the railroads which brought supplies to his army. 3. Sherman now detached a portion of his army, placed it under General George H. Thomas, and seat 406 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. it against Hood, while he himself prepared to march Nov. 30, southward into the heart of the Confederacy. 1864. -Hood meanwhile aimed at the capture of Nashville. On the way he attacked General Schofield at Franklin, and suffered a loss , but he kept on, and laid siege to Nashville. 4. While Hood was thus engaged, General Thomas attacked him, and fought a battle which lasted for two days and re sulted in a severe defeat of the Con federates. Hood's army was unable to rally, and was scat tered over the General George H. Thomas. country. For the first time in the war a campaign had ended in the destruction of an army. 5. Five days later, Sherman's army entered Savannah. He had started from Atlanta in the middle of Novem- Dec. 21 ber> cut l°ose from his base of supplies, and 1864. marched, without meeting any armed opposi tion, to the sea-board. For a month, rumor .- only of his whereabouts reached the ears of the people at the North. 6. The people at the South knew well where he was ; for in his march his army and followers had left a broad FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 40; path of desolation. At Savannah he was in communi cation with the Union fleet, and sent word that the Con federacy was nothing but a shell, and that he was ready with his victorious army to march northward. 7. Upon the first day of February, 1865, Sherman began his northward march. The military support of the Confederacy now rested on the army which Lee commanded within the intrenchments of Richmond and Petersburg, and on the remnant of the Western forces, with which General Johnston was try ing to check Sher man's advance. 8. On the 1 7th of February Sherman captured Columbia, South Carolina. • It was now impossible for the Confederates to hold Charleston, and therefore they evacuated it the same day. Fort Sumter had been pounded to ruins, the April before, by continual bom bardment from batteries erected by the Union forces ; but Charleston had not then been taken. 9. As he moved northward, Sherman encountered Johnston's forces in North Carolina. The Union army, however, was superior in numbers ; and when Sherman entered Goldsboro on. the 23d of March, Johnston re- Qeneral W. T. Sherman. 408 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. tired to Raleigh. Sherman pushed on after him ; but events in Virginia were fast rendering a contest in North Carolina unnecessary. 10. Sheridan had led a column of cavalry up the Shenandoah Valley, and thence down the James River. He did all the mischief he could on the way, and joined the main army in front of Petersburg. Grant had al- March29, ready ordered a forward movement against Lee, 1865' who made one desperate attempt to break the centre of the Union lines at Fort Steadman, intending under cover of the attack to withdraw his forces. 11. The effort failed. Three days later, Sheridan attacked Lee at Five Forks, and was victorious. Grant April 1, at once carried his army within the lines of the 1865. Petersburg defences. Lee retreated with the purpose of bringing his forces and Johnston's together for a final stand, while the advance guard of the Union army entered Richmond, April 2. 12. Jefferson Davis and other officers of the Con federate government had hastily fled ; and Lee was using- every effort to effect a junction with Johnston. But the Union army, elated and well supplied, bore down upon the hopeless retreating cojumn. On the 9th of April General Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House. 13. The news was received with an outburst of joy at the North. President Lincoln had been re-elected in 1864, and on the 4th of March, 1865, had begun his sec ond term. At that time the end of the struggle was plainly near, and the President, in his Inaugural Address, had already given expression to the hope of the coun try that there would be a reconciliation between the two sections. FALL OF THE CONFEDERACY. 409 14. "With malice toward none," he said, "with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him'who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphans ; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and a lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." 15. Immediately aftor the fall of Richmond, President Lincoln visited the Confederate capital, and walked with his little son along the desolate streets. He had been weighed down with anxiety and grief at the war. and looked with eagerness for the close. He appoint ed a day of thanks giving for the end of the war. It was to be the day on which, just fouryears before, Fort Sumter was attacked ; and z. party went to Charleston, -wnere General Anderson again raised the flag over the ruined fort. 16. In the midst of the universal rejoicing, a terrible event occurred. The President had gone to the theatre in Washington on the evening of April 14, and was seated in a box overlooking the stage, when an assassin shot him through the head, leaped over the railing upon Abraham Lincoln. 4IO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. the stage, and, shouting Sic semper Tyrannis, rushed out of the building. 17. At the same time another assassin attempted to murder Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, and wounded him seriously, but not fatally. There had been a plot, at this time of the downfall of the Confederacy, to pull down the leaders of the nation ; but it was the plot of only a few men, who perished miserably. 18. The President lingered a few hours, but gave no sign of consciousness before his death. The assassin had shouted the motto on the Virginia coat-of-arms, but no word could have been worse suited to Abraham Lincoln than the word " tyrant." In the four years of his service he had shown himself to be the elder brother of the people, as Washington had been the father. 19. The people had learned to love and trust him. He listened to every one, and was slow in making up his mind ; but that was because he wished to be clearly in the right. No one who was in trouble came to him without receiving help if he could give it. He thought always of his country and never of his own fame. 20. The joy of the nation was turned into deepest mourning. In every town almost every house hung out some sign of woe. The grief was scarcely lessened by the surrender, on the 26th of April, of General Johnston to General Sherman. On the 8th of May Jefferson Davis was captured. With its armies surrendered, and the head of its government in prison, the Confederacy came to an end. PACIFIC TIME 9 A.M CENTRAL TIME 11 A.M EASTERN TIME 12 NOON RECONSTRUCTION. 411 CHAPTER XX. RECONSTRUCTION. X. General Grant, when arranging with General Lee the terms upon which the Confederate army should surrender, proposed that the soldiers who had horses should retain them. He said the men would need them in ploughing their fields when they returned to their homes. 2. The first wish of those who had been most promi nent in putting down the Confederacy was that the Union should be restored as quickly as possible to its former state, with the exception of slavery. They de sired that the armies should be disbanded, and that the men who had been withdrawn from their homes and industry should return to their old life. 3. It was to be many years, however, before a har monious "nation could take the place of the warring Union. The terrible war had laid waste the country in which it had been waged. The people on each side had suffered in the loss of friends, home, and property, and could not at once be reconciled. The great change which had taken place through the abolition of slavery reached to the very bottom of Southern society and industry. 4. In February, 1865, Congress had passed the Thir teenth Amendment to the Constitution, forever for bidding slavery in the land. The language of the amendment was borrowed from the Ordinance of 1787, which had done so much to preserve the great North- 412 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. West to freedom. The amendment was accepted in the course of the year by the necessary number of States. 5. The assassination of President Lincoln checked the movement which had already begun for the res toration of the seceding States. People who had been ready in their joy to make peace with those who had been leaders in the Confederacy, now were ready to believe that the spirit which had brought on the wai was unchanged. 6. There was a demand that the leaders of the Con federacy should be tried as traitors, but a wiser judg ment prevailed. The officers of the Confederacy were never brought to trial. For a long time, however, all persons who had previously t?ken the oath of allegiance to the United States, and then had broken the oath by taking up arms against the country, were debarred from holding any office in the government of the United States. 7. Upon the death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, who had been elected Vice-President, be came President. He had been selected by the Repub lican party as representing the Union men of the South. He was not, however, in full sympathy with the Re publicans; and it soon became evident that there was a breach between the President and Congress, which constantly widened. 8. The war had been fought to preserve the Union, but it had also necsssarily been a war to extinguish the system of slavery. There was, therefore, a strong senti ment at the North against any restoration of the Union which should leave the blacks in the power of their former masters. A State in the Union could pass many RECONSTRUCTION. 413 laws which would practically prevent the freedmen from having any voice in the government. 9. Congress passed a bill creating what was known as the Freedman's Bureau, a department of the govern ment intended to provide for the needs of the February blacks, who, it was said, were the wards of the 1866- nation. The President returned the bill to Congress without his signature, on the ground that it was an interference with the rights of the States in which the freedmen lived. 10. When the President refuses to sign a bill, he is said to veto it, and the bill thus vetoed does not become a law unless, on its return to Congress, two-thirds of the members vote to pass it in spite of the President's veto. The Freedman's Bureau bill was thus passed over the President's veto. 11. Congress then parsed a Civil Rights Bill, by which freedmen were made citizens of the April, United States. United States officers were 1866' instructed to protect these rights in the courts. The President vetoed this bill also, but Congress passed it over the veto. 12. To make this bill stronger, Congress adopted the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, and sub mitted it to the States, which ratified it. Later still, the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted, by which the right to vote was given to the freedmen. By these amend ments the people gave to the former slaves all the legal rights which white citizens had held. 13. The President disapproved of these measures, and there was now open hostility between him and Congress. Congress, growing more positive, passed over the President's veto what is known as the Tenure 414 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. of Office Bill. By this bill the President could not March 2 remove any public officer without the consent 1867 of the Senate. 14. On the same day a bill was passed, also over the President's veto, by which Congress provided for a sys tem of government over the States which had formed the Confederacy. It was, in effect, a military govern ment. Each State was to remain under it until it ratified the Fourteenth Amendment and formed a con stitution which secured the rights of the freedmen. 15. The open war between Congress and the Presi dent ended at last in the impeachment of the President by the House of Representatives. He was tried before the Senate, as the Constitution provided. The charges brought against him were mainly on account of offences which he was said to have committed against the Ten ure of Office Act. The chief charge was that he had removed the Secretary of War, E. M. Stanton, without the consent of the Senate. 16. The trial occurred near the close of Mr. Johnson's term of office. The party which had elected him was now thoroughly opposed to him, and the impeachment showed its anger. The trial lasted two months, and then was abandoned after a vote had been taken which showed that it was impossible to secure conviction. 17. The most important effects of this four years' quarrel were two : first, while the South was left in confusion, people became accustomed to seeing affairs which formerly were managed by the States, now con trolled by Congress; secondly, the authority of Con gress was increased, while that of the President was diminished. 18. General Grant was now the most conspicuous man RECONSTRUCTION. 415 in the country. He was the general who had achieved the final victory in the war, and he had shown firmness and prudence when President Johnson had made him Secretary of War, after removing Mr. Stan- lm' ton. He was nominated for the presidency by the Re publican party, and elected by a large majority. 19. President Grant held the office eight years. At his first election seven of the Southern States had com plied with the acts of Congress, and had been readmitted into the Union. By July, 1870, the last of the eleven States which had seceded was again a regular member of the Union. 20. The new State governments were formed under a military supervision. The party in power at Washing ton insisted that the freedmen should have full interest in the formation of these governments. The national government, through the army and the Freedman's ¦Bureau, undertook to carry out these ideas. 21. The most influential men at the South took no part in this reconstruction. They had been officers in the Confederacy, and could not or would not take the oath of allegiance to the United States. Many refused to act because they did not believe they were free to obey their convictions. They were, they said, under military government. 22. As a rule, the freedmen knew little about the meaning of a vote. They had come out of slavery, which never trained them to be citizens. Many were anxious to learn to read and write; many were eager to earn their living; but great multitudes were ignorant, bewil- deredv and easily infli' ~nced. 23. When the Con. Jeracy broke up, many men who had been prominent in it left the country to seek their 416 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. fortune in Europe or South America. Families were scattered, great estates were no longer cultivated, and many who had lived in luxury were impoverished. With no slaves, they no longer had the same means of subsistence. 24. At the same time many people from the North made their way into the ruined States. Some were sol diers who had been attracted during the war by the rich soil of the country, and wished to make their home there. Some were adventurers, who thought it an ex cellent opportunity to make their fortunes and acquire political power. 25. These last easily obtained an influence over the freedmen. They were active, and the native Southern whites kept aloof from politics. The government of the States was thus often brought into disrepute. Men exercised official power who had no regard for the wel fare of the State, but simply looked out for their own advantage. 26. The conduct of the State governments brought such evils that the Southern whites began to combine to recover political power. A period almost of anarchy followed, in which each side used every means to obtain and keep the supremacy. Gradually, however, the po litical authority returned to the class which had held it before the war. AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR 417 CHAPTER XXI. AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. Sioux (Soo). 1. A HUNDRED years had passed since the stirring days when the English colonies in America had main tained their rights under English law, and had finally declared and achieved their independence. Each of the steps toward independence was celebrated when its hun dredth anniversary came round. 2. The spilling of the tea in Boston Harbor, the fights at Lexington and Concord, the battle of Bunker Hill, the assumption by Washington of the command of the American army, and other important events were re called and celebrated. The centennial year of indepen dence was made memorable by a great international exhibition at Philadelphia. 3. While the Union, at peace with foreign nations, was celebrating its independence of Europe, a war broke out on the Western frontier. The Indians had risen, and the nation was reminded of that dispute with the natives of the soil which had begun with the first settlement of the country and had never been long at rest. 4. The Sioux Indians had ceded to the United States a large tract of country in what was formerly Dakota Territory. They had reserved to themselves the dis trict known as the Black Hills ; but when it was ru mored that gold had been found on their reservation, white men began to push in, regardless of the promise which' the government had made to the Indians. 27 41 8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 5 The Sioux were a warlike tribe, and they retaliated by attacking the frontier settlements in Montana and Wyoming. United States troops were sent out against them, but met at first with terrible disaster. General Custer, with about two hundred and fifty soldiers, was June 25 surprised, and the entire force massacred. The 1876 war lasted into the winter of 1877, when the Sioux, with their chiefs Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, went across the border into British territory. 6 The changes at the South, and the dissatisfaction of many at the North with the rule of the Republican managers, were seen in the election of 1876. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was the candidate of the Republi can party, and Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, of the Democratic party. 7. So close was the vote that the decision of the elec tion turned upon the way in which the votes of Louisiana and Florida were counted. Both parties declared that they had carried these States ; but there had been so much political management to secure the votes that each party accused the other of dishonesty. 8. It was finally agreed by Congress to refer the dis pute to an Electoral Commission, composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Justices of the Supreme Court. The result was the election of Mr. Hayes, and the end of the dispute was received with a sense of relief by the country. People were most concerned, not that Mr. Hayes or Mr. Tilden should be President, but that there should be a fair election. 9. One of the first acts of Mr. Hayes's administration was to put an end to all supervision of elections at the South by United States troops. With the withdrawal of these troops disappeared the last sign of any distinction AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 419 in the government between the States which had se ceded in 1 861 and those which had remained loyal. 10. On January 1, 1879, the' United States govern ment and the national banks resumed specie payment The country again carried on business upon the same footing as other nations. It was rapidly diminishing the debt incurred by carrying on the war for the Union. 11. At the close of the war the national debt was more than twenty-eight hundred million dollars.1 When specie payments were resumed, more than nine hundred million dollars of the debt had been paid, and on July 1, 1884, the debt had been reduced about one-half. 12. Mr. Hayes was succeeded by James Abram Gar field, of Ohio, who had been a major-general in the Union army, and a member of Congress since 1863. He had held the office but four months when he was shot by a man who had been disappointed at failing to obtain an office under the administration 13. The President was not instantly killed. For three months he lay helpless, while the nation watched anx iously every turn in his condition. The sympathy shown by all parts of the country did much to draw the nation together and to lessen the old distrust. Garfield died in September, 1881, and was succeeded by the Vice- President, Chester Alan Arthur, of New York. 14. Mr. Arthur was President until March 4, 1885. During his administration two important public works were completed. The suspension bridge across the East River, connecting New York City and Brooklyn, was opened for travel May 24, 1883 ; and the Northern Pacific Railroad was completed in August of the same year. 1 The public debt reached its maximum August 31, 1865, on which day it amounted to $2,845,907,626.56. 420 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. List Of Presidents, 1861 1880. No. Name. State. 16. Abraham Lincoln,1 Illinois, {Portrait, page 409.) 17. Andrew Johnson,2 Tennessee, r8. Ulysses Simpson Grant, Illinois, {Portrait, page 390) 19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes, Ohio, 20. James Abram Garfield,' Ohio, 21 Chester Alan Arthur,2 New York, 1 Died in offiGe. Term of Office. March 4, 1861. to April 14, 1865. April 14, 1865, to March 4, 1869, March 4, 1869, to March 4, 1877. March 4, 1877, to March 4, 1881. March 4, 1881, to Sept. 19, *88i. Sept. 19, 1SS1, to March 4, 1885. 2 Elected as Vice-President. AFTER THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 42 1 15. By an agreement between the principal railways the area of the United States was divided into four parallel sections. On a fixed day, within each Nov lg section all the railway clocks were made to 1883 agree, and the same measure of time was used from the eastern to the western boundaries of the section. The time for each section was measured by the meridian of longitude passing through the middle of that section. 16. When it was twelve o'clock at Philadelphia, for example, it was twelve by the clock at Bangor and at Cleveland ; although by the sun it would be about half an hour later at Bangor, and half an hour earlier at Cleveland. There was just an hour's difference in time between the successive central meridians. The conven ience to travellers was so great that everybody adopted the scheme, and all the clocks in the country are now set by standard time, 17. The postage on letters was reduced from three cents a half-ounce to two cents; and still later 0ctl the rate was made two cents an ounce. Other 1883- July 1, improvements have been made in the postal 1885. system, by which the government is able to serve the people better in their communication with one another. 18. Immediately after the death of George Washing ton, Congress voted a monument to him at the Capital ; but it was not till 1848 that the corner-stone was laid. An association had then undertaken the work, and people throughout the country were called upon for contribu tions of money ; all the States and some foreign nations contributed blocks of stone, but the work moved slowly. Finally Congress voted the necessary money, and the monument was completed, and dedicated February 21, 1885. It is 555 feet high. 422 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. Nov. 25, 1885. 19. In the election held in the autumn of 1884, the candidates of the Democratic party were chosen, and President Arthur was followed by Grover Cleveland, of New York. Within a year the Vice-President, Thomas A. Hendricks, died ; and Congress, made mindful of the need of providing for the ad ministration of gfjgf the government, passed, not long after, a Presiden tial succession bill. 20. By this bill, which has become a law, if the Pres ident dies, and there is no Vice- President, the of fice of President is to be filled by a member of the President's cabi net, — the Secre tary of State if that member is liv ing ; if not living, then the first who may be living of the other cabinet officers in a fixed order. 21. On the 23d of July, 1885, died Ulysses Simpson Grant, the great general under whose leadership the war for the Union had been brought to a close. He had won the affection of his countrymen, and not only Northern but Southern soldiers mourned his loss. At his grave the country again stood united. Grover Cleveland SIGNS OF PROGRESS. 423 CHAPTER XXII. SIGNS OF PROGRESS. 1. A nation has the same flag year by year; perhaps it has the same territory, the same boundaries; never theless, it is changing for better or for worse, — it is think ing new thoughts ; it looks to the future as well as to the past. Let us see if we can read a few of the signs of the time in the events which have taken place be tween 1885 and 1893. 2. In October, 1886, a statue was unveiled on Bed- loe's Island in the harbor of New York. It is called Lib erty Enlightening the World, and is the figure in bronze of a woman, symbolizing liberty, who holds aloft a light. The statue is a great electric lighthouse ; it was designed by Bartholdi, a French sculptor, and given by people in the Republic of France to the United States. 3. In February, 1890, a treaty was ratified by the Sen ate of the United States which provides for the just divi sion of rights, between Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, in Samoa, an island of the Pacific, where the United States has a coaling station. 4. A few days later the House of Representatives se lected the city of Chicago as the site for a World's Fair, to be held in commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Cojumbus. This fair, like the one held in 1876, is to show to the world what progress in civilization the United States has made. 424 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 5. Thus the nation does not stand by itself, apart from other nations ; it has a place in the world ; it has duties and rights in common with other nations; it exchanges ' Liberty Enlightening the World.' courtesies with them ; and as steam and electricity bring the continents nearer each other, the United States will have still more to do with Great Britain and its colonies, Germany and its colonies, and Japan and China. 6. While the war for the Union was still in progress, in 1 864, Nevada was made a State. The first State to be DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY HADE BY THE U.S. SIGNAL SERVICE SIGNS OF PROGRESS. 425 added to the Union after the war was Nebraska, in 1867. Colorado was added in 1876, and hence is popularly called the Centennial State. 7. In 1889 four States were formed out of Territories, — North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, and Mon tana. In 1890, Idaho and Wyoming were added to the J Union. 8. In 1889, Oklahoma, formerly a portion of Indian Territory, was opened to white settlers. In 1890, the Mormon church formally abolished polygamy, thus re moving the principal obstacle to the acceptance of Utah as a State by the Union. 9. The remaining Territories, with the exception of Alaska, are knocking for admission into the Union. Thus the final division of the whole country into States is rapidly going forward ; it cannot be long before the people will all have political duties as citizens of States and as citizens of the United States. 10. In 1887 Congress passed what is known as the Interstate Commerce Act. It provides for the regula tion of commerce between the several States, especially with reference to the railroads which connect the differ ent parts of the country. A commission is appointed under the bill to hear complaints and settle disputes. 11. In 1889 the Department of Agriculture was cre ated as a new department in the administration of the government. The Secretary is a member of the Presi dent's Cabinet, and his duty is to look after the inter ests of the great farming population. 12. At the election held in the autumn of 1888, the Republican party was victorious. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, was elected President, and Levi P. Morton, of New York, Vice-President. The main issue of the contest had been the tariff policy of the country. 426 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 13. In accordance with the principles of the party now in power, Congress, in 1890, passed a bill popu larly called, from the name of its chief promoter, the McKinley Tariff Bill, which undertook, in a very elaborate series of sections, to revise the existing laws respecting duties on imports. Under this act reciprocity treaties were en tered into with Bra zil, Santo Domingo, Spain, and other nations. 14. The passage oftheMcKinleyBillcalled out vigorous political discussion, and at the next con gressional election, in the autumn of 1890, the Demo cratic party gained control of the Na tional House of Representatives. At the election in 1892 the same party was still further successful. It secured a majority in Congress, and again placed Grover Cleveland in the President's chair, with Adlai E. Stevenson-, of Illinois, as Vice-President. 15. Meanwhile there has been great activity in poli tical thought. During the years from 1887 to 1893 thirty-two States adopted ballot- reform laws; and the change of administration both in 1888 and 1892 called out a great deal of comment upon the principles which should rule in appointment to office. Benjamin Harrison. THE PRESENT NATION. 427 CHAPTER XXIII. THE PRESENT NATION. 1, A SURVEY of the United States at the present time shows it to be a very different country from that which took its place among the nations of the world near the close of the eighteenth century. Its boun daries are different; the people who occupy the land are more in number and different in life ; the govern ment, though the same in form, has grown more complex. 2. The United States is still bounded by Canada on the north ; but in the extreme northwest is the great, scarcely explored country of Alaska, which was bought of Russia in 1867. On the southwest is the republic of Mexico, very much smaller than the Spanish pos session of that name which was once the neighbor of the United States. 3. During the war of 1 861-1865 the Emperor of France, Napoleon III., attempted to establish in Mexico a foreign government under Maximilian, an Austrian archduke. He sent a French army for this purpose. The remonstrance of the United States and the resolution of the Mexicans compelled Napoleon to abandon the attempt. Maximilian was seized by the Mexicans and executed. 4. A new invasion of Mexico from the United States has begun, but it is the peaceful invasion of commerce. Railways are pushing down along the great plateau which reaches from the United States into the heart of 428 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. the country, and making thus a closer connection between the two peoples. In 1869 the first of the great railroads was finished, which con nected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and opened the far western try to travel and settlement. 5. The United States now lies between the two coun- great THE PRESENT NATION. 429 oceans of the world. The Atlantic is still the central sea, as the Mediterranean was before it ; but the Pacific is also becoming a great highway for commerce and , trade between America and the ancient peoples of Asia. 6. In 1866, a previous attempt in 1858 having failed, a telegraphic cable was laid upon the bed of the Atlantic between America and Europe. This cable was Laying the fir.t, Atlantic Cable. followed by others, so that the citizen of the United States may know each day of the principal events which occur in the civilized world. l, A closer connection between the United States and the Old World than any effected by the telegraph is formed by the constant passage back and forth of 43° THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. people. Every year the ocean steamers carry thou sands of citizens of the United States to Europe and Asia, and bring back hundreds of thousands from other countries to this. 8. The Europeans who come to the United States to live occupy the farming and grazing regions, and be come workmen in factories and mines and on the rail roads. They become citizens of the United States, their children grow up in the public schools, and every generation sees a richer and more varied America. 9. It is not wholly so with the immigration which comes from Asia. The settlement of the Pacific coast has drawn many men from China. These have helped to build railroads, to work the mines, and to do many kinds of household labor, but they have rarely become citizens. California has persuaded Congress to pass laws checking the immigration of the Chinese. 10. The Indians, in their tribes, continue to be a foreign people. For generations the nation has made treaties with them, and then has broken those treaties when the people have coveted the lands occupied by the Indians. By individual effort, and now by the action of the government, the attempt is making to Christianize them, to educate them, and to cause them to become citizens. 11. There are now forty-four States in the Union, and six Territories, including Alaska, and the District of Columbia. A census of the United States is taken every ten years, and by the census of 1 890 it was found that the entire population then numbered more than sixty-two million. 12. These States and Territories constitute the politi cal divisions of the country. The country is also divided into military divisions, and into divisions which follow THE PRESENT NATION. 431 the great physical features. These last divisions are made by the United States Signal Service, which has a central office at Washington, and more than two hun dred stations throughout the country. 13. By means of this service the approach of storms and changes in the weather can be announced several hours and even days in advance. The signals are of special value to sailors and farmers. Thus the general government makes use of science to benefit the people 6f the entire country. 14. Each State has its own government; each has its capital, where the governor resides and where the legis lature meets. At the same time the people of the whole country have a government which concerns itself with the affairs of the whole nation. It is administered by a President, two houses of Congress, and courts of law, with the capital at Washington. 15. Every four years the people are called upon to choose a President and Vice-President. They do not vote directly for these officers ; but they choose in each State certain men, called electors, to whom they have indicated their wishes. These electors meet and cast the vote for the people; the choice of the electors is then declared to Congress. 16. The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy. Every bill passed by Congress becomes a law when he has signed it, except, as has already been shown, when he returns it to Congress without his signa ture and Congress again passes it by a two-thirds vote. The President also appoints the ministers to foreign countries, the judges of the national courts, and the priii- cipal officers of the government ; but his appointments must be confirmed by the Senate. 432 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 17. Congress consists of two houses, — the Senate, and the House of Representatives. Each State is repre sented in the Senate by two Senators elected by the legislature of the State, and chosen for a term of six years each. The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. 18. The House of Representa tives is made up of members chosen directly by the people in the several States; and the numbe'r from each State is proportioned to the population of the State. Each member is chosen for a term of two years. The presiding officer is chosen by the members, and is called the Speaker, because in England, where the title was first used, the Speaker of the House of Commons spoke for the whole body, when addressing the crown. 19. As the House has become larger, with the in crease of population in the country, the amount of busi- THE PRESENT NATION. 433 ness before it has become greater. This business is, for the most part, first considered by different committees. It is very difficult to pass any measure in the House if a committee has advised against it. Hence most of the real business of legislation is done in the committees ; and the Speaker, who appoints the committees, is one of the most important members of the government His office is regarded by many as second only to that of the President. 20. There are four grades of United States courts, — the District, the Circuit, the Appellate, and the Supreme. The whole country is divided into districts and circuits, and judges hold courts in different localities. The Su preme Court, with a Chief Justice, sits only at Washing ton. The judges are appointed for life, but they can be removed from office by process of impeachment. 21. While the nation is thus governed according to republican forms, the power resides in the people. They are constantly called upon to declare at the polls their choice of officers in the state or nation. These officers are the servants of the people, chosen to execute the will of the people. Thus it depends upon the people whether the nation shall be upright, honest, and God fearing. 22. After the battle of Gettysburg, the nation caused the ground on which it was fought to become a great burial-ground for the bodies of men who fell in battle. There are memorial stones to dead heroes, and rows upon rows of graves where lie faithful men whose names have perished with them. When the ground was dedi cated, Abraham Lincoln, who was himself soon to be a martyr for his country, spoke these solemn words which should never die out of the memory of his countrymen : 434 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S SPEECH AT THE DEDICATION OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY, GETTYSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA, NOVEMBER 1 9, 1 863. Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so con ceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that the nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow, this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion, — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, — and that gov ernment of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 435 TOPICAL ANALYSIS FOR REVIEW. I The United States in the Middle of the Nine teenth Century. 1. Relations with other nations. a. Explorations, XI. 8. b. Immigration, XI. 9-1 1 ; XII. 6. c. Trade, XII. 5, 6. 2. Expansion of government. a. At the seat of government, XL 2, 3. b. In opening the country, XI. 6, 7. 3. Modes of communication. a. The post-office, XI. 4- b. The telegraph, XL j. c. The railroad, XI. 13 ; XII. 4. d. The boat, XII. 2, 3. 4. Growth of cities, XI. 12-16. 5. The association of the people, XII. 8. 6. The means of enlightenment. a. Societies, XII. 9. b. Lectures, XII. 10. c. Newspapers, XII. n. d. Books, XII. 12-17. II. The Struggle between Slavery and Anti-slavery. 1. The conflict in Congress, XIII. 1-3, 9. 2. The conflict in the Territories, XIII. 3-8. 3. The conflict in the Presidential election, XIII. 11. 4. The part played by the Supreme Court, XIII. 12, 13. 5. The personal movement of John Brown, XIII. 14-16. 6. The conflict of parties, XIII. 10, 11, 17, 18. III. Revolt of the Slave States. 1. The way the South regarded the Union, XIV. 1-5. 2. The action of South Carolina, XIV. 6, 7. 3. The action of the remaining States, XIV. 8; XV. 16. 4. The formation of the Confederacy, XIV. 9, 10. 5. The assumption of power by the Confederacy, XIV. 1 1, 12. 6. The action of the United States government, XV. 2-4. 7. The feeling in the country at large. XV. I, 5, 6. 436 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. 8. The new President and the problem before him, XV. 7-1 1. 9. The affair of Fort Sumter, XIV. 13, 14 ; XV. 12-14. 10. The immediate effect of the attack on the fort, XV. 15, 16. IV. The Struggle between the Union and the Con federacy. 1. The chief battle-ground, XV. 18. 2. The parties to the conflict, XV. 19 ; XVI. I, 2. 3. The first meeting, XVI. 3-5. 4. The effect of the defeat at Bull Run, XVI. 6, 7. 5. The part played by slavery, XVI. 8, 9 ; XVIII. 6-8. 6. Relation of the two parties to other countries, XVI. 10-18. 7. Campaigns of 1862. a. At the West, XVII. 1-6. b. At the East, XVII. 7-18. 8. The action of Congress, XVIII. 1-5. 9. Campaigns of 1863. a. In Virginia, XVIII. 9-12. b. In the West, XVIII. 12-14. to. Campaigns of 1864. a. At the East, XVIII. 15-18. b. Naval engagements, XVI II. 19,20. c. At the West, XIX. 1-4. d. Sherman's march, XIX. 3, 5, 6. II. Close of the war, XIX. 7-12, 20. 12. President Lincoln and his death, XIX. 13-16, 18, 19. 13. The sentiment of the people after the war. a. As seen in the terms of peace, XX. I, 2. b. In the nation at large, XX. 3, 5, 6. V. Reconstruction of the Country. I. The abolition of slavery. a. The constitutional abolition, XX. 4, 12. b. The enactments in the interest of the freedmen, XX. 8, 9, n, 14, 20. c. The condition of the freedmen, XX. 12, 22, 23. 3. The restoration of the Southern States. a. The provisional government by Congress, XX. 14, 17, 20. b. The return of the States into the Union, XX. 14, 19. c. The condition of the former slave-holders, XX. 21, 26. d. Northern men at the South, XX. 24, 25. *. Final withdrawal of Federal supervision, XXI. 9. TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 437 3. The finances of the country, XXI. 10, 11. 4. Struggle for supremacy between Congress and the Presi dent, XX. 7-17. 5. President Grant's administration. a. His election and term of office, XX. 18, 19. b. The Centennial celebrations, XXI. 1, 2. c. The Sioux War, XXI. 3-5. 6. President Hayes's administration, XXI. 6-8. 7. The administrations of Garfield and Arthur, XXI. 12-17. 8. Cleveland's first administration, XXI. 17-21; XXII. 2, 10, 14. 9. Harrison's administration, XXII. 3-5, 7-9, 11, 12, 13. VI. A Survey of the Nation. 1. Its neighbors, XXIII. 2-4. 2. Its outlook on the Pacific Ocean, XXIII. 5-9. 3. Its outlook on the Atlantic Ocean, XXIII. 5-8. 4. Its wards, XXII. 10. 5. Political divisions of the country, XXIII. 11. 6. Government of the parts, XXIII. 14. 7. Government of the whole, XXIII. 14-20. 8. Scientific oversight by the government, XXIII. 12-13. 9. The real source of political power and responsibility XXII. 15; XXIII. 21, 22. VII. The Lesson of History. Abraham Lincoln's Speech, page 434. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Corner-stone laid of the extension of the Capitol . July 4, 1851 -Commodore Perry made a treaty with Japan 1854 Kansas-Nebraska bill passed . May 31, 1854 The Dred-Scott decision in the Supreme Court . . . March 6, 1857 Minnesota admitted into the Union May 11, 1858 Oregon admitted into the Union Feb. 14, 1859 John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry Oct. 16, 1859 South Carolina passed an ordinance of secession . . . Dec. 20, i860 Steamer Star of the West fired upon at Charleston . . . Jan. 9, 1861 Kansas admitted into the Union Jan. 29, 1861 Confederacy formed at Montgomery Feb. 4, 1861 Bombardment of Fort Sumter April 12, 13, 1861 438 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. First blood shed in the war for the Union April 19, 1861 Battle of Bull Run July 21, 1867 Mason and Slidell taken from the Trent by Captain Wilkes Nov. 8, 1861 Fort Henry captured by the Union army Feb. 6, 1862 Fort Donelson captured by the Union army .... Feb. 16, 1862 Fight of the Merrimac and the Monitor ..... March 9, 1862 Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh April 6, 7, 1862 Island No. 10 captured by the Union army ..... April 7, 1862 Capture of New Orleans by Farragut April 28, 1862 Battle of Williamsburg ... May 5, 1862 Battle of Fair Oaks ..... May 31, 1862 General R. E. Lee took command of the Confederate army June 3, 1862 The Alabama sailed from Liverpool . July 29, 1862 Battle of Cedar Mountain Aug. 9, 1862 Battle of Manassas Aug. 29, 30, 1862 Battle of Antietam ...... .... Sept. 17, 1862 Battle of Fredericksburg Dec. 13, 1862 Emancipation Proclamation by President Lincoln . . . Jan. 1, 1863 Battle of Chancellorsville May 2, 3, 1863 West Virginia admitted into the Union June 20, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3, 1863 Surrender of Vicksburg to the Union army July 4, 1863 Surrender of Port Hudson to the Union army .... July 8, 1863 Battle of Chickamauga Sept. 19, 1863 Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge . Nov. 24, 25, 1863 General Grant made Lieutenant-General March 3, 1864 Battle of the Wilderness . May 5, 6, 1864 The Alabama sunk by the Kearsarge ..... June 19, 1864 Chambersburg, Pa., burned by the Confederates .... July 30, 1864 Nevada admitted into the Union Oct. 31, 1864 Sherman left Atlanta on his march to the sea-coast . Nov 16, 1864 Battle of Five Forks ... April 1, 1865 Lee's army surrendered April 9, 1865 President Lincoln assassinated April 14, 1865 Johnston's army surrendered . . April 26, 1865 Nebraska admitted into the Union ........ March 1, 1867 Alaska bought from Russia .... March 30, 1867 Great fire in Chicago Oct. 8-10, 1871 Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia May-Nov., 1876 Colorado admitted into the Union . Aug. 1, 1876 Resumption of specie payments .... ..... Tan. 1, 1879 President Garfield shot July 2, 1881. Died Sept. 19, 1881 Gtraeral Grant died July 23, 1885 APPENDIX. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. I Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, July 4, 1776. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect tcvthe Ainions of man kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien able rights ; that among these, are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation .on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is- their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the ii APPENDIX. patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : — He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature \ a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, *a.nd distant from tht depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreign ers, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in time of peace, standing armies, withouS the consent of our legislatures. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. iii He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws : giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them by a mock trial, from punishment, for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : il For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: '7 For imposing taxes on us without our consent: ¦ For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefit of trial by jury: ' " For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences : -* For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : ? > For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments : -•¦ ' For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. i =¦ He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 'i "¦ He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. -. ••' He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mer cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. --'- He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. -"> He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the mer ciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undis tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. iv APPENDIX. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people Nor have fie been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the tjes of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would in evitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We. therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Su preme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the pro tection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members : — John Hancock. New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island. — Stephen Hop kins, William Ellery. Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Hunt- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. v ington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis'Morris. New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. — Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland. — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Har rison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jrl, Arthur Middleton. Georgia. — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Preamble. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for' the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. -ARTICLE I. The Legislative Department. Section I. Congress in General. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section II. House of Representatives. 1st Clause. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. vi APPENDIX. 2d Clause. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3(2* Clause. Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor tioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be de termined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and, excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumera tion shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Caro lina five, and Georgia three. Ath Clause. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. $th Clause. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section III. The Senate. ist Clause. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. id Clause. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, yi'l the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. •3)d Clause. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhab itant of that State for which he shall be chosen. Aih Clause. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5th Clause. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6th Clause. -The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 1th Clause. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Section IV. Both Houses. 1st Clause. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. zd Clause. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section V. The Houses Separately. ist Clause. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of viii APPENDIX. each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. id Clause. Each house may determine the rules of its proceed ings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 3d Clause. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Ath Clause. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section VI. Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 1st Clause. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respec tive houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be ques tioned in any other place. id Clause. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased dur ing such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section VII. Mode of passing Laws. 1st Clause. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. id Clause. Every bill which shall have passed the House of THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ix Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap proved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3d Clause. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the con currence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre sented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre scribed in the case of a bill. Section VIII. Powers granted to Congress. The Congress shall have power — ist Clause. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and ex cises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; id Clause. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 3d Clause. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; Ath Clause. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; X APPENDIX. $th Clause. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 6th Clause. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; Jth Clause. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 8th Clause. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; gth Clause. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; loik Clause. To define and punish piracies and felonies com mitted on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; nth Clause. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; i ith Clause. To raise and support armies; but no appropria tion of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 13//2 Clause. To provide and maintain a navy; \/±th Clause. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 15/A Clause. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; \6th Clause. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin ing the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the au thority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; ^ y lyth Clause. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Con gress, become the seat of the Government of the United States ; and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con sent of the legislatdre of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — and 18th Clause. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, xi Section IX. Powers denied to the United Slates. ist Clause. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. id Clause. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3d Clause. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. Ath Clause. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. $th Clause. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. blh Clause. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those ol another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. "]th Clause. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8th Clause. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king prince, or foreign State. f + -v v v Section X. Powers denied to the States. 1st Clause. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit : make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. id Clause. No State shall, without the consent of the Con 29 xii APPENDIX. gress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such law's shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 3d Clause. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, o« in such imminent danger as will not admit ol delay. ARTICLE II. The Executive Department. Section I. President and Vice-President. 1st Clause. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: id Clause. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legis'ature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress. But no senator or representa tive, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The 3d clause has been superseded by the 12th article of Amend ments. See page xix.] \th Clause. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. $th Clause. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citi zen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Con stitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6th Clause. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, xiii President; and_ the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be re moved, or a President shall be elected. •jth Clause. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8th Clause. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, anu defend the Constitution of the United States.'' Section II. Powers of the President. 1st Clause. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principil officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. id Clause. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3d Clause. The President shall have power to fill up all va cancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by grant ing commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Xiv APPENDIX. Section III. Duties of the President. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public minis ters ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section IV. Impeachment of the President. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. The Judicial Department. Section I. The United Slates Courts. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continu ance in office. Section II. furisdiction of the United States Courts. ist Clause. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis ters, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdic tion ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; be tween citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. XV different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. id Clause. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 3d Clause. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach ment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not •committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or Dlaces as the Congress may by law have directed. Section III. Treason. ist Clause. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. id Clause. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work cor ruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Miscellaneous Provisions. Section I. State Records. Full faith and credit shall be given ir. each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section II. Privileges of Citizens 1st Clause. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. id Clause. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State XVI APPENDIX. from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3d Clause. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse quence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section III. New States and Territories. 1st Clause. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the con sent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. id Claitse. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. Section IV. Guarantees to the States. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the sxecutive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against iomestic violence. 1 ARTICLE V. Powers of Amendment, The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, ir. either case, shall be valid, to al3 intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, a? the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress.: provided that no amendment which may be made prior AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. xvii to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any man ner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be de prived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. Public Debt, Supremacy of the Constitu tion, Oath of Office, Religious Test. 1st Clause. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. id Clause. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States. shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3d Clause. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualifi cation to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. Ratification of the Constitution. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. AMENDMENTS PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAl STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION." Article I. Freedom of Religion. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peace ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. XV111 APPENDIX. Article II. Right to bear Arms. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article III. Quartering Soldiers on Citizens. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Article IV. Search Warrants. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. Trial for Crime. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any, criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due proeess of law ; nor shall pri vate property be taken for public use without just compensation. Article VI. Rights of Accused Persons. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State and dis trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtain ing witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Article VII. Suits at Common Law. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. xix exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Article VIII. Excessive Bail. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. Rights Retained by the People. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. Reserved Rights of the States. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit, in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Article XII. 1st Clause. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them selves ; they shall name in their ballots the person "Oted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the " United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the Presi dent of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the XX APPENDIX. House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States, shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. - id Clause. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of sena tors, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 3d Clause. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Article XITI. Section I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XIV. Section . I. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due pro cess of law, nor deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the sev- AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. XXI eral States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under an; State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Con gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have en gaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pen sions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or re bellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. V. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro priate legislation, the provisions of this article. Article XV. Section I. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. II. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. APPENDIX. THE STATES AND TERRITORIES — CENSUS OF 1S90. STATES. Areas in Total Name. Date of Admission. Square Miles. Population. I Delaware • . (Dec. ;, /S7 2,050 168,493 2 Pennsylvania =c Dec. 12, 7S/ 45>2I5 5,258,014 3 New Jersey . 0 , . | Dec. 18, .787 7,Sij '.444,933 4 Georgia . . / Jan. 2, 1788 59475 '.837,353 5 Connecticut . . Jan. 9, r7SS 4,99° 746,258 6 Massachusetts . Feb. 7, 7SS S,3'5 2>23s,943 7 Maryland . . ' i - April 28, 7S8 12,210 1,042,390 « South Carolina . j 2 - May 2^, 7SS 3°.5/° 1,151,149 9 New Hampshire j '£ '- June 21, 17SS 9,3°5 376.53° 10 Virginia . . , ri ¦ ¦ Jl June 26, 7SS 42,450 1,655.980 11 New York . . j 5 = July 26, 78S 49,170 5.997,853 12 North Carolina . , Rhode Island . ' ¦ 2 Nov. 21, 789 52,250 i,6i7.947 5°6 M Vermont . . March 4, 1 791 9,-565 332,422 Kentucky , . . June 1, 1792 40,400 1,858,635 16 Tennessee . . . June 1, 796 42,050 1,767,51s 17 Ohio . . Feb. 19, 1803 41,060 3.672,316 iS Louisiana . . . April 30, 812 48,720 1,118,587 '9 Indiana ... . Dec. 11, 816 36,35° 2,192,404 20 Mississippi ... . Dec. 10, Si 7 46,810 1,289,600 21 Illinois ... . Dec. 3, 818 56,650 0.826,351 Alabama . . . . . Dec. 14. 819 52,250 '.5'3.OI7 23 Maine ... . . . March 15, 1820 33,°4° 661,086 24 Missouri . ... . Aug. io, S21 69,415 2,679,184 25 Arkansas . June 15, 836 53>85° 1,128,179 26 Michigan . . . Jan. 26, S37 58>9i5 2,093,889 27 Florida . . . . March 3, S45 58,680 391,422 28 J Texas . . . . Dec. 29, S45 265,780 2.235.523 1,911,896 29 Iowa . . . Dec. 2S, S46 56,025 3° Wisconsin May 29, S4S 56,040 1,686,880 3 : California . Sept. 9, S50 158,360 1,208,130 32 Minnesota ... . May 11, 185S 1,301,826 33 Oregon ... . Feb. 14, 859 96,030 313,767 34 Kansas . . . , Jan. 29, 861 82,080 1,427,096 35 West Virginia . June 19, 863 24,780 762,794 36 Nevada . . . "Oct. 31, S64 ITO,/00 45.76i 37 Nebraska . . March 1, 86 7 76,855 1,058,910 38 Colorado . Aug. 1, 1S76 '°3>925 412,198 39 North Dakotn . . Feb. 22, 8S9 7°.'95 182,719 40 South Dakota . Feb. 22, SS9 76,850 328,808 41 Montana . . Feb. 22, 889 146,080 132,159 42 Washington Feb. 22, 8S9 69.180 349,39<> 43 Idaho . . . July 3, S90 84,800 84,383 44 Wyoming . July 10, TERRITORIE S90 S. 97,890 Areas in. 60,705 Total Organize 1. Square Miles. Population. Ut ah . . . . . Sept. 9, [S50 S4.970 207,905 Nt w Mexico . . . . Dec. T3, 1S50 122,580 '53,593 Ar izona .... . Feb. 24, S63 113,020 - 59,620 Di strict of Columbia . . March 30, 1 791 70 23°,392 In dian Territory . . . 6S,99i Al 577.39° 01 lahoma . . . 6I.S54 QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. Note. — Questions printed in Italic are not directly answered by the text. Titles enclosed in brackets are of books which throw light upon the contents of the chapter. PART I. Chapter I. ["Thiodolf the Icelander."] i. How much of the world was known a thousand years ago? 2. By whom, where, and in what way were the first discoveries made? 3. Who were the Vikings, and in what way did they amuse themselves in the long winter evenings, when at home ? 4. Have we any poet jy somewhat like the "sagas"} 5. What does the picture on page 3 show? 6. What is said about Vinland? 7. Is there an island on our coast of similar name? 8. Why did not southern Europe know of these discoveries? 9. Who is the Pope? 10. .At what time and where did the people begin to take some part in the government ? w. In the picture on page 5, what is the monk writ ing on? 12. Why not paper? 13. If a life > whose life? 14. How do you know he is a monk ? 15. What is the name of the building in "which he is writing? 16. What, probably ', are the books in front of him? 17. How did the monks in those days busy themselves ? Chapter II. 1. At what time was Spain the most powerful country of Europe? 2. What countries had the most commerce in those days? 3. Where did the goods come from? 4. What goods come from that part of the world to-day? 5. How much of Africa was known to Europe at this time? 6. Give an account of the discoveries of the Canary and Madeira islands and the coast of Africa. 7. Who was active in making discoveries on this coast ? 8. What is the use of the mariner's compass ? 9. What is meant by the " right of discovery " ? 10. Describe the manner of conducting a trading expedition in the fifteenth cen: tury ? 11. What kind of men were employed, and what difficulties did they have to overcome ? 12. What objects did men have in going upon these distant expeditions ? Chapter III. [" Mercedes of Castile," Cooper. " Ferdinand and Isabella," Prescott. " Life 01 Columbus," Irving.] 1. Tell the story of Columbus before he went to live on one of the Madeira islands. 2. What was thought of the shape of the world at this time? 3. What did Columbus think? 4. Why did he wish to sail west? 5. How were goods brought from Asia to Europe at this time?' 6. What did Columbus do to carry out his plans? 7. What trick was played upon Columbus in Portugal, and what was the result ? 8. Tell the story of Columbus after he left Portugal. 9. What were the terms of the contract between Ferdinand and Isabella and Columbus ? 10. Why were the seamen of Palos unwilling to go upon this voyage ? 11. What superstitious fears had they in regard to the western sea? 12. Describe the fleet. 13. When the sailors murmured9 what stories did Columbus probably tell them of Japan ? Chapter IV. 1. When did the fleet sail, and where did it direct its course? 2. What happened on the voyage? 3. Where and how large is the Sargasso sea ? 4. The water in this sea is very deep ; why should the sailors have been afraid of rocks? 5. Was the water covered with real sea-weed torn from rocks by storms on distant shores^br, was the so-called weed really a sea-plant growing XXIV APPENDIX. naturally on the sea in that region ? 6. The wind had blown from the east foi many days ; why should the sailors think that they had gone too far to have a return wind? 7. What strange fancies did they probably have! 8. What signs of land were seen? 9. Describe the discovery of land and the ceremony of tak ing possession. Chapter V. 1. What happened to Columbus on the voyage home? 2. How was he received ? 3. There are four quarterings on the coat-of-arms ; -what does the lion signify ? the castle ? the anchors ? the islands surrounded by trees ! 4. Why were the discoveries of Columbus called the West Indies ? 5. What was the second voyage expected to accomplish ? 6. How did the Spaniards treat the natives? 7. How did the natives act? 8. What happened in 1497? 9. What did Columbus discover in 1498? 10. What do the chains signify in the picture lis treatment of dissenters, 87 ; unwilling to admit Rhode Island into the league, 97 ; manoeuvres to retain her charter, 99 ; loses it, 104. Matagorda Bay, the landing-place of La Salle,. 137. Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, attempts to rule Mexico, 427 ; is executed, 427. Mayflower, the, the vessel which bears the Pilgrims to America, 73 ; explanation of its name, 72 ; returns to England, 76. Meade, George G., in command of the Union army, 401 ; at Gettysburg, 401. Mediterranean Sea, importance of the, in an cient times, 6, 7 ; trade in, of the United States, 282, 283; pirates in, 283. Memphis in the hands of the Union army, 391 Menendez leads an expedition against the Huguenots, 40 ; founds St. Augustine, 40. Merrimac, the, turned into a ram, 392; de stroys the Cumberland, 393 ; compels the Congress to surrender, 393 ; is checked by the Monitor, 393 Mesilla valley bought by the United States, 344- Methodist movement, the, 127. Mexico, stories of, told to Cortez, 31 ; char acter of the people in, 31 ; conquest of, by Cortez, 33; revolts from Spain, 325; abol ishes slavery, 337 ; refuses to sell Texas, 337 ; refuses to acknowledge the independ ence of Texas, 339; naval expedition sent to, 340 ; declares war on the United States, 340 ; feeble political condition of, 341 ; war with the United States, 341-344; sells ter ritory to the United States, 344; attempt of France to control, 427; peaceful invasion of, by the United States, 427, 428. Mexico, city of, entered by Cortez, 31 ; its Eosition, 31 ; destroyed by Cortez and re- uilt, 33; General Taylor moves upon, 342; Scott's campaign against, 342-344; capture of, 344. Michigan, territory formed, 288; surrendered by Hull, 291 ; restored by Harrison, 294; admitted into the Union, 336. Militia organized, 147 ; turned into service of the patriots, 189. Minas, Bay of, the, centre of French settle ments in Acadia, 147. Ministers in New England, 164. Minnesota admitted into the Union, 373. Minute-men, 191. Missionaries in Oregon, and what they ac complish, 348. . Missionary Ridge, battle of, 403. Mississippi, admitted a State, 309 ; passes an ordinance of secession, 376. Mississippi River, discovered by De Soto, 36 ; his tomb, 37; discovered again by La Salle, 136; belongs to the nation, 249 ; by terms of the Jay treaty free to Americans and Englishmen, 278 ; its mouth controlled by the Spanish, 278 ; the territory beyond, GENERAL INDEX. 1111 in relation to slavery, 325 ; controlled by the Confederates, 391 ; liberated, 401. Missouri, admitted into the Union, 309 ; dis cussion upon the admission of, 325; inter feres in Kansas elections, 370 ; anti-Union element in, 383. Missouri Compromise, the, 325 ; repealed by the compromise of 1850, 370. Missouri River ascended, 280. Mobilians, 93. Mohawk River, settlements in the valley of the, 166; the route of St. Leger, 215; a great western route, 261; the Erie Canal a commercial highway for, 316. Molino del Rey, battle of, 344. Monitor and Merrimac, fight of, 393 ; influ ence on naval warfare of, 394. Monmouth Court House, battle of, 221. Monroe, James, minister to France, 309; president, 309 ; name given to administra tion of, 309; internal improvements during administration of, 315 ; message of, con taining the first form of the Monroe Doc trine, 326. Montana, a portion of, originally a part of Oregon, 346; made a State, 425. Montcalm, Marquis of, destroys the fort at Oswego in the presence of the Indians, 150; in command at Quebec, 153; moves upon Wolfe, 155; is killed, 155. Montezuma tries to prevent Cortez from coming to Mexico, 31; then entertains him, 31 ; and is seized by him, 32. Montgomery, Alabama, Confederate govern ment formed at, 376 Montgomery, General, takes Montreal, 196 ; is killed in a movement on Quebec, 197. Montreal, the site of, reached by Cartier, 29 ; by Champlain, 51 ; surrender of, to the English, 155 ; captured by Montgomery, 196. Morgan, General, 226. Mormons, the, origin of, 352; their occupa tion of Utah, 352 ; character of their organ ization, 352, 353 ; abolish polygamy, 425. Morocco, one of the Barbary States, 283. Morris, Robert, Superintendent of Finance, 241; a member of the Constitutional Con vention, 246. Morse, Samuel F. B., introduces the electric telegraph, 360. Morton, Levi P., 426. Moultrie, Colonel, defends Charleston, 199. Mount Vernon, the home of Washington, 232 ; view of, 273. Napoleon III., designs of, on Mexico, 423. Narragansett Bay, visited by Verrazano, 28 ; claimed by Massachusetts and by Ply mouth, 87 ; settlements on, 87. Narvaez, de, Pamphilo, sent after Cortez to bring him back to Cuba, 33 ; is defeated in the attempt, 33 ; sets out on the conquest of Florida. 35 ; failure of his expedition, 35. Nashville, Tenn., seige of, 406. Natchez, Burr arrested at, 282. National Republican party, the, 330, 331. Nauvoo, 352. Navigation Acts, the, 100 ; their effect upon European commerce, 100 ; influence on Virginia, 118. Navy-yards established, 309. Nebraska, the question of the organization of, 370; enters the Union, 424. Negroes introduced into the West Indies as slaves, 34; brought to Virginia by a Dutch ship and sold to the planters, yi; free negroes, 162 ; the principal laborers at the South, 319; treatment by their masters, 320 ; debarred education and political rights, 321; character of, 321, 322; em ployed as soldiers, 400. Netherlands, the, revolt from the Pope, 38; set up a republic, 39. Nevada, bought of Mexico, 344; admitted into the Union, 426. New_ Amsterdam founded, 57 ; Dutch from, build a fort on site of Hartford, 86; and are driven away, 86 ; the name changed to New York, 101. New Brunswick, a part of, included in Acadia, 147. New England, supposed first voyage to, 3 ; new, as distinguished from old, 79 ; its ex tent at the outset, 89; treatment of Indians by the people of, 94; the colonies of, form a league for self-defence, 97 ; keeps itself clear of complications in England, 99 ; sees with pleasure the dispossession of the Dutch from New York, 101 ; receives the King's commissioners, 101 ; suffers from King Philip's war, 102 ; the Province of, established, 104 ; changes in government, 105 ; sends colonists to Virginia, 117 ; and to the Cape Fear River, 124 ; freed from the presence of British troops, 198; her fishing interests protected, 231 ; finds a way west by the valley of the Mohawk, 261 ; strong hold of the Federal party, 288 ; charged with desiring to leave the Union, 288 ; bit terly opposed to the war of 1S12, 289; change of life in, through manufactures, 312 ; affected by the inflow of immigrants, 362. Newfoundland, visitedby English and French fishermen, 27 ; taken possession of by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 47; Calvert thinks of planting a colony in, 120. New Hampshire, beginning of, 88; attacked by French and Indians, 142 ; claims a por tion of Vermont, 254. New, Haven colony founded, 86 ; helps to form a league with the other New England colonies, 97 ; united with Connecticut, 102. New JTersey, granted to two Englishmen, 108 ; origin of its name, 108 ; comes under rule of Andros, no; is united with New York and then separated from it, no; character of, from its position, 168 ; movements in, in 1776, 211. New Mexico, Kearney's expedition to, 341 ; becomes a part of the United States, 344. New Netherland Company, established for trade with American Indians, 56 ; claims to, set up by England, 100 ; taken possession of by the Duke of York, 100; retaken by the Dutch, but again in English hands, 101. liv GENERAL INDEX. New Orleans, a Spanish post, 27S ; coveted by the western people, 278 ; Jefferson offers to buy, 279 ; expedition of the British against, 29S ; defended by Jackson, 298, 299 ; battle of, 300 ; captured by the Union forces, 391. Newport, Christopher, carries out a colony to Virginia, 66 ; a member of the council, 67; goes back to England, 67. Newport, R. I., action at, 221. _ Newspapers before the war for independence, 174; improvement of, 366 ; the vehicles for literature, 366. New York, bay of, visited by Verrazano, 28; receives its name from the Duke of York, 101 ; distribution of the population in, 166 ; continued influence of the Dutch in, 166 ; difference, politically, from New England, 167 ; assembly of, refuses to make provision for British troops, 183 ; and is accordingly closed by Parliament, 183 ; in the war for independence, 198, 199, 208-212, 214-21S, 221, 223-225, 227, 229, 232; hard fight_ in, over the ratification of the Constitution, 247 ; claims a portion of Vermont, 254. New York, town and city of, congress of del egates meets at, to devise plans against the French and Indians, 142 ; a military post of Great Britain, 167 ; time required in jour neys from, 173 ; congress of the colonies meets at, 180; occupation of, by British forces, 210 ; Howe reoccupies, 212 ; evacu ated by the British, 232 ; affected by the Erie canal, 316. Nicaragua conquered by the Spaniards, 33. Non-intercourse act passed, 288 ; partially repealed, 289. Norsemen, the, find Iceland, 1 ; and Green land, 2 ; and discover Vinland, 3. North, Lord, King George I II. 's adviser, . proposes the stamp act, 179 ; plans the en forcement of the tea-tax, 1S6; brings the Boston Port Bill into parliament, 187. North Carolina, the territory occupied by, visited by Raleigh's ships, 48 ; the site of a luckless colony, 49, 50 ; settled, 124 ; di vided from South Carolina, 125 ; infre- quency of mails in, 173 ; in the war for independence, 226, 227 ; proposition to set off Frankland from, 244, 245; meaning of the movement, 245 ; does not ratify the constitution until after the government is in operation, 247; refuses to forbid the impor tation of slaves, 319; passes an ordinance of secession, 376, 383. Northern Pacific railroad, 419. Northern states, difference of, from southern states, 319 ; increase of, in population, 322; variety of enterprise in, 323 ; unwilling to believe in the reality of secession, 379; un- military in character, 384 ; but better able to carry on a war, 3S4 ; strong sentiment in, against any restoration of the Union leaving the blacks unprotected, 412 ; people from, migrate to the south, 416. Northwest Territory formed, 245 ; filling with settlers, 281 ; the state of Ohio formed from, 281 ; the remainder made into Indi ana Territory, 288 ; and again divided, 288. Norway, physical formation of, 2. Nova Scotia, visited by English and French fishermen, 27; included in Acadia, 147. Nueces River, Mexican boundary of Texas, 34o. Nullification in South Carolina, 332, 334, Nun, Cape, 6 ; for a long time the extreme point of Africa known to Europeans, S. Oglethorpe, James, lays the foundation of Georgia, 126; selects people for the colony, 126, 127; is first governor, 127; gallantly defends the colony, 127. Ohio, admitted into the Union, 2S1 ; encour ages settlers, 281. Ohio Company, the, formed, 144; grant to, 144; surveys made by, 145. Ohio River, proposal to plant a French colony in the valley of the, 138; a grant of land on, to the Ohio Company, 144 ; England tries to retain control over, 231 ; colonizing on, 242 ; settled by Virginians and people from Connecticut, 281 ; a boundary between Free States and Slave States, 324. Oklahoma, 425. Old Dominion, a name assumed by Virginia, 117. Old South church, Boston, town-meeting held in, 186. Ordinance of 1787, 245; its language repeated in the Thirteenth Amendment, 411. Oregon, original extent of, 346 ; various claim ants of, 346, 347 ; held jointly by England and the United States, 347; occupation of, 347; missionaries enter, 348 ; saved for the Union by Dr. Whitman, 348, 349 ; immigra tion into, 349 ; admitted into the Union, 373. Oriskany, battle of, 216. Oswego, an English fort at, destroyed by Montcalm, 150; treaty with Indians made at, 157. Otis, James, Jr., advocate-general of the prov ince of Massachusetts, appears for the peo ple, 178; his famous watchword, 178. Pacific Ocean, seen by Balboa, first of Eu ropeans, 25, 26; taken possession of by Balboa, 26 ; crossed by Magellan, 26 ; trav ersed by Drake, 46 ; called South Sea, 68. Pacific railroad, survey for a, 360; bill for, passed, 398 ; completed, 428. Pakenham, Sir Edward, at the battle of New Orleans, 299, 300. Palisades built for protection against Indians, 96. Palo Alto, battle of, 340. Palos, the port from which Columbus set sail, 14; his return, 19. Panama, proposed congress at, 326. Parker, Captain, and his troops receive the fire of the British soldiers, 190. Paris, treaty of, 231. Parliament, coming into power, 42, 43 ; begin ning to oppose the crown, 78 ; dissolved by Charles I., 79 ; tries and executes the King, 99 ; appoints a commission for the colonies, 99 ; makes laws for the regulation of com merce, 100; passes the Stamp Act, 179 ; its right to do this denied by the colonies, 179' GENERAL INDEX. Iv parties in, 181 ; discussion concerning the colonies confined to, 182 ; passes other ob noxious acts, 183 ; attempts to coerce New York and Massachusetts, 183 ; arranges the tea-tax to suit Lord North, 186 ; passes the Boston Port Bill, 187. Patent, definition of a, 47.' Patents granted by the United States govern ment, 314; office in charge of, 315 : under control of the Department of the Interior, .. 359- Pathfinder, The," name given to Fremont, 360. Patroons, in New Netherland, 57 ; their rights and power, 57, 58; influence of, in New York, 167, Peace congress, 3S0. Penn, William, son of an English admiral, 108 ; becomes a Friend, 108 ; takes an in terest in American affairs, 108 ; his portrait, 109; has a claim against the crown, no; receives a grant of land in America in dis charge of it, no; takes possession and plants a colony, m ; names the place Pennsylvania, in; makes just laws for government, in ; respects the rights of In dians, 112; sends out vessels, 112; builds a house and plans a city, 112 ; makes a treaty with the Indians, 113; returns to England, 113; his trials, 114, 115; his death, 115. Pennsylvania, named after Penn by Charles II., 111 ; government of the colony, 112; affairs of, under Penn, 114, 115 ; frontier of, devastated by French and Indians, 147 ; ratifies the constitution, 247. People of the United States, regard of the, for their rulers, 255 ; not trusted by their leaders, 255 ; their need of quick communi cation, 260, 261 ; accustomed to governing themselves, 263 ; their belief in religion and education; 265 ; dependent on Europe, 266 : English in their tastes, 266 ; interested in France, 267 ; Washington's address to, 273 ; they mourn Washington's death, 277 ; their surprise at the extent of Louisiana, 280 ; their irritation at their defenceless position before Europe, 289; their busy life when peace comes, 309, 310 ; their dealings with Europe, 310; effect of the tariff upon, 312 ; scarcity of laborers among, 313 ; their enterprise in public works, 315 ; effect of their enterprise, 317; movement of, westward, 317, 318 ; determining the in fluence of the free States, 345 ; decide the Oregon question, 349 ; send relief to Ire land, 362 ; are affected by foreign immigra tion, 362 ; have more leisure for higher interests, 365 ; form associations readily, 365, 366; read "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 369 ; greatly perplexed over the secession movement, 380 ; rejoicings of, over the news of Gettysburg and Vicksburg, 401 ; grief of, over Lincoln's death, 410. Peoria, La Salle builds a fort on the site r*f. 136. Pepperell, William, commander of expedi tion against Louisburg, 143; associated with Braddock, 145. Pequot war, the, 96; its effect upon New England, 97. Percy, Lord, leads his men back from Con cord to Boston, 191. Perry, Oliver H., wins a victory on Lake Erie, 293. Perry, M. C, sent on expedition to Japan, 361 Personal liberty laws, passed, 354. Peru, conquest of, by Pizarro, 34 *, effect of, on the Spanish imagination, 35. Petition, right of, assailed and defended, 336. Philadelphia, founded by Penn, 113 ; its orig inal boundaries, 113; its early prosperity, 114; its size in 1763, 168; its appearance, 169, 170 ; its distance from New York, 173 ; second Continental Congress meets at, 199 ; Declaration of Independence made at, 201 ; occupied by the British, 214; Centennial Exhibition at, 417. Philadelphia frigate, Decatur cuts out the, 284. Philip, an Indian chief, attacks the New England colonies, 102. Pickens, Governor, of South Carolina, 381. Pierce, Franklin, elected president, 369. Pilgrims, the, first go to Holland, 72 ; their desire to leave Holland, 73 ; they sail to America in the "Mayflower," 73; land first at Provincetown, 73 ; then choose Plymouth, 74; and make a settlement there, 75 ; they make a compact, 75 ; their first winter, 76 ; they come under the con trol of the Plymouth Company, 76 ; change of their plans of management, 76 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, envoy to France, 275; his famous words, 276. Pine-tree shilling, 104. Pinzon, the brothers, share in the discovery of America, 14. Pioneers on western rivers, 261, 262, 264. Pitt, William, his great services in the con test between England and France, 151, 152 ; successes in America due to, 152 ; his brave words in Parliament in behalf of the colonies, 181. Pittsburgh, formerly Fort Pitt, 157, Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 391. Pizarro conquers Peru, 35. Plains of Abraham, the scene of the fall of France in America, 154, 155. Planters in the South, life and character of the, 171, 172 Plattsburgh, battle of, 298. Plymouth, a great port of England, 46. Plymouth, New England, chosen as the site of the Pilgrims' settlement, 74 ; how it received its name, 74; arrangement of the village, 75 ; people from, settle Windsor, Conn., 86; joins the New England league, 97; suffers in King Philip's war, 102 ; be comes a part of the Province of New England, 104. Plymouth Company, the, a division of the Virginia Company, 65 ; sends out the Pop ham colony, 65, 66 ; controls the colony at Plymouth, 76. Pocahontas, the heroine of Captain John Smith's story, 68 ; marries John Rolfe, 68 ; dies in England. 68. Ivi GENERAL INDEX. Poe, Edgar Allan, 366, 367. Polk, James Knox, elected president, 339. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, 25; and thinks to find the Fountain of Youth, 25. Pontiac, attempt of, to unite the Indians and expel the English, 156; defeat of, 157. '* Poor Richard's Almanac," 170; names John Paul Jones's ship, 222. Pope, the, at the head of the Church, 4; the authority of ecclesiastics, 5 ; revolt against, in European countries, 38, 39; loses his authority in England, where he is sup planted by the King, 42, 43. Pope, General John, at Island Number Ten, 391 ; in Virginia, 395 ; is defeated, 397. Popham colony, the, 65, 66. Population in 1790,256; western movement of centre of, 256; in towns, 256, 257. Port Hudson, 401. Portland, Me. See Falmouth. Port Royal, Acadia, founded, 52. Port Royal, colony attempted at, by the Huguenots, 39. Portsmouth, N. H.7 founded, 88; the ex treme northern limit of regular mails, 173. Portugal, favorable position of, for maritime life, 6 : the enterprise of its sailors, 8 ; Prince Henry of, 8; the king of, listens to Columbus, 12; and then basely consents to have him betrayed, 13; jealousy shown by the people oil, on return of Columbus, 19 ; slavery familiar to, 21 ; Vasco da Gama discovers a route to India for, J2 ; es tablishes trading posts in India, 23 ; stimu lated by Magellan's voyage, 27 ; occupies Brazil, 34; faithful to the Pope, 38. Postage, reduction of, 359, 421. Post-office, as a part of the government, 255 ; extension of, 255. Potomac, army of the, organized, 386, Potomac River, the capital upon, 252. Powhatan, a powerful chief in Virginia, 67 ; his treatment of Captain John Smith, 68; is crowned by the English, 68. Praying Indians, 95 ; save the whites in an Indian war, 103. Presbyterians, the, meaning of the name, 77 ; in Scotland, 78. President, power of veto of, 413 ; election of, 431 ; powers of, 431. Presidential succession bill, 422. Presque Isle, 139. Priests, the life of, 5, 6 ; with Columbus, 15,21. Princeton, battle of, 211. Printing, invention of the art of, 4. Proctor, General, 293, 294. Prophet, the, a brother of Tecumseh, 288. Protestants, rise of, 38 ; meaning of the name, 38; name of the party in France, 39. Providence, Md., name of, changed to An napolis, 123. Providence, R. I., origin of, 88. Provincetown harbor, where the "Mayflower" dropped anchor, 73. Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, 189*, informs the Continental Congress of the Concord and Lexington fight, 193 ; and asks it to assume control of the army be fore Boston, 193. Publication societies, 366. Pulaski, 205, 223. Puritans, the, in America, their plans toi possessing the country, 82; their various industries, 82, 83 ; their schools, 83 ; their ideas of church government, 83 ; their ideas of civil government, 83, 84 ; their un willingness to harbor people who differ from them, 87, 88 ; how they regard the Indians, 94, 95; attempts at Christianizing them, 95 ; their intercourse with Puritans in England, 98 ; the difficulty they find in keeping their ideal of government, 103 ; in Maryland, i2r; their suspicion of the French settlements, 140. Puritans, the, in England, 77 ; their hopes of King James I., 78 ; their accession to power, 98. Putnam, Israel, a commander in the Ameri can Army, 208. Pyrites, iron, found by the colonists in Vir ginia and supposed to be gold, 69. Quakers See Friends. Quartering of troops upon the colonies, 183. Quebec, first seen by Cartier, 29; a colony placed at, by Champlain, 52 ; the strong hold of the French, 152 ; invested by Eng lish foices, 152 j flanked by Wolfe, 153, 154; captured, 155 ; attempt upon, by Ar nold and Montgomery, 196, 197. Queen Anne's war, 142. Quilting-bee, 164, Railroads in the United States, first, 316; one planned to the Pacific, 360; stimulate towns and cities, 362, 365 ; bill for Pacific railroad passed, 398 ; first of, to the Pacific completed, 428. Raleigh, Sir Walter, sends out vessels to ex plore the coast of North America, 48: names the country found Virginia, 48 ; is knighted, and determines to plant a colony, 48 ; meets with disappointments, 49 ; seeks to recover his lost colony, 50; falls into disfavor and is put to death, 50 ; his faith in Virginia, 50; effect of the treatment of the Indians by his colonists, 68. Reciprocity treaties, 426 Religion, revolution on account of, in Eu rope, 3^ ; wars fought for, in Europe and America, 42. Republican party, rise of the, 371 ; not abo litionist at first, 371; nominates Fremont, 371; enthusiasm of, 373; nominates and elects Lincoln. 374 ; not distinguished from abolitionists by the South, 375; in a ma jority in Congress, 379. Republican partv. of [efferson's time, 269. Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 340. Rhode Island, how founded, 86, 87 ; charac ter of the founders and people, 88; left out of the New England league, 97 ; the first State that publicly declares its indepen dence of the crown, 202 ; carries on govern ment under the old charter, 202 ; its tardy ratification of the constitution, 247. Ribaut, Jean, sent out by Coligny to colonize in America, 39, GENERAL INDEX. lvii Rice, cultivation of, in South Carolina, 125. Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, 383 ; a movement on, demanded, -585 ; entered by Union forces, 40S. Rio Grande, the boundary of Texas, 340; the base of operations, 340, 342; made the boundary of the United States, 344. Roanoke Island, visited Dy Raleigh's ships, 48 ; Jamestown colony destined for, 66. Rochambeau, at Yorktown, 228. Rocky Mountains, the, as a boundary line, 346 ; supposed impassable, 34S ; explored Dy Fremont, 360. Rodgers, John, exploits of, 291, 292. Rogers, Major Robert, 157. R»lfe, John, marries the Indian princess Pocahontas, 68. Roman Catholics, in England in Elizabeth's time, 77; in the time of the Stuarts, 120; in Maryland, under the Calverts, 121; their faith an element in the contest be tween England and France, 139. Rosecrans, W. S., attacks Bragg, 401 ; is de feated at Chickamauga, 402. Sabine Rivbr, the boundary with Mexico, 308. Saco, Me., founded, 88. Sacramento River, gold found in the valley of the, 350 ; rapid increase of population in, 351. Saga, meaning of the word, 1 ; as a source of historic knowledge, 3. St. Augustine, founded by the Spaniards, 40; picture of, 41. St. Croix River, De Monts establishes a trading-post at the mouth of the, 52 ; the north-eastern boundary of the United States, 308. St. Lawrence Gulf, explored by John Denys, 27; visited by Cartier, 28; the river as cended by Cartier, 29 ; northern boundary of the United States, 345. St. Leger, Colonel, aims to join Burgoyne, 215 ; demands surrender of Fort Schuyler, 215 ; obliged to retreat, 216. St. Louis, Missouri, centre of the fur-trade, 347- St. Louis on the Illinois, chosen by La Salle for a fortified post, 137. Salem, a settlement in Massachusetts Bay, 81. Saltillo, 343. Samoa, treaty concerning, 423. San Domingo, the final resting-place of Co lumbus, 23. San Francisco, growth of, 351. San Salvador, the island on which Columbus landed, 18. Santa Anna, president of Mexico, 342; moves against Taylor, 343 ; and against Scott, 343. Santa F6, 341 ; reached by Whitman, 348. Santa Maria, the name of Columbus's ship, i4» 15- Sargasso Sea, discovered by Columbus, 15. Savannah, founded, 126; occupied by the British, 223, 224; evacuated, 232 ; entered by Sherman's army, 406. Savannah, the, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic, 316. Say and Sele, Lord, helps to found Connecti cut, 86. Saybrook founded, 86. Schenectady, massacre at, 141, 142. Schofield, General John M., attacked by Hood, 406. Schuyler, General, opposes Burgoyne, 215; superseded by Gates, 217. Scotland, emigrants from, in the Carolinas, 126. Scott, Dred, case of, 373. Scott, Winfield, at Queenstown Heights, 291; fights the battle of Lundy's Lane, 296 ; severely wounded, 297 ; in command of the American army in Mexico, 342 ; his successful campaign, 342-344; nominated for the presidency, 369 ; commander-in- chief of the Union forces, 384 ; is pressed into ordering an advance, 385 ; retires from active life, 385. Secession threatened by the South, 375 ; carried into practice by South Carolina, 376 ; ordinance of, 376 ; unanimous only in the case of South Carolina and of North Carolina, 376. Seminole Indians in Florida, 307 ; aid run away negroes, 308 ; at war with the United States, 308. Semmes, Captain Raphael, 404. Senate, Usited States, debate in, between Hayne and Webster, 331, 332; construction nf. 4_i->. Separatists, the, 72 ; thsir dissent from the Church of England, 72 ; they are perse cuted, 72 ; are ill at ease in Holland, to which country they had fled, 73 ; and go to America, where they found the Plymouth Colony, 73-76. Serapis, the, surrenders to the Bon Homme Richard, 222. Seven Years' War between England and France, 177. Seville, monument at, in honor of Colum bus, 22. Seward, William H., ready to compromise, 379 ; hopeful of a short war, 385 ; at tempted assassination of, 410. Shackamaxon, the place of the Indian treaty, 113. Shakespeare, William, greatest of English men, 46. Shaw, Robert G-, at Fort Wagner, 400. Shays, Daniel, 244. Shenandoah Valley, operations in the, 395, 397- Sheridan, General Philip H., in the Shenan doah Valley, 404 ; fights the battle of Five Forks, 408. Sherman, General W. T., 402 ; moves upon Atlanta, 405 ; sends a portion of his army under Thomas against Hood, 405 ; and marches with the rest toward the sea-coast, 406 ; enters Savannah, 406 ; begins his northern march, 407 ; captures Columbia, 407; encounters Johnston's forces, 407; receives the surrender of Johnston, 410. Shiloh, battle ofi, 391. Iviii GENERAL INDEX. Shirley, Governor, of Massachusetts, plans an expedition against Louisburg, 143 ; associated with Braddock, 145. "Sic semper tyrannis," the motto of Vir ginia, basely used by an assassin, 410. Signal service, United States, 430, 431. Simms, William Gilmore, 368. Sioux war, 417, 418. Six Nations, The. See Iroquois. Skalds, i; their occupation, 3. Slater, Samuel, 259. Slavery familiar to the Spanish and Portu guese, 21 ; introduced into the West Indies, 21 ; the beginning of, in the English colo nies, 72; in Virginia, 116, 119; in South Carolina, 124 ; in both northern and southern colonies, 161 ; in southern colo nies, 171, 172; influence of, on the poor whites, 172; excluded from the Northwest Territory, 245 ; constitutes the chief differ ence between the southern and the north ern States, 319; attempts to check, 319; increase of, 320; change of views in the South regarding, 320 ; domestic character of the institution of, 320 ; discourages education, 321 ; a source of poverty in the South, 322; fears for the continuance of, 322 ; a bond of union in the South, 323 ; its legal institution, and the consequence, 323 ; let alone, in the main, 324 ; the occa sion of political conflict, 325; abolished by the South American states, 326 ; at tacked by Garrison and the abolitionists, 335 ; Congress attempts to stop discussion on> 335i 33° '< proposal to annex Texas in the interest of, 337 ; attempts to draw men's minds away from the discussion of, 339; prohibited in California, 353; forti fied by the Fugitive Slave Law, 353, 354; attempt to solve some of the problems of, by colonization schemes, 361; ; powerful effect of " Uncle Tom's Cabin ** in the ques tion of, 369 ; the question re-opened in the case of Kansas and Nebraska, 370, 371 ; the Drea Scott case seems to place the law and constitution on the side of, 373 ; attacked directly by John Brown, 373 ; the people not ready to regard the war for the Union a war to put down slavery, 387 ; destroyed by the war, 411; forever put an end to by constitutional amendment, 411. Slidell, John, Confederate agent to Europe, 388; captured by Captain Wilkes, but delivered up, on demand of the English government, 388. Smith, John, member of the Council in Virginia, 67 ; the leading man in the colony, 67 ; is taken captive and carried before Powhatan, 68 ; says he was rescued by Pocahontas, 68 ; explores the rivers and bays of the country, 69 ; leaves Virginia, 70 ; coasts along New England, 74. Smith, Joseph, founder of the Mormons, 352. Smuggling in the colonies, 177, Smyrna, a depot for eastern goods, 7. Soto, de, Hernando, sets out to conquer Florida, 36 ; discovers the Mississippi, 36; dies, and is buried in the river, 37 ; fortune of his followers, 37. South American states become independent of Spain, 325 ; propose a congress at Panama, 326 ; abolish slavery, 326. Southampton, Earl of, sends out Bartholomew Gosnold to America, 50. South Carolina, first settlements in, 124 ; character of the life there, 124 ; slavery in, 124; chief product of, 125; set off from North Carolina, 125 ; the first State to adopt a constitution, 202; in the war for independence, 224, 226, 227, 230; refuses to forbid the importation of slaves, 319 ; a senator of, defends the State-sovereignty doctrine, 332; passes Nullification Act, 332: prepares for war, 334; substantially carries her point, 334 ; passes an ordinance of secession, 376; her example followed by other States, 376. Southern States, seat of war in, 224; the industry of cotton in, 257-259 ; accuse New England of wishing to break up the Union, 288; support the war with England, 289; difference of the people in, from those of the northern states, 319; at first desirous of being rid of slavery, 319; change of views regarding the system, 320; growing poorer, rather than richer, 322 ; apprehen sive of losing political power, 322 ; united in defence of the system of slavery, 323 ; chief occupation of, 323 ; intercourse of, with the North, 324 ; admitted as slave States, 324 ; supporters of the doctrine of state-rights, 326 ; at first in favor of a protective tariff, 332 ; then opposed to it, 332 ; look to Texas as giving an oppor tunity for extension of southern power, 337 ; wish to make Kansas and Nebraska slave States, 370; fearful that power is passing from them, 373 ; reassured by the Dred Scott decision, 373 ; threaten the North with secession if the Republican party succeeds, 375 ; political habits of thought in, 375 ; keep much of the charac ter of the earlier colonies, 375, 376; take possession of United States property within their borders, 377; attempts to conciliate, 379, 380; compelled to make their choice, 382 ; ports of, declared blockaded, 387 ; business of, with West Indies and Europe, 387, 388 ; Congress devises a system ol government for, after the downfall of the Confederacy, 414; the chief men in, ab stain from politics, 415 ; the last of, returns into the Union, 415; return to power in, of native whites, 416 ; last sign of political distinction in, removed, 418, 419. South Sea, the object of English search, 68 ; and of French, 135. South-western, Territory, the, 263; States, movement from, into Texas, 337. Spain, importance of, in the fifteenth century, 6 ; the pursuit of wealth in, 9 ; the country where Columbus had most hope, 13 ; the share of its rulers in the discovery of America, 14; slavery familiar to the minds of the people in, 21 ; at the height of power, 38; faithful to the Pope, 38; influence of, over France, 40 ; at the head of countries owning allegiance to the Pope, 45 ; sends GENERAL INDEX. lix the Armada to England, 46; again at war with England, 100 ; in alliance with France, 278 ; cedes Louisiana to the French, 279 ; possessions of, in America, 306 ; protests against the invasion of Florida, 308 ; sells Florida to the United States, 308 ; revolt from, of her American provinces, 325 ; is supported by the Great Powers in her at tempt to recover them, 325 ; retains Cuba, 326 ; claims of, on the Pacific Coast, 346. Spaniards, treatment of Indians by, 21 ; their enterprise in discovering new parts of Amer- • ica, 25 ; stimulated by Magellan's voyage, 27; take possession of Mexico, 34; drive the Huguenots out of Florida, 40 ; trouble the inhabitants of the Carolinas, 125. Speaker of the House of Representatives, choice of, 371 ; why so named, 432 ; his growing power, 433. Specie payment, suspended, 398 ; resumed, 419- Speedwell, the, a ship, which starts for America but turns back, 73. Stamp Act, passed by Parliament, 179; op position to, in the colonies, 179-181 ; Frank lin's views concerning, 181, 183 ; repealed, 182 ; effect of, in America, 183. Standard time, 421. , Standish, Miles, the military leader of the Pilgrims, 76. Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of war, 414; removed by President Johnson, 414. Stark, John, at Bennington, 216. Star of the West, steamer sent to provision Fort Sumter, 378. " Star-spangled Banner," origin of the song, 298. Starved Rock, 137. States, formed from colonies, 202 ; constitu tions of, 202 ; their common character, 202, 203 ; their relation to the Continental Con gress, 203 ; their unwillingness to surren der their power, 204 ; issue paper money, 240, 241 ; debts of, 242 ; surrender public lands, 242 ; well organized, 243 ; how treated by England, 243 ; their rivalry, 244 ; disorders within them, 244, 245 ; the Con stitution is submitted to the people of the, 247; their rights and duties compared with those of the United States, 248-250 ; ratify amendments to the constitution, 251 ; their debts assumed by the United States, 251, 252 ; formation of new, 253 ; their rights held to be endangered,_276, 277. State-sovereignty, doctrine of, 326 ; held firmly at the South, 327 ; confirmed by the action of Georgia, 329; pushed to an ex treme, 331 ; defended by Hayne, 332 ; op- fiosed by Webster, 332 ; illustrated by nul- ification, 334 ; at the basis of southern society, 334 ; appears in force after the election of Lincoln, 375. Steam, application of, in England and in America, 260 ; use of, in boats, 260. Steam navigation, early, 260 ; on the lakes and rivers, 316; first on the ocean, 316; on western rivers, 363. Stephens, Alexander H., vice-president of the Confederate States. 377. Steuben, Baron, a trained soldier, 206 ; drills the American army, 220. Stone, William, a Puritan governor of Mary land, 121. Stony Point, taking of, 223, 224. Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Beecher, and her " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 369. Strasburg, a printing-press near, sets the name America afloat, 24. Stuyvesant, Peter, 101. Sullivan, General, 221, 222. Sumter, General, 224. Susquehanna River, influence of, on Mary land, 122. Sutter, Colonel, gold found at the' mills of, 35o- Switzerlaud, a European republic, 267. Tampa Bay, expeditions start from, to con quer Florida, 35, 36. Tariff, operation of the, 310-312; effect of, on the country, 312, 313 ; maintained by Clay and his party, 330 ; the occasion of nullification in South Carolina, 332-334 ; modified, 334 ; a new bill passed, 379. Tarleton, Bannastre, 226. Taxation, of the English colonies by Eng land, 176, 177 ; without representation, tyranny, 178; principle involved in, 178; the right denied by the colonies, 179 ; by Virginia, 180; by the first Congress, 181; reasserted by Parliament, 182 ; m the mat ter of tea, 185-187 ; the question of, between the Confederation and the States, 241-243 ; right of, exercised by the United States, 253; of cotton, 310. Taylor, Zachary, in command of United States army in Mexico, 340 ; his cam paign, 340, 342 ; elected president, 344; eager to have California admitted, 353 ; death of, 359. Tea, tax on, retained by England, 185 ; at tempted enforcement of, in the colonies, 186; sent back by the colonists, 186; upset in Boston harbor, 187. Tecumseh raises a revolt among the Indians, 288 *, is defeated at Tippecanoe, 289 ; aids the British, 293 ; is defeated and killed, 294. Telegraph, introduction of the, 360; Atlantic, 425. Tennessee, origin and organization of, 263, 264 ; engages in the Creek war, 295 ; joins the Confederacy, 383. Tenure of Office bill, 413, 414. Texas, crossed by the survivors of Narvaez's expedition, 35 ; visited by La Salle and his companions, 137 ; a resource of slavery, 337; a part of Mexico, 337 ; efforts to buy, 337; immigration into, 337; declares its inde pendence, 337 ; annexed to the Union, 339 ; proposal to divide, 353 ; passes an ordi nance of secession, 376. Thames, battle of the, 294. Thomas, General George H., follows Hood, 405, 406 ; defeats him, 406 ; portrait of, 406. Ticonderoga, movements against, in the French and Indian war, 152 ; captured by Ix GENERAL INDEX. Ethan Allen, 196 ; cannon from, dragged to Boston, 198; recaptured by Burgoyne, 215. Tilden, Samuel J., nominated for the presi dency by the Democratic party, 418. Tippecanoe, battle of, 289. Tobacco, planted in Virginia, 71 ; the staple product of the colonv, 116 ; used as money, 116 ; cultivated in Maryland, 122. Topeka legislature, 370. Topical Analyses and Reviews, 59, 128, 158, 233, 301, 355, 435. # Tories, during the war for independence, 207 ; England tries to save their property for them, 231. Tortugas, fort at, retained by the United States, 377. Town-meeting, the, in New England, 165 ; kept alive in Boston by adjournments, 189; ill-adapted to the government of cities, 362. Towns, number of large, in 1790, 256. Travel, modes and slowness of, before the war for independence, 173. Trent affair, the, 388. Trenton, battle of, 211. Tripoli, one of the Barbary States, 283 ; makes war on the United States, 283 ; at tacked by the American navy, 284 ; makes peace, 284. Tunis, one of the Barbary States, 283. Twiggs, General, surrenders his forces to the Confederacy, 377. Tyler, John, becomes president, 336. " Uncle Tom's Cabin," and its influence, 369- Union, tendencies to, in the English colonies, 174 ; change to, from confederation, 247 ; the supremacy of, defended by Webster, 332 ; apparently going to pieces, 380 ; one party only for, 382 ; desire for its early restoration, 411 ; its harmony long deferred, 411 ; it must be one without slavery, 412 ; number of States in the, 430. Union army, the, meets its first success, 384 ; and its first repulse, 385; organized, 385, 386; operations of, in 1862, 390-392, 394- 39S ; in 1863, 400-402 ; in 1864, 403-406 ; in 1865, 406-408. Union navy, operations of, during the war for the Union, 387, 388, 39°-393, 401- 4°4> 4°S, 4°7- United colonies of New England, 97. United States of America, the title of, used in Declaration of Independence, 200; its power, 203 ; its authority compared with that of king and parliament, 204 ; the diver sity of its people, 239; its difficulty in rais ing revenue, 241 ; the States surrender western lands to, 242 ; constitution for, framed, 247; form of government of, 247 s rights and duties of, 248-250; exercises its right of taxation, 253 ; exercises its power to add new States, 253, 254 ; boundaries of, after the war for independence, 266 ; an object of interest to Europe, 267; sympa thetic with France, 268 ; forms in which the sympathy is shown, 268; direction of its commerce, 270; in danger of entanglement with France and England, 271; makes a treaty with England, 271, 272 ; in peril of a break with Erance, 274, 275; its capital laid out, 278; buys Louisiana, 280; its liberal aid to schools, 281 ; watching Eu rope, 282 ; at war with the Barbary States, 283 ; affected by the action of Napoleon and England, 285 ; complains of English search, 286; indignant over the affair of the Chesa peake, 287 ; declares war against England, 289 ; secures a true independence, 300 ; made self-reliant by a long peace, 305 ; its boundaries, 306 ; its relations with Indians, 306, 307; buys Florida, 308; its rapid growth in States, 309 ; affected by the tar iff, 312; difference of life in, from that in Europe, 313; first railroad in, 316; attitude of, toward Europe, in the Monroe doctrine, 326 ; invited to a congress at Panama, 326 ; in controversy with Georgia, 327-329; and with South Carolina, 334 ; " manifest des tiny " of, 339 ; makes war on Mexico, 340 ; buys land of Mexico, 344 ; its claims on Oregon, 346; its joint occupancy of Oregon with England, 347; sends out expeditions to explore the country, 360; and to explore remote parts of the globe, 361 ; grows rich fast, 363 ; survey of, 427; present bounda ries of, 427 ; its geographical and commer cial position, 428, 429; its connection with the Old World, 429, 430; political divisions of, 430 ; divisions of, according to the sig nal service, 430, 431 ; government of, 431- 433 ; the source of its power, 433. United States courts, 433. Utah, bought of Mexico, 344 ; occupied by Mormons, 352, 353; polygamy abolished in, 425. Valladolid, burial-place of Columbus, 22. Valley Forge, the winter-quarters of Wash ington and his army: 218 ; sufferings at, 219; the scene of patriotism, 220. Van Buren, Martin, president, 336; opposes annexation of Texas, and is rejected by the Democratic party, 339. Varina, a frontier settlement of Virginia, 71. Venice, an important port, 7. Vera Cruz founded by Cortez, 30; taken by Scott, 342, 343. Vermont formed, 254. Verrazano, sent by Francis I. to India, comes upon America in the way, 28; his conclu sions respecting the continent, 28. Vespucci, Amerigo, the cause of the name America, 24, 25. Veto, the president's, 413, 414, 431. Vicksburg, capture of, 401. Vikings, meaning of the name, 1 ; character of, 2 ; their voyages, 3. Vinland, discovered by the Norsemen, and supposed to be a part of America, 1, 3; unoccupied by the discoverers, 4. Virginia, origin of the name, 48 ; its original extent, 48 ; the company which first effected a permanent settlement in, 66; sermons preached in English churches advising the poor to go to, 69 ; misfortunes of the colony, 70 ; the new regime under Dale and others, GENERAL INDEX. lxi 70; is given an assembly, 71, 115 ; its char ter revoked, 116; its growing prosperity, 116; industry of the colony, 116; slavery, 116; ecclesiastical preferences of the plant ers, 117; political parties in, 117; loyalty to the crown, 117 ; treats Lord Baltimore coldly, 120; movement into Carolina, 123 ; interested in the Ohio country, 144, 145 ; frontier of, devastated by French and In dians, 1 47 ; during the war for independence, 227-230; cedes its western lands to the United States, 242 ; urges a convention, 245 ; contest in, over ratification of the constitution, 247 ; interested in the capital, 252 ; the most populous State in 1790, 2565* emigration from, 263 ; hangs John Brown, 373 ; calls a Peace Congress, 380; joins the Confederacy, 383 ; divided on the question, 383 ; the chief battle-ground of the war, 383. Virginia assembly, first summoned, 71 ; be comes corrupt, 118; its action in Bacon's rebellion, 119; makes grants of lands to settlers in Carolina, 123 ; Patrick Henry's speech in, 180 ; resolutions of, 277. Virginia Company formed, 65 ; its domain, 65 ; its two divisions, 65. See London Company. Walla-walla, Dr. Whitman leaves, 348. Walloons come to New Netherland, 57 ; give name to a bay, 54* War ot 1812, tne, 290-300; its coincidence with a European war, 305 ; chief result of the war, 305. Ward, Artemas, in command at Cambridge, 192. Washington, city of, founded, 278 ; the battle-field near, 383. Washington, George, sent out to survey for the Ohio Company, 145 j sent by Governor Dinwiddie to see what the French were doing, 145 ; his report, 145 ; on the staff of Braddock, 146; his advice unheeded, 146; succeeds Braddock on the death of the latter, 146 ; appointed commander-in- chief of the armies of the United Colo nies, 193; sets out tor Cambridge, 193; takes command of the army, 194 ; sets about organizing the troops, 194 ; watches the British, 194 ; sends Arnold to Quebec, 196 ; hoists the Union flag, 197 ; prepares to drive the British out of Boston, 198 ; carries his troops to New York, 199 ; de clines to enter into negotiations with the Howes, 208 ; withdraws his forces from Brooklyn, 209; takes up his position at White Plains, 210; crosses the Hudson, 210; retreats through New Jersey, 211; surprises the enemy and defeats him at Trenton and Princeton, 211; encamps at Morristown, 211 ; marches to meet Howe, 213; is defeated at the Brandywine, 213 ; makes an attack on Germantown, 214; in camp at Whitemarsh, 214 ; goes into winter-quarters at Valley Forge, 218 ; cabal against, 219; shares privations with the soldiers, 219; follows after Howe, 221; 1 meets him at Monmouth, 221; again at' White Plains, 221 ; sends Wayne to take Stony Point, 223 ; obtains the appointment of General Greene in place of Gates, 226 ; threatens New York, 227 ; deceives Clin ton, and suddenly hurries to Virginia, 227; directs the siege of Yorktown, 228 ; re ceives the surrender of Cornwallis, 229 ; goes into camp at Newburgh, 230; quiets the discontent of the army, 230 ; makes a farewell address to the army, 232 : parts from his officers, 232 ; resigns his commis sion and retires to Mount Vernon, 232 ; chairman of the Constitutional Conven tion, 246 ; first president, 250 : appoints Hamilton secretary of the treasury, 251 ; discussion as to his title, 254 ; his manner of dress, 254; receives the key of the Bastile from Lafayette, 268; uses his in fluence to keep the country out of Euro pean conflicts, 270; issues a proclamation of neutrality, 271 ; appoints John Jay to be envoy extraordinary to England, 271 ; signs Jay's treaty, 272 ; is attacked bit terly for so doing, 272 ; sends Wayne to put down the Indians, 272 ; retires to private life, 273 ; issues a farewell address, 273 ; recalled and placed at the head of the army, 276; dies, 277; his name given to the capital of the country, 277; his views on the great West, 278 ; monument to, 421. Washington, Martha, 210. Washington Territory, originally a part of Oregon, 346; made into a State, 425. Waterloo, battle of, 305. Wayne, Anthony, sobriqttet of", 223 ; re captures Stony Point, 224; in the South with Greene, 230 ; sent out to quell the Indians, 272. Webster, Daniel, defends the supremacy of the Union, 332 ; opposes the annexation of Texas, 339 ; establishes the north-eastern boundary with Lord Ashburton, 345 ; re ceives information from Dr. Whitman, 348, 349; supports the compromise of 1850, 354 ; secretary of state under Fillmore, 359. Webster, Noah, makes a spelling-book and a dictionary, 265. Wesley, Charles, 126. Wesley, John, 126. West, lines of migration to the, 261 ; pioneers to, 262, 264 ; Washington's hopes of, 278; urges the purchase of New Orleans, 279 ; farming in, stimulative of invention, 313; emigration to, 317, 318; begins to return produce to the East, 318; railroads and speculation in, 361 ; effect of, on growth of cities, 362. West India Company formed, 57 ; its flag, 57; establishes colonies in New Nether land, 57- West Point, strategic importance of, 224, 225 ; Arnold attempts to deliver it to the British, 225. _ m West Virginia organized, 383 ; admitted into the Union, 383 ; first fighting in the moun tains of, 384. Wethersfield, Conn., founded, 86. Whig party in England, 207 ; opposes the American war, 207. lxii GENERAL INDEX. Whig party in the United States, the, rise of, 336 ; elects Harrison president, 336 ; opposes annexation of Texas, 339 ; elects Taylor president, 344 ; nominates Scott, 369. Whiskey insurrection, the, 273. White, John, governor of Raleigh's colony, 49- White, Rev. John, plans a settlement at Cape Ann, 78 ; a company the result, 79. Whitefield. George, comes to America, 126- Whitemarsh, Washington encamped at, 214. White Plains, 210, 221. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, and his work in Ore gon, 348; takes a terrible ride, 348, 349; but tells news to Webster, and brings back a great company, 349. Whitney, Eli, invents the cotton-gin, 258. Whittier, John Greenleaf, 368. Wilderness, battle of the, 403, Wilkes, Charles, explores the Antarctic con tinent, 361 ; arrests Confederate agents on the mail-steamer Trent, 388; but is not censured, 388. William and Mary come to the throne of England, 105. Williams, Roger, is driven from Massachu setts Bay, 87 ; founds Providence, 88; his part in providing a government for Rhode Island, 8S ; his influence in averting Indian hostilities, 96. Williamsburg, battle of, 394. Wilmot proviso, the, 344. Windsor, Conn , founded, 86. Wingfield, Edward Maria, president of the council in Virginia, 67. Winslow, Captain J. A., of the Kearsarge, 404. Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts, 85 ; his personal share in the labor of the colony, 82, 83. Winthrop, John, governor of Connecticut, 86 Wisconsin admitted into the Union, 345. Wolfe, James, leads the English against Quebec, 153; his bold movement, 154; dies in the moment of victory, 155. Women, patriotism of the American, 192, 220. Writs of Assistance employed in the colonies, i7S.# Wyoming, a part of, bought of Mexico, 344 ; Fort Laramie in, a frontier post, 351; added to the Union, 425. X. Y. Z., correspondence, the, 276 Yeardlev, Sir George, governor of Virginia, 71 ; calls an assembly of the planters, 71. York, Duke of, is granted large possessions "m America, 100; makes a grant of the Jer seys, 108. York, Pa., temporary seat of Congress, 213. Yorktown, siege of, 227-229; second siege of, by McClellan, 394. Young, Brigham. a Mormon leader, 352. Yucatan, visited by Snaniards from Cuba, 30; what is found there, 30. YALE UNIVERSITY «i.i002_QB2 5 5 557 2b KCSSBBIMSnfpSmBP«8BBSR mm#*ls**tm*?$mw^it&&^^v^,^ iimir rirwiminiiiiTiiifi imitiiifi